Encyclopaedia Britannica [6, 9 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
CLI
CLO
CLU
COA
COA
COC
COK
COL
COL
COM
COM
COM
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
COO
COP
COR
COR
COR
COR
COS
COT
COT
COU
CRA
CRE
CRI
CRO
CRO
CRU
CRU
CUB
CUM
CUR
CUV
DAC
DAL
DAN
DAN
DAV
Plates
Coal
Coleoptera
Cornwall
Crabs
Cumberland

Citation preview

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BBITANNICA NINTH EDITION

•Y

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA A

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE

NINTH EDITION

VOLUME VI

EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK MDCCCLXX VII

[All Bights reservzd.]

PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BBITANNICA.

e

L

i- C L I

LICHY, or CLICHY LA GARENNE, a village or township of France, in the department of Seine, situated on the right bank of the river, immediately to the north of the ramparts of Paris, of which it may almost be said to be part. It is the seat of a number of extensive industrial establishments, engaged in the manufacture of steam engines, chemical stuffs, and glass. The village is of high antiquity, and was the residence of some of the early kings of France. Its church was built in the 17th century under the direction of the famous Saint Vincent de Paul, who at that time had charge of the cure. Population in 1872, 14,599. CLIFTON, a watering-place and fashionable resort of England, in the county of Gloucestershire, forming practically a part of the city of Bristol. It is situated on the eastern heights above the gorge of the lower Avon, which divides it from the county of Somerset,—partly occupying a spacious table-land about 250 feet above the sea, and partly an abrupt declivity which sinks down to the once fashionable district of the Hotwells, on the same level as Bristol. Three ancient British earthworks bear witness to an early settlement on the spot, and a church was in existence as far back as the time of Henry II., when it was bestowed by William de Clyfton on the abbot of the Austin canons in Bristol; but, with the exception, perhaps, of Mardyke House, in Hotwells, there are no longer any architectural vestiges of an earlier date than the 18th century. Of the churches the most important are St Andrew’s parish church, an ungainly structure rebuilt in 1819 ; All Saints, erected in 1863 at a cost of £32,000, after the designs of G. E. Street, and remarkable for the width of its nave and the narrowness of its aisles ; and the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral church of the Holy Apostles, with a convent and schools attached. Among the other buildings of note may be mentioned the Victoria Booms, which are used for concerts and other public assemblies, the Fine Arts Academy, dating from 1857, and Clifton College, a well-designed cluster of buildings in the Gothic style, founded in 1862 by a limited liability company, and giving education to 550 boys. The famous suspension bridge across the Avon, designed by Brunei and commenced in 1832, was completed in 1864. It has a span of 702 feet, and the roadway is 245 feet above high water; the

total weight of the structure is 1500 tons, and it is calculated to stand a burden of 9 tons per square inch. Since it was opened a village called New Clifton has grown up on the opposite bank. The once famous hot springs of Clifton, to which, in fact, the town was indebted for its rise, are no longer frequented. They issue from an aperture at the foot of St Vincent’s Bock, and the water has a temperature of about 76° Fahr. The population of Clifton in 1712, the date of the second edition of Sir Thomas Alleyne’s work on Gloucester, was only 450 ; in 1841 it amounted to 14,177 ; in 1857 to 17,634 ; in 1861 to 21,375 ; and in 1871 to 26,364. In the last-mentioned year there were 10,319 males and 16,045 females. The average annual mortality is about 14 per 1000. CLIMATE. The word Climate, or K\i[xa, being derived from the verb KXLVCLV, to incline, was applied by the ancients to signify that obliquity of the sphere with respect to the horizon from which results the inequality of day and night. The great astronomer and geographer Ptolemy divided the surface of the globe, from the equator to the arctic circle, into climates or parallel zones, corresponding to the successive increase of a quarter of an hour in the length of midsummer-day. Within the tropics these zones are nearly of equal breadth ; but, in the higher latitudes, they contract so much that it was deemed enough to reckon them by their doubles, answering consequently to intervals of half an hour in the extension of the longest day. To compute them is an easy problem in spherical trigonometry. As the sine of the excess of the semidiurnal arc above a quadrant is to unity, so is the tangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic, or of 23° 28', to the cotangent of the latitude. The semidiurnal arcs are assumed to be 91° 52|', 93° 45', 95° 37£', 97° 30', &c., and the following table, extracted from Ptolemy’s great work, will give some general idea of his distribution of seasons over the surface of the globe. The numbers are calculated on the supposition that the obliquity of the ecliptic was 23° 51' 20'/, to which, according to the theory of Laplace, it must have actually approached in the time of Ptolemy. They seem to be affected by some small errors, especially in the parallels beyond the seventeenth, as the irregular breadth of the zone abundantly shows ; but they are, on the whole, more accurate than those given by Varenius. VI. — i

2

CLIMATE

down for the height of the snow-line, it can only be ascertained by observation. Speaking generally it sinks little O^ a from the equator to 20° N. and S. lat.; from 20° to 70 it 'S'a J1 c3 continues to fall equably, but from 70° it falls rapidly to 78°, where it is at sea-level. h. m. The following are a few of the more noteworthy of the h. m. 15 15 XIV. I. 0 0 12 00 exceptions. On the north side of the Himalayas it is about 15 30 XV. II. 4 15 12 15 4000 feet higher than on the south side, owing to the 15 45 XVI. III. 8 25 12 30 greater depth of snow falling on the south side and the 16 00 XVII. IV. 12 30 12 45 16 15 XVIII. greater dryness of the climate of Tibet, resulting in a more v. 16 27 13 00 XIX. 51 40 16 30 VI. 20 15 13 15 active evaporation from the snows and stronger sun-heat on XX. 52 50 16 45 VII. 23 51 13 30 the north side, to which is to be added the comparative XXL 54 30 17 00 VIII. 27 12 13 45 want of vegetation on the north side, thus favouring a more XXII. 55 00 17 15 IX. 30 22 14 00 XXIII. 56 00 17 30 rapid melting of the snows. The snow-line is higher in X. 33 18 14 15 XXIV. 57 00 17 45 XL 36 00 14 30 the interior of continents than near their coasts, the rainXXV. 58 00 18 00 XII. 38 35 14 45 fall there being less and the heat of summer greater ; and XXVI. 59 30 18 30 XIII. 40 56 15 00 similarly, owing to the greater prevalence of westerly.over Climate in its modern acceptation signifies that peculiar easterly winds in many regions of the globe, it is higher state of the atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture on the east than on the west sides of continents. In South which prevails in any given place, together with its America the snow-line rises very considerably from the meteorological conditions generally in so far as they equator to 18° S. lat. and more so, markedly, on the west exert an influence on animal and vegetable life.. The than on the east slopes of the Cordilleras, because of the infinitely diversified character which climate displays smaller amount of precipitation of the west side of this may be referred to the combined operation of different mountain range. It is as high in 33 as in 18 S. lat,, but causes, which are chiefly reducible to these four—distance south of 33° it rapidly sinks owing to the heavy rains from the equator, height above the sea, distance from the brought by the westerly winds which begin to prevail there. sea, and prevailing winds, which may thus be regarded In the south of Chili it is 6000 feet lower than among the Rocky Mountains at the same distance from the equator, as forming the great bases of the law of climate. Of these’causes which determine climate incomparably and 3000 feet lower than in, the same latitudes in Western the most potent is distance from the equator. The same Europe. It is impossible to overestimate the importance sunbeam which, falling vertically, acts on a surface equal of the snow-line as one of the factors of climate in its to its own sectional area is, when falling obliquely on the relations to the distribution of animal and vegetable life. Glaisher, in his balloon ascents, made observations of earth, spread over a surface which becomes larger in inverse proportion to the sine of the obliquity. Conse- temperature at different heights, the results of which may quently less and less heat continues to be received from be thus summarized. Within the first 1000 feet the average the sun by the same extent of surface in proceeding space passed through for 1° was 223 feet with a cloudy sky from the equator toward the poles ; and this diminution of and 162 feet with a clear sky; at 10,000 feet the space heat with the increase of obliquity of incidence of the passed through for 1° was 455 feet for the former and 417 solar rays is enhanced by the circumstance that the sun’s feet for the latter; and above 20,000 feet the space with heat, being partially absorbed in its passage through the both states of the sky was 1000 feet nearly for a decline atmosphere, the absorption is greatest where the obliquity of 1°. It must be noted, however, that these rates of is greatest, because there the mass of air to be penetrated decrease refer to the temperature of the atmosphere at is greatest. Hence arise the broad features of the distribu- different heights above the ground, which are in all tion of temperature over the globe, from the great heat of probability altogether different from the rates of decrease equatorial regions, falling by easy gradations with increase for places on the earth's surface at these heights above the of latitude, to the extreme cold of the poles. If the earth’s level of the sea—the problem with which climatologists surface were uniform, and its atmosphere motionless, these have to deal. Observation shows, as might have been expected, that gradations would run everywhere parallel with the latitudes, and Ptolemy’s classification of the climates of the earth the rate at which the temperature falls with the height is would accord with fact. But the distribution of land and a very variable quantity,—varying with latitude, situation, water over the earth’s surface and the prevailing winds the state of the air as regards moisture or dryness, and calm bring about the subversion of what Humboldt has termed or windy weather, and particularly with the hour of the the solar climate of the earth, and present us with one of day and the season of the year. In reducing temperature the most difficult, as certainly it is one of the most observations for height, 1° for every 300 feet is generally important problems of physical science, viz., the determina- adopted. In the present state of our knowledge this or tion of the real climates of its separate regions and localities, any other estimation is at best no more than a rough approximation, since the law of decrease through its and the causes on which they depend. The decrease of temperature with height is perceptibly variations requires yet to be stated, being in truth one of felt in ascending mountains, and is still more evident in the the most intricate and difficult problems of climatology snow-clad mountains, which may be seen even in the awaiting investigation at the hands of meteorologists. tropics. The snow-line marks the height below which all Among the most important climatic results to be determined the snow that falls annually melts during summer. The in working out this problem are the heights at which in height-of this line above the sea is chiefly determined by different seasons the following critical mean temperatures, the following causes—by distance from the equator; by the which have important relations to animal and vegetable exposure to the sun’s rays of the slope of the mountain, and life, are met with in ascending from low-lying plains in hence, in northern latitudes, it is higher on the south than different regions of the world, viz., 80 , 75 , 70., 65 , 63 , on the north slopes of mountains, other things being equal; 60°, 58°, 55°, 50°, 45°, 39° (the maximum density of fresh by situation with reference to the rain-bringing winds; by water), 32° (its freezing point), and 20°. These results, which only affect the mean daily temthe steepness of the slope ; and by the dryness or wetness perature in different seasons, and which are due exclusively; of the district. Since, then, no general rule can be laid ;s

.

fi

nj

CLIMATE

3

diminish. The gradual narrowing of a valley tends to a tu differences of absolute height, though of the greatest more rapid lowering of the temperature for the obvious nossible practical importance, yet leave untouched a whole reason that the valley thereby resembles a basin almost held of climatological research—a field embracing the mean closed, being thus a receptacle for the cold air-currents temperature of different hours of the day at different which descend from all sides. The bitterly cold furious heights, for an explanation of which we must look to the gusts of wind which are often encountered in mountainous physical configuration of the earth’s surface and to the regions during night are simply the out-rush of cold air nature of that surface, whether rock, sand, black son, or from such basins. covered,with vegetation. The two chief causes which tend to counteract these Under this head by far the most important class ot coneffects of terrestrial radiation are forests and sheets of ditions are those which result in extraordinary modificawater. If a deep lake fills the basin, the cold air which tions, amounting frequently to subversions, of the law of is poured down on its surface having cooled the surface the decrease of temperature with the height. This will water, the cooled water sinks to a greater depth, and thus the perhaps be best explained by supposing an extent of air resting over the lakes is little if at all lowered in temcountry diversified by plains, valleys, hills, and table-lands perature. Hence deep lakes may be regarded as sources to be under atmospheric conditions favourable, to rapid of heat during winter, and places situated near their outlet cooling by nocturnal radiation. Each part being under are little exposed to cold gusts of wind, while places on the same meteorological conditions, it is evident that terrestheir shores are free from the severe frosts which, are trial radiation will proceed over all at the same rate, but peculiar to other low-lying situations. The frosts of winter the effects of radiation will be felt in different degrees and are most severely felt in those localities where the slopes intensities in different places. As the air in contact with above them are destitute of vegetation, and consist only of the declivities of hills and rising grounds becomes cooled bare rock and soil, or of snow. If, however, the slopes be by contact with the cooled surface, it acquires greater covered with trees, the temperature is warmer at the base density, and consequently flows down the slopes and accumulates on the low-lying ground at their base. It and up the sides of the mountain,—the beneficial influence forests consisting in the obstacle. they offer to the follows, therefore, that places on rising ground are never of descending currents of cold air and in distributing the cold exposed to the full intensity of frosts at night; and the produced by terrestrial radiation through a stratum of the higher they are situated relatively to the immediately atmosphere equalling in thickness the. height of the trees. surrounding district the less are they exposed, since their Hence as regards strictly local climates, an intelligent relative elevation provides a ready escape downwards for knowledge of which is of great practical value, it follows the cold air almost as speedily as it is produced. On the that the best security against the severity of cold in other hand valleys surrounded by hills and high grounds winter is afforded where the dwellings are situated on a not only retain their own cold of radiation, but also serve gentle acclivity a little above the plain or valley from which as reservoirs for the cold heavy air which pours down it rises with an exposure to the south, and where the. ground upon them from the neighbouring heights. .Hence mist is above is planted with trees. When it is borne in mind that frequently formed in low situations whilst adjoining eminences are clear. Along low-lying situations in the in temperate climates, such as that of Great. Britain, the majority of the deaths which occur in the winter months valleys of the Tweed and other .rivers of Great Britain are occasioned or at least hastened by low temperatures, it laurels, araucarias, and other trees and shrubs were destroyed during the great frost of Christmas 1860, whereas will be recognized as of the most vital importance, especially to invalids, to know what are the local situations which the same species growing on relatively higher grounds afford the best protection against great cold.. In truth, escaped, thus showing by incontestible proof the great and mere local situations may during periods of intense cold rapid increase of temperature with height at places rising have the effect of maintaining a temperature many degrees above the lower parts of the valleys. above that which prevails close at hand a difference which This highly interesting subject has been admirably elucimust mitigate suffering and not unfrequently prolong life. dated by the numerous meteorological stations of Switzerland. In addition to mere elevation and relative configuration It is there observed in calm weather in winter, .when the of surface, the land of the globe brings about important ground becomes colder than the air above it, that systems modifications of climate in the degree in which its surface of descending currents of air set in over the whole face is covered with vegetation or is a desert waste. Ot alt of the country. The direction and force of these descend- surfaces that the earth presents to the influences of solar ing currents follow the irregularities of the surface, and like currents of water they tend to converge and unite, in the and terrestrial radiation an extent of sand is accompanied with the most extreme fluctuations of climate, as these are valleys and gorges, down which they flow like rivers in their dependent on the temperature and moisture of the air; beds. Since the place of these air-currents must be taken whilst on the other hand, extensive forests tend to. mitigate by others, it follows that on such occasions the temperature the extremes of temperature and distribute its daily of the tops of mountains and high grounds is relatively changes more equably over the twenty-foui hours. high because the counter-currents come from a great height As regards the influence of the sun’s heat on the temperaand are therefore warmer. Swiss villages are generally ture of the air, attention is to be given almost exclusively built on eminences rising out of the sides of the mountains to the temperature of the extreme upper surface of the with ravines on both sides. They are thus admirably protected from the extremes of cold in winter,. because the earth heated by the sun with which the air is m immediate contact. Badly conducting surfaces, such , as descending cold air-currents are diverted aside into the ravines, and the counter-currents are constantly supplying sand, will evidently have the greatest influence ni raising the temperature of the air, for the simple reason that the warmer air from the higher regions of the atmosphere. Though the space filled by the down-flowing current of heat produced by the sun’s rays being conveyed downwards cold air in the bottom of a valley is of greater extent than into the soil with extreme slowness must necessarily remain the bed of a river, it is yet only a difference of degree, the longer on the surface, in other words, remain m immediate space being in all cases limited and well defined, so that contact with the atmosphere. Similarly at night the in rising above it in ascending the slope the increased cooling effects of terrestrial radiation being greatest, on sandy surfaces, the climate of sandy deserts is characterized warmth is readily felt, and, as we have seen, in extreme These daily frosts the destruction to trees and shrubs is seen rapidly to by nights of comparatively great cold.

4

CLIMATE

alternations of heat and cold are still further intensified by the great dryness of the air over extensive tracts of sand. In warm countries the surface temperature of sandy deserts often rises to 120°, 140°, or even to 200°, and the shade temperature has been observed as high as 125°. It is this hot air, loaded with particles of sand still notter, and driven onwards by furious whirlwinds, which forms the dreaded simoon of the desert; and the irritating and enervating sirocco of the regions bordering the Mediterranean is to be traced to the same cause. It is in the deserts of Africa, Arabia, Persia, and the Punjab that the highest temperature on the globe occurs, the mean summer temperature of these regions rising to and exceeding 95°. The extreme surface of loam and clay soils is not heated during day nor cooled during night in so high a degree as that of sandy soils, because, the former being better conductors, the heat or the cold is more quickly conveyed downward, and therefore not allowed to accumulate on the surface. When the ground is covered with vegetation the whole of the sun’s heat falls on the vegetable covering, and as none of it falls directly on the soil its temperature does not rise so high as that of land with no vegetable covering. The temperature of plants exposed to the sun does not rise so high as that of soil, because a portion of the sun’s heat is lost in evaporation, and the heat cannot accumulate on the surface of the leaves as it does on the soil. Hence the essential difference between the climates of two countries, the one well covered with vegetation, the other not, lies in this, that the heat of the day is more equally distributed over the twenty-four hours in the former case, and therefore less intense during the warmest part of the day. But the effect of vegetation on the distribution of the t imperature during the day is most markedly shown in the case of forests. Trees, like other bodies, are heated and cooled by radiation, but owing to their slow conducting power the times of the daily maximum and minimum temperature do not occur till some hours after the same phases of the temperature of the air. Again, the effects of radiation are in the case of trees not chiefly confined to a surface stratum of air a very few feet in thickness, but as .already remarked, are to a very large extent diffused through a stratum of air equalling, in thickness at least, the height of the trees. Hence the conserving influence of forests on climate, making the nights warmer and the days cooler, imparting, in short, to the climates of districts clad with trees something of the character of insular climates. Evaporation proceeds slowly from the damp soil usually found beneath trees, since it is more or less screened from the sun. Since, however, the air under the trees is little agitated or put in circulation by the wind, the vapour arising from the soil is mostly left to accumulate among the trees, and hence it is probable that forests diminish the evaporation, but increase the humidity, of climates within their influence. The humidity of forests is further increased by the circumstance that when rain falls less of it passes immediately along the surface into streams and rivers; a considerable portion is at once taken up by the leaves of the trees and percolates the soil, owing to its greater friability in woods, to the roots of the trees, whence it is drawn up to the leaves and there evaporated, thus adding to the humidity of the atmosphere. Much has been done by Dr Marsh and pothers in elucidation of the influence on climate of forests and the denudation of trees, in so far as that can be done by the varying depths of lakes and rivers and other noninstrumental observations. Little comparatively has been done anywhere in the examination of the great practical question of the influence of forests on climate, by means of carefully devised and conducted observations made with thermometers, the evaporating dish, or the rain

gauge. The most extensive inquiry on the subject yet set on foot has been for some years conducted in the forests of Bavaria under the direction of Professor Ebermeyer, and a like inquiry was begun in Germany in 1875,—the more important results being that during the day, particularly in the warm months, the temperature in the forest is considerably lower than outside in the open country, there being at the same time a slow but steady outflow of air from the forest; and that during the night the temperature in the forest is higher, while there is an inflow of air from the open country into the forest. The mean annual temperature in the forest increases from the surface of the ground to the tops of the trees (where it is observed to approximate to what is observed in the open country), a result evidently due to the facility of descent to the surface of the cold air produced by terrestrial radiation, and to the obstruction offered by the trees to the solar influence at the surface. The mean annual temperature of the woodland soil from the surface to a depth of 4 feet is from 2° to 3° lower than that of the open country. A series of observations was begun at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, in 1&73, at two stations, one outside a wood, and the other inside the wood in a small grass plot of about 50 feet diameter clear of trees. From these valuable results have been obtained relative to the differences in the daily march of temperature and the different rates of humidity, the most important being the substantial agreement of the mean annual temperature of the two places. The establishment of a station, with underground thermometers, which it is proposed to erect under the shade of the trees close to the station in the cleared space, will furnish data which will not only throw new light on the questions raised in this inquiry, but also on the movements and viscosity of the air and solar and terrestrial radiation. When the sun’s rays fall on water they are not as in the case of land arrested at the surface, but penetrate to a considerable depth, which, judging from observations made by Sir Robert Christison on Loch Lomond, and from those made on board the “ Challenger,” is probably in clear water about GOO feet. Of all known substances water has the greatest specific heat, this being, as compared with that of the soil and rocks composing the earth’s crust, in the proportion of about 4 to 1. Hence water is heated much more slowly by the sun’s rays and cooled more slowly by nocturnal radiation than the land. It is owing to these two essential differences between land and water with respect to heat that climates come to be grouped into the three great classes of oceanic, insular, and continental climates. The maximum densities of fresh and salt water, which are respectively 39°T and 260,2 (when the sea-water is the average degree of saltness), mark an essential distinction between the effects of sheets of fresh and salt water on climate. The surface temperature of sea-water falls very slowly from 39°T to 280,4, its freezing point, because as it falls the temperature of the whole water through its depths must fall; whilst from 39°T to 32° the surface temperature of fresh water falls rapidly because it is only the portion floating on the surface which requires to be cooled. If the bottom temperature of fresh water exceed 39°T the cooling takes place also very slowly, since in this case the water through all its depth must be cooled down to 39°T as well as that of the surface. The temperature at the greatest depths of Loch Lomond, which is practically constant at all seasons, is not 47°’8, the mean annual temperature of that part of Scotland, but 42°, which happens to be the mean temperature of the cold half of the year, or that half of the year when terrestrial radiation is the ruling element of the temperature. Thus, then, there is an immense volume of water at the bottom of this lake at a constant temperature 5°‘8

CLIMATE below that of the mean annual temperature of the locality. From this follow two important consequences, viz.—(1) during each winter no inconsiderable portion of the cold produced by terrestrial radiation is conveyed away from the surface to the depths of the lake, where it therefore no longer exercises any influence whatever on the atmosphere or on the climate of the district in lowering the temperature; and (2) this annual accession of cold at these depths is wholly counteracted by the internal heat of the earth. In corroboration of this view it may be pointed out that the water of the Rhone as it issues from Lake Geneva is 3°‘7 higher than that of the air at Geneva. Thus, the influence of lakes which do not freeze over is to mitigate in some degree the cold of winter over the district where they are situated. This is well illustrated on a large scale by the winter temperature of the lake region of North America. The influence of the sea is exactly akin to that of lakes. Over the surface of the ground slanting to the sea-shore the cold currents generated by radiation flow down to the sea, and the surface-water being thereby cooled sinks to lower depths. In the same manner no inconsiderable portion of the cold produced by radiation in all latitudes over the surface of the ocean and land adjoining is conveyed from the surface to greater depths. The enormous extent to which this transference goes on is evinced by the great physical fact disclosed to us in recent years by deep sea observations of temperature, viz., that the whole of the depths of the sea is filled with water at or closely approaching to the freezing point of fresh water, which in the tropical regions is from 40° to 50° lower than the temperature of the surface. The withdrawal from the earth’s surface in high latitudes of such an enormous accumulation of ice-cold wTater to the depths of the sea of tropical and subtropical regions, rendered possible by the present disposition of land and water over the globe, doubtless results in an amelioration to some extent of the climate of the whole globe, so far as that may be brought about by a higher surface temperature in polar and temperate regions. Oceanic climates are the most equable of all climates, showing fur the same latitudes the least differences between the mean temperatures of the different hours of the day and the different months of the year, and being at all times the least subject to violent changes of temperature. So far as man is concerned, oceanic climates are only to be met with on board ship. The hygienic value of these climates in the treatment of certain classes of chest and other complaints is very great, and doubtless when better understood in their curative effects they will be more largely taken advantage of. It is, for instance, believed by many well qualified to form an opinion that they afford absolute, or all but absolute, immunity from colds, which are so often the precursors of serious complicated disorders. The nearest approach to such climates on land is on very small islands such as Monach, which is situated about seven miles to westward of the Hebrides, in the full sweep of the westerly winds of the Atlantic which there prevail. The mean January temperature of this island, which is nearly in the latitude of Inverness, is 43°'4, being l°-8 higher than the mean of January at Yentnor, Isle of Wight, 0o,8 higher than that of Jersey and Guernsey, and almost as high as that of Truro. Again, Stornoway, being situated on the east coast of Lewis on the Minch, an inland arm of the Atlantic, has thus a less truly insular position than Monach. Its climate is therefore much less insular, and accordingly its mean temperature in January is 38°-7, or 40,7 lower than that of Monach. From its position near the Moray Firth, on the east of Scotland, Culloden occupies a position still less insular; hence its

January temperature is only 37°T, being l6-6 less than that of Stornoway, and 60,3 less than that of Monach. On the other hand, the mean temperature of July is 55°‘0 at Monach, 570,8 at Culloden, 61°-0 at Guernsey, and 62°'6 at Yentnor. Thus the conditions of temperature at these stations are completely reversed in summer, for while in January Monach is 10,8 warmer than Yentnor, in summer it is 7°‘6 colder. Since the prevailing winds in the British Isles are westerly, places on the east coast are less truly insular than are places similarly situated on the west, whence it follows that the winter and summer climates of the east coast approach more nearly the character of inland climates than do those of the west. The facts of the temperature at such places as Monach in Scotland and Valentia in Ireland disclose the existence of an all but purely oceanic climate along the coasts, particularly of the west, so distinct and decided, and extending inland so short a distance, that it would be impossible to represent it on any map of land isothermals of ordinary size. The only way in which it can be graphically represented is by drawing on the same map the isothermals of the sea for the same months, as Petermann has done on his chart of the North Atlantic and continents adjoining. Such maps best lead to a knowledge of the true character of our seaside climates. Though it is impossible to overestimate the climatological importance of seaside climates, as evinced by their curative effects on man, and their extraordinary influence on the distribution of animal and vegetable life, it must be confessed that we are yet only on the threshold of a rational inquiry into their true character. Undoubtedly the first step in this large inquiry is the establishing of a string of about six stations at various distances from a point close to high-water mark to about two miles inland, at which observations at different hours of the day would be made, particularly at 9 A.M. and 3 and 9 P.M., of the pressure, temperature, humidity, movements, and chemistry of the air. Our large towns have climates of a peculiar character, which may be said to consist chiefly in certain disturbances in the diurnal and seasonal distribution of the temperature, an excess of carbonic acid, a deficiency of ozone, and the presence of noxious impurities. Systematic inquiries into the condition and composition of the air of our large towns have been instituted this year (1876) in Paris and Glasgow, in which the ozone, ammonia, nitric acid, and germs present in different districts of these cities are regularly observed. There yet remain to be devised some means of making truly comparable thermometric and hygrometric observations in different localities, including the more denselypeopled districts, for the investigation of what we may call the artificial climates peculiar to each district. While such an inquiry, at least in its earlier stages, must necessarily be regarded as a purely scientific one, it may fairly be expected to lead sooner or later to a knowledge of the causes which determine the course of many epidemics'— why, for instance, diphtheria is more frequent and more fatal in the new than in the old town of Edinburgh, and why in some parts of Leicester diarrhoea is unknown as a fatal disease, while in other parts of the same town it rages every summer as a terrible pestilence among infants—and ultimately suggest the means by which they may be stamped out when they make their appearance. It has been already pointed out (see ATMOSPHERE) that prevailing winds are the simple result of the relative distribution of atmospheric pressure, their direction and force being the flow Of the air from a region of higher towards a region of lower pressure, or from where there is a surplus to where there is a deficiency of air. Since climate is practically determined by the temperature and moisture of the air, and since these a>re dependent on the prevailing winds which

6

CLIMATE

come charged with, the temperature and moisture of the places to windward, by partially removing the protecting regions they have traversed, it is evident that isobaric screen of vapour and thus exposing them more effectually charts, showing the mean pressure of the atmosphere, form to solar and terrestrial radiation. To this cause much of the key to the climates of the different regions of the globe, the observed difference between the west and east climates particularly those different climates which are found to of Great Britain is due. In Ireland, on the other hand, prevail in different regions having practically the same where the mountains are not grouped in ranges running latitude and elevation. This principle is all _ the more north and south, but in isolated masses, the difference between the climates of the east and west is very much important when it is considered that the prevailing winds In the east of the United States the prevailing determine in a very great degree the currents of the ocean less. winds in summer are S.W., and as the Alleghanies lie in which exercise so powerful an influence on climate. Since winds bring with them the temperature of the the same direction the temperature_ is little affected by these mountains, and the rainfall is pretty evenly disregions they have traversed, southerly currents of air are tributed on both sides of the range. warm winds, and northerly currents cold winds. Also In its climatological relations the distribution _ of rain since the temperature of the ocean is more uniform than over the globe presents us with a body of facts which lead, that of the land, winds coming from the ocean do not cause when intelligently interpreted, to a knowledge of the laws such variations of temperature as winds from a continent. regulating the distribution of plants more quickly and As air loaded with vapour obstructs both solar and terrestrial certainly than do the facts of temperature. It is to the radiation, when clear as well as when clouded, moist ocean prevailing winds we must look for an explanation of the winds are accompanied by a mild temperature in winter the broad principles of the connection being these: and a cool temperature in summer, and dry winds coming rainfall, The rainfall is moderately large when the wind has from continents by cold winters and hot summers. Lastly, equatorial currents of air, losing heat as they proceed in traversed a considerable extent of ocean; 2, if the winds advance into colder regions the rainfall is largely increased, their course, are thereby brought nearer the point of saturation, and consequently become moister winds ; whereas and if a range of mountains lie across their path the northerly currents acquiring greater heat in their progress amount precipitated on the side facing the winds is greatly augmented, but diminished over regions on the other side become drier winds. It follows from these relations of the wind to temperature of the range ; 3, if the winds, though coming from the and moisture that the S.W. wind in the British Isles is a ocean, have not traversed a considerable extent of it, the very moist wind, being both an oceanic and equatorial rainfall is not large ; and 4, if the winds, even though current; whereas the N.E. wind, on the other hand, is having traversed a considerable part of the ocean, yet on peculiarly dry and parching, because it is both a northerly arriving on the land proceed into lower latitudes, or regions markedly warmer, the rainfall is small or nil. It and continental current. Owing to the circumstance of atmospheric pressure diminishing from the south of Europe is this last consideration which accounts for the rainless northwards to Iceland, it follows that S.W. winds are the character of the summer climates of California, of Southern Europe, and of Northern Africa. most prevalent in Great Britain ; and since this diminution The region extending from Alaska to Lower California of pressure reaches its maximum amount and persistency presents more sudden transitions of climate, and climates during the winter months, S.W. winds are in the greatest preponderance at this season; hence the abnormally high more sharply contrasted with each other, than any other winter temperature of these islands above what is due to portion of the globe, this arising from the contour of its surmere latitude. The mean winter temperature of Lerwick, face and the prevailing winds. A direct contrast to this is Shetland, in respect of latitude alone would be 3°, and of offered by the United States to the east of the Mississippi, region characterized by a remarkable uniformity in the London 17°, but owing to the heat conveyed from the adistribution of its rainfall in all seasons, which, taken in warm waters of the Atlantic across these islands by the connection with its temperature, affords climatic conditions winds, the temperature of Shetland is 39° and of London admirably adapted for a vigorous growth of trees and for 38° In Iceland and Norway the abnormal increase of temperature in winter is still greater. This influence of the great staple products of agriculture. India and the region of the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus Mountains the Atlantic through the agency of the winds is so pre- also present extraordinary contrasts of climate in all ponderating that the winter isothermals of Great Britain seasons, due to the prevailing winds, upper as well as lie north and south, instead of the normal east and west lower winds, the relative distribution of land and water, direction. . , » and the physical configuration of the surface of the land. This peculiar distribution of the winter temperature of In the above remarks the only question dealt with the British Isles has important bearings on the treatment lias been the average climate of localities and regions. of diseases. Since the temperature of the whole of the There are, however, it need scarcely be added, vital eastern slope of Great Britain is the same, it is clear that elements of climate of which such a discussion can take no to those for whom a milder winter climate^ is required a cognizance. These are the deviations which occur fiom iourney southward is attended with no practical advantage, the seasonal averages of climate, such as periods of extreme unless directed to the west coast. As the temperature on cold and heat, or of extreme humidity and dryness of air, the west is uniform from Shetland to Wales, Scotland is as liability to storms of wind, thunderstorms, fogs, and favourable to weak constitutious during winter as any part extraordinary downfalls of rain, hail, or snow. . An of England, except the south-west, the highest winter illustration will show the climatic difference here insisted temperatures being found from the Isle of Wight westward The mean winter temperature of the Southern States round the Cornish peninsula to the Bristol Channel; and of America is almost the same as that of Lower Egypt. from Carnsore Point in Ireland to Galway Bay the tempera- Lower Egypt is singularly free from violent alternations of ture is also high. temperature as well as frost, whereas these are marked The height and direction of mountain _ ranges form an features of the winter climate of the States bordering on important factor in determining the climatic characteristics the Gulf of Mexico. Robert Russell, in his Climate cf of prevailing winds. If the range be perpendicular to the America, gives an instance of the temperature falling in winds, the effect is to drain the winds which cross them of Southern Texas with a norther from 81° to 18 m 41 their moisture, thus rendering the winters colder and the hours, the norther blowing at the same time with great summers hotter at all places to leeward, as compared with

0 L I—C L I violence. A temperature of 18° accompanying a violent wind may be regarded as unknown in Great Britain. It is to the cyclone and anticyclone (see ATMOSPHERE) we must look for an explanation of these violent weather changes. Climatically, the significance of the anticyclone or area of high pressure consists in the space covered for the time by it being on account of its dryness and clearness more fully under the influence of solar and terrestrial radiation, and consequently exposed to great cold in winter and great heat in summer; and of the cyclone or area of low pressure, in a moist warm atmosphere occupying its front and southern half, and a cold dry atmosphere its rear and northern half. The low areas of the American cyclones, as they proceed eastward along the north shores of the Gulf of Mexico, are often immediately followed to west and north-westward by areas of very high pressure, the necessary consequence of which is the setting in of a violent norther over the Southern States. Since similar barometric conditions do not occur in the region of Lower Egypt, its climate is free from these sudden changes which are so injurious to the health even of the robust. Since, many of the centres of the cyclones of North America follow the track of the lakes and advance on the Atlantic by the New England States and Newfoundland, these States and a large portion of Canada frequently experience cold raw easterly and northerly winds. The great majority of European storms travel eastward with their centres to northward of Faro, and hence the general mildness of the winter climate of the British Isles. When it happens, however, that cyclonic centres pass eastwards along the English Channel or through Belgium and North Germany, while high pressure prevails in the north, the winter is characterized by frosts and snows. The worst summer weather in Great Britain is when low pressures prevail over the North Sea, and the hottest and most brilliant weather when anticyclones lie over Great Britain and extend away to south and eastward. Low pressures in the Mediterranean, along with high pressures to northward, are the conditions of the worst winter weather in the south of Europe.- A cyclone in the Gulf of Lyons or of Genoa, and an anticyclone over Germany and Bussia, have the mistral as their unfailing attendant, blowing with terrible force and dryness on the Mediterranean coasts of Spain, France, and North Italy, being alike in its origin and in its climatic qualities the exact counterpart of the norther of the Gulf of Mexico. It follows from the courses taken by the cyclones of the Mediterranean, and the anticyclones which attend on them, that also Algeria, Malta, and Greece are liable to violent alternations of temperature during the cold months. The investigation of this phase of climate, which can only be carried out by the examination of many thousands of daily weather charts, is as important as it is difficult, since till it be done the advantages and hazards offered by different sanataria cannot be compared and valued. It may in the meantime be enough to say that no place anywhere in Europe or even in Algeria offers an immunity from the risks arising from the occurrence of cold weather in winter at all comparable to that afforded by the climates of Egypt and Madeira. See ATMOSPHERE, METEOROLOGY, and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. (A. B.) CLINTON, a city of the United States, in Clinton County, Iowa, about 42 miles higher up than Davenport, on the Mississippi, which is crossed at this point by an iron drawbridge upwards of 4000 feet long. It is a thriving place, with workshops for the Chicago and North-Western Railway, and an extensive trade in timber. Several newspapers are published weekly. Population in 1870, 6129. CLINTON, a town of the United States, in Worcester county, Massachusetts, on the Nashua River, about 32

7

miles west of Boston, at the junction of several railway lines. It is the seat of extensive manufacturing activity, chiefly expended in the production of cotton cloths, woollen carpets, boots and shoes, combs, and machinery. The Lancaster mills rank as perhaps the best in the United States; and the wire cloth company has the credit of being the first to weave wire by the power-loom. Population in 1870, 5429. CLINTON, DEWITT (1769-1829), an American statesman, born at Little Britain, in the State of New York, was the son of a gentleman of English extraction who served as brigadier-general in the war of independence, and of a lady belonging to the famous Dutch family of De Witts. He was educated at Colombia College; and in 1788 he was admitted to the bar. He at once joined the republican party, among the leaders of which was his uncle, George Clinton, governor of New York, whose secretary he became. At the same time he held the office of secretary to the board of regents of the university, and to the commissioners of fortifications. In 1797 he was elected member of the Assembly, in 1798 member of the Senate of the State of New York, and in 1801 member of the Senate of the United States. For twelve years, with two short breaks, which amounted only to three years, he occupied the position of mayor of New York. He was also again member of the Senate of New York from 1803 to 1811, and lieutenant-governor of the State from 1811 to 1813. In 1812 he became a candidate for the presidency ; but he was defeated by Madison, and lost even his lieutenantgovernorship. Throughout his whole career Clinton had been distinguished by his intelligent support of all schemes of improvement, and he now devoted himself to carrying out the proposal for the construction of canals from Lakes Erie and Champlain to the River Hudson. The Federal Government refused to undertake the work; but some time after, in 1815, the year in which he finally lost the mayoralty, he presented a memorial on the subject to the Legislature of New York, and the Legislature appointed a commission, of which he was made a member, to make surveys and draw up estimates. Having thus recovered his popularity, in 1816 Clinton was once more chosen governor of the State; in 1819 he was re-elected, and again in 1824 and 1826. In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed; and he afterwards saw the work which owed so much to him carried on by the construction of important branch canals. De Witt Clinton published a Memoir on the Antiquities of Western Mew York (1818), Letters on the Natural History and Internal Resources of New York (1822),and Speeches to the Legislature (1823). His life was written by Hosack (1829) and Renwick (1840); and in 1849 appeared Campbell’s Life and Writings of De Witt Clinton.

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852), an English classical scholar, was born at Gamston, in Nottinghamshire. He was descended from the second earl of Lincoln; for some generations the name of his family was Fynes, but his father resumed the older family name of Clinton. Educated at Southwell school in his native county, at Westminster school, and at Christ Church College, Oxford, he devoted himself to the minute and almost uninterrupted study of classical literature and history. From 1806 to 1826 he was M.P. for Aldborough. His chief works are—Fasti Ilcllenici, a Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece, which also contains dissertations on points of Grecian history and Scriptural chronology (4 vols., 1824, 1827, 1830, 1834); and Fasti Romani, a Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome cind Constantinople from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Hen achus (2 vols., 1845 and 1851). In 1851 he published an epitome of the former, and an epitome of the latter appeared in 1853. The Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton were published by C. J. x. Clinton in 1854.

CLITHEROE, a manufacturing town and a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, in the county of

8

C L I- -O L I

Lancashire, situated not far from the Kibble, at the foot of Pendle Hills, about 28 miles by railway north of Manchester. It has several suburbs, known as Waterloo, Salford, and Bawdlands, and at the side of the river is the little village of Low Moor. Its principal buildings are the parish church of St Michael’s, a grammar school founded in 1554, the moothall, and the county court erected in 1864 ; and its industrial establishments comprise cottonmills, extensive print-works, paper-mills, foundries, and brick and lime works. The cotton manufacture alone employed upwards of 2000 people in 1871. Clitheroe was a borough by prescription as early as the 11th century, and in 1138 it is mentioned as the scene of a battle between the Scotch and English. Its castle, probably built not long after, was a fortress of the Lacy family, and continued a defensible position till 1649, when it was dismantled by the Parliamentary forces. The Honor of Clitheroe, for a long time a part of the duchy of Lancaster, and bestowed by Charles II. on General Monk, is now in the possession of the Buccleuch family. Population of the municipal borough in 1871, 8208; of the parliamentary, 11,786. CLITOMA.CHUS, a leader of the New Academy, was a Carthaginian originally named Hasdrubal, who came to Athens about the middle of the 2d century B.C. He made himself well acquainted with Stoical and Peripatetic philosophy; but he principally studied under Carneades, whose views he adopted, and whom he succeeded as chief representative of the New Academy in 129 B.C. His works were some 400 in number; but we possess scarcely anything but a few titles, among which are De sustinendis offensionibus, rrepl tTro^s (on suspension of judgment), and ■n-tpL alptcrewv (an account of various philosophical sects). In 146 he wrote a philosophical treatise to console his countrymen after the ruin of their city. One of his works was dedicated to the Latin poet Lucilius, another to L. Censorinus, who was consul in 149 B.c. CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta. It stood in a fertile plain to the south of Mount Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who drunk them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of considerable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants w ere noted for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against Orchomenos. As a member of the Achaean league it suffered siege at the hands of the iEtolians, and wras on several occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. The ruins, which bear the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen about three miles from a village that preserves the ancient designation. The greater part of the walls and several of the circular towers with which they were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also remains of a small Doric temple, the columns of which were adorned with strange capitals. CLIVE, ROBERT (1725-1774), Baron Clive of Plassy, in the peerage of Ireland, was the statesman and general wRo founded the empire of British India before ho was forty years of age. He is now represented by the Powis family, his son having been made earl of Powis in the peerage of the United Kingdom. Clive was born on the 29th September 1725 at Styche, the family estate in the parish of Moreton-Say, Market-Drayton, Shropshire. We learn from himself, in his second speech in the House of Commons in 1773, that as the estate yielded only £500 a year, his father followed the profession of the law also.. The Clives, or Clyves, formed one of the oldest families in the

county of Shropshire, having held the manor of that name in the reign of Henry II. One Clive was Irish Chancellor of the Exchequer under Henry VIII.; another was a member of the Long Parliament; Robert’s father sat for many years for Montgomeryshire. His mother, to whom throughout life he wTas tenderly attached, and who had a powerful influence on his career, was a daughter, and with her sister Lady Sempill co-heir, of Nathaniel Gaskell of Manchester. Robert was their eldest son. With his five sisters, all of whom were married in due time, he ever maintained the most affectionate relations. His only brother survived to 1825. Young Clive was the despair of his teachers. Sent from school to school, and for only a short time at .the Merchant Taylors’ school, which had then a high reputation, he neglected his books for boyish adventures, often of the most dangerous kind. But ho was not so ignorant as it is the fashion of his biographers to represent. He could translate Horace in after life, at the opening of the book ; and he must have laid in his youth the foundation of that clear and vigorous English style which marked .all his despatches, and made Lord Chatham declare of one of his speedics in the House of Commons that it was the most eloquent he had ever heard. From his earliest years, however, his ambition was to lead his fellows ; but ho never sacrificed honour, as the word was then understood, even to the fear of death. At eighteen he was sent out to Madras as a “ factor ” or “ writer ” in the civil service of the East India Company. The detention of the ship at Brazil for nine months enabled him to acquire the Portuguese language, which, at a time when few or none of the Company’s servants learned the vernaculars of India, he often found of use during his service there. For the first two years of his residence he was miserable. He felt keenly the separation from home; he was always breaking through the restraints imposed on young “writers and he was rarely out of trouble with his fellows, with one of whom he fought a duel. Thus early, too, the effect of the climate on his health began to show itself in those fits of depression during one of which he afterwards prematurely ended his life. The story is told of him by his companions, though he himself never spoke of it, that he twice snapped a pistol at his head in vain. His one solace was found in the Governor’s library, where he sought to make up for past carelessness, not only by much reading, but by a course of study. He was just of age, when in 1746 Madras was forced to capitulate to Labourdonnais, during the war of the Austrian Succession. The breach of that capitulation by Dupleix, then at the head of the French settlements in India, led Clive, with others, to escape from the town to the subordinate Fort St David, some twenty miles to the south. There, disgusted with the state of affairs and the purely commercial duties of an East Indian civilian, as they then were, Clive obtained an ensign’s commission. At this time India was ready to become the prize of the first conqueror who to the dash of the soldier added the skill of the administrator. For the forty years since the death of the Emperor Aurungzebe, the power of the Great Mogul had gradually fallen into the hands of his provincial viceroys or soubadars. The three greatest of these were the nawab of the Deccan, or South and Central India, who ruled from Hyderabad, the nawab of Bengal, whose capital was Moorshedabad, and the nawab or vizier of Oudh. The prize lay between Dupleix, who had the genius of an administrator, or rather intriguer, but was no soldier, and Clive, the first of a century’s brilliant succession of those “ soldier-politicals,” as they are called in the East, to whom, ending with Sir Henry Lawrence, Great Britain owes the conquest and consolidation of its greatest dependency. Clive successively established British ascend-

C L I v encyaganist French influence in the three great provinces under these nawabs. But his merit lies especially in the ability and foresight with which he secured for his country, and for the good of the natives, the richest of the three, Bengal. First, as to Madras and the Deccan, Clive had hardly been able to commend himself to Major Stringer Lawrence, the commander of the British troops, by his courage and skill in several small engagements, when the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle forced him to return to his civil duties for a short time. An attack of the malady which so severely affected his spirits led him to visit Bengal, where he was soon to distinguish himself. On his return he found a contest going on between two sets of rival claimants for the position of viceroy of the Deccan, and for that of nawab of the Carnatic, the greatest of the subordinate states under the Deccan. Dupleix, who took the part of the pretenders to power in both places, was carrying all before him. The British had been weakened by the withdrawal of a large force under Admiral Boscawen, and by the return home, on leave, of Major Lawrence. But that officer had appointed Clive commissary for the supply of the troops with provisions, with the rank of captain. More than one disaster had taken place on a small scale, when Clive drew up a plan for dividing the enemy’s forces, and offered to carry it out himself. The pretender, Chunda Sahib, had been made nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix’s assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the more legitimate successor, Mahomed Ali. Chunda Sahib had left Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, to reduce Trichinopoly, then held by a weak English battalion. Clive offered to attack Arcot that he might force Chunda Sahib to raise the siege of Trichinopoly. But Madras and Fort St David could supply him with only 200 Europeans and 300 sepoys. Of the eight officers who led them, four were civilians like Clive himself, and six had never been in action. His force had but three field-pieces. The circumstance that Clive, at the head of this handful, had been seen marching during a storm of thunder and lightning, led the enemy to evacuate the fort, which the British at once began to strengthen against a siege. Clive treated the great population of the city with so much consideration that they helped him, not only to fortify his position, but to make successful sallies against the enemy. As the days passed on, Chunda Sahib sent a large army under his son and his French supporters, who entered Arcot and closely besieged Clive in the citadel. An attempt to relieve him from Madras was defeated. Meanwhile the news of the marvellous defence of the English reached the Mahratta allies of Mahomed Ali, who advanced to Clive’s rescue. This led the enemy to redouble their exertions, but in vain. After for fifty days besieging the fort, and offering large sums to Clive to capitulate, they retired from Arcot. The brave garrison had been so reduced by the gradual failure of provisions that the sepoys offered to be content with the thin gruel which resulted from the boiling of the rice, leaving the grain to their European comrades. Of the 200 Europeans 45 had been killed, and of the 300 sepoys 30 had fallen, while few of the survivors had escaped wounds. In India, we might say in all history, there is no parallel to this exploit of 1751 till we come to the siege of Lucknow in 1857. Clive, now reinforced, followed up his advantage, and Major Lawrence returned in time to carry the war to a successful issue. In 1754 the first of our Carnatic treaties was made provisionally, between Mr T. Saunders, the Company’s resident at Madras, and M. Godeheu, the French commander, in which the English proteg6, Mahomed Ali, was virtually recognized as nawab, and both nations agreed to equalize their possessions. When war again broke out in 1756, and the French, during Clive’s absence in Bengal, obtained successes in the northern districts, his

E

9

efforts helped to drive them from their settlements. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 formally confirmed Mahomed Ali in the position which Clive had won for him. Two years after, the Madras work of Clive,was completed by a firmaun from the emperor of Delhi, recognizing the British possessions in Southern India. The siege of Arcot at once gave Clive a European reputation. Pitt pronounced the youth of twenty-seven who had done such deeds a “ heaven-born general,” thus endorsing the generous appreciation of his early commander, Major Lawrence. When the Court of Directors voted him a sword worth £700, he refused to receive it unless Lawrence was similarly honoured. He left Madras for home, after ten years absence, early in 1753, but not before marrying Miss Margaret Maskelyne, the sister of a friend, and of one who was afterwards well known as astronomer royal. All his correspondence proves him to have been a good husband and father, at a time when society was far from pure, and scandal made havoc of the highest reputations. In after days, when Clive’s uprightness and stern reform of the Company’s civil and military services made him many enemies, a biography of him appeared under the assumed name of Charles Carracioli, Gent. All the evidence is against the probability of its scandalous stories being true. Clive’s early life seems occasionally to have led him to yield to one of the vices of his time, loose or free talk among intimate friends, but beyond this nothing has been proved to his detriment. After he had been two years at home the state of affairs in India made the directors anxious for his return. He was sent out, in 1756, as governor of Fort St David, with the reversion of the government of Madras, and he received the commission of lieutenant-colonel in the king’s army. He took Bombay on his way, and there commanded the land force which captured Gheriah, the stronghold of the Mahratta pirate, Angria. In the distribution of prize money which followed this expedition he showed no little self-denial. He took his seat as governor of Fort St David on the day on which the nawab of Bengal captured Calcutta. Thither the Madras Government at once sent him, along with Admiral Watson. He entered on the second period of his career. Since, in August 1690, Job Charnock had landed at the village of Chuttanutti with a guard of one officer and 30 men, the infant capital of Calcutta had become a rich centre of trade. The successive nawabs or viceroys of Bengal had been friendly to it, till, in 1756, Suraj-ud-Dowlah succeeded his uncle at Moorshedabad. His predecessor’s financial minister had fled to Calcutta to escape the extortion of the new nawab, and the English governor refused to deliver up the refugee. Enraged at this, Suraj-udDowlah captured the old fort of Calcutta on the 5th August, and plundered it of more than two millions sterling. Many of the English fled to the ships and dropped down the river. The 146 who remained, were forced into “ the Black Hole ” in the stifling heat of the sultriest period of the year. Only 23 came out alive. The fleet was as strong, for those days, as the land force was weak. Disembarking his troops some miles below the city, Clive marched through the jungles, where he lost his way owing to the treachery of his guides, but soon invested Fort William, while the fire of the ships reduced it, on the 2d January 1757. On the 4th February he defeated the whole army of the nawab, which had taken up a strong position just beyond what is now the most northerly suburb of Calcutta. The nawab hastened to conclude a treaty, under which favourable terms were conceded to the Company’s trade, the factories and plundered property were restored, and an English mint was established. In the accompanying agreement, offensive and defensive, Clive appears under the name by which he was always known to YI. — 2

10

CL] Y E

the natives of India, Sabut Jung, or the daring in war. above Calcutta is, during the rainy season, fed by the The hero of Arcot had, at Angria’s stronghold, and now overflow of the Ganges to the north through three streams, again under the walls of Calcutta, established his reputa- which in the hot months are nearly dry. On the left tion as the first captain of the time. With 600 British bank of the Bhagarutti, the most westerly of these, 100 soldiers, 800 sepoys, 7 field-pieces and 500 sailors to draw miles above Chandernagore, stands Moorshedabad, the them, he had routed a force of 34,000 men with 40 pieces capital of the Mogul viceroys of Bengal,'and then so vast that of heavy cannon, 50 elephants, and a camp that extended Clive compared it to the London of his day. Some miles upwards of four miles in length. His own account, in a farther down is the field of Plassy, then an extensive grove letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, gives a modest but of mango trees, of which enough yet remains, in spite of vivid description of the battle, the importance of which the changing course of the stream, to enable the visitor to has been overshadowed by Plassy. In spite of his double realize the scene. On the 21st June Clive arrived on defeat and the treaty which followed it, the madness of the the bank opposite Plassy, in the midst of that outburst of nawab burst forth again. As England and France were rain which ushers in the south-west monsoon of India. once more at war, Clive sent the fleet up the river against His whole army amounted to 1100 Europeans and 2100 Chandernagore, while he besieged it by land. _ After native troops, with 10 field-pieces. The nawab had drawn consenting to the siege, the nawab sought to assist the up 18,000 horse, 50,000 foot, and 53 pieces of heavy French, but in vain. The capture of their principal settle- ordnance, served by French artillerymen. For once in his ment in India, next to Pondicherry, which had fallen in career Clive hesitated, and called a council of sixteen the previous war, gave the combined forces prize to the officers to decide, as he put it, “ whether in our present value of £130,000. The rule of Suraj-ud-Dowlah became situation, without assistance, and on our own bottom, it as intolerable to his own people as to the English. They would be prudent to attack the nawab, or whether we formed a confederacy to depose him, at the head of which should wait till joined by some country power 1 ” Clive was Jaffier Ali Khan, his commander-in-chief. Associating himself headed the nine who voted for delay; Major with himself Admiral Watson, Governor Drake, and Mr (afterwards Sir) Eyre Coote, led the seven who counselled Watts, Clive made a treaty in which it was agreed to give immediate attack. But, either because his daring asserted the office of souba, or viceroy of Bengal, Behar, and itself, or because, also, of a letter that he received from Orissa, to Jaffier, who was to pay a million sterling to the Jaffier Ali, as has been said, Clive was the first to change Company for its losses in Calcutta and the cost of its troops, his mind and to communicate with Major Eyre Coote. half a million to the English inhabitants of Calcutta, One tradition, followed by Macaulay, represents him as £200,000 to the native inhabitants, and £70,000 to its spending an hour in thought under the shade of some trees, Armenian merchants. Up to this point all is clear. Suraj while he resolved the issues of what was to prove one of ud-Dowlah was hopeless as a ruler. His relations alike the decisive battles of the world. Another, turned into to his master, the merely titular emperor of Delhi, and to verse by an Anglo-Indian poet, pictures his resolution as the people left the province open to the strongest. After the result of a dream. However that may be, he did well “ the Black Hole,” the battle of Calcutta, and the treachery as a soldier to trust to the dash and even rashness that had at Chandernagore in spite of the treaty which followed gained Arcot and triumphed at Calcutta, and as a statesthat battle, the East India Company could treat the nawab man, since retreat, or even delay, would have put back the only as an enemy. Clive, it is true, might have disregarded civilization of India for years. When, after the heavy rain, all native intrigue, marched on Moorshedabad, and at once the sun rose brightly on the 22d, the 3200 men and the held the delta of the Ganges in the Company’s name. But six guns crossed the river and took possession of the grove the time was not ripe for this, and the consequences, with and its tanks of water, while Clive established his headso small a force, might have been fatal. The idea of acting quarters in a hunting lodge. On the 23d the engagement directly as rulers, or save under native charters and names, took place and lasted the whole day. Except the 40 was not developed by events for half a century. The Frenchmen and the guns which they worked, the enemy political morality of the time in Europe, as well as the did little to reply to the British cannonade which, with the comparative weakness of the Company in India, led Clive 39th Regiment, scattered the host, inflicting on it a loss of not only to meet the dishonesty of his native associate by 500 men. Clive restrained the ardour of Major Kirkpatrick, equal dishonesty, but to justify his conduct by the declara- for he trusted to Jaffier Ali’s abstinence, if not desertion to tion, years after, in Parliament, that he would do the same his ranks, and knew the importance of sparing his own He lost hardly a white soldier; in all 22 again. It became necessary to employ the richest Bengalee small force. T trader, Omichund, as an agent between Jaffier Ali and the sepoys w ere killed and 50 wounded. His own account, English officials. Master of the secret of the confederacy written a month after the battle to the secret committee of against Suraj-ud-Dowlah, the Bengalee threatened to the court of directors, is not less unaffected than that in betray it unless he was guaranteed, in the treaty itself, which he had announced the defeat of the nawab at £300,000. To dupe the villain, who was really paid by Calcutta. Suraj-ud-Dowlah fled from the field on a camel, both sides, a second, or fictitious treaty, was shown him secured what wealth he could, and came to an untimely with a clause to this effect. This Admiral Watson refused end. Clive entered Moorshedabad, and established Jaffier to sign; “ but,” Clive deponed to the House of Commons, Ali in the position which his descendants have ever since “ to'the best of his remembrance, he gave the gentleman enjoyed, as pensioners, but have not unfrequently abused. who carried it leave to sign his name upon it; his lordship When taken through the treasury, amid a million and a never made any secret of it; he thinks it warrantable in half sterling’s worth of rupees, gold and silver plate, jewels, such a case, and would do it again a hundred times ; he and rich goods, and besought to ask what he would, Clive had no interested motive in doing it, and did it with a was content with £160,000, while half a million was distributed among the army and navy, both in addition to design of disappointing the expectations of a rapacious man. Such is Clive’s own defence of the one act which, in a long gifts of £24,000 to each member of the Company’s committee, and besides the public compensation stipulated for career of abounding temptations, stains his public life. The whole hot season of 1757 was spent in these in the treaty. It was to this occasion that he referred in negotiations, till the middle of June, when Clive began his his defence before the House of Commons, when he He march from Chandernagore, the British in boats, and the declared that he marvelled at his moderation. sepoys along the right bank of the Hooghly. That river, sought rather to increase the shares of the fleet and the

CLIVE troops at his own expense, as he had done at Gheriah, and did more than once afterwards, with prize of war. What he did take from the grateful nawab for himself was less than the circumstances justified from an Oriental point of view, was far less than was pressed upon him, not only by Jaffier Ali, but by the hundreds of the native nobles wrhose gifts Clive steadily refused, and was openly acknowledged from the first. He followed a usage fully recognized by the Company, although the fruitful source of future evils which he himself was again sent out to correct. The Company itself acquired a revenue of £100,000 a year, and a contribution towards its losses and military expenditure of a million and a half sterling. Such was Jaffier Ali’s gratitude to Clive that he afterwards presented him with the quit-rent of the Company’s lands in and around Calcutta, amounting to an annuity of £27,000 for life, and left him by will the sum of £70,000, which Clive devoted to the army. While busy with the civil administration, the conqueror of Plassy continued to follow up his military success. He sent Major Coote in pursuit of the French almost as far as Benares. He despatched Colonel Forde to Yizagapatam and the northern districts of Madras, where that officer gained the battle of Condore, pronounced by Broome “ one of the most brilliant actions on military record.” He came into direct contact, for the first time, with the Great Mogul himself, an event which resulted in the most important consequences during the third period of his career. Shah Aalum, when Shahzada, or heir-apparent, quarrelled with his father Aalum Geer II., the emperor, and united with the viceroys of Oudh and Allahabad for the conquest of Bengal. He advanced as far as Patna, which he besieged with 40,000 men. Jaffier Ali, in terror, sent his son to its relief, and implored the aid of Clive. Major Caillaud defeated the prince’s army at the battle of Sirpore, and dispersed it. Finally, at this period, Clive repelled the aggression of the Dutch, and avenged the massacre of Amboyna, on that occasion when he wrote his famous letter, “ Dear Forde, fight them immediately; I will send you the order of council to-morrow.” Meanwhile he never ceased to improve the organization and drill of the sepoy army, after a European model, and enlisted into it many Mahometans of fine physique from Upper India. He refortified Calcutta. In 1760, after four years of labour so incessant and results so glorious, his health gave way and he returned to England. “ It appeared,” wrote a contemporary on the spot, “ as if the soul was departing from the government of Bengal.” He had been formally made governor of Bengal by the court of directors at a time when his nominal superiors in Madras sought to recall him to their help there. But he had discerned the importance of the province even during his first visit to its rich delta, mighty rivers, and teeming population. It should be noticed, also, that he had the kingly gift of selecting the ablest subordinates, for even thus early he had discovered the ability of young Warren Hastings, destined to be his great successor, and, a year after Plassy, made him “ resident ” at the nawab’s court. In 1760, at thirty-five years of age, Clive returned to England with a fortune of at least £300,000 and the quitrent of £27,000 a year, after caring for the comfort of his parents and sisters, and giving Major Lawrence, his old commanding officer, who had early encouraged his military genius, £500 a year. The money had been honourably and publicly acquired, with the approval of the Company. The amount might have been four times what it was, had Clive been either greedy after wealth or ungenerous to the colleagues and the troops whom he led to victory. In the five years of his conquests and administration in Bengal, the young man had crowded together a succession of

11

exploits which led Lord Macaulay, in what that historian termed his “ flashy ” essay on the subject, to compare him to Napoleon Bonaparte. But there was this difference in Clive’s favour, due not more to the circumstances of the time than to the object of his policy—he gave peace, security, prosperity, and such liberty as the case allowed of to a people now reckoned at 240 millions, who had for centuries been the prey of oppression, while Napoleon warred only for personal ambition, and the absolutism he established has left not a wreck behind. During the three years that Clive remained in England he sought a political position, chiefly that he might influence the course of events in India, which he had left full of promise. He had been well received at court, had been made Baron Clive of Plassy, in the peerage of Ireland, had bought estates, and had got not only himself but his friends returned to the House of Commons after the fashion of the time. Then it was that he set himself to reform the home system of the East India Company, and commenced a bitter warfare with Mr Sulivan, chairman of the court of directors, whom finally he defeated. In this he was aided by the news of reverses in Bengal. Yansittart, his successor, having no great influence over Jaffier Ali Khan, had put Kossim Ali Khan, the son-in-law, in his place in consideration of certain payments to the English officials. After a brief tenure Kossim Ali had fled, had ordered Summers, or Sumroo, a Swiss mercenary of his, to butcher the garrison of 150 English at Patna, and had disappeared under the protection of his brother viceroy of Oudh. The whole Company’s service, civil and military, had become demoralized by such gifts, and by the monopoly of the inland as well as export trade, to such an extent that the natives were pauperized, and the Company was plundered of the revenues which Clive had acquired for them. The court of proprietors, accordingly, who elected the directors, forced them, in spite of Sulivan, to hurry out Lord Clive to Bengal with the double powers of governor and commander-in-chief. What he had done for Madras, what he had accomplished for Bengal proper, and what he had effected in reforming the Company itself, he was now to complete in less than two years, in this the third period of his career, by putting his country politically in the place of the emperor of Delhi, and preventing for ever the possibility of the corruption to which the English in India had been driven by an evil system. On the 3d May 1765, he landed at Calcutta to learn that Jaffier Ali Khan had died, leaving him personally £70,000, and had been succeeded by his son, though not before the Government had been further demoralized by taking £100,000 as a gift from the new nawab ; while Kossim Ali had induced not only the viceroy of Oudh, but the emperor of Delhi himself, to invade Behar. After the first mutiny in the Bengal army, which was suppressed by blowing the sepoy ringleader from the guns, Major Munro, “ the Napier of those times,” scattered the united armies on the hard-fought field of Buxar. The emperor, Shah Aalum, detached himself from the league, while the Oudh viceroy threw himself on the mercy of the English. Clive had now an opportunity of repeating in Hindustan, or Upper India, what he had accomplished for the good of Bengal. He might have secured what are now called the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, and have rendered unnecessary the campaigns of Wellesley and Lake. But he had other work in the consolidation of rich Bengal itself, making it a base from which the mighty fabric of British India could afterwards steadily and proportionally grow. Hence he returned to the Oudh viceroy all his territory save the provinces of Allahabad and Corah, which he made over to the weak emperor. But from that emperor he secured the most important document in the whole "bf

12

c L : V E

our Indian history up to that time, which appears in the He lacked a sufficient number of British artillerymen, and records as “ firmaund from the King Shah Aalum, granting would not commit the mistake of his successors, who trained the dewany of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa to the Company, natives to work the guns, which were turned against us 1765.” The date was the 12th August, the place Benares, with such effect in 1857. It is sufficient to say that Government has returned to his policy, for not a native the throne an English dining-table covered with embroidered cloth and surmounted by a chair in Clive’s tent. It is all gunner is now to be found save in a few unhealthy and pictured by a Mahometan contemporary, who indignantly isolated frontier posts. Clive’s final return to England, a poorer man than he exclaims that so great a “ transaction was done and finished in less time than would have been taken up in the sale of went out, in spite of still more tremendous temptations, was a jackass.” By this deed the Company became the real the signal for an outburst of his personal enemies, exceeded sovereign rulers of thirty millions of people, yielding a only by that which the malice of Sir Philip Francis^ afterrevenue of four millions sterling. All this had been ac- wards excited against Warren Hastings. Every civilian, complished by Clive in the few brief years since he had whose illicit gains he had cut off, every officer whose conavenged “ the Black Hole ” of Calcutta. This would be a spiracy he had foiled, every proprietor or director, like Sulivan, whose selfish schemes he had thwarted,. now small matter, or might even be a cause of reproach, were it He had, with consistent not that the Company’s, now the Queen’s, undisputed sought their opportunity. generosity, at once made over the legacy of £70,000 from sovereignty proved, after a sore period of transition the salvation of these millions. The lieutenant-governorship the grateful Jaffier Ali, as the capital of what has since of Bengal, with some additions since Clive’s time, now been known as “the Clive Fund,” for the support of contains sixty millions of people, and yields an annual invalided European soldiers, as well as officers, and their revenue of twelve millions sterling, of which eight goes widows, and the Company had allowed .8 per cent, on the every year to assist in the good government of the rest of sum for an object which it was otherwise bound to meet. India. But Clive, though thus moderate and even Bur^oyne, of Saratoga memory, did his best to induce the generous to an extent which called forth the astonishment House of Commons, in which Lord Clive was now member of the natives, had all a statesman’s foresight. On the same for Shrewsbury, to impeach the man who gave his country date, he obtained not only an imperial charter for the an empire, and the people of that empire peace and justice, Company’s possessions in the Carnatic also, thus completing and that, as we have seen, without blot on the gift, save in the work he began at Arcot, but a third firmaun for the the matter of Omichund. The result, after the brilliant highest of all the lieutenancies or soubaships of the and honourable defences of his career which will be found empire, that of the Deccan itself. The fact has only in Almon’s Debates for 1773, was a compromise that saved recently been discovered, by distinct allusion to it in a England this time from the dishonour which, when Warren letter from the secret committee of the court of directors Hastings had to run the gauntlet, put it in the same to the Madras Government, dated 27th April 1768. Still category with France in the treatment of its public beneso disproportionate seemed the British force, not only to factors abroad. On a division the House, by 155 to 95 the number and strength of the princes and people of carried the motion that Lord Clive “ did obtain and possess India, but to the claims and ambition of French,_ Dutch, himself” of £234,000 during his first administration of and Danish rivals, that Clive’s last advice to the directors, Bengal; but, refusing to express an opinion on the fact, it as tie finally left India in 1777, was this, given in a remark- passed unanimously the second motion, at five in the able state paper but little known : “ We are sensible that, morning, “ that Robert, Lord Clive, did at the same time since the acquisition of the dewany, the power formerly render great and meritorious services to his country.” The belonging to the soubah of those provinces is totally, in one moral question, the one stain of all that brilliant and tempted life—the Omichund treaty—was not touched. fact, vested in the East India Company. Nothing remains Only one who can personally understand what Clive’s to him but the name and shadow of authority. This name, power and services were will rightly realize the effect on however, this shadow, it is indispensably necessary we should seem to venerate.” On a wider arena, even that of him, though in the prime of life, of the discussions through which he had been dragged. We have referred to Warren the Great Mogul himself, the shadow was kept up till it obliterated itself in the massacre of English people in the Hastings’s impeachment, but there is a more recent parallel. Delhi palace in 1857 ; and the Queen was proclaimed, first, The marquis of Dalhousie did almost as much to complete direct ruler on the 1st November 1858, and then empress the territorial area and civilized administration of British India in his eight years’ term of office as Lord Clive to found of India on the 1st January 1877 Having thus founded the empire of British India, the empire in a similar period. As Clive’s accusers sought a Clive’s painful duty was to create a pure and strong new weapon in the great famine of 1770, for which he was administration, such as alone would justify its possession by in no sense responsible, so there were critics who accused Dalforeigners. The civil service was de-orientalized by housie of having caused that mutiny which, in truth, he would raising the miserable salaries which had tempted its have prevented had the British Government listened to his members to be corrupt, by forbidding the acceptance of counsel not to reduce the small English army in the gifts from natives, and by exacting covenants under which country. Clive tells us his own feelings in a passage of participation in -the inland trade was stopped. Not less first importance when we seek to form an opinion on the important were his military reforms. With his usual tact fatal act by which he ended his life. In the greatest of his speeches, in reply to Lord North, he said,—“ My situation, and nerve he put down a mutiny of the English officers, who chose to resent the veto against receiving presents and the sir, has not been an easy one for these twelve months reduction of batta at a time when two Mahratta armies were past, and though my conscience could never accuse me, yet marching on Bengal. His reorganization of the army, on the I felt for my friends who were involved in the same censure myself I have been examined by the select lines of 'that which he had begun after Plassy, and which as committee more like a sheep-stealer than a member of this was neglected during his second visit to England, has since House.” Fully accepting that statement, and believing attracted the admiration of the ablest Indian officers. He to have been purer than his accusers in spite of divided the whole into three brigades, so as to make each him temptations unknown to them, we see in Clive’s end the a complete force, in itself equal to apy single native army result merely of physical suffering, of chronic disease that could be brought against it. His one fault was that which opium failed to abate, while the worry and chagrin of his ago and his position, with so small a number of men.

0 L 0—0 L 0 caused by liis cneniies gave it full scope. This great man, who fell short only of the highest form of moral greatness on one supreme occasion, but who did more for his country than any soldier till Wellington, and more for the people and princes of India than any statesman in history, ceased to exist on the 22d November 1774, in his fiftieth year. The portrait of Clive, by Dance, in the Council Chamber of Government House, Calcutta, faithfully represents him. He was slightly above middle-size, with a countenance rendered heavy and almost sad by a natural fulness above

T

13

the eyes. Eeserved to the many, he was beloved by his own family and friends. His encouragement of scientific undertakings like Major RennelFs surveys, and of philological researches like Mr Gladwin’s, was marked by the two honorary distinctions of F.R.S. and LL.D. The best authorities for his life, which has yet to be worthily written, are—article “Clive,” in the second or Kippis’s edition of the Biographia Britannica, from materials supplied by his brother, Archdeacon Clive, by Henry Beaufoy, M.P. ; Broome’s of the Bengal Army, Aitchison’s Treaties, second edition, 1876; Orme’s History ; and Malcolm’s Life (G. SM.)

CLOCKS

1292 one is mentioned in Canterbury Cathedral as costing £30. And another at St Albans, by It. Wallingford the abbot in 1326, is said to have been such as there was not in all Europe, showing various astronomical phenomena. A description of one in Dover Castle with the date 1348 on it was published by the late Admiral Smyth, P.B.A.S., in 1851, and the clock itself was exhibited going, in the Scientific Exhibition of 1876. In the early editions of this Encyclopaedia there was a picture of a very similar one, made by De Vick for the French king Charles Y. about the same time, much like our common clocks of the last century, except that it had a vibrating balance, but no spring, instead of a pendulum, for pendulums were not invented till three centuries after that. The general construction of the going part of all clocks, except large or turret clocks, which we shall treat separately, is substantially the same, and fig. 1 is a section of any ordinary house clock. B is the barrel with the rope coiled round it, generally 16 times for the 8 days ; the barrel is fixed to its arbor K, which is prolonged into the winding square coming up to the face or dial of the clock; the dial is here shown as fixed either by small screws x, or by a socket and pin z, to the prolonged pillars p, p, which (4 or 5 in number) connect the plates or frame of the clock together, though the dial is commonly, but for no good reason, set on to the front plate by another set of pillars of its own. The great wheel G rides on the arbor, and is connected with the barrel by the ratchet R, the action of which is shown more fully in fig 14. The intermediate wheel r in this drawing is for a purpose which will be described hereafter, and for the present it may be considered as omitted, and the click of the ratchet R as fixed to the great wheel. The great wheel drives the pinion c which is called the centre pinion, on the arbor of the centre wheel C, which goes through to the dial, and carries the long, or ■ minute-hand; this wheel always turns in an hour, and I the great wheel generally in 12 hours, by having 12 times i as many teeth as the centre pinion. The centre wheel drives the “ second wheel ” D by its pinion d, and that again drives the scape-wheel E by its pinion e. If the pinions d and e have each 8 teeth or leaves (as the teeth of pinions are usually called), C will have 64 teeth and D 60, in a clock of which the scape-wdieel turns in a minute, so that the seconds hand may be set on its arbor prolonged to the dial. A represents the pallets of the escapement, which will be described presently, and their arbor a goes through a large hole in the back plate near F, and its back pivot turns in a cock OFQ screwed on to the back plate. From the pallet arbor at F descends the crutch F/, ending in the fork f, which embraces the pendulum P, so that as the pendulum vibrates, the crutch and the pallets necessarily vibrate with it. The pendulum is hung by a thin spring S from the cock Q, so that the bending point of the spring may be just opposite the end of the pallet arbor, and the edge of the spring as close to the end of that arbor as justitiam, moniti, inscribed upon it. The behs were sold or rather, it is said, gambled away, by Henry VIII. In possible—a point too frequently neglected.

HE origin of clock work is involved in great obscurity. Notwithstanding the statements by many writers that clocks, horologia, were in use so early as the 9th century, and that they were then invented by an archdeacon of Yerona, named Pacificus, there appears to be no clear evidence that they were machines at all resembling those which have been in use for the last five or six centuries. But it may be inferred from various allusions to horologia, and to their striking spontaneously, in the 12th century, that genuine clocks existed then, though there is no surviving description of any one until the 13tb century, when it appears that a horologium was sent by the sultan of Egypt in 1232 to the Emperor Frederick II. “ It resembled a celestial globe, in which the sun, moon, and planets moved, being impelled by weights and wheels, so that they pointed out the hour, day, and night with certainty.” A clock was put up in a former clock tower at Westminster with some great bells in 1288, out of a fine imposed on a corrupt chief-justice, and the motto Discite

14

CLOCKS

We may now go to the front (or left liand) of the clock, and describe the dial or “ motion-work.’; The minute hand fits on to a squared end of a brass socket, which is fixed to the wheel M, and fits close, but not tight, on the pro longed arbor of the centre wheel. Behind this wheel is a bent spring which is (or ought to be) set on the same arbor with a square hole (not a round one as it sometimes is) in the middle, so that it must turn with the arbor; the wheel is pressed up against this spring, and kept there, by a cap and a small pin through the end of the arbor. The consequence is, that there is friction enough between the spring and the wheel to carry the hand round, but not enough to resist a moderate push with the finger for the purpose of altering the time indicated. This wheel M, which is sometimes called the minute-wheel, but is better called the hour-wheel as it turns in an hour, drives another wheel IST, of the same number of teeth, which has a pinion attached to it; and that pinion drives the twelve-hour wheel H, which is also attached to a large socket or pipe carrying the hour hand, and riding on the former socket, or rather (in order to relieve the centre arbor of that extra weight) on an intermediate socket fixed to the bridge L, which is screwed to the front plate over the hour-wheel M. The weight W, which drives the train and gives the impulse to the pendulum through the escapement, is generally hung by a catgut line passing through a pulley attached to the weight, the other end of the cord being tied to some convenient place in the clock frame or seat-board, to which it is fixed by screws through the lower pillars. It has usually been the practice to make the case of house clocks and astronomical clocks not less than 6 feet high; but that is a very unnecessary waste of space and materials; for by either diminishing the size of the barrel, or the number of its turns, by increasing the size of the great wheel by one-half, or hanging the weights by a treble instead of a double line, a case j ust long enough for the pendulum will also be long enough for the fall of the weights in or 8 days. Of course the weights have to be increased in the same ratio, and indeed rather more, to overcome the increased friction; but that is of no consequence. PENDULUM.

The claim to the invention of the pendulum, like the claim to most inventions, is disputed ; and we have no intention of trying to settle it. It was, like many other discoveries and inventions, probably made by various persons independently, and almost simultaneously, when the state of science had become ripe for it. The discovery of that peculiarly valuable property of the pendulum called isochronism, or the disposition to vibrate different arcs in very nearly the same time (provided the arcs are none of them large), is. commonly attributed to Galileo, in the well-known story of his being struck with the isochronism of a chandelier hung by a long chain from the roof of the church at Florence. And Galileo’s son appears as a rival of Avicenna, Huyghens, Dr Hooke, and a London clockmaker named Harris, for the honour of having first applied the pendulum to regulate the motion of a clock train, all in the early part of the 17th century. Be this as it may, there seems little doubt that Huyghens was the first who mathematically investigated, and therefore really knew, the true nature of those properties of the pendulum which may now be found explained in any mathematical book on mechanics. He discovered that if a simple pendulum {i.e., a weight or bob consisting of a single point, and hung by a rod or string of no weight) can be made to describe, not a circle, but a cycloid of which the string would be the radius of curvature at the lowest point, all its vibrations, however large, will be performed in the same time. For a little distance near the bottom, the circle very nearly coincides with the cycloid ; and hence it is that, for small arcs, a pendulum vibrating as usual in a circle is nearly enough isochronous for the purposes of horology; more especially when contrivances are introduced either to compensate for the variations of the arc, or, better still, to destroy them altogether, by making the force on the pendulum so constant that its arc may never sensibly vary. The difference between the time of any small arc of the circle and any arc of the cycloid varies nearly as the square of the circular arc ; and again, the difference between the times of any two small

and nearly equal circular arcs of the same pendulum, varies nearly as the arc itself. If a, the arc, is increased by a small amount da, the pendulum will lose 10800ac7a seconds a day, which is rather more than 1 second, if a is 2° (from zero) and da is 10', since the numerical value of 2° is ’OSS. If the increase of arc is considerable, it will not do to reckon thus by differentials, but we must take the difference of time for the day as 5400 (a,2—a2), which will be just 8 seconds if a = 2° and 3°. For many years it was thought of great importance to obtain cycloidal vibrations of clock pendulums, and it was done by making the suspension string or spring vibrate between cycloidal cheeks, as they were called. But it was in time discovered that all this is a delusion,—first, because there is and can be no such thing in reality as a simple pendulum, and cycloidal cheeks will only make a simple pendulum vibrate isochronously ; secondly, because a very slight error in the form of the cheeks (as Huyghens himself discovered) would do more harm than the circular error uncorrected, even for an arc of 10°, which is much larger than the common pendulum arc ; thirdly, because there was always some friction or adhesion between the cheeks and the string; and fourthly (a reason which applies equally to all the isochronous contrivances since invented), because a common clock escapement itself generally tends to produce an error exactly opposite to the circular error, or to make the pendulum vibrate quicker the farther it swings ; and therefore the circular error is actually useful for the purpose of helping to counteract the error due to the escapement, and the clock goes better than it would with a simple pendulum, describing the most perfect cycloid. At the same time, the thin spring by which pendulums are always suspended, except in some French clocks where a silk string is used (a very inferior plan), causes the pendulum to deviate a little from circular and to approximate to cycloidal motion, because the bend does not take place at one point, but is spread over some length of the spring. The accurate performance of a clock depends so essentially on the pendulum, that we shall go somewhat into detail respecting it. First then, the time of vibration depends entirely on the length of the pendulum, the effect of the spring being too small for consideration until we come to differences of a higher order. But the time does not vary as the length, but only as the square root of the length ; i.e., a pendulum to vibrate two seconds must be four times as long as a seconds pendulum. The relation between the time of vibration and the length of a pendulum is expressed thus :— t —

TTV-J where t is the time in seconds, ir the well-known 9 symbol for 3 T 4159, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, l the length of the pendulum, and g the force of gravity at the latitude where it is intended to vibrate. This letter g, in the latitude of London, is the symbol for 32-2 feet, that being the velocity (or number of feet per second) at which a body is found by experiment to be moving at the end of the first second of its fall, being necessarily equal to twice the actual number of feet it has fallen in that second. Consequently, the length of a pendulum to beat seconds in London is 39T4 inches. But the same pendulum carried to the equator, where the force of gravity is less, would lose 2j minutes a day. The seconds we are here speaking of are the seconds of a common clock indicating mean solar time. But as clocks are also required for sidereal time, it may be as well to mention the proportions between a mean and a sidereal pendulum. A sidereal day is the interval between two successive transits over the meridian of a place by that imaginary point in the heavens called T, the first point of Aries, at the intersection of the equator and the ecliptic ; and there is one more sidereal day than there are solar days in a year, since the earth has to turn more than once round in space before the sun can come a second time to the meridian, on account of the earth’s own motion in its orbit during the day. A sidereal day or hour is shorter than a mean solar one in the ratio of '99727, and consequently a sidereal pendulum must be shorter than a mean time pendulum in the square of that ratio, or in the latitude of London the sidereal seconds pendulum is 38'87 inches. As we have mentioned what is 0 or 24 o’clock by sidereal time, we may as well add, that the mean day is also reckoned in astronomy by 24 hours, and not from midnight as in civil reckoning, but from the following noon; thus, what we call 11 A.M. May 1 in common life is 23 h. April 30 with astronomers. It must be remembered that the pendulums whose lengths we have been speaking of are simple pendulums ; and as that is a thing which can only exist in theory, the reader may ask how the length of a real pendulum to vibrate in any required time is ascertained. In every pendulum, that is to say, in every body hung so as to be capable of vibrating freely, there is a certain point, always somewhere below the centre of gravity, which possesses these remarkable properties—that if the pendulum were turned upside down, and set vibrating about this point, it would vibrate in the same time as before, and moreover, that the distance of this point from the point of suspension is exactly the length of that imaginary simple pendulum which would vibrate in the same time. This point is therefore called the centre of oscillation. The rules for finding it by cal'cula-

CLOCKS tion are too complicated for ordinary use, except in bodies of certain simple and regular forms ; but they are fortunately not requisite in practice, because in all clock pendulums the centre of oscillation is only a short distance below the centre of gravity of the whole pendulum, and generally so near to the centre of gravity of the bob—in fact a little above it—that there is no difficulty in making a pendulum for any given time of vibration near enough to the proper length at once, and then adjusting it by screwing the bob up or down until it is found to vibrate in the proper time. Revolving or Conical Pendulum. Thus far we have been speaking of vibrating pendulums ; but the notice of pendulums would be incomplete without some allusion to revolving or conical pendulums, as they are called, because they describe a cone in revolving. Such pendulums are used where a continuous instead of an intermittent motion of the clock train is required, as in the clocks for keeping an equatorial telescope directed to a star, by driving it the opposite way to the motion of the earth, to whose axis the axis on which the telescope turns is made parallel. Clocks with such pendulums may also be used in bedrooms by persons who cannot bear the ticking of a common clock. The pendulum, instead of being hung by a fiat spring, is hung by a thin piece of piano-forte wire ; and it should be understood that it has no tendency to twist on its own axis, and so to twist off the wire, as may be apprehended ; in fact, it would require some extra force to make it twist, if it were wanted to do so. The time of revolution of such a pendulum may be easily ascertained as followsLet l be its length ; a the angle which, it makes with the vertical axis of the cone which it describes ; u the angular velocity ; then the centrifugal force =co2 lsin. a; and as this is the force which keeps the pendulum away from the vertical, it must balance the force which draws it to the vertical, which is g tan. a: 9 ■—the angular velocity, or the angle deand therefore l cos. 0

sji

scribed in a second of time ; and the time of complete revolution through the angle 360° or 2ir is—= 27TAcos' a. ; that is 03

V

to

g

say, the time of revolution of a pendulum of any given length is less than the time of a double oscillation of the same pendulum, in the proportion of the cosine of the angle which it makes with the axis of revolution to unity. A rotary pendulum is kept in motion by the train of the clock ending in a horizontal wheel with a vertical axis, from which projects an arm pressing against a spike at the bottom of the pendulum ; an! it has this disadvantage that any inequality in the force of the train, arising from variations of friction or any other cause, is immediately transmitted to the pendulum; whereas it will be seen that in several kinds of escapements which can be applied to a vibrating pendulum, the variations of force can be rendered nearly or quite insensible. And it is a mistake to imagine that there is any self-correcting power in a conical pendulum analogous to that of the governor of a steam-engine ; for that apparatus, though it is a couple of conical pendulums, has also a communication by a system of levers with the valve which supplies the steam. The governor apparatus has itself been applied to telescope-driving clocks, with a lever ending in a spring which acts by friction on some revolving plate in the clock, increasing the friction, and so diminishing the force as the balls of the governor fly out farther under any increase in the force. And with the addition of some connection with the hand of the observer, by which the action can be farther moderated, the motion can be made sufficiently uniform for that purpose. Various other contrivances have been invented for producing a continuous clock-motion. The great equatorial telescope at Greenwich is kept in motion by a kind of water clock called in books on hydrostatics Barker’s Mill, in which two horizontal pipes branching out from a vertical tubular axis have each a hole near their ends on opposite sides, from which water flows, being poured constantly into the tubular axis, which revolves on a pivot. The resistance of the air to the water issuing from the holes drives the mill round, and there are means of regulating it. Another plan is to connect a clock train having a vibrating pendulum with another clock having a conical pendulum by one of the lower wheels in the train, with a spring connection; the telescope is driven by the revolving clock train, and the other pendulum keeps it sufficiently in order, though allowing it to expatiate enough for each beat of the pendulum. The more complicated plan of Wagner of Paris described in Sir E. Beckett’s Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks and Watches and Bells does not appear to have ever come into use, and therefore it is now omitted. Pendulum Suspension. The suspension of the pendulum on what are called knife-edges, like those of a scale-beam, has often been advocated. But though it may do well enough for short experiments, in which the effects of

15

the elasticity of the spring are wanted to be eliminated, it fails altogether in use, even if the knife-edges and the plates which carry them are made of the hardest stones. The suspension which is now used universally, in all but some inferior foreign clocks, which have strings instead, is a thin and short spring, with one end let into the top of the pendulum, and the other screwed between two chops of metal with a pin through them, which rests firmly in a nick in the cock which carries the pendulum as shown in fig. 2 a little farther on; and the steadiness of this cock, and its firm fixing to a wall, are essential to the accurate performance of the clock. The thinner the spring the better ; provided, of course, it is strong enough to carry the pendulum without being bent beyond its elasticity, or bent short; not that there is much risk of that in practice. Pendulum springs are much oftener too thick than too thin ; and it is worth notice that, independently of their greater effect on the natural time of vibration of the pendulum, thick and narrow springs are more liable to break than thin and broad ones of the same strength. It is of great importance that the spring should be of uniform thickness throughout its breadth ; and the bottom of the chops which carry it should be exactly horizontal ; otherwise the pendulum will swing with a twist, as they may be often seen to do in ill-made clocks. If the bottom of the chops is left sharp, where they clip the spring, it is very likely to break there ; and therefore the sharp edges should be taken off. The bob of the pendulum used to be generally made in the shape of a lens, with a view to its passing through the air with the least resistance. But after the importance of making the bob heavy was discovered, it became almost necessary to adopt a form of more solid content in proportion to its surface. A sphere has been occasionally used, but it is not a good shape, because a slight error in the place of the hole for the rod may make a serious difference in the amount of weight on each side, and give the pendulum a tendency to twist in motion. The mercurial jar pendulum suggested the cylindrical form, which is now generally adopted for astronomical clocks, and in the best turret clocks, with a round top to prevent any bits of mortar or dirt falling and resting upon it, which would alter the time; it also looks better than a flat-topped cylinder. There is no rule to be given for the weight of pendulums. It will be shown hereafter that, whatever escapement may be used, the errors due to any variation of force are expressed in fractions which invariably have the weight and the length of the pendulum in the denominator, though some kind of escapements require a heavy pendulum to correct their errors much less than others. And as a heavy pendulum requires very little more force to keep it in motion than a light one, being less affected by the resistance of the air, we may almost say that the heavier and longer a pendulum can be made the better ; at any rate, the only limit is one of convenience ; for instance, it would obviously be inconvenient to put a large pendulum of 100 fib weight in the case of an astronomical or common house clock. It may perhaps be laid down as a rule, that no astronomical clock or regulator (as they are also called) will go as well as is now expected of such clocks with a pendulum of less than 28 lb weight, and no turret clock with less than 1 cwt. Long pendulums are generally made with heavier bobs than short ones; and such a clock as that of the Houses of Parliament, with a two-seconds pendulum of 6 cwt., ought to go 44 times as well as a small turret clock with a one-second pendulum of 60 lb. Pendulums longer than 14 feet (2 seconds) are inconvenient, liable to be disturbed by wind, and expensive to compensate, and they are now quite disused, and most or all of the old ones removed, with their clocks, for better ones. Pendulum Regulation. The regulation of pendulums, or their exact adjustment to the proper length, is primarily effected by a nut on the end of the rod, by which the bob can be screwed up or down. In the best clocks the rim of this nut is divided, with an index over it ; so the exact quantity of rise or fall, or the exact acceleration or retardation, may he known, the amount due to one turn of the nut being previously ascertained. By the calculation used below for compensation of pendulums, it may be seen that if the length of the pendulum rod is l, and the breadth of one thread of the screw is called dl, then one turn of the nut will alter the rate of the clock by 43200

seconds a day; which would bo

just 30 seconds, if the pendulum rod is 45 inches long, and the screw has 32 threads in the inch. To accelerate the clock the nut has always to be turned to the right, as it is called, and vice versa. But in astronomical and in large turret clocks, it is desirable to avoid stopping, or in any way disturbing the pendulum ; and for the finer adjustments other methods of regulation are adopted. The best is that of fixing a collar, as shown in fig 2, capable of having very small weights laid upon it, half-way down the pendulum, this being the place where the addition of any small weight produces the greatest effect, and where, it may be added, any moving of that weight up or down on the rod produces the least

CLOCKS

16

effect. If M is the weight of the pendulum and l its length (down to the centre of oscillation), and m a small weight added at the distance d below the centre of suspension or above the c.o. (since they are reciprocal), t the time of vibration, and - dt the acceleration due to adding m ; then - dl _ m (d d2\ .

~T~

2M U " T2/ l

from whicn it is evident that if d acceleration

10800 m

ST

2’

:

then - d T the daily

or if m is the 10800th of the weight of

the pendulum it will accelerate the clock a second a day, or 10 grains will do that on a pendulum of 15 lb. weight (7000 gr. being —. 1 lb.), or an ounce on a pendulum of 6 cwt. In like manner if d - - from either top or bottom, TO must — to accelerate 3 7200 the clock a second a day. The higher up the collar is the less risk there is of disturbing the pendulum in putting on or taking off the regulating weights. The weights should be made in a series, and marked 4, 1, 2, according to the number of seconds a day by which they will accelerate; and the pendulum adjusted at first to lose a little, perhaps a second a day, when there are no weights on the collar, so that it may always have some weight on, which can be diminished or increased from time to time with certainty, as the rate may vary. Compensation of Pevxlulums. Soon after pendulums began to be generally used in clocks, it was discovered that they contained within themselves a source of error independent of the action of the clock upon them, and that they lost time in the hot weather and gained in cold, in consequence of all the substances of which they could be made expanding as the temperature increases. If l is the length of a pendulum, and dl the small increase of it from increased heat, t time of the pendulum l, and t + d* that of the pendulum l + dl; then t + dt

\/l + dl

~T~~ VI since

dl 2Z ’

==1+

may be neglected as very small; ov dt =

the daily loss of the clock will be 43200c^seconds L

is a table of the values of

and

The following

for 1000° Fahr. of heat in different sub-

stances, and also the weight of a cubic inch of each : White deal Flint glass Steel rod Iron rod Brass Lead Zinc Mercury (in bulk, not in length)

‘0024 '0048 ‘0064 '007 '010 '016 '017 '100

lb -036 'lid '28 '26 '30 '41 '25 '49

Thus a common pendulum with an iron wire rod would lose 43200 x -00007 = 3 seconds a day for 10° of heat ; and if adjusted for the winter temperature it would lose about a minute a week in summer, unless something in the clock happened to produce a counteracting effect, as we shall see may be the case when we come to escapements. We want therefore some contrivance which will always keep that point of the pendulum on which its time depends, viz., the centre of oscillation, at the same distance from the point of suspension. A vast number of such contrivances have been made, but there are only three which can be said to be at all in common use ; and the old gridiron pendulum, made of 9 alternate bars of brass and steel is not one of them, having been superseded by one of zinc and iron, exactly on the same principle, but requiring much fewer bars on account of the greater expansion of zinc than brass. The centre of oscillation so nearly coincides in most clock pendulums with the centre of the hob that we may practically say that the object of compensation is to keep the bob always at the same height. For this purpose we must hang the bob from the top of a column of some metal which has so much more expansion than the rod that its expansion upwards will neutralize that of the rod, and of the wires or tube by which the bob is hung, downwards. The complete calculation, taking into account the weight of all the rods and tubes is too long and complicated to be worth going through, especially as it must always be finally adjusted by trial either of that very pendulum or of one exactly similar. For. practical purposes it is found sufficient to treat the expansion of zinc as being -016 to steel '0064, instead of -017 as it is really ; and for large pendulums with very heavy tubes even the '016 is a little

too much. Moreover the c.o. is higher above the c.g. of the bob in such large pendulums than in small ones with light rods and tubes. But neglecting these minutiae for the first approximation, and supposing the bob either to be of iron, in which case it may be considered fixed anywhere to the iron tube which hangs from the top of the zinc tube, or a. lead bob attached at its own centre, which obviates the slowness of the transmission of a change of temperature through it, the following calculation will hold. Let r be the length of the steel rod and spring, z that of the zinc tube, b half the height of the bob ; the length of the iron tube down the centre of the bob is z-b. If the iron tube is of steel for simplicity of calculation, we

2

must evidently have '064(r + z-&) =

16z

z ~ ^ (?•-&).

It is

practically found that for a seconds pendulum with a lead cylindrical bob 9 in. x 3 hung by its middle r has to be about 44 inches, and z nearly 27. At any rate it is safest to make it 27 at first, especially if the second 'tube is iron, which expands a little more than steel; and the tube can be shortened after trial but not lengthened. The rod of the standard sidereal pendulum at Greenwich (down to the bottom of the bob, which is such as has been described and weighs 26 lb), is 43| and z is 26 inches, the descending wires being steel. A solar time pendulum is about $ inch longer, as stated above. If the bob were fixed at its bottom to the steel tube the zinc would have to be 4-88 longer. Fig. 2 is a section of the great Westminster pendulum. The iron rod which runs from top to bottom, ends in a screw, with a nut N, for adjusting the length of the pendulum after it was made by calculation as near the right length as possible. On this nut rests a collar M, which can slide up the rod a little, but is prevented from turning by a pin through the rod. On a groove or annular channel in the top of this collar stands a zinc tube 10 feet 6 inches long, and nearly half an inch thick, made of three tubes all drawn together, so as to become like one (for it should be observed that cast zinc cannot be depended on ; it must be drawn). On the top of this tube or hollow column fits another collar with an annular groove much like the bottom one M. The object of these grooves is to keep the zinc column in its place, not touching the rod within it, as contact might produce friction, which would interfere with their relative motion under expansion and contraction. Bound the collar C is screwed a large iron tube, also not touching the zinc, and its lower end fits loosely on the collar M; and round its outside it has another collar D of its own fixed to it, on which the bob rests. The iron tube has a number of large holes in it down each side, to let the air get to the zinc tube; before that wras done, it was found that .the compensation lagged a day or two behind the changes of temperature, in consequence of the iron rod and tube .being exposed, while the zinc tube was enclosed without touching the iron. The bottom of the bob is 14 feet 11 inches from the top of the spring A, and the bob itself is 18 inches high, with a domeshaped top, and twelve inches in diameter. As it is a 2-seconds pendulum, its centre of oscilla- „ 9 q f tionis 13 feet from the top A, which is higher* .' ' ’ , . than usual above the centre of gravity of the bob, , ' p on account of the great weight of the compensation tubes. The whole weighs very nearly 700 lb, and is probably the heaviest pendulum in the world. The second kind of compensation pendulum in use is still more simple, but not so effective or certain in its action ; and that is merely a wooden rod with a long lead bob resting on a nut at the bottom. According to the above table, it would appear that this bob ought to be 14 inches high in a 1-second pendulum ; but the expansion of wood is so uncertain that this proportion is not found capable of being depended on, and a somewhat shorter bob is said to be generally more correct in point of compensation. All persons who have tried wooden pendulums severely have come to the same conclusion, that they are capricious in their action, and consequently unfit for the highest class of clocks. The best of all the compensations was long thought to be the mercurial, which was invented by Graham, a London clockmaker, above a century ago, who also invented the well-known dead escapement for clocks, which will be hereafter explained, and the horizontal or cylinder escapement for watches. And the best form of the mercurial pendulum is that which was introduced by the late E. J. Dent, in which the mercury is enclosed in a cast iron jar or cylinder, into the top of which the’ steel rod is screwed, with its end plunged into the mercury itself. For by

CLOCKS this means the mercury, the rod, and the jar all acquire the new temperature «t any change more simultaneously than when the mercury is in a glass jar hung by a stirrup (as it is called) at the bottom of the rod ; and moreover the pendulum is safe to carry about, and the jar can be made perfectly cylindrical by turning, and also air-tight, so as protect the mercury from oxidation ; and, if necessary, it can be heated in the jar so as to drive off any moisture, without the risk of breaking. The height of mercury required in a cast-iron jar, 2 inches in diameter, is about 6'8 inches; for it must be remembered, in calculating the rise of the mercury, that the jar itself expands laterally, and that expansion has to be deducted from that of the mercury in bulk. The success of the Westminster clock pendulum, however, and of smaller zinc and steel pendulums at Greenwich and elsewhere, has established the conclusion that it is unnecessary to incur the expense of a heavy mercurial pendulum, which has become more serious from the great rise in the price of mercury and the admitted necessity for much heavier bobs than were once thought sufficient for astronomical clocks. The complete calculation for a compensated pendulum in which the rods and tubes form any considerable proportion of the whole weight, as they must in a zinc pendulum, is too complicated to be worth undertaking generally, especially as it is always necessary to adjust them finally by trial, and for that purpose the tubes should be made at first a little longer than they ought to be by calculation, except where one is exactly copying pendulums previously tried. BAROMETRICAL ERROR.

It has long been known that pendulums are affected by variations of density of the air as well as of temperature, though in a much less degree,—in fact, so little as to be immaterial, except in the best clocks, where all the other errors are reduced to a minimum. An increase of density of the air is equivalent to a diminution of the specific gravity of the pendulum, and that is equivalent to diminution of the force of gravity while the inertia remains the same. And as the velocity of the pendulum varies directly as the force of gravity and inversely as the inertia, an increase of density must diminish the velocity or increase the time. The late Francis Baily, P.R.A.S., also found from some elaborate experiments (See Phil. Trans, of 1832) that swinging pendulums carry so much air with them as to affect their specific gravity much beyond that due to the mere difference of stationary weight, and that this also varies with their shape,—a rod with a flat elliptical section dragging more air with it than a thicker round one (which is not what one would expect), though a lens-shaped bob was less affected than a spherical one of the same diameter, which of course is much heavier. The frictional effect of the air is necessarily greater with its increased density, and that diminishes the arc. In the li.A.S. Memoirs of 1853 Mr Bloxam remarked also that the current produced in the descent of the pendulum goes along with it in ascending, and therefore does not retard the ascent as much as it did the descent, and therefore the two effects do not counteract each other as Baily assumed that they did. He also found the circular error always less than its theoretical value, and considered that this was due to the resistance of the air. The conclusions which were arrived at by several eminent clockmakers as to the effect of the pendulum spring on the circular error about 40 years ago were evidently erroneous, and the effect due to other causes. It appears from further investigation of the subject in several papers in the R.A.S. Notices of 1872 and 1873, that the barometrical error also varies with the nature of the escapement, and (as Baily had before concluded from calculation) with the arc of the pendulum, so that it can hardly be determined for any particular clock a 'priori, except by inference from a similar one. The barometrical error of an ordinary astronomical clock with a dead escapement was said to be a loss of nearly a second a day for an inch rise of barometer, but with a gravity escapement and a very heavy pendulum not more than -3 second. Dr Robinson of Armagh (see R.A.S. Mem., yol. v.) suggested the addition of a pair of barometer tubes to the sides of the pendulum, with a bulb at the bottom, and such a diameter of tube as would allow a sufficient quantity of mercury to be transposed to the top by the expansion under heat, to balance the direct effect of the heat upon the pendulum. But it is not necessary to have two tubes. In a paper in the R.A.S. Notices of January 1873 Mr. Denison (now Sir E. Beckett) gave the calculations requisite for the barometrical compensation of pendulums of various lengths and weights, the principle of which is just the same as that above given for regulating a pendulum by adding small weights near the middle of its length. The formula is also given at p. 69 of the sixth edition of his Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks. A barometrical correction of a different kind has been applied to the standard clock at Greenwich. An independent barometer is made to raise or lower a magnet so as to bring it into more or less action on the pendulum and so to accelerate or retard it. But we do not see why that should be better than the barometer tube attached to the pendulum. The necessity for this correction seems to be obviated altogether by giving the

17

pendulum a sufficient arc of vibration. Baily calculated that if the arc (reckoned from 0) is about 2° 45' the barometrical error will be self-corrected. And it is remarkable that the Westminster clock pendulum, to which that large arc was given for other reasons, appears to be free from any barometric error, after trying the results of the daily rate as automatically recorded at Greenwich for the whole of the year 1872. We shall see presently that all the escapement errors of clocks are represented by fractions which have the square or the cube of the arc in the denominator, and therefore if the arc can be increased and kept constant without any objectionable increase of force and friction, this is an additional reason for preferring a large arc to a small one, though that is contrary to the usual practice in astronomical clocks. ESCAPEMENTS.

The escapement is that part of the clock in which the rotary motion of the wheels is converted into the vibratory motion of the balance or pendulum, which by some contrivance or other is made to let one tooth of the quickest wheel in the train escape at each vibration; and hence that wheel is called the “scape-wheel.” Fig. 3 shows the form of the earliest clock escapement, if it is held sideways, so that the arms on which the two balls are set.may vibrate on a horizontal plane. In that case the arms and weights form a balance, and the farther out the weights are set, the slower would be the vibrations. If we now turn it as it stands here, and consider the upper weight left out, it becomes the earliest form of the pendulum clock, with the crownxohcel or vertical escapement. CA and CB are two flat pieces of steel, called pallets, projecting from the axis about at right angles to each other, one of them over the front of the wheel as it stands, and the other over the back. The tooth D is just escaping from the front pallet CA, and at the same time the tooth at the back of the wheel falls on the other pallet CB, a little above its edge. But the pendulum which is now moving to the right does not stop immediately, but swings a little further (otherwise the least failure in the force of the train would stop the clock, as the escape would not take place), and in so doing it is evident that the pallet B will drive the wheel back a little, and produce what is called the recoil; which is visible enough in any common clock with a seconds-hand, either with this escapement or the one which will be next described. It will be seen, on looking at figure 3, that the pallet B must turn through a considerable angle before the tooth can escape ; in other words, the crown-wheel escapement requires a long vibration of the pendulum. This is objectionable on several accounts,—first, because it requires a great force in the clock train, and a great pressure, and therefore friction, on the pallets ; and besides that, any variation in a large arc, as was explained before, produces a much greater variation of time due to the circular error than an equal variation of a small arc. The crownwheel escapement may indeed be made so as to allow a more moderate arc of the pendulum, though not so small as the 2° usually adopted in the best clocks, by putting the pallet arbor a good deal higher above the scape-wheel, and giving a small number of teeth to the wheel; and that also diminishes the length of the run of the teeth, and consequently the friction, on the pallets, though it makes the recoil very great and sudden ; but, oddly FIGI 4._Anchor Escapement, enough, it never appears to have been resorted to until long after the escapement had become superseded by the “anchor” escapement, which we shall now

vr. - ?

IB

CLOCKS

The great merit of this escapement is that a moderate variation in the force of the clock train produces a very slight effect m the time of the pendulum. This may be shown in a general w ay, without resorting to mathematics, thus :—Since the tooth B (flops on to the corner of the pallet (or ought to do so) immediately after the tooth A has escaped, and since the impulse will begin at B when the pendulum returns to the same point at which the impulse ceased on A, it follows that the impulse received by the pendulum before and after its vertical position is very nearly the same. IN ow that part of the impulse which takes place before zero, or while the pendulum is descending, tends to augment the natural force of gravity on the pendulum, or to make it move faster ; but m the descending arc the impulse on the pallets acts against the gravity of the pendulum, and prevents it from being stopped so soon ; and so the two parts of the impulse tend to neutralize each other s disturbing effects on the times of the pendulum, though they both concur in increasing the arc, or (what is the same thing) maintaining it against the loss from friction and resistance of the air. However, on the whole, the effect of the impulse is to retard the pendulum a little, because the tooth must fall, not exactly on the corner of the pallet, but (for safety) a little above it; and the next impulse does not begin until that same corner of the pallet has come as far as the point of the tooth ; in other words, the retarding part of the impulse, or that which takes place after zero, acts rather longer than the acceferating part before zero. Again, the friction on the dead part of the pallets tends to produce the same effect on the time ; the arc of course it tends to diminish. For in the descent of the pendulum the friction acts against gravity, but in the ascent with gravity, and so shortens the time ; and there is rather less action on the dead part of the pallets in the ascent than in the descent. lor these reasons the time of vibration of a pendulum driven by a dead escapement is a little greater than of the same pendulum vibrating the same arc freely ; and when you come to the next difference, the variation of time of the same pendulum with the dead escapement, under a moderate variation in the force, is very small indeed, which is not the case in the recoil escapement, for there the impulse begins at each end of the arc, and there is much more of it during the descent of the pendulum than during the ascent from zero to the arc at which the escape takes place and the recoil begins on the opposite tooth ; and then the recoil itself acts on the pendulum in its ascent in the same direction as gravity, and so shortens the time. And hence it is that an increase of the arc of the pendulum with a recoil escapement is always accompanied with a decrease of the time. Something more than this general reasoning is requisite in order to compare the real value of the dead escapement with others of equal or higher pretensions, or of the several contrivances Dead Escapements. that have been suggested for remedying its defects. But we The escapement which has now for a century and a half been con- must refer to the Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks for details of sidered the best practical clock escapement (though there have been the mathematical calculations by which the numerical results are constant attempts to invent one free from the defects which it obtained, and the relative value of the different kinds of escapements determined. . must be admitted to posIt cannot be determined a priori whether cleaning and oiling sess) is the dead escapement, a dead escapement clock will accelerate or retard it, for reasons or, as the French call it explained in those calculations; but it may be said conclusively with equal expressiveness, that the larger the arc is for any given weight x the fall per day, the V6chappement d repos,—bebetter the clock will be \ and in order to diminish the friction and cause instead of the recoil the necessity for using oil as far as possible, the best clocks, are of the tooth upon the pallet, made with jewels (sapphires are the best for the purposed let into which took place in the prethe pallets. vious escapements, it falls The pallets are generally made to embrace about one-third ot the dead upon the pallet, and circumference of the wheel, and it is not at all desirable that they reposes there until the penshould embrace more; for the longer they are, the longer is the dulum returns and lets i off run of the teeth upon them, and the greater the friction. There is again. It is represented in a good deal of difference in the practice of clockmakers as to the fig. 5. It will be observed length of the impulse, or the amount of the angle 7 + /3 if the imthat the teeth of the scapepulse begins at j8 before zero and at 7 after zero. Sometimes you wheel have their points set see clocks in which the seconds hand moves very slowly and rests the opposite way to those of a very short time, showing that 7 + /3 is large in proportion to 2a ; the recoil escapement m fig. and in others the contrary. The late Mr Dent was decidedly ol 4, the wheels themselves opinion that a short impulse was the best, probably because there is both turning the same way; less of the force of the impulse wasted in friction then. It is not to or (as our engraver has rebe forgotten that the scape-wheel tooth does not overtake the face presented it), vice versa. of the pallet immediately, on account of the moment of inertia of The tooth B is here also the wheel. The wheels of astronomical clocks, and indeed of all represented in the act of English house-clocks, are generally made too heavy, especially the dropping on to the right scape-wheel, which, by increasing the moment of inertia, requires hand pallet as the tooth A escapes from the left pallet. But instead of the pallet having a con c a larger force, and consequently has more friction. We shall see presently, from another escapement, how much of the force is tinuous face as in the recoil escapement, it is divided into two, of really wasted in friction in the dead escapement. which BE on the right pallet, and FA on the left, are called the imBut before proceeding to other escapements, it is proper to pulse faces, and BD, FG, the dead faces. The dead faces are portions notice a very useful form of the dead escapement, which is adopted in of circles (not necessarily of the same circle), having the axis of the many of the best turret clocks, called, the pin-wheel escapement. pallets 0 for their centre; and the consequence evidently is, that as Fig. 6 will sufficiently explain its action and construction. Its the pendulum goes on, carrying the pallet still nearer to the wheel advantages are—that it does not require so much accuracy os than the position in which a tooth falls on to the corner A or B of the other; if a pin gets broken it is easily replaced, whereas in the the impulse and the dead faces, the tooth still rests on the dead faces other the wheel is ruined if the point of a tooth is injured ; a wheel without any recoil, until the pendulum returns and lets the tooth slide of given size will work with more pins than teeth, and therefore a down the impulse face, giving the impulse to the pendulum as it goes.

describe, and which appears to have been invented by the celebrated Dr Hooke as early as the year 1656, very soon after the invention of pendulums. In fig. 4 a tooth of the scape-wheel is just escaping from the leit pallet, and another tooth at the same time falls upon, the right hand pallet at some distance from its point. As the pendulum moves on in the same direction, the tooth slides farther up the pallet, thus producing a recoil, as in the crown-wheel escapement. The acting faces of the pallets should be convex, and not flat, as they are geneiallj made, much less concave, as they have sometimes been made, with a view of checking the motion of the pendulum, which is more likely to injure the rate of the clock than to improve it. But when they are flat, and of course still more when they are concave, the points of the teeth always wear a hole in the pallets at the extremity of their usual swing, and the motion is obviously easier and therefore better when the pallets are made convex; in fact they then approach more nearly to the “dead” escapement, which will be described presently. We have already alluded to the effect of some escapements in not only counteracting the circular error, 01 the natural increase of the time of a pendulum as the arc increases, but overbalancing it by an error of the contrary kind. The recoil escapement does so ; for it is almost invariably found that whatever may be the shape of these pallets, the clock loses as the arc ol the pendulum falls off, and vice versa. It is unfortunately impossible so to arrange the pallets that the circular error may be thus exactly neutralized, because the escapement error depends, in a manner reducible to no law, upon variations in friction of the pallets themselves and of the clock train, which produce different eflects; and the result is that it is impossible to obtain very accurate timekeeping from any clock of this construction. _ But before we pass on to the dead escapement, it may be proper to notice an escapement of the recoiling class, which was invented for the purpose of doing without oil, by the famous Harrison, who was at first a carpenter in Lincolnshire, but afterwards obtained the first Government reward for the improvement of chronometers. We shall not however stop to describe it, since it never came into general use, and it is said that nobody but Harrison himself could make it go at all. It vTas also objectionable on account of its being directly affected by all variations in the force of the clock. It had the peculiarity of being very nearly silent, though the recoil was very great. Those who are curious about such things will find it described in the seventh edition of this Encyclopccdia, The lecoided performance of one of these clocks, which is given in some accounts of it, is evidently fabulous.

CLOCKS train of less velocity will Jo, and that sometimes amounts to a saving of one wheel in the train, and a good deal of friction; and the blow on both pallets being downwards, instead of one up and the other down, the action is more steady; all which things are of more consequence in the heavy and rough work of a turret clock than in an astronomical one. The details of the construction are given in the Rudimentary Treatise. It has been found expedient to make the dead faces not quite dead, hut with a very slight recoil, which rather tends to check the variations of arc, and also the general disposition to lose time if the arc is increased; when so made the escapement is generally called “halfFIG. 6.—Pin-Wheel Escapement. dead.” Passing by the various other modifications of the dead escapement which have been suggested and tried with little or no success, we proceed to describe one of an entirely different form, which was patented in 1851 by Mr C. Macdowall, though it appeared afterwards that one very similar had been tried before, but failed from the proportions being badly arranged. It is represented in fig. 7. The scape-wheel is only a small disc with a single pin in it, made of ruby, parallel and very near to the arbor.' The disc turns half round at every beat of the pendulum, and the pin gives the impulse on the vertical faces of the pallets, and the dead friction takes place on the horizontal faces. Its advantages are—that the greatest part of the impulse is given directly across the line of centres, and consequently with very little friction; and therefore also, the friction on the dead faces is less than usual, and scarcely any oil is required ; moreover, it is very easy to make. But there must be two more wheels in the train, consuming a good deal of the force of the clock-weight by their friction, which rather more than makes up for the friction saved in the escapement. It was applied successfully to watches, but the expense of the additional wheels prevented their adoption. In order to make the angle of escape not more than 1°, the distance of the pin from the centre of the disc must not be more than ^Tth of the distance of centres of the disc and pallets. With the view of getting rid of one of these extra wheels in the train, and that part of the impulse which is least effective and most oblique, Mr Denison shortly afterwards invented the three-legged dead escapement; which, though afterwards superseded by his three-legged gravity escapement, is still worth notice on account of the exceedingly small force which it requires, FIG. 7. thereby giving a practical proof of the large proportion of the force which is wasted in friction Macdowall’s Escapement. in all the other impulse escapements. In fig. 8, the three long teeth of the scape-wheel are only used for locking on the dead pallets D and E, which are set on the front of the pallet plate ; A and B are impulse pallets, being hard bits of steel or jewels set in the pallet plate, and they are acted upon by the three sharp-edged pins which are set in the scape-wheel and point backwards. As soon as the pendulum moves a little further to the left than is here shown, the long tooth will slip past the dead pallet or stop D, and the pin at B will run after and catch the corner of that impulse pallet and drive it until the wheel has turned through 60°, and then it will escape; and by that time the uppermost tooth will arrive at the stop E, and will slide along it as in the common dead escapement, but FIG. 8.—Denison s Three-Legged with a pressure as much less than Escapement.

Q

19

that which gives the impulse as the points of the teeth are farther from the centre of the wheel than the impulse pins are. But the impulse is here given with so little friction, that even where the points of the teeth were made identical with the pins, the clock-weight required to keep the same pendulum with the same train (a common turret-clock movement), swinging to 2°, was only one-fifth of what had been required with the pin-wheel escapement; and the scapewheel which kept the 6 cwt. pendulum of the Westminister clock going for half-a-year, until superseded by the gravity escapement, weighed only a sixth of an ounce. It appears also that it would be possible so to adjust the recoil of the half-dead pallets that the time would not be affected by any small variation of the force and the arc; since it was found that, when a certain amount of recoil was given, the clock gained instead of losing, under an increase of arc due to an increase of clock-weight. And if the force were kept constant by a train remontoire, such as will be described hereafter, there would in fact be nothing capable of altering the arc or the time. But on account of the small depth of intersection of the circles of the pins and the pallets, on which its action depends, this escapement requires very careful adjustment of the pallets, except where they are on a large scale ; and considering the superior qualities of the corresponding gravity escapement, it is not likely to be used, except perhaps in clocks required to go a long time, in which economy of force is a matter of consequence. The pallets should be connected with the pendulum by a spring fork (which indeed is advisable in the common dead escapement with a heavy pendulum, especially the pin-wheel escapement), to prevent the risk of their driving backwards against the scape-wheel when it is not in motion, as it will not clear itself. The distance of the centres should be not less than 25 times the radius of the circle of the edges of the impulse pins. Detached Escapements. In all the escapements hitherto described the pallets are never out of moving contact with the scape-wheel, and there have been several contrivances for keeping them detached except during the impulse and at the moment of passing a click which is to release the wheel to give the impulse. This is an imitation of the chronometer escapement in watches whieh is sometimes called the “detached.” There are only two of such contrivances which appear worth special notice. One was proposed by Sir G. Airy in vol. ii. of the Cambridge Transactions, but not executed (so far as we know) till a few years ago in the standard sidereal clock at Greenwich, which is reported to go extremely well. Suppose a dead escapement consisting of a single pallet only, say the right hand one of the pin-wheel escapement (fig. 6), for the Greenwich clock has a pin escapement, and that the wheel is locked generally by a spring detent hooking into any one of its teeth, and capable of being lifted or pushed aside by the pendulum, i.e., by a pin somewhere on the single pallet as it passes to the right, but also capable of being passed without being lifted as the pendulum goes to the left. We shall see afterwards how this is done, in the article WATCHES. Then as the pendulum goes to the right, it first lifts the detent at about 1° before zero, and then a tooth or a pin drops on to the pallet and gives the impulse, exactly as in the dead pin-wheel escapement, and with exactly the same amount of friction, substituting only for the dead friction the resistance and friction of passing the detent one way and lifting it the other. A different escapement on the same principle but involving less friction was adopted by Sir E. Beckett in a clock described in the later editions of his book as having gone for above ten years very satisfactorily, except that, like all direct impulse escapements, including Sir G. Airy’s, it must vary with the force of the clock train, due to different states of the oil. The scape-wheel (fig. 9) is fivelegged, and has five sharp-edged pins which give the impulse to the hard steel pallet P whenever it passes to the right, provided the wheel is then free to move. It is stopped by the detent DEE, which turns on a pivot E, not in the pendulum crutch, as it looks in the drawing, but on the clock-frame. When the pendulum going to the right arrives at the position here drawn, the click CE on the crutch pushes the detent aside and so unlocks the wheel, which then gives the impulse, moving through 72° until another tooth arrives at the detent and is stopped, the click having then got far beyond it. When the pendulum returns the click lightly trips over the top of the detent. Here there is practically no friction in giving the impulse, as it is directly across the line of centres, as in the three-legged dead escapement, and the friction of passing

20

CLOCKS

and unlocking is as little as possible, for tbe pressure on the locking teeth is less than half of that of the impulse pins. In practice the pallet P is a separate bit of steel, screwed on, and therefore adjustable. The locking teeth are about 6 inches long from the centre, and the impulse pin-edges 5 in. from the centre, which is 7 in. below the top of the pendulum and ^crutch, so that the impulse begins 1° before zero and ends 1 after, corresponding each to 36° turn of the scape-wheel. If r is the distance of the pins from the centre and p the length of the crutch down to the centre, rsin. 36° mustsin. 1°, if you want an impulse of 1° on each side of 0 ; which makes = 33'7r. BB are eccentric beat pins for adjusting the beat to whatever position of the pendulum you please, i.e., you can make it less than 1 before or after zero as you please. In some respects it would be better to have no crutch, but it would be very difficult to make the adjustments. This escapement should evidently be at the bottom of the clock-frame instead of the top, as in the gravity escapements which will be described presently. The back part of the scapewheel is carried by a long cock or bridge within which the crutch also moves. Remontoire or Gravity Escapements. A remontoire escapement is one in which the pendulum does not receive its impulse from the scape-wheel, but from some small weight or spring which is lifted or wound up by the scape-wheel at every beat, and the pendulum has nothing to do with the scapewheel except unlocking it. When this impulse is received from a weight the escapement is also called a gravity escapement; and inasmuch as all the remontoire clock escapements that are worth notice have been gravity escapements, we may use that term for them at once. The importance of getting the impulse given to the pendulum in this way was recognized long before all the properties of the dead escapement, as above investigated, were known. For it was soon discovered that, however superior to the old recoil escapement, it was far from perfect, and that its success depended on reducing the friction of the train and the pallets as far as possible, which involves the necessity of high-numbered pinions and wheels, small pivots, jewelled pallets, and a generally expensive style of ■workmanship. Accordingly the invention of an escapement which will give a constant impulse to the pendulum, and be nearly free from friction, has been for a century the great problem of clockmaking. We can do no more than shortly notice a very few of the attempts which have been made to solve it. The most simple form of gravity escapement, and the one which will serve the best for investigating their mathematical properties (though it fails in some essential mechanical conditions), is that invented by Mudge. The tooth A of the scape-wheel in fig. 10 is resting against the stop or ejetent a at the end of the pallet GA, from the axis or arbor of which descends the half fork CP to touch the pendulum. From the other pallet CB descends the other half fork CO. The two arbors are set as near the point of suspension, or top of the pendulum spring, as possible. The pendulum, 10.—Mudge’s Gravity Escapement, as here represented, must be moving to the right, and just leaving contact with the left pallet and going to take up the right one ; as soon as it has raised that pallet a little it will evidently unlock the wheel and let it turn, and then the tooth B will raise the left pallet until it is caught by the stop b on that pallet, and then it will stay until the pendulum returns and releases it by raising that pallet still higher. Each pallet therefore descends with the pendulum to a lower point than that where it is taken up, and the difference between them is supplied by the lifting of each pallet by the clock, which does not act on the pendulum at all; so that the pendulum is independent of all variations of force and friction in the train. Again referring to the Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks for the mathematical investigation of the errors of this class of escapements, or to a paper by the late J. M. Bloxam, in the R. A. $. Memoirs. of 1853, we may say it is proved that though the time of a gravity escapement pendulum differs from that of a free pendulum more than from that of a dead escapement, yet the variations of that difference (which are the real variations of the clock) may be made much less than in any kind of dead escapement.

The difficulty which long prevented the success of gravity escapements was their liability to what is called tripping. Beferring again to fig. 10, it will be seen at once that if the scape-wheel should happen to move too fast when it is released, the left pallet will not be raised gradually by the tooth B, but be thrown up with a jerk, perhaps so high that the tooth slips past the hook ; and then not only will that tooth slip, but several more, and at last when the wheel is stopped it will be running fast, and the points of some of the teeth will probably be bent or broken, by catching against the pallets. And even if the pallet is not raised high enough for the tooth to get past or completely trip, it may still be raised so high that the point of the tooth does not rest on the hook exactly where the slope of the pallet ends, but lower, and the friction between them is quite enough to keep the pallet there ; and consequently the pendulum does not begin to lift it at the proper angle 7, but at some larger angle ; and as the pallet always descends with the pendulum to the same point, the duration of the impulse is increased, and the pendulum made to swing farther. Sir E. Beckett called this approximate tripping, and though not so injurious to the clock as actual tripping, it is obviously fatal to its accurate performance, though it appears never to have been noticed before he pointed it out in 1851. Various contrivances have been resorted to for preventing tripping. But on account of the delicacy required in all of them, and other objections, none of them ever came into use until the invention of the three-legged and four-legged escapements to be mentioned presently. The only one which approached near enough to satisfying all the requisite conditions to be worth description is Mr Bloxam’s, and we accordingly give a sketch of it in fig. 11, which is copied (with a little alteration for distinctness) from his own description of it, communicated in 1853 to the Astronomical Society, some years after he had had it in action in a clock of his own. This drawing will enable any one conversant with these matters to understand its action. He made the pallet arbors cranked, to embrace the pendulum-spring, so that their centres of motion might coincide with that of the pendulum as nearly as possible,—perhaps an unnecessary refinement ; at least the three-legged and four-legged gravity escapements answer very well with the pallet arbors set on each side of the top of the spring. The size of the ■wheel determines the length of the pallets, as they must be at such an angle to each other that the radii of the wheel when in contact with each stop may be at right angles to the pallet arm; and therefore, for a wheel of this size, the depth of lockFIG. 11.—Bloxam’s Gravity ing can only be very small. The Escapement. pinion in Mr Bloxam’s clock only raises the pallet through 40' at each beat; i.e., the angle which we called 7 is only 20'; and probably, if it were increased to anything like

the escapement would trip immediately.

The

two broad pins marked E, F, are the fork-pins. The clock which Mr Bloxam had went very well ; but it had an extremely fine train, with pinions of 18 ; and nobody else appears to have been able to make one to answer. In short Bloxam’s was not a practical solution of the gravity escapement problem, any more than those of Captain Eater, or Hardy, or various other inventors. A few clocks of Hardy’s alone still exist. The only gravity escapement or escapements that really have come into common use are the “four-legged” and the “ double threelegged” escapements of Sir E. Beckett. They passed through various phases before settling into the present form, of which it is unnecessary to say more now than that the first was the single three-legs described in the last edition of this Encyclopaedia, which was suggested by his three-legged dead escapement. A five-legged one was also tried; but though it had some slight advantages they are quite overbalanced by disadvantages, and it requires much more delicacy of construction than either the double three-legs or the four-legs which we shall now describe, remarking that the latter is the best for “regulators,” and the former in large clocks. Fig. 12 is a back view of the escapement part of an astronomical clock with the four-legged wheel; seen from the front the wheel would turn the other way. The long locking teeth are made about 2 inches long from the centre, and the lifting pins, of which there are four pointing forwards and the other four intermediate pointing backwards, are at not more than one-30th of the distance between the

CLOCKS centres EC, of the wheel and pallets ; or rather C is the top of the pendulum spring to which the pallets CS, CS' converge, though their actual action are a little below C. It is not worth while to crank them as Mr Bloxam did, in order to make them coincide exactly with the top of the pendulum, as the friction of the beat pins on the pendulum at P is insignificant, and even then would not be quite destroyed. The pallets are not in the same plane, but one is behind and the other in front of the wheel, with one stop pointing backwards and the other forwards to receive the teeth alternately,—it does not matter which; in this figure the stop S is behind and the stop S' forward. The pendulum is now going to the right, and just beginning to lift the right pallet and free the stop S'; then the wheel will begin to turn and lift the other pallet by one of the pins which is now lowest, and which moves through 45° across the line of centres, and therefore lifts with very little friction. It goes on till the tooth now below S reaches S and is stopped there. Meanwhile the pallet CS' goes on with the pendulum as far as it may go, to the end of the arc which we have throughout called a, starting from y ; but it falls with the pendulum again, not only to q but to-7 on the other side of 0, so that the impulse is due to the weight of each pallet alternately falling through 27; and the magnitude of the impulse also depends on Fig. 12. the obliqueness of the pallet on the whole, Four-Legged Gravity i.e., on the distance of its centre of gravity Escapement. from the vertical through C. The defect of the original three-legged escapement was that the pallets were too nearly vertical. Another most material element of these escapements with very few teeth is that they admit of a fly KK on the scape-wheel arbor to moderate its velocity, which both obviates all risk of tripping, wholly or partially, and also prevents the bang which goes all through the clock where there is no fly. The fly is set on with a friction spring like the common striking-part fly, and should be as long as there is room for, length being much more effective than width. For this purpose the second wheel arbor is shortened and set in a cock fixed on the front plate of the clock, which leaves room for a fly with vanes 2 inches long. The back pivot of the scape-wheel is carried by a long cock behind the back plate, so that the escapement is entirely behind it, close to the pendulum. The pallet arbors are short, as they come just behind the centre wheel, which is here also necessarily above the escapement, and the great wheel arbor on a level with it, and at the left hand (from the front) or the string would be in the way of the fly. No beat screws are required, as the pallets end in mere wires which are easily bent. It is found better to make the tails of the pallets long, rather than short as Mr Bloxam did. It is essential, too, that the angle CSE formed by the tooth and the pallet which is struck upwards should not the least fall short of a right angle, nor the other angle OS' E be the least obtuse, or the escapement may very likely trip. Practically, therefore, it is safer to let CSE be just greater than 90° and CS'E a little less, so that there may not be the least tendency in the blow on the stops to drive the pallets outwards. For the purpose of calculation, however, we must make them both 90° and then it follows that, calling the length of the teeth r, and the distance of centres d, and the length of the pallets from C down to the stops p, r must = d sin. 22^° and p = d cos. 22J°. Therefore if, r is made 2 inches CE or d will be 5’22, say inches, and p = 4 82. The distance of the lifting pins from the centre will be J of an inch to make the angle 7 = 1°. It is certainly not desirable to make it more, and even that requires such light pallets for a pendulum of 30 or 40 lb, that -j inch distance from the centre is more convenient as giving the smaller lift, assuming the scape-wheel to be from 2 to 2\ inches in diameter. Gravity escapements require more weight than a direct impulse escapement with an equally fine train ; and they try the accuracy of the wheelcutting more severely. If there is a weak place in the train of a common clock the scape-wheel only follows the pendulum more weakly; but in a gravity escapement it always has to raise the pallets, and ought to raise them quickly, and especially in clocks for astronomical purposes where you take its exact time from the sound of the beats, and so the lifting must not lag and sound uneven. Therefore although a fine train of high numbers is not requisite it must be perfectly well cut. And as the force of the weight does not reach the pendulum its increase is of no consequence, within reasonable limits. It is worth while to put large friction wheels under the arbor of the great wheel in all astronomical clocks, and it makes a material difference in the friction on account of the necessary thickness of the winding arbor. A variation of arc in I

2] dead escapement clocks is sometimes visible between the beginning and the end of the week according as the string is nearest to the thick or the thin end of the great arbor, when there are no friction wheels. The other form of the gravity escapement, which is now adopted for large clocks by all the best makers, having been first used in the great Westminster clock, is the double three-legged which is shown in fig. 13. The principle of it is the same as of the four-legs; but instead of the pallets being one behind and the other in front of the wheel, with two sets of lifting pins, there are two wheels ABC, abc, with the three lifting pins and the two pallets between them like a lantern pinion. One stop B points forward and the other A backward. The two wheels have their teeth set intermediately or 60° apart, though that is not essential, and the angle of 120° may be divided between them in any other proportions, as 70° and 50°, and in that way the pallets may be still more oblique than 30° from the vertical, which however is found enough to prevent tripping even if the fly gets loose, which is more likely to happen from carelessness in large clocks than in astronomical ones. The Westminster one was once found to have been left with the spring loose for several days, F -1 o _r)m,hlp „ and it had not gained a second, and there- ,legged, ^ , fore had never tripped. The two wheels ^capement. must be both squared on the arbor, or on a collar common to them both, and must not depend upon the three pins or they will shake loose. If the wheels are set with the teeth equidistant, their centre is evidently twice the length of the teeth below C, the theoretical centre of the pallets. The pins should not be farther from the centre than one-24th of the radius of the wheel; and they should be so placed that the one which is going to lift next may be vertically over the one which has just lifted, and is then holding up the other pallet. The third will then be level with the centre; i.e., they will stand on the radii which form the acting faces of the teeth of one of the wheels, and half way between those of the other. Of course the fly for those escapements in large clocks, with weights heavy enough to drive the hands in all weather, must be much larger than in small ones. For average church clocks with 1| sec. pendulum the legs of the scape-wheels are generally made 4 inches long and the fly from 6 to 7 inches long in each vane by 14 or wide. For 14 sec. pendulums the scape-wheels are generally made 4J radius. At Westminster they are 6 inches. Sir E. Beckett has come to the conclusion that these escapements act better, especially in regulators, if the pallets do not fall quite on the lifting pins, but on a banking, or stops at any convenient place, so as to leave the wheel free at the moment of starting; just as the striking of a common house clock will sometimes fail to start unless the wheel with the pins has a little run before a pin begins to lift the hammer. The best way to manage the -banking is to make the beat-pins long enough to reach a little way behind the pendulum, and let the banking be a thin plate of any metal screwed adjustably to the back of the case. This plate cannot well be shown in the drawings together with the pendulum, which, it may be added, should take up one pallet just when it leaves the other. It is no longer doubtful that these two escapements are far the best of all for large clocks, the three-legs for very large ones, while the four-legs does very well for smaller turret clocks. And they cost no more to make, though rather more is charged for them by some makers under the pretence that they do. It is absolutely impossible for any large clock exposed to the variations of weather and dust to keep as good time as an ordinary good house clock unless it has either a gravity escapement, or a train remontoire, which last is much more expensive, to intercept the variations of force before they reach the pendulum. And though a detached escapement clock while kept clean and the oil in good condition is as good as a gravity one and perhaps better, the gravity one is less affected by variations of the oil, and its rate is altogether more constant. They seem also to have a smaller barometric error. Going Barbels. A clock which is capable of going accurately must have some contrivance to keep it going while you are winding it up. In the old-fashioned house clocks, which were wound up by merely pulling one of the strings, and in which one such winding served for both the going and striking parts, this was done by what is called the endless chain of Huyghens, which consists of a string or chain with the ends joined together, and passing over two pulleys on the arbors of the great wheels, with deep grooves and spikes in them, to prevent the chain from slipping. In one of the two loops or festoons which hang from the upper pulleys is a loose pulley without spikes,

22

CLOCKS

carrying the clock-weight, and in the other a small weight only [ heavy enough to keep the chain close to the upper pulleys. Now, suppose one of those pulleys to be on the arbor of the great wheel of the striking part, with a ratchet and click, and the other pulley fixed to the arbor of the great wheel of the going part; then (whenever the clock is not striking) you may pull up the weight by pulling down that part of the string which hangs from the other side of the striking part; and yet the weight will be acting on the going part all the time. And it would be just the same if you wound up the striking part and its pulley with a key, instead of pulling the string, and also the same, if there were no striking part at all, but the second pulley were put on a blank arbor, except that in that case the weight would take twice as long to run down, supposing that the striking part generally requires the same weight x fall as the going part. This kind of going barrel, however, is evidently not suited to the delicacy of an astronomical clock ; and Harrison’s going ratchet is now universally adopted in such clocks, and also in chronometers and watches for keeping the action of the train on the escapement during the winding. Fig. 14 (in which the same letters are used as in the corresponding parts of fig. 1) shows its construction. The click of the barrel-ratchet R is set upon another largerratchet-wheel, withits teeth pointing the opposite way, and its click rT is set in the clock-frame. That ratchet is connected with the great wheel by a spring ss' pressing against the two pins s in the ratchet and s' in the wheel. When you Fig. 14.—Harrison’s Going-Ratchet, wind up the weight (which is equivalent to taking it off), the click Tr prevents that ratchet from turning back or to the right; and as the spring ss' is kept by the weight in a state of tension equivalent to the weight itself it. will drive the wheel to the left for a short distance, when its end s is held fast, with the same force as if that end was pulled forward by the weight; and as the great wheel has to move very little during the short time the clock is winding, the spring will keep the clock going long enough. In the commoner kind of turret clocks a more simple apparatus is used, which goes by the name of the bolt and shutter, because it consists of a weighted lever with a broad end, which shuts up the winding-hole until you lift it, and then a spring-bolt attached to the lever, or its arbor, runs into the teeth of one of the wheels, and the weight of the lever keeps the train going until the bolt has run itself out of gear. In the common construction of this apparatus there is nothing to ensure its being raised high enough to keep in gear the whole time of winding, if the man loiters over it. For this purpose Sir E. Beckett has the arbor of the bolt and shutter made to pump in and out of gear ; and, instead of the shutter covering the winding-hole, it ends in a circular arc advanced just far enough to prevent the key or winder from being put on, by obstructing a ring set on the end of the pipe. In order to get the winder on, you must raise the lever high enough for the arc to clear the ring. During the two or three minutes which the clock may take to wind, the arc will be descending again behind the ring, so that now you cannot get the winder off again without also pulling the maintaining power out of gear; so that even if it is constructed to keep in action ten minutes, if required, still it will never remain in action longer than the actual time of winding. The circular arc must be thick enough, or have a projecting flange added to it deep enough, to prevent the winder being put on by merely pushing back the maintaining power lever without lifting it. In large clocks with a train remontoire, or even with a gravity escapement, it is hardly safe to use a spring going barrel, because it is very likely to be exhausted too much to wind up the remontoire, or raise the gravity pallets, before the winding is finished, if it takes more than two or three minutes ; whereas, with the common escapements, the wheel has only to escape, as the pendulum will keep itself going for some time without any impulse. Equation Clocks. It would occupy too much space to describe the various contrivances for making clocks show the variations of solar compared with mean time (called equation clocks), the days of the month, periods of the moon, and other phenomena. The old day of the month clocks required setting at the end of every month which has not 31 days, and have long been obsolete. Clocks are now made even to provide for leap year. But we doubt whether practically anybody ever takes his day of the month from a clock face, especially as the figures

are too small to be seen except quite near. Several persons have taken patents for methods of exhibiting the time by figures appearing through a hole in the dial, on the principle of the “numbering machine.” But they do not reflect that no such figures, on any practicable scale, are as conspicuous as a pair of hands ; and that nobody really reads the figures on a dial, but judges of the time in a moment from the position of the hands ; for which reason the minute hand should be straight and plain, while the hour hand has a “ heart ” near the end; 12 large marks and 48 small ones make a more distinguishable dial than one with figures ; and the smaller the figures are the better, as they only tend to obscure the hands. Striking Clocks. There are two kinds of striking work used in clocks. The older of them, which is still used in most foreign clocks, and in turret clocks in England also, will not allow the striking of any hour to be either omitted or repeated, without making the next hour strike wrong; whereas, in that which is used in all English house clocks, the number of blows to be struck depends merely on the position of a wheel attached to the going part; and therefore the striking of any hour may be omitted or repeated without deranging the following ones. In turret clocks there is no occasion for the repeating movement; and for the purpose of describing the other, which is called the locking-plate movement, we may as well refer to fig. 22, which is the front view of a large clock, striking both hours and quarters on this plan. In the hour part (on the left), you observe a bent lever BAH, called the “ lifting-piece,” of which the end H has just been left off by the snail on the hour-wheel 40 of the going part; and at the other end there are two stops on the back side of the lever, one behind, and rather below the other; and against the upper one a pin in the end of a short lever 9 B, which is fixed to the arbor of the fly, is now resting, and thereby the train is stopped from running, and the clock from striking any more. The stops are shown on the quarter lifting-piece in the figure (27) of the Westminster clock. We omit the description of the action of the wheels, because it is evident enough. At D may be seen a piece projecting from the lever AB, and dropping into a notch in the wheel 78. That wheel is the locking-wheel or locking-plate; and it has in reality notches such as D all round it, at distances 2, 3, up to 12, from any given point in the circumference, which may be considered as marked off into 78 spaces, that being the number of blows struck in 12 hours. These notches are shown in the locking-plate of the quarter part in fig. 22, but not in the hour part, for want of size to show them distinctly. When the arm AB of the lifting-piece is raised by the snail depressing the other end H, a few minutes before the hour, the fly-pin slips past the first of the stops at B, but is stopped by the second and lower one, until the lever is dropped again exactly at the hour. Thus the pin can pass, and would go once round, allowing the train to go on a little; but before it has got once round, A B has been lifted again high enough to carry both stops out of the way of the fly-pin, by means of the cylinder with two slices taken off it, which is set on the arbor of the wheel 90, and on which the end of the lifting-piece rests, with a small roller to diminish the friction. If the clock has only to strike one, the lifting-piece will then drop again, and the fly-pin will be caught by the first stop, having made (according to the numbers of the teeth given in fig. 22) 5 turns. But if it has to strike more, the lockingwheel comes into action. That wheel turns with the train, being either driven by pinion 20 on the arbor of the great wheel, or by a gathering pallet on the arbor of the second wheel, like G in fig. 15 ; and when once the liftingpiece is lifted out of a notch in the locking-plate, it cannot fall again until another notch has come under the bit D; and as the distance of the notches is proportioned to the

CLOCKS hoars, tho locking-plate thus determines the number of blows struck. It may occur to the reader, that the cylinder 10 and roller are not really wanted, and that the locking-plate would do as well without; and sometimes clocks are so made, but it is not safe, for the motion of the locking-plate is so slow, that unless everything is very carefully adjusted and no shake left, the corner of the notch may not have got fairly under the bit D before the fly has got once round, and then the lifting-piece will drop before the clock can strike at all; or it may hold on too long and strike 13, as St Paul’s clock did once at midnight, when it was heard at Windsor by a sentinel. Small French clocks, which generally have the striking part made in this way, very commonly strike the half hours also, by having a wide slit, like that for one o’clock, in the locking-plate at every hour. But such clocks are unfit for any place except a room, as they strike one three times between 12 and 2, and accordingly turret clocks, or even large house clocks, are never made so. Sir E. Beckett has lately introduced the plan of making turret clocks strike one at all the half hours except 12^ and 1|, so that any striking of one that is heard between 11A and 2J must needs be one o’clock. This is done by having a 12-hour wheel driven by the going part, either continuously or by a gathering pallet moving that wheel only once an hour, and it has two high steps which come under another piece like D in the lifting detent a little before 12J and 1^ so as to prevent it falling when let off by the snail. In the English or rack striking movement, to be presently described, the same thing may be done by a kind of star wheel with flat ends to the rays, attached to the 12-hour snail, which will let the rack fall enough to strike one at every half hour, but with two longer rays to prevent it falling at all at 12| and 1|; or it would be better to let those rays, by means of an intervening lever, prevent the lifting piece from falling, as that would involve less friction of the tail of the rack. In all cases the locking-plate must be considered as divided into as many parts as the number of blows to be struck in 12 hours, t.e., 78, 90, or 88, according as half hours are or are not struck; and it must have the same number of teeth, driven by a pinion on the striking wheel arbor of as many teeth as the striking cams, or in the same ratio. Fig. 15 is a front view of a common English house clock with the face taken off, showing the repeating or rack striking movement. Here, as in fig. 1, M is the hourwheel, on the pipe of which the minute-hand is set, N the reversed hour-wheel, and n its pinion, driving the 12-hour wheel H, on whose socket is fixed what is called the snail Y, which belongs to the striking work exclusively. The hammer is raised by the eight pins in the rim of the second wheel in the striking train, in the manner which is obvious. The hammer does not quite touch the bell, as it would jar in striking if it did, and prevent the full sound; and if you observe the form of the hammer-shank at the arbor where the spring S acts upon it, you will see that the spring both drives the hammer against the bell when the tail T is raised, and also checks it just before it reaches the bell, and so the blow on the bell is given by the hammer having acquired momentum enough to go a little farther than its place of rest. Sometimes two springs are used, one for impelling the hammer, and the other for checking it. A piece of vulcanized India-rubber, tied round the pillar just where the hammer-shank nearly touches it, forms as good a check spring as anything. But nothing will check the chattering of a heavy hammer, except making it lean forward so as to act, partially at least, by its weight. The pinion of the striking-wheel

23 generally has eight leaves, the same number as the pins ; and as a clock strikes 78 blows in 12 hours, the great wheel will turn in that time if it has 78 teeth instead of 96, which the great wheel of the going part has for a centre pinion of eight. The striking-wheel drives the wheel above it once round for each blow, and that wheel drives a fourth (in which you observe a single pin P), six, or any other integral number of turns, for one turn of its own, and that drives a fan-fly to moderate the velocity of the train by the resistance of the air, an expedient at least as old as De Vick’s clock in 1370. The wheel N is so adjusted that, within a few minutes of the hour, the pin in it raises the lifting-piece LONF so far that that piece lifts the click C out of the teeth of the rack BKRV, which immediately falls back (helped by a

spring near the bottom) as far as its tail V can go by reason of the snail Y, against which it falls; and it is so arranged that the number of teeth which pass the click is proportionate to the depth of the snail; and as there is one step in the snail for each hour, and it goes round with the hour-hand, the rack always drops just as many teeth as the number of the hour to be struck. This drop makes the noise of “giving warning.” But the clock is not yet ready to strike till the lifting piece has fallen again; for, as soon as the rack was let off the tail of the thing called the gathering pallet G, on the prolonged arbor of the third wheel, was enabled to pass the pin K of the rack on which it was pressing before, and the striking train began to move ; but before the fourth wheel had got half round, its pin P was caught by the end of the lifting-piece, which is bent back and goes through a hole in the plate, and when raised stands in the way of the pin P, so that the train cannot go on till the lifting-piece drops, which it does exactly at the hour, by the pin N then slipping past it. Then the train is free ; the striking wheel begins to lift the hammer, and the gathering pallet gathers up the rack, a tooth for each blow, until it has returned to the

C L 0 OKS place at winch the pallet is stopped by the pin K coming twelve-hour wheel; and it is easy to see that the number under it. In this figure the lifting-piece is prolonged to of blows struck by the two quarter hammers may thus be F, where there is a string hung to it, as this is the proper made to depend upon the extent to which the spring that place for such a string when it is wanted for the purpose drives the train is wound up; and it may even be made to of learning the hour in the dark, and not (as it is generally indicate half-quarters; for instance, if the snail has eight put) on the click C; for if it is put there and you hold the steps in it, the seventh of them may be just deep enough string a little too long, the clock will strike too many; to let the two hammers strike three times, and the first of and if the string accidentally sticks in the case, it will go them once more, which would indicate 7^- minutes to the on striking till it is run down; neither of which things hour. It is generally so arranged that the hour is struck first, and the quarters afterwards. can happen when the string is put on the lifting-piece. The snail is sometimes set on a separate stud with the Alarums. apparatus called a star-wheel and jumper; but as this only In connection with these bedroom clocks we ought to increases the cost without any advantage that we-can see, we omit any further reference to it. On the left side of mention alarums. Perhaps the best illustration of the the frame we have placed a lever x, with the letters st mode of striking an alarum is to refer to either of the recoil below it, and si above. If it is pushed up to si, the other escapements (figs. 3 and 4). If you suppose a short end will come against a pin in the rack, and prevent it hammer instead of a long pendulum attached to the axis from falling, and will thus make the clock silent; and this of the pallets, and the wheel to be driven with sufficient is much more simple than the old-fashioned “ strike and force, it will evidently swing the hammer rapidly backsilent ” apparatus, which we shall therefore not describe, wards and forwards; and the position and length of the hammer head may be so adjusted as to strike a bell inside, especially as it is seldom used now. If the clock is required to strike quarters, a third “ part” first on one side and then on the other. Then as to the or train of wheels is added on the right hand of the going mode of letting off the alarum at the time required; if it was part; and its general construction is the same as the hour- always to be let off at the same time, you would only have striking part; only there are two more bells, and two to set a pin in the twelve-hour wheel at the proper place hammers so placed that one is raised a little after the to raise the lifting-piece which lets off the alarum at that other. If there are more quarter-bells than two, the time. But as you want it to be capable of alteration, this hammers are generally raised by a chime-barrel, which is discharging pin must beset in another wheel (without teeth), merely a cylinder set on the arbor of the striking-wheel which rides with a friction-spring on the socket of the (in that case generally the third in the train), with short twelve-hour wheel, with a small movable dial attached to pins stuck into it in the proper places to raise the hammers it, having figures so arranged with reference to the pin in the order required for the tune of the chimes. The that whatever figure is made to come to a small pointer quarters are usually made to let off the hour, and this con- set as a tail to the hour hand, the alarum shall be let off nection may be made in two ways. If the chimes are at that hour. The letting off does not require the same different in tune for each quarter, and not merely the same apparatus as a common striking part, because an alarum tune repeated two, three, and four times, the repetition has not to strike a definite number of blows, but to go on movement must not be used for them, as it would throw till it is run down; and therefore the lifting-piece is the tunes into confusion, but the old locking-plate move- nothing but a lever with a stop or hook upon it, which, ment, as in turret clocks; and therefore, if we conceive when it is dropped, takes hold of one of the alarum wheels, the hour lifting-piece connected with the quarter locking- and lets them go while it is raised high enough to disenplate, as it is with the wheel N, in fig. 15, it is evident gage it. You must of course not wind up an alarum till that the pin will discharge the hour striking part as the within twelve hours of the time when it is wanted to go off. fourth quarter finishes. The watchman's or tell-tale clock may be seen in one of But where the repetition movement is required for the quarters, the matter is not quite so simple. The principle the lobbies of the blouse of Commons, and in prisons, and of it may shortly be described thus. The quarters them some other places where they want to make sure of a selves have a rack and snail, &c., just like the hours, ex- watchman being on the spot and awake all the night; it is a cept that the snail is fixed on one of the hour-wheels M clock with a set of spikes, generally 48 or 96, sticking out or N, instead of on the twelve-hour wheel, and has only- all round the dial, and a handle somewhere in the case, by four steps in it. Now suppose the quarter-rack to be pulling which you can press in that one of the spikes so placed that when it falls for the fourth quarter (its which is opposite to it, or to some lever connected with it, greatest drop), it falls against the hour lifting-piece some for a few minutes; and it will be observed, that this wheel where between 0 and N, so as to raise it and the click C. of spikes is carried round with the hour-hand, which in these Then the pin Q will be caught by the click Q^, and so the clocks is generally a twenty-four hour one. It is evident lifting-piece will remain up until all the teeth of the quar- that every spike which is seen still sticking out in the ter-rack are gathered up; and as that is done, it may be morning indicates that at the particular time to which made to disengage the click Qg, and so complete the let- that spike belongs the watchman was not there to push it ting off the hour striking part. This click has no in—or at any rate, that he did not; and hence its name. At some other part of their circuit, the inner ends of the existence except where there are quarters. These quarter clocks are sometimes made so as only to pins are carried over a roller or an inclined plane which strike the quarters at the time when a string is pulled— pushes them out again ready for business the next night. as by a person in bed, just like repeating watches, which are rarely made now, on account of the difficulty of keepSpring Clocks. ing in order such a complicated machine in such a small Hitherto we have supposed all clocks to be kept going space. In this case, the act of pulling the string to make the clock strike winds up the quarter-barrel, which is that by a weight. But, as is well known, many of them are of a spring clock (not yet described), as far as it is allowed driven by a spring coiled up in a barrel. In this respect to be wound up by the position of a snail on the hour- they differ nothing from watches, and therefore for conwheel against which a lever is pulled, just as the tail of sideration of the construction of parts belonging to the the common striking-rack falls against the snail on the spring reference is made to the article Watches. It may 24

CLOCKS however, be mentioned here that the earliest form in which a spring seems to have been used was not that of a spiral ribbon of steel rolled up, but a straight stiff spring held fast to the clock frame at one end, and a string from the other end going round the barrel, which was wound up; but such a spring would have a very small range. Spring clocks are generally resorted to for the purpose of saving length; for as clocks are generally made in England, it is impossible to make a weight-clock capable of going a week, without either a case nearly 4 feet high, or else the weights so heavy as to produce a great pressure and friction on the arbor of the great wheel. But this arises from nothing but the heaviness of the wheels and the badness of the pinions used in most English clocks, as is amply proved by the fact that the American and Austrian clocks go a week with smaller weights and much less fall for them than the English ones, and the American ones with no assistance from fine workmanship for the purpose of diminishing friction, as they are remarkable for their want of what is called “finish” in the machinery, on which so much time and money is wasted in English clock-work. All the ornamental French clocks, and all the short “ dials,” as those clocks are called which look no larger than the dial, or very little, and many of the American clocks, are made with springs. Indeed we might omit the word “French” after “ornamental;” for the manufacture of ornamental clocks has practically ceased in England, and we are losing more of all branches of the horological trade yearly, as we are unable, i.e., our workmen do not choose, to compete with the cheaper labour of the Continent, or with the much more systematic manufacture of clocks and watches by machinery in America than exists here, though labour there is much dearer. It is true that most of the American clocks are very bad, indeed no better than the old-fashioned Dutch clocks (really German) made most ingeniously of wood and wire, besides the wheels. But some better American ones are also made now, and they will no doubt improve as their machine-made watches have done. Though this has been going on now for 30 years and more, no steps appear to have been taken to establish anything of the kind in this country, except that watch “ movements,” which means only the wheels set in the frame, are to a certain extent made by machinery in Lancashire and Coventry for the trade, who finish them in London and elsewhere. That is the real meaning of the advertisements of “ machine-made watches ” here. The French clocks have also been greatly improved within the same time, and are now, at least some of them, quite different both in construction and execution from the old-fashioned French drawing-room clock which generally goes worse than the cheapest “Dutchman,” and is nearly always striking wrong, because they have the locking-plate striking work, which if once let to strike wrong, either by altering the hands or letting it run down, cannot be set right again except by striking the hours all round, which few people know how to do, even if they can get their fingers in behind the clock to do it, .The Americans have a slight wire hanging down a little below the dial which you can push up and so make the clock strike. All lockingplate clocks ought to have a similar provision. There is not much use in having clocks to go more than a little over eight days (to allow the possible forgetting of a week is the easiest period to remember. The French spring-clocks generally go a fortnight, but most people wind them up weekly. Occasionally English clocks are made to go a month by adding another wheel; and even a year by adding two. But in the latter case it is better to have two barrels and great wheels acting on opposite sides of a very strong pinion between them, as it both reduces the strain on the teeth and the friction of the pivot of that

25 pinion. Such clocks sometimes have a 5 feet or 14 sec. pendulum, as the case must be a tall one. The great thing is to make the scape-wheel light, and even then you can never get more than a small arc of vibration, which is undesirable for the reason given above, and such a long train is peculiarly sensitive to friction. In the American clocks the pinions are all of the kind called lantern pinions, which have their leaves made only of bits of wire set round the axis in two collars ; and, oddly enough, they are the oldest form of pinion, as well as the best, acting with the least friction, and requiring the least accuracy in the wheels, but now universally disused in all English and French house clocks. The American clocks prove that they are not too expensive to be used with advantage when properly made; although, so long as there are no manufactories of clocks here as there are in America, it may be cheaper to make pinions in the slovenly way of cutting off all the ribs of a piece of pinion wire, so as to reduce it to a pinion a quarter of an inch wide, and an arbor 2 or 3 inches long. On the whole, the common English house clocks, so far from having improved with the general progress of machinery, are worse than they were fifty years ago, and at the same time are of such a price that they are being fast driven out of the market by the American plain clocks and by the French and German ornamental ones. Clocks have been contrived to wind themselves up by the alternate expansion and contraction of mercury and other fluids, under variations of temperature. Wind-mill clocks might be made still more easily, the wind winding up a weight occasionally. Water-clocks have also been made,— not on the clepsydra principle, where the flow of the water determined the time very inaccurately; but the water is merely the weight, flowing from a tap into a hollow horizontal axis, and thence by branches into buckets, which empty themselves as they pass the lowest point of the circle in which they move, or flowing directly into buckets, so emptying themselves. But the slopping of the water, and the rusting of any parts made of iron, and the cost of the water itself always running, destroy all chance of such things coming into use.

Electkical Clocks. It should be understood that under this term two, or we may say. three, very different things are comprehended. The first is a mere clock movement, i.e., the works of a clock without either weight or pendulum, which is kept going by electrical connection with some other clock of any kind (these ought to be called electrical dials, not clocks); the second is a clock with a weight, but with the escapement worked by electrical connection with another clock instead of by a pendulum; and the third alone are truly electrical clocks, the motive power being electricity instead of gravity; for although they have a pendulum, which of course swings by the action of gravity, yet the requisite impulse for maintaining its vibrations against friction and resistance of the air is supplied by a galvanic battery, instead of by the winding up of a weight. If you take the weight off a common recoil escapement clock, and work the pallets backward and forwards by hand, you will drive the hands round, only the wrong way ; consequently, if the escapement is reversed, and the pallets are driven by magnets alternatively made and unmade, by the well-known method of sending an electrical current through a wire coil set round a bar of soft iron, the contact being made at every beat of the pendulum of a standard clock, the clock without the weight will evidently keep exact time with the standard clock; and the only question is as to the best mode of making the contact, which is not VI. - 4

26

CLOCKS

and especially in time-keeping, as might have been expected, from the friction and varying resistance of the bar to the motion of the pendulum, and in the attractions. Mr Bitchie of Edinburgh, however, has combined the principle of Bain’s and Jones’s clocks in a manner which is testified to be completely successful in enabling one standard clock to control and keep going any number of subordinate ones, which do not require winding up as Jones’s do, but are driven entirely by their pendulums. This differs from Wheatstone’s plan in this, that his suboidinate clocks had no pendulum swinging naturally and only wanting its vibrations helping a little, but the pallets had to be made to vibrate solely by the electrical force. The figures are taken from Mr Bitchie’s paper read before the Boyal Scottish Society of Arts in 1873. The controlled pendulum P is that just now described as Bain’s (seen in fig. 17 the other way, across the plane of vibration); the rod and spring are double, and the wire cd is connected with one spring and rod (say the front one) and the wire d'e with the other; so that the current has to pass down one spring and one rod and through the coil in the bob and up the other spring. The other pendulum O of the normal or standard clock is a common one, except that it touches two slight contact springs a, b alternately, and so closes the circuit on one side and leaves it broken on the other. When that pendulum touches a the B battery does nothing, and the - current from the battery A Fig. 17.—Ritchie’s Pendulum, passes by a to c and d and down the d spring and rod and up through d' to e and back again to + of A. But when the standard pendulum 0 touches b the A battery does nothing, and the current from - to + of the B battery goes the other way, through the controlled pendulum and its coil. The two fixed magnets ShT, NS consequently attract the coil and bob each wray alternately. And even if the current is occasionally weak, the natural swing of the pendulum will keep it going for a short time Avith force enough to drive Fig. 16.—Bain’s Pendulum. its clock through a reversed escapeof the discovery of Oersted that a coil of insulated wire ment; and further, if that pendulum in the form of a hollow cylinder is attracted in one is naturally a little too fast or too direction or the other by a permanent magnet within the slow the attraction from the standard coil, not touching it, when the ends of the coil are connected pendulums will retard or accelerate with the poles of a battery; and if the connection is it. In practice, however, it is found reversed, or the poles changed, so that the current at one better not to make the contact by time goes one way through the coil from the - or copper springs, which, however light, displate to the + or zinc plate, and at other times the other turb the pendulum a little, but by a way, the direction of the attraction is reversed. Mr Bain wheel in the train making and made the bob of his pendulum of such a coil enclosed in a breaking contact at every beat; and brass case so that it looked like a hollow _ brass cylinder if the clock has a gravity escape., lying horizontal and moving in the direction of its own ment there is no danger of this FlG friction affecting thependulumatall. ^iSapement *^ axis, and in that axis stood the ends of two permanent In order to get the machinery into magnets with the north poles pointed at eachotherand nearly touching, as in the right hand part of fig. 16. The pendulum a smaller compass than a 39 inches pendulum requires, pushed a small sliding bar backwards and forwards so as Mr Bitchie uses a short and slow pendulum with two bobs, to reverse the current through the coil as the pendulum one above and the other below the suspension, as shown passed the middle of the arc, and so caused each magnet in fig. 17. Such a pendulum, like a common scale-beam, in turn to attract the bob. But this also failed practically, may be made to vibrate as slow as you like by bringing

so easy a matter as it appears to be, and though various plans apparently succeeded for a time, and were mechanically perfect, not one has succeeded permanently; i.e., the contact sometimes fails to produce the current of sufficient strength to lift the weight or spring on which the driving of the subordinate clock depends. It is therefore unnecessary to repeat the description of the various contrivances for this purpose by Wheatstone and others. The first person who succeeded in making one clock regulate or govern others by electricity, Mr It. L. Jones, accordingly abandoned the idea of electrical driving of one clock by another; and instead of making the electrical connection with a standard clock (whether itself an electrical one or not) drive the others, he makes it simply let the pallets or the pendulum of the subordinate clock, driven by a weight or spring, be influenced by attraction at every beat of the standard clock; and, by way of helping it, the pallets are made what we called half-dead in describing the dead escapement, except that they have no impulse faces, but the dead faces have just so much slope that they would overcome their own friction, and escape of themselves under the pressure of the clock train, except while they are held by the magnet, which is formed at every beat of the standard clock, or at every half-minute contact, if it is intended to work the dials by half-minute jumps. This plan has been extensively used for regulating distant clocks from Greenwich Observatory. The first electrical clocks, in the proper sense of the term, were invented by Mr Bain in 1840, who availed himself

C L 0 C K S the suspension nearer to the centre of gravity of the whole mass. -But they are quite unfit for independent clock pendulums, having very little regulating power, or what we may call force of vibration. He applies magnets to both the bobs, so as to double the electrical force. Fig. 17 is the section across the plane of vibration. Fig. 18 shows the kind of reversed escapement, or “propelment/’ used with these short and slow pendulums. The pendulum here is returning from the extreme right, and has just deposited the right hand pallet BCD with its end D pressing on a tooth of the scape-wheel, but unable to turn it because another tooth is held by the stop G on the left pallet. As soon as the pendulum lifts that pallet the weight of the other pallet turns the wheel,until a tooth falls against the stop C. When the pendulum returns from the left the left pallet presses on a tooth at E but cannot turn the wheel because it is yet held by C, until that is released. In order to prevent the hands being driven back by wind where they are exposed to it, a click is added to the teeth. The wind cannot drive the hands forward by reason of the stops C, G.

'27 cage, of which some of the vertical bars take off, and are fitted with brass bushes for the pivots of the wheels to run in; and the wheels of each train, i.e., the striking, the going, and the quarter trains, have their pivots all in the vertical bar belonging to that part. Occasionally they advanced so far as to make the bushes movable, i.e., fixed with screws instead of rivetted in, so that one wheel may be taken out without the others. This cage generally stood upon a wooden stool on the floor of the clock room. The French clockmakers long ago saw the objections to this kind of arrangement, and adopted the plan of a horizontal frame or bed, cast all in one piece, and with such smaller frames or cocks set upon it as might be required for such of the wheels as could not be conveniently got on the same level. The accompanying sketch (fig. 19) of the

Church and Turret Clocks. Seeing that a clock—at least the going part of it—is a machine in which the only work to be done is the overcoming of its own friction and the resistance of the air, it is evident, that when the friction and resistance are much increased, it may become necessary to resort to expedients for neutralizing their effects which are not required in a smaller machine with less friction. In a turret clock the friction is enormously increased by the great weight of all the parts; and the resistance of the wind, and sometimes snow, to the motion of the hands, further aggravates the difficulty of maintaining a constant force on the pendulum ; and besides that, there is the exposure of the clock to the dirt and dust which are always found in towers, and of the oil to a temperature which nearly or quite freezes it all through the usual cold of winter. This last circumstance alone will generally make the arc of the pendulum at least half a degree more in summer than in winter; and inasmuch as the time is materially affected by the force which arrives at the pendulum, as well as the friction on the pallets when it does arrive there, it is evidently impossible for any turret clock of the ordinary construction, especially with large dials, to keep any constant rate through the various changes of temperature, weather, and dirt, to which it is exposed. Within the last twenty years all the best clockmakers have accordingly adopted the four-legged or threelegged gravity escapement for turret clocks above the smallest size; though inferior ones still persist in using the dead escapement, which is incapable of maintaining a constant rate under a variable state of friction, as has been shown before. When the Astronomer ftoyal in 1844 laid down the condition for the Westminster clock that it was not to vary more than a second a day, the London Company of Clockmakers pronounced it impossible, and the late Mr Vulliamy, who had been for many years the best maker of large clocks, refused to tender for it at those terms. The introduction of the gravity escapement enabled the largest and coarsest looking clocks with cast-iron wheels and pinions to go for long periods with a variation much nearer a second a week than a second a day. And the consequence was that the price for large clocks was reduced to about one-third of what it used to be for an article inferior in performance though more showy in appearance. Another great alteration, made by the French clockmakers before ours, was in the shape and construction of the frame. The old form of turret clock-frame was that of a large iron

Fig. 19.—Clock at Meanwood Church, Leeds. clock of Meanwood church, near Leeds, one of the first on that plan, will sufficiently explain it. All the wheels of the going part, except the great wheel, are set in a separate frame called the movement frame, which is complete in itself, and light enough to take off and carry away entire, so that any cleaning or repairs required in the most delicate part of the work can be done in the clock factory, and the great wheel, barrel, and rope need never be disturbed at all. Even this movement frame is now dispensed with ; but we will reserve the description of the still more simple kind of frame in which all the wheels lie on or under the great horizontal bed, until we have described train remontoires. Train Remontoires. Although the importance of these is lessened by the invention of an effective gravity escapement, they are still occasionally used, and are an essential part of the theory of clockmaking. It was long ago perceived that all the variations of force, except friction of the pallets, might he cut off by making the force of the scape-wheel depend on a small weight or spring wound up at short intervals by the great clock weight and the train of wheels. This also has the advantage of giving a sudden and visible motion to the minute hand at those intervals, say of half a minute, when the remontoire work is let off, so that time may be taken from the minute hand of a large public clock as exactly as from the seconds hand of an astronomical clock ; and besides that, greater accuracy may be obtained in the letting off of the striking part. We believe the first maker of a large clock with a train remontoire was Mr .Thomas Reid of Edinburgh, who wrote the article on clocks in the first edition of this Encyclopaedia, which was afterwards expanded into a well-known book, in which his remontoire was described. The scape-wheel was driven by a small weight hung by a Huyghens’s endless chain, of which one of the pulleys was fixed to the arbor, and the other rode upon the arbor, with the pinion attached to it, and the pinion was driven and the weight wound up by the wheel below (which we will call the third wheel), as follows. Assuming the scape-wheel to turn in a minute, its arbor has a notch cut half through it on opposite sides in two places near to each other ; on the arbor of the wheel, which turns in ten minutes, suppose, there is another wheel with 20 spikes sticking out of its rim, but alternately in two different planes, so that one set of spikes can only pass through one of the notches in the scape-wheel arbor, and the other set only through the other. Whenever then the scape-wheel completes a half turn, one spike

28

CLOCKS

is let go, and the third wheel is able to move, and with it the whole clock-train and the hands, until the next spike of the other set is stopped by the scape-wheel arbor; at the same time the pinion on that arbor is turned half round, winding up the remontoire weight, but without taking its pressure off the scape-wheel. Reid says that, so long as this apparatus was kept in good order, the clock went better than it did after it was removed in consequence of its getting out of order from the constant banging of the spikes against the arbor. The Royal Exchange, clock was at first made in 1844 on the same principle, except that, instead of the endless chain, an internal wheel kwas used, with the spikes set on it externally, which is one of the modes by which an occasional secondary motion may be given to a wheel without disturbing its primary and regular motion. A drawing of the original Exchange clock remontoire is given in the Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks; but for the reasons which will appear presently, it. need not be repeated here, especially as the following is a more simple arrangement of a gravity train remontoire, much more frequently used in principle. Let E in fig. 20 be the scape-wheel turning in a

minute, and e its pinion, which is driven by the wheel D having a pinion d driven by the wheel C, which we may suppose to turn in an hour. The arbors of the scape-wheel and hour-wheel are distinct, their pivots meeting in a bush fixed somewhere between the wheels. The pivots of the wheel. D are set .in the frame AP, which rides on the arbors of the hour-wheel’and scape-wheel, or on another short arbor between them. The hour-wheel also drives another wheel G,r which again drives the pinion / on the arbor which carries the tw o arms / A, / B; and on the same arbor is set a fly with a ratchet, like a common striking fly, and the numbers of the teeth are so arranged that the fly will turn once for each turn of the scapewheel. The ends of the remontoire arms / A, / B are capable of alternately passing the notches cut half through the arbor of the scape-wheel, as those notches successively come into the proper position at the end of every half minute'; as soon as that happens the hour-wheel raises the movable wheel D and its frame through a small angle ; but nevertheless, that wheel keeps pressing on the scape-w'heel as if it were not moving, the point of contact of the wheel C and the pinion d being the fulcrum or centre of motion of the lever A e? P. It will be observed that the remontoire arms /A, / B have springs set on them to diminish the blow on the scapewheel arbor, as it is desirable not to have the fly so large as to make the motion of the train, and consequently of the hands, too slow to be distinct. For the same reason it is .not desirable to drive the fly by an endless screw, as was done in most of the French clocks on this principle in the 1851 Exhibition. There is also an enormous loss of force by friction in driving an endless screw, and consequently considerable risk of the clock stopping either from cold or from wasting of the oil. Another kind of remontoire is on the principle of one bevelled wheel lying between two others at right angles to it. The first of the bevelled wheels is driven by the train, and the third is fixed to the arbor of the scape-wheel; and the intermediate bevelled wheel, of any size, rides on its arbor at right angles to the other two arbors which are in the same line. The scape-wheel will evidently turn with the same average velocity as the first bevelled wheel, though the intermediate one may move up and down at intervals. The transverse arbor which carries it is let off and lifted a little at half-minute intervals, as in the remontoire just now described ; and it gradually works down as the scape-wheel turns under its pressure, until it is freed again and lifted by the clock train. In all these gravity remontoires, however, it must have been observed that we only get rid of the friction of the heavy parts of the train and the dial-work, and that the scape-wheel is still subject to the friction of the remontoire wheels, which, though much less than the other, is still something considerable. And accordingly,

CLOCKS 29 consequence. The variation of force of the remontoire spring become so much corroded that they had to be renewed, and some of from temperature, as it only affects the pendulum through it was replaced with iron ; for all the polished iron and brass work the medium of the dead escapement, is far too small to produce had become as rough as if it had never been polished at all; the any appreciable effect; and it is found that clocks of this only parts of the clock which had not suffered from the damp’ and kind, with a compensated pendulum 8 feet long, and of the bad air were the painted iron work. The room was also ventiabout 2 cwt., will not vary above a second a month, if the lated, with a draught through it, and all the iron work, except pallets are kept clean and well oiled. No turret clock without acting surfaces, painted. Even in the most favourable positions either a train remontoire or a gravity escapement will approach that brass or gun-metal loses its surface long before cast-iron wants decree of accuracy. The King’s Cross clock, which was the first repainting. of this kind, went with a variation of about a second in three weeks There is, however, a curious point to be attended to in using castin the 1851 Exhibition, and has sometimes gone for two months iron wheels. They must drive cast-iron pinions, for they will wear without any discoverable error, though it wants the jewelled pallets out steel. The smaller wheels of the going part may be of brass which the Exchange clock has. But these clocks require more care driving steel pinions ; but the whole of the striking wheels and than gravity escapement ones, and are certain to be spoilt as soon as pinions may be of iron. A great deal of nonsense is talked about they get into ignorant or careless hands; and consequently the gun-metal, as if it was necessarily superior to brass. The best gungravity ones have superseded them. metal may be, and is, for wheels which are too thick to hammer; The introduction of this remontoire led to another very important but there is great variety in the quality of gun-metal; it is often alteration in the construction of large clocks. Hitherto it had unsound, and has hard and soft places ; and, on the whole, it has always been considerednecessary, with a view to diminish the friction no advantage over good brass, when not too thick to be hammered. as far as possible, to make the wheels of brass or gun-metal, with In clocks made under the pressure of competing tenders, if the brass the teeth cut in an engine. The French clockmakers had begun to is likely not to be hammered, the gun metal is quite as likely to be use cast-iron striking parts, and cast-iron wheels had been oc- the cheapest and the worst possible, like everything else which is casionally used in the going part of inferior clocks for the sake of always specified to be “best,” as the clockmakers know very well that cheapness ; but they had never been used in any clock making it is a hundred to one if anybody sees their work that can tell the pretensions to accuracy before the one just mentioned. In conse- difference between the best and the worst. quence of the success of that, it was determined by the astronomer royal and Mr Denison, who were jointly consulted by the Board of Turret Clocks with Gravity Escapement. Works about the great Westminster clock in 1852, to alter the original requisition for gun-metal wheels there to cast-iron. Some Fig. 22 is a front view of a large quarter clock of Sir E. Beckett’s persons expressed their apprehension of iron wheels rusting ; but design, with all the wheels on the great horizontal bed, a gravity nothing can be more unfounded, for the non-acting surfaces are escapement, and a compensated pendulum. They are made in two always painted, and the acting surfaces oiled. A remarkable proof sizes, one with the great striking wheels 18 inches wide, and the of the folly of the clockmakers’ denunciations of the cast-iron wheels other 14.. The striking is done by cams cast on the great wheels, was afforded at the Royal Exchange the next year. In consequence about lg inch broad in the large-sized clocks, which are strong enough of the bad ventilation of the clock-room, together with the effects for an hour bell of thirty cwt., and corresponding quarters. Wire of the London atmosphere, some thin parts of the brass work had ropes are used, not only because they last longer, if kept greased,

CORBEL

, « , 12 Inches J-i i I t i i i i 1 i i l Fig. 22. —Front view of Turret Quarter Clock, but because a sufficient number of coils will go on a barrel of less Moreover, the repetition of the four ding-dongs can give no musical than half the length that would be required for hemp ropes of the pleasure to any one. same strength, without overlapping, which it is as well to avoid, if The case is different with the Cambridge and Westminster quarter possible, though it is not so injurious to wire ropes as it is chimes on 4 bells, and the chime at the hour is the most complete to hemp ones. By this means also the striking cams can be and pleasing of all. It is singular that those beautiful chimes put on the. great wheel, instead of the second wheel, which (which are partly attributed to Handel) had been heard by thousands saves more, in friction than could be imagined by any one who men scattered all over England for 70 years before any one thought had not tried both. In clocks of the common construction two- of of copying them, but since they were introduced by Sir E. Beckett thirds of the power is often wasted in friction and in the bad in the great Westminster clock, on a much larger scale and with a arrangement of the hammer work, and the clock is wearing itself slight difference in the intervals, they have been copied very extenout in doing nothing. are already almost as numerous in new clocks as the oldThe same number of cams are given here to the quarter as to the sively, andding-dong quarters. Properly, as at Cambridge and hour-striking wheel, rather for the purpose of suggesting the expedi- fashioned Westminster, the hour bell should be an octave below the third (or ency of omitting the 4th quarter, as has been done in many clocks made largest one) quarter bell; but as the interval between the irom this design. It is of no use to strike ding-dong quarters at the quarters but hour is always considerable, it is practically found that hour, and it nearly doubles the work to be done; and if it is the ear isand not offended by a less interval. At Worcester cathedral the omitted it allows the bells to be larger, and therefore louder, because great 44 ton bell is only 14 notes below the 50 cwt. tenor bell the 1st quarter bell ought to be an octave above the hour bell, if of the peal, hour which is made the fourth quarter bell; and at some they are struck at the hour ; whereas, if they are not heard together other places the quarters are the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 7th of a peal of 8, the quarters may be on the 4th and 7th of a peal of' eight 'bells. and the hour hell the "8th. Thereby you get more powerful and

30

CLOCKS

altogether better sounding quarters. The quarter bells are the 1st, stops, and on all the pinions above the great wheel, is only that due to the excess of the power of the clock over the weight of the 2d, 3d, and 6th of a peal of 6—independent of the hour bell; and hammer, and not the full force of the weight, and it is therefore the following is their arrangement:— easier for the going part to discharge, and less likely to break the 3126 2d [ ) In fh' 22 the wheel marked 60 in each of the striking parts is a l 3213 f 4th1 1326 f winding wheel on the front end of the barrel, and the winding pinion 3d \ 6213 ) is numbered 10 ; a larger pinion will do where the hammer does not 1236 1st exceed 40 lb; and in small clocks no auxiliary winding_ wheel is needed. But in that case the locking-plate must be driven by a hour...10 gathering pallet, or pinion with two teeth, on the arbor of the The interval between each successive chime of four should be second wheel, with a spring click to keep it steady. In all cases two or at most two and a half times that between the successive the hammer shanks and tails should not be less than two feet long, blows. At Cambridge it is three times,—decidedly too slow; at if possible; for the shorter they are, the more is lost by the change Westminster twice, which is rather too fast; at Worcester cathedral of inclination for any given rise from the bell. In some clocks with and most of the later large clocks 2| times, which sounds the best. fixed (not swinging) bells, the hammer-head is set on a double shank At Cambridge the chimes are set on a barrel which turns twice m embracing the bell, with the pivots, not above it in the French way, the hour, as this table indicates, and which is driven by the great which makes the hammer strike at a wrong angle, but on each side wheel with a great waste of power; the clock is wound up every of the bell, a little below the top. On this plan less of the rise is day. An eight-day clock would require a very heavy weight, lost than in the common mode of fixing. The Westminster clock and a very much.greater strain on the wheels, and they are alto- hammers are all fixed in this way. _ . no . gether inexpedient for these quarters on any large scale of bells. The first thing to remark in the going part of fig. 22 is that tne Indeed there is some reason for doubting whether the modern hour-wheel which carries the snails for letting off quarters and introduction of eight-day clocks is an improvement, where they have striking, is not part of the train leading up to the the scape-wheel, but to strike at all on large bells. Such clocks hardly ever bring the independent, so that the train from the great wheel to the scape, full sound out of the bells ; because, in order to do so, the weights wheel, is one of three wheels only. If it were a dead escapement, would have to be so heavy, and the clock so large, as to increase instead of a gravity escapement clock, the wheel numbered the price considerably. A good bell, even of the ordinary thickness 96 would be the scape-wheel ; and as it turns in 90 seconds, which is less than in the Westminster bells, requires a hammer ot it would require 36 teeth or pins for a l£ sec. pendulum which not less than ^th of its weight, rising 8 or 9 inches froni the bell, most of these gravity-escapement clocks have; it is about 6 feet long to bring out the full sound; and therefore, allowing tor the loss by to the bottom of the bob, which, if sunk just below the floor, brings friction, a bell of 30 cwt., which is not an uncommon tenor lor a the clock-frame to a very convenient height. The hour-wheel ndes large peal, would require a clock weight of 15 cwt., with a clear fall loose on its arbor, or rather the arbor can turn within it, carrying of 40 feet; and either the Cambridge quarters on a peal of ten, or the snails and the regulating hand and the bevelled wheel which the Doncaster ones on the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 7th bells of a peal of eight, drives all the dials, and it is fixed to the hour-wheel by means of will require above a ton, according to the usual scale of bells in a ring- clamping screws on the edge of a round plate on the aibor just, ing peal (which is thinner than the Westminster clockbells). Very few behind it, which turn by hand. In a gravity escapement clock clocks are adapted for such weights as these; and without abundance this adjusting work is not really necessary; because you can set the of strength and great size in all the parts, it would be unsafe to use clock by merely lifting the pallets off the scape-wheel, and letting them. But if the striking parts are made to wind up every day, the train run till the hands point right. The regulating hand, of course 1th of these weights will do ; and you may have a more observe, in fig. 22 turns the wrong way; because, where the powerful clock in effect, and a safer one to manage, in half the com- you dial is opposite to the back of the clock, no bevelled wheels are pass, and for much less cost. Churches with such bells as these wanted, arbor leads straight oft to the dial. It used to be the have always a sexton or some other person belonging to them, and fashion toandputtheclocks in the middle of the room, so that the leadingin attendance every day, who can wind up the clock just as well as off rod might go straight up to the horizontal bevelled wheel in tiio a clockmaker’s man, The going part always requires a much lightei middle, which drove all the dials. But the clock can be set much weight, and may as well go a week, and be in the charge ot a ctock- more firmly on stone corbels, or on cast-iron brackets built into tne maker, where it is possible. ,, , „ ,. and it is not at all necessary for the leading-off rod to be There should be some provision for holding the hammers on Lie wall; Provided it is only in a vertical plane parallel to the wall, bells while ringing, and at the same time a friction-spring or weight vertical. the teeth of the bevelled wheels adapted to the inclination, the should be brought to bear on the fly arbor, to compensate for the or may stand as obliquely as you please; and when it does, it removal of the weight of the hammers; otherwise there is a risk ot rod ought on no account to be made, as it generally is, with universal the train running too fast and being broken when it is stopped. joints, but the pivots should go into oblique pivot-holes at the top and No particular number of cams is required in the striking wheel; The joints increase the friction considerably, and are ot any number from 10 to 20 will do; but when four quarters on two bottom. use whatever, except where the rod is too long t° keep itself bells are used, the quarter-striking wheel should have half as many no straight. Where the rod does happen to be m the middle of Lie cams again as the hour-wheel; for, if not, the rope will go a second room, there are three or four dials, the two horizontal bevelled time over half of the barrel, as there are 120 blows on each quarter wheelsand each end of it must be a little larger than all the othprs— bell in the 12 hours to 78 of the hours, while with the three quarters both theatone in the clock and those of the dial-work ; for otherwise there are only 72. If the two quarter levers are on the same arbor, three or four wheels in the middle will meet each other and there must be two sets of cams, one on each side of the wheel; but the fast. • one set will do, and the same wheel as the hour-wheel, if they are stick When the pendulum is very long and heavy, it should be^ susplaced as in fig. 23. The hour-striking lever, it will be seen, is pended from the wall, unless the clock-frame has some strong differently shaped, so as to diminish the pressure on its arbor by support near but a six-feet pendulum, of not more than making it only the difference, instead of the sum, of the pressures at two cwt., maythebemiddle; from the dock-frame, provided it is as the two points of action. This can be done with the two quarter strong as it oughtsuspended to be for the general construction of the clock levers, as shown in the Rudimentary Treatise; but the arrangement and supported on corbels or iron beams. It has generaUy been involves a good deal of extra work, and as the quarter hammers are the practice to hang the pendulum the clock-frame, but always lighter than the hour one, it is hardly worth while to resort inasmuch as the rope of the going partbehind always be thinner than to it. The shape of the cams is a matter requiring some attention, that of the striking part, and that part may requires less depth m othei but it will be more properly considered when we come to the. teeth respects, a different and more compact plan is adopted m the clocks of wheels. The 4th quarter bell in the Cambridge and Westminster we are describing. The back pivots of the going wheels run m quarters should have two hammers and sets of cams longer than bushes in an intermediate bar, three or four inches from the back of the others, acting alternately, on account of the quick repetition of the frame, joining the two cross bars, of which the ends are dotted the blows. . drawing. The pendulum cock is set on the back frame, The fly ratchets should not be made of cast-iron, as they some- in the the pendulum hangs within it. And in the gravity escapement times are by cloekmakers who will not use cast-iron wheels on any and clocks there is yet another thin bar—about half way between the account, because the teeth get broken off by the click. This break- back frame and the bar on which the bushes of the wheels are set ing may perhaps be avoided by making the teeth rectangular, like a the only use of which is to carry the bush of the scape-wheel, which number of inverted V’s set round a circle, and the click only reach- is set behind the fly; the wheel, the fly, and the pallets, or gravitying so far that the face of the tooth which it touches is at right arms, stand between these two intermediate bars; and the palieiangles to the click; but, as before observed, cast-iron and steel do arbors are set in a brass cock screwed to the top of the pendulum not work well together. , ,, , cock. The beat-pins should of brass, not steel, and. no oil put The hammer of a large clock ought to be left on the litt, when to them, or they are sure to be stick. The escapement in fig. 2- i the clock has done striking, if the first blow is to be struck not drawn rightly for the present form of them, which is given m exactly at the hour, as there are always a good mapy seconds lost in the train getting into action and raising the fi°The same general arrangement will serve for a dead escapement hammer. Moreover, when it stops on the lift, the pressure on the

CLOCKS clock with’ or without a train remontoire; only the pendulum will not stand so high, and the front end of the pallet arbor must be set in a cock like those of the striking flies, on the front bar of the frame. And for a dead escapement, if there are large dials and no remontoire, the pendulum should be longer and heavier than that which is quite sufficient for a gravity escapement. The rod of a wooden pendulum should be as thin as it can conveniently be made, and varnished, to prevent its absorbing moisture. Dials and Hands. The old established form of dial for turret clocks is a sheet of copper made convex, to preserve its shape; and this is just the worst form which could have been contrived for it. For, in the first place, the minute-hand, being necessarily outside of the hour-hand, is thrown still farther off the minutes to which it has to point, by the convexity of the dial; and consequently, when it is in any position except nearly vertical, it is impossible to see accurately where it is pointing; and if it is bent enough to avoid this effect of parallax, it looks very ill. Secondly, a convex dial at a considerable height from the ground looks even more convex than it really is, because the lines of sight from the middle and the top of the dial make a smaller angle with the eye than the lines from the middle and the bottom, in proportion to the degree of convexity. The obvious remedy for these defects, is simply to make the dial concave instead of convex. As convex dials look more curved than they are, concave ones look less curved than they are, and in fact might easily be taken for flat ones, though the curvature is exactly the same as usual. Old convex dials are easily altered to concave, and the improvement is very striking where it has been done. There is no reason why the same form should not be adopted in stone, cement, slate, or cast-iron, of which materials dials are sometimes and properly enough made, with the middle part countersunk for the hour hand, so that the minute-hand may go close to the figures and avoid parallax. When dials are large, copper, or even iron or slate, is quite a useless expense, if the stonework is moderately smooth, as most kinds of stone take and retain paint very well, and the gilding will stand upon it better than it often does on copper or iron. The figures are generally made much too large. People have a pattern dial painted; and if the figures are not as long as one-third of the radius, and therefore occupying, with the minutes, about twothirds of the whole area of the dial, they fancy they are not large enough to be read at a distance; whereas the fact is, the more the dial is occupied by the figures, the less distinct they are, and the more difficult it is to distinguish the position of the hands, which is what people really want to see, and not to read the figures, which may very well be replaced by twelve large spots. The figures, after all, do not mean what they say, as you read “ twenty minutes to ” something, when the minute-hand points to vnr. The rule which has been adopted, after various experiments, as the best for the proportions of the dial, is this. Divide the radius into three, and leave the inner two-thirds clear and flat, and of some colour forming a strong contrast to the colour of the hands, black or dark blue if they are gilt, and white if they are black. The figures, if there are any, should occupy the next two-thirds of the remaining third, and the minutes be set in the remainder, near the edge, and with every fifth minute more strongly marked than the rest; and there should not be a rim round the dial of the same colour or gilding as the figures. The worst kind of dial of all are the things called skeleton-dials, which either have no middle except the stonework, forming no contrast to the hands, or else taking special trouble to perplex the spectator by filling up the middle with radiating bars. Where a dial cannot be put without interfering with the architecture, it is much better to have none, as is the case in many cathedrals and large churches, leaving the information to be given by the striking of the hours and quarters. This also will save something, perhaps a good deal, in the size and cost of the clock, and if it is one without a train remontoire or gravity escapement, will enable it to go better. The size of public dials is often very inadequate to their height and the distance at which they are intended to be seen.. They ought to be at least 1 foot in diameter for every 10 feet of height above the ground, and more whenever the dial will be seen far oft; and this rule ought to be enforced on architects, as they are often not aware of it; and indeed they seldom make proper provisions for the clock or the weights in building a tower, or, in short, know anything about the matter. The art of illuminating dials cannot be said to be in a satisfactory state. Where there happens to be, as there seldom is, a projecting root at some little distance below the dial, it may be illuminated by reflection, like that at the Horse Guards—about the only merit winch that superstitiously venerated and bad clock has; and the same thmg may be done in some places by movable lamp reflectors, line those put before shop windows at night, to be turned back agamst the wall during the day. It has also been proposed to sink the dial within the wall, and illuminate ft by jets of gas pointing inwards from a kind of projecting rim, like what is called in church windov.s a hood-moulding,” carried all round. But it is a great

31; objection to sunk dials, even of less depth than would be requiredhere, that they do not receive light enough by day, and do not get their faces washed by the rain. The common mode of illumination is by making the dials either entirely, or all except the figures and minutes and a ring to carry them, of glass, either ground or lined in the inside with linen (paint loses its colour from the gas). The gas is kept always alight, but the clock is made to turn it nearly, off and full on at the proper times by a 24-hour wheel, with pins set in it by hand as the length of the day varies. Self-acting apparatus has been applied, but it is somewhat complicated, and an unnecessary expense. But these dials always look very ill by day; and it seems often to be forgotten that dials are wanted much more by day than by night; and also, that the annual expense of lighting 3 or 4 dials far exceeds the interest of the entire cost of any ordinary clock. Sometimes it exceeds the whole cost of the clock annually. The use of white opaque glass with black figures is very superior to the common method. It is used in the great Westminster clock dials. It is somewhat of an objection to illuminating large dials from the inside, that it makes it impossible to counterpoise the hands outside, except with very short, and therefore very heavy, counterpoises. And if hands are only counterpoised inside, there is no counterpoise at all to the force of the wind, which is then constantly tending to loosen them on the arbor, and that tendency is aggravated by the hand itself pressing on the arbor ono way as it ascends, and the other way as it descends; and if a large hand once gets in the smallest degree loose, it becomes rapidly worse by the constant shaking. It is mentioned in Beid’s book that the minute-hand of St Paul’s cathedral, which is above 8 feet long, used to fall over above a minute as it passed from the left to the right side of xn, before it was counterpoised outside. In the conditions to be followed in the Westminster clock it was expressly required that “the hands be counterpoised externally, for wind as well as weight. ” The long hand should be straight and plain, to distinguish it as much as possible from the hour hand, which should end in a “ heart” or swell. Many clockmakers and architects, on the contrary, seem to aim at making the hands as like each other as they can; and it is not uncommon to see even the counterpoises gilt, probably with the same object of producing apparent symmetry and the same result of producing real confusion. The old fashion of having chimes or tunes played byrnachinery on church bells at certain hours of the day has greatly revived in the last few years, and it has extended to town halls, as also that of having very large clock bells, which had almost become extinct until the making of the Westminster clock. The old kind of chime machinery consisted merely of a large wooden barrel about 2 feet in diameter with pins stuck in it like those of a musical box, which pulled down levers that lifted hammers on the bells. Generally there were several tunes “pricked” on the barrel, which had an endway motion acting automatically, so as to make a shift after each tune, and with a special adjustment by hand to make it play a psalm tune on Sundays. But though these tunes were very pleasing and popular in the places where such chimes existed they were generally feeble and irregular, because the pins and levers were not strong enough to lift hammers of sufficient weight for the large bells, and there were no means of regulating the time of dropping off the levers. Probably the last large chime work of this kind was that put up by Dent to play on 16 bells at the Royal Exchange in 1845, with the improvement of a cast-iron barrel and stronger pins than in the old wooden barrels. A much improved chime machine has been introduced since, at first by an inventor named Imhoff, who sold his patent, or the right to use it, to Messrs Gillett and Bland of Croydon, and also to Messrs Lund and Blockley of Pall Mall, who have both added further improvements of their own. The principle of it is this : instead of the hammers being lifted by the pins which let them off, they are lifted whenever they are down by an independent set of cam wheels of ample strength ; and all that the pins on the barrel have to do is to trip them up by a set of comparatively light levers or detents. Consequently the pins are as small as those of a barrel organ, and many more tunes can be set on the same barrel than in the old plan, and besides that, any number of barrels can be kept, and put in from time to time as you please ; so that you may have as many tunes as the' peal of bells will admit. There are various provisions for regulating and adjusting the time, and the machinery is altogether of a very perfect kind for its purpose, but it must be seen to be understood. It is always necessary in chimes to have at least two hammers to each bell to enable a note to be repeated quickly. Some ambitious musicians determined to try “chords” or double notes struck at opce, in spite of warning that they could not be made to strike quite simultaneously, and so it turned out, and it is useless to attempt them. The largest peals and chimes yet made have been at Worcester cathedral, and the town halls of Bradford and Rochdale, and a still larger one is now making for Manchester, all by Gillett and Bland. The clock at Worcester, which as yet ranks next to Westminster, was made by Mr Joyce of 'Whitchurch ; the others are by Gillett and Bland. At Boston church they have chimes in imita-

32

CLOCKS

pins, that they are very strong, and there is no risk of their being broken in hardening, as there is with common pinions. The fundamental rule for the tracing of teeth, though very simple, is not so well known as it ought to be, and therefore we will o-ive it, premising that so much of a tooth as lies within the pitch circle of the wheel is called its root or flank, and the part beyond the pitch circle is called the point, or the curve, or the addendum; and moreover, that before the line of centres the action is always between the flanks of the driver and the points of the driven wheel or rtmner (as it may be called, more appropriately than the usual term follower); and after the line of centres, the action is always Teeth op Wheels. between the points of the driver and the flanks of the runner. ConBefore explaining the construction of the largest clock in the sequently, if there is no action before the line of centres, no points world it is necessary to consider the shape of wheel teeth suitable foi are required for the teeth of the runner. In fig. 23, let AQX be the pitch circle of the runner, and AKY dilferent purposes, and also of the cams requisite to raise heavy hammers, which had been too much neglected by clockmakers pre- that of the driver; and let GAP be any curve whatever of smaller viously. At the same time we are not going to write a treatise on curvature than AQX (of course a all the branches of the important subject of wheel-cutting ; but, circle is always the kind of curve assuming a knowledge of the general principles of it, to apply them used); and QP the curve which is to the points chiefly involved in clock-making. The most compre- traced out by any point _P in the genehensive mathematical view of it is perhaps to be found in a paper rating circle GAP, as it rolls in the by the astronomer royal in the Cambridge Transactions many years pitch circle AQX; and again let EP ago, which is further expanded in Professor Willis’s Principles of be the curve traced by the point P, as Mechanism. Eespecting the latter book, however, we should advise the generating circle GAP is rolled on the reader to be content with the mathematical rules there given, the pitch circle ARY; then EP will which are very simple, without attending much to those of the be the form of the point of a tooth on odontograph, which seem to give not less but more trouble than the driver ARY, which will drive with the mathematical, and are only approximate after all, and also do uniform and proper motion the flank 1C ; y not explain themselves, or convey any knowledge of the principle QPof the runner; though hot without Driver *some friction, because that can only to those who use them. Fig. 23. For all wheels that are to work together, the first thing to do is be done with involute teeth, which are to fix the geometrical, or primitive, or pitch circles of the two wheels-, traced in a different way, and are subject i.e., the two circles which, if they rolled perfectly together, would to other conditions, rendering them practically useless for machinery, give the velocity-ratio you want. Draw a straight line joining the as may be seen in Professor Willis’s book. If the motion is two centres ; then the action which takes place between any two reversed, so that the runner becomes the driver, then the flank QP teeth as they are approaching that line, is said to be before the line of is of the proper form to drive the point EP, if any action has to centres ; and the action while they are separating is said to be after take place before the line of centres. And again, any generating curve, not even necessarily the same the line of centi’es. Now, with a view to reduce the friction, it is essential to have as little action before the line of centres as you as before, may be used to trace the flanks of the driver and the points of the runner, by being rolled within the circle ARY, and on can ; for if you make any rude sketch, on a large scale, of a pair of wheels acting together, and serrate the edges of the teeth (which is the circle AQX. Now then, to apply this rule to particular cases. Suppose the an exaggeration of thoroughness which produces friction), you will see that the further the contact begins before the line of centres, the generating circle is the same as the pitch circle of the driven pinion more the serration will interfere with the motion, and that at a itself, it evidently cancertain distance no force whatever could drive the wheels, but not roll at all; and would only jam the teeth faster; and you will see also that this can- the tooth of the pinion not happen after the line of centres. But with pinions of the is represented by the numbers generally used in clocks you cannot always get rid of mere point P on the action before the line of centres; for it may be proved (but the circumference of the proof is too long to give here), that if a pinion has less than 11 pitch circle ; and the leaves, no wheel of any number of teeth can drive it without some tooth to drive it will action before the line of centres. And generally it may be stated be simply an epicycloid that the greater the number of teeth the less friction there will be, traced by rolling the as indeed is evident enough from considering that if the teeth were pitch circle of the infinite in number, and infinitesimal in size, there would be no pinion on that of the friction at all, but simple rolling of one pitch circle on the other. wheel. And we know And since in clock-work the wheels always drive the pinions, except that in that case there the hour pinion in the dial work, and the winding pinions in large is no action before clocks, it has long been recognized as important to have high num- the line of centres, bered pinions, except where there is a train remontoire, or a gravity and no necessity for any flanks on the teeth escapement, to obviate that necessity. And with regard to this matter, the art of clock-making has in of the driver. But inone sense retrograded ; for the pinions which are now almost univer- asmuch as the pins sally used in English and French clocks are of a worse form than of a lantern pinion those of several centuries ago, to which we have several times must have some thickalluded under the name of lantern pinions, so called from their re- ness, and cannot be sembling a lantern with upright ribs. A sketch of one, with a mere lines, a further cross section on a large scale, is given at fig. 24. Now it is a property process is necessary to of these pinions, that when they are driven, the action begins just get the exact form of when the centre of the pin is on the line of centres, however few the teeth; thus if RP, Fxq. 24.—Lantern Pinion. the pins may be ; and thus the action of a lantern pinion of 6 is fig. 24, is the tooth that would drive a pinion with pins of no sensible thickness, the about equal to that of a leaved pinion of 10 ; and indeed, for some reason or other, it appears in practice to be even better, possibly tooth to drive a pin of the thickness 2 Pp must have the width P/> from the teeth of the wheel not requiring to be cut so accurately, or Rr gauged off it all round. This, in fact, brings it very nearly and from the pinion never getting clogged with dirt. Certainly the to a smaller tooth traced with the same generating circle ; anu running of the American clocks, which all have these pinions, is therefore in practice this mode of construction is not much adhered remarkably smooth, and they require a much smaller going weight to, and the teeth are made of the same shape, only thinner, as if than English clocks ; and the same may be said of the common the pins of the pinion had no thickness. Of course they should he “ Dutch,” i.e., German clocks. It should be understood, however, thin enough to allow a little shake, or “back-lash,” but in that as the action upon these pinions is all after the line of centres clock-work the backs of the teeth never come in contact at all. _ Next suppose the generating circle to be half the size of the pitch when they are driven, it will be all before the line of centres if they drive, and therefore they are not suitable for that purpose. In circle of the pinion. The curve, or hypocycloid, traced by rolling some of the French clocks in the 1851 Exhibition they were wrongly this within the pinion, is no other than the diameter of the pinion | used, not only for the train, but for winding pinions ; and some of and consequently the flanks of the pinion teeth will be merely radii them also had the pins not fixed in the lantern, but rolling,—a very of it, and such teeth or leaves are called radial teeth ; and they are useless refinement, and considerably diminishing the strength of the far the most common ; indeed, no others are ever made (except lanpinion. For it is one of the advantages of lantern pinions with fixed terns) for clock-work. The corresponding epicycloidal points of

tion of some of the foreign ones on above 40 small bells, which were added for that purpose to the eight of the peal; but they are not successful, and it is stated in Sir E. Beckett’s book on clocks and bells, that he warned them that the large and small bells would not harmonize, though either might be used separately. Other persons have attempted chimes on hemispherical bells, like those of house clocks ; but they also are a failure for external bells to be heard at a distance. This however belongs rather to the subject of bells ; and we must refer to that book for all practical information about them.

CLOCKS 33 the teeth of the driver are more curved, or a less pointed arc, than proved that epicycloidal cams described as follows are so nearly those required for a lantern pinion of the same size and number. of the proper mathematical form that they may be used without The teeth in fig. 25 are made of a different form on the opposite any sensible error. Let r be the radius of the circle or barrel on sides of the line of centres which the cams are to be set theoretically, i.e., allowing nothing CA, in order to show the for the clearance which must be cut out afterwards, for fear the difference between driving i lever should scrape the back of the cams in falling; in other words, and driven or running r is the radius of the pitch circle of the cams. Call the length of teeth, where the number the lever l. Then the epicycloidal cams may be traced by rolling of the pinion happens to on the pitch circle a smaller one whose diameter is yV3 -W2 - r. be as much as 12, so that Thus, if l is 4 inches and r 8 inches (which is about the proper size no points are required to for an 18-inch striking wheel with 20 cams), the radius of the its teeth when driven, tracing circle from the cams will be 0'flinch. The advantage of since with that number cams of this kind is that they waste as little force as possible in the all the action may be lift, and keep the lever acting upon them as a tangent at its point after the line of centres. the whole way ; and the cams themselves may be of any length The great Westminster according to the angle through which you want the lever to move.. clock affords a very good Most people however prefer dealing with circles, when they can, illustration of this. In instead of epicycloids; and drawing by compasses is safer than both the striking parts calculating in most hands.' We therefore give another rule, sugthe great wheel of the train and the great winding-wheel on the gested by Mr E. J. Lawrence, a member of the horological jury in the other end of the barrel are about the same size; but in the train 1851 Exhibition, is easier to work, and satisfies the principal the wheel drives, and in winding the pinion drives. And there- conditions statedwhich just now, though it wastes rather more in lift fore in the train the pinion-teeth have their points cut off, and than the epicycloidal curve; and the cams must not have their wheel-teeth have their points on, as on the right side of fig. 25, points cut olf, as epicycloidal ones may, to make the lever drop and in the winding-wheels the converse ; and thus in both cases off sooner; because a short cam has to be drawn with a different the action is made to take place in the way in which there is the radius from a long one, to work a lever of any given length. But, least friction. Willis gives the following table, “ derived organi- on the other hand, the same curve for the cams will suit a lever of cally ” (i.c., by actual trial with large models), of the least numbers any length, whereas with epicycloidal cams you must take care to put which will work together without any action before the line of the centre or axis of the lever at the exact distance from the centre centres, provided there are no points to the teeth of the runner, of the wheel for which the curve was calculated—an easy enough assuming them to be radial teeth, as usual :— thing to do, of course, but for the usual disposition of workmen to deviate from your plans, apparently for the mere pleasure of doing Driver 54 30 24 20 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 wrong. It is astonishing how, by continually making one machine Runner 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 23 27 35 32 176 after another, with a little deviation each time, the thing gradually In practice it is hardly safe to leave the driven teeth without assumes a form in which you can hardly recognise your original points, unless the numbers slightly exceed these; because, if there design at all. The prevention of this kind of blundering is one of is any irregularity in them, the square edges of those teeth would the many advantages of making machines by machinery, for which not work smoothly with the teeth of the driver. Sometimes it no machine offers more facilities than clocks, and yet there is none happens that the same wheel has to drive two pinions of different to which it is less'applied. mimbers. It is evident that, if both are lanterns, or both pinions In fig. 26 let CA be a radius of the wheel, L in the same straight with radial teeth, they cannot properly be driven by the same wheel, line the centre of the lever, and AB the space of one cam on because they would require teeth of a different shape. It is true the pitch circle of the that on account of the greater indifference of lantern pinions to the cams, A being a little accuracy of the teeth which are to drive them, the same wheel will below the line of drive two pinions of that kind, differing in the numbers in the centres; AP is the ratio of even 2 to 1, with hardly any sensible shake ; but that arc of the lever. would not be so with radial pinions, and of course it is not correct. Draw a tangent to Accordingly, in clocks with the spring remontoire, as in fig. 21, the two circles at A, where the scape-wheel or remontoire pinion is double the size of the and a tangent to the fly pinion, the larger one is made with radial teeth and the smaller cam circle at B; then a lantern, which makes the same wheel teeth exactly right for both. T, their point of inIn clocks of the same construction as fig. 22, and in the West- tersection, will be minster clock, there is a case of a different kind, which cannot be so the centre of the accommodated ; for there the great wheel has to drive both the circle which is the 26. second wheel’s pinion of 10 or 12, and the hour-wheel of 40 or 48; face of the cam BP; and TB also =TA, which is a convenient test the teeth of the great wheel were therefore made to suit the lantern of the tangents being rightly drawn. The action begins at the pinion, and those of the hour-wheel (i.e., their flanks) then depend point of the lever, and advances a little way up, but recedes again on those of the great wheel, and they were accordingly traced to the point, and ends with the lever as a tangent to the cam at P. by _ rolling a generating circle of the size of the lantern I he backs of the cams must be cut out rather deeper than the circle pinion on the inside of the pitch circle of the hour-wheel; the AP, but retaining the point P, to allow enough for clearance of the result is a tooth thicker at the bottom than usual. These are by lever, which should fall against some fixed stop or banking on the no means unnecessary refinements ; for if the teeth of a set of wheels clock-frame, before the next cam reaches it. The point of the lever are not properly shaped so as to work smoothly and regularly into must not be left quite sharp, for if it is, it will in time cut off the each other, it increases their tendency to wear out in proportion to points ol the cast-iron cams. their inaccuracy, besides increasing the inequalities of force in the train. Sometimes_ turret clocks are worn out in a few years from the defects in their teeth, especially when they are made of brass Oil for Clocks. or soft gun-metal. We will add a few words on the subject of oil for clocks. Oliveconstruction of clocks which heavy is most commonly used, sometimes purified in various ways, and it. is important to obtain the best formhave for totheraise cams, as hammers pins are oil sometimes not purified at all. We believe, however, that purified quite unfit for the purpose. The conditions which are most impor- animal oil is better than any of the vegetable oils, as some of them tant are—-that the action should begin at the greatest advantage, are too thin, while others soon get thick and viscid. For turret and therefore at the end of the lever, that when it ceases the face clocks and common clocks, good sperm oil is fine enough, and of the iever should be a tangent to the cam at both their points, is piobabJy the best. house finer work the oil requires some purifiand that in no part of the motion should the end of the lever scrape cation. Even common For foot oil may be made fine and clear by on the cam. In the common construction of clocks the first con- the following method. neat’s Mix it with about the same quantity of dition is deviated from as far as possible, by the striking pins water, and shake it in a large not full, until it becomes like beginning to act at some distance from the end of the lever; and con- a white soup; then let it standbottle, till fine oil appears at the top, which sequently, at the time when the most force is required to lift the ham- may be skimmed off; it will take several months before it has all m«» there is the least given, and a great deal is wasted afterwards. separated into water at the bottom, dirt in the middle, and fine i he construction of curve for the cams, which is the most perfect oil at the top. it should be done in cold weather, because mathematically, is that which is described in mathematical books heat makes some And out as fine, which in cold would remain name of the tractrix. But there are such practical among the dirty oiloilincome the middle, and in cold weather that fine oil difficulties m describing it that it is of no use. It should be of hot weather will become muddy. are various vegetable observed that, in a well-known book with an appropriate name oils sold at tool-shops as oil for watches, There including some for which a the Tce h fVheels a rule for medal was awarded in the Exhibition, but not by any of the ! ^ is quitedrawing nisei ted by some translator, which wrong.camsIthas maybeen be prize mechanical juries ■ we have no information as to the test which was VI- - 5

34

CLOCKS

applied to it, and none but actual use for a considerable time would be of much value. The Westminster Clock It is unnecessary to repeat tire account of tire long dispute between the Government, the architect of the House of Parliament, the astronomer royal, Sir E. Beckett, and some of the London clockmakers, which ended in the employment of the late E. J. Dent and his successor F. Dent from the designs and under the superintendence of Sir E. Beckett, as the inscription on it records _ The fullest account of these was given in the 4th and 5th editions of the Treatise on Clocks, and we shall now only describe its construction. Em 27 is a front elevation or section lengthwise of the clock, the frame is 16 feet long and 5 k wide, and it rests on two iron plates lyino- on the top of the walls of the shaft near the middle of the tower, down which the weights descend, That wall reaches up to the bell chamber, and those iron plates are built right through it, and so is the great cock which carries the pendulum. The clockroom is 28 feet x 19, the remaining 9 of the square being occupied by the staircase and an air-shaft for ventilating the whole building. The going part of the clock, however, not requiring such a long barrel as the striking parts, which have steel wire ropes ‘55 inch thick, is shorter than they are, and is carried by an intermediate ba- or frame bolted to the cross bars of the principal frame, ilie back of them is about 2£ feet from the wall, to leave room for a man behind, and the pendulum cock is so made as to let his head come within it in order to look square at the escapement. The escapement is the double three legs (fig. 13), and the length of the teeth or lecrg is 6 inches. The drawing represents the wheels (except tne bevelled wheels leading off to the dials) as mere circles to prevent

confusion The numbers of teeth and the time of revolution of the principal ones are inserted and require no further notice. Their size can be taken from the scale; the great wheels of the striking parts are 21- and of the going part 2 inches thick, and all the wheels are of cast-iron except the smaller ones of the escapement, which are brass, but are painted like the iron ones. _ . The maintaining power for keeping the clock going while winding is peculiar and probably unique. None of those already described could have kept in gear long enough, maintaining sufficient force all the time, as that part takes 10 minutes to wind, even if the man does not loiter over it. This is managed without a single extra wheel beyond the ordinary winding pinion of large clocks. Hie windin0' wheel on the end of the barrel is close to the great wheel, and you see the pinion with the winding arbor in the oblique piece of the front frame of the clock. Consequently that arbor is about 6 feet long, and a little movement of its back end makes no material obliquity In the two bushes ; i.e., it may go a little out of parallel with all the other arbors in the clock without any impediment to its action. Its back pivot is carried, not in a fixed bush, but in the lower end of a bar a little longer thanthe great wheel’s radius, hangin " from the back of the great arbor ; and that bar has a spring click upon it which takes into ratchet teeth cast on the back of the great wheel, When the great wheel is turning, and you are not winding, the ratchets pass the click as usual, but as soon as you begin to wind the back end of the winding arbor would rise but for the click catching those teeth, and so the great wheel itself become the fulcrum for winding for the time. After the winding has gone a few minutes a long tooth projecting from the back of the arbor catches against a stop, because that end of the hanging bar and pinion have all risen a little with the motion of the great wheel.

Then the man is obliged to turn the handle back a little, which lets down the pinion, &c., and the click takes up some lower teeth ; and so if he chooses to loiter an hour over the winding he can do no harm. The winding pinion “pumps” into gear and out again as usual. The going part will go 8I> days, to provide for the. possible foro-etting of a day in winding. The weight is about 160 lb ; but only one-14th of the whole force of that weight is requisite to drive the pendulum, as was found by trial; the rest goes in overcoming the friction of all the machinery, including a ton and a half of hands and counterpoises, and in providing force enough to drive them through all weathers, except heavy snows, which occasionally accumulate thick enough on several minute hands at once, on the left sade of the dials, to stop the clock, those hands being 11 feet long. For the dials are 22^ feet in diameter, or contain 400 square feet each, and there are very few rooms where such a dial could be painted on the floor. They are made of iron framing filled in with opal glass. Each minute is 14 inches wide. The only larger dial in the world is in Mechlin church, which is 40 feet wide ; but it has no minute hand, which makes an enormous difference in the force required in the clock. They are completely walled off from the clock-room by a passage all round, and there are a multitude of gas lights behind them, which are lighted by hand, though provision was originally made in the clock for doing it automatically. The hour hands go so slow that their weight is immaterial, and were left as they were made of gun metal under the architect s direction; but it was impossible to have minute hands of that construction and weight without injury to the clock, and so they were removed by Sir E. Beckett, and others made of copper tubes, with a section composed' of two circular arcs put together, and are consequently very stiff, while weighing only 28 lb. The great weight is m the wheels, tubes, and counterpoises. The minute hands are partly counterpoised outside, making their total length 14 feet, to relieve the strain upon

their arbors. They all run on friction wheels imbedded in the larger tubes 5h inches wide, which carry the hour hands, nhich themselves run on fixed friction wheels. , ., There is nothing peculiar in the quarter striking part except its size, and perhaps in the barrel turning in an hour and a half, in three repetitions of the five chimes already described The cams are of wrought iron with hard steel faces. Each bell has two hammers, which enables the cams to be longer and the pressure on them less. The hour-striking wheel has ten cams 25m. wide cast on it; but those cams have solid steel faces screwed on them. All this work was made for a hammer of 7 cwt., lifted 13 inches from the bell, i.e., about 9 inches o.f vertical lift. The hammer was induced to 4rthe cwt. after the partial of therope bell.as the Theweight rod from the lever hammer is made of cracking the same wire ropes and t . result is that there is no noise m the room while the clock is sink ing. The lever is 5 feet 4 inches long, and strikes against the buffer spring shown in the drawing, to prevent concussion on the clock-frame, of which you cannot feel the least. The quarter ha mer levers have smaller springs for the same purpose, and t stops of the striking part are also set on springs instead ot rigid as usual. The fUes, for which there was not room in the drawing, are near the top of the room and are each 2 feet 4 inches square. They make a considerable wmd in the room when revolv ino' The only noise made in striking is their running on their ratchets when the striking stops. Each striking wmght is a ton and a half-or was before the great hammer was reduced. They take 5 hours to wind up, and it has to be done twice a wee , which was thought better than making the parts larger and the teeth more numerous and the weights twice as much to go a week, and of course the winding must have taken twice as long, as it w, adapted to what a man can do continuously for some hours Lonsequently it was necessary to contrive something to stop the man

C L 0—C L 0 winding just before each time of striking. And that is done by a lever being tipped over by the snail at that time, which at once stops the winding. When the striking is done the man can put the lever up again and go on. The loose winding wheels are not pumped in and out of gear as usual, being too heavy, but one end of the arbor is pushed into gear by an eccentric bush turned by the oblique handle or lever which you see near the upper corner of each striking part, and they can be turned in a moment. They are held in their place for gear by a spring catch to prevent any risk of slipping out. Moveover the ropes themselves stop the winding when the weights came to the top, pretty much as they do in a spring clock or a watch, though not exactly. The mode of letting off the hour striking is peculiar, with a view to the first blow of the hour being exactly at the 60th second of the 60th minute. It was found that this could not be depended on to a single beat of the pendulum, and probably it never can in any clock, by a mere snail turning in an hour, unless it was of a very inconvenient size. Therefore the common snail only lets it off partially, and the striking stop still rests against a lever which is not dropped but tipped up with a slight blow by another weighted lever resting on a snail on the ] 5-minute wheel, which moves more exactly with the escapement than the common snail lower in the train. The hammer is left on the lift, ready to fall, and it always does fall within half a second after the last beat of the pendulum at the hour. This is shown in fig. 28, where BE is the spring stop noticed above, and P the ordinary first stop on the long lifting lever PQ (which goes on far beyond the reach of this figure to the hour snail). The second or warning stop is CD, and BAS is the extra lever with its heavy end at S on the 15-minute snail. When that falls the end B tips up CD with certainty by the blow, and then the striking is free. The first, second, and third quarters begin at the proper times but the fourth quarter chimes begin about 20 seconds before the hour. The clock reports its own rate to Greenwich Observatory by galvanic action twice a day, i.e., an electric circuit is made and broken by the pressing together of certain springs at two given hours. And in this way the rate of the clock is ascertained and recorded, and the general results published by the astronomer royal in his annual report. This has been for some years so remarkably uniform, that the error has only reached 3 seconds on 3 per cent, of the days

CLOISTER (Latin, clausirum ; French, cloitre ; Italian, chiostro , Spanish, daustro; German, Hosier). The word “ cloister,” though now restricted to the four-sided enclosure, surrounded with covered ambulatories, usually attached to conventual and cathedral churches, and sometimes to colleges, or by a still further limitation to the ambulatories themselves, originally signified the entire monastery. In this sense it is of frequent occurrence in our earlier literature (e.g., Shakespeare, Meets, for Meets., i. 3, “This day my.sister should the doister enter”), and is still employed in poetry. The Latin daustrum, as its derivation implies, primarily denoted no more than the enclosing wall of a religious house, and then came to be used for the whole building enclosed within the wall. To this sense the German “ kloster ” is still limited, the covered walks, or cloister in the modern sense, being called “ kloster-gang,” or “ kreuz-gang.” In French, as with us, the word doitre retains the double sense. In the special sense now most common, the word “ cloister ” denotes the quadrilateral area in a monastery or college of canons, round which the principal buildings are lunged, and which is usually provided with a covered way or ambulatory running all round, and affording a means of communication between the various centres of the ecclesiastical life, without exposure to the weather. According to the Benedictine arrangement, which from its suitability to the requirements of monastic life was generally adopted in the West, one side of the cloister was formed by the church, the refectory occupying the side opposite to it, that the worshippers might have the least annoyance from the noise or smell of the repasts. On the eastern side the chapterhouse was placed, with other apartments belonging to the common life of the brethren adjacent to it, and, as a conamon rule, the dormitory occupied the whole of the

35

in the year, and is generally under two. He has also reported that “the rate of the clock is certain to much less than a second a week ”—subject to abnormal disturbances by thunder storms which sometimes amount to seven or eight seconds, and other casualties, which are easily distinguishable from the spontaneous variations.

The original stipulation in 1845 was that the rate should not vary more than a second a day—not a week ; and this was pronounced impossible by Mr Vulliamy and the London Company of Clockmakers, and it is true that up to that time no such rate had ever been attained by any large clock. In 1851 it was by the abovementioned clock, now at King’s Cross Station, by means of the train remontoire, which was then intended to be used at Westminster, but was superseded by the gravity escapement. The great hour bell, of the note E, weighs 13i tons and is 9 feet diameter and 9 inches thick. The quarter bells weigh respectively 78, 33^, 26, and 21 cwt.; with diameters 6 feet, 4^,°4, and 3 feet 9 inches, and notes B, E, F sh. and G sh. The hammers are on double levers embracing the bells, and turning on pivots projecting from the iron collars which carry the mushroom shaped tops of the bells. The bells, including £750 for recasting the first great bell, cost nearly £6000, and the clock £4080. The bell frame, which is of wrought iron plates, and the dials and hands, all provided by the architect, cost £11,934—a curious case of the accessories costing more than the principals. (e. b. )

upper story. On the opposite or western side were generally the cellarer s lodgings, with the cellars and store-houses, in which the provisions necessary for the sustenance of the confraternity were housed. In Cistercian monasteries the western side was usually occupied by the “domus conversorum,” or lodgings of the lay-brethren, with their dayrooms and workshops below, and dormitory above. The cloistei, with its surrounding buildings, generally stood on the south side of the church, to secure as much sunshine as possible. A very early example of this disposition is seen in the plan of the monastery of St Gall (Abbey, vol. i. p. 12). Local requirements, in some instances’ caused the cloister to be placed to the north of the church. This is the case in the English cathedrals, formerly Benedictine abbeys, of Canterbury, Gloucester, and Chester, as well as in that of Lincoln. Other examples of the northvvard situation are at Tintern, Buildwas, and Sherborne. Although the covered ambulatories are absolutely essential to the completeness of a monastic cloister, a chief object of which was to enable the inmates to pass from one part of the monastery to another without inconvenience from rain, wind, or sun, it appears that they were sometimes wanting. he cloister at St Alban’s seems to have been deficient in ambulatories till the abbacy of Robert of Gorham, 11 Sill 66, when the eastern walk was erected. This, as was often the case with the earliest ambulatories, was of wood covered with a pentice roof. We learn from Osbern’s account of the conflagration of the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury, 1067, that a cloister with covered ways existed at that time, affording communication between the church, the dormitory, and the refectory. We learn from ^ an early drawing of the monastery of Canterbury that this cloister was formed by an arcade of Norman arches supported on shafts, and covered by a shed roof.

36

OLO — CLO

A fragment of an arcaded cloister of this pattern is still I novices were taught at Durham (Willis, Monastic Buildings found on the eastern side of the infirmary-cloister of the of Canterbury,^. 44; Rites of Durham, p. 71). The other same foundation. This earlier form of cloister has been alleys, especially that next the church, were devoted to the generally superseded with us by a range of windows, usually studies of the elder monks. The constitutions of Hildemar unglazed, but sometimes, as at Gloucester, provided with and Dunstan enact that between the services of the church glass, lighting a vaulted ambulatory, of which the cloisters the brethren should sit in the cloister and read theology. of Westminster Abbey, Salisbury, and Norwich are typical For this purpose small studies, known as carrols, from their examples. The older design was preserved in the South, square shape, were often found in the recesses of the where “ the cloister is never a window, or anything in the windows. Of this arrangement we have examples at least approaching to it in design, but a range of small Gloucester, Chester (recently restored), and elsewhere. elegant pillars, sometimes single, sometimes coupled, and The use of these studies is thus described in the Rites of supporting arches of a light and elegant design, all the Durham :—“ In every wyndowe ” in the north alley features being of a character suited to the place where they “ were iii pewes or carrells, where every one of the olde are used, and to that only ” (Fergusson, Hist, of Arch., i. monkes had his carrell severally by himselfe, that when p. 610). As examples of this description of cloister, we they had dyned they dyd resorte to that place of cloister, may refer to the exquisite cloisters of St John Lateran, and there studyed upon their books, every one in his carrell and St Paul’s without the walls, at Rome, where the all the afternonne unto evensong tyme. This was there coupled shafts and arches are richly ornamented with exercise every dale.” On the opposite wall were cupboards ribbons of mosaic, and those of the convent of St Scholastica full of books for the use of the students in the carrols. The at Subiaco, all of the 13th century, and to the beautiful cloister arrangements at Canterbury were similar to those cloisters at Arles, in southern France, “ than which no just described. New studies were made by Prior De Estria building in this style, perhaps, has been so often drawn or in 1317, and Prior Selling (1472-94) glazed the south so much admired” (Fergusson); and those of Aix, Fonti- alley for the use of the studious brethren, and constructed froide, Fine, &c., are of the same type ; as also the “ the new framed contrivances, of late styled carrols ” Romanesque cloisters at Zurich, where the design suffers (Willis, Mon. Buildings, p. 45). The cloisters were used from the deep abacus having only a single slender shaft not for study only but also for recreation. The constitutions to support it, and at Laach, where the quadrangle occupies of Archbishop Lanfranc, sect. 3, permitted the brethren to the place of the “ atrium ” of the early basilicas at the converse together there at certain hours of the day. To west end, as at St Clement’s at Rome, and St Ambrose maintain necessary discipline a special officer was appointed at Milan. Spain also presents some magnificent cloisters under the title of prior claustri. The cloister was always of both types, of which that of the royal convent of furnished with a stone bench running along the side. It Huelgas, near Burgos, of the arcaded form, is, according was also provided with a lavatory, usually adjacent to the to Mr Fergusson, “ unrivalled for beauty both of detail and refectory, but sometimes standing in the central area, design, and is perhaps unsurpassed by anything in its age termed the cloister-garth, as at Durham. The cloisterand style in any part of Europe.” Few cloisters are more garth was used as a place of sepulture, as well as the surbeautiful than those of Monreale and Cefalu in Sicily, rounding alleys. The cloister was in some few instances where the arrangement is the same, of slender columns in of two stories, as at Old St Paul’s, and St Stephen’s Chapel, pairs with capitals of elaborate foliage supporting pointed Westminster, and occasionally, as at Wells, Chichester, and Hereford, had only three alleys, there being no ambulatory arches of great elegance of form. All other cloisters are surpassed in dimensions and in under the church wall. The larger monastic establishments had more than one sumptuousness of decoration by the “ Campo Santo ” at Pisa. This magnificent cloister consists of four ambu- cloister ; there was usually a second connected with the latories as wide and lofty as the nave of a church, erected infirmary, of which we have examples at Westminster in 1278 by Giovanni Pisano round a cemetery composed of Abbey and at Canterbury ; and sometimes one giving soil brought from Palestine by Archbishop Lanfranchi in access to the kitchen and other domestic offices. The cloister was not an appendage of monastic houses the middle of the 12th century. The window openings are semicircular, filled with elaborate tracery in the latter exclusively. We find it also attached to colleges of secular half of the 15th century. The inner walls are covered canons, as at the cathedrals of Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, with frescos invaluable in the history of art by Orgagna, Hereford, and Chichester, and formerly at St Paul’s and Simone Memmi, BufFalmacco, Benozzo Gozzoli, and other Exeter. It is, however, absent at York, Lichfield, Beverley, early painters of the Florentine school. The ambulatories Ripon, Southwell, and Wimborne. A cloister forms an now serve as a museum of sculpture. The internal dimen- essential part of the colleges of Eton and of St Mary’s, sions are 415 feet 6 inches in length, 137 feet 10 inches Winchester, and New and Magdalen at Oxford, and was in breadth, while each ambulatory is 34 feet 6 inches designed by Wolsey at Christ Church. These were used for religious processions and lectures, for ambulatories for wide by 46 feet high. The cloister of a religious house was the scene of a large the studious at all times, and for places of exercise for the part of the life of the inmates of a monastery. When not inmates generally in wet weather, as well as in some inin church, refectory, or dormitory, or engaged in manual stances for sepulture. For the arrangements of the Carthusian cloisters, as labour, the monks were usually to be found here. The north walk of the cloister of St Gall appears to have served well as for some account of those appended to the (e. v.) as the chapter-house. The cloister was the place of monasteries of the East, see the article Abbey. CLONMEL, a parliamentary and municipal borough of education for the younger members, and of study for the elders. A canon of the Roman council held under Ireland, in the province of Munster, partly in the south Eugenius II., in 826, enjoins the erection of a cloister as an riding of Tipperary and partly in Waterford county, 104 essential portion of an ecclesiastical establishment for the miles south-west from Dublin. It is built on both sides better discipline and instruction of the clerks. Peter of of the Suir, and also occupies Moore and Long Islands, Blois (Serm. 25) describes schools for the novices as being which are connected with the mainland by three bridges. in the west walk, and moral lectures delivered in that next The principal buildings are the parish church, two Roman the church. At Canterbury the monks’ school was in the Catholic churches, a Franciscan friary, two convents, an western ambulatory, and it was in the same walk that the endowed school dating from 1685, a model school under the

C L 0 —C L 0

37 national board, a mechanics’ institute, a court-house aud appointed head of the medical administration of the country prison, a fever hospital and dispensary, two lunatic In 1849 he returned to Marseilles. Clot published— asylums, a market-house, a workhouse, and barracks. Till des epidemics de cholera qux ont regne d, VHeggiaz, ct Suez et the Union the woollen manufacture established in 1667 en Egypte (1832); Be la peste observee en Egypte (1840) ■ was extensively carried on. The town contains a brewery, Aper h disappeared. (1580-1623), a German geographer still regurded as an authority, was born at Danzig in 1580. 0l

the qhiri^6 fln^ ^ ^>0^anc^ and Germany, he commenced attenHnnyf°f aW ^ Leyden i ^ soon turned his wllich Josenb S v ge0gr^ was then taught there by his ,1DlSpleased with llis desertion of the law, t0 SUPP rfc him Was f tO ^ with , which ° he served ^ aildfor two ^ed to enter k the army, years in

43 Bohemia and Hungary. After leaving the army he undertook to get printed in Holland an apology for Baron Popel, who had been imprisoned by the emperor; and in consequence he was himself thrown into prison. On his release he visited England, where he married, and became acquainted with Dr Holland and Dr Prideaux. After spending some time in Scotland and France, he returned to Holland; and in 1611 he commenced to publish his works, being, after 1616, supported by a pension from the Academy of Leyden. His principal works are—Germania Antigua (1616), Sicilicp, Antiquas libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antigua {ISIS), Italia Antigua (1624), Introductio in Universam Geographiam (1629). CLYDE, the most important river of Scotland, and the third in point of magnitude, has its origin from numerous small streams rising at a height of about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, in the mountains which separate Lanarkshire from the counties of Peebles and Dumfries. It flows first in a northerly direction, with a slight inclination eastward as far as Biggar, where, in time of floods, a junction is sometimes established with the system of the Tweed by means of the Biggar Water. After uniting with the Douglas near Harperfield, it takes a north-west course, passing Lanark, Hamilton, and Glasgow, and merges in the Firth of Clyde below Dumbarton. From its source to Dumbarton it is about 73 miles in length, the direct district being about 52. Its principal tributaries are the Douglas, the Nethan, the Avon, and the Cart from the left, and the Medwyn, the Mouse, the Calder, the Kelvin, and the Leven from the right. Of the celebrated Falls of Clyde, three are above and one below Lanark ; the uppermost is Bennington _ Linn, the height of which is about 30 feet ; the second is Corra Linn, where the water dashes over the rock in three distinct leaps, and resumes its course at a level 84 feet lower. Dundaff Linn is a small fall of 10 feet; and at Stonebyres there are three successive falls, together measuring 76 feet in height. At high water the Clyde is navigable to Glasgow for the largest class of merchant vessels. See Glasgow. CLYDE, Lord (1792-1863), better known as Sir Colin Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 16th of October 1792. He received his education at the high school of that city, and when only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigney in the 9th foot, through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle. The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, took part in the retreat of Sir J ohn Moore, and was present at the battle of Coruna. He shared in all the fighting of the next Peninsular campaign, and was severely wounded while leading a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again wounded at the passage of the Bidoassa, and compelled to return to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded with the rank of captain and. lieutenant, without purchase. Campbell held a command in the American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by purchase. In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service in the Chinese war of 1842. Colonel Campbell was next employed in the Sikh war of 1848—49, under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla, where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Goojerat, his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the British arms ; and his “ steady coolness and military precision ” were highly praised in official despatches. He was created a K.C.B. in 1849, and specially named in the thanks of Parliament.

C L Y —■ C N O After rendering important services in India, Sir Colin of minor buildings have been identified, and the general plan Campbell returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean of the city has been very clearly made out. In a templewar broke out, and he accepted the command of the enclosure Mr Newton discovered a fine seated statue of Highland brigade, which formed the left wing of the duke Demeter, which now adorns the British Museum ; and of Cambridge's division. The success of the British at about three miles south-east of the city he came upon the the Alma was mainly due to his intrepidity ; and with ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion his “ thin red line” of Highlanders he repulsed the Russian carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, 10 feet in length attack on Balaklava. At the close of the war Sir Colin and 6 in height, which has been supposed to commemorate was promoted to be Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, and the great naval victory of Conon over the Lacedsemonians in elected honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, 394 b.c. (see Abchitectuke, vol. ii. p. 412). Among the however, had as yet met with tardy recognition ] but, minor antiquities obtained from the city itself, or the great when the crisis came, his true worth was appreciated. necrooolis to the east, perhaps the most interesting are the The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny called for a general of leaden KardSecr/xot, or imprecationary tablets, found in the tried experience^ and on July 11, 185/, the command temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the appendix was offered to him by Lord Palmerston. On being asked to the second volume of Newton’s work. Cnidus was a city of high antiquity and probably of when he would be ready to set out, the veteran replied, “ Within twenty-four hours.” He was as good as his word; Lacedaemonian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus he left England the next evening, and reached Calcutta on and Cos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Camirus, and August 13. The position was one of unusual difficulty, lalysus, it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its but his energy and resource did not fail for a moment. confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there Having formed an army as hastily as possible, he marched celebrated games in honour of Apollo, Poseidon, and the with 6000 men and 36 guns to the relief of Lucknow. nymphs. The city was at first governed by an oligarchic The odds against him were great, and nothing save_ con- senate, composed of sixty members, known as d/xv^oves, summate dexterity of manoeuvring could have achieved and presided over by a magistrate called an apeo-Tr/p ; but, success. When the British guns were silenced by the fire though it is proved by inscriptions that the old names conof the rebels, Sir Colin himself headed the final assault, tinued to a very late period, the constitution underwent a carried the fort, and saved the besieged. He afterwards, popular transformation. The situation of the city was by his skilful tactics, thoroughly defeated the enemy, and favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired concaptured their strongholds,—thus crushing the mutiny and siderable wealth, and were able to colonize the island of preserving the British rule in India. Eor these services Lipara and founded the city of Corcyra Nigra in the Adrihe was raised to the peerage in 1858, by the title of Lord atic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and from the Clyde; and returning to England in the next year he re- battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian ceived the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. He war they were subject to Athens. The Romans easily obenjoyed a pension of £2000 a year until his death, which tained their allegiance, and rewarded them by leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period occurred on the 14th of August 1863. Lord Clyde possessed in abundant measure all the there must still have been a considerable population; for qualities which go to make a successful general. He com- the ruins contain a large number of buildings belonging to bined the daring of the subaltern with the calm prudence the Byzantine style, and Christian sepulchres are common of the veteran commander. The soldiers whom he led in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the astronomer, Ctesias, were devotedly attached to him ; and his courteous the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the builder demeanour and manly independence of character won him of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most unvarying respect. Though adequate recognition of his remarkable of the Cnidians mentioned in history. See Beaufort’s Ionian Antiquities, 1811, and Karamania, 1818 ; merits came slowly, he never allowed any feeling of pique Researches, 1842 ; Newton’s Travels and Discoveries in to interfere with duty; and he deserves to be regarded Hamilton’s the Levant, 1865 ; and Waddington in the Revue Numismatique, as one of the most distinguished generals that Britain has 1851. produced. CNOSSUS, or Gnossus, the most important city of CLYTiEMNESTRA, the daughter of Tyndareus and Crete, on the left bank of the Cseratus, a small stream Leda, and wife of Agamemnon. See Agamemnon. CNIDUS, now Tekik, an ancient city of Caria, in Asia which falls into the sea on the north side of the island. Minor, situated at the extremity of the long peninsula that The city was situated at a distance of about 3 miles from forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, or Gulf the coast, and, according to the old traditions, was founded of Cos. It was built partly on the mainland and partly on by Minos, the mythical king of Crete. The locality was the Island of Triopion, or Cape Krio, which anciently com- associated with a number of the most interesting legends of municated with the continent by a causeway and biidge, Grecian mythology, particularly with those which related to and- is now permanently connected by a narrow sandy isth- Jupiter, who was said to have been born, to have been mus. By means of the causeway the channel between married, and to have been buried in the vicinity. Cnossus island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which is also assigned as the site of the fabled labyrinth in which the larger, or southern, now known as port Ereano, was the Minotaur was confined, and a physical basis for the further enclosed by two strongly-built moles that are still legend may perhaps have been found in the caverns and in good part entire. The extreme length of the city was excavations of the district. As the city was originally little less than a mile, and the whole intramural area is still peopled by Dorians, the manners, customs, and political thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both institutions of its inhabitants were all Dorian. Along insular and continental, can be traced throughout their with Gortyna and Cydonia, it held for many years the whole circuit ; and in many places, especially round the supremacy over the whole of Crete; and it always took a acropolis, at the north-east corner of the city, they are re- prominent part in the civil wars which from time to time markably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is largely due desolated the island. When the rest of Crete fell under to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 1812, and the the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the same fate, excavations executed by Mr C. T. Newton in 185 8* The and became a Roman colony. iEnesidemus, the sceptic agora, the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the temple temple of the Muses, a temple of Venus, and a great numbei of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnossus.

44

45

COAL IN its most general sense the term coal includes all varieties of carbonaceous minerals used as fuel, but it is now usual in England to restrict it to the particular varieties of such minerals occurring in the older Carboniferous formations. On the continent of Europe it is customary to consider coal as divisible into two great classes, depending upon differences of colour, namely, brown coal, corre spending to the term “ lignite ” used in England and France, and black or stone coal, which is equivalent to coal as understood in England. Stone coal is also a local English term, but with a signification restricted to the substance known by mineralogists as anthracite. In old English writings the terms pit-coal iuna sea-coal are commonly used. These have reference to the mode in which the mineral is obtained, and the manner in which it is transported to market. The root kol is common to all the Teutonic nations, while in French and other Romance languages derivatives of the Latin carbo are used, e.g., charbon de terre. In France and Belgium, however, a peculiar word, houille, is generally used to signify mineral coal. This word is supposed to be derived from the Walloon hoie, corresponding to the mediaeval Latin hullce. Littrb suggests that it may be related to the Gothic haurja, coal. Anthracite is from the Greek av6pa$, and the term lithanthrax, stone coal, still survives, with the same meaning in the Italian litantrace. It must be borne in mind that the signification now attached to the word coal is different from that which formerly obtained when wood was the only fuel in general use. Coal then meant the carbonaceous residue obtained in the destructive distillation of wood, or what is known as charcoal, and the name collier was applied indifferently to both coal-miners and charcoal-burners. The spelling “cole” was generally used up to the middle of the 17th century, when it was gradually superseded by the modern form, “ coal.” The plural, coals, seems to have been used from a very early period to signify the broken fragments of the mineral as prepared for use. Coal is an amorphous substance of variable composition, Physical properties. and therefore cannot be as strictly defined as a crystallized or definite mineral can. It varies in colour from a light brown in the newest lignites to a pure black, often with a bluish or yellowish tint in the more compact anthracite of the older formations. It is opaque, except in exceedmgly thin slices, such as made for microscopic investigation, which are imperfectly transparent, and of a dark brown colour by transmitted light. The streak is black in anthracite, but more or less brown in the softer varieties. The maximum hardness is from 2'5 to 3 in anthracite and hard bituminous coals, but considerably less in lignites, yi hich are nearly as soft as rotten wood. A greater hardness is due to the presence of earthy impurities. The densest anthracite is often of a semi-metallic lustre, resembling somewhat that of graphite. Bright, glance, or pitch coal is another brilliant variety, brittle, and breaking into regular fragments of a black colour and pitchy lustre. Lignite and cannel are usually dull and earthy, and of an irregular fracture, the latter being much tougher than the black coal, borne lignites are, however, quite as brilliant as anthracite; cannel and jet may be turned in the lathe, and are susceptible of taking a brilliant polish. The specific gravity is ig est in anthracite and lowest in lignite, bituminous coals giving intermediate values (see Table I.) As a rule m density increases with the amount of carbon, but in some instances a very high specific gravity is due to inter-

mixed earthy matters, which may be separted by mechanical treatment. Coal is perfectly amorphous, the nearest approach to any thing like crystalline structure being a compound fibrous grouping resembling that of gypsum or arragonite, which occurs in some of the steam coals of S. Wales, and is locally known as “ cone in cone,” but no definite form or arrangement can be made out of the fibres. The impressions of leaves, woody fibre, and other vegetable remains are to be considered as pseudomorphs in coaly matter of the original plant structures, and do not actually represent the structure of the coal itself. There is generally a tendency in coals towards cleaving into cubical or prismatic blocks, but sometimes the cohesion between the particles is so feeble that the mass breaks up into dust when struck. These peculiarities of structure may vary very considerably within small areas; and the position of the divisional planes or cleats with reference to the mass, and the proportion of small coal or slack to the larger fragments when the coal is broken up by cutting-tools, are points of great importance in the working of coal on a large scale. The divisional planes often contain small films of other minerals, the commonest being calcite, gypsum, and iron pyrites, but in some cases zeolitic minerals and galena have been observed. Salt, in the form of brine, is sometimes present in coal. Some years ago a weak brine occurring in this way was utilized at a bathing establishment at Ashby-de-la-Zouche. Hydrocarbons, such as petroleum, bitumen, paraffin, &c., are also found occasionally in coal, but more generally in the associated sandstones and limestones of the Carboniferous formation. Gases, consisting principally of light carburetted hydrogen or marsh gas, are often present in considerable quantity in coal, in a dissolved or occluded state, and the evolution of these upon exposure to the air, especially when a sudden diminution of atmospheric pressure takes place, constitutes one of the most formidable dangers that the coal miner has to encounter. The classification of the different kinds of coal may be Classificaconsidered from various points of view, such as their tion. chemical composition, their behaviour when subjected to heat or when burnt, and their geological position and origin. They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, forming the carbonaceous or combustible portion, and some quantity of mineral matter, which remains after combustion as a residue or “ ash.” As the amount of ash varies very considerably in different coals, and stands in no relation to the proportion of the other constituents, it is necessary in forming a chemical classification to compute the results of analysis after deduction of the ash and hygroscopic water. Examples of analyses treated in this manner are furnished in the last column of Table I., from which it will be seen that the nearest approach to pure carbon is furnished by anthracite, which contains above 90 per cent. Anthracite. This class of coal burns with a very small amount of flame, producing intense local heat and no smoke. It is especially used for drying hops and malt, and in air or blast furnaces where a high temperature is required, but is not suited for reverberatory furnaces. The American anthracite is largely used in iron smelting, as is also that of South Wales, but to a less extent, the latter having the disadvantageous property of decrepitating when first heated. The most important class of coals is that generally known Bituminas bituminous, from their property of softening or under- ous coals, going an apparent fusion when heated to a temperature far below that at which actual combustion takes place. This term is founded on a misapprehension of the nature of the

[varieties.

COAL

46

occurrence, since, although the softening takes place at a low temperature, still it marks the point at which destructive distillation commences, and hydrocarbons both of a solid and gaseous character are formed. That nothing analagous to bitumen exists in coals is proved by the fact that the ordinary solvents for bituminous substances, such as bisulphide of carbon and benzole, have no effect upon them, as would be the case if they contained bitumen soluble in these re-agents. The term is, however, a convenient one, and one whose use is almost a necessity^ from its having an almost universal currency among coal miners The proportion of carbon in bituminous coals may vary from bU to JU per cent.—the amount being highest as they approach the character of anthracite, and least in those which are nearest to lignites. The amount of hydrogen is from 4¥ to b per

cent while the oxygen may vary within much wider limits, or from about 3 to 14 per cent. These variations m composition are attended with corresponding differences in qualities which are distinguished by special names. Thus the semi-anthracitic coals of South Wales are known as “dry _ or “ steam coals,” being especially valuable for use in marine steam-boilers, as they burn more readily than anthracite and with a larger amount of flame, while giving out a great amount of heat, and practically without producing smoke. Coals richer in hydrogen, on the other hand, are more useful for burning in open fires—smiths forges and furnaces where a long flame is required. The excess of hydrogen in a coal, above the amount necessary to combine with its oxygen to form water, is known as “ disposable ” hydrogen, and is a measure of the

Table \.-Elmentary Composition of Coal (the figures demte the armnmtep* Composition calculated exclusive of Water, Sulphur, and Ash. Localities. Anthracite. 1. South Wales .. 2. Pennsylvania . 3. Peru Bituminous Steam and Coking Coal. 4. Risca, South Wales.. 5. Aherdare, Do. 6. Hartley, Northumberl’d 7. Dudley, Staffordshire ... 8. Stranitzen, Styria Cannel or Gas Coal. 9. Wigan, Lancashire 10. Boghead, Scotland 11. Albertite, Nova Scotia.. 12. Tasmanite, Yan Die- ) man’s Land $ Lignite and Broxon Coal. 13. Cologne 14. Bovey, Devonshire 15. Trifail, Styria Gas coal.

Caking coals.

Specific Gravity.

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Sulphur.

1-392 1-462

90-39 90-45 82-70

3-28 2-43 1-41

2-98 2-45

0-85

75-49 86-80 78-65 7879-

4-73 4-25 454-85

6-78 3-06 13-36 12-88 1-84 12-75 0-64

80-07 63.10 82-67 79-34

5-53 8910-41

63-29 66-31 50-72

455-34

1-278 1-276 1-18 1-100

0-83

•08

784-93

2-12

fitness of the coal for use in gas-making. This excess is greatest in what we know as cannel coal, the Lancashire kennel or candle coal, so named from the bright light it gives out when burning. This, although of very small value as fuel, commands a specially high price for gasmaking. Cannel is more compact and duller than ordinary coal, and can be wrought in the lathe and polished. These properties are most highly developed in the substance known as jet, which is a variety of cannel found in the lower oolitic strata of Yorkshire, and is almost entirely used for ornamental purposes, the whole quantity produced near Whitby, together with a further supply from Spain, being manufactured into articles of jewellery at that town. When coal is heated to redness out of contact with the air, the more volatile constituents, water, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are expelled, a portion of the carbon being also volatilized in the form of hydrocarbons and carbonic oxide,—the greater part, however, remaining behind, together with all the mineral matter or ash, in the form of coke, or, as it is also called, “fixed carbon.” The proportion of this residue is greatest in the more anthracitic or drier coals, but a more valuable product is yielded by those richer in hydrogen. Very important distinctions—those of caking or non-caking—are founded on the behaviour of coals when subjected to the process of coking. The former class undergo an incipient fusion or softening when heated, so that the fragments coalesce and yield a compact coke,

2-00

10-35

1-61 4-67 3-75

1-21 0-83 0-55 0-39 0-20

10-67 4-40 2-49 1-03 1-66

1-12 0-66

1-50 0-96

2-70 19-78

0-91

0-91

5-32

26-24 22-86 I 0-57 33-18 I 2-80

Carbon. Hydrogen, O. and N.

Ash.

2-36 0-90

8-49 2-36 7-86

6-94

1-13

939497-34

3-39 2-54 ] "66

3-82 2-57 1-00

7-79 5-43 86-78 3-25 4-51 92-24 14-5 4806 14-9 579-70 2 5 13-63 4-92 819 85-48 79-61 8283-

5-90 11-24 9-14 10-99

8-62 9-15 9 8-19 1 5-21

66-97 69-53 55-11

5-27 5-90 5-80

27-76 9 24-57 6 39-09

while the latter (also called free-burning) preserve their form, producing a coke which is only serviceable when made from large pieces of coal, the smaller pieces being incoherent and of no value. The reason of this difference is not clearly made out, as non-caking coals are often of very similar ultimate chemical composition as those in which the caking property is very highly developed. As matter of experience, it is found that caking coals lose that property when exposed to the action of the air for a lengthened period, or by heating to about 300 C., and that the aust or slack of non-caking coal may, in some instances, be converted into a coherent cake by exposing it suddenly to a very high temperature. Lignite or brown coal includes all varieties which are Lignite, intermediate in properties between wood and coals of the older formations. A coal of this kind is generally to be distinguished by its brown colour, either in mass or in the blacker varieties in the streak. The proportion of carbon is comparatively low, usually not exceeding 70 per cent., while the oxygen and hygroscopic water are much higher than in true coals. The property of caking or yielding a coherent cake is usually absent, and the ash is often very high. The specific gravity is low when not brought up by an excessive amount of earthy matter. Sometimes it is almost pasty, and crumbles to powder when dried, so as to be susceptible of use as a pigment, forming the colour known as Cologne earth, which resembles umber or sepia.

COAL

OKIGIN.]

sh of

In Nassau and Bavaria woody structure is very common, and it is from this circumstance that the term lignite is derived. The best varieties are black and pitchy in lustre, or even bright and scarcely to be distinguished from true coals. These kinds are most common in Eastern Europe. Lignites, as a rule, are generally found in strata of a newer geological age, but there are many instances of perfect coals being found in such strata. By the term “ash” is understood the mineral matter remaining unconsumed after the complete combustion of the carbonaceous portion of a coal. This represents part .of the mineral matter present in the plants from which the coal was originally formed, with such further addition by infiltration and mechanical admixture as may have arisen during consolidation and subsequent changes. The composition of the ashes of different coals is subject to considerable variation, as will be seen by the following list of analyses:— Table II.—Composition of the Ashes of Coals. 2 ra o

True Coals. 301 98Dowlais, South Wales 39-64 39-20 11-84 1-81 3-94 4-89 0-88 9953-00 35-01 Ehbw Vale, do. 3-21 1-73 0-36 99-64 Kiinigsgruhe, Silesia. 55-41 18-95 16-06 0-59 0-29 100-69 44-60 4110 7-40 3-61 Ohio Lignites. 33-83 97Helmstadt, Saxony.. 17-27 11-57 5-57 23-67 12-35 98Edeldney, Hungary. 36-01 23-07 5-05 15-62 The composition of the ash of true coal approximates to that of a fire-clay, allowance being made for lime, which may be present either as carbonate or sulphate, and for sulphuric acid. The latter is derived mainly from iron ulphur in pyrites, which yields sulphate by combustion. An indiDal. cation of the character of the ash of a coal is afforded by its colour, white ash coals being generally freer from sulphur than those containing iron pyrites, which yield a red ash. There are, however, several striking exceptions, as for instance in the anthracite from Peru, given in Table I., which contains more than 10 per cent, of sulphur, and yields but a very small percentage of a white ash. In this coal, as well as in the lignite of Tasmania, known as white coal or Tasmanite, the sulphur occurs in organic combination, but is so firmly held that it can only be very partially expelled, even by exposure to a very high and continued heating out of contact with the air. An anthracite occurring in connection with the old volcanic rocks of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh, which contains a large amount of sulphur in proportion to the ash, has been found to behave in a similar manner. Under ordinary conditions, from to of the whole amount of sulphur in a coal is volatilized during combustion, the remaining f- to ^ being found in the ash. V ater in The amount of water present in freshly raised coals oal. varies very considerably. It is generally largest in lignites, which may sometimes contain 30 per cent, or even more, while in the coals of the coal measures it does not usually exceed from 5 to 10 per cent. The loss of weight by exposure to the atmosphere from drying may be from i to | of the total amount of water contained. Mgin of Coal is undoubtedly the result of the transformation of oal. vegetable matter, mainly woody fibre, by the partial elimination of oxygen and hydrogen giving rise to a substance richer in carbon than the original wood,—the mineral matter being modified simultaneously by the almost entire removal of the alkalies and lime, and the addition of materials analagous in composition to clay, as will be seen by comparing the analyses in Table II. The

47

following table, given by Percy, shows the relative proportions of the different components of mineral fuels. Table III.—Composition of Fuels {assuming Carbon = 100). Disposable Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Hydrogen. 100 12-18 83-07 1-80 Wood 100 9-85 55-67 2Peat 100 8-37 42-42 Lignite 36-12 21-23 3-47 Thick Coal, S. Staffordshire.. 100 5-91 18-32 100 3-62 Hartley Steam Coal 5-28 100 4-75 409 South Wales Coals 1-74 2-63 2-84 100 American Anthracite

Mohr has computed that the transformation of wood into coal is attended with a loss of about 75 per cent, in weight; and, having regard to the difference in density of the two substances, the volume of the coal can only be from yg- to i of the woody fibre from which it is derived. The nature of the change is essentially a slow oxidation under -water or any covering sufficient to protect the dead wood from the direct action of atmospheric air, as in the latter case the vegetable mould or humus would be produced. The products of such decomposition vary with the length of time and the nature of the plants acted on, and in the case of anthracite the change is so great that no portion of the original plant structure can be recognized, 0 at the same time the density and conductivity for heat 9 and electricity are increased. This, however, is a case of metamorphosis analogous to the transformation of sedimentary into crystalline rocks, the extreme term of such 1 1 metamorphosis being the production of graphite or plumbago. Daubr^e has shown that wood may be converted into anthracite by exposure to the action of superheated water at a temperature of 400° C. The plants concerned in the production of coal vary very Coal-pro considerably in different geological periods. In the coal ducing measures proper, acrogens, ferns, equisetums, and similar 11 an s" allied forms are most abundant. It is stated by some observers that entire beds of coal are sometimes made up of the spores of ferns. This, however, appears to depend upon the inspection of microscopic sections, and may not be capable of rigorous quantitative demonstration. In the coals of newer date exogenous wood and leaves are more common than in those of the coal measures; the former also contain resins, sometimes in considerable quantity. . The number of species of land plants in the British sedimentary formations, which may be taken as a measure of the comparative prevalence of coal in the different series, is as follows :— 9 species, Devonian strata 320 Carboniferous do 20 5 9 Permian do 9 99 Triassic do 160 99 Lias and Oolitic do 38 9 9 Purbeck and Wealden do 19 9 9 Cretaceous do 224 9 9 Tertiary do The most generally received opinion is that much if not all coal results from the transformation of plants upon the the site of their growth. The principal evidence in favour of such a supposition is afforded by the common occurrence of a bed of clay, the so-called “ under-clay,’ containing the roots of plants, representing the old soil, immediately below every coal seam—a fact that was first pointed out by the late Sir W. E. Logan in South Wales. In Yorkshire the same thing is observed in the siliceous rock called ganister occurring in similar positions, showing that the coal plants grew there upon sandy soils. The action of water in bringing down drift wood may have also contributed some material, but much less than the local growth. This may probably have been concerned

48

COAL

[sequence OF STRATA.

sembling that produced from imperfectly coking gas coals. in tlie production of tlie very thick masses of coal of small The volume of gas given off by cellulose and starch is extent found in some coal-fields in Southern Europe. much larger and of a higher illuminating power than that Another theory, that proposed by Dr Mohr, deserves produced from gum under the same conditions. notice, namely, that coal may be of marine origin and The conditions favourable to the production of coal derived from the carbonization of sea weeds, such as t seem therefore to have been—forest growth m swampy great kelp plant of the Pacific Ocean. This has been very ground about the mouths of rivers, and rapid oscillation ingeniously elaborated by the author and much apparently of level, the coal produced during subsidence being good evidence adduced in support (see his ^chte d^ covered up by the sediment brought down by the river Erde Bonn, 1875). But the positive evidence afforded by forming beds of sand or clay, which, on re-elevation, formed foot’ found in the under days is sufficient to. render such the soil for fresh growths, the alternation being occasionan hypothesis unnecessary in the majority of instances ally broken by the deposit of purely marine beds. We It must be remembered, however, that, although cellulose might therefore expect to find coal wherever strata of or wood fibre is most probably the chief material concerned estuarine origin are developed in great mass; and this is in the production of coal, this substance is readily con- actually the case,—the Carboniferous, Cretaceous, and vertible into dextrine by the action of protein or analogous Oolitic series being all coal bearing horizons, though in unfermentescible matters containing nitrogen a change^ tha equal degrees,—the first being known as the coal measures is attended with the loss of structure, the (ibre bem, con proper, while the others are of small economic value in verted into a gummy mass. Some forms o ce ’ . Great Britain, though more productive in workable coals as that in the lichens known as Iceland moss, are solub on the continent of Europe. The coal measures which water, and are without fibre. The preservation of recogniz- form part of the Palaeozoic or oldest of the three great able woody tissue therefore m coals can only be regaidec geological divisions are mainly confined to the countries as accidental, and any argument founded upon the relati north°of the Equator, Mesozoic coals being more abundant quantity of the recognizable vegetable structures m mi- in the southern hemisphere, while Tertiary coals seem to croscopic sections is likely to be unsound, unless rela- be tolerably uniformly distributed irrespective of latitude. tive durability of the different portions of the plants be The nature of the coal measures will be best understood sequence taken into account. Thus the bark of trees is, as a by considering in detail the areas within which they occur of carta rule, less perishable than the solid wood, while tissues im- in Britain, together with the rocks with which they are j^rous pregnated with resinous matters are almost indestructible most intimately associated. The general succession of these by atmospheric agency. Instances of this are afforded by rocks is given in fig. 1 (cols. 1 to 4),which is taken from the fossil trees found in the coal measures, which are often entirely converted into siliceous masses, the bulk oi t le wood having decayed and been replaced by silica, whi e the bark is represented by an external layer of bright coal. Fossil resins, such as amber, are of common occurrence in co on Coal Mining (London, 1876). Smyth, Coal and Coal Mining N. of England, ,, 17 ,, 8'37 e ?;ifndo£ 1872)‘ Jevons, The Coal Question (2d ed. Lorn Lancashire, ,, 28 ,, 7.94 186 7 , Scotland, ,, 8 ,, 7'70 ?ssn\ p ' Jogersof »^f °f Pennsylvania (2 of vols., Edinburgh, 1850). Proceedings the W South Wales Institute Enqineerina (8 [Derbyshire, ,, 8 ,, 7-58 vois., Merthyr, 1858-73). Transactions of the North of England r Wood, , 7 ,, 3-66 to 4-19 Institute of Mining Engineers (23 vols., Newcastle, 1852-74). Various 1 keat, „ f. „ 3-43 to 3'66 Geological Peports ot the State and General Governments of the « 1 Lignite, „ G „ 2-41 to 3'92 United States ; including Newberry’s Ohio Reports, CoTsIndiana Re( Coal (Prussian), ,, 51 ,, 6'42 to 8'IG ports, and Hayden s Reports of Geological Survey of the Territories literature The literature relating to coal and coal mining, is very extensive, France and Belgium.—Burat, Geologic de la France (8vo. but the following list includes the titles of the more important Pans, 1864). Cours d'Exploitation de Mines (1871). Materiel works upon these subjects. dcs Houillieres cn France, etc. (1861-68). Bulletin de la Soctttt de England and America.—The Report of the Royal Coal Com- l Industrie Minerale, S. Etienne (20 vols. since 1855). Ponson mission (3 vols., fob, with Atlas, London, 1870) * This is the Traiti de VExploitation dcs Mines de Houillc (2d ed. Liege, 1868-71)’. most comprehensive work upon the subject. HuE, Coal Fields Supplement to the above (1867-72). De Kuyper, Revue 'Universelle of Great Britain (3d ed. London, 1873). Reports and Maps of the des Mines, etc. (Liege, since 1854). Geological Surveys of the United Kingdom. Descriptive memoirs Germany.—Geinitz, Die Steinkohlen Dcutschlands, etc. (3 vols. of each coal field published as completed. Percy, Metallurgy, 4to, Munich, 1865). This is the most complete book on the subvol. i., on Fuel (2d ed. London, 1875), containing full details of ject. Zincken, Die Braunkohle (2 vols., Hanover, 1865-7D the chemistry of coal. Green well, Practical Treatise on Mine Zcitschrift fur Berg Hiitten und Salinenwesen, etc. (4to. Berlin Engineering (2d ed. London, 1869). Andre, Practical Treatise 22 vols. since 1851). (jj p ^ ’

J]

COANZA, or Quanza, an important river of Western Africa, in the country of Angola. It takes its rise in the MossambaMountains, not far from the source of the Cunene, probably in 14° S. lat., and its total length is about 600 miles It receives a large number of tributaries, the most important of which are the Loando and the Cutato in the upper part of its course, the Gango and the Quige in the middle portion, and the Lucalla in the lower. Its progress is broken by several falls, and in the last 200 miles of its journey it descends no less than 4800 feet This diminishes its value as a means of transit; but it is navigable for large boats about 140 miles from its mouth, which is situated 50 miles south of Loando, in 9° 15' S. lat. It there forms a number of islands, and pours into the sea a turbid current, which is visible for some distance outwards by its contrast of colour. COATBRIDGE, a town of Scotland, in the county of Lanark, and parish of Old Monkland, ten miles east of Glasgow by rail, and about two miles west of Airdrie. It owes it rise to the importance of the surrounding district as a mining field. The town itself is of a straggling description, and is intersected by a branch of the North Calder Water, the Monkland Canal, and the Caledonian Railway. It contains eight places of worship, a literary association, and five branch banks. In the immediate neighbourhood are the Gartsherrie iron works, and there are engineering establishments in the town itself. The population of town in 1871, including Gartsherrie, High Sunnyside, and Langloan, numbered 15,802, of whom 8599 were males and 7203 females. COBALT, a metal of the iron group. The name is derived from the German Kohold, a miner’s term for gnome, or evil spirit, akin to the English goblin, which was applied to a mineral found associated with silver ores, and often replacing them in the mines of Schneeberg in Saxony. The use of the oxide of cobalt in colouring glass was only discovered in 1540 by Scheurer, and till then the metal had been supposed to be worthless It was first produced, but in an imperfectly purified condition, in 1733, by Brandt. . Cobalt is found alloyed in small quantity together with nickel in many meteoric irons. The principal mode of occurrence, however, is in various complex minerals containing arsenic and sulphur and the allied metal nickel. The following are the most important:—.. Smaltine or speiss cobalt, an arsenide of the isomorphous bases, cobalt, nickel, and iron, of the formula (CoNil e)As2, is a mineral of the cubical system, forming steel or lead-grey crystals of a metallic lustre, tarnishing in damp air to a pink or green tint according to the preponderance of cobalt or nickel that is present. In the

purest condition it may contain 28-2 per cent, of cobalt to 718 per cent, of arsenic, but nickel and iron are almost invariably present to some extent. The principal locality is at Schneeberg in Saxony, where it is associated with silver, bismuth, and nickel ores. 2. Cobalt glance, or cobaltine, is a compound of sulphide and arsenide of cobalt, CoS2 + CoAs2, the typical composition being cobalt 35-5, arsenic 45-2, and sulphur 19'3 per cent. It occurs in very brilliant complex crystals belonging to the cubical system, the principal locality being at Tunaberg in Sweden. A part of the metal is sometimes replaced by iron, but as a rule it is free from nickel. 3. Linnseite, or cobalt pyrites, is analogous in composition to copper pyrites, being represented by the formula Co2S + Co2S3, with 58 per cent, of cobalt and 42 of sulphur. As a general rule a portion of the base is replaced by copper, nickel, or iron. It is a rare mineral, being found only in the Siegen district in Prussia and in Sweden. Cobalt bloom is a hydrated arseniate produced by the action of air and water upon the above minerals ; the composition is Co2As208 + 8H20, i.e., 37| per cent, of oxide of cobalt. Earthy cobalt ore is a variety of bog manganese, or wad, a mineral of indefinite composition, but containing at times as much as 8 or 10 per cent, of oxide of cobalt with oxides of manganese, iron, and copper. Cobaltic bismuth ore is a mixture of finely crystalline speiss cobalt with native bismuth, found occasionally in the Schneeberg mines. The materials from which cobalt is produced by the smelter consist generally of iron or arsenical pyrites, containing a minute quantity of the two metals cobalt and nickel, or various products derived from the smelting of the ores of silver and copper in which these metals are concentrated as sulphur or arsenic compounds. When in a compact form cobalt is a steel grey metal with a slightly reddish tint, taking a very high lustre when polished, and breaking with a finely granular fracture. The specific gravity is variously stated at from 8‘52 to S^O. It is slightly malleable, and when quite pure of a higher degree of tenacity than iron, according to Deville. The brittle character attributed to it by former observers is due to impurities, such as arsenic and manganese. It melts at about the same temperature as iron, or a little lower, requiring the strongest heat of a wind furnace. The specific heat is 0T0696 (Regnault). It is susceptible of being magnetized by touch, and retains its magnetism at temperatures below a strong red heat when free from arsenic. Chemically it belongs to the same group as iron, zinc, nickel, manganese, and chromium, which cannot be separated as sulphides by H0S from an acid solution. It is YI. — u,

82

COBALT

fi to 7 per cent, of oxide of cobalt. Glass containing only diatomic; its atomic weight is 58-6, and its symbol Co. IZi part of the oxide is of a distinct blue; with more than Like iron it may be reduced from its oxides by beating with 18 per cent, it is black. . ,. . _ ., charcoal or in hydrogen gas; in the former case a small The principal use of smalts is for bluing paper; it was quantity of carbon is retained, forming a substance ana- formerly employed almost exclusively for this purpose logous to cast-iron. When reduced by hydrogen at a low but has now been to a very considerable extent superseded temperature it forms a black powder which is pyrophoric, bv the use of artificial ultramarine, which is cheaper and or ignites spontaneously in the air, especially i nnxe more easily applied, but is less permanent, as the colour is finely-divided alumina. At a red heat it decomposes wat easily discharged by acids, which is not the case when vapour, producing hydrogen and oxide of cobalt. smalts is used. The pigment, known, as cobalt blue, used There are two principal oxides. The protoxid , , both in oil and water-colour painting, is obtained by mixing is obtained as a black powder by calcining the hydrate the solutions of a cobalt salt and alum, precipitating with an CoH0Oo. The latter is a red substance obtained by pre alkaline carbonate, and strongly heating the gelatinous cipitation with alkalies from the solution of a cobalt salt. precipitate of the hydrated oxides of the two metals. The higher, or sesqmoxide, Co203, is produced i y Thenard’s blue, a phosphate of cobalt and alumina, is prodrated form from the hydrated protoxide by the actio duced in a similar manner, by precipitation with an alkaline of chlorine, bromine, chloride of lime, or simdar oxidiz g phosphate. Cobalt green, or Einman’s green, is a mixture agents. It may be rendered anhydrous by careful heating, of the oxides of zinc and cobalt produced from the solubut at a red heat it decomposes, giving off part ot its tions of their sulphates by precipitation with carbonate of oxygen, and produces a compound analogous m composi- sodium and ignition. . , , . tion to magnetic oxide of iron, Fe304. In analysis cobalt is always determined as protoxide, but The protoxide forms numerous salts, which are usually the separation from the metals with which it is usually of a fine rose-red colour. A weak solution of the nitrate associated, especially nickel, is a difficult and tedious or chloride forms the so-called sympathetic ml, which gives operation. Many different processes have been devised, a colourless writing when cold, but appears of a blms but the most accurate are those of H. Eose and Liebig. green colour when heated, and fades again on cooling. The former depends upon the power possessed by chlorine This effect may be reproduced a great number of times it (or bromine) of converting protoxide of cobalt when in the writing is not too strongly heated, m which case the solution into sesquioxide, while the corresponding oxide colour becomes permanent from the formation of a basic of nickel is not changed. The solution when completely salt. With ammonia the oxides of cobalt form a series ot saturated with chlorine is precipitated by carbonate of compound bases, which give rise to salts of great interest barium, which carries down the whole of the cobalt and complexity; these may be regarded as ammonium as sesquioxide; the precipitate is redissolved in hydrochloric salts, in which part of the hydrogen is replaced _ by acid the whole of the barium salt separated by sulphuric ammonium and another part by cobalt in various conditions acid’, and the cobalt finally precipitated by means of hydrate of atomicity corresponding to the oxides. of potassium. In Liebig’s method the oxides of the two The alloys of cobalt are not of much importance, are heated with cyanide of potassium and boded, combines most readily with arsenic or antimony, forming metals which produces cobalticyanide of potassium, K2Go2L)0, the highly crystalline compounds known, by the general and cyanide of nickel and potassium, KNiCy . Ey the name of speiss, which can scarcely be considered as alloys. addition of finely-divided red oxide of mercury2 the whole With gold and silver it forms brittle compounds, with mercury a silver-white magnetic amalgam. With copper of the nickel is precipitated, partly as cyanide and partly hydrate, while the cobalt compound remains in solution, and zinc the alloy is white, resembling the corresponding as compounds of the same metals with nickel and manganese. and is afterwards separated by means of sulphate of copper With tin it forms a somewhat ductile alloy of a violet as cobalticyanide of copper, which is redissolved; the copper colour. The presence of cobalt in the alloy of copper, zinc, is separated by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the cobalt then as oxide by boiling with caustic potash. Ike and nickel, known as German silver, is objectionable, as obtained complexity of the composition of the ores, and the high it renders it hard and difficult to roll. The chief use of cobalt in the arts is for the preparation value of the two metals, has led to the application of more of colours. The protoxide has an intense colouring power refined methods of chemical analysis in their investigation when vitrified, and forms the basis of all the blue colours than are required in the assay of the ores of the commoner used in glass and porcelain manufacture. The purity of metals. Plattner’s method of dry assay of cobalt and nickel the tint is much affected by traces even of other metallic ores is much more rapidly performed than an analysis, and oxides, especially those of iron, nickel, or copper. Another in practised hands is susceptible of considerable accuracy. preparation, known as smalts, is a glass formed by melting It depends upon the fact that when a. speiss or arsenical cobalt oxide with pure quartz sand and carbonate of potas- compound, containing the four metals—iron, cobalt, nickel, sium. Sometimes the first two substances are subjected to and copper—is melted with a vitreous flux such as borax a preliminary heating to produce fritted silicate of a reddish in an oxidizing atmosphere, the metals will be oxidized and or purple colour, known as zaffre, which when fused with pass into a slag with the borax in the order indicated above, the alkaline carbonate in an ordinary glass furnace produces no cobalt being taken up until the iron has been entirely a deep blue glass. This is rendered friable by running it removed, and similarly the nickel remaining until the cobalt into water, and is then ground between granite millstones, has been completely oxidized. The steps in the process and finally levigated in water. The various products of may be easily recognized owing to the difference in 0 the levigation are classified into different qualities according characteristic colour of the oxides, the dark green or ac to the fineness of the grain and the strength of the colour,— of the iron slag being rendered distinctly blue by tne the best being those occupying a medium position, the colour faintest trace of cobalt, and the blue of the latter being diminishing as the fineness of the grain increases. The similarly affected by nickel, which has a strong brown coarsest variety, known as strewing blue,.consisting of rough colouring power. The arsenides of cobalt and me e, angular fragments up to about inch diameter, is used for being of a constant composition, are weighed at eac the ground-work of the old-fashioned blue and gold sign- step of the process in the proportion of the metal reboards, a very effective and durable kind of surface orna- moved calculated from the difference. Cobalt may e mentation. The highest coloured varieties contain from readily detected by the blow-pipe even when in very small

COB-COB quantity, or by the characteristic blue imparted to a bead of borax or salt of phosphorus. On the large scale cobalt is produced chiefly as an accessory in the treatment of nickel ores. These consist chiefly of mixtures of small quantities of the purer minerals with pyrites, sulphuretted copper ores, or lead and silver ores, which require to be subjected to concentrating processes in order to get rid of the bulk of the iron, sulphur, and arsenic, and produce a small amount of enriched regulus or metal, in which the more valuable metals are in combination with sulphur and arsenic. This is done by calcination, which drives off the sulphur and arsenic combined with the iron, the latter being oxidized and subsequently converted into slag by fusion with fluxes containing silica. Small quantities of cobalt, nickel, and copper ores, when associated with lead and silver ores, are in like manner gradually accumulated in a regulus by passing the regulus of the first fusion several times through the smelting furnace, whereby the lead and silver are in great part removed. The treatment of these purified and enriched products is conducted on the large scale in a somewhat similar manner to a chemical analysis, in order to obtain both cobalt and nickel. The speiss, or regulus, is calcined and treated with strong hydrochloric acid to dissolve the oxides formed. By the addition of caustic lime, iron and arsenic are precipitated, and the clear liquid is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen so long as metallic sulphides are produced, the precipitate being allowed to settle. The solution then containing only cobalt and nickel compounds, the former is separated by the addition of bleaching powder and caustic lime as sesquioxide, Co203, and the latter as hydrated oxide by a subsequent precipitation with lime. In making smalts the purer arsenical ores are used. They are first calcined in a reverberatory or muffle furnace provided with chambers for condensing the arsenical fumes as completely as possible. The roasted ore, if it does not contain quartz, is mixed with a proportion of fine glasshouse sand and carbonate of potassium, but when it is sufficiently siliceous, as in the mixtures of cobalt ore and silica known as zaffre, only the alkaline carbonate is required. The fusion takes place in pots like those used in plate-glass making, and requires about eight hours. The blue glass is led out into water till the pot is nearly empty, v/hen a speiss containing the whole of the nickel of the ore is found at the bottom. The blue glass is then ground and levigated as already described. The chief localities producing cobalt ores are Modum in Norway, Tunaberg in Sweden, Schneeberg in Saxony, Musen in Rhenish Prussia, and Mine Lamotte in Missouri; a con siderable amount has also been obtained from Bolivia. In the Transvaal in South Africa a very pure variety of speiss cobalt free from nickel has been recently discovered. Smaller quantities of speiss or regulus are obtained from the smelting of silver and lead ores, at Freiberg, in the Harz, in Bohemia, and elsewhere. (h. b.) COB An, or Santo Domingo CobIn, a city of Central America, in the republic of Guatemala, and the department of Vera Paz, situated about 90 miles north of the city of Guatemala, on the direct route to Flores, not far from the source of the Rio de Cajabon, which flows into the Golfo Dolce. It occupies the slopes of a rounded hill, on the top of which is the central square or plaza, with the cathedral and the ruins of the once magnificent Dominican monastery on the one side, and on the others the shops and houses of the merchants and artizans. The houses of Cobdn are low and covered with tiles ; and, as each with its garden and croft attached is curtained by a dense and lofty hedge, the streets have rather the appearance of woodland avenues. I he cathedral is a large and imposing edifice, decorated in the interior with a barbaric profusion of ornament ; but

li

83 like the rest of the public buildings of the town it shows signs of decay. Since the removal of the seat of the Provincial Government to Salama, the prosperity of Cobdn has greatly declined, but it still contains about 12,000 inhabitants,who carry on the weaving of cotton cloth,’ the cultivation of coffee, sugar, and pimento, and a considerable trade with the neighbouring provinces. The Spanish and Ladino part of the population does not exceed 2000 ; and the rest are Indians originally from the mountains of Chichen and Jucamel, who still speak the Kacchi or Quecchi language. Cobdn owes its origin to the missionary labours of the Dominicans of the 16th century, and more especially to Fray Pedro de Angulo, whose portrait is preserved in the cathedral. It was made the political capital of the province of Yera Paz, and obtained the arms of a city of the first rank. COBBETT, William (1766-1835), one of the most vigorous of English political writers, was born near Farnham in Surrey, according to his own statement, on the 9th March 1766. He was the grandson of a farm-labourer, and the son of a small fanner; and during his early life he worked on his father’s farm. At the age of sixteen, inspired with patriotic feeling by the sight of the men-ofwar in Portsmouth harbour, he offered himself as a sailor; and at seventeen (May 1783) having, while on his way to Guildford fair, met the London coach, he suddenly resolved to accompany it to its destination. He arrived at Ludgate Hill with exactly half-a-crown in his pocket, but an old gentleman who had travelled with him invited him to his house, and obtained for him the situation of copying clerk in an attorney’s office. He greatly disliked his new occupation; and rejecting all his father's entreaties that he would return home, he went down to Chatham early in 1784 with the intention of joining the marines. By some mistake, however, he was enlisted in a regiment of the line, which rather more than a year after proceeded to St John’s, New Brunswick. All his leisure time during the months he remained at Chatham was devoted to reading the contents of the circulating library of the town, and getting up by heart Lowth’s English Grammar. His uniform good conduct, and the power of writing correctly which he had acquired, quickly raised him to the rank of corporal, from which, without passing through the intermediate grade of sergeant, he was promoted to that of sergeant-major. In November 1791 he was discharged at his own request, and received the official thanks of the major and the general who signed his discharge. But Cobbett’s connection with the regiment did not end in this agreeable manner. He brought a serious charge against some of its officers, and instead of appearing at the trial fled to France (March 1792). The inquiry which was held in his absence resulted in a complete acquittal of the accused. In the previous February Cobbett had married the daughter of a sergeant-major of artillery; he had met her some years before in New Brunswick, and had proved her to be endowed with energy and self-control equal to his own. In September of the same year (1792) he crossed to the United States, and for a time supported himself at Wilmington by teaching English to French emigrants. Among these was Talleyrand, who employed him, according to Cobbett’s story, not because he was ignorant of English, but because he wished to purchase his pen. Cobbett made his first literary sensation by his Observations on the Emigration of a Martyr to the Cause of Liberty, a clever retort on Dr Priestley, who had just landed in America complaining of the treatment he had received in England. This pamphlet was followed by a number of papers, signed “ Peter Porcupine,” and entitled Prospect from the Congress Gallery, the Political Censor, and the Porcupine's Gazette. In the spring of 1796, having quarrelled with his publisher,

84

C 0 B B E T T

and continued in his old course, extending his influence by the publication of the Twopenny Trash, which, not being periodical, escaped the newspaper stamp tax. Meanwhile however he had contracted debts to the amount of £34,000 /for it is said that, notwithstanding the aversion he publicly expressed to paper currency, he had carried on his business bv the aid of accommodation bills to a very large amount); and in March 1817 he fled to the United States. But his pen was as active as ever; from Long Island the Register was regularly despatched to England; and it was here that he wrote his clear and interesting English Grammar, of which 10,000 copies were sold in a month. wa”’ TsuUlVX His return to England was accompanied by his weakest exhibition—the exhuming and bringing over of the bones of Tom Paine, whom he had once heartily abused, but on to 1 amount of *4000, and shortly after ho was pro- whom he now wrote a panegyrical ode. Nobody paid any secuted a third time for saying that a certam Dr Rus , attention to the affair; the relics he offered were not who was much addicted to bleeding, kiHed neaiiy all the purchased ; and the bones were reinterred. patients he attended. The trial was repeatedly deferied Cobbett’s great aim was now to obtain a seat in the and was not settled till the end of 1799 when te was fined House of Commons. He calmly suggested that his friends $5000. After this last misfortune, for a few months should assist him by raising the sum.of £5000 ; it would Cobbett carried on a newspaper called the Rushlight, but be much better, he said, than a meeting of 50,000 persons. in June 1800 he set sail for England. . r He first offered himself for Coventry, but failed; in 1826 At home he found himself regarded as the champion of he was by a large number of votes last of the candidates order and monarchy. Windham invited him to dinner, for Preston; and in 1828 he could find no one to propose introduced him to Pitt, and begged him to accept a share him for the office of common councillor. In 1830, that in the True Briton. He refused the offer and joined an year of revolutions, he was prosecuted for inciting to old friend, John Morgan, in opening a book shop in Pali rebellion, but the jury disagreed, and soon after, through Mall. For some time he published the Porcupine s Gazette, the influence of one of his admirers, Mr Fielden, who was which was followed in January 1802 by the 11 erldij himself a candidate for Oldham, he was returned for that Political Register. In 1801 appeared his Letters to Lord town. In the House his speeches were, listened to with Hawkesbury (afterwards earl of Liverpool) and Mr amused attention. His position is sufficiently marked by Addington, in opposition to the peace of Amiens the sneer of Peel that he would attend to Mr Cobbett s terms of which had been agreed to by the former on behalf the observations exactly as if they had been those of a of Great Britain in the October of that year, but which “ respectable member; ” and the only striking part of his was not finally concluded till 1802. On the conclusion of career was his absurd motion that the king should be the peace Cobbett made a still bolder protest; he deter- prayed to remove Sir Robert Peel’s name from the list o mined to take no part in the general illumination, and assisted by the sympathy of his wife, who, being in delicate the privy council, because of the change he had proposed the currency in 1819. In 1834 Cobbett was again health, removed to the house of a friend—he carried out in member for Oldham, but his health now began to give way, his resolve, allowing his windows to be smashed and his door broken open by the angry mob. The Letters to the and in June 1835 he left London for his farm, where he on the 16th of that month. Rt. Hon. Henry Addington are among the most polished died Cobbett’s account of his home-life makes him appear and dignified of Cobbett’s writings; but by 1803 he was once more revelling in personalities. The government of singularly happy ; his love and admiration of his wife never Ireland was singled out for wholesale attack ; and a letter faded- and his education of his. children seems to have published in the Register remarked of Hardwicke, the lord- been distinguished by great kindliness, and by a good deal lieutenant, that the appointment was like, setting the sur- of healthy wisdom, mingled with the prejudices due to the geon’s apprentice to bleed the pauper patients. For this, peculiarities of his temper and circumstances. Cobbett s though not a word had been uttered against Hardwicke’s ruling characteristic was a sturdy egotism, which had in it character, Cobbett was fined £500 ; and two days after the something of the nobler element of self-respect. A firm will, conclusion of this trial a second commenced, at the suit of a strong brain, feelings not over-sensitive, an intense love ot Plunkett, the solicitor-general for Ireland, which resulted fighting, a resolve to get on, in the sense of.making himselt in a similar fine. About this time he began to write in a power in the world—these are the principal qualities support of Radical views; and to cultivate the friendship of which account for the success of his career. His opinions Sir Francis Burdett, from whom he received considerable were the fruits of his emotions. It was enough for him to sums of money, and other favours, for which he gave no get a thorough grasp of one side of a question about the very grateful return. In 1809 he was once more in the other side he did not trouble himself; but he always firm y most serious trouble. He had bitterly commented on the seizes the facts which make for his view, and expresses flogging of some militia, because their mutiny had been them with unfailing clearness. His argument, which is repressed and their sentence carried out by the aid of a never subtle, has always the appearance of weight, however body of German troops, and in consequence he was fined flimsy it may be in fact. His sarcasm is seldom polished £1000 and imprisoned for two years. His indomitable or delicate, but usually rough, and often abusive, while vigour was never better displayed. He still continued to coarse nicknames were his special delight. His style is publish the Register, and to superintend the affairs of his always extremely forcible, and marked by unusual grammafarm; a hamper containing specimens of its produce and tical correctness. Cohbett’s contributions to periodical literature occupy other provisions came to him every week; and he amused volumes, twelve of which consist of the papers publisne a himself with the company of some of his children and with Philadelphia between 1794 and 1800, and the rest of the h ,/ weekly letters from the rest. On his release a public dinner, Political Register, which ended only with Cohbett s life (Jim*' , , -‘ presided over by Sir F. Burdett, was held in honour of the An abridgment of these works, with notes, has been published >y catici .Tnlm M nnUhe+a and James P. Cobbett. Ppsides this lie event. He returned to his farm at Botley in Hampshire,

he set up in Philadelphia as bookseller and publisher of his own works. On the day of opening, his windows were Idled with prints of the most extravagant of thelrencn Revolutionists and of the founders of the American Repub ic placed side by side, along with portraits of George ill., the British ministers, and any one else he could find llkely be obnoxious to the people ; and he continued to pour fo nraises of Great Britain and scorn of the institutions of t e

C O B—C O B 85 published—An Account of the Horrors of the French Revolution, recalled the discussions on political economy and kindred and a work tracing all these horrors to “ tho licentious politics and topics with which he was wont to enliven and elevate the infidel philosophy of the presentage” (both 1798); ^4 Year's Residence in the United States; Parliamentary History of England from the Nor- travellers’ table. In 1830 Cobden learnt that Messrs man Conquest to 1800 (1806); Cottage Economy; Roman History; I ort, calico printers at Sabden, near Clitheroe, were about French Grammar, and English Grammar, both in the form of letters; to retire from business, and he, with two other young Geographical Dictionary of England and Wales; History of the men, Messrs Sheriff and Gillet, who were engaged in the Regency and Reign of George IV., containing a defence of Queen Caroline, whose cause ho warmly advocated (1830-4); Life of same commercial house as himself, determined to make an Andrew Jackson, President of the United States (1834); Legacy to effort to acquire the succession. They had, however, very Labourers; Legacy to Peel; Legacy to Parsons, an attack on the little capital among them. But it may be taken as an secular claims of the Established Church; Doom of Tithes; Rural illustration of the instinctive confidence which Cobden Rides; Advice toYoungMen and Women; Colbctt's Corn; and History of the Protestant Reformation in England and Ireland, in which ho through life inspired in those with whom he came into defends the monasteries, Queen Mary, and Bonner, and attacks the contact, that Messrs Fort consented to leave to these Reformation, Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and all who helped to bring untried young men a large portion of their capital in the it about, with such vehemence that the work was translated business. Nor was their confidence misplaced. The new into French and Italian, and extensively circulated am on" Roman firm had soon three establishments,—one at Sabden, where Catholics. ° In 1798 Cobbett published in America an account of his early life, the printing works were, one in London, and one in under the title of The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine ; and Manchester for the sale of their goods. This last was he left papers relating to his subsequent career. These materials under the direct management of Cobden, who, in 1830 were embodied in an anonymous Life of Cobbett which appeared soon after his death. See also Sir Henry Bulwer’s Historical or 1831, settled in the city with which his name became Characters; Biographies of John Wilkes and William Cobbett by Rev. afterwards so closely associated. The success of this enterJohn Watson; and the abridged and annotated edition of the prize was decisive and rapid, and the “ Cobden prints” soon Register. became known through the country as of rare value both COBDEN, Richard (1804-1865), was born at a farm- for excellence of material and beauty of design. There house called Dunford, near Midhurst, in Sussex, on the 3d can be no doubt that if Cobden had been satisfied to of June 1804. The family had been resident in that devote all his energies to commercial life he might soon neighbourhood for many generations, occupied partly in have attained to great opulence, for it is understood that trade and partly in agriculture. Formerly there had been his share in the profits of the business he had established in the town of Midhurst a small manufacture of hosiery amounted to from £8000 to £10,000 a year. But he had with which the Cobdens were connected, though all trace other tastes, which impelled him irresistibly to pursue those of it had disappeared before the birth of Richard. His studies which, as Lord Bacon says, u serve for delight, for grandfather was a maltster in that town, an energetic and ornament, and for ability.” Mr Prentice, the historian of prosperous man, almost always the bailiff or chief the Anti-Corn-Law League, who was then editor of the Manmagistrate, and taking rather a notable part in county chester Times, describes how, in the year 1835, he received matters. But his father, forsaking that trade, took to for publication in his paper a series of admirably written farming at an unpropitious time. He was amiable and letters, under the signature of “ Libra,” discussing comkind-hearted, and greatly liked by his neighbours, but not mercial and economical questions with rare ability. After a man of business habits, and he did not succeed in his some time he discovered that the author of these letters farming enterprise. He died when his son Richard was was Cobden, whose name was until then quite unknown a child, and the care of the family devolved upon the to him. mother, who was a woman of strong sense and of great In 1835 he published his first pamphlet, entitled Engenergy of character, and who, after her husband’s death, land, Ireland, and America, hy a Manchester Manufacturer. left Dunford and returned to Midhurst. It attracted great attention, and ran rapidly through several The educational advantages of Richard Cobden were editions. It was marked by a breadth and boldness of not very ample. There was a grammar school at Midhurst, views on political and social questions which betokened which at one time had enjoyed considerable reputation, an original mind. In this production Cobden advobut which had fallen into decay. It was there that he cated the same principles of peace, non-intervention, rehad to pick up such rudiments of knowledge as formed trenchment, and free trade to which he continued faithful his first equipment in life, but from his earliest years he to the last day of his life. Immediately after the publicawas indefatigable in the work of self-cultivation. When tion of this pamphlet, he paid a visit to the United States, fifteen or sixteen years of age he went to London to the landing in New York on the 7th June 1835. He devoted warehouse of Messrs Partridge and Price, in East Cheap, about three months to this tour, passing rapidly through one of the partners being his uncle. His relative noting the seaboard States and the adjacent portion of Canada, the lad s passionate addiction to study, solemnly warned and collecting as he went large stores of information him against indulging such a taste, as likely to prove a respecting the condition, resources, and prospects of tho fatal obstacle to his success in commercial life. Happily great Western Republic. Soon after his return to England t e admonition was unheeded, for while unweariedly he began to prepare another work for the press, which urgent in business, as his rapid after success abundantly appeared towards the end of 1836, under the title of proved, he was in his intervals of leisure a most assiduous Russia. It was mainly designed to combat a wild outstudent. During his residence in London he found access break of Russophobia which, under the inspiration of Mr o the London Institution, and made ample use of its Daniel Urquhart, was at that time taking possession of the large and well-selected library. public mind. But it contained also a bold indictment of When he was about twenty years of age he became a the whole system of foreign policy then in vogue, founded commercial traveller, and throwing into that, as he ever on ideas as to the balance of power and the necessity of did into whatever his hand found to do, all the thorough- large armaments for the protection of commerce. While ness and vigour of his nature, he soon became eminently this pamphlet was in the press, delicate health obliged him success ul in his calling. But never content to sink into to leave England, and for several months, at the end of ie mere trader, he sought to introduce among those he nie on the “ road ” a higher tone of conversation than 1836 and the beginning of 1837, he travelled in Spain, Turkey, and Egypt. During his visit to Egypt he had an U Ua f . y maiks the commercial room, and there were many interview with the redoubtable ruler of that country, o 1 is associates wdio, when he had attained eminence, Mehemet Ali, of whose character as a reforming monarch

86

C 0 B D E N

House and though addressing a most unfriendly audience, he did not bring away a very favourable impression He he compelled attention by his thorough mastery of his returned to England in April 1837. brom that time subiect and by the courageous boldness with which he Cobden became a conspicuous figure m Manchester, taki g charged the ranks of his adversaries. He soon came to a leading part in the local politics of the town and distnc . be recognized as one of the foremost debaters on those Largely owing to his exertions, the Manchester Athenaeum economical and commercial questions which at that time so was established, at the opening of which he was chosen to much occupied the attention of Parliament j and the most deliver the inaugural address He became a member «£ prejudiced and bitter of his opponents were fain to acknowthe Chamber of Commerce, and soon infused new life i ledge that they had to deal with a man whom the most that body. He threw himself with great energy into the practised and powerful orators of their party found it agitation which led to the incorporation of the city, and hard to cope with, and to whose eloquence, indeed, the was elected one of its first aldermen He began also to great statesman in whom they put their trust was obliged take a warm interest in the cause of popular education. ultimately to surrender. On the 17th of February 1848 Some of his first attempts in public speaking were at me extraordinary scene took place in the House of ings which he convened at Manchester Salford eLolton, Commons. Cobden had spoken with great fervour of the Rockdale, and other adjacent towns, to * .'SX deplorable suffering and distress which at that time prelishment of British schools. It was while on a mission for vailed in the country, for which, he added, he held. Sir this purpose to Rochdale that he first formec t e acquain Robert Peel, as the head of the Government, responsible. ance of Mr John Bright, who afterwards became his This remark, when it was spoken, passed unnoticed, being distinguished coadjutor in the free trade agi a ion. indeed nothing more than one of the commonplaces of party was it long before his fitness for parliamentary life was warfare. But a few weeks before, Mr Drummond, who recognized by his friends. In 1837, the death of M illiam was Sir Robert Peel’s private secretary, had been shot dead IV. and the accession of Queen Victoria led to a gene in the street by a lunatic. In consequence of this, and election. Cobden was candidate for Stockport, but was the manifold anxieties of the time with which he was defeated, though not by a large majority. harassed, the mind of the great statesman was no doubt In 1838 an Anti-Corn-Law Association was formed at in a moody and morbid condition, and when he arose to Manchester, which, on his suggestion, was afterwards speak later in the evening, he referred in excited and changed into a national association, under the title of the agitated tones to the remark, as an incitement to violence Anti-Corn-Law League. This is not the place to recount against his person. Sir Robert Peel’s party, catching at the history of that famous association, of which from first this hint, threw themselves into a frantic state of excitement, to last Cobden was the presiding genius and the animating and when Cobden attempted to explain that he meant soul. During the seven years between the formation of official, not personal responsibility, they drowned his voice the league and its final triumph, he devoted himself wholly with clamorous and insulting shouts. But. Peel lived to to the work of teaching his countrymen sound economical make ample and honourable amend for this unfortunate doctrines, for the agitation which he and his associates ebullition, for not only did he “fully and unequivocally conducted with such signal ability and success was pie- withdraw the imputation which was thrown out in the eminently an educational agitation. His labours were as various as they were incessant,—now guiding the councils heat of debate under an erroneous impression,” but when of the League, now addressing crowded and enthusiastic the great free trade battle had been won, he took the wreath meetings of his supporters in London. or the large towns of victory from his own brow, and placed it on that of his opponent, in the following graceful words“ The name of England and Scotland, now invading the agricultural old which ought to be, and will be associated with the success districts, and challenging the landlords to meet him in the of these measures, is not mine, or that of the noble Lord presence of their own farmers, to discuss the question m dispute, and now encountering the Chartists led on by (Russell), but the name of one who, acting I believe from Feargus O’Connor, who had deluded a portion of the pure and disinterested motives, has, with untiring energy, working classes into fanatical opposition to free frade. But made appeals to our reason, and has enforced, those appeals whatever was the character of his audience he never failed, with an eloquence the more to be admired because it was by the clearness of his statements, the force of his reasoning, unaffected and unadorned; the name which ought to be and the felicity of his illustrations, to carry conviction to chiefly associated with the success of these measures is the name of Richard Cobden.” Cobden had, indeed, with the minds of his hearers. In 1841, Sir Robert Peel having defeated the Melbourne unexampled devotion, sacrificed his business, his domestic ministry in Parliament, there was a general election, when comforts, and for a time his health to the public interests. Cobden was returned for Stockport. His opponents had His friends therefore felt, at the close of that long campaign, confidently predicted that he would fail utterly in the that the nation owed him some substantial token of gratitude House of Commons. He did not wait long, after his and admiration for those sacrifices. No sooner was the admission into that assembly, in bringing their predic idea of such a tribute started than liberal contributions tions to the test. Parliament met on the 19th August. came from all quarters, which enabled his friends to present On the 24th, in course of the debate on the Address, him with a sum of £80,000. Had he been inspired with Cobden delivered his first speech. “ It was remarked, ” personal ambition, he might have entered upon the. race of says Miss Martineau, in her History of the Peace, “ that political advancement with the prospect of attaining the he was not treated in the House with the courtesy usually highest official prizes. Lord John Russell, who, soon after accorded to a new member, and it was perceived that he the repeal of the corn laws, succeeded SirBobert Peel as did not need such observance.” With perfect self-posses- first minister, invited Cobden to join his Government. sion, which was not disturbed by the jeers that greeted some But he preferred keeping himself at liberty to serve his of his statements, and with the utmost simplicity, direct- countrymen unshackled by official ties, and declined the ness, and force, he presented the argument against the corn- invitation. He withdrew for a time from England. His laws in such a form as startled his audience, and also first intention was to seek complete seclusion in Egypt or irritated some of them, for it was a style of eloquence Italy, to recover health and strength after his long and exhausting labours. But his fame had gone forth throughout very unlike the conventional style which prevailed Europe, and intimations reached him from many quarters Parliament. From that day he became an acknowledged power in the that his voice would be listened to everywhere with favour,

0 O B D E N in advocacy of the doctrines to the triumph of which he had so much contributed at home. Writing to a friend in July 1846, he says,—“ I am going to tell you of a fresh project that has been brewing in my brain. I have given up all idea of burying myself in Egypt or Italy. I am going on an agitating tour through, the continent of Europe.” Then, referring to messages he had received from influential persons in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Spain to the effect mentioned above, he adds:—“Well, I will, with God’s assistance, during the next twelve months, visit all the large states of Europe, see their potentates or statesmen, and endeavour to enforce those truths which have been1 irresistible at home. Why should I rust in inactivity ? If the public spirit of my countrymen affords me the means of travelling as their missionary, I will be the first ambassador from the people of this country to the nations of the Continent. I am impelled to this by an instinctive emotion such as has never deceived me. I feel that I could succeed in making out a stronger case for the prohibitive nations of Europe to compel them to adopt a freer system than I liad here to overturn our protection policy.” This programme he fulfilled. He visited in succession France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Russia. He was received everywhere with marks of distinction and honour. In many of the principal capitals he was invited to public banquets, which afforded him an opportunity of propagating those principles of which he was regarded as the apostle. But beside these public demonstrations he sought and found access in private to many of the leading statesmen, in the various countries he visited, with a view to indoctrinate them with the same principles. During his absence there was a general election, and he was returned for Stockport and for the West Riding of Yorkshire. He chose to sit for the latter. When Cobden returned from the Continent he addressed himself to what seemed to him the logical complement of free trade, namely, the promotion of peace and the reduction of naval and military armaments. His abhorrence of war amounted to a passion. Throughout his long labours in behalf of unrestricted commerce he never lost sight of this, as being the most precious result of the work in which he was engaged,—its tendency to diminish the hazards of war and to bring the nations of the world into closer and more lasting relations of peace and friendship with each other. He was not deterred by the fear of ridicule or the reproach of Utopianism from associating himself openly, and with all the ardour of his nature, with the peace party iu England. In 1849 he brought forward a proposal in Parliament in favour of international arbitration, and in 1851 a motion for mutual reduction of armaments. He was not successful in either case, nor did he expect to be. In pursuance of the same object, he identified himself with a series of remarkable peace congresses—international assemblies designed to unite the intelligence and philanthropy of the nations of Christendom in a league against, war—which from 1848 to 1851 were held successively in Brussels, Paris, Frankfort, London, Manchester, and Edinburgh. . On the establishment of the French empire in 1851-2 a violent panic took possession of the public mind. Without the shadow of producible evidence the leaders of opinion in the press promulgated the wildest alarms as to the intentions of Louis Napoleon, who was represented as conemplating a sudden and piratical descent upon the English coast without pretext or provocation. Shocked by this d isplay Ft!r1c w aimse .°^ nati°nal folly, Cobden did not hesitate to 1 . E into the breach and withstand the madness f fI C 0Ur a seiaes °f ' and °f powerful speeches and out 1. o parhament, by the publication of hisin masterly pamphlet, 1793 and 1853, he sought to calm the passions o is countrymen. By this course he sacrificed the great

87 popularity he had won as the champion of free trade, and became for a time the best abused man in England Immediately afterwards, owing to the quarrel about the Holy I laces which arose in the east of Europe public opinion suddenly veered round, and all the suspicion and hatred which had been directed against the emperor of the French were diverted from him to the emperor of Russia. Louis Napoleon was taken into favour as our faithful ally* and in.a whirlwind of popular excitement the nation was* swept into the Crimean war. Cobden, who had travelled in. Turkey, and had studied the condition of that country with great care for. many years, utterly discredited the outcry about maintaining the independence and integrity of the Ottoman empire which was the battle-cry of the day. He denied that it was possible to maintain them, and no less strenuously denied that it was desirable even if it were possible. He believed that the jealousy of Russian aggrandizement and the dread of Russian power to which our countrymen delivered themselves at that time were absurd exaggerations. He maintained that the future of European Turkey was in the hands of the Christian population, and that it would have been our wisdom to ally ourselves with them rather than with the doomed and decaying Mahometan power. “You must address yourselves,” he said in the House of Commons, “ as men of sense and men of energy, to the question—what are you to do with the Christian population 1 for Mahometanism cannot be maintained, and I should be sorry to see this country fighting for the maintenance of Mahometanism ..... You may keep Turkey on the map of Europe, you may call the country by the name of Turkey if you like, but do not think you can keep up the Mahometan rule in the country.” The reader may be left to judge how far his sagacity and statesmanship have been vindicated by the event. But for the time the torrent of popular sentiment in favour of war was irresistible; and Messrs Cobden and Bright, who with admirable courage and eloquence withstood what they deemed the delusion of the hour, were overwhelmed with obloquy. At the beginning of 1857 tidings from China reached England of a rupture between the British plenipotentiary in that country and the governor of the Canton provinces in reference to a small vessel or lorcha called the “ Arrow,” which had resulted in the English admiral destroying the river forts, burning 23 ships belonging to the Chinese navy, and bombarding the city of Canton. After a careful investigation of the official documents, Cobden became convinced that those were utterly unrighteous proceedings. He brought forward a motion in Parliament to this effect, which led to a long and memorable debate, lasting over four nights, in which he was supported by Mr Sydney Herbert, Sir James Graham, Mr Gladstone, Lord John Russell, and Mr Disraeli, and which ended in the defeat of Lord Palmerston by a majority of sixteen. But this triumph cost him his seat in Parliament. On the dissolution which followed Lord Palmerston’s defeat, Cobden became candidate for Huddersfield, but the voters of that town gave the preference to his opponent, who had supported the Russian war and approved of the proceedings at Canton. Cobden was thus relegated to private life, and retiring to his country house at Dunford, he spent his time in perfect contentment in cultivating his land and feeding his pigs. He took advantage of this season of leisure to pay another visit to the United States. During his absence the general election of 1859 occurred, when he was returned unopposed for Rochdale. Lord Palmerston was again prime minister, and having discovered that the advanced liberal party was not so easily “crushed.” as he had apprehended, he made overtures of reconciliation, and invited

88

c 0 B D E N

warlike speech pointedly directed against France, as the Cobden and Milner Gibson to become members of bis source of danger of invasion and attack, against which it government. In a frank, cordial letter which was delivered was necessary to guard. This produced irritation and to Cobden on his landing in Liverpool, Lord Palmerston resentment in Paris, and but for the influence which offered him the Presidency of the Board of Trade, with a Cobden had acquired, and the perfect trust reposed in his seat in the Cabinet Many of his friends urgently pressed sincerity, the negotiations would probably have been altohim to accept; but without a moments hesitation h o-ether wrecked. At last, however, after nearly twelve determined to decline the proposed honour. n ls.fTrlX months’ incessant labour, the work was completed in in London he called on Lord Palmerston and with the November 1860 “Bare,” said Mr Gladstone, “ is the utmost frankness told him that he had oppose a privilege of any man who, having fourteen years ago denounced him so frequently in public, and that he still rendered to his country one signal service, now again, differed so widely from his views, especially on questions within the same brief span of life, decorated neither by of foreign policy, that he could not, without doing violence land nor title, bearing no mark to distinguish him from to his own sense of duty and consistency, serve under him the people he loves, has been permitted to perform another as minister. Lord Palmerston tried good-humouredly to great and memorable service to his sovereign and his combat his objections, but without success. . .. f country.” But though he declined to share the responsibility ot On the conclusion of this work honours were offered to Lord Palmerston’s administration, he was willing to act as Cobden by the Governments of both the countries which he its representative in promoting freer commercial intercourse had so greatly benefited. Lord Palmerston offered him a between England and France. But the negotiations fm- baronetcy and a seat in the Privy Council, and the emperor this purpose originated with himself m conjunction with of the French would gladly have conferred upon him some Mr Bright and M. Michel Chevalier. Towards the close distinguished mark of his favour. But ■with characteristic of 1859 he called upon Lord Palmerston, Lord John Bussell disinterestedness and modesty he declined all such honours. and Mr Gladstone, and signified his intention to visit It has already been remarked that Cobden’s efforts in France and get into communication with the emperor and furtherance of free trade were always subordinated to the his ministers, with a view to promote this object. These highest moral purposes—the promotion of peace on earth statesmen expressed in general terms their approval of his and good-will among men. This was his desire and hope purpose, but he went entirely on his own account clothed as respects the Commercial Treaty with P ranee. He was at first with no official authority. His name, however, therefore deeply disappointed and distressed to find the old carried an authority of its own. On his arrival m Pans he feeling of distrust towards our neighbours still actively had a long audience with Napoleon, in which he uiged fomented by the press and some of the leading politicians many arguments in favour of removing those obstacles the country. He therefore, in 1862, published his which prevented the two countries from being brought into of pamphlet entitled The Three Panics, the object of which closer dependence on one another, and he succeeded in was to trace the history and expose the folly of those making a considerable impression on his mind in favour of periodical visitations of alarm, as respects the designs of free trade. He then addressed himself to the French our neighbours with which this country had been afflicted ministers, and had much earnest conversation, especially . with M. Fould, Ministre d’Etat, and M. Rouher, minister for the preceding fifteen or sixteen years.. There was one other conspicuous service which Cobden of commerce, both of whom, and especially the latter, he rendered, or tried to render, to his country before his found well inclined to the economical and commeicial principles which he advocated. After a good deal of time death. When the great civil war threatened to break out spent in these preliminary and unofficial negotiations, the in the United States, it was matter to him of profound question of a treaty of commerce between the two countries affliction. But after the conflict became inevitable Ins having entered into the arena of diplomacy, Cobden was sympathies were wholly with the North, because the South requested by the British Government to act as their was fighting for slavery. His great anxiety, however, was plenipotentiary in the matter in conjunction with Lord that the British nation should not be committed to any Cowley, their ambassador in France. But it proved a very unworthy course during the progress of that struggle. long and laborious undertaking. He had to contend with And when our relations with America were becoming the bitter hostility of the French protectionists, which critical and menacing in consequence of the depredations occasioned a good deal of vacillation on the part of the committed on American commerce by vessels issuing from emperor and his ministers. There were also delays, British ports, he brought the question before the House of hesitations, and cavils at home, which were more inexpli- Commons in a series of speeches of rare clearness and force, cable. He was, moreover, assailed with great violence by a in which he pointed out the perilous responsibilities we powerful section of the English press, while the large were incurring by connivance or neglect in regard to those number of minute details with which he had to deal in vessels. He was first attacked with great animosity both connection with proposed changes in the French tariff, in and out of Parliament for taking this line, but after involved a tax on his patience and industry which would results amply vindicated his political sagacity and have daunted a less resolute man. But there was one patriotism. For several years Cobden had been suffering severely at source of embarrassment greater than all the rest. One strong motive which had impelled him to engage in this intervals from bronchial irritation and a difficulty of enterprise was his anxious desire to establish more friendly breathing. Owing to this he had spent the winter of relations between England and France, and to dispel those 1860 in Algeria, and every subsequent winter he had to be feelings of'mutual jealousy and alarm which were so very careful and confine himself to the house, especiallyT in frequently breaking forth and jeopardizing peace between damp and foggy weather. In November 1864 he w eut the two countries. This was the most powerful argument down to Rochdale and delivered a speech to his constiwith which he had plied the emperor and the members of tuents—the last heeverdelivered. That effort was followed the French Government, and which he had found most by great physical prostration, and he determined not to efficacious with them. But unhappily, while he was in quit his retirement at Midhurst until spring had fairly the very thick of the negotations, Lord Palmerston brought set in. But in the month of March there were discussions forward in the House of Commons a measure for fortifying in the House of Commons on the alleged necessity of the naval arsenals of England, which he introduced in a constructing large defensive works in Canada. He was

c O B —C O B deeply impressed with the folly of such a project, and he was seized with a strong desire to go up to London and deliver his sentiments on the subject. But on the 21st of March, the day on which he left home, a bitter easterly wind blew, and struck him in the throat and chest. He recovered a little for a few days after his arrival in London ; but on the 29th there was a relapse, and on the 2d of April 1865, he expired peacefully at his apartments in Suffolk Street. On the following day there was a remarkable scene in the House of Commons. When the clerk read the orders of the day Lord Palmerston rose, and in impressive and solemn tones declared “ it was not possible for the House to proceed to business without every member recalling to his mind the great loss which the House and country had sustained by the event which took place yesterday morning.” He then paid a generous tribute to the virtues, the abilities, and services of Cobden, and he was followed by Mr Disraeli, who with great force and felicity of language delineated the character of the deceased statesman, who, he said, “ was an ornament to the House of Commons and an honour to England. ” Mr Bright also attempted to address the House, but after a sentence or two delivered in a tremulous voice, he was overpowered with emotion, and declared he must leave to a calmer moment what he had to say on the life and character of the manliest and gentlest spirit that ever quitted or tenanted a human form. In the French Corps L4gislatif, also, the vice-president, M. Forgade la Roquette, referred to his death, and warm expressions of esteem were repeated and applauded on every side. “ The death of Richard Cobden, ” said M. la Roquette, “ is not alone a misfortune for England, but a cause of mourning for France and humanity.” M. Drouyn de Lhuys, the French minister of foreign affairs, made his death the subject of a special despatch, desiring the French ambassador to express to the Government “ the mournful sympathy and truly national regret which the death, as lamented as premature, of Richard Cobden had excited on that side of the Channel. “He is above all, ” he added, “ in our eyes the representative of those sentiments and those cosmopolitan principles before which national frontiers and rivalries disappear ; whilst essentially of his country, he was still more of his time ; he knew what mutual relations could accomplish in our day for the prosperity of peoples. Cobden, if I may be permitted to say so, was an international man.” He was buried at West Lavington Church, on the 7th of April, by the side of his only son, whose death, eight or nine years before, had nearly broken his father’s heart. His grave was surrounded by a large crowd of mourners, among whom were Mr Gladstone, Mr Bright, Mr Milner Gibson, Mr Yilliers, and a host besides from all parts of the country. (h. ei.) COBIJA, or, as it is officially called in honour of the first president of the republic, Pueeto La Mae, is the principal port of Bolivia, and the chief town of the province of Atacama or Cobija. It is situated on the coast of the Pacific, about 800 miles north of Valparaiso in Chili, in 22° 32' 50" S. lat. and 70° 21' 2" W. long. ; and it occupies a low-lying position on the beach, at the foot of a lofty range of hills. The surrounding district is desolate in the extreme, and Cobija is totally dependent on importation even for the common necessaries of life. Water is very scarce; the wells only satisfy the wants of about 400 or 500 persons, and the rest of the population has to be supplied, by the distillation of the salt water from the sea. At one time fish formed a valuable article of consumption ; but since the rise of the mining industries the fishers have for the most part forsaken their nets. The town itself is poorly built, and consists of little more than one broad,

89 long, street. The harbour is comparatively safe; but the landing-place is bad, and the danger from the surf considerable. As a free. port, and the principal means of communication with the interior, Cobija attracts a considerable amount of foreign trade. It owes its foundation in the course of last century to Charles III. of Spain; it was declared a free port in 1827 ; and it attained the rank of capital of the department in 1837. In 1827 it consisted of little more than a few huts inhabited by Changas, or seafaring Indians ; and in 1855 it only numbered 500 or 600 of a population. In 1858, however, the permanent inhabitants were no fewer than 2000, and the floating population amounted to 4000 souls. (See Tschudi, Ame von San Pedro de Atacama nach Cobija, 1860.) COBLENTZ (German, Coblenz), the capital of Rhenish Prussia, is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the Rhine and Moselle. From this circumstance it derived its ancient name of Conjluentes, of which Coblentz is a corruption. This city is still of consequence from a military point of view, since it commands the junction of two great rivers. Its fortifications, which are very extensive, not only protect the town, but connect the works on the left bank of the Rhine with the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein on

1. Military Prison and Lazaretto. 11. Theatre. 2. Florins Church (Evang.) 12. Post Office. 8. Market Hall. 13. Prison (Civil). 4. School of Art. 14. Govemment Buildings. 5. Hospital. 15. Building-yard for the Forti6. General Commando. fications. 7. Deutsches Haas. 16. Gouvernement. 8. Liebfrauenkirche. 17. Commandantur. 9. Casino (Civil). IS. Castle. 10. Commissariat Magazine. 19. Capuchin Church. A. Weisser Thor. C. Mainzer Thor. B. Lohr Thor. D. Mosel Thor. the other side of the river. The city is almost triangular in shape ; two sides are bounded by the Rhine and Moselle, the third by strong fortifications. These are pierced by two massive gates, the Lohr and Mayence gates, with drawbridges over the fosse. The military works, which were constructed on the combined systems of Carnot and Montalembert, include no fewer than 26 forts, and form a fortified camp capable of containing 100,000 men. The Rhine is crossed here by a bridge of boats 485 yards long, and by the Iron Bridge, built for railway purposes in 1866 The Moselle is spanned by a Gothic freestone bridge of 14 arches, 1100 feet in length, erected in 1344, and also by a railway bridge. In the more ancient part of Coblentz are several buildings which possess an historical VI — 12

c O B —0 0 B COBRA (Naja tripudians), a poisonous Colubrine Snake, interest. Prominent among these, at the point of conflu- belonging to the family Elapidez, known also as the ence of the rivers, is the church of St Castor, built in th Hooded Snake, or Cobra di Capello. In this species the early Lombard style of architecture, and surmounted y anterior ribs are elongated, and by raising and bringing four towers. The church was originally founded m 83b forward these, the neck, which otherwise is not distinct by Lewis the Pious, but the present edifice js considera y from the head, can be expanded at will into a broad disc or less ancient. It was here that the sons of Colema n hood, the markings on which bear a striking resemblance met in 843, when they divided the e“Pire, 1nnftoq,rSoe’ to a pair of barnacles, hence the name “ Spectacle Snake Germany, and Italy. In front of the church of St C^r also applied to the cobra. It possesses two rows of palatine stands a fountain, erected by the French m 1812’ ^tb “ teeth in the upper jaw, while the maxillary bones bear the inscription to commemorate Napoleon s invasion of Euss^ fangs of which the anterior one only is in connection with Not long after, the Russian troops occupied Coblentz, and. the poison gland, the others in various stages of growth St Priest, their commander, added in irony these word remaining loose in the surrounding flesh until the destruc“ Vu et approuve par nous, Commandant Russe de tion of the poison fang brings the one immediately behind de CobleZ: Janvier \er, 1814.” In this quarter °f the to the front, which then gets anchylosed to the maxillary town there is also the Liebfrauenkirche a fine specimen bone, and into connection with the gland secreting the of the old cathedral style, built in 1259 ; the ancient town- poison, which in the cobra is about the size of an almond. hall : the Castle of the Electors of Treves, erected m 1280 Behind the poison fangs there are usually one or two now converted into a manufactory of japan-ware ami ordinary teeth. The cobra attains a length' of nearly 6 feet the family-house of the Mettermchs, where Prince and a girth of about 6 inches, and with the exception of Metternich, the Austrian statesman, was born in J- ' the markings on the hood is of a uniform brown colour The more modern part of the town _ has are open, r g above and bluish-white beneath. _ There are, however, many ba ds streets, and many of its public buildings ^ T h distinct varieties, in some of which the spectacle markings The principal of these is the Palace or Royal Castle, with on the hood are awanting. The cobra may be regarded as one front looking towards the Rhine, the other in nocturnal in its habits, being most active by night, although Neustadt, or Great Square. It was built in 1778-86, and not unfrequently found in motion during the day. It contains among other curiosities some fine Gobelin tapestry usually conceals itself under logs of wood, in the roofs of work. Another large edifice is the Palace of Justice, where huts, and in holes in old walls and ruins, where it is often the law courts sit, and assizes are held every three months. come upon inadvertently, inflicting a death wound before Coblentz has also a gymnasium (formerly a convent ot it has been observed. It feeds on small quadrupeds, frogs, Jesuits), a hospital, managed by the sisters of chanty, an lizards, insects, and the eggs of birds, in search of which it orphan asylum, a valuable town library, a theatre, a casino, sometimes ascends trees. When seeking its prey it glides a picture gallery, a musical institute, and a medical schoo . slowly along the ground, holding the anterior third ot its Above the Iron Bridge are Anlagen, or pleasure-grounds, body aloft, with its hood distended, on the alert for anymuch resorted to by the town’s-people. The manufactures thing that may come in its way. “ This attitude, says Sir consist chiefly of linens, cottons, japan-ware, furniture, and J. Fayrer, “ is very striking, and few objects are more caltobacco. Coblentz is a free port, and carries on an exten- culated to inspire awe than a large cobra when, with his sive commerce by means of the Rhine, Moselle, and Lahn. hood erect, hissing loudly, and his eyes glaring, he prepares Being in the centre of the hock wine district, a large trade to strike.” It is said to drink large quantities of water, in this class of produce is carried on with Great Britain, although, like reptiles in general it will live for many Holland, and other countries. Large exports of mineral months without food or drink. The cobra is oviparous; waters are also made, about one million jars of seltzer and its eggs, which are from 18 to 25 in number, are o being shipped annually. Among the products of the neighpure white colour, somewhat resembling in size and bouring provinces which are exported from Coblentz are aappearance the eggs of the pigeon, but sometimes largei. corn, iron, volcanic stones, potter’s clay, stoneware, and These it leaves to be hatched by the heat of the sun. it bark. The population is 28,000. is found in all parts of India from Ceylon to the Himalayas, Coblentz was one of the military posts established by Drusus where it occurs at a height of 8000 feet, and it is jus y about 9 b.c. It is not unfrequently mentioned during the early regarded as the most deadly of the Indian Thanatophidia. centuries of the Christian era as the residence of the Frankish kings, A large proportion of the deaths from snake bite, where and in 860 and 932 it was the seat of ecclesiastical councils. In the species inflicting the wound has been ascertained, 1018 it obtained the rights of a city from Henry II., but at the same time was made subject to the Bishop of Treves, who entrusted is shown to be due to the cobra; and it is estimated the administration to the count palatine of the Rhine. In the that fully one-half of the 20,000 deaths that annually following century the fief was held by the counts of Arnstein and occur in India from this cause may be attributed to this the counts of Nassau; but it returned to the bishops in 1253. unluckily common species. The bite of a vigorous cobra Archbishop Arnold surrounded the city with new walls m 1249-54, and, in spite of an insurrection on the part of the inhabitants, will often prove fatal in a few minutes, and as there is no founded the citadel which still overlooks the town. As a member known antidote to the poison, it is only in rare instances of the League of the Rhenish cities which took its rise in the 13th that such mechanical expedients as cauterizing, concentury, Coblentz attained to great prosperity; and it continued to advance till the disasters of the Thirty Years’ War occasioned a striction, or amputation can be applied with sufficient rapid decline. When in 1632 the Elector Philip Christopher of promptitude to prevent the virus from entering the cirSotern surrendered Ehrenbreitstein to the French the town received culation. Of late years, owing to a small reward ottered an imperial garrison, which was soon, however, expelled by the by the Indian Government for the head of each poisonous Swedes. They in their turn handed the city over to the French, but the imperial forces succeeded in retaking it by storm. In 1688 snake, great numbers of cobras have been destroye ; it was besieged by the French Marshal Bouflers, but was success- but only low caste Hindus will engage in such wor , fully defended by Count Lippe. In 1786 the elector of Treves, the cobra being regarded by tlm natives genera y Clemens Wenceslas, took up his residence in the town., and gave with superstitious reverence, as a divinity powerful o great assistance in its extension and improvement; and a few years later it became, through the invitation of his minister, Duminique, injure, and therefore to be propitiated; and thus oftentimes one of the principal rendezvous of the French Emigres. In 1794 it when found in their dwellings this snake is allowed o was taken by the Revolution army, and, after the peace of Luneville, remain, and is fed and protected. “ Should fear,” says Sir * it was made the chief town of the Rhine and Moselle department. Fayrer, “ and perhaps the death of some inmate bitten by In 1814 it was occupied by the Russians, and by the Congress at | accident prove stronger than superstition, it may be caugbq Vienna it was assigned to Prussia. 90

c O B —0 O C tenderly handled, and deported to some field, where it is released and allowed to depart in peace, not killed” (Thanatophidia of India). Great numbers, especially of young cobras, are killed by the adjutant birds and by the mungoos—a small mammal which attacks it with impunity, apparently not from want of susceptibility to the poison, but by its dexterity in eluding the bite of the cobra. Mere scratching or tearing does not appear to be sufficient to bring the poison from the glands ; it is only when the fangs are firmly implanted by the jaws being pressed together that the virus enters the wound, and in those circumstances it has been shown by actual experiment that the mungoos, like all other warm-blooded animals, succumbs to the poison. In the case of reptiles, the cobra poison takes effect much more slowly, while it has been proved to have no effect whatever on other venomous serpents. The cobra is the snake usually exhibited by the Indian jugglers, who show great dexterity in handling it, even when not deprived of its fangs. Usually, however, the front fang at least is extracted, the creature being thus rendered harmless until the succeeding tooth takes its place, and in many cases all the fangs, with the germs behind, are removed—the cobra being thus rendered innocuous for life. The snake charmer usually plays a few simple notes on the flute, and the cobra, apparently delighted, rears half its length in the air and sways its head and body about, keeping time to the music. The cobra, like almost all poisonous snakes, is by no means aggressive, and when it gets timely warning of the approach of man endeavours to get out of his way. It is only when trampled upon inadvertently, or otherwise irritated, that it attempts to use its fangs. It is a good swimmer, often crossing broad rivers, and probably even narrow arms of the sea, for it has been met with at sea at least a quarter of a mile from land. COBURG, or, in German Koburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and, alternately with Gotha, the residence of the duke and the seat of the administration, is situated on the left bank of the Itz, an affluent of the Regen, and on the southern slope of the Frankenwald, 40 miles S.S.U of Gotha. The town is for the most part old, and contains a large number of remarkable buildings. The ducal palace, or Ehrenburg, is a fine Gothic edifice, with an extensive library, and coRections of coins, paintings, and specimens in natural history; it was originally a convent of the Barefooted Friars, received its present appropriation from John Ernest in 1549, and was restored by Ernest in 1844. In front of the palace is a bronze statue of the latter duke by Schwanthaler, and in the court-garden is the ducal mausoleum. Among the churches the most remarkable is the Moritzkirche, with a tower 335 feet high, the beauti ful Hofkirche, and the modern Roman Catholic church. The educational institutions include a gymnasium, founded in 1604 by Casimir, and thus known as the Casimirianum; a Realschule, established in 1848, a normal college, a deaf and dumb asylum, and a school of architecture. The arsenal contains a public library ; and the so-called Augustenstift, where the ministry of the duchy is located, has an extensive collection of objects in natural history. Coburg further possesses a town-house, Government buildings, an observatory, and a theatre. On a commanding eminence in the vicinity is the ancient castle of Coburg, which dates at least from the 11th century. Till 1348 it was the residence of the counts of Henneberg, and till 1547 belonged o the dukes of Saxony ; in 1781 it was turned into a penitentiary and lunatic asylum ; but in 1835-8 it received a complete restoration. The most interesting room in this building is that which was occupied by Luther for three months in 1530, and thus became the birthplace of his amoushymn, Mine fe&te Burg ist unsei Gott ; the bed on \yhich he slept and the pulpit from which he preached in

91 the old chapel are still shown. Coburg is a place of considerable industry and possesses a large brewery, factories for the weaving of linen and cotton goods, tanneries, and dye-works ; and there is an important trade in the cattle reared m the neighbourhood. Among various places of interest m the vicinity are the ducal residences of Callenberg and Rosenau, in the latter of which Albert, the Prince Consort, was born in 1819 ; the castle of Lauterberg • and the village of Neuses, with the house of the poet Riickert who died there in 1866, and on the other side of the riverthe tomb of the poet Thiimmel. Population in 1871 12 819 COCA. See Cuca. COCCEIUS, or Coch, Johann (1603-1669), a Dutch theologian, was born at Bremen. After studying at Hamburg and Franecker he became in 1629 professor of Hebrew in his native town. In 1636 he wTas transferred to Franecker, where he held the chair of Hebrew, and from 1643 the chair of theology also, until 1650, when he became professor of theology at Leyden. He died on the 4th November 1669. . Cocceius w7as a profound Oriental scholar, and his chief services were rendered in the department of Hebrew philology and exegesis. The common statement that he held that every passage has as many meanings as it can be made to bear is founded on an entire misconception of his fundamental law of interpretation. What he really maintained was the sound principle that individual words and phrases are to be interpreted according to their contextual connection, and not according to any predetermined dogmatic system, whether patristic or scholastic. As one of the leading exponents of the federal ” theology, he spiritualized the Hebrew scriptures to such an extent that it was said that Cocceius found Christ everywhere in the Old Testament and Grotius found him nowhere. He held millenarian views, and was the founder of a school of theologians who were called after him Cocceians. His most distinguished pupi] was the celebrated Yitringa. He wrote commentaries on most of the books of the Old Testament, but his most valuable work was his Lexicon et Gommentarius Sermonis Heb. et Chald. (Leyden, 1669), which has been frequently republished. The federal or covenant theology which he taught is fully expounded in his Summa Doctrince de Foedere et Testamento Dei (1648). His collected works were published in twelve folio volumes at Amsterdam in 1701. COCHABAMBA, a city and bishop’s see of Bolivia, capital of a province and department, |is situated about 8370 feet above the level of the sea, on both banks of the Rio de la Rocha, a sub-tributary of the Rio Grande, to the south of a considerable Cordillera. It is about 122 miles N.N.W. of Sucre, its latitude is 17° 27' S., and its longitude 65° 46' W. The streets are broad, and the houses for the most part of one story and surrounded by gardens, so that the area of the city is great in comparison with its population. There are fifteen churches, a gymnasium, and a cabildo ; and an extensive industry is maintained in the production of woollen and cotton stuffs, leather, soap, glass-ware, and pottery. The population is largely composed of Indians ; and the prevailing language is Quichua. Cochabamba was founded in the 16th century, and for a time was called Oropesa. In the revolution of 1815 the women of the city distinguished themselves by their bravery, and successfully attacked the Spanish camp; and in 1818 a number of the heroines were put to death by the Spanish forces. In 1874 the city was seized by Miguel Aguirre, and a large part of it laid in ruins, but peace was soon afterwards restored, and the regular authorities reinstated. The population in 1858 was 40,678. COCHIN, a feudatory state of Southern India, situated within the presidency of Fort St George or Madras, between 9° 48' and 10° 50' N, lat, aucl between 76° 5' and 76° 58'

C 0 C —C O C up and a considerable sum, amounting to £13,669 in E. long. The state, which is of irregular shape, is bounded 1874, is annually spent in public works The military force on the W., N., and E. by the districts of South Malabar is a nominal one of 1 commissioned officer and 340 nonand Coimbatore, and for some distance on the W. by tne commissioned officers and men. The two trading ports Indian Ocean; on the S. it is bounded by the state of Exclusive of the British port of Cochin) are Malipuram and Travancore. Cochin contains a total area of Idbl square Narakel, at which 31 vessels, a burden of 22,626 tons, miles, and a population, according to a census taken in arrived in 1873-74. The capabilities of Narakel as a port 1875, of 598,353 souls, dwelling in 118,196 houses. In of shelter during the S.W. monsoon have been satisfactorily state is divided into seven tdluks, or sub-distncts viz proved, and the mail-steamers of the British India Company Cochin, Cannanore, Mugundapuram, Tnchur, Taliapail, touch there for four or five months of the year, when the Chitur, and Cranganore. neighbouring English port of Cochin is unapproachable. Cochin consists for the most part of a maritime lowland Cochin, a town and port of British India, belonging to hemmed in between the sea and the Ghdts. It includes, the Malabar district of Madras, situated in 9° 58' 5" N. however, the mountains which thus wall it out from inner lat. and 76° 13' 55" E. long. The town lies at the northern India, and the lower portion is copiously watered by the extremity of a strip of land about twelve miles in length, torrents which pour down them. These torrents dwind e but at few places more than a mile in breadth, which is in the hot weather to rivulets, but during the rains they nearly insulated by inlets of the sea and estuaries of swell into great cataracts, rising in one instance at least ib streams flowing from the Western Ghftts. These form the feet in twenty-four hours. On the lowlands, they unite as Cochin backwater described in the article on the elsewhere on the western coast into shallow lakes or bac - Cochin state. The town of Cochin is about a mile in waters,” lying behind the beach line and below its level. length by half a mile in breadth. Its first European In the monsoon the Cochin backwaters are broad navigable possessors were the Portuguese, from whom it was captured channels and lakes; in the hot weather they contract into by the Dutch in 1663. Under the Dutch the town prospered, shallows in many places not 2 feet deep. The vegetation and about 1778 an English traveller describes it as a is luxuriant; rich crops of rice are grown on the lowlands; place of great trade; “ a harbour filled with ships, streets the hills send down vast quantities of timber by means ot crowded with merchants, and warehouses stored with goods the torrents. The remains of once fine forests of teak are from every part of Asia and Europe, marked the industry, preserved in the north-eastern corner of the state, and stdl the commerce, and the wealth of the inhabitants. . . In form a considerable source of wealth. Coffee has of late 1796 Cochin was captured from the Dutch by the British, years received much attention and promises well. The and in 1806 the fortifications and public buildings were other products are the usual ones of an Indian state, cotton, blown up by order of the authorities. The explosion pepper, betel-nut, chillies, ginger, various spices, cardamoms, destroyed much private property, and for a long time arrowroot, &c. An excellent account of Cochin will be affected the prosperity of the town. Under found in Dr Day’s Land of. the Pevniauls. The icij4s of seriously Dutch rule was very populous, containing Europeans, Cochin claim to hold the territory by descent from Cherm^n MopMs or Cochin Hindus, Arabs,. Persians, and PerumAl, who governed the whole of the surrounding Christians ofMusalmdns, various sects, natives, Armenians, country, including Travancore and Malabar, as viceroy of Indo-Fortuguese, and those comprising denominated Syrian Christians. the Chol4 kings, about the beginning of the 9th century, and who afterwards established himself as an independent The Jews have also a settlement here. They are of two the Fair or White Jews, of more recent arrival and rhjl In 1776 Cochin was subjugated by and became classes, tributary to Hyder All. In 1792 Tippu ceded the settlement in the country, and the Black Jews, who sovereignty to the British, who made over the country to reside apart in a village outside the town. According to the hereditary rdj4, subject to a tribute of Rs. 100,000. the census of 1871, Cochin town contains 2731 houses.and a The state is now in subsidiary alliance with the British population of 13,840 souls, classified as follows: Hindus, Government, under a treaty dated 17 th October 1809. By 3883 , Muhammadans, 2174; Christians, 7783; and this engagement, which was entered into on the suppression “ Others,” 46. The town is constituted a municipality, of an insurrection on the part of the r&j&s of Cochin and and in 1873-74 the municipal income (excluding balances) Travancore against the British powder, the Cochin chief amounted to £1573 10s., and the expenditure to £1560 agreed to pay, in addition to the tribute of Rs. 100,000, 10s. The entrance to the port of Cochin is obstructed by an annual sum, equal to the expense of maintaining a bat- a bar across the mouth of the river, and during the S.W. talion of native infantry, or Arcot Rs.176,037, making an monsoon, which lasts for four or five months, vessels can aggregate annual payment of Rs. 276,037. In return for neither enter nor depart from it in safety. Notwithstandthis payment, and certain engagements entered into by the ing the difficulties of navigation, however, the port has a r&j4, the East India Company undertook to defend the considerable maritime trade. In 1873-74, 171 British integrity of the state territory against all enemies. Subse- vessels of a burden of 108,579 tons, 27 foreign vessels quently the annual tribute to the British Government was of 7010 tons, and 1644 native craft of a total of 49,215 reduced to Rs. 240,000, and again afterwards to Rs. 200,000 tons burden entered the port, and paid a total of £19/4 (£20,000) at which it now stands. A British resident as port dues,—by far the greater part, £1520, being paid by represents the government of India in Cochin conjointly the British ships. The value of the exports in 1873-74 with Travancore. The present r&j& succeeded to the throne amounted to £755,796, and of the imports to £547,2o2, paying a total customs duty of £5161. A lighthouse at in March 1864. The total revenue of Cochin for the Malabar year 1049 the south entrance of the harbour marks the entrance to (1873-74 a.d.), amounted to £130,851, being the highest in- the port, and is visible at a distance of 15 miles. COCHIN CHINA, a name applied to the eastern division come recorded for any year; the principal items were theland revenue, £61,764; customs, £11,035; and salt, £15,713. of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, composed of the territories The disbursements for the same year amounted to £111,858, of Anam proper, Tong-king, and the French colony of leaving a surplus for the year of £18,993. The state has Cochin China. It forms a long strip of country which now the sum of £200,000 invested in British Government stretches in an arc of a circle along a coast-line of 1240 securities. A high school, with an average of 170 pupils, miles from 8° 30' to 23° N. lat. With a breadth of 372 and 5 district schools are maintained by the state. miles in the north of Tong-king, it is afterwards narrowed Hospitals and dispensaries and a post-office are also kept by a chain of mountains parallel to the China Sea, and has

92

COCHIN no more than 50 miles of breadth in the greater part of the kingdom of Hud; but in Lower Cochin China it widens out again to about 190 miles. The most western point, in Tong-king, reaches 102° 20' E. long., and the most eastern, Cape Varela, in Cochin China, is in 109° 40'. The boundaries are—on the 1ST. the Chinese provinces of Yun-nan and Kwang-se, on the E. and S. the China Sea, on the W. the Gulf of Siam, the kingdom of Cambodia, and the Laos country tributary to the Siamese empire. According to the most probable estimates the empire of Anam has an area of from 190,000 to 230,000 square miles, or about the same extent as France ; while the French colony occupies about 21,630. The western limits of this empire are, however, very imperfectly determined, and the regions to the west of Tong-king are still unexplored. The N. of Cochin China is washed by the Gulf of Tong-king, a great

inlet formed by the coast of Tong-king on the W. and the island of Hai-nan and the peninsula of Lien-chow on the L. At its mouth, towards Tiger Island and the S.W. part of Hai-nan, the gulf has a breadth of about 138 English miles, which almost represents its medium breadth. Near the west coast are several islands, and towards the head of the gulf a great number of islets and banks. From soundings which have been taken throughout its whole extent, it has been found that in the middle of the entrance there is a depth of from 210 to 330 feet, which diminishes towards the coasts; and the depth is less half-way up the gulf, where the bottom is generally soft. Passing along the coast from Cape Pak-loung, where the rentier commences between China and Tong-king, we find at all the part north of the Gulf of Tong-king is little mown; it is said to be fringed with banks and rocks, an some large islands have been visited by English vessels in pursuit of pirates. The most important are the Pirate a rou iime ni,• g name P multitudinous in a Pearl bay ofIslands. which Chinese is Fie-tzi-long, islets and the mout ' ^eep, but obstructed h °f fho River Lach-Huyen, which about a mile inland by a bar preventmg the entrance of any vessel drawing more than 114 feet, -oi ext come the mouths of the River of Tong-king, Song-Coi, or Hong-kiang (Red River). The delta of this river is lormed by four main branches—Cua1 tra lay, Cua lac, Cua 1

Cua signifies embouchure.

CHINA

93 dhai, Cua ba lat—which communicate with each other both by natural channels, called arroyos, and by artificial canals. These are charged with alluvial matter, and produce considerable increase of soil. Mr E. Ploix, a hydrographic engineer who visited the gulf between 1857 and 1859, estimates the annual advance of the coast at about 330 feet. It is by these rivers that Ke-cho, or Ha-noi, the capital of Tong-king, can be reached. This town and the port of Ninh-hai, in the province of Hai-dzuong, were opened to foreign commerce by a treaty concluded between France and the Government of Hu6, March 15, 1874. To allow' a ship to pass up the river at any season its draught must not exceed 5£ feet, and from the end of May to the end of November, vessels drawing 12 feet can cross the bars. About 18° 10' N. lat. lies the island Hon-tseu, or Goats’ Island, near a prominent cape about 1410 feet high. A little to the south of Hon-tseu is the point to the north of W'hich there is only one tide in 24 hours, except during a period of two weeks, when on three or four days there are two tides of little force. At Cape Boung-Qui-hoa there is a good anchorage well sheltered by islands, of which the chief is South Watcher Island, or South Vigie. In front of Cape Lay is the little Tiger Island, where the west coast of the Gulf of Tong-king terminates. On the China Sea the coast presents successively, as we pass southward, the mouth of the River Huorts are rice (which forms of itself half the sum total), salt fish, provided principally by the fisheries at the mouth of the two chief rivers, salt, undyed cotton, pepper, and the skins of animals. The great commercial importance of Cochin China arises from the excellence of its situation, as a way of communication with the rich and populous provinces of middle China. England has long been seeking to open a route for trade between the north-east of India, or Pegu, and the south-west of China, but up to the present time, notwithstanding the courage and devotion of explorers, these attempts have failed. Communiigg0 ^ jggg a Freuch expedition, commanded by cation. Captain Doudart de Lagr6e, followed up the course of the Me-kong, and penetrated into middle China. This expedition cost its chief his life, for he died in consequence of the fatigue which he underwent in Yun-nan. This examination of the Me-kong proved that this fine river is, as already noticed, unfit for regular navigation. Another route, however, by the Tong-king, may be opened up; and it is comparatively easy and habitually used by the natives. In 1872 Mr Dupuis, a French merchant, passed up the course of the Hong-kiang as far as Maug-Hao, a town of Yun nan, where the river ceases to be navigable. He came down the river again in 1873. He declares it to be navigable in every season, and has thus solved the problem which Captain Doudart de Lagr6e sought to solve by means of the Me-kong. M. Dupuis’s expedition led the French authorities, at the solicitation of the Government of Hu4, to despatch M. Francis Gamier to the Tong-king ; but the gallant explorer was assassinated by pirates in the neighbourhood of Ha-noi. Ethnology. The native of Anam is the worst built and the ugliest of all the Indo-Chinese who belong to the Mongolian race. He is scarcely of middle height, and is shorter and less vigorous than his neighbours. His complexion is tawny, darker than that of the Chinese, but clearer than that of the Cambodian; his skin is thick; his forehead low; his skull slightly depressed at the top, but well developed at the sides. His face is flat, with highly protruding cheek-bones, and is lozenge-shaped or eurygnathous to a degree that is nowhere exceeded. His nose is not only the flattest, but also the smallest among the Indo-Chinese; his mouth is large, and his lips thick; his teeth are blackened and his gums destroyed by the constant use of the betel-nut, the areca-nut, and lime, a custom which perhaps originated in hygienic reasons. His neck is short, his shoulders slope greatly, his body is thick-set, large, all of one piece, as it were, and wanting in suppleness. His pelvis is large, with a considerable separation of the upper part of the femora, giving to his gait a curious swagger, which has, not without reason, been described as theatrical. This

CHINA

95 odd swagger by itself suffices to distinguish the Anameso from every other Indo-Chinese people without exception. Another peculiarity, which especially distinguishes this race from the other Indo-Chinese branches, is a greater separation of the big toe from the rest than is found in any of the other peoples that walk bare-footed. It is sufficiently general and well marked to serve as an ethnographic test; and it indicates that the people of Anam are not descended—as some authors have asserted—from a mingling of indigenous savages with the Chinese, but have existed as a distinct race for a long time. According to Father Legrand do la Liraye {Notes hiitoriques svr la nation Annaniitey Saigon, 1865), this curious feature has served to distinguish the people of Anam since the year 2285 b.c., that is to say, 63 years after the Biblical deluge. This statement, taken as it is from the Chinese annals, shows that the Anamese could not have received this characteristic from their neighbours ; and it is a very curious fact that it has been transmitted to the present inhabitants despite the frequent intermarriages with other races which must have taken place during this period of forty centuries. The inhabitants of Lower Cochin China are evidently weaker and smaller than those of Tong-king, and this probably results from their dwelling in marshy rice-fields. In the midst of the Anamese live Cambodians and immigrant Chinese, the latter, associated together-according to the districts they come from, carrying on nearly all the commerce of the country. In the forests on the frontiers of Cochin China dwell certain wretched savages called Mois, or Stiengs, of whom little is known; and alongside of these are the Chams, a Mahometan people which appear to bo of Arab origin, and, in spite of a strong infusion of Chinese blood, preserve the warlike qualities of their ancestors, their love of fighting, their gay and open character, and their abstinence from theft. Their stature is tall, and they are characterized by the enormous projection of the soft parts of the abdomen. Their women, while mixing freely in society without veiling, have a highspirited virtue which forms a contrast to the corruption that prevails around them. Their language shows that they once knew the lion and the chamois; and while they arc now inferior in civilization, they preserve traces in their vocabulary of a higher condition. Among the different races which inhabit ludo-Chiua numerous mixtures take place. There are crosses of the Anamite wdth the Hindu, with the Malay, with the Cambodian, and wuth the Chinese. The last of these half breeds, who are called Min-huongs, are the most numerous and interesting. Language, Evidently derived from the Chinese, of which it appears to be a very ancient dialect, the Anamese language is composed of monosyllables, of slightly varied articulation, expressing absolutely different ideas according to the tone in which they are pronounced. It is quite impossible to connect with our musical system the utterance of the sounds of which the Chinese and Anamese languages are composed. AVhat is understood by a “ tone in this language is distinguished in reality, not by the number of sonorous vibrations which belong to it, but rather b) a use of the vocal apparatus special to each. Thus, the sense will to a native bo completely changed according as the sound is the result of an aspiration or of a simple utterance of the voice. Thence the difficulty of substituting our phonetic alphabet for the ideographic characters of the Chinese, as well as for the ideophonetic writing partly borrowed by the Anamese from the letters of the celestial empire. We owe to the Jesuit missionaries the introduction of an ingenious though very comp! mated syi|tem,w hicli has caused remarkable progress to be made in tB% enq lo> ment of phonetic characters. By means of six accent.,, one bar, and a crotchet, it is possible to note wit a sufficient:

96

COCHIN

CHINA

badly kept in repair and poorly equipped, was built in the precision the indications of tone without which the Anamese course of last century according to plans furnished by words have no sense for the natives. This system is European engineers. The provincial capitals of Hai-dzuong universally adopted in French Cochin China, an e ne f 30 000 inhabitants), Bac-Ninh, Nam-Dinh, likewise possess generation, almost without exception, are able to read and important citadels; and that of Minh-binh also the write in Latin characters. , chief town of a province, is the strongest of all long-king. The Anamese are idle, incapable of deep emotion, an National Hu6 or Fhu-tua-tien, capital of the kingdom of Anam, is character fond of ease. They show much outward respect composed of two portions—the inner town, a vast fortress and and parents, but they take g^at delight built on the Yauban system according to the plans of French customs. superiors mocking and banter. They cherish great love of their engineers, and occupied by the Government; and the outer native soil and native village, and cannot long rema1^ town which is inhabited by the mass of the population, from home. On the whole they are mild, or rathe who are estimated at 100,000 souls. Mention may also be apathetic, but the facility with which they learn ^ remark- made of Tourane and Quin-nhon, or Binh-dhinh, important able. Buddhism, mingled with coarse P0P^lar ports open to European commerce. Saigon, the capital of of the dominant creed, but the learned hold the doctnne °f the French colony, is composed of three towns:—1st, Confucius, and in truth the people of Anam are but sightly an Asiatic town, inhabited by Anamese husbandmen, religious. Nevertheless, like their neighbours, the Chinese fishers, or servants, by mercantile Chinamen, by Malays, and the Cambodians, they have a great respect for the Tagals, and Hindus engaged in various occupations; 2d, dead, and their worship . almost entirely —jf the town of the colonists; and 3d, the Government town, ceremonies in honour of their ancestors. i ^ inhabited by the Government employes, administrators, they dispose of the body by inhumation. Among the officers, and physicians. The houses are mainly built of savage tribes of the interior there is scarcely any idea of a brick. Two gardens, one belonging to the governor and God8 and the superstitious practices to which they ar the other the botanical, overlook the town. The latter is addicted can scarcely be considered as the exPressl0n ^ Q very interesting, containing as it does a fine collection of definite religious idea. Christianity counts 400,000 trees and plants, both indigenous and exotic, as well as a adherents in Tong-king and 5000 in Lower Chma. very curious menagerie. At the port of Saigon 387 vessels The system of government in the empire of Anam Governentered and 398 left in 1874, which forms about half of ment. pure and absolute monarchy without any other constitution the whole maritime trade in the colony. Eight miles from than powerful custom. The succession to the throne Saigon is the town of Cho-len (i.e., the great market), a follows the order of primogeniture. Between the citizens Chinese town with an extensive commerce, and according there exists the most complete equality, since public offices to some writers 80,000, according to others 30,000 or are open to all, and there are no other social distinctions 40,000 inhabitants. The other towns of the colony are than those due to office or fortune. The sovereign at once Go-cong to the south-west of Saigon, where, in the midst high priest and supreme judge, governs despotically with of the rice fields, there lives au agricultural population, the assistance of six ministers. The army, or rather the which presents in all its purity the true Anamese type; military list, for a large part of the force exists only on Mi-th6, a port on one of the arms of the Me kong, and the paper, is composed of 80 regiments, with 500 men in each. second town of the colony ; the fort and the town of Yin It is recruited from Cochin China; Tong-king furnishes long ; the fort and town of Chaudoc ; Ha-tien, on the no soldiers. It is under the command of a commander- Gulf of Siam, one of the most unhealthy places on the in-chief, a kind of constable of the kingdom or grand coast, inhabited by Chinese and Anamese; and at the marshal, who is personally responsible for the defence of Cape St Jacques, the military port and fort of Ba-na. the citadel of Hu6. The marine, which has no ships, It is difficult to state the exact number of the population Pop*, is composed of 30 regiments, under an admiral-m-chief, of the empire of Anam, and authors vary greatly m their t™. who is assisted by a vice-admiral and two rear-admirals, estimates. The data which appear most worthy of credit each of whom commands 10 regiments. The mandarins, give a total sum of 10 or 12 millions. As to the French as in China, form two distinct classes—the civil and the colony, the last official census of which the resultshave military. The first class are scholars who have passed been published was made in 1873; it gives 1.487,200 literary examinations. The latter are chosen chiefly on inhabitants, of whom 49,500 were Chinese and 82,70U account of physical fitness; and it is only in the highest ranks Cambodians. The Europeans numbered 1114, exclusive that well-educated respectable men are to be found. Ihe of the Government officials and the garrison. people have a great regard for the learned, who have all The Anamese, according to their own annals, are natives Historj, received a higher moral education,—that of Confucius. the south of China. “ In the 2d or 3d century before The mandarins are divided into nine degrees, and each of Abraham,” says Pdre Legrand de la Liraije, “ four barbarous degree comprises two classes. Besides the French colony, tribes occupied the limits of the Chinese empire , o e the empire of Anam is divided into 24 provinces placed each under the authority of a governor. The province is south was the tribe of the Giao-chi.” It is from this tribe subdivided into departments, arrondissements, cantons, and that the Anamese claim to have descended; and at the time communes. The French colony, administered by a governor when history begins to acquire some degree of certitude, assisted by a privy council, comprehends the six ancient about 2357 before our era, the Chinese annals mention tne provinces of the south. It is now divided into four Anamese under the name of Giao-chi, which signifies . wi provinces, bearing the names of their chief cities, Saigon, the big toe.” According to native scholars the history Mi-tho, Yinh-long, and Bassac. The provinces form to- of this epoch is of a legendary character. It results from gether 19 inspectorships with an administrator of native their labours that for twenty centuries the race of Giao-cru was governed in vassalage to the empire by a dj nas y o affairs at the head of each. The chief town and the ancient capital of Tong-king, Chinese origin, which lasted till 257 b.c. From tha a Chief towns. Ha-noi, or Ke-cho (»>., the market), situated on one of the till 110 before the Christian era the throne was held oy branches of the Song-Coi, though at present greatly fallen, two other vassal dynasties; and from 110 B.c. till still contains at least 50,000 inhabitants. It possesses a a.d. these dynasties were replaced by Chinese governors. very large citadel, which serves as the residence of the In the beginning of the 10th century some of the na iveir viceroy and of the special envoy or royal commissioner, who chiefs, weary of the Chinese rule, revolted; and e is the first authority in Tong-king. This citadel, at present efforts were crowned with success. From 960 downwar s,

c 0 c —c o c under the government of native princes, the Anamese lived independent, and preserved rather the name than the reality of vassalage to the Chinese empire. Since that time the nation, with a most remarkable aptitude for expansion, has aggrandized itself at the expense of its neighbours, and has conquered from the Cambodians Tsiampa and the six provinces of the south which now form the French colony. It is to be noted that the Cambodians, though endowed with physical force far superior to that of the Cochin Chinese, have been beaten by them in every encounter. It is nearly a century since the first treaty of alliance was signed between France and the kingdom of Anam. By this treaty, dated the 28th November 1787, the king of Cochin-China ceded to France in full property the Peninsula of Tourane and the Isle of Pulo-Condore. The agreement was only partially executed, but it was sufficient to render the influence of France predominant in Cochin China; and Christianity made rapid progress in Tong-kinf. At the death of the king Gia-long, in 1820, the party hostile to strangers prevailed; and several attempts to protect the French missionaries and establish the French influence had failed, when in 1858, in consequence of the murder of M. Diaz,—who was put to death by order of the king merely on account of the news that a French ship was cruising in sight of the coast,—a squadron was sent under the command of Admiral Rigault de Genouilly, who seized Tourane. Shortly after the admiral made explorations in the south, seeking a better situation for a settlement than Tourane, and passing up the River Don-nai, he took possession of Saigon, the true capital of Lower Cochin China. On the 5th June 1862 the court of Hufi accepted a treaty, by which it abandoned three provinces to France, and bound itself to pay an indemnity of war. After various expeditions occasioned by revolts, France occupied in 1867 the three other provinces of Lower Cochin China, and after long negotiations a treaty was signed at Saigon, on the 15th March 1874, definitively abandoning the six provinces to France. This treaty opens besides to the commerce of all nations one port in eastern Cochin China and one port in long-king, and guarantees liberty of transit from the sea as far as Yun-nan. Bibliography. —M. Barbie du Bocage, secretary of the Central Commission °f the Geographical Society at Paris, published in 1867 e e Llbll gra ,1 0f the books Lu r,WPrelating i ) r the ? ^history and geography > Periodicals,of manuscripts, and plans to Anam in a l et O 105 P geS 8v In M Vi kmnv i r ?71 ’ G°' ra hi< 'ue vien de Saint Martin's’wellfo be found a listi well ^ up™9to Pdatel of, Hachette to new worksandon Cie—there Indo-Chinais nti TrFr- V°n frichthofen, Sur les ProS-mestTn. A GhlEdinburgh lV- yiacMahon (ColApril °nel A.1873P.) Routes du uest de la Chine; Review, F Yial 13 annie de la iZ/lTir t Cochinchine, 1874 ; Romanet du Cail: A monnier cambodaifn^f'r^ ' y 1876;> Dictionnaircfrancfiisvmbodgien ct Gdographie du Cambodge, G. Coryton ‘‘On the Routes between British Burmah and the West of ffina,” in voT r ad and DoSeur - by Oocteur Mondieres 1875 Am/- Monce before the Societe d’Anthropologie, in Jan. A er lP hologique sur la CocM Carte aIiSrJuT]’ n ^ u nchine; Bigrel, on the proper?amef0 The foll/r-nf w A”1 A, Ceographique.—Instructions nautiques da Culture de de la Marine; de Population, avi ation Tableaux da la Marine °S™’ > ImhlUs V™ le Ministers l t cou A? % 9 by P T v/ 'rrni0n g Vm pde Geographic de la Basse Cochinchine, a m,o 7 ' coVesky’, SaiSon> 1875; Cours d'histoire vinh-kv • V™, d f ^ . da la Basse Cochinchine, by Truong1866 1867 Adoration en Indo-Chine pendant les amides U Go publU sous laj , ™"umdament de M. Doudart de Lagree, 1873 n t„ direction de M. Francis Gamier, 2 vols. Hachette foll wi » 1"g r™)am earlier :— v Mndate in til tm lnZImS'' Blssac S"'! S “ Chma chine, 1812 • CmwM mbassgto bere, Fiat actuel de CochinChina, 1828 • GuSff^ ^ ra y of^Courts of Siam and Cochin in Journ. Roy Soc 184Q1 ?°1? P1^ fbe Cochin Chinese Empire,” 1848-56, s’A84^’ ^o^hevaux, Voyage dans oo, Paris tans, I1858; Veuillot, La CocMnchine et VIndo-Chine, la Tonquin,

*

97

MouhotfSim^amio^A^S, 1864^^ ^DMonn^71^ amiticmn, lusitanum, et latinum was published at Rome hTl67lTv 1 ere Alex, de Rhode; and another, the combined work of Pigneaux and Tabard, appeared in 1838. An essay on the languaS and writing was published by Schott in 1855. A MA \ COCHINEAL, a dye-stuff used for the production of scarlet, crimson, orange, and other tints, and for the preparation of lake and carmine. It consists of the females ot Coccus cacti, an insect of the order HemipUra, which feeds upon various species of the Cactaceoe, more especially . the nopal plant, Opuntia coccinellifera, a native of Mexico and Peru. The dye was introduced into Europe irom Mexico, where it had been in use long before the entrance of the Spaniards in the year 1518, and where it formed one of the staple tributes to the Crown for certain districts. In 1523 Cortes received instructions from the Spanish court to procure it in as large quantities as possible. It appears not to have been known in Italy so late as the year 1548, though the art of dyeing then flourished there. Cornelius van Drebbel, at Alkmaar, first employed cochineal for the production of scarlet in 1650. Until about 1725 the belief was very prevalent that cochineal was the seed of a plant, but Dr Lister in 1672 conjectured it to be a kind of kermes, and in 1703 Leeuwenhoeck ascertained its true nature by aid of the microscope. Since its introduction cochineal has supplanted kermes (Coccus ilicis) over the greater part of Europe. I he male of the cochineal insect is half the size of the emale, and, unlike it, is devoid of nutritive apparatus • it has long white wings, and a body of a deep red colour, terminated by two diverging setae. The female is apterous, and has a dark-brown plano-convex body ; it is found in the proportion of 150 to 200 to one of the male insect. I he dead body of the mother insect serves as a protection tor the eggs until they are hatched. Cochineal is now furnished not only by Mexico and Peru, but also by giers and the S. of Spain. In Teneriffe it was successfully cultivated in 1858, on the failure of the vines there through disease, but the diminished value of cochineal of late years has much affected its production in the Canaries. Cochineal is collected thrice in the seven months of the season. The insects are carefully brushed from the branches of the cactus into bags, and are then killed by immersion in hot water, or by exposure to the sun, steam, or the heat of an oven—much of the variety of appearance in the commercial article being caused by the mode of treatment. The dried insect has the form of irregular, fluted, and concave grains, which weigh about iV.of a grailb as many as 70,000 insects being estimated to weigh 1 lb. Cochineal has a musty and bitterish taste, I here are two principal varieties—silver cochineal, which has a greyish-red colour, and the furrows of the body covered with a white bloom or fine down, and black cochineal, which is of a dark reddish-brown, and destitute of bloom. Granilla is an inferior kind, gathered from uncultivated plants. The best crop is the first of the season, which consists of the unimpregnated females ; the ater crops contain an admixture of young insects and s ms, which contain proportionally little colouring matter. Cochineal owes its tinctorial power to the presence of a substance termed cochinealin, or carminic acid, a compound of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, which may be prepared from the aqueous decoction of cochineal. The comparative value of different specimens of cochineal may be ascertained by a method based upon the bleaching action of lerricyanide of potassium upon a weak potash solution of the dye. The black variety of cochineal is sometimes sold for silver cochineal by shaking it with powdered talc, or heavy-spar; but these adulterations can be readily detected by means of a lens. The duty on cochineal was Yi. — n

98

C 0 C —C 0 0

and animals dying poisoned by its look. It stood in awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed it, and consequently travellers were wont to take this bird with them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices. The weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance of its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when wounded by the monster’s teeth it found a ready remedy in rue—the only plant which the cockatrice could not wither. This myth reminds one of the real contests between the weasel-like mungoos of India and the deadly cobra, in which the latter is generally llandbuch der Entoruologie; Vincent, Ann. ! . > ser ■ Westwood, Modern Glassification of Insects, pp. 448, 44 . killed. The term “cockatrice” is employed on four tea description of the cnltiyation of oochined m Java see FMs occasions in the English translation of the Bible, in all of Woordenboek van Nederlandsch Indie—Cochenille.^ See which it denotes nothing more than an exceedingly nervations on the Making of Cochineal in Jamaica, m Phil. ± ran. , venomous reptile; it seems also to be synonymous with 1691, pp. 502-3 ; and Hoyle’s Essay on the Productive Resources f “ Basilisk,” the mythical king of serpents. India, pp. 47-65, 1840 COCKBURN, Mrs Alison (1712-1794), justly celeCOCKATOO (Cacatuidce), a family of Scansonal Birds, brated for having written one of the most exquisite of distinguished from other Old World parrots by their greater Scottish ballads, the “ Flowers of the Forest,”1 was the size, by a crest of feathers on the head, which can be raised daughter of a border laird, Robert Rutherfurd of Fairnalee, or depressed at will, and by their enormously developed and°was born in the heart of the Southern Highlands in bills. They inhabit the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea the autumn of 1712. Her education was slight. She and Australia, and are gregarious, frequenting woods and spent her youth in rambling and riding about the countryfeeding on seeds, fruits, and the lame of insects. Their note is generally harsh and unmusical, and although they are side, and in paying visits to an aged minister in the neighreadily tamed when taken young, becoming familiar, and m bourhood, of whose “heavenly affection” for her she some species showing remarkable intelligence, their powers wrote enthusiastically^ in after years. She was a graceful of vocal imitation are exceedingly limited. Oi the true dancer, spent two winter seasons in Edinburgh, and was cockatoos (Cacatua) the best known is the Crested Cockatoo one of the Edinburgh belles of her time. Different causes {Gacatua galerita), of a pure white plumage with the have been assigned for the composition of the “ Flowers of exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and ot the Forest.” Mr Chambers states that it was written on the ear and tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with the occasion of a great commercial disaster which ruined yellow. The crest when erect stands 5 inches high. Those the fortunes of some Selkirkshire lairds. Her later biobirds are found in Australia in flocks varying from 100 to graphers, however, think it more probable that, it was 1000 in number, and do great damage to newly sown gram, written on the departure to London of a certain John for which reason they are mercilessly destroyed by farmers. Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears to have They deposit their eggs—two in number, and of a pure been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd white colour—in the hollows of decayed trees, or in the was married to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston, one of a fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the locality in family of stanch Whigs and Presbyterians, and an advowhich they reside. This is the species usually kept in cate at the Scottish bar. After her marriage she knew all Europe as a cage bird. Leadbetter’s Cockatoo (Cacatua the intellectual and aristocratic celebrities of her day. In Leadbeateri), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels all the memorable year 1745 she vented her Whiggism in a squib others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in upon Prince Charlie, and narrowly escaped being taken by great,part of white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a the Highland guard as she was driving through Edinburgh deep salmon colour under the wings, while the crest is in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with the bright crimson at the base, with a yellow spot in the centre parody in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable and white at the tip. It is exceedingly shy and difficult of letter-writer and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts, and approach, and its note is more plaintive while less harsh than “ character-sketches ’’—then a favourite form of composithat of the preceding species. In the cockatoos belonging tion—like other wits of her day; but the “ Flowers of the to the genus Calyptorhynchus the general plumage is black Forest” is the only thing she wrote that possesses great liteor dark brown, usually with a large spot or band of red or rary merit. She survived her husband forty-one years, yellow on the tail, and in some species behind the ear also. living to the age of eighty-two, and to the last she mainThe largest of these is known as the Funereal Cockatoo tained her social popularity. At her house on Castle-hill, (Calyptorhynchus funereus), from the lugubrious note or and afterwards in Crighton Street, she received many illuscall which it utters, resembling the two syllables Wy—la—, trious friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robertson, the native name of the species. It deposits its eggs in the Hume, Home, Monboddo, the Keiths of Ravelston, the hollows of the large gum trees of Australia, and feeds Balcarres family, and Lady Anne Barnard, the authoress largely on the larvae of insects, in search of which it peels of “ Auld Robin Gray.” She was in Edinburgh when Ur off the bark of trees, and when thus employed it may be Johnson visited that city, towed thither by the triumphant approached closely. “ When one is shot, the remainder of Boswell. She saw and commented upon Burns’s short, the company,” says Gould, “ fly round for a short distance, bright Edinburgh career. As a Rutherfurd she was a conand perch on the neighbouring' trees until the whole are nection of Sir Walter Scott’s mother, and was her intimate brought down.” 1 There are two versions of this song,—the one by Mrs Cockburu, COCKATRICE, a fabulous monster, the existence of the other by Miss Jean Elliot of Minto. Both were founded on tne which was firmly believed in throughout ancient and remains of an ancient Border ballad. It is believed by the descen an mediaeval times,—descriptions and figures of it appearing of her family that Mrs Cockburn composed her version—that beginning in the natural history works of such writers as Pliny and “I’ve seen the smiling of fortune beguiling”—before her marriage i Aldrovandus, those of the latter published so late as the 1731. Anyhow, it was composed many years before Jean Eluoi^ verses, beginning, “ I’ve heard them lilting at our ewe-milkingbeginning of the 17th century. Produced from a cock’s sister These were written in 1756, and printed soon aftenvards. Mrs egg hatched by a serpent, it was believed to possess the Cockburn’s song, however, was not published until 1765, when Jean most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch, and men Elliot’s was alreadv nrmnla.r.

repealed in 1845. In 1869 the exports of cochineal from the Canaries reached 6,310,000 lb, value £84-.,9^1. this amount 4,232,600 ft, consisting _ of 9ran\9J^m^ and polro, were shipped to Great Britain, value -J55 > • More than half of this quantity was supplied by the islan of Grand Canary. In three months endmg Sist March 1876 the imports were 10,094 cwts, value £112,004. For a monograph 4. ‘Xr'Sounl'S'tte

C 0 0 —C 0 c

99 friend. Lockhart quotes an interesting letter written by S S 0n b cb ^P to 7° ^ j ’ IBmiel’s Copy-Boolc, ingraven by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the precocious conduct Mjdtvard Cocker, Philomath, is preserved in the British of little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during a Museum. Pepys, in his Diary, makes very favourable visit which she paid to his mother. It was Mrs Cockburn mention of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great also who wrote the character-sketch of Scott’s father, which skill in his art. Cocker’s Arithmetick, the fifty-second when it was given as a toast, was so true as to be edition of which appeared in 1748, and which has passed immediately recognized. Scott himself spent pleasant through some sixty editions in all, was not published during evenings at Mrs Cockburn’s house when she was a very the lifetime of its reputed author, the first impression bearold lady and he a young advocate. Mrs Cockburn died in ing date of 1678. The late Professor He Morgan in his 1794, having survived her only child, Captain Adam Arithmetical Books (1847) adduces proofs, which may be Cockburn, fourteen years. held to be conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the COCKBUmST, Sir George (1772—1853), admiral, was editor and publisher, John Hawkins; and there appears to of Scottish extraction, and was born in London. He be no doubt that the Decimal Arithmetic (1684), and the entered the navy in his ninth year. After serving on the English Dictionary (second edition, 1715), issued by home station, and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, Hawkins under Cocker’s name, are forgeries also. De he assisted, as captain of the “Minerve,” at the blockade Morgan condemns the Arithmetick as a diffuse compilation of Leghorn in 1796, and a year afterwards he fought from older and better works, and dates “ a very great dein the battle of Cape St Vincent. In 1809, in command terioration in elementary works on arithmetic ” from the of the naval force on shore, he contributed greatly to appearance of the book, which owed its celebrity far more the reduction of Martinique, and signed the capitulation by to persistent puffing than to its merits. He pertinently which that island was handed over to the English • for his adds,—This same Edward Cocker must have had great services on this occasion he received the thanks of the reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out House of Commons. After service in the Scheldt and at the good ones.” the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an unsucCOCKERELL, Charles Robert (1788-1863), architect, cessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her was born in London. After a severe preliminary training American colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, in his profession, he visited and studied the great architecand in 1813-14 he took a prominent part in the American tural remains of Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor. At Angina, war, especially at the battle of Bladensburg and the cap- Phigalia, and other places of interest, he conducted excature of Washington. Early in 1815 he received the Order vations on a large scale, enriching the British Museum of the Bath, and in the autumn of the same year he carried with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable out, in the “Northumberland,” the sentence of deportation monographs to the literature of archaeology, the best of to St Helena which had been passed upon Bonaparte. which is said to be that on the mausoleum of Halicarnassus. In 1818 he received the Grand Cross of his Order, and was Elected in 1829 an associate of the Royal Academy, he made a Lord of the Admiralty; and the same year he was became a member in 1836, and in 1839 he was appointed returned to parliament for Portsmouth. He was promoted professor of architecture, his lectures in which capacity to the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to that of admiral were so greatly esteemed as to be attended by all the in 1837; he became senior naval lord in 1841, and held students of the several arts professed within the school. office in that capacity till 1846. From 1827 he was a privy On the death in 1837 of Soane, the distinguished architect councillor. In 1851 he was made Admiral of the Fleet, and of the Bank of England, Cockerell was appointed his sucin 1852, a year before his death, his brother’s baronetcy cessor, and successfully carried out the alterations that have fell to him by inheritance. See O’Byrne, Naval Biography; been needed in that building. In addition to branch James, Naval History; Gentleman’s Magazine for 1853. banks at Liverpool and Manchester he erected in 1840 the COCKBURN, Henry Dundas (1779-1854), known as New Library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh, October 26, 1779. galleries at Oxford, the last one of the architect’s least He was educated at the High School and at the university happy efforts, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire of Edinburgh; and he was a member of the famous Offices in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and Tite Speculative Society, to which Scott, Brougham, and Jeffrey and he were joint architects of the London and Westminster belonged. He entered the faculty of advocates in the year Bank. On the death of Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847, 1800, and attached himself, not to the party of his relatives, Cockerell was selected to finish the St George’s Hall, Liverwho could have afforded him most valuable patronage, but pool, a task which he executed with great success. Cockerto the Whig or Liberal party, and that at a time when it ell’s best conceptions were those inspired by classic models ; held out few inducements to men ambitious of success in hte. On the accession of Earl Grey’s ministry in 1830 he his essays in the Gothic—the college at Lampeter, for the chapel at Harrow—are by no means so became Solicitor-General for Scotland, In 1834 he was instance, andAmong his numerous publications, however, raised to the bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in successful. may be mentioned those On the Iconography of Wells the Court of Session he adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cathedral, and On the Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter oc urns forensic style was remarkable for its clearness, pa . os, and simplicity; and his conversational powers were Cathedrals, which prove his thorough knowledge of Gothic art as well as of Greek. His Tribute to the Memory of Sir unrivalled among his contemporaries. The extent of his literary ability only became known after he had passed his Christopher Wren (1838) is a collection of the whole of Wren’s works drawn to the same scale. eventieth year, on the publication of his biography of Lord COCKERMOUTH, a parliamentary borough and marketJeffrey in 1852, and from the Memorials of his Time, which town of England, in the county of Cumberland, 25 miles by ar e S . 8«?°Stll ^0U8ly in 1856‘ He died on the 26th of rail from Carlisle, at the confluence of the Derwent and the P at hlS mansion of Cocker, both of which are crossed by bridges in the mn™ T. Bonaly, near Edinburgh. the re uted autllor immediate vicinity. The town is irregularly built, but is Ariam^bl^^ P of the famous dniWc^thepopuianty of which has added a phrase to clean and well paved. It has remains of an old castle, built and f d iffgllSh Pj:o7erbiaJisms, was born ab(mt 1632, soon after the Conquest, a town-hall, a free grammar school, and also ^ I?11 ^ and 1675- He was an engraver, and a house of correction; and its manufactures include an m Vh ,'vntin d arithmetic. He is credited with the authorship andS execution of some fourteen sets of linen and woollen goods, thread, hosiery, hats, and paper. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal mines, which give

j

C 0 c —c o c Cockroaches are nocturnal creatures, secreting themselves employment to nearly 2000 workmen. In 1871 tlie town- in chinks and crevices about houses, issuing from their ship had a population of 5115; the borough (whic retreats when the lights are extinguished, and moving returns one member to parliament), with an area of 84 about with extraordinary rapidity in search ot tood. acres, had 6936. Of the early occupation of the site or They are voracious and omnivorous, devouring, or at least Cockermouth conclusive evidence is afiorded bythe relic damaging, whatever comes in their way, for all the species discovered from time to time; directly north of the town j emit a disagreeable odour, which they communicate to a tumulus called Toot’s Hill; and at Pap Castle, about half whatever article of food or clothing they may touch. The a mile to the north-west, are the remains of a Roman camP Common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis) is not indigenous to The barony or honour of Cockermouth was held shortly Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the after the Conquest by Waltheof, lord of AUerdaie, and has Levant in the cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in since passed through a long series of possessors includi g the male are shorter than the body ; in the female they are the U mfravilles, Multens, Lucies, Jercies’ Jnd r^ ’ rudimentary. The eggs, which are 16 in number, are down to the present Lord Leconfield. The town was deposited in a leathery capsule fixed by a gum-hke subcaptured in 1387 by the Scotch under Dougias; and in !648 stance to the abdomen of the female, and thus carried the castle, garrisoned for king Charies was taken and about till the young are ready to escape, when the capsule dismantled by the Parliamentarians, ^dsworth the poet becomes softened by the emission of a fluid substance. was born at Cockermouth in 17 < 0 ; and Tickell, the friend The larvae are perfectly white at first, although in other of Addison, at the village of Bridekirk, about two miles to respects not unlike their parents, but they are not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin. The ^COCKLE (Cardium), a genus of Acephalous Mollusks American Cockroach (Blatta americana) is larger than the belonging to the family Cardiada;, and comprising about former, and is not uncommon in European seaports trading 200 species, nearly a third of which are said to occur in with America, being conveyed in cargoes of grain and other the Indian Ocean, while only a few, but these exceeding y food produce. The largest known species is the Drummer abundant in individuals, and widely distributed, are found of the West Indies (Blatta gigantea), so called from the in northern and temperate latitudes. The sheils of cocMes tapping noise it makes on wood, sufficient, when joined in are highly convex, and almost invariably show a ndge-and- by several individuals, as usually happens, to break the furrow sculpture, the ridges or ribs being often spiny slutubers of a household. It is about 2 inches long, with and the valves locking closely together. The animal wings 3 inches in expanse, and forms one of the most inhabiting the shell is provided with a large, fleshy, and noisome and injurious of insect pests. The best mode of highly elastic foot, by means of which it can rapidly bury destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and lights are itself in the soft muddy sand which it frequents, reappear- extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece of ing above the surface with equal facility. In performing wood afloat on a broad basin of water. This proves a those leaps, for which it is remarkable, “ the long taper temptation to the vermin too great to be resisted. The chinks foot,” says Gosse, “ is thrust to its utmost, and feels about and holes from which they issue should also be filled up with for some resisting surface, a stone for instance, which it unslaked lime, and some may be scattered on the ground. no sooner feels than the hooked point is pressed stiffly COCLES, Horatius, a Roman hero, who, with Spurius a-ainst it, the whole foot, by muscular contraction, is made Lartius and Titus Herminius as sole companions, defended suddenly rigid, and the entire creature—mantle, siphons, the Sublician bridge against Lars Porsena and the whole foot, shell, and all—is jerked away in an uncouth manner. army of the Etruscans. While the three heroes kept back Many of the species are of considerable value as articles ot the enemy the Romans cut down the bridge behind. food, especially the Common Cockle (Gardium edule), When it was almost ready to fall his comrades retreated, gregarious everywhere in the sandy bays and estuaries but Horatius waited till the work was complete, and Rome around the British coast, from low-water mark to a few was saved. Then, despite the arrows of the enemy, he fathoms deep, and extending from Iceland to the Canaries, swam in safety to the opposite shore. A statue was and as far east as the Caspian and Aral Seas, where it erected in his honour, and he received as much land as he occurs in one of its varieties. The shell of the cockle is could plough round in a single day. According to another liable to considerable variation, getting thinner and more elongated posteriorly in sheltered situations and in muddy story, Horatius was alone in his heroism, and gave his h e ground, more convex and thicker when exposed to rougher for his country. The former version is adopted by Lord conditions. They vary also in size from 1 inch to 2J Macaulay in his Lays of Ancient'Rome. COCOA, or more properly Cacao, is a valuable dietary inches'in breadth. They occur in great abundance on substance yielded by the seeds of several small trees several parts of the British coast, and in many places cockle-gathering gives employment to large numbers of belonging to the genus Theobroma, of the natural order people ; thus at Penclawdd in Glamorganshire, the women Sterculiaceoe. The whole genus, which comprises nine or and children are regularly employed in gathering and ten species, belongs to the tropical parts of the American preparing cockles, which they afterwards dispose of in the continent; and although the cocoa of commerce is probably Swansea market. At Starcross they have “ cockle-gardens,” the produce of more than one species, by far the greates where those mollusks are reared, and these are said to and most valuable portion is obtained from the Theobroma possess a better flavour than the ordinary cockle. Some Gacao of Linnaeus. The generic name is derived from tkos species or other of Gardium is used for food by the maritime (god) and fSpwga (food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as populations of almost every country in the world, and the an indication of the high appreciation in which he held me dietetic value of these mollusks appears to have been beverage prepared from the seeds, which he considere o , equally appreciated in prehistoric times, as the shell-mounds be a food fit for the gods. The common cocoa tree is of low stature, seldom excee or kjokkenmoddings of many countries abundantly testify. As cockle shells contain about 90 per cent, of carbonate of ing 16 or 18 feet in height, but it is taller in its native lime, they are calcined and used instead of common lime forests than it is in cultivated plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy, elliptic-oblong and acuminate in where the latter cannot readily be obtained. COCKROACH (Blattidce), a family of Orthopterous form, growing principally at the ends of branches, ue Insects, distinguished by their flattened bodies, long sometimes springing directly from the main trunk. 1 thread-like antennae, and shining leathery integuments. flowers are small, and occur in numerous clusters on t e 100

COCOA

101 these being the crop of St John and the Christmas cron respectively. In gathering the workman is careful to cut down only fully ripened pods, which he adroitly accomplishes with a long pole armed with two prongs or a knife at its extremity. The pods are left in heaps on the ground for about twenty-four hours; they are then cut open, and the seeds are taken out, and carried in baskets to the place where they undergo the operation of sweating or curin°\ There the acid juice which accompanies the seeds is first drained off, after which they are placed in a sweating box in which they are enclosed and allowed to ferment for some time, great care being taken to keep the temperature from rising too high. The fermenting process is, in some cases effected by throwing the seeds into holes or trenches in the ground, and covering them with earth or clay. The seeds in this process, which is called claying, are occasionally stirred to keep the fermentation from proceeding too violently. The sweating is a process which requires the very greatest attention and experience, as on it to a great extent depend the flavour of the seeds and their fitness for preservation. The operation varies in duration accordin°to the state of the weather, but a period of about two days yields the best results. I hereafter the seeds are exposed to the sun for drying, and those of a fine quality should then assume a warm reddish tint, which characterizes beans of a superior quality. The cocoa tree was cultivated, and its produce held in the highest esteem, in Mexico and Peru previous to the discovery _ of . the American continent by Columbus. Prescott, in his Conquest of Peru, says of the followers of Pizarro, that as they sailed along the Pacific coast they saw “ hill-sides covered with the yellow maize and the potato, or checkered in the lower levels with rooming plantations of cacao.w The same writer, referring to the use of cocoa in Mexico, says of the Emperor Montezuma that “ he was exceedingly fond of it, to judge from the quantity, no less than 50 jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption ; 2000 more were allowed for that oi his household.” “Traffic,” he adds again, “ was carried on partly by barter and partly by means of a regulated currency of different values. This consisted of transparent quills of gold dust, of bits of tin cut in the form of a T, and bags of cacao containing a specified number of grains.” A knowledge of this valuable article of food was first brought to Europe by Columbus, but some time elapsed ere its virtues were appreciated in the Old World. Spain was the first nation in which its use became common; and to this day cocoa is much more extensively consumed among the Spaniards than by any other European community. The earliest intimation of the introduction of cocoa into England is found in an announcement in the Public Advertiser of Tuesday, 16th June 1657, notifying that “In Bishopgate Street, in Queen’s Head Alley, at a Frenchman’s house, is an excellent West India drink, called chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade, at reasonable rates.” About the beginning of the 18th century chocolate had become an exceedingly fashionable beverage, and the cocoa tree was a favourite sign and name for places of public refreshment. Cocoa and chocolate are frequently mentioned-in contem porary literature, and among others Pope, in his Pape of tin Lock, alludes to it; the negligent spirit, fixed like Ixion— “In fumes of burning chocolate shall glow, And tremble at the sea that froths below.” The high price at which it was retailed kept chocolate among the luxuries of the wealthy; and coffee, which had been introduced two or three years before chocolate, and tea, which came a year later, both soon far out-stripped their rival beverage in public estimation.

main branches and the trunk, a very marked peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of being artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit is matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or “ pod ” is elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 inches in length, and from 3 to 4| inches in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery rind of a rich purplish yellow colour, externally rough and marked with ten very distinct longitudinal rit|S or elevations. The interior of the fruit has five cells, in each of which is a row of from 5 to 10 seeds embedded in a soft delicately pitik acid pulp. Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 40 or more seeds, which constitute the raw cocoa or “ cocoa beans ” of commerce.

Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in section. The tree appears to have been originally a native of Mexico ; but it can be cultivated in suitable situations within the latitude. It, however, flourishes best ^ 111 1 e 15th parallels, at elevations ranging from near the sea-level up to about 2000 feet in height. It is now cultivated m Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, razi, Peru, Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela, Guiana, and most of the West Indian Islands. Its cultivation has a so been attempted in other tropical regions of the globe : U A lnaustry llas hitherto not been developed on anv considerable scale away from the American continent and the West Indian Islands. r successful cultivation of the cocoa tree a rich t fi° 80 humid atmos fromTniT^/ and a rote pliere, with freedom d W ads and1 nePM„ l , P ction from violent storms, are tenrW el’ As plants are extremely delicate and 6 re d ln nurser a hrurhi '7 T f.r y grounds till they attain thev?Hll °m 15 t0 18 incteS’ and after Pouting out e qUlre pr0tec i0n from the wind ‘ “d s>>". which s woviL; h io a andT« Sf °W1?g PJ:ror ™ " ” (food-yielding plants), the youna trees^VhTt ' ’JV‘ru'n Corallodendron, among fifth vnnr trees begin to bear in the fourth or vigour ai 'l !h.ly.do. ”ot attain their foil productive and tlley tinue pro McW f heir.?6hth °”Sht to the trees r from thirty to forty years thereafter. As and fruit in a11 sta es at same time rine^’ S the P dS may be Vear but tW ° collected at any period of the J suitabilitv nf fi ^ Peri0^lcal harvests dependent on the the seed/ H ^*7 fo^ollectiag the fruit and curing e ZUe wbere is grown > the gprUioenil ' g f’i Caracas cocoa takes place infamous June and December,

102

COCOA

mouldy or discoloured fragments are at the same time removed by hand. Nibs so prepared constitute the simplest and purest preparation in which manufactured cocoa is sold ; but they require prolonged boiling to effect their complete disintegration. The nibs when ground to a fine meal can be cooked with much greater facility. Another form in which the pure seeds are prepared^ is in flaked cocoa, which consists of the nibs ground up into a rather coarse uniform paste. The grinding is effected in cylinder machines, having an outer fixed casing within which a drum revolves. The nibs are fed in by a hopper on the upper part of the apparatus, and are carried round its circumference by the revolution of the drum, and delivered as a thin uniform pasty mass, the heat developed by the friction within the cylinder being sufficient to liquefy the oil, which again sets on cooling of the paste. Of late years a preparation called extract of cocoa has come into extensive use. It is made by removing a certain proportion of the fat from the seeds, whereby the remaining substance can be ground to an impalpable powder, which yields a beverage much more palatable and agreeable to many stomachs then either entire nibs or. the so-called soluble cocoas. The removal of the fat is effected by placing nibs, after they have been reduced by grinding to a fine smooth paste, in bags, and subjecting them to powerful pressure in lieated presses. The fat exudes slowly and 100-00 quickly solidifies, and a solid compact cake is left in the which only requires to be broken up and finely The constituent upon which the peculiar value of cocoa press, depends is the theobromine, an alkaloid substance which powdered for use. Most other preparations, whether sold as cocoa or chotill recently was supposed to be distinct from, though colate, are mixtures of various substances with ground closely allied to, the theine of tea and coffee. It is now, however, known that the alkaloid in these and in two or nibs, the object of the mixture being to mask the presence three other substances similarly used is identical, and their of the cocoa fat, and to render the whole readily miscible physiological value is consequently the same. The fat or with boiling water. The ordinary distinction between these cocoa butter is a firm, solid, white substance at ordinary soluble cocoas and chocolate is that the cocoa is usually temperatures, having an agreeable taste and odour, and sold in the form of a powder, the chocolate being made up very remarkable for its freedom from any tendency to in cakes, which require to be scraped down, boiled, and become rancid. It consists essentially of stearin with a “ milled ” or frothed before being ready for drinking. In little olein, and is used in surgical practice, and in France making the soluble cocoa, which is sold under such names as a material for soap and pomade manufacture. The as homoeopathic, Iceland moss, pearl cocoa, &c., the nibs are starch grains present in raw cocoa are small in size, and of first ground up in a heated stone mill, and, while in a soft a character so peculiar that there is no difficulty in distin- pasty condition, thoroughly mixed with certain.proportions guishing them under the microscope from any other starch of sugar and arrowroot, or other and inferior starches. I he granules. As an article of food cocoa differs essentially compound is afterwards ground to fine powder and sold from both tea and coffee. While only an infusion of these under various names and at different prices, according o substances is used, leaving a large proportion of their total the quality of the cocoa and the nature and _ proportion of weight unconsumed, the entire substance of the cocoa seeds is the ingredients which are combined with it. The finer prepared as an emulsion for drinking, and the whole is thus chocolates are combinations of cocoa with sugar alone, utilized within the system. While the contents of a cup flavoured with some aromatic substance, generally vanilla j of tea or coffee can thus only be regarded as stimulant in but into the composition of cheap qualities starchy its effect, and almost entirely destitute of essential nutritive substances enter. The nibs for chocolate are brought to a properties, a cup of prepared cocoa is really a most nourish- fine pasty state in a heated mill, and the sugar or sugar ing article of diet, as, in addition to the value of the and starch with vanilla are then added and thoroughly intheobromine it contains, it introduces into the system no corporated in the mill. The paste is next passed several inconsiderable proportion of valuable nitrogenous and times between heavy horizontal rollers to produce a thoroughly homogeneous mixture. It is lastly cast into oleaginous elements. The manufacturing processes through which raw cocoa moulds while still in a thin pasty state, and after cooling it passes have for their object the development of the aroma forms hard solid cakes, and is ready to wrap up or peculiar to the substance, and its preparation in a soluble market. Chocolates for eating are prepared with large an palatable and digestible form. The first operation consists proportions of sugar and various flavouring substances, (r a in roasting the seeds, whereby the empyreumatic aromatic the elegant preparations of these and of chocolate ^ ® ? substance is formed, and the starch particles are changed by M(finer of Paris and Fry and Sons of Bristol undoubtedly into dextrin. The roasting is accomplished in large form most wholesome, palatable, and nutritious con ec ions. revolving cylinders, after the completion of which the To the last-named firm we have to express, our ob iga io roasted seeds are taken to the crushing and winnowing for information courteously placed at our disposal. Preparations of cocoa are still much more largely con machine. Here the seeds are reduced to the form of nibs, which are separated from the shells or husks by the action sumed in Spain than in any other European country. . y of a powerful fan blast. The nibs are next subjected to a Great Britain the consumption, partly stimulated incre , process of winnowing in small quantities in hand sieves, improvements effected in its manufacture, is steadily by which the hard cocoa “germs” are sifted out, and ing, although as compared with the consumption ol tea a

Eaw cocoas are distinguished in commerce by the name of the localities of their growth ; and it is found that the produce of particular regions maintains, pretty constantly, a distinctive character and appearance. The most esteemed of all varieties is that obtained from Venezuela, known in commerce as Caracas cocoa, next to which in value stand the red “nuts” of Trinidad. The finest qualities are in form and size not unlike thick round almonds ; they have a husk of a clear brick-red colour, and the cotyledons, winch are of a deep chocolate brown, have a fine membrane0 permeating their entire substance, and dividing t em in numerous irregular segments, into which the seeds are easi y broken down. The kernels are astringent in taste, with a mild, not disagreeable flavour. In chemical composition, as well as in physical characteristics, they vary within certain limits; but the analysis _ by Payen may be taken as representing their average constitution. It is as follows : Fat (Cocoa Butter) ^'OO Nitrogenous compounds ^ uu 10 00 Starch „ Cellulose | Theobromine "^ Saline substances Water 10'00 Cocoa red | traces

J

0 0 0 —0 O D

103 coffee its employment is yet on a very restricted scale. The fronds of the cocoa-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves of the following figures exhibit the ratio of increase of cocoa palmyra.” The palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth entered for home consumption since 1820 :— to the seventh year of its age, each stock carrying from 1820 267,321 lb 1860 4,583,1241b 5 to 30 nuts, the tree maturing on an average 60 nuts 1830 425,382 1870 6,943,102 yearly. 1840 2,645,470 1874 8,863,646 The uses to which the various parts of the cocoa-nut palm 1850 3,080,641 1875 9,973,926 are applied in the regions of their growth are almost In addition to these (Quantities of raw cocoa, a considerable endless, The nuts supply no inconsiderable proportion of quantity of prepared cocoa and chocolate is now imported the food of the natives, and the milky juice enclosed within from France. In 1820 the imports of manufactured cocoa them forms a pleasant and refreshing drink. The juice only amounted to 14 lb, but in 1874 ‘91,466 lb were im drawn from the unexpanded flower spathes forms “ toddy, ” ported. An import duty of Id. per 1b on raw and 2d. per which may be boiled down to sugar, or it is allowed to lb on manufactured cocoa is levied in Great Britain. ferment and is distilled, when it yields a spirit which, in COCOA-NUT PALM (Cocos nucifera), sometimes, and common with a like product from other sources, is known perhaps more correctly, called the coco-nut palm, is a very as “arrack.” The trunk yields a timber (known . in beautiful and lofty palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 European commerce as porcupine wood) which is used for to 100 feet, with a cylindrical stem which attains a thickness building, furniture, firewood, &c.; the leaves are plaited of 2 feet. The tree terminates in a crown of graceful wavin'’- into cajan fans and baskets, and used for thatching the pinnate leaves. The leaf, which may attain to 20 feet in roofs of houses; the shell of the nut is employed as a water length, consists of a strong mid-rib, whence numerous Ion" vessel; and the external husk or rind yields the coir fibre, acute leaflets spring, giving the whole the appearance of a with which are fabricated ropes, cordage, brushes, &c. The gigantic feather. The flowers are arranged in branchin" cocoa-nut palm also furnishes very important articles of spikes 5 or 6 feet long, enclosed in a tough spathe, and the external commerce, of which the principal is cocoa-nut oil. fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20. The fruits It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels, when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section which are first broken up into small pieces and dried in measuring from 12 to 18 inches in length and 6 to 8 inches the sun, when they are known as copperah or copra. It is in diameter. The fruit consists of a thick external husk or that 1000 full-sized nuts will yield upwards of lind of a fibrous structure, within which is the ordinary estimated 500 lb of copra, from which 25 gallons of oil should be cocoa-nut of commerce. The nut has a very hard, woody obtained. The oil is a white solid substance at ordinary shell, enclosing the nucleus or kernel, within which again temperatures, with a peculiar, rather disagreeable odour, is a milky liquid called cocoa-nut milk. The palm is so from the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a mild taste. widely disseminated throughout tropical countries that it is Under pressure it separates into a liquid and a solid portion, impossible to distinguish its original habitat. It flourishes the latter, cocoa-stearin, being extensively used in the with equal vigour on the coast of the East Indies, throughmanufacture of candles. Cocoa-nut oil is also used in the out the tropical islands of the Pacific, and in the West manufacture soap, which forms a lather with sea Indies and tropical America. It, however, attains its water. . Coir ofis marine also an important article of commerce, greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore, and it is being in large demand for the manufacture of coarse most at home in the innumerable small islands of the brushes, door mats, and woven coir matting for lobbies and I acme seas, of the vegetation of which it is eminently char- passages. A considerable quantity of fresh nuts is acteristic. Its wide distribution, and its existence in even imported, chiefly from the West Indies, and sold as a dainty e smallest coral islets of the Pacific, have been favoured among the poorer classes, or used in the preparation of a by the peculiar triangular shape of the fruit, which drop- kind of confection. ping into the sea from trees growing on any shores would COCYTUS, a tributary of the Acheron, a river of be carried by tides and currents to be cast up and to Thesprotia, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Its modern vegetate on distant coasts. The cocoa-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire name is the Yuvo. The name is also applied, in classical tribe to the natives of the regions in which it grows, and mythology, to a tributary of the Acheron, a river in Hades. The etymology suggested is from kwkvclv, to wail. man urnishing 7 valuable andcultivation importantincommercial proCOD (Morrhua vulgaris), a well-known species of Gadidce, ucts is the subject of careful many countries. Un the Malabar and Coromandel coasts of India the trees a family of Anacanthine Fishes, possessing, in common with the other members of the genus, three dorsal and two anal n bers; and in Ce wXJVifJ which isthat peculiarly ell smted for T their cultivation, itylon, is estimated twenty fins, and a single barbel at the chin. It is a widely distributed species, being found throughout the northern I™8 of tbe trees flourish. The wealth of a native in and temperate seas of Europe, Asia, and America, extending cj/t Vs eStlmaJ;ed by bls property in cocoa-nut trees, and as far south as Gibraltar, but not entering the Mediterin TOh; Tennent n°l'es a law case in a district court ranean, and inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms deep, the lbjecfc dis ute was a mrf- nf+ P claim to the 2520th where it always feeds close to the bottom. It is exceedf !! nnt r,lQ e+n+- tb® Preci°us Palms. The cultivation of cocoa- ingly voracious, feeding on the smaller denizens of the Tennen?^1™ ? Ceylon tbus described by Sir J. E. ocean fish, crustaceans, worms, and mollusks, and greedily formation t 16 rSt oPeration in cocoa-nut planting is the taking almost any bait the fisherman chooses to employ. plS in f a“ursery’ for Purpose the ripe nuts are The cod spawns in February, and is exceedingly prolific, wered an ?nT^ ““““"S ab»ut 400 each; these are the roe of a single female having been known to contain from ths i a ' U'Uh sand and sea-weed or soft mud upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than The nuts rmTri ’ ^ v!at:e.I‘ed dady till they germinate, half the weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion are planted ont l,6f°W11 sufficiently grown to be of these get fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the ains of thenQ set September, and they are egg. The number of cod is still further reduced by the S6t out i v^i ^ J holes 3 feet deep and 20 to 30 feet apart. trade carried on in roe, large quantities of which are used to bed thp rn1? h1 the young plant it is customary in France as ground-bait in the sardine fishery, while it h h 80f d and first tt‘ :errj mUS ‘r and for the also forms an article of human food. The young are about m be wa the glare of th ^ i tered and protected from an inch in length by the end of spring, but are not fit for S^re of the sun under shades made of the plaited the market till the second year, and it has been stated that

C 0 D —C O D colourless oil exudes spontaneously, and exposure to the they do not reach maturity, as shown by the power o heat of the sun causes a further exudation. By the reproduction, till the end of their third year They usually application of heat in a steam or water bath to a temperameasure about 3 feet in length and weigh from 12 to-.U tme not exceeding 180" Fahr., a proportion of still pa e, ft but specimens have been taken from _ 0 or straw-coloured oil is obtained. The oil which results weight. As an article of food the cod-fish is m greatest from the-application of a higher heat and pressure, and perfection during the three months preceding ^ that obtained from unhealthy and from putrid livers are It caught on alland partsRockall, of the off British and Irish coasts, theisDo" °er Bank, the Outer Hebrr es, but av only used industrially as cod oik The extraction of the oil is most extensively prosecuted in Newfoundland and in been specially no’ted for their cod-fisheries. U-til --ntly, Norway; but a considerable quantity is also prepared in su ed the London market was in great part_ PP^ . d the Shetland Islands and along the east coast of Scotland. former of these : but now the fishery is chiefly carried o Three varieties of medicinal oil are recognized in comaUw the colst of NotEollc and Suffolk, where great merce—pale, light brown, and brown; but these insensibly quantities of the fish are caught with hook and hue, and merge into each other, and are only the result of different conveyed* to market alive in “ well-boats ” speciaUy built processes or periods of preparation, as mentioned above. tor this traffic. Such boats have been in use since the The pale oil possesses a fishy odour and a slightly acrid be»inmnv of the 18th century. The most important cod- taste while with the darker oil there is a distinctly disfi hery in the world is that which has been prosecu ed f0 a"reeable empyreumatic odour and taste. In composition centuries on the Newfoundland banks, where it e not the oil contains olein and margariu, with small proportions uncommon for a single fisherman to take over oOO ot tkese of free butyric and acetic acids, a peculiar principle termed fish ta“o or u hours. The fish have lately been deerea - gaduiu, certain bile acids, free phosphorus, phosphatic salts, L -n that well-worn locality, but that the yield is still and traces of iodine and bromine. Cod-liver oil is valuable enormous is seen from recently published returns, from in medicine on account of its great nutrient propeities, it which it appears that the quantity of cod obtamed by t adds rapidly to the store of fat within the human frame, Oiuadian fishery alone in 1875 weighed over 31,00U tons and it enriches the blood in red corpuscles. It is much while in 1874 ft reached 34,500 tons These, salted and more digestible than other animal oils, a fact which may dried, are exported to all parts of the world, and fori“> account for its superior therapeutic value. At one time it when taken in connection with the enormous quantity of was supposed that its virtues resided m the iodine and fresh cod consumed, a valuable addition to the food bromine which the oil generally contains ; but these are resources of the human race. The swimming bladder of present only in exceedingly minute proportions, and somethis fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all, inferior to t times they cannot be traced at all. Ihe oil has long been obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is obtained favourably known in medicine as a remedy for rheumatic cod-liver oil, now largely used in medicine as a remedy in complaints,but its great value in pulmonary consumption has scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption Lh.e been demonstrated only in comparatively recent times, it Norwegians,” says Cuvier, “give cod heads with marine is administered internally in chronic rheumatism, scrofula, plants to their cows for the purpose of producing a greater phthisis, chronic skin diseases, and general debility; and i proportion of milk. The vertebrae, the ribs and the bones is sometimes externally applied in affections of the skin in general, are given to their cattle by the Icelanders, and The oil is taken with facility by young children; but the by the-Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These same parts, repugnance of adults to its taste and eructations is not properly dried, are also employed as fuel in the desolate easily overcome, and many methods have been suggested steppes of the Icy Sea.” At Port Logan m Wigtonshire for masking its taste. With that view the oil is enclosed cod-fish are kept in a large reservoir, scooped out ot tne in gelatinous capsules, or prepared in the form of aromatized solid rock by the action of the sea, egress from which is emulsions, of equal parts of mucilage, of gum tragacanth, prevented by a barrier of stones, which does not prevent and the oil. There are numerous other forms of emulsions the free access of the water. These cod are fed chiefly on recommended, as well as combinations with medicma mussels, and when the keeper approaches to feed them they syrups, and cod-liver oil creams, jellies, and bread, an may be seen rising to the surface in hundreds and eagerly various devices are familiarly employed as in the admin seekin" the edge. They have become comparatively tame trationof unpleasant medicines. Failing all these, cod-h and familiar. Frank Buckland, who some years ago visited oil has been introduced into the system by injection. ^ the place, states that after a little while they allowed him CODE A code is a complete and systematic body o to take hold of them, scratch them on the back, and play law, or a complete and exclusive statement of bo™ portiou with them in various ways. Their flavour is considered of the law. Sucfi, at least, is the sense m which ™ superior to that of the cod taken in the open sea. used when it is proposed to recast the laws of a country GOD-LIVER OIL is an oil of great medicinal value, is like England in the form of a code Many col ectio^ obtained from the liver of the common cod (Morrhua vulgaris), and also to some extent from the ling (Lota molm), the laws, however, which are commoniy known as cod^ woukl whiting (Merlangus vulgaris), the pollack (Merlangus polla- not correspond to this definition. The Code of chius), as well as other members of the Gadidce. The oil ob- the most celebrated of all, is not in rtself a comp ete aol system of law. It is a collection » tained from the livers differs in quality from a very pure exclusive pale-coloured liquid to a dark evil-smelling product, accord- constitutions, just as the Pandecte are a col ection of d in" to the care exercised and the processes adopted for its opinions of jurisconsults. The Code and the 0 operty extraction. The very dark coloured rank oils are used only together being, as Austin says, ‘ digests o at the time of their conception, would, if pF / for burning and lubricating, and in commerce are known force arranged, constitute a code. Codification in |n as cod oil.° The purer qualities, up to an oil having a merely a question of the/omof the laws, and has noth„ brown sherry colour, are alone used medicinally as cod-liver ' oil. Various methods of extracting the oil are adopted in to do with their goodness or badness from an ethical» the different countries where its preparation is prosecuted. political point of view. Sometimes codification a ; Generally it may be stated that the medicinal oil is means the changing of unwritten into writ en stricter sense it means the changing of unwn en obtained from selected livers, which are carefully examined, written law into law well written. . . . , 0r cleaned, spilt up, and thrown together into a large vessel. Roman CWes.—Under the empire the constitutions From these a very small proportion of a pure and almost 104

CODE 105 edida of the chief of the state had the force of law. The of his reign. The Code Napoldon consists of 2281 articles practice of collecting the constitutions of the emperors seems arranged under titles and divided into three books, preceded to have been begun by private lawyers—such at all events by a preliminary title. The subjects of the different books is the character of the oldest collection, known as the 16 lst 1)68 \ Personnes 2d, “ Des biens et des diffdrents Codex Gregorianus d Hermogenianus, which formed the r de la proprffite ; ” 3d, “ Des diffdrents manures model for the imperial codes of Theodosius and 'Justinian. dmodifications acqudnr la proprffitd.” The code, it has been said, is the The Theodosian code was the work of a commission of of Roman and customary law, together with the ordisixteen, to whom, in 435 a.d., the emperor intrusted the product nances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form task of collecting the edicts and constitutions from the time it has passed through several changes caused by the politiof Constantine. It was finished in 438, and promulgated cal vicissitudes of the country, and it has of course suffered as the law of the empire. In 528 the Emperor Justinian ordered a new collection from time to time important alterations in substance, but it remains virtually the same in principle as it left the to be made, and appointed a commission of ten for that still hands of its framers. The code has produced a vast number purpose, including the celebrated Tribonian. The com of commentaries, among which may be named those of missioners were to compile one code out of the “ three Duran ton Troplong, and Demolombe. The remaining codes— Gregorian, Hermogenian, and Theodosian,” and I rench codes are the Code de procedure civile, the Code de the constitutions which had been ordained since the last of commerce, the Code d'instruction criminelle, and the Code these was confirmed. The commissioners had full power penal. _ The merits of the French code have entered into the to make such changes as might be necessary in the language of the constitutions, and to omit all that was discussion on the general question of codification. Austin unnecessary, obsolete, or inconsistent. The collection was agrees vyith Savigny in condemning the ignorance and to include rescripts as well as constitutions, and was to haste with which it was compiled. “ It contains,” says supersede (as the Theodosian code also did) the sources Austin, “ no definitions of technical terms (even the most froin which it had been compiled. The code was finished leading) no exposition of the rationale of distinctions within fourteen months, but a revised edition was rendered (even the most leading), no exposition of the broad necessary by some new decisions and constitutions of the principles. and rules to which the narrower provisions emperor. In 534 the new code was published and the first expressed in the code are subordinate ; hence its fallacious The French codes have, however, taken firm edition superseded. The second is the Code we now possess ■ brevity. root in most of the countries of continental Europe. Introthe first has been lost. The Code is divided into twelve books, and each book into titles, under which the constitu- duced by French conquest they nevertheless were eagerly tions are arranged in chronological order, and with the adoPjfd bytbe Pe°ple after the French arms had withdrawn names of the emperors by whom they were enacted. There 1 he Penal Code, for example, was thus established in Italy’ is a general correspondence between the order of the feicily, Holland, Belgium, the Rhine Provinces, Poland, and Digest and the Code of Justinian, but neither the Digest Switzerland. The principles of the French code prevail in nor any of the codes pretended to scientific classification most of the Latin races. The. Prussian code {Code Frederic) was published by ihe arrangement was dictated by the order of writers on Frederick the Great in 1751. It was intended to take the Praetorian Edict. the place of “Roman, common Saxon, and other foreign . rf.he same causes which made these collections necessary subsidiary laws and statutes,” the provincial laws remaining in the time of Justinian have led to similar undertakings among modern peoples. The actual condition of laws until in force as before. One of the objects of the king was to the period when they are consciously remodelled is one of destroy the power of the advocates, whom he hoped to render useless. The Italian civil code, published in 1866 contusion contradiction, repetition, and disorder: and to on the establishment of Italian unity, is founded mainly on these evils the progress of society adds the burden of perpetually increasing legislation. Some attempt must be the French code. The object of all these codes was to made to simplify the task of learning the laws by improving trame a common system to take the place of several systems of law, rather than to restate in an exact and exhaustive their expression and arrangement. This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in our own it is surrounded form the whole laws of a nation, which is the problem of English codification. The French and Prussian codes, with peculiar difficulties. The independent character of English law has prevented us from attempting what has although they have been of great service in simplifying the * ready been done for other systems which have the basis law, have failed to prevent outside themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law which in England the Roman law to fall back upon. The most celebrated modern code is the Code Napoleon. has been the chief motive for codification. A more exact he necessity of a code m France was mainly caused by parallel to the English problem may be found in the Code of the State of New York. The revised constitution of the exists inS?wUmber °f s1eParate systems of jurisprudence State, as adopted in 1846, “ ordered the appointment of two before 1789 justifying Voltaire’s sarcasm thatt a traveller in France >had to change laws commissions, one to reduce into a written and a systematic code the whole body of the law of the State, and the other 8 Changed h rses The to revise, reform, simplify, and abridge the rules and generfi 1 ^ ^ ° inception of a f r the S a °i r Zhole C0uutry had occurred to jurists practice, pleadings, &c., of the courts of record.” By an eU 6 Nap0le0n and the Conven ffiscussedT pr°-ject ’ tion, in fact, Act of 1837, the State Legislature declared that the body which had ? f° ? Presented py Cambacdrds, one of of substantive law should be contained in three codes—the a condensed ^ ?Und t0° “d the other too Political, the Civil, and the Penal. The works of both commission i1Nap°le Baron van (1641-1704) have had some experience of its working. The first of the Dutch Vauban,” was of Swedish extraction, and was “the born Indian codes was the Penal Code drawn up by Macaulay, a eau warde ^ in Friesland. He served in the campaign and presented to the Governor-general in 1837. It did not of P6d77 a ainst S Jurenne, and later distinguished him1p l become law, however, till 1860. It has been highly self at the sieges of Maestricht (1673) and Graave (1674) praised, and its merit is the more remarkable as Macaulay and at the battles of Senef (1674), Cassel (1677) and had only a slight professional acquaintance with the law St Denis (1678). The genius of Vauban had made a “,e before he went to India. A code of Civil Procedure art of the attack and defence of fortified places, and Coebecame law in 1759, and was followed by a code of Penal horn,_ who had already invented the mortar, had imposed Procedure in 1861. The substantial law was then under- on himself the task of meeting and beating that fine taken which published its first instalment in 1865. engineer on his own ground. But William of Orange The use of illustrations is a peculiar feature of the Indian did not recognize the abilities of his young captain, and c °de. in despair of success Coehorn had determined to transfer CODOGNO, a town of Italy, in the province of Milan, his services to France. William, hearing of this, seized and district of Lodi, with a station at the junction of the the person of the engineer, and by a mixture of force railway from Milan to Piacenza with that between Cremona and persuasion obliged him to renounce his design, and and Pavia, about 20 miles from the last-named city. In to accept a colonelcy in the Dutch service, with the> comthe parish church is an Ascension of the Virgin, the best mand of two of the Nassau-Friesland battalions. The peace painting of Callista Piazza, an artist of the 16th century. secured by the Treaty of Nimeguen (1678) gave Coehorn The town is chiefly important as the centre of a large trade his first great opportunity. He repaired and perfected the in Paimesan cheese j and it also carries on the manufac- defences of many strong places, and he rushed into ture of silk. Population upwards of 11,000. polemics with a rival engineer, a certain Paen. His critiCODRINGTON, Sir Edward (1770-1851), admiral, cism and rejoinder appeared at Leeuwarden in 1682 and belonged to an old Gloucestershire family. He entered the 1683, and in 1685 he gave to the world, in Dutch his navy in 1783. In 1794 he served as lieutenant on board first great work, The New System of Fortification (LeeuHowe s flagship in the actions off Brest, and was sent home warden, folio), two French editions of which appeared in with despatches announcing the result. In 1805 he re- 1706, while three others were issued from the Hague in ceived the command of the “ Orion,” a seventy-four, in 1711, 1714, and 1741 respectively. From 1688 to 1691 which he fought at Trafalgar, receiving a gold medal for Coehorn’s genius and activity answered the innumerable his conduct in the action. In 1808 he was gazetted to the demands that were made upon them. In 1692 Vauban “ Blake,” another seventy-four, in command of which he himself laid siege to Namur, and Coehorn waited within shared in the Walcheren expedition, assisting in the forcing the city. The town was reduced in a week; but the of the Scheldt in 1809. During the next three years he castle in its quintuple enceinte, manned bv Coehorn was on active service off the Spanish coast, In 1813 he and his own regiment, seemed impregnable. The Dutch sailed for North America, where he was made rear-admiral chief, however, was severely wounded, and the castle and captain of the fleet. Returning to England at the close with the honours of war, eight days after of the war, he received a Knight Commandership of the capitulated, the city. The campaign of 1695 brought his revenge. Bath in 1815; and six years afterwards (1821) he was He reduced the city, on which Vauban in the meanwhile gazetted vice-admiral. In 1826 he was appointed to the had expended all the resources of his art, and the castle fell command-in-chief of the Mediterranean squadron of eleven sail sent to restrain Ibrahim Pasha from operating against a month afterwards. The Peace of Ryswick (1697) sent Coehorn back to his task of repairing and improving. He the Greeks, and sailed in the “Asia” for the Morea. Here laid out the entrenchments round Zwoll and Groningen, he was joined by the French and Russian contingents, of and built the fortifications round Nimeguen, Breda, Namur five and eight sail respectively, under Admirals de Rigny and Heiden, who were put under his orders. A literal inter- and Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1701, however, the war of the Spanish succession broke out, and Coehorn went at once pretation of instructions led to the battle of Navarino, in to the front. By the siege and capture in succession of which the Turkish and Egyptian fleets, of 36 sail, with a cloud of gunboats, schooners, and craft of all sorts, were Venloo, Stevensworth, Ruremond, and Liege, he rendered almost entirely destroyed. For his share in this action the allies masters in a single campaign of the line of the Lodnngton received a Grand Cross of the Bath; but the Meuse from Holland to Huy. He followed up these steps which led to it occasioned considerable dissatisfaction exploits by the investment and reduction of Bonn (1703), in England, and he was recalled in 1828. He was returned and passing thence into Flanders, with Sparr, he forced the French lines in the Waes, between the sea and the left to Parliament for Devonport in 1832 in the Liberal interest, bank of the Scheldt. Returning to the centre of operaand was re-elected in 1835 and 1837. In the latter year he tions on the Meuse, he besieged and took Huy in the same was gazetted admiral. He accepted the Chiltern Hundreds year, under the very eyes of Villeroi. Thence he went to 011 hls p appointment as commander-in-chief at the Hague to confer with Marlborough concerning the 1 i ortsmouth, and his three years’ tenure of that office con- next campaign, and was there cut off by apoplexy, March cluded his public life. HediedinLondon, April 28,1851. A 17, 1704. A monument to him was raised by his children memoir of Codnngton, by his daughter, Lady Bourchier, apat Wykel, and an historical eulogy of him was published P nd an abrid ment at Frankfort in 1771. For a description and critical estif g of the larger work in 1875. t e liero of an earl hAi ^ king i • of r Athens, y Athenian legend, was mate of the engineering theories of Coehorn, see Marini, A the last and belongs to the 11th century • . ccordmg to the story, it was prophesied that the Biblioteca di Fortificazione (1810), and Bonomer, Fssai Dorians wouM conquer Attica if they spared the life of the general de Fortification (1814). COELENTERA, or, less correctly, Ccelenterata, the Attic king. Devoting himself to his country, Codrus, in name of a group of animals, including the classes Hydrozoa, 0k d a quarrel with some hS6and ’ P/0the dorian soldiers. Anthozoa, and Ctenophora. (The two last-mentioned +I A Dorians retreated homeward. To so noble classes are by Huxley and a few others placed in a single a ® 7.. ’ tX nf V° °ne WaS; thouSht wor% t0 succeed; and the class, Actinozoa.) The reader will consult the articles on Corals, and Hydrozoa, with that on the taking its'pLr thenCef0rth abolished> that archon Actinozoa, Animal Kingdom, for the more important details touching

i

C O E —C 0 E outer layers of epithelial tissue, splinted by connective the structure, classification, and affinities of ccelenterate tissue (in close relation with which we usually find animals. muscular fibres), are always developed. According to Van Beneden, R Leuckart, and some Neither the absence of nervous tissues nor the presence others, the Sponges also have their place among Coelentera — of those curious microscopic organs known as thread-cells a view which has of late years received much support in can henceforth be enumerated among the characters common consequence of the profounder study of the calcanous to and distinctive of Coelentera. Though a nervous system sponges begun by Miklucho-Maclay and diligent y o owec remains to be discovered in many, it certainly exists in up by Haeckel. There is much to be said in favour of some ; and in yet other cases, where anatomical evidence is regarding the sponges as an aberrant (and, at the same wanting, its presence may reasonably be conjectured from time, degraded) coelenterate class, but, for t e presen , purely physiological data. will be well to treat them as a group apart. Most, if not all, Coelentera have thread-cells; but these It is usual to consider the Ccelentera (with or without exist likewise in other organisms, notably in certain the sponges) as a primary group, or sub-kingdom, o mollusks which were formerly supposed to derive them animals ; and a high authority has stated that the institu- from the coelenterate animals on which they preyed.. tion of this group has been the greatest improvement in t e The plant-like aspect of many Coelentera arises in two arrangement of the animal kingdom effected since the time ways. In the simple (not compound) coelenterates, such of Cuvier. But, should we so interpret the results ot as most sea-anemones, the tentacles or prehensile apcertain recent embryological inquiries as to throw the pendages are so arranged as to simulate, when not too Coelentera into one great division along with all the higlier closely inspected, the petals of ordinary flowers (particularly invertebrates, such a mode of treatment would reduce flowers with numerous narrow petals, e.g., MesembryantheCoelentera to the rank of a province. mum) or the strap-shaped corollas of composite plants, Name.—The word Coelentera (or rather its German like dahlias. In the compound species buds and branches equivalent) first occurs on page 38 of Beitrdge zur are formed, marking changes in direction of growth; and Kenntniss wirbelloser Thieve,2 von Frey und Leuckart, hence those wonderful phytoid aggregates which for so Braunschweig (Vieweg), 1847. . L , r? • 7„ many centuries puzzled naturalists. Here it should be mentioned that Burmeister (Zoonomische Affinities.—The nearest relations of Coelentera are Briefe, Zweiter Theil, p. 279) has given the same name to undoubtedly the Echinoderms, whose remarkable vascular a very different group of animals. He denotes by it tue system is developed from one or more rudiments primarily majority of the nematoid worms, placing in a separate section (Amorphocoela) Gordius and its allies, whose alimentary formed as diverticula of the alimentary canal. Ihe Coelentera exhibit, even more perfectly than the echinocanal is more or less atrophied. In this sense Coelentera is derms, a radiated arrangement of their parts, and, to a nearly equivalent to Coelelminthes of Cuvier. ^ Coelentera is derived from koi'Aos (hollow) and evrepov lesser degree, have this primitive disposition controlled by a superinduced bilateral symmetry. On the other hand (intestine or viscus). worms, save through the Definition.—Allowing for the difficulty of expressing the affinities of coelenterates to 7 modern scientific concepts by compounds formed from echinoderms, are very obscure. Of animals inferior to the Coelentera in complexity of words in common use, the meaning of which needs to be structure their nearest reputed allies are the Infusoria. somewhat stretched, this etymology guides us to the definition of the Coelentera as animals having a conspicuous We are not yet able, however, to demonstrate the existence alimentary canal, which, with its prolongations, occupies of any relationship of this kind, in spite of all that has other the whole interior of the body,3 and does the work of a been urged in its favour by Claparede, Greef, Jand ( - R- G-) vascular as well as of a digestive system. It is not true to eminent anatomists. COELLO, Alonso Sanchez (1515-1590), painter, acadd, however, that the Coelentera are invariably destitute of cavities comparable (morphologically) to the blood cording to some authorities a native of Portugal, was vessels, perivisceral spaces, and other serous passages of the born, according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of higher animals. Such cavities, hitherto usually overlooked, Valencia. He studied many years in Italy; and returnundoubtedly exist in some cases, as appears from the inves- ing to Spain in 1541 he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most of the palaces and laiger tigations of Metschnikoff,4 Eilhard Schulze,5 and others. °The wall of the body in the Coelentera has the same churches. He was a follower of Titian, and, like him, fundamental composition as among the higher animals, and excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating the texexhibits various degrees of differentiation.0 Inner and tures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velasquez m 1 See Die Kalkschwdmme, von Ernst Haeckel, Berlin (Reimer), his treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado 1872. 2 See farther another work by Leuckart, Ueber die Morphologic palaces, but many good examples are yet extant, among und die Verwandtschaftsverhdltnisse der wirbellosen Thiere, ibid., which may be noted the portraits of the Infantes Carlos 1848 ; and the valuable “ Bericht ” contributed by the same writer to and Isabella, now in the Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian the Archiv fur Naturgeschichte from that date to the present ; also his university programme, entitled—De Zoophytorum et historia el painted in the church of San Gerbnimo, also in Madrid. dignitate systematica, Lipsise, 1873. Coello left a daughter, Isabella Sanchez, who studied under 3 The doubts suggested on this point by R. Leuckart {Bericht f. him, and painted excellent portraits. 1868-9, p. 188), in opposition to the views of Noschin, Semper, and COEN, Jan Pieterszoon (1587-1630), the founder ot Kowalewsky, may now at length be regarded as set at rest by the appearance of the last-named writer’s recent Memoir on the Development Batavia, was born at Hoorn, and was sent when a youth to of the Coelentera. This indispensable work has unfortunately been Rome to be instructed in the principles of commerce. In printed in the Russian language, but the reader may consult its figures, 1607 he went to India, but returned some four years afterin conjunction with the excellent German abstract, by Hoyer, in the wards, and in 1612 was sent out a second time, with the second vol. of the Jahresberichte of Hofmann and Schwalbe. 4 “ Studien liber die Entwickelung der Medusen und Siphonophoren,” command of two ships. He acquitted himself so wel o in 5Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., xxiv. Band, p. 73. 7 On the mutual relations of these groups, consult the concluding 6 Tiber den Bau von Syncoryne Sarsii, Leipzig (Engelmann), 1873. Almost the only comprehensive details on this subject which we part of an essay by A. Goette—“ Vergleichende Entwicke ung possess are contained in the Russian memoir by Kowalewsky, already geschichte der Comatula mediterranea,” in Archiv fur MikroskopiscM Anatomic, xii. Band. 1876. referred to. 108

G (E N —0 CE U 109 his commission, and made himself so remarkable by the a 1 represented France three embassies, supbrilliance and success of his practice of commerce that in plied n]lp the sinews of that warinwhich had oustedand thehad English 1613 he was named director-general of the Indian trade. from Normandy. He was invested with various offices of In 1617 he was made president at Bantam; and in 1619' dignity, and possessed the most colossal fortune that had having taken and destroyed Jacatra, he founded on its ruins ever been amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was the city of Batavia, which he forthwith proclaimed the covered with his ships ; he had 300 factors in his employ capital of the Dutch East Indies. In 1622 Coen revisited and houses of business in all chief cities of France. De Europe, but five years afterwards he returned to Java. had built hotels and chapels and had founded colleges in In 1629 the Javanese emperor attempted to dislodge the I ans, at Montpellier, at Bourges. Dealing in all things— interlopers, and laid siege to Batavia; but Coen beat off money and arms, peltry and jewels, brocades and woollens— all his attacks. He died the following year. broking, banking, farming, he had absorbed the trade of CCENOBITES (from kolvos, common, and /Itbs, life), a the country, and merchants complained they could make religious order living in a convent, or in community,—in no gains on account of “that Jacquet,” Soon, however opposition to the anchorets or hermits who live in solitude. he was a broken man and a fugitive. Charles was surSee Monasticism. rounded the enemies of the merchant; he was “ unGCEUR, Jacques, founder of the trade between France stable as with water,” and he was always needy. Jacques Coeur and the Levant, was born at Bourges, near the close of the 14th century. His father, Pierre Coeur, was one of had to go the way of others who had been the friends and the richest peltry merchants of the flourishing city of favourites of the king. In February 1449 Agnes Sorel, the mistress of Charles Bourges ; and we hear first of Jacques in 1418, when he married Mac4e de L^odepart, daughter of an influential died of puerperal fever. It was maintained, however, that citizen, afterwards provost, a quondam valet of John of the Dauphin Louis had procured her death; and some conBerry. About 1429 he formed a commercial partnership with siderable time after her death, Jacques Coeur, who had two brothers named Godard ; and in 1432 he is heard of at been named one of her executors, was accused formally of Damascus, buying and bartering, and transporting Levan- having poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for tine ware (gall-nuts, wools and silks, goats’ hair, brocades such a charge, but for these and other alleged crimes and carpets) to the interior of France by way of Narbonne. the king, on the 31st July 1451, gave orders for the In the same year he established himself at Montpellier' arrest of Jacques Coeur and for the seizure of his goods and there commenced those gigantic operations which have reserving to himself a large sum for the war in Guienne.’ made him illustrious among financiers of all time. Details Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant’s declared are absolutely wanting; but it is certain that in a few years enemies, were chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry he placed his country in a position to contend not unsuc- commenced, the judges in which were either the prisoner’s cessfully with the great trading republics of Italy and debtors or the holders of his forfeited estates. He was Catalonia, and acquired such reputation as to be able accused of having paid French gold and ingots to the mere trader as he was, to render material assistance to the infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping oarsmen tor his galleys, of sending back a Christian slave who had Order of Rhodes and to Venice herself. taken sanctuary on board one of his ships, and of committing In 1436 Coeur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII. and made master of- the mint that had been established in frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the king’s prejudice. that city. The post was of vast importance, and the duties He defended himself with all the energy of his nature. were onerous in proportion. The country was deluged His innocence was manifest; but a conviction was neceswith the base monies of three reigns, charged with super- sary, and in spite of Strenuous efforts on the part of his scriptions both French and English ; and Charles had de- friends, after twenty-two months of confinement in five termined on a sweeping reform. In this design he was prisons, he was condemned to do public penance for his a y seconded by the great merchant, who, in fact, inspired fault, to pay the king a sum equal to about £1,000,000 or prepared all the ordinances concerning the coinage of of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till full satis•trance issued between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was faction had been obtained; his sentence also embraced made steward of the royal expenditure; and in 1440 he confiscation of all his property, and exile during royal and his family were ennobled by letters patent. In 1444 pleasure. On June 5, 1453, the sentence took effect; at m was sent as one of the royal commissioners to preside Poitou the shameful form of making honourable amends over the new parliament of Languedoc-a dignity he bore was gone through ; and for nearly three years nothing is through successive years till the day of his disgrace. In known of him. It is probable that he remained in prison ; it is certain that his vast possessions were distributed S ln the East ne oti thP Sultan Qnif aSof?Ut g ated treaty ;between the Egypt and the Knights of aRhodes and in among the intimates of Charles. In 1455 Jacques Coeur, wherever confined, contrived to 7 at hls ’ 1 ^stance, Jean de Village, his nephew by marescape into Provence. He was pursued ; but a party of thisTn8 Char^ed .Wlfch a naission to Egypt. The results headed by Jean de Village and two of his old factors, were nht “manicatien were most important ; concessions carried him off to Tarascon, whence, by way of Marseilles, greatl Frenohbt edi F improved the position of the -Nice, and Pisa, he managed to reach Rome. He was the Eevant Eas^ was ^r k )Un(: > and that influence in the honourably and joyfully received by Nicholas V., who was ed was for apvprT ^ ^ ^hieib though often interrupted, fitting out an expedition against the Turks. On the In the sniTiP a Ce^uries a ohief commercial glory of France, death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his work, and C a Ste of Savov • d in an embassy to the counts named his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent 1To fi re rese the court’ P nted the French king at to the relief of Rhodes and the Archipelago. He set out V who distinction In 1 ^^ ‘’ treated him with utmost on this expedition, but was taken ill at Chios, and died a special 1; ^lm ln Papal palace, and gave him there, November 25, 1456. He was buried on the island, this time hpDCe a ‘f*0 with tlle Jnfidels. From about but his place of sepulchre is not known. The stain was a ge advances in* on hi? u de and a in to Charles for carry- not removed from his honour till the reign of Louis XL, 1449, after fighting at the when, at the instance of Geoffrey Coeur, the great mercam train °Ug paign, he entered Rouen in his chant’s name was finally rehabilitated. At this moment the great trader’s glory was at its height. See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clement—Jacques Coeur d Charles Scqrt, 1858 ; Michelet and Martin’s histories ; Vallct de

110

COFFEE

Vireville, Charles Sept et son Epoque, 2, vols, ; B°namy, Memoires sur les Dernteres armies de la Trouve, Jacques Cceur, 1840; Louis Raynal, Hrstoire ^ ,vo iii. ; Louisa Costello, Jacques Cceur, the French Argonaut, London,

Tiberian coffee lplant,^ C.^liberica, Liberian which cultivated has beenspecies, brought is ordinanly

described as a large leaved and large-fruited plant of a robust and hardy constitution. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and fine-flavoured coffee; and so prolific is the plant, that 18 COFFEE (French, Cafe; German, Kaffee). This im- a single tree is said to have yielded the enormous quanrodu portant and valuable article of food is the P f® . J tity ’of 16 lb weight at one gathering. It is a tree, of Coffeaarabica, a Rubiaceous plant indigenous to Abyssxnia moreover which grows at low altitudes, and it probably which, however, as cultivated originally, spread out™? would flourish in many situations which have been proved from the southern parts of Arabia. altThe name is probably to be unsuitable for the Arabian coffee, bhould it come derived from the Arabic K’hawah, \0^h b^S°“e ^ up to the sanguine expectations of Ceylon planters and been traced to Caffa, a province m Abyssmia, m which others to whom it has been submitted, there is no doubt the tree grows wild. In the genus Coffea, to which tLe that it will prove a formidable rival to the species which common foffee tree belongs from 50 ^ has hitherto received the exclusive attention of planters. formerly enumerated, scattered throughout the tropical parrs It grows wild in great abundance along the whole of the ofZtb hemispheres’; but by referring American plants Guinea coast. . i i. • The early bistory of coffee as an economic product is to a different genus, the list is now restricted *o about 22 species. Of these 7 belong geographically to Asia and ol involved in considerable obscurity, tbe absence of historical the 15 African species 11 are found on the west coast 2 fact being compensated for by an unusual profusion _ of Central and East Africa, and 2 are natives of Mauritius. conjectural statements and by purely mythical stories SSs being found wild in Abyssinia the common coffe According to a statement contained in a manuscript vrianf tirinpnrs to be widely disseminated in Atnca, naviug belonging to the Bibliotheque Nationals in Pans, the use feenseenon the shores of the Victoria Nyanza and in of coffee was known at a period so remote as 875 a.d or Angola on the west coast. Within the last year or two exactly 1000 years ago. In a treatise published m 1566 considerable attention has been devoted to a West African by an Arab sheikh it is stated that a knowledge of coffee species, G. liberica, belonging to the Liberian coast, with was first brought from Abyssinia into Arabia about the a1 view to its extensive introduction and cultivation Its beginning of the 15th century by a learned and pious produce, obtained from native plants, have been several years Sheikh Dj emal-edd in-Ebn-Abou-Alfagger. According to in the English market. . the treatise alluded to the use of coffee as a beverage was The common coffee shrub or tree is an evergreen plant, prevalent among the Abyssimans from the most remote which under natural conditions grows to a height of from period, and in Arabia the beverage when first introduced 18 to 20 feet, with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth, and only supplanted a preparation from the leaves of the cat, shining leaves, measuring about 6 inches in length by 22 Gelastrls edulis. Its peculiar property of dissipating wide Its flowers, which are produced in dense clusters in drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage the axils of the leaves, have a five-toothed calyx a tubular in connection with the prolonged religious services of the five-parted corolla, five stamens, and a single bifid style Mahometans, and its use as a devotional antispponfic stir The flowers are pure white in colour, with a rich fragran up a fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox odour, and the plants in blossom have a lovely and and conservative section of the priests. Coffee was by attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evanescent. them held to be an intoxicant beverage and therefore The fruit is a fleshy berry, — prohibited by the Koran; and the dreadful penMtms of an having the appearance and outraged sacred law were held over the heads of all who size of a small cherry, and became addicted to its use. Notwithstanding the threat, as it ripens it assumes a of divine retribution, and though all manner of devices were dark red colour. Each adopted to check its growth, the coffee-drinking habit fruit contains two seeds spread rapidly among the Arabian Mahometans, and the embedded in a yellowish growth ofPcoffee as well as its use as a national beverage pulp, and the seeds are enbecame as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea is with closed in a thin membranChina. For about two centuries the entire supply ot the ous endocarp (the parchworld which, however, was then limited, was obtame ment). The seeds which from the province of Yemen in South Arabia, where the constitute the raw coffee celebrated Mocha or Mokha is still cultivated. of commerce are planoThe knowledge of and taste for coffee spread but slowly convex in form, the flat outwards from Arabia Felix, and it was not till the mid surfaces which are laid of the 16th century that coffee-houses were established m against each other within Constantinople. Here also the new habit excited consider^ the berry having a longiable commotion among the ecclesiastical pubhc. tudinal furrow or groove. popularity of the coffee-houses had a depressing influence They are of a soft, semion the attendance at the mosques, and on that , translucent, bluish or fierce hostility was excited among the religious orders agaii greenish colour, hard and the new beverage. They laid their gneyances before the tough in texture. The sultan, who imposed a heavy tax upon the coffee-homffi, notwithstanding which they flourished and extende . regions found to be best adapted for the cultivathe lapse of another hundred years coffee reached G tion of coffee are wellBritain, a coffee-house having been opened in lb0^ watered mountain slopes London by a Greek, Pasqua Rossie. Bossie came at an elevation ranging Smyrna with Mr D. Edwards, a Turkey merchant, and i from 1000 plG_ 1.—Branch of Coffea arabica. the capacity of servant he prepared coffee dai y ‘ above sea-level, in latitudes ^ . , ,, Edwards and his visitors. So popular did the new dr lying between 15' N. and 15° S., although it is successfully become with Mr Edwards’s friends that, their v cultivated from 25° N. to 30° S. of the equator in situations occasioned him great inconvenience to obviate w ic where the temperature does not fall beneath 55 I ahr. Ine

COFFEE 111 directed Rossie to establish a public coffee-house, which Reunion Mauritius and Southern Arabia, and on the west he accordingly did. The original establishment was in St coast of Africa. The present total annual production of the Michael’s Alley, Cornhill, over the door of which Rossie world has been estimated to amount to not less than erected a sign with his portrait, subsequently announcing ijOO^OOO OOO tb. At the beginning of the 18th century himself to be “ the first who made and publicly sold coffee while Arabia was still the only source of supply, probably drink in England.” It is remarkable that the introduction not more than 7,500,000 lb was yearly exported from of coffee into England encountered the same hostility that country; the consumption of Europe in 1820 was that it was fated to meet in other countries. Charles II stated by A. Von Humboldt at about 140,000,0001b while in 1675, attempted to suppress coffee-houses by a royal 300,000,000 lb probably represented the quantity used proclamation, in which it was stated that they were the the world. The yearly consumption in Great resort of disaffected persons “ who devised and spread throughout Britain has for about 30 years been drooping in the face of abroad divers false, malicious, and scandalous reports to a rapidly increasing population and consuming capacity the defamation of His Majesty’s Government, and to the while the quantity absorbed by other countries has increased disturbance of the peace and quiet of the nation.” On the with extraordinary rapidity. The whole amount entered for opinion of legal officials being taken as to the legality of home consumption in 1790 was 973,110 lb ; and an increase this step, an oracular deliverance was given to the effect in the duty charged caused the consumption to drop in 1796 “tbat t}}e retailing of coffee might be an innocent trade to 396,953 lb. A reduction in the duty caused the conbut as it was used to nourish sedition, spread lies, and in 1808 to shoot up suddenly from 1 069 691 lb scandalize great men, it might also be a common nuisance.” sumption in that year to 9,251,837 lb in 1809. The quantity conIn England as well as in other countries the most effective check on the consumption of coffee was found to be a sumed never again mounted so high till in 1825 it was heavy tax, which, while restricting honest trade, opened a affected by another reduction of duty, and 10,760 112 lb channel for extensive smuggling operations. Coffee is was retained for the home market. Thereafter the conrapidly and steadily increased, reaching 22,669 253 spoken of as being in use in France between 1640 and sumption 1660, and thereafter it may be said that the use of coffee K> in 1830, 28,664,341 lb in 1840, and in 1847 comin" was an established custom in Europe. It is noteworthy to its maximum of 37,441,373 lb, from which point it 1857 that the three principal dietetic beverages of the world ofao^d1ecEned' ffl® consumption had fallen to were introduced into Great Britain within a few years of 34 352,!23 lb ; in 1867 it was 31,567,760 ; and in 1869 it fell so low as 29,109,113 lb. The total imports for the each other Cocoa was the first of the three which actually 8 nnted t0 157 appeared m Europe, having been brought to Spain from l?Ll !tT° >351>376 Ah but of this only South Amenca; coffee followed, coming from Arabia by 31,859,408 lb were retained for home consumption. The way of Constantinople; and tea, the latest of the series chief. cause of the declining popularity of coffee in Great Britain is doubtless to be found in the extraordinary hold came from China by the hands of the Dutch. which its rival beverage—tea—has taken on the community D W t 16 0 the onl source but something of the falling off is also attributable to the aArabia, v \but?.in that ^ year Governor-General y coffee supply was Van Hoorne of extent to which coffee was for a long period made tRe the Dutch East Indies received a few coffee seeds by traders who plied between the Arabian Gulf and Java. subject of adulteration and sophistication. Indeed for some These seeds he planted in a garden at Batavia, where they years, between 1840 and 1852, much of what was sold grew and flourished^ so abundantly that the culture, on an under the name of coffee was actually chicory, a root which extended scale, was immediately commenced in Java. One at that period was cultivated and manufactured duty free ot the first plants grown in that island was sent to Holland while coffee was subject to a heavy import duty. The different estimation in which coffee is held in various as a present to the governor of the Dutch East India Company. It was planted in the Botanic Garden at countries is well brought out in the following estimate of Amsterdam, and young plants grown from its seeds were the consumption per head calculated from the official returns ent to Surinam, where the cultivation was established in for 1873 :— Total imports of Coffee Average for consumption. per head. y plant Was intr ran ce West Indian iT ^ °duced in the £ . 98,635,000 lb 2731b L IS dS nd raduaU Belgium.. 49,771,000 13'48 tlthroughout rouffi m i il, M N^ S y the culture extended the New World, till now the progeny of the l 1 Switzerland 18,779,500 7-03 Russia, European 14,740,920 079 f aVa t0 Holland weden coffelthan^ S6Ut T '! Produces more ® 26,555,213 671 “ f. Srown by aU the other plants in the world. Norway.... 17,636,080 9-80 0 1S g ral Denmark 26,035,652 13-89 resions of tbn ? - TW rl,T throughout all civilized £olland 72,395,800 21'00 heads the ° .d' In point of quantity Brazil Hamburg (Germany) 178,715,936 countries probably6 ^ r t iat >annual produce Austria (1871) 76,876,576 2'13 ad It is calfn bo- 1 other localities combined. Greece 1 1 2,131,367 1-42 n 530 000 000 f. ^. ) 28,511,560 1-00 a e at nresent fl v° T ^ ’ > coffee trees United Kingdom 32,330,928 1-00 the rL l flourishing throughout that empire. During United States 293,293,833 7-61 2 000 000 b? flnTial year endinS 1872^ ™re than The commercial distinctions as established in the British Brazil • and fh’ containing 160 lb, were exported from 200 000 000 Coffee ffi6 fuded States aloneannua absorb upwards of market relate—first, to qualities, as “fine,” “middling,” ordinary, ” “ low, ” and “ triage, ” the last being broken principal Am 6 %- The other Rica, Guatemala ^e-growing are Costa and damaged seeds; and secondly, to localities of producJamaica Cuba Pn +■ 0 ^ a’ Guiana, Peru, and Bolivia, with tion. ar d Shape, size, and colour of seeds are the principal elements generally Ir/tfi t? ! the West Indian Islands Eas the ing Brazil in £ Principal coffee regions, follow- which determine the commercial value of coffee. Shape, the according to Mr W. P. Hiern (in a communication to the thfir produce l l ’ Ut ^Ch SUperiThe °r inannual q^ty rod of Linnean Society, April 20, .1876), is related to the particuof Java reLL to P uce and about 100 000 ooo ^U- 130’000’000 from Ceylon lar part of the plant upon which the seed grows ; size and of coffee iran?mn /S+anTUyeXp0rted- The cuUure succulence correspond with the nature of the locality of Southern India ^nd it - i^17 gr°wing feature in growth; and colour has reference to the degree of maturity ’ a d 't 18 also prosecuted in Sumatra, attained by the fruit at the time of gathering. The highly

112

COFFEE

which give a rich aromatic coffee, while in low, flat, moist prized variety known as peaberry is tlie result of the climates a more abundant yield of a large-sized berry is coalescence of tlie two seeds within the fruit, thus producing obtained. The greater weight of the coarser qualities of the appearance of a single rounded seed, usually of smal coffee more than makes up for the smaller price obtained size, whence the name. Kegarding the famous Mocha or for them as against the higher cost of the finer growths; “Mokha” coffee of Arabia, Mr W. G. Palgrave has the and therefore quality is too often sacrificed to quantity. following remarks:— The cultivation of coffee is attended with many risks and “The best coffee, let cavillers say what they wm, is that of much anxiety. In Ceylon, where British capital and Yemen, commonly entitled ‘Mokha,’ from the mam POit of ex- enterprize have hitherto found their principal scope, the portation. Now, I should he sorry to incur a lawsuit for libel or estates are exposed to the attacks of a most mischievous defamation from our wholesale or retail tradesmen but were particle not prefixed to the countless labels in London shop v mdows, and destructive rodent, the coffee or Golunda rat. A species that bear the name of the Red Sea haven, they would l ave a more of insect called the coffee bug, Lecanium coffea, ™ a still truthy import than what at present they ^ more formidable and alarming pest with which planters little indeed as to be quite unappreciable, of Arabia itself berry ever finds its way westward of Constantinople Ajabm itseI, have to contend. Of recent years prominent attention Syria and Egypt consume fuLy two-thirds, and the remainder i has been drawn to two diseased conditions arising in almost exclusively absorbed by Turkish and Arnienian oesophagi^ Nor Singalese and Indian plantations by fungus growths. The do these last get for their share the best or the purest Before reac^ first° called the coffee-leaf disease, appeared in Ceylon in ing the harbours of Alexandria, Jaffa, Beyrout, exportation, the northern bales have been, while on then way 1869,5 and in Mysore a year later. The fungus in this sifted and re-sifted, grain by grain, and whatevei they may hare case, Hemileia vastatrix, is endophytous, growing within contained of the hail, rounded, halLtransparent grcemsh-brown the substance of the leaf, and while no effective cure has berry, the only one really worth roasting and Po™din^, Im bm, been discovered for it, it is not yet clear that it senously earefullv nicked out by experienced fingers; and it is tne less affects the quality or amount of coffee yielded by the plants. Generous residue of flattened, opaque, and whitish grains which SE, or Est alone, goes on board the «hWmg So constant re The second, known as the coffee-rot, on. the other hand, works great havoc in the Mysore plantations, in which it this selecting process that a gradation, regular as “'“'‘‘.freS“ . ^qv ho observed m the quality of Mokha, that is, lemen 1Y1Qr has been observed, 3e even within the limits of Arabia itself, in proportion as one being especially hurtapproaches to or recedes from Wadi Nejran and the neighbourhood ful in wet seasons. of Mecca, the first stages of the radiating mart. This fungus has been The “ Mocha” of the English market is principally the examined by Mr M. produce of India, but a good deal of American coffee is C. Cooke, who names also passed into consumption under that abused name. it Pellicular id koleThe conditions most favourable for coffee planting are rota, and describes found in hilly situations, where the ground is at once the affected leaves as friable, well drained, and enriched by the washing down being covered with a of new soil from above by the frequent rams. The seeds slimy gelatinous film, are first sown in a nursery, and the young plants when under which the they are a few inches high are planted out in the permanent leaves become black plantation at distances from each other of from 6 to 8 feet. and quickly drop off, The operation of planting is one which requires great as do also the clusters care, and much labour must be expended on drainage, of coffee berries. i_———' _i=-‘—■———* weeding, and cleaning the plantation, and in pruning or Raw coffee seeds “ handling ” the plants. Chiefly for convenience of secur- are tough and horny p 2.—Microscopic structure of Coffee, ing the crop, the trees are rarely allowed to exceed from 4 in structure, and are IG< to°6 feet in height, and being so pruned down they extend devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which are so their branches laterally in a vigorous manner. The plants characteristic of the roasted seeds. In minute structure begin bearing in their second year, and by the third year they should yield a fairly remunerative crop. The berries coffee is so distinct from all other vegetable substances that is readily recognized by means of the microscope, and as are ready for picking when they have assumed a dark-red it does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities colour and the skin shrivels up. Immediately after the roasting microscopic examination forms the readiest means o berries are gathered they are conveyed to the storehouse, determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance where they undergo the operation of pulping ; and on some the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists ol an hill estates in Ceylon, having suitable situation and water of assemblage of vesicles or cells of an angular form, whicu supply, the gathered berries are carried by a water run through galvanized pipes to the store. The pulping is adhere so firmly together that they break up into pieces performed in an apparatus having two roughened cylinders rather than separate into distinct and perfect cells, iue which move in opposite directions. Between these the cavities of the cells include, in the form of little drops, berries are carried forward with a flow of water, and the a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile oil, on tne seeds are deprived of their surrounding pulp, being left presence of which the fragrance and many of the active invested in the skin or parchment. In this condition they principles of the berry depend” (see fig. 2). The testa are spread out to dry, and as soon as practicable they are investing membrane of the seeds has a layer of long c freed from the husk or parchment by passing them with a peculiar pitted structure. In chemical composition between heavy wooden rollers and winnowing away the the seeds are complex, and they contain variable pr broken husks. The shelled coffee is then sized by passing portions of proximate principles. The following represents it down a tube perforated throughout its length with holes the average constitution of raw coffee according o of regularly increasing diameter, and the various sizes are analysis of M. Payen :— 34 Cellulose ... next hand-picked to free them from defective or malformed 12 seeds, the coffee is then ready to pack for export. _ A tree 10 to 13 in good bearing will yield from 1J to 2 lb of berries in a Glucose, dextrin, and organic acid ... 5 year; but its fertility depends largely upon conditions of Other nitrogenous substances "u 8 climate, situation, and soil Generally, trees planted, in Caffeine ' lofty dry situations and in light soils yield small berries,

COFFEE 113 Caffetannate of caffeine and potassium 3-5 to 5-0 funnel, at the same time blowing the bellows and stirrine the Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water) 0-001 a Sg yr the cra( Aromatic oils (some lighter some fi iHl e w T:i an(U°,Und .tm them y from 'kle,theredden, and smoke a little, but carefully-withdrawing heat long before heavier than water) 0-002 they turn black or charred, after the erroneous fashion of Turkey Ash 6-7 and Europe; after which he puts them a moment to cool on the platter He then sets the warm water in the large coffeeThe physiological and dietetic value of coffee depends grass pot over the fire aperture, that it may be ready boiling at the right principally upon the alkaloid caffeine which it contains, moment, and draws in close between his own trouserless legs a in common with tea, cocoa, math or Paraguay tea, large stone mortar with a narrow pit in the middle, just enough to guarana, and the African kola nut. Its commercial admit the black stone pestle of a foot long and an inch and a half which he now takes in hand. Next pouring the half-roasted value is, however, determined by the amount of the aromatic thick, berries into the mortar he proceeds to pound them, striking right into oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of roasting. the narrow hollow with wonderful dexterity, not ever missing his blow By prolonged keeping it is found that the richness of any till the beans are smashed, but not reduced into powder. He then seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased scoops them out, now reduced to a sort of coarse reddish grit, very aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow unlike the fine charcoal powder which passes in some countries for and out of which every particle of real aroma has long since beverage. Stored coffee loses weight at first with great coffee, been burned or ground. After all these operations .... he rapidity, as much as 8 per cent, having been found to takes a smaller coffee-pot in hand, fills it more than half with hot dissipate in the first year of keeping, 5 per cent, in the water from the larger vessel, and then, shaking the pounded coffee second, and 2 per cent, in the third ; but such loss of weight into it, sets it on the fire to boil, occasionally stirring it with a small stick as the water rises, to check the ebullition and prevent is more than compensated by improvement in quality and overfiowing. Nor is the boiling stage to be long or vehement; on consequent enhancement of value. the contrary, it is and should be as slight as possible. In the In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by the interim he takes out of another rag-knot a few aromatic seeds called liberation of gases within their substance,—their weight heyl, an Indian product, but of whose scientific name I regret to be wholly ignorant, or a little saffron, and after slightly pounding decreasing in proportion to the extent to which the operation these ingredients, throws them into the simmering coffee to improve is carried. Roasting also develops with the aromatic its nayour, for such an additional spicing is held indispensable in caffeone above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it Arabia, though often omitted elsewhere in the East. Sugar, I may liberates a portion of the caffeine from its combination with say,, would be a totally unheard-of profanation. Last of all he strains off the liquor through some fibres of the inner palm-bark, caffetannic acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest placed for that purpose in the jug-spout, and gets ready the tray of nicety, and one, moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally delicate party-coloured grass and the small coffee-cups ready for by insufficient and by excessive roasting much of the aroma pouring out.” of the coffee is lost; and its infusion is neither agreeable to There is no doubt that were proper attention bestowed the palate nor exhilarating in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of heat required for the adequate upon the preparation of coffee it would become a much roasting of different qualities, and while that is variable, more popular beverage in Great Britain than it now is; the range of roasting temperature proper for individual but to obtain it in perfection much greater care is requisite kinds is only narrow. In Continental countries it is the than is necessary in the case of tea. To obtain coffee with practice, to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole a full aroma it must be prepared as an infusion with boiling charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in water, or the water may simply be allowed to reach the Britain large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which boiling point after infusion and nothing more. Dr Parkes much difficulty is experienced in producing uniform has, however, pointed out that by infusion alone much of torrefaction, and in stopping the process at the proper the valuable soluble matter in ground coffee remains moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus is usually a unextracted; and he recommends that the coffee which has malleable iron cylinder mounted to revolve over the fire already been used for infusion should be preserved and on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated boiled, and that the liquor therefrom should be used for during torrefaction. Messrs W. and G. Law of Edinburgh infusing a fresh supply. By this means the substance of have introduced a very ingenious adaptation of the cylinder the previously infused coffee and the aroma of the new are whereby a compound simultaneous horizontal and vertical obtained together. Among the numerous devices which motion is secured, causing the seeds to be tossed about in have been proposed for preparing coffee, none is more all directions and communicating a uniform heat to every elegant and efficient than an apparatus constructed portion of the cylinder. The roasting of coffee should be by Mr James R. Napier, F.R.S., for which a patent was done as short a time as practicable before the grinding for obtained by Mr use, and as ground coffee especially parts rapidly with its David Thomson aroma, the grinding should only be done when coffee is of Glasgow. It about to be prepared. Any ground coffee which may be consists of a glass kept should be rigidly excluded from the air. globe a (fig. 3), an While Arabia produces the choicest variety of coffee, the infusing jar b, of roasting of the seeds and the prepararion of the beverage glass or porcelain are also here conducted with unequalled skill. Mr W. G. and a bent tube a grave gives the following account of these operations in c. of block tin or ins Central and Eastern Arabia:— German silver fitted by a cork mi ^6 ithout delay Sowelylim begins bis preparations for coffee. AT® .0Pea »y about five minutes’ blowing with the bellows, and stopper into the A, , e , 03 charcoal till a sufficient heat has been produced. neck of the globe , , P aceU the largest of the coffee-pots, a huge machine, and and passing to the , i i 1^':ss °f dear water, close by the edge of the glowing bottom of the jar, ? contents may become gradually warm while other where it ends in s ai( n • °1f . G Progress. He then takes a dirty knotted rag out c os it three nrf1 ll ^ ® ^ ancl having untied it, empties out of a finely perforated a little t C u erkandfuls of unroasted coffee, the which he places on disc. The appa blacken etl m- - ° phhtcd grass, and picks carefully out any ratus also reFlG bo found °5' °lhcr non-homologous substances commonly to quires a spirit Napier’s Coffee Apparatus. d rries when after mneheTemiX ^ ^ ^ Purchased in gross; then, ansi n into a lame mto large open iron . & uud'Shaking, ladle, and places he pours it over the grains the mouth so cleansed of the lamp d or other means of communicating a certain amount of heat to the globe. The coffee is infused with VI. - !5

114

C 0 F —C O F

sole effect has been to bring coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public. . „. . . The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion than the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so used in Sumatra, but being destitute of any attractive aroma such as is possessed by both tea and coffee, the infusion is not palatable. It is, moreover, not practicable to obtain both seeds and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand is for the seed alone, no consideration either of profit or of any dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the growth of coffee trees on account of their leaves. _ (J< PA-) COFFEK-DAMS have from very early times been employed as useful, and in some cases indispensable, structures in executing works of marine and river engineering. By excluding the water from the area they enclose, the work can be carried on within them with nearly the same ease as on dry land. Whether used on a small ^ Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary class of food or a large scale—whether as low-tide dams of clay or substances, being solely valuable for its stimulant effect concrete of only a few feet in height, or as high-water dams upon the nervous and vascular system. It produces a feeling of timber and puddle formed to resist the waves of the sea, of buoyancy and exhilaration comparable to a certain stage they are in every sense structures of great importance in of alcoholic intoxication, but which does not end in depres- the practice of hydraulic engineering. sion or collapse. It increases the frequency of the pulse Tide-dams are chiefly used in laying the foundations of lightens the sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength piers or other works that must be founded under low-water under prolonged and severe muscular exertion. _ The value They are generally made of clay and planking, of its hot infusion under the rigours of Arctic cold has level. are only carried to the height of about 3 feet above been demonstrated in the experience of all Arctic explorers, and and it is scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it low-water. The water being pumped out during the last of beneficially stimulates the action of the skin. It has been the ebb tide affords one or two hours work at low-water, affirmed that coffee and other substances containing the the dam being submerged on the rise of the tide. In such alkaloid caffeine have an influence in retarding the waste of dams a sluice should be introduced, which when open may tissue in the human frame, but careful and extended allow the water to escape with the falling tide and. so save observation has demonstrated that they have no such effect. pumping. Such tide-dams when exposed to a considerable Although by microscopic, physical, and chemical tests wash of sea may advantageously be made of cement nibble the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty, masonry, of the application of which to coffer-dams the yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive earliest account we know is that stated in Ste\ensons adulterations. Chief among the adulterant substances, if Account of the Bell-RocJc Lighthouse (p. 230), where he it can be so called, is chicory root; but it occupies a successfully employed that method of construction in 180.8 peculiar position, since very many people on the Continent in excavating the foundation of that work. When it is as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture required to sink the foundation some feet into sand and of chicory with coffee to pure coffee. Chicory, is indeed gravel, a convenient expedient is the portable dam proposed destitute of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for by Mr Thomas Stevenson described in the Trans, of the _ which coffee is valued : but the facts that it has stood the Roy. Scot. Society of Arts, 1848, to which reference is made. test of prolonged and extended use, and that its infusion The feature in this tide-dam is the use of double framed is, in some localities, used alone, indicate that it performs walings to support and direct the driving of the sheet piles, some useful function in connection with coffee, as used at and its advantages are its cheapness, its portability, and its least by Western communities. For one thing, it yields a ready adaptation to a sloping or even very irregular bottom. But when it is necessary entirely to exclude the water copious amount of soluble matter in infusion with hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength and from large areas, as, for example,, in dock-works, it is substance to what may be really only a very weak prepara- necessary to adopt coffer-dams of varied construction suited tion of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily to the circumstances of each case, and as these protecting detected by the microscope, the. structure of both, which coffer-dam works, notwithstanding their temporary, nature, they retain after torrefaction, being very characteristic and demand much of the engineer’s skill in their design and distinct. The granules of coffee, moreover, remain hard construction, we propose to notice some of the different and angular when mixed with water, to which they com- modes of construction that have been adopted in such.cases municate but little colour; chicory, on the other hand, to suit the varying sub-soil and other features of different • i •i swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown colour to works. It may here be mentioned that, particularly in bridge water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of coffee. building, caissons were employed in early times instea oe Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffer-dams, but they are now entirely out of use. coffee are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, caisson was a flat-bottomed barge constructed of strong y parsnip, and beet; beans, lupins, and other leguminous framed timber-work, in which the under courses forming seeds; wheat, rice, and various cereal grains; the seeds of the foundation of the piers of a bridge, for example, were the broom, fenugreek, and iris; acorns; and “negro coffee,” built at any convenient spot near the banks of the n^er. the seeds of Cassia occidentalis. These with many more The caisson was then floated to the site of the pier,as 0s . similar substances have not only been used as adulterants, bed of the river having previously been dredged but under various high-sounding names several of them present a comparatively level and smooth surface.. On e have been introduced as substitutes for coffee; but they bed so prepared the caisson was sunk by admitting 0 have neither merited nor obtained any success, and their water gradually by means of a valve provided for t a

boiling water in the jar, and a small quantity of boding water is also placed in the globe. The tube is then fitted in, and the spirit lamp is lighted under the globe. The steam generated expels the air from the globe, and it bubbles up through the jar. When the bubbles of air cease to appear almost the whole of the air will have been ejected, and on withdrawing the lamp the steam in the globe condenses, creating a vacuum, to fill up which the infused coffee rushes up through the metal tube, being at the same time filtered by the accumulated coffee grounds around tfie perforated disc. An error of very frequent occurrence in the preparation of coffee, which results probably from the habit of tea-making, consists in using too little coflee. Fora pint of the infusion from an ounce to an ounce and a half of coffee ought to be used. According to the experiments of Aubert a cup of coffee made from a_ i russian loth (-587 oz.) contains from I'S to 1-9 grains of

COFFER-DAMS 115 purpose. The sides were so constructed as to admit of although the timber-work of the dam must be constructed their easy removal from the bottom of the caisson when it so as to resist pressures, it will generally be found that the had been sunk to its bed. Rankine mentions a caisson greatest risk of failure arises from the filtration of water described by Becker which measured 63 feet long, 21 feet under the bottom of the sheeting piles and puddle. broad, and 15 feet deep over all. The bottom beams used in constructing this large caisson were 10 inches square and 2 feet 10 inches apart from centre to centre, and the uprights forming the sides were 10 inches square and 5 feet 8 inches apart from centre to centre. But to return to the subject of this article. The dams used in soft bottoms, where piles can be driven, are constructed of timber, and vary in strength according to the head of water they have to sustain. But the general style of construction is in all cases the same. The dams are formed of parallel rows of piles driven into the bottom, the space between the rows being filled by a mass of clay puddle of sufficient thickness to exclude the water which percolates between the joints of the piles. In cases where the head of water is not great, the coffer-dam is generally constructed as shown in fig 1., where the gauge piles a

Fig. 2. Coffer-dam used at Thames Embankment.

tf Fig. 1.—Coffer-dam for Soft Bottom, are driven at distances varying from 4 to 8 feet apart, to which walings b are fixSd, and between the waling s met piles c are driven. The sheet piles are shod with iroh, Raving a sloping edge to cause the piles to cling while beitm driven, and m the centre of each bay there is a key pile ’ avinS a shght taper which on being driven down compresses the sheet piles on either side of it closely together, n cases where the water pressure is great the sheeting piles w . • eslsthree Fnserows dh, dam is formed of two someof and wholethetimbers having the clayorpuddle b ween them. Fig. 2 is a dam on this principle^ used in Thames in the Iransaehons °f the embankment, described of the Institution of Civil and Engineers by

affen hT Rl?ley’and after the explanations that have been and immrCdnStri fCtl0ri1Wlli be easily understood as an outer am fo rmed lows with •, . of two rows of close-driven whole In°all e-mps ,e1rvei1ung sPaces be of su 6 feetorted filledbwith clay puddle, or struts abmH ^ PP 7 sufficient stays ground or w got on (iwnr-f l" °a > > hen this cannot be Stance BP SidnVen deeP en°ugh to afford sufficient 1 or an between the tmw ^ Sf bl !?P t t toreremove the soft matter 68 and to fill in- the fi °excavated ^ as S atwith a depth possible, space clay aspuddle, for

. ^e .coffer-dams described illustrate the general construction of such works, but various arrangements of the timber woik have been adopted to suit particular situations, such as Mr James Walker’s coffer-dam for constructing the foundations of the river terrace of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster (vide Min. of Proc. of Inst, of C. E., vol. i) and Sir John Hawkshaw’s dam for the middle levef drainage of Lincoln (Mm. of Proc. of Inst, of Civil Engineers, vol. xxii.) ^ ’ All the examples that have been given are applicable to situations where the bottom is sufficiently soft to admit of piles being driven. But cases occur where this is impossible. Such, for example, as the removal of obstructions from the beds of rivers where it may be necessary to lay dry a large area of solid rock, and in that case it is necessary to adopt a totally different construction of dam. p"he accompanying cut (fig. 3) shows a coffer-dam designed by Mr D. Stevenson, which is specially adapted to a hard bottom where piles cannot be driven.1 It is formed of two lows of iron piles placed 3 feet apart and jumped into the rock, which supports two linings of planking, the intermediate space being filled with puddle and the whole structure properly stayed. This dam has been successfully employed on many works, and on the Ribble navigation, where it was first introduced, it was used to excavate a bed of rock 300 yards in length and of a maximum depth of 13 feet 6 inches. The maximum depth at high water against the dam was 16 feet, but in high river floods the whole dam was completely submerged, and on the water subsiding it was found that the iron rods, although jumped only 15 inches into the rock, were not drawn from their fixtures. Dams must be designed with a special regard to their sufficiency to resist the water pressures they have to bear, and Professor Rankine gives the following formulie, in his Manual of Civil Engineering, p. 612, for calculating the pressure which the struts may have to bear. Let b = breadth in feet of the division of the dam sustained by one strut, x = the depth of water in feet, to = the weight of a cubic foot of water in lbs. P = the pressure of water against that division of dam; 1

Transactions of Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. iii. p. 337,

C O G —C 0 I dock improvements, to which the cylinder system is quite Then— inapplicable, and for which extensive and costly coffer-dams P = w;&:b2—2 and the moment of that pressure relative to a horizontal axis at the of the kind we have described must continue to be level of the ground is employed. The method of founding by iron cylinders has M=wbx^-^Q. Let h be the height above the ground at which the strut abuts been described in the article Bkidge, to which theI> reader , . ^ ‘ s‘^ against the dam, and i its inclination to the horizon; the tnrust is referred. COGNAC, a town of France, at the head of an arronalong the strut is T = M sec. i-r-A, , dissement in the department of Charente, on the left bank from which the scantling required, depending on the sort of timber of the River Charente, about 32 miles by rail west of employed, can be calculated. Angouleme. It has a tribunal of commerce, a communal In conclusion it may be noticed that the introduction of college, a prison, a hospital, a church of the 12th cenier 0 iron cylinders and compressed air for founding the P ^ tury ^dedicated to St Leger, and an old castle, now used bridges has not only superseded the use of timber coffer- as a wine-store, in the park of which is a bronze statue of SECTION Francis I, marking the spot where, according to tradition, he was born in 1494. The most important industry of Cognac is the distillation and exportation of the celebrated brandy to which the town gives its name (see Brandy). Iron is also manufactured, and a considerable trade is maintained in grain and cattle. Cognac is probably to be identified with one of the many places that bore the .name of Condate; it was known as Coniacum in the Middle Ages. At an early period it was governed by lords of its own, but in the 12th century it became subject to the counts of Angoumois. In 1238 it was the seat of an ecclesiastical council summoned by Gerard of Bordeaux ; and in 1526 it gave its name to a treaty concluded against Charles V. by Francis L, Henry VIII. of England, the Pope, Venice, and Milan. In 1562 the town was captured by the Huguenots, and in 1651 it defied the prince of Cond6. Before the Revolution it possessed a fine Benedictine monastery and two other convents. The population, which was only 4000 about the middle of the 18th century, had increased by 1872 to 12,950. COHESION. See Attraction, Capillary Action, and Constitution of Bodies. COHOES, one of the most important manufacturing centres in the United States, is situated in Albany County, in the State of New’ York, at the confluence of the Mohawk with the Hudson, just below the famous Cohoes fall on the former river, to which it is indebted for its prosperity. It contains seven churches and twenty-two public schools, the most remarkable of the churches being the Roman Catholic St Bernard’s and the Episcopal St John’s. The manufacturing establishments comprise six cotton mills with 4000 looms, eighteen knitting mills, a rolling mill, a pin factory, a knitting-needle factory, two foundries, three machine shops, a paper-mill, and a bedstead factory. In 1870 there were produced 54,342,000 yards of cloth, 33,600,000 knitting-needles, and 350,000 packages of pins; while the turn-out of hosiery formed a third of the whole amount manufactured in the United States. The whole water-power of the river for some distance both above and below the falls is the property of the Cohoes Company instituted in 1826; and the various manufactories obtain their share at a fixed annual charge for each horse-power. The supply is regulated by a am erected above the falls in 1865, and by a system of five canals. Cohoes owes its rise to the incorporation of _ the Cohoes Manufacturing Company in 1811. It obtained the rank of a village in 1848 and that of ^ C1 Jn^.n 1869. Its population in 1850 was 4229; in 1860, 8800, and in 1870, 15,357. A large number of Irench 1 7° O 2 2 5 ^ - * G 7 8 9 20 22 22 FEET% Canadians are to be found among the operatives. f T 1 I ' I 1 i t i i COIMBATORE, a district of British India, in the preFid. 3.—Cofferdam for Hard Bottom. sidency of Fort St George or Madras, situated between A, High Water; B, Low Water. 10° 45' and 11° 48' N. lat. and between 76° 50' and 7 8 10 dams for piers in soft bottoms, but has enabled bridges to E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Mysore, on the L. y be securely placed in situations where no timber dams could the district of Salem, the Cauveri River marking the entire e have answered the purpose. On the other hand, there are boundary line, on the S. by Madura and Travancore S a i and on the W. by Cochin State, Malabar District, and the many engineering works connected with river, harbour, and 116

c 0 I —C 0 I 117 Nilgirl Hills. Coimbatore may be described as a flat, open episcopal seminary. The city is the seat of a bishon country, hemmed in by mountains on the north, west, and suffragan to the archbishop of Braga ; and it possesses south, but opening eastwards on to the great plain of the two cathedrals, eight parish churches, and several con Carnatic ; the average height of the plain above sea-level ventual buildings. The new cathedral is of little interest • is about 900 feet. The principal mountains are the Anamhli but the old is a fine specimen of the Romanesque style Hills, in the south of the district, rising at places to a and retains portions of the mosque which it replaced. The height of between 8000 and 9000 feet. In the west, the principal churches are Santa Cruz, of the 16th century Palghdt and Vallagirl Hills form a connecting link between and San Salvador, founded by Esterao Martinez in 1169.’ the Anamdll range and the Nilgirfs, with the exception of On the bank of the Mondego stand the ruins of the once a remarkable gap known as the Palgh&t Pass. This gap, splendid monastery of Santa Clara, established by Don which completely intersects the Ghdts, is about twenty Mor Dias in 1286; and on the other side of the river, miles wide. In the north is a range of primitive trap-hills crossed by a fine bridge of several arches, is the celebrated known as the Cauveri (Kaveri) chain, extending eastwards Quinta das lagrimas, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de from the Nilgirls, and rising in places to a height of 4000 Castro is believed to have been murdered. The town is feet. The principal rivers are the Cauveri, Bhdwanl, ISToyel, supplied with water by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. and Amrdwatl. Numerous canals are cut from the rivers The trade is purely local, as the river is navigable only in for the purpose of affording artificial irrigation, which has flood, and the port of Figueira is 20 miles distant; but proved of immense benefit to the country. Well and tank there are manufactures of pottery, linen, cloth, and articles water is also largely used for irrigation purposes. The of horn ; and a three days’ market is held yearly in front total area of Coimbatore is 7432 square miles, of which of the Clara monastery. The country to the south is the 3877£ square miles or 2,488,000 acres were returned as most fertile and salubrious in Portugal, and the neighbourunder cultivation in 1874-75, viz., 2,089,000 acres under hood is accordingly thickly studded with farm-houses and food grams or corn crops, 80,000 acres oilseeds, 61,000 acres villas. The population of the city in 1864 was 18,147. green and garden crops, 5000 acres orchards, and 253,000 Coimbra is identified with the ancient Conemlrica, the site of acres under special crops. Excellent cotton and tobacco of a superior quality are produced. Extensive teak forests which, however, seems to have been a little to the south. The city was for a long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was exist in the neighbourhood. Coimbatore is subdivided captured by Ferdinand the Great and the Cid. Previous to the 16th into 10, tdluks or sub-districts, and contains 1515 villages. century it was the capital of the country, and no fewer than seven The census report of 1872 returns the population of the kings—Sancho I. and II., Alphonso L, II., and III., Pedro, and district as follows Hindus, 1,715,081; Muhammadans, berdmand—were born within its walls. In 1755 it suffered confrom the earthquake. In 1810 a division of the French 36,026 ; Native Christians, 11,443 ; Europeans and siderably army, under Massena, were made prisoners by the English in the Eurasians, 595 ; Buddhists, or Jains, 56 ; others,, 73 ; neighbourhood. In 1834 Don Miguel made the city his headquartotal, 1,763,274. The principal town is Coimbatore 1 situ- ters ; and in 1846 it was the scene of a Miguelist insurrection. ated in 10° 59; 41// lat. and 76° 59' 46" long.; it forms a COIN, a town of Spain, in tbe province of Malaga, and station on the line of railway between Beypur and Madras 20 miles west of tbe city of that name. It is well built, Population m 1872—Hindus, 30,801; Muhammadans, and has two large churches, an episcopal palace, and a town 2599 ; Christians, 1892 ; Buddhists, 18; total, 35,310. Ihe municipal revenue of the town amounted in 1874-75 hall. Population, 8000. COINAGE and COINS. See Bullion, Mint, Money to £3720, and the expenditure to £3367. Two other small towns—Karur and Erode—are also constituted municipali- and Numismatics. COIR, a rough, strong, fibrous substance obtained from ,ies The total district revenue in 1874-75 amounted to ties the outer husk of the cocoa-nut. See Cocoa-Nut Palm. £304,818, of which £253,536 was derived from land, (the German Chur, Italian Coira, and Quera toimbatore district was acquired by the British in 1799 at of COIRE the Romance language spoken in the district), the War which ended with the Tippu. capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons or Graubiinden, LU1MBBA a city of Portugal, capital death of theofprovince at the foot of the valley of the Plessur, a short distance t e north bank of fche above the confluence of that river with the Rhone, in • J Mondego, 115 miles N.N.R of Insbon, in 40° 14' N. lat. and 8° 24' W. long. 46° 50' 54" N. lat. and 9° 31' 26" E. long. It lies mo on risin fiUl tother .I the Partriver g ground,and andimposing presents 1830 feet above the level of the sea, and is overshadowed 1 of?the trom the side a picturesque ppearance ; though in reality its houses have individually by the Mittenberg and Pizokelberg. The streets are out little pretension, and its streets are, almost without narrow, and the general appearance of the place bespeaks its antiquity. The upper part of the town, or Bishop’s S”?’ f rrow1 aQd mean. It derives its present Quarter, was once surrounded with walls, and it is still 10m bain S. the seat of the only university in distinguished from the lower portion as the almost exclusive ai r^i ^ h^thution was originally estab1 shed at Lisbon in 1291, was which transferred to Coimbra in residence of the Roman Catholic population. The cathedral church of &t Lucius is its most remarkable building, ascribed t0 Lisb0n and was fina in part to Bishop Tello of the 8th century, and deriving its ’ % fi^d at 1 7 median ^ ' Tbere are five faculties,—theology, law, name from a legendary British king, who is reputed to lessors “athematlcs> and philosophy, with fifty-two pro- have suffered martyrdom in the town. Of antiquarian number 0/ 4w ,entf-°ne substitutes; and in 1874-5 the interest are the statues of the Four Evangelists, the ancient U entS 67 0f wbom 15 came from W and r > ffic wood carvings, and several monuments by Holbein and BraZl1 Tbe librar con ZZT: \ y tains 80,000 Durer. The episcopal palace on the other side of the court extensivA ^ tbe museums and laboratories are on an is believed to occupy the site of a Roman castle ; and two there are^rp6S' U 1 arbn,coaaection with the medical faculty ancient towers, probably dating from the 10th century, are maintains i hospitals; the mathematical faculty popularly regarded as of Roman construction, the opinion be obtaTned fr°m wbich an excellent view can being supported by deriving their names, Marsoel and h le Valle of fche outside nf tt, l 0W^n tY er° : ^ Mondego; and Spinoel, from the Latin Mars in Oculis and Spina in Oculis. rich in the flm-n f h e is a botanic garden (especially The episcopal school is now administered by the canton, promenade Z SBrazil )Vwhich also serves as aPpublk and contains a rich collection of native literature. In the the ther education are a military militarv Tii college, a° royal college al of establishments arts, and an , lower town are situated the great town-house, with a public library and three stained-glass windows of the 16th century;

118

0 0 J—0 0 K

the churches of St Martin and St Regula j the administra- and the combustion proceeds downwards and outwards by the draught through the uncovered portion at the bottom. tive buildings ; and the hospital founded by Theodosius, a Whenever the fire takes too strong a hold and-burns out to superior of the Capuchins. The prosperity of Coire is the surface it is damped by plastering over the spot with chiefly maintained by its transit trade between Geimany wet coke dust earth, this being a point requiring conand Italy; but it also engages in the manufacture of cotton, siderable skill and on the part of the coke burner. When flame wool, leather, and pewter wares, has dye-works and breweries, and deals in cattle and grain. The population, and smoke are no longer given off, which usually happens in from five to six days, the whole surface is smothered with which is mainly Protestant, numbered 7552 in 1870. coke dust, and the chimney is stopped for three or four days Coire is identified with Curia Rhcctorum, a late Roman city, first longer, when the heap is sufficiently cooled to allow of the mentioned about the 4th century. Its bishopric, which held sway coke being broken up and removed, or, as it is called, over an extensive district, seems to have been founded m 470 by drawn. The cooling is usually expedited by throwing Asimo. In the 15th century the town made itself free from episcopal control, and in 1460 obtained from the emperor, Fredenck water upon the heap before drawing. The principle of IV., the rank of an imperial city ; but before the beginning of the coking in rectangular piles is generally similar to the forenext century it split with the empire and joined the confederacy of going, but chimneys are not used. The dimensions the Grisons. In 1526 the Reformation was introduced , and a con- generally adopted are a height of from 3^ to 5 feet, and a spiracy for the restoration of the former ecclesiastical regime was vigorously suppressed. In the 17th century the city was frequently breadth of 12 feet at the base. the centre of the great struggle between the Cantons and the In coking by clamps or kilns a rectangular pile of coal is Austrian empire which raged with such fury and so many alterna- enclosed between upright walls, having a system of vertical tions of success. In 1802 the French general Massena occupied the and horizontal passages traversing them at intervals, which town, and from that date the bishops have had no territorial posserve as chimneys to conduct the combustion through the sessions. COJUTEPEC, a town of Central America, in the pile. This system has been used at different times in South republic of San Salvador and the department of Cuscatlan, Wales, Germany, and other places, but is now generally about 15 miles east of the capital. It has a population of abandoned, as the draught holes have a tendency to consume about 15,000, and from 1854 to 1858 it served as the seat the coal unnecessarily unless very carefully watched. The largest proportion of the coke used for industrial of government instead of San Salvador, which had been ruined by an earthquake. In 1872 it took part in a purposes is made in close kilns or ovens. These vary very revolutionary outbreak against the existing Government, considerably in form and details of construction, but the and the Indian population unsuccessfully attacked the same general principles are observed in all, the object being garrison. The town gives its name to a neighbouring to effect the coking as much as possible by the consumption volcano, which rises to a height of 5700 feet, and also to of the volatile inflammable gases given off above the surface the extensive lake, otherwise known as the Lake of Ilopango, of the coal, and to protect the latter from the direct access which lies a few miles to the south and gives rise to the of currents of air. A further object is the utilization of the heat given off by the waste gases, which may be employed Rio Jiboa. COKE, the carbonaceous residue produced when coal is to heat the oven by circulating them in flues round the subjected to a strong red heat, out of contact with the air, outside, and further by employing them for the accessory until the volatile constituents are driven off It consists objects of raising steam, heating air, &c., in collieries and essentially of carbon, the so-called fixed carbon, together iron-works. with the incombustible matters or ash contained in the In its oldest and simplest form, the coke oven consists of a round coal from which it is derived. In addition to these it chamber from 7 to 10 feet in diameter, with a low cylindrical wall, almost invariably contains small quantities of hydrogen, and a domed roof rising about 20 inches in height above the floor. hole about 1 foot in diameter in the crown of the roof serves oxygen, and nitrogen, the whole, however, not exceeding A for charging, and the finished coke is drawn through a door m the 2 or°3 per cent. It also contains water, the amount of which wall, about feet square. When cleared for a fresh charge, may vary considerably according to the method of manu- the oven being red-hot, small coal is introduced through the hole facture. When produced rapidly and at a low heat, as in in the roof, and spread uniformly over the floor, until it is failed to the level of the springing of the roof, when the doorway gas-rnaking, it is of a dull black colour, and a loose spongy up is filled up with loose bricks which give a sufficient passage between or pumice-like texture, and ignites with comparative ease, them for the admission of air to ignite the gases given off by the though less readily than bituminous coal, so that it may be distillation of the heated coal. After a few hours these air-ways burnt in open fire-places ; but when a long-continued heat must be closed by plastering up the brickwork, except the top layer, is left open for twenty-four hours. The heat developed by is used, as in the preparation of coke for iron and steel which burning gases causes the coking to proceed downwards until tlie melting, the product is hard and dense, is often prismatic in the entire charge is converted, this taking from three to four days, structure, has a brilliant semi-metallic lustre and silvery- according to the quantity of coal. When the escape of flame grey colour, is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and from the hole in the roof ceases, all apertures are stopped whereby can only be burnt in furnaces provided with a strong air can enter to the incandescent mass, which being no longer proby an atmosphere of combustible gases, would burn to waste chimney draught or an artificial blast. The strength and tected if brought in contact with the atmosphere. At this point, therecohesive properties are also intimately related to the nature fore, all holes in the oven and chimney are completely closed lor and composition of the coals employed, which are said to about twelve hours, when the door is opened, and the coke, yhicii be caking or non-caking according to the compact or frag- forms a coherent mass, somewhat less in size than the original charge, and divided by a system of columnar joints, is removed by an mentary character of the coke produced. iron drag, or cross-bar, inserted at the far end of the floor, and mo The simplest method of coking, that in open heaps or by a chain and windlass, a stream of water from a hose being piles, is conducted in a very similar manner to charcoal used to quench the glowing coke as it is brought out. burning. The coal is piled in a domed heap about 30 feet class of oven, which is now not much used, was adopted bj jnos railway companies, when coke was burnt exclusively m locoin diameter and 5 feet high, with a chimney of bricks the motives, and is also common in the Durham coal-field, i my arranged in open chequer work in the centre, around which generally known as beehive ovens, also as bakers ovens. ®'ia/ the largest lumps of coal are placed so as to allow a free from six to ten, or twelve, or more ovens are placed side by side n draught through the mass. The outside of the heap is one block of brickwork, which is supplied with a tall chimney, ovens being connected by pillars, with well-regu a covered with a coating of wet coke dust, except a ring individual dampers. A railway is generally laid along the top of the rang about a foot high at the bottom. Fire is communicated by ovens, so that the charging can be effected directly from the co i j putting a few live coals near the top of the chimney, or trucks. The yield of coke by this method may be from oo to from the interior by throwing them down the chimney, per cent., according to the nature of the coal. With charges \arj

COKE 119 ing from 3 to.'lO tons, the operation, including the period of cooling, s lide T]ie -, according toisthe about 3 tons, yield lasts from four to seven days. The coke obtained is of the highest fiom 3b to* 44, cwt. nature of theand coalthe operated quality, being dense and well burned. In some cases the cooling ^P?nfinished coke forms a prismatic mass, 30 feet loim of the coke is effected by watering it before drawing. There is a 3 feet high, and 16 inches broad; it is pushed out by 1 ram certain amount of sulphur removed by this method, as the steam shaped like the cross section of the oven, which is moved by steam generated being brought into contact with the sulphide of iron power acting upon a long racked rod. This apparatus, togethS in the heated mass, formed from pyrites in the coal, produces with the engine and boiler for moving it, is mounted on a carriage sulphuretted hydrogen and magnetic oxide of iron The amount of moving on a railway m front of the range of ovens, so that it can desulphurization by this method is, however, practically insignifi- be bioilght up to any one of them as required. The mass of coke cant, as the operation does not last a sufficient time to allow the is pushed out on to a floor running along the back, where it is mass of the fuel to be affected The proportion of sulphur in finished immediately broken, and quenched by heavily watering the fragcoke, as compared with that of the original coal, may be roughly ments. The whole operation, including the drawing and rechar”, stated at about one-half. It has been sought to reduce the amount nig of the empty oven, is effected in about eight minutes. The by decomposing the residual ferrous sulphide in various ways, as yield of coke very closely approximates to that obtained by experiby the addition of salt, carbonate of soda, lime, &c., to the coal ments m crucibles. A similar kind of oven with outside heating before coking but none of these methods is found to be practically flues, that of the Brothers Appolt, has been in use for several years on usefux. In the South Wales coal-field the ordinary form of coke oven is the Continent, more particularly in France. It differs from Coppee’s the position of the coking chambers, which are vertical instead nearly rectangular, being about 14 feet long, 5 feet wide at the in ot horizontal the coal being charged from the top, and the finished back, and 6 feet at the front or drawing ends ; the height to the coke dropped into a truck placed below. Various schemes crown of the cylindrical roof is 5 feet 6 inches, with usually two have been proposed at different times for the purpose of utilizing charging holes. Two charges are worked weekly, the first, of U the condensibie products, such as tar, ammoniacal water, &c., given tons, is finished in three days, while the second, of 5 tons, is oft during the earlier of the process of coking, but they are allowed four days, so as to remain in the oven over Sunday. The not generally found tostages be applicable to the manufacture of metalluryield in both cases is about the same. gical coke being only suited for gas-works, where the quality of the The addition of heating flues exterior to the wall of the oven is only a secondary consideration. allows the time of coking to be very much shortened, Of the coke slack of dry or non-caking coal, or anthracite, which cannot numerous contrivances proposed for this purpose, that of a Belgian be The alone, may be converted into a useful coke by mixing it engineer, Mr Coppee. has latterly come into favour in many places withcoked of bituminous coal, or gas-pitch, or a mixture of as very well adapted for use with comparatively dry coal The both. a proportion Swansea, a mixture of 60 to 70 per cent, of anthracoking chamber is a long narrow retort of fire brick, measuring cite withAtfrom 35 per cent, of bituminous coal, and 5 or 6 of about 30 feet in length, 17 inches in width at the front, and about gas pitch, made30bytogrinding ingredients in one of Carr’s disin2 inches more at the back, where the charge is pushed out with tegrator mills, is coked in thetheordinary South Wales ovens, a thin vertical walls about. 3| feet high, covered by a low arched' roof. ayer of bituminous coal being placed above the charge before it is One.of these walls is solid, but the other contains twenty-eight lighted, to prevent the pitch from burning to waste. The yield of vertical descending flues (/) which communicate with the interior at coke is about 80 per cent, of the weight of the charge. It is exthe springing of the roof, and below with the large flue of the same hard, and about 23 per cent, heavier than that made from width as the oven, and running along its entire length. As ceedingly usuafiy built, a series or battery includes about thirty ovens, which bituminous coal, with a correspondingly higher calorific value are arranged m pairs as in the figure, from which it will be seen that Coke is used for all purposes where a smokeless fire is required, as, for instance, in drying malt or hops, or in i i raising steam in locomotives within the limits of towns I ! also for producing strong local heat, as in melting metals ii1 Longitudinal Section Transverse Section (go d, silver, brass, or steel) in crucibles in air furnaces, in blast furnaces its value depends upon the difficulty of combustion, so that the particles keep their form until they reach the proper place of combustion at the point of entry ot the blast in the lower part of the furnace. The great economy of fuel that has been effected in the process of iron smelting in the Cleveland district by increasing the height of the furnaces, is in great part due to the strength of the coke used, which is made in the south part ot the Durham coal-field, and has sufficient cohesive power to bear the pressure of a column of iron-making materials from 80 to 100 feet in height without crushing, a result Coppee’s Coke Oven. which cannot be obtained with the coke of other districts. h e te which can be opened the grammar-school of Norwich he passed to Trinity tbe ^ dra P. charging is effected through tf, wing and recharging. The 111 the form of slack ^ tained ?-leS,(DluD] iu tbo ™o”f, tie coal, College, Cambridge ; and after a course of three years, running upon rails, which are | hopper-shaped trams, in 1572 he entered the Inn to which his father had Ul aie run ovei ’ - the holes and emptied by belonged To the study of law he devoted himself from

120

COKE

and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges the first with the inteusest application; he slept only six torture, concerning the matter. Coke declared such hours, and from three in the morning till nine at night he individually conference to be illegal, and refused to give an opinion, read or took notes of the cases tried in West.minster Hall except in writing, and even then he seems to have said with as little interruption as possible. In 1578 he was nothin" decided. But the most remarkable case of all called to the bar, and in the next year he was chosen reader occurred in the next year (1616). A trial was held before at Lyon’s Inn. His extensive and exact legal erudition, Coke in which one of the counsel denied the validity of a and the skill with which he argued the intricate cases of grant made by the king to the bishop of Lichfield of a Lord Cromwell and Edward Shelby, soon brought him a benefice to be held in commendam. James, through e practice never before equalled, hnd caused hi111 Bacon, who was then attorney-general, commanded the universally recognized as the greatest lawyer of his day. chief-justice to delay judgment till he himself should In 1586 he was made recorder of Norwich, and m lo-H discuss the question with the judges. At Coke’s request recorder of London, solicitor-general, and reader m the Bacon sent a letter containing the same command to each Inner Temple. In 1593 he was returned as member of of the judges, and Coke then obtained their signatures to a parliament for his native county, and also chosen speaker paper declaring that the attorney-general’s instructions were of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted to illegal, and that they were bound to proceed with the case. the office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, His Majesty expressed his displeasure, and summoned who was warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As them before him in the council-chamber, where he insisted crown lawyer his treatment of the accused was marked y on his supreme prerogative, which, he said, ought not to be more than the harshness and violence common in his time, discussed in ordinary argument. Upon this all the judges and the fame of the victim has caused his behaviour m the fell on their knees, seeking pardon for the form of thentrial of Kaleigh to be lastingly remembered against him. letter; but Coke ventured to declare his continued belief While the prisoner defended himself with the calmest dignity and self-possession, Coke burst into the bitterest in the loyalty of its substance, and when asked if he would invective, brutally addressing the great courtier as if he had in the future delay a case at the king’s order, the only reply been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for its he would vouchsafe was that he would do what became him insolence and its utter injustice,—“ Thou hast an English as a judge. Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following charges,—the concealment, as face, but a Spanish heart! ” In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a attorney-general, of a bond belonging to the king, a charge Suffolkshire gentleman, receiving with her a fortune of which could not be proved, illegal interference with the £30,000 ; but in six months he was left a widower. Court’ of Chancery, and disrespect to the king in the case Shortly after he sought the hand of Lady Elizabeth of commendams. He was also ordered by the council to Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second Lord Burghley, and revise his book of reports, which was said to contain many granddaughter of the great Cecil. Bacon was again his extravagant opinions (June 1616). Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He rival, and again unsuccessfully ; the wealthy young widow became—not, it is said, to his future comfort—Coke’s offered his daughter Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage to Sir John Yilliers, brother of the second wife. In 1606 Coke was made chief-justice of the Common favourite Buckingham. Her mother, supported at first by I’leas, but in 1613 he was removed to the office of chief- her husband’s great rival and her own former suitor, justice of the Kings Bench, which gave him less oppor- Bacon, objected to the match, and placed her in concealtunity of interfering with the court. The change, though ment. Butr Coke discovered her hiding-place ; and she was it brought promotion in dignity, caused a diminution of forced to w ed the man whom she declared that of all others income as well as of power; but Coke received some com- she abhorred. The result was the desertion of the husband pensation in being appointed a member of the Privy and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after his Council. The independence of his conduct as a judge, daughter’s public penance in the Savoy Church,. Coke had though not unmixed with the baser elements of prejudice heart enough to receive her back to the home which he had and vulgar love of authority, has partly earned forgiveness forced her to leave. Almost all that he gained by Ins for the harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy heartless diplomacy was a seat in the council and in the character. Full of an extreme reverence for the common Star-Chamber. In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for law which he knew so well, he defended it alike against the Court of Chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and the him. He was elected member of parliament for Liskeard; royal prerogative. In a narrow spirit, and strongly in- and henceforth he was one of the most prominent of the fluenced, no doubt, by his enmity to the chancellor, Egerton, constitutional party. It was he who proposed a remonhe sought to prevent the interference of the Court of strance against the grqwth of Popery and the marriage o Chancery with even the unjust decisions of the other Prince Charles to the infanta of Spain, and who led the courts. In the case of an appeal from a sentence given Commons in the decisive step of entering on the journal of in the King’s Bench, he advised the victorious, but guilty, the House the famous petition of the 18th December 16H, party to bring an action of praemunire against all those insisting on the freedom of parliamentary discussion, and who had been concerned in the appeal, and his authority the liberty of speech of every individual member. In conwas stretched to the utmost to obtain the verdict he sequence, together with Pym and Sir Bobert Philips, e desired. On the other hand, Coke has the credit of hav- was thrown into confinement; and, when in the Angus ing repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely of the next year he was released, he was commanded to gave his opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make remain in his house at Stoke-Poges during his Majesty s that an offence which was not an offence before. An pleasure. Of the first and second parliaments of Charles i. equally famous but less satisfactory instance occurred Coke was again a member. Irom the second he was during the trial of Peacham, a divine in whose study excluded by being appointed sheriff of Buckinghamshire. a sermon had been found containing libellous accusa- In 1628 he was at once returned for both Buckinghams ire tions against the king and the Government. There was and Suffolk, and he took his seat for the former count}. nothing to give colour to the charge of high treason with After rendering other valuable support to the popular cause, which he was charged, and the sermon had never been he took a most important part in drawing up the grea preached or published ; yet Peacham was put to the Petition of Bight. The last act of his public career was to

C O L —c O L 121 bewail with tears the ruin which he declared the duke of Buckingham was bringing upon the country. At the close of the session he retired into private life; and the six years that remained to bim were spent in revising and improving the works upon which, at least as much as upon SsiKflSjSas.a-sisaS? his public career, his fame now rests. He died on the 3d in the capital during his absence. At first Colbert’s position was far from satisfactory; for the close wary Italian September 1633. Coke published Institutes, of which the first is also known as treated him merely as an ordinary agent. On one occasion “ Coke upon Littleton Reports, A Treatise of Bail and Mainprizc for example, he offered him 1000 crowns. The gift was The Complete Copyholder, A Beading on Fines and Recoveries. ’ refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof ofTh COLBERG or Kolbekg, a fortified seaport town of 86 SerViCeS Hklddemands ^ ^ were not’ small; for, Saiwith »ed an all ambition that lie Prussia, in the former province of Pomerania, and the govern- desired His mingled as his letters show, with strong family affection ment of Koslm, on the right bank of the Persante, which aimed at placing all his relatives in positions of affluence falls into the Baltic about a mile below the town ft has a handsome market-place, adorned since 1864 with a statue pnbl-dlgffl 6 wasand lnany a rich benefice and important of Frederick William IV. ; and there are sevelal metty PU “ appropriated by him to that purpose. For extensive suburbs, of which the most important is the 0l] rS, ferr ed UP n him by his d l,-?, , were ° expressed in Patron no nted hhand, his thanks a most with remarkMunde, in great measure the growth of the present century Snted able manner; he published a letter defending the cardinal The principal buildings are the cathedral of St Mary’s one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, dating from the charge of ingratitude which was often brought from 1316, the council-house erected after the plans of against him, by enumerating the benefits that he and his Zwirner, the citadel, and the aqueduct by which the town famdy had received from him (April 1655). Colbert is supplied with water. Colberg also possesses several hos8 thG tigher bject 0f his am ’ offt ’ the confidence Mazarin, so far as° it was granted bition; to any one, pitals, a workhouse, a house of correction, an orphan confide asylum, a gymnasium, a preparatory school of navigation became his, and he was intrusted with matters of the gravest and an exchange. Its bathing establishments are largely importance. In 1659 he was giving directions as to the frequented and attract a considerable number of summer P S 0 wk m and A ^ and ? tbe Fntrywith ich threatened ormandy, Anjou, Poitou, characteristic visitors. Woollen cloth and spirits are manufactured : in Hor there m an extensive salt-mine in the neighbouring decision arresting those whom he suspected and arrang/ulenberg ; the salmon and lamprey fisheries are important n ffeVeJ7 detail of tbeir trial, the immediate and arbitrary and a air amount of commercial activity is maintained.^ eir CaStIeS a d alld the ex r the same of their chief ^ Bonnesson. In year weecutio^ have 1 opulation in 1872, 13,106. Colberg was the seat of a bishop as early as the 10th centurv th he wa8 alread f y Panning his was greatthe attempt at though it not long after lost this distinction. Till 1277 it was the finale?? uncial reform. His earliest tentative drawing chief town of the Cassubian Wends, and after that date it ranked up of a memotre to Mazarin, showing that of the taxes raid “ie I?osj ^portant place in the episcopal principality of Kamin by the people not one-half reached the king. The paper v 2’w'V pa8Sed in 1648 t0 Brandenburg. In the ThS a so contained an attack upon the superintendent, Fouquet hi 1631 and inatbCpasStUred vy tPe ®wedes> aftei a protracted siege who, first recommended to Le Tellier by Colbert himself! he conflict In 7 c rnlthstood J?rS iIar 11 was one of the centres of had since developed into the most shameless of extortioners; ami men, and in it held out strains and nis h?s army annv ol of 10,000 0 nno ^ the1760 attacks of General Palmbach being opened by the postmaster of Paris, who hapEussian and Swedish forces, both by sea and land tdMtfwas and pened to be a spy of Fouquet’s, it gave rise to a bitter 06 f J bllt in 1761 jt was faminfto^ieldtoT ° compelled by y vSt! 0rabardme homanzoff after a four months’ investment and lifetime t 11 however, Mazarin repressed during his under ti 0 " f; Ft,-*-uli Loisit was surrounded by 18 000 men the deat NettllWt ™^-^ ° , ® ®> on, and Mortier; but the burgher b of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take dd«Kt without succeedea in the first place m the administration. It was some time h p f Tllslt broU Schill ht ° g the war to a close. GULBERT, Jean Baptiste (1619-1683), one of the before he assumed official dignities; but in January 1664 t Statee en o£ rraIlce was bom on SelgthTAA8,gthWI? “ > 161 „ at Kheims where his “ ' 1’ grandfather were merchants. He > claimed totoker be and the famUy bu those who hOTe iSSed lh(.n0bHSCOntiSh ’ ? ave decided -urnin t matter h. almost without exception pr ens 1 on been spent hf ? 1 1 - His y°uth is said to have banked and • ,col]ege» in t]*e office of a Parisian the father df tn that °f & Pansian notary, Chapelain, But the first fact on can re y with ^^ich we obtained aa no, fC°nffdence 18 that> when not yet twenty, he that hP post m the war-office, by means of the influence marria e of unceShet0PtreS-e?erthrfr0UMicliel ,gh the Le S bis Tellier of site Vr I" Tv°unn . ’ i'b0 secretary in the insn /^ S some years he was employed 1 f t but at length ?1S °ablllt i v°pa and other work of tbePkind, g his tintin’ i t y, bis extraordinary energy, and SnCSS induced Le Wm his'Zi ab0ri °" to^make T e must be confe^ ^ecre^a^’ n0t b se qualities, combined, it over deli seize everv onn i \ - cate readiness to Colbert bo h?P0HiUnitj °f advancement, soon brought «ceivL tt ool Td, “gflueaCe - In 1647 ™ «"d 1648 obtaining °ods °f hls uncle Pussort, in in 000 c r wns Wlt a 1649 appoint . .? of state. b his wife Marie Charron, PPomtedd’councillor

ined tbe P St of su erin iL?? P tendentin of buildings; in 1665 he was made° controller-general; 1669 he became minister of the marine; and he was also appointed minister ot commerce, the colonies, and the king’s palace. In short he soon acquired power in every department except that r ot war. A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his energies Tim he saw was the first step toward raising France to the lofty position he intended her to occupy 1 he country was m economic chaos. Those who had the fiscal administration in their hands, from the superintendent to the meanest of the tax-farmers, robbed and misappropriated almost as they pleased. The Government loans were arranged, not so as to be most advantageous to the state,, but so as most to aggrandize the individuals who were interested in them. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; ie weight of the burden fell on the wretched country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly set about his task. Supported by the young king, Louis XIV., he aimed the first blow at the greatest of the extortioners—the bold and powerful superintendent, Fouquet. He was accused of high treason, not without sufficient grounds, for it was known that he had prepared to meet an arrest formerly contemplated by an appeal to force. The most minutely careful precautions VI —

122

COLBERT

his natronage. To encourage trade with the Levant Senegal, were taken by Colbert for his seizure, and be was tried Guinea, and other places, privileges were granted to combefore a specially prepared chamber of justice. Neverthe- panies; but, like the more important East India Company, less the trial was protracted during three years, and the all were unsuccessful. The chief cause of this failure, sentence passed was not death but banishment. e as well as of the failure of the colonies, on which he Government, however, carried out its plans. _ I he superin- bestowed so much watchful care, was the narrowness and tendent was safely disposed of in the state .prison ot 1 igne- rigidity of the Government regulations. rol: just disgrace fell upon Councillor d’Ormesson and the °The greatest and most lasting of Colbert’s achievements other judges who had averted the punishment Fouquet was the establishment of the French marine. The royal richly deserved; and many minor officials, convicted of navy owed all to him, for the king thought only of military peculation, were treated with great severity, some being exploits. For its use, Colbert reconstructed the works banished, some sent to the galleys, some even hanged. and arsenal of Toulon, founded the port and arsenal of The office of superintendent and many others dependen Bochefort, and the naval schools of Bochefort, Dieppe, and upon it being abolished the supreme control of the finances Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some assistance from Yauban was vested in a royal council The sovereign was its presi- (who, however, belonged to the party of his rival Envois), dent ; but Colbert, though for four years he only possessed among other ports those of Calais, Dunkirk, Brest, and the title of intendant, was its ruling spirit, great personal Havre. To supply it with recruits he invented his famous authority being conferred upon him by the king.. 1 system of classes, by which each seaman, according to the career on which Colbert now entered must not be judge class in which he was placed, gave six months’ service without constant remembrance of the utter rottenness o every three or four or five years. For three months after the previous financial administration.. His ruthlessness m his term of service he was to receive half-pay; pensions this case, dangerous precedent as it was, was perhaps were promised; and, in short, everything was done to make necessary; individual interests could not be respected. the navy popular. There was one department, however, Guilty officials having been severely punished, the fraudu- that was supplied with men on a very difierent principle. lent creditors of the Government remained to be dealt with. Letters exist written by Colbert to the judges requiring Colbert’s method was simple. Some of the public loans them to sentence to the oar as many criminals as possible, were totally repudiated, and from others a percentage was including all those who had been condemned to death; cut off, which varied, at first according to his own decision, and the convict once chained to the bench, the .expiration and afterwards according to. that of. the council which he of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring him release. established to examine all claims against the state. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been, proved, Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to intro- contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in insurduce equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various rections, and others immeasurably superior.to the criminal classes. To diminish the number of the privileged was class, nay, innocent men—Turkish, Bussian, and negro impossible, but false claims to exemption were firmly slaves, and poor Iroquois Indians, whom the Canadians resisted, and the unjust direct taxation was lightened by were ordered to entrap—were pressed into that terrible an increase of the indirect taxes, from which the privileged service. By these means the benches of the galleys were could not escape. The mode of collection was at the same filled, and Colbert took no thought of the long unrelieved time immensely improved. borne by those who filled them. Order and economy being thus introduced into the agony Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement working of the government, the country, according to given to the building of ships in France by allowing a Colbert’s vast yet detailed plan, wasHo.be enriched by was premium on those built at home, and imposing a duty on commerce. Manufactures were fostered in every waj he brought from abroad ; and as French workmen weic could devise. New industries were established, inventors those protected, workmen invited from foreign countries, French forbidden to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to foreigners on pain of death. . . . , workmen absolutely prohibited to emigrate. To maintain serve Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he, had no the character of French goods in foreign markets, as well official concern, did not altogether escape Colbert’s attenas to afford a guarantee to the home consumer, the quality tion He took a subordinate part in the struggle between and measure of each article were fixed by law, breach king and Borne as to the royal rights over vacant of the regulations being punished by public exposure the bishoprics; and he seems to have sympathized with the of the delinquent and destruction of the goods, and, on proposal that was made to seize part of the wealth ot the the third offence, by the pillory. But whatever advantage resulted from this rule was more than compensated by the clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress disadvantages it entailed. The production of qualities no less than seventeen fetes, and he had a project for which would have suited many purposes of consumption lessening the number of those devoted to clerical an was prohibited, and the odious supervision which became monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the vows some necessary involved great waste of time and a stereotyped years later than was then customary. With heresy he regularity which resisted all improvements. And other was at first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware ot parts of Colbert’s scheme deserve still less equivocal con- the commercial value of the Huguenots; but v en m demnation. By his firm maintenance of the corporation king, under the influence of Mme. de Maintenon, resolvea system, each industry remained in the hands of certain to make all France Catholic, he followed his Majesty, and privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement was urged his subordinates to do all that they could to promote tp. greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities conversions. In art and literature Colbert took much interest, of advancement were closed. With regard to international 0 commerce Colbert was equally unfortunate in not being in possessed a remarkably fine private library, w ic delighted to fill with valuable manuscripts from every part advance of his age ; the tariffs he published were protective to an extreme. The interests of internal commerce were, of Europe where France had placed a consul. He has however, wisely consulted. Unable to abolish the duties honour of having founded the Academy of Sciences (now on the passage of goods from province to province, he did called the Institut de France), the Observatory, whic a / what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. employed Perrault to build and brought Cassini frooa to superintend, the Academies of Inscriptions and Me a s, The roads and canals were improved. The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by B-iquet under of Architecture, and of Music, the French Academ) a

0 0 L —0 O L

123 Rome, and Academies at Arles, Soissons, Nimes, and Thus it came about that, only a few years after he had many other towns, and he reorganized the Academy of commenced to free the country from the weight of the Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had established. loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust, Colbert was He was a member of the French Academy; and one very forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes more characteristic rule, recorded to have been proposed by him heavy than the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary, in struggle, and the financial and fiscal reform which, with which he was much interested, was that no one should be the great exception of the establishment of the navy, was accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the most valuable service to France contemplated by’him the hour of commencement and remained till the hour came to nought. for leaving. In 1673 he presided over the first exhibition Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king’s of the works of living painters; and he enriched the Louvre favour for Luvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert’s with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave many strength gave way at a comparatively early age. In pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Moliere, 1680 he was the constant victim of severe fevers, from Corneille, Racine, Boileau, Huet, and Varillas, and even which he recovered for a time through the use of quinine foreigners, as Huyghens, Yossius the geographer, Carlo prescribed by an English physician. But in 1683, at the Dati the Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch age of sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal illness, and scholar. There is evidence to show that by this munificence on the 6th of September he expired. It was said that he hoped to draw out praises of his sovereign and himself; he died of a broken heart, and a conversation with the but this motive certainly is far from accounting for all the king is reported in which Louis disparagingly compared splendid, if in some cases specious, services that he rendered the buildings of Versailles, which Colbert was superintendto literature, science, and art. ing, with the works constructed by Luvois in Flanders. Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of He took to bed, it is true, immediately afterwards, refusing France Colbert devoted unsparing thought and toil. Be- to receive all messages from the king; but his constitution sides all that has been mentioned, he found time to do was utterly broken before, and a post-mortem examination something for the better administration of justice (the proved that he had been suffering from stone. His body codification of ordinances, the diminishing of the number was interred in the secrecy of night, for fear of outrage of judges, the reduction of the expense and length of trials), from the Parisians, by whom his name was cordially defor the establishment of a superior system of police, and tested. even for the improvement of the breed of horses and the Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France, increase of cattle. As superintendent of public buildings and would have done vastly more had it been possible. Yet he enriched Paris with boulevards, quays, and triumphal his insight into political science was not deeper than that arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the Louvre, and of his age; nor did he possess that superiority in moral brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect'; and he qualities which would have inspired him to bring in a reign erected its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude of purity and righteousness, His rule was a very bad Perrault, by whom Bernin had been replaced. He was not example of over-government. In popular liberty he did not permitted, however, to complete the work, being compelled believe; the parliaments and the States-General received to yield to the king’s preference for residences outside no support from him. The technicalities of justice he Paris, and to devote himself to Marly and Versailles. never allowed to interfere with his plans ; justice herself he Amid all these public labours his private fortune was sometimes commanded to stay her course, and beware of never neglected. While he was reforming the finances of crushing any friend of his who happened to lie in her way. the nation, and organizing its navy, he always found time He trafficked in public offices for the profit of Mazarin and to direct the management of his smallest farm. He died in his own behalf. He caused the suffering of thousands a millionaire, and left fine estates all over France. For in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said, for the cry of the his eldest son, who was created Marquis de Seignelay, suppliant. There was indeed a more human side to his ne obtained the reversion of the office of minister of character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice and marine; his second son became archbishop of Rouen ; and afiectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins a third son, the Marquis d’ Ormoy, became superintendent even. Yet to all outside he was “the man of marble.” To of buildings. diplomacy he never pretended; persuasion and deceit were In estimating the value of Colbert’s ministry, two not the weapons he employed; all his work was carried distinct questions must be considered—What its results out by the iron hand of authority. He was a great stateswould have been in the absence of counteracting influences, men in that he conceived a magnificent yet practicable over which he had no control, and what they actually scheme for making France first among nations, and in that were. To the first it may be answered that France, peace he possessed a matchless faculty for work, neither shrinktul, enriched by a wide-spread commerce, and freed from the weight of taxes, alike heavy and intrinsically mischievous, ing from the vastest undertakings nor scorning the most would probably have developed powers that would have trivial details. vies and doges of Colbert have been published ; but enabled her to throw aside what was harmful in his policy, theNumerous most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre a Clement, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his Fie ^0 attainToliberty without the frenzied struggle de of the Revolution. the second question a very different Colbert, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the Lettres, instrucrep y must be given. What the great “ ministre de la paix” tions, et memoires de Colbert. The historical introductions prefixed these volumes have been published by Mme. Clement built up was torn down, even as he built it, to erect the to eachtheof title of the Histoire de Colbert et de son administration unholy fabric of his master’s military glory. The war under (1874). Among Colbert’s papers are Memoires sur les affaires de department was in the hands of Colbert’s great rival, finance de France (written about 1663), a fragment entitled Particuiiuvois; and to every appeal for peace Louis was deaf. He larites secretes de la vie du Boy, and other accounts of the earlier part (T. M. W.) as eaf also to all the appeals against the other forms of of the reign of Louis XIY. ms boundless extravagance which Colbert, with all his COLCHESTER, a market-town, municipal and parliaeterence towards his sovereign, bravely ventured to make.1 mentary borough, and river-port of England, in the county of Essex, 51 miles from London by the Great Eastern Railway, on the Colne, which is there crossed by three d h8 ii,,g in im ru is m «7r»T£ ‘° ‘ - °' '“" bridges. The town within the walls forms an oblong of

124

c o L —0 O L

tions were erected, and the colony soon attained a high degree of prosperity. To the present day the walls then erected remain almost intact, and form one of the noblest specimens of Roman architecture in the island. Minor antiquities—such as Samian potteiy, coins, articles of ornament—occur in the greatest profusion; and, both within the city and in the neighbourhood, numerous villas have been discovered, with tesselated pavements, hypocausts, and baths. The coins belong to all periods, down to the secession of the Romans from the island. On the arrival of the Saxons the old name of Camulodunum gave place to that of Colneceastor, or the Castnim on the Colne, which is still preserved in the present modification. In 921 the town was recovered from the Danes by Edward the Elder, and its fortifications were strengthened. At the time of the Domesday Book it was a place of decided importance, and in the reign of Edward III. it sent five ships and 140 seamen to the siege of Calais. In 1348 and 1360 it was ravaged by the plague, which again visited it in the dreadful year of 1665. Meanwhile it was the scene of a memorable siege; having in 1648 declared for the Royalists, it was captured by Fairfax, after an investment of eleven weeks, its gallant defenders, Sir C. Lucas and Sir C. Lisle, were put to death, and the castle was dismantled. See Morant’s Essex; Rev. Henry Jenkins’s “Observations on the Site of Camulodunum” in vol. xxix. of the Archceologia, 1842, and the same author’s Colchester Castle built as a Temple of Claudius Ccesar, 1852 ; Rev. Edward A. Cutts’s Colchester Castle not a Homan Temple, 1853. Arms of Colchester. COLCHESTER, Charles Abbot, Lord (1757-1829), born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector Henry L, to whom the city was also indebted for the of All Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother’s second Benedictine abbey of St John’s now almost totally marriage, half-brother of the famous Jeremy Bentham. demolished. Of the churches the oldest is St Peter’s, which From Westminster School, Charles Abbot passed to Christ like several others has been restored within recent years ; Church College, Oxford, where he gained the chancellor’s the remains of the church of St Botolph’s priory, founded medal for Latin verse and the Yinerian Scholarship. In in the early part of the 12th century, present fine examples 1795, after having practised twelve years as a barrister, of Norman workmanship; and St Jamess, St Giless, and and published a treatise proposing the incorporation of the St Leonard’s at the Hythe are all of antiquarian interest. judicial of Wales with that of England, he was The last preserves some early frescoes. The present century appointedsystem to the office previously held by his brother of has added largely to the number of the churches and chapels, clerk of the rules in the King’s Bench; and in June of the and many of the newer buildings are not unworthy of the year he was elected member of parliament for Helston, city in which they stand. Of secular structures the most same through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 important are the town hall, the county police station Abbot commenced his career as a reformer in parliament, (formerly the county jail), the borough jail, the theatre, two corn exchanges, the Eastern Counties asylum for idiots by obtaining the appointment of two committees,—the one and imbeciles, the Essex and Colchester hospital, the to report on the arrangements which then existed as to assembly rooms, and the public baths. The town also temporary laws or laws about to expire, the other to devise possesses a free grammar-school, with a scholarship at St methods for the better publication of new statutes. To John’s College, Cambridge ; a literary institute with a the latter committee, and a second committee which he prolibrary attached, botanic gardens, a literary, a medical, posed some years later, it is owing that copies of new and other societies. Colchester is the centre of a large statutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates and agricultural district, and has very extensive corn and cattle municipal bodies. To Abbot’s efforts were also due the markets. Baize was formerly the principal manufacture ; establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform but this has been superseded by silk, more especially the of the system which allowed the public money to lie for kind employed for umbrellas. The minor industrial some time at long interest in the hands of the public establishments include flour-mills, vinegar-works, foundries, accountants, and, most important of all, the Act for taking engineering works, rope-yards, printing offices, and lime- the first census, that of 1801. On the formation of the works. The import and export trade is conducted at the Addington ministry in March 1801, Abbot became chief suburb of Hythe, to which vessels of 150 tons can come up secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the February the river. In 1874 the value of the imports was £48,377, of the following year he was chosen speaker of the House and of the exports £9173. The oyster fishery, for which of Commons—a position which he held wdth universal the town has been famous for centuries, is not so satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas comextensive as it once was ; but it is still carried on under pelled him to retire. In response to an address to the the control of the Colchester town council, and measures Commons, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Colare taken for its maintenance and development. The chester, with a pension of £4000, of which £3000 was borough, which returns two members to parliament, has an to be continued to his heir. On the 8th May 1829, he area of 11,314 acres ; the population was in 1871 26,343, died of erysipelas. His speeches against the Roman an increase since 1861 of 2534, and since 1801 of 14,823. Catholic claims were published in 1828. COLCHICUM, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus Colchester is the head-quarters of the Eastern Military (Colchicum autumnale), is a perennial plant of the natura District. order Melanthacece or Colchicacece, found wild in rich That Colchester occupied the site of some important Roman city moist meadow-land in England and Ireland, in Middle and was all along abundantly evident; but it is only within the present Southern Europe, and in the Swiss Alps. It has palecentury that it has been definitively identified with Camulodunum. This Roman settlement was established by Claudius, to assist in purple flowers, rarely more than three in number ; the the reduction of the fierce Silurians; but its existence was jeopardized perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced inferiorly into a by the sudden rise of the Iceni to avenge the wrongs of Boadicea. long slender tube, in the upper part of which the six The colonists were massacred, their houses burned, and the site left stamens are inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies a mass of ruins. The Roman general, Suetonius Paullinus, however, soon after recovered possession of the place; strong fortifica- at the bottom of this tube. The leaves are three or four m

about 108 acres; but new streets stretch far beyond these limits. Large alterations have taken place since the accession of Queen Victoria : the Middle Row and various other districts have been abolished or rebuilt ; the streets have been repaved, and a new supply of water obtained for the town. Of the buildings in Colchester of interest for their antiquity the first is the castle or keep., which occupies an area of 21,168 square feet (or nearly twice that of the White Tower of London), and thus forms the largest specimen extant of this department of Norman architectuie. It was founded in 12th century by Eudo, the steward o

C O L —c O L 125 number, flat, lanceolate, erect, and sheathing; and there dyspepsia m gouty patients ; also as a cholagogue instead of mcr is no stem. Propagation is by the formation of corms from cunals. The “hermodactyl” of ancient writers ^supposM to be thc the parent bulb, and by seeds. The latter are numerous, same as the modern drug of that name, which consists of e corms com3 a species of colchicum. round, reddish-brown, and of the size of black mustard- ofSee Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 4th ed.. pp. 381-6 flMR'i- Ucld er seeds. The bulb of the meadow-saffron attains its full size Hanbury, Pharmacographia, p. 636 (1874)- Garrod Gout pi’ K and11 in June or early in July. A smaller bulb is then formed ed. chap. xl. (1876); iP/iplis/! iotaray, ei J.’^Boswel^Syme Sd^rd’h ^“V P 225 (1869); Balfour, C/ass Book of Botany, 3d ed., p 931 (1871) n Onlchw ' 0 from the old one, close to its root ; and this in September Watts’s Ckemical Dictionary, voL 1.; Wurtz, ' 569 and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the COLCHfS, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular succeeding January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the ovary, which perfects its seeds during the distiiet of Asia Minor, at the eastern extremity of the summer. The young corm, at first about the diameter of Black Sea, was bounded on the N. by the Caucasus, which the flower-stalk, grows continuously, till in the following separated it from Asiatic Sarmatia, E. by Iberia and the July it attains the size of a small apricot. The parent Montes Moscbid, S. by Armenia and part of Pontus, and YV. by the Euxine. The ancient district is represented by bulb remains attached to the new one, and keeps its form the modern province of Mingrelia, and part of Abasia and size till April in the third year of its existence, after which it decays. In some cases a single corm produces The name of Colchis is first found applied to this country several new plants during its second spring by civino1 rise by the Creek poets ^Eschylus and Pindar. It was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of the to immature corms. ° Colchicum owes its medicinal properties to an alkaloid Argonauts, the residence of Medea, and the special domain named colchicine, which is present in all parts of the of sorcery. At a remote period it seems to have been plant. It was discovered by Pelletier and Caventon, and incorporated with the Persian empire, though the inhabiwas identified as distinct from veratrine by Geiger and tants ultimately erected their territory into an independent Hesse in 1833. According to Oberlin, colchicine is state ; and in this condition it was found by Alexander a complex body, containing a crystallizable neutral sub- the Great, when he invaded Persia. From this time till stance colchiceine. Hiibler assigns to colchicine the the era of the Mithridatic wars nothing is known of the formula Cl7H19N05, and considers it to be isomeric with history of Colchis. At the time of the Roman invasion it colcmceine (Arch, der Pharm., tom. cxi. 194; Journ de seems to have paid a nominal homage to Mithridates, and Phurm et de Clam tom. ii. 490, 4th ser). It is an intensely to have been ruled over by Machares, the second son of bitter body, soluble in alcohol and water, but insoluble that monarch. On the defeat of Mithridates by Pompey in ether, and is a powerful poison, small quantities causing it became a Roman province. After the death of Pompey! harnaces, the son of Mithridates, rose in rebellion against violent vomiting and purging; tannin, which precipitates it from solution, has been recommended as an antidote for the Roman yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia, and made it. Colchicine is present in smaller quantity in the seeds head, though but for a short time, against the Roman arms. than in the bulbs; and in the latter, according to Stolze, After this Colchis was incorporated with Pontus, and the it is more abundant in spring than in autumn ; Shroff’ Colemans are not again alluded to in ancient history till however, states that the corms for medicinal use should be the 6th century, when, along with the Abasci, they ioined collected after or during the time of flowering. The Chosroes L, king of Persia, in bis war against Justinian. preparations of colchicum employed as medicine ‘are the Colchis was inhabited by a number of tribes whose settleextract, made by macerating dried shreds of the bulbs in ments lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The chief of these, were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsidse, Abasci, nnrifiVr and concentrated ^ ^ eXby PreSSed l^icestraining of the bulbs, purified heating, and Sagadae, Suani, and Coraxi. These tribes differed so evaporation at a temperature below 16o’ Fahr., a"d an completely in language and appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients themselves originated various S0l'C. tfinc,t,ure of the seeds. Whether swallowed or theories to account for the phenomenon. Herodotus, for lnt th e veins colcIucura ^ . acts as an irritant of the example, believed them to have sprung from the relics of a d “ lntestines and a nervine sedative; small doses the army of Sesostris, and thus identified them with the 6 Secretin coTnuedd lhey S ^ excreting functions, but when Egyptians. . Though this theory was not generally adopted stomZ T impair th.e aPPetite’ and much 0,disturb the by the ancients, it has been defended, but not with . quantities produce vomitin profuse complete success, by some modern waiters. From the the b d0mea o^&'r “ J - ^iderabk’reLtion first-named of these tribes, the Lazi, the country was latterly known as Terra Lazica. d dy SartL „ “ Sympt°mS’and COLDSTREAM, a town of Scotland, in Berwickshire, 15 miles west of Berwick, on the north bank of the Tweed t0 Under the name of from S.T or CoSs a ^ ^ it is described ; .,countiy ^ which the plant grew; and there crossed by a bridge of five arches. It is situated on deS is011 thecorms were worn bv - In the 17th century the principal thoroughfare between England and Scotland, 0 tl< P° :nnan against the nlaone rin,00 0ime Peasantry as a charm and in the neighbourhood of the ford by which the Scotch m ^.a ;-Pi 1 e Stbrck of Vienna' inirniJU edP-Y ff r ^the used"till 1763, when Baron and English armies were wont to cross the river in olden treatment febrile diseases ft w^ fi f extensiveI ^ °of dropsy. In times. In the period before the Reformation it was the As a specific for Lut Cob'S WaS e y1 employed by Mr Haden. and the preparatfon 7 employed by the Arabs ; seat of a priory famous in history as the place where the aS a r ^ lclnal the last century for the cnr / “ ^ lts&, much resorted to in Papal legate, in the reign of Henry VIII., published a bull colchicum • but uenerll o+f °S g0Ut’ Tes therapeutic virtues to Home to the use 0f the 1 Ug ln ut ^ -St direCted by Sir Everard against the printing of the Scriptures ; and in the present sickness and diarrhoea lmf - ?° ‘ doses are apt to provoke century, by a curious irony of fate, the very site of the caused by arthritic hi glVe liumediate relief from the sufferings building was occupied by an establishment under Dr Adam Wh eaS Sma11 effectual for several f ^"otities are not Thomson for the production of Bibles at a low rate. Goldbeneficial effects of dv Accordln g to Dr A. B. Garrod, the Purgative properties orWid aI\-not. e/Pll0able either by its stream, like Gretna Green, was formerly celebrated for its system ; nor is there evirl J ts sedative influence on the vascular irregular marriages. The regiment of Foot Guards known as the “ Coldstream Guards ” was so named from General Wdneys,an Dr'Graved Sn ^^^of'ureranY urifacidby the Monk having set out with it from the town on his march Population in 1871, 2619. iE goat by into England in 1659. COLEBROOKE, Henry Thomas (1765-1837), an tKmmM »f eminent Oriental scholar, the third son of Sir George’ the

0 0 L —C O L in almost total darkness, the eyes, although distinctly second baronet of that name, was born in London. He was spent in the young, become more or less atrophied in the educated at home; and when only fifteen he had made visible adult forms. The two antennae, supposed by some to be considerable attainments in classical and mathematical organs of hearing, and by others of smell, are placed bestudies. From the age of twelve to sixteen he resided m tween or in front of the eyes, and usually consist of 11 France, and in 1782 was appointed to a writership in joints. These differ greatly in form and size, not only in India. About a year after his arrival there he was placed different species, but in the two sexes of the same species, in the Board of Accounts in Calcutta; and three years later the most prevalent forms being the setaceous, moniliform, he was removed to a situation in the revenue department serrate, pectinate, clavate, and lamellate. In many groups at Tirhoot, where he pursued his studies in Eastern science the antennae are exceedingly short, while in such forms as and literature. In 1789 he was removed to Purneah, the Longicorn Beetles they, in a few cases, measure four where he investigated the resources of that part ot tne times the length of the body. country, and published his Remarks on the Husbandry and The parts which go to form the mouth are typically deCommerce of Bengal, in which he advocated free trade veloped in beetles, and for this among other reasons the netween Great Britain and India. After eleven years order Coleoptera has generally been placed at the head of residence in India, Colebrooke began the study of bans- the class of insects. It is known as the masticatory mouth, Icrit; and to him was confided the translation of the great and consists of the four parts (Plate YI. fig. 1). (1) The digest of Hindu law, which had been left unfinished by bir labrum, or upper lip, is usually a continuation of the upper William Jones. After filling a number of important surface of the head. (2) The mandibles, or true masticaoffices, and publishing some works on Oriental literature, tory organs, consist of two powerful arched jaws generally including a Sanskrit grammar and dictionary, he returned dentated, moving horizontally and opposed to each other, to London, where he died, March 18, 1837. He was a the teeth in some cases interlocking, in others, as in the director of the Asiatic Society, and many of the most Tiger Beetles, crossing like the blades in a pair of scissors. valuable papers in the Society’s Transactions were com- In many species they are so small as to be almost concealed municated by him. COLEOPTERA, or Beetles, a vast and remarkably within the cavity of the mouth, while in such forms as the homogeneous order of Insects, characterized, as the name Stag Beetles they measure half the length of the entire body. implies (koXcos, a sheath, and Trrepd, wings), by the struc- The form and texture of the mandibles are largely depenture of the upper wings, or elytra, as they are called, which dent on the nature of the insect’s food, being acute and are so modified as to form shields for the protection of the sharply dentated in predaceous species, and thick and blunt under wings—the true organs of flight in those insects. in vegetable feeders. Their margins are soft and flexible The name was given, and the principal characters of the in those which feed on decaying animal and vegetable order defined, by Aristotle; and owing doubtless to their matters, while the entire mandibles are soft and flattened singular and varied forms and habits, the brilliant colouring in those which live on fluids. (3) The maxillae, or lesser and great size of numerous species, and that solid consist- jaws, placed beneath the mandibles, and like them moving ence which renders their collection and preservation com- horizontally, serve to hold the food and guide it to the paratively easy, Coleopterous insects have since the days of mouth. Their extremities are in many cases, furnished the Stagirite received the special attention of entomologists. with a movable claw, and their inner surfaces with a series The body in Coleoptera is enclosed in a chitinous integu- of bristles, which are probably of use in straining the juices ment of a more or less rigid consistence, and is somewhat from their food. The maxilke are provided with a pair of oval in form, although in most cases greatly longer than appendages called maxillary palps—delicate organs that broad. In this respect, however, the utmost diversity pre- vibrate intensely, and are supposed to be principal organs vails even among the members of the same family, the form of touch. (4) The labium, or lower lip, also provided with . . , being modified to suit the habits of the insect. Thus, palps. The thorax bears the organs of locomotion, consisting ol according to Bates, among the South American forms of Dermestidoe, the species of one group are cubical in shape, three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings (Plate YI. fig. 2). and live in dung; those of another, inhabiting the stems The legs vary in their structure and development accordof palm trees, are much flatter) those of a third, only found ing to the habits of the species; thus in running and under the bark of trees, are excessively depressed, some walking beetles these organs are usually of equal, length, species being literally “ as thin as a wafer ; while the and generally similar in other respects, the anterior pair, members of a fourth group of the same family are cylindri- however, being often stronger in the male than in the cal in shape, and are woodborers, “ looking,” says Bates, female; and in a few species, as the Harlequin Beetle, “ like animated gimlets, their pointed heads being fixed in the anterior legs are enormously elongated and proporthe wood, while their glossy bodies work rapidly round so tionately thickened. In burrowing beetles, the anterior as to create little streams of saw-dust from the holes ” legs are developed into fossorial organs with broad and (Naturalist on the Amazons). The body, in common with strongly dentated tarsi, and in arboreal forms the under that of all other insects, is divided into three parts,—head, side of the tarsi is usually cpvered with hair, forming a thorax, and abdomen. The head, which is usually rounded cushion-like sole terminating in toothed claws, by which or somewhat triangular in shape (except in the Weevil tribe, they are enabled to keep their footing on the leaves and where it is produced into an elongated rostrum or snout), branches of trees. Water beetles generally have the bears the organs of the senses. The eyes of beetles are posterior pair of legs elongated, flattened, and ciliated,3 two in number and compound, and in predaceous species so as to form swimming organs; those known as Whir igig are somewhat protuberant, thus affording greater range of using the middle and posterior pairs for this purpose, vision. The simple eyes, or ocelli, common among butter- while the anterior limbs are employed as rudders j and0 flies and moths, are almost unknown among beetles, jumping beetles, as Ilalticidce, have the thighs of although present in the larvae. In many species, especially posterior pair of legs greatly thickened for salta.ory of Lamellicorn Beetles, these organs are more or less com- purposes (Plate YIII. fig. 10). The two anterior wings pletely divided by a process known as the canthus; and in become solidified in beetles, and are thus rendered use es the Gyrinidce, or Whirligigs, the intersection is so complete as organs of flight. They are termed elytra (eAvrpov, a as to give the appearance of a pair of eyes on each side. shield), and serve to protect the delicate wings benea ^ In burrowing and cave-dwelling species, whose lives are as well as the stigmata, or breathing pores, placed a ona 126

C 0 L E O P T E E A 12? the sides of the abdomen. The elytra are always present disguise itself by covering its upper surface with its own except in the females of a few species, as the Glow-worm dung, while many species to be afterwards noticed when and are generally large enough to cover the upper surface m danger, simulate death. Brilliant colouring in beetles of the abdomen and to conceal the under wings when is not as in some orders of animals a characteristic mainly at rest. In Brachelytrous Beetles, however, they of the male sex, both sexes_ being usually similar in this are exceedingly short, and the wings in these are only respect, while in those cases in which they differ the female shielded by being folded more than once beneath them. is generaily the more gaudy insect. The chief external The elytra when at rest meet on the middle of the back' difference, however, between the sexes in many beetles is their internal margins forming a straight longitudinal line to be found in the presence of horns on the head and or suture highly characteristic of the Coleoptera; but even thorax of the males. These vary exceedingly in their this character is not universal, as in the Oil Beetles (Meloe) development even in individuals of the same species while and a few others the one elytron partly folds over the m their form they resemble the horns of the rhinoceros and other. The posterior wings are large, veined, and the antlers of the stag; and as among mammals the reindeer membranaceous and form the true organs of flight, but is exceptional in the possession of antlers by both sexes they are much more frequently absent than the elytra, and so among beetles there is at least one species, Phanceu’s where this occurs, as in many Carabideous Beetles, the latter lancifer, in which both male and female are similarly are more or less soldered together. During flight the elytra equipped. The male beetle has not been observed to use are either extended horizontally or merely raised without its horns either for purposes of offence or defence, some of being separated, as in the Rose-Chafers (Cetonia); and the most pugnacious species being entirely destitute of as might be expected from their general stoutness of body them; and in Darwin’s opinion these appendages have and comparative deficiency of wings, -the flight of beetles is been acquired merely as ornaments. heavy and seldom long sustained. Their weakness in this The abdomen of Coleopterous insects is sessile, that is respect is further shown in the • apparent inability of attached to the thorax by its’ largest transverse diamete^ many species suddenly to alter their course so as to avoid On the under side it is always of a firm horny consistence’ collision with any object that may unexpectedly come in while the upper surface is generally soft, being protected their way, a defect popularly but erroneously attributed, by the elytra and wings; when these, however, are absent in. the phrase “ as blind as a beetle,” to weakness of sight or abbreviated, it is as hard above as below. It bears rather than of wing. In certain water beetles {Dytiscidce) the organs of generation as well as the respiratory openings a, pair of alula;, or winglets, are developed at the inner or stigmata, which form the apertures of the tracheae by angle of the elytra. means of which air is disseminated through all parts of The colouring of the chitinous integument of beetles is the msect system. Beetles belonging to several distinct often exceedingly brilliant, and the elytra and other parts families possess stndulating organs, and these are generally of many species are largely used in the manufacture of found in both sexes. The apparatus by which the sound, personal ornaments. This colouring can in many instances loud enough to be heard in many cases at some j^ards be shown to bear a close resemblance to that of surroundingdistance, is produced, consists of a couple of delicate rasps nature ; thus burrowing beetles, and those which dwell in placed on the upper surface of the abdomen, on the elytra subterranean caves, are generally black or brown ; Weevils or on the prothorax, and a scraper formed by the margins found on the ground, are earth-coloured; while arboreal of the elytra, the edges of the abdominal segments, or°the species of this and other groups are of various shades of green. Bates found a species of beetle, on a particular tree mesothorax, the rapid motion of the latter over the rasps in bouth. America, which so resembled the bark on which producing the sound. In many cases, according to Darwin it spent its existence as to be, when motionless, no longer the males only stridulate, the females being destitute of Visible. This assimilation in colour to surrounding nature those organs, and in such cases the sound is employed as is probably useful in assisting them to elude their enemies ; a call to the female; with most beetles, however the and when the markings are such as to render the beetle stndulation proceeds from both sexes and serves ’as a conspicuous it is often provided with, and no doubt protected mutual call. Beetles are entirely destitute of stinging 0 oy, an offensive odour or nauseous juices; thus the organs, but a few are furnished with a retractile tube or naturalist already mentioned found on a sandy beach two ovipositor, at the extremity of the abdomen, by means of species of Tiger Beetles, the one of a pallid hue like the which they deposit their eggs in the cracks of wood and suitable localities. sand it ran upon, the other of a brilliant and conspicuous other Tb e 3 of beetles are deposited in a great variety of copper colour, but having “ a strong, offensive, putrid, and . ® gg musky odour, from which the other was entirely free. situations, and in the case of a certain group of metlies, a group of Coleopterous insects, are also exceed- Staphylinidce found in the nests of white ants in South - gly conspicuous, but are similarly protected. The America, it was recently discovered by Schodte that the eggs are not deposited at all, but remain in the abdomen ?nnfIl0me?a °f mimici7, or the imitation of one animal by until they are hatched. These ovo-viviparous beetles are Protective purposes, have been observed in only one-tenth of an inch in length, and have the abdominal am ng be etles work ??atT °, . - Mr Belt>in tis interesting region enormously distended and turned over so as to rest N urallst m mntnVo/i ^ i, ft Nicaragua, states that he on the back. Dung beetles deposit their eggs in the midst onP pin W-^at be suPPose(i was a hairy caterpillar, but of the manure on which the future larvae feed ; the Sacred Beet? tLmSI ftl0n ,ie. fomd « to o Longicorn Beetle of Egypt rolling each of hers about until a globular an enn Rain/ 4. i m being concealed among the hair, pellet is formed, when the whole is buried in the ground \ eat Z a frpii arS f ® almosfc universally rejected by insect- while the Sexton Beetle finds an appropriate nidus for her 3 dt huS robabI the dead bodies of animals. One species of immunitv Trn 8’ aftta P y this beetle shared in the ®gg _ f 1 of beetl/1 /• £k a1ccorded.t0 its model. A species Cleridce selects the nest of the solitary bee, another (Plate Un m 0Ut 1 A mer ca found in tli ^hc llt J - i closely resembles a bee VII. fig. 31) that of the hive bee, while several species of hair and fu f /> its bod7 bemg covered with Rose Beetles choose the nest of the ant for this purpose. banded ahdn ^ S™darly tufted ; another, with yellow The water beetles belonging to the genus Hydrophilm ircantot Cr’ S,;fficiently resembled a wasp as to make deposit their eggs in a single mass, which they surround aUtl0 andti id in with a oocoon, formed of a silky substance secreted by OueT t i^rJ; rysomelidai ^ {Crioceris “ . merdigera') ^isasaid t first. to certain glands in the abdomen, and then either fix this to

128

COLEOPTERA

the leaf of an aquatic plant or leave it to float on the surface I the tail and make use of their larval covering as a protecof the water. Certain species of the Weevil tribe deposit tion to the nymph within. When the condition of nymph their eggs on the leaves of trees, splitting the median is assumed in autumn, no further change takes place till nervures in several places, and afterwards rolling them up. the ensuing spring, but under suitable conditions of heat stage does not last usually for more than three or four In its progress from the egg to the perfect insect the beetle this after which it emerges a full-blown beetle. undergoes complete metamorphosis, passing from the larval weeks, The number of known species of beetles is estimated at to the pupa stage, and remaining totally quiescent during 70,000, and these are probably not more than one-half of the latter. Coleopterous larvae generally consist of i«3 the total number in existence—Great Britain alone segments, of which those forming the head and thorax are possessing 3614 indigenous species. They occur in greatest usually of a hard horny texture,—the mouth, as in the abundance in the wooded parts of tropical regions. “ A perfect insect, being masticatory, and the eyes, w en large proportion of the beetles of the tropics,” says Wallace, present, simple, or ocelli. They have usually six legs and “ are more or less dependent on vegetation and particularly prolegs, as in caterpillars, are occasionally present; but the on timber, bark, and leaves in various stages of decay. In larvae of many species are legless grubs, while in others the the untouched virgin forest the beetles are found at spots limbs are but feebly developed. In those groups in which where trees have fallen through decay and old age.” The the elytra are abbreviated, the larvae are exceedingly active number gradually decreases towards the poles, only a few and closely resemble the perfect insect. Like their parents species occurring as far north as Greenland. The six the larvae of beetles feed on living animals, on plants or zoological provinces proposed by Mr Sclater in 1859 as on decaying animal and vegetable substances, but greatly applicable to the existing distribution of birds, have lately exceed the perfect insect in the quantity of food which been shown by Mr A. B. Wallace, in his admirable work on they consume, and it is in this condition that beetles do the Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876), to mark most injury to field crops and forest trees. The larvae of off equally characteristic groups of Coleopterous insects, a burrowing beetles, known as “-White Worms,” spend heir conclusion arrived at from a study of the distribution of the existence in the earth, and are destitute of eyes; those of the following six important families :— Stae Beetles and other wood-boring groups live m the trunks of decaying trees; mealworms—the larvae of lenebmo Cicindelidfe or Tiger Beetles, containing 35 genera and 803 species. or Ground Beetles, .. 620 8500 molitor-—\\vQ enveloped in flour, and those of the Corn Weevil Carabidae 970 120 Cetoniidae or Rose-Chafers, 529 in the heart of the wheat grain ; while those of another Lucanidae or Stag Beetles, 45 2686 109 species of Weevil make their homes in the fleshy parts of Buprestidae or Metallic Beetles, 7576 1488 the receptacles of composite flowers. The larvae of Oil Longicornia or Long-horned Beetles Beetles (Meloc), or at least certain species of them whose The Palaearctic Region, which comprises Europe, Africa life-history has been observed, after leaving the egg, which north of the Sahara, and Northern Asia, possesses about the perfect insect has deposited just beneath the surface of 20,000 species of beetles, and is specially characterized by the ground, climb upon the stems of plants, and take the abundance of Carabidce, nearly two-fifths of the entire first opportunity of attaching themselves to any insect that number belonging to this region ; Longicorns are also well may happen to alight near them, and in this way they are represented by 196 genera, of which 51 are peculiar to it. occasionally conveyed into the hives of bees, in which alone Coleoptera of the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the they meet with their appropriate food. Only a few of theln The Azores are Palsearctic, but are peculiar in the total absence are thus fortunate, the majority of the larvae getting attached such forms as the Tiger Beetles, the Chafers, and the to the wrong insect, and so perishing of hunger. The of species probably owes its preservation to the great number Pose-Chafers, also in the great number of wingless species. of eggs, amounting to upwards of 4000, deposited by - a The latter are specially numerous in groups of beetles single female. The larvm of one group of _ water beetles, peculiar to those islands, but they also occur in other cases, Hydrophilus, swim readily by means of their ciliated legs, 22 genera which either usually or at least sometimes are those of another group, Dytiscus, make use also of their winged in Southern Europe having only wingless species in flexible abdomen provided at its extremity with a pair of Madeira, while at least three species winged in Europe leaf-like appendages (Plate VII. fig. 6) while the Whirligig occur in those islands in an apterous condition. On the larvae (Gyrinus), in addition to ciliated swimming organs, other hand, those species in Madeira which possess wings are provided with four movable hooks on the posterior have them more largely developed than they are among segment, by which they are enabled to take extensive leqps allied continental forms ; the strong-winged and the wing(Plate VII. fig. 17). The duration of the larval state varies less thus appearing best suited to live in islands exposed, in different groups of beetles, being comparatively short in as these Atlantic groups are, to frequent storms. The leaf-eating species, but lasting for three or four years in Ethiopian Region, which includes Africa south of the those which burrow in the earth or in wood. The larvae Sahara and Madagascar, is specially rich in Cetoniidce, in the latter case pass the winter in a torpid state, abstain- possessing 76, or more than half of the known genera, with ing almost entirely from food, until awakened from their 64 of these peculiar to it, of which no less than 21 are temporary trance by the return of genial weather, when found exclusively in ^Madagascar. It has also 262 genera they greedily attack their favourite food, and grow rapidly. of Longicorns, 216 of which are peculiar. The Oriental In passing from the condition of a larva, the beetle does Region, comprising Southern Asia and the islands adjacent, not, like the butterfly, assume a form altogether different contains some of the most remarkable forms of Carabidce, from that of the perfect insect, but in the pupa or nymph as Mormolyce phyllodes, and is rich in gorgeous metallic state shows all the parts of the future insect, only in a condi- beetles (Buprestidce) and in Longicorns, having 3 tion of almost complete immobility. In preparing for this genera of the latter, with 70 per cent, peculiar to it. . The quiescent period, the larvae of many species surround Australian Region shows affinity with the Oriental in its themselves with a cocoon, consisting, in the case of the Coleoptera; it is equally rich in peculiar forms of LongiScarabceidce, of earth and small pieces of wood glued corns, and is the richest of all the regions in Buprestidce, together with saliva, and in that of the Goliath Beetles,, of having 47, or more than one-half of the known genera, an mud, Others resemble the larvae of moths in constructing 20 of these confined to it. Several genera belonging to tabes in which to undergo their transformations, while the this and other families have their species divided between larvae of Lady-Birds—CWnetta—suspend themselves by the Australian and Neotropical or South American Regions,

COLEOPTEEA 129 and this resemblance has given rise to the supposition that at some distant period a land connection existed between the two continents; it is more probable, however, as rrfrfe sas Rsisss a Wallace holds, “ that it may have arisen from intercommunication during the warm southern period when floating r r remarkable. Unfit from the softness of their bodies and timber would occasionally transmit a few larvse from island the slowness of their motions, effectually to protect tW to island across the Antarctic seas.” The Neotropical selves from the attacks of theh enemies/orVcaX to Region comprehends southern and Central America and prey on the surface of the ground, the larvm of the Tiger the West Indies, and is enormously rich in Longicorn Beetles have recourse to stratagem in order to effect these Beetles, having no fewer than 516 genera, of which 487 purposes. By means of their short thick legs, assisted by are found nowhere else. The most remarkable fact in the their powerful sickle-shaped jaws, they dig burrows in the distribution of the Stag Beetles (Lucanidce) is their almost sandy banks which they frequent, vertical for some distance total absence from the tropical parts of this region, and and afterwards curving so as to become horizontal. These their presence in North America, while in the old world are about a foot in depth, and within them the Tiger Beetle they are specially characteristic of the hottest parts of the remains during its larval and pupa stages. In staking its Oriental and Australian Regions. The Nearctic Region food the creature makes its way from the bottom of its den comprises the northern and temperate parts of America until the head segment, which is broad and flat, reaches the and is comparatively poor in Coleoptera, showing greater level of the ground, and thus blocks up the aperture of its affinity, however, with the Palcearctic than with the con- unnel. It remains fixed in this position by means of two tiguous Neotropical Region. ent hooks placed on the upper surface of the eighth The insects belonging to this extensive Order comprise segment, which is considerably thicker than the others, until numerous well-defined and generally recognized families an unsuspecting ant or other insect passing over or close to but great diversity of opinion exists as to the best mode of it is seized by its formidable jaws and speedily conveyed to grouping these together so as to exhibit their natural the bottom of the pit-fall, where it is greedily devoured. affinities. Geoffroy, a French naturalist, was the first to Should the tunnels of different individuals happen to come make use of the number of joints in the tarsi for this in contact, the more powerful larva is said to devour its purpose, a method adopted and extended by Olivier, and weaker neighbour. When full grown it closes the mouth of brought into general use by Latreille. According to the its burrow and there undergoes metamorphosis. The best tarsal system the Coleoptera are divided into the following nown and most beautiful of British species is the Tiger four sections (1) Pentamera, in which all the tarsi are Beetle, O'icmdcla campestris, of a sea-green colour wTth five-jointed; (2) Heteromera, with five articulations to six whitish spots on the elytra. When handled it exhales, the first four tarsi and four to the posterior pair j (3) to Westwood, a pleasant odour like that of roses. Ietramera, with four articulations to all the tarsi j and according round beetles (Carabidai) are generally less brilliant in (4) Trimera, with all the tarsi three-jointed. Macleay, an colour than the Tiger forms, being more nocturnal in their English naturalist, altogether rejected the tarsal system of habits, and with the jaws less formidably toothed. Many Geoffroy, and founded his five primary divisions on of the species are entirely apterous, with the elytra more or characters derived from the larvae of those insects—a system adopted by Stephens in his Classification of British Insects, less soldered together, and the majority of them secrete an juice winch they expel when menaced or attacked. and by several other English writers on this subject. The acnd Of the latter the most remarkable are the Bombardier r tarsal system is to a large extent artificial, and w hen slavishly Beetles, Brachinus (Plate VI. fig. 8). These congregate followed brings together forms which in other respects differ very widely, while separating many that are as toge her under stones, and when disturbed discharge a obviously related. Its simplicity and consequent easiness caustic fluid of an extremely penetrating odour, and so that no sooner does it come in contact with the of application have, in the absence of a more natural system avolatile mosp ere than it passes into a vapour, accompanied by led to its very general adoption by both British and foreign a considerable explosion, during which they seek to escape. naturalists, who do not, however, apply it where obviouslv J When placed on the tongue this fluid causes a sharp pain unnatural. and leaves a yellow spot somewhat similar to that produced Pentamera.—The majority of the beetles in this section y a firoP of nitric acid. The Bombardiers are said to bo have the tarsi of the feet five-jointed, and they comprise lully one-half of all the known species of Coleoptera. It capable of giving off as many as 18 of such discharges at a time. One of the most beautiful of European beetles is the is subdivided into the following 8 groups : Calosoma sycophanta (Plate VII. fig. 2), belonging to this I Geodephaga, or Predaceous Land Beetles, resemble the group. Its body is of a deep violet colour, and the elytra, succeeding group and differ from other Coleoptera in having which are striated and punctured, are of a rich green and the outer lobe of the maxillae distinct and articulated, thus gold tint. Both in the larva and perfect states these beetles appearing to possess six palpi. They are extremely active, frequent the trunks and branches of the oak, where they their legs being admirably adapted for running: the majority are nocturnal in their habits, secreting themselves under find their favourite food—the large caterpillars of the stones and clods of earth ; and all are carnivorous, feeding Piocessionary Moth (Bombyx processioned), of which they n other insects and occasionally devouring individuals of devour enormous numbers, apparently undeterred by the tbeir own species, while their larvae are equally predaceous, hairs which clothe the body of the caterpillar, and which hey are exceedingly numerous in temperate regions, and v hen seized by the human hand cause considerable pain. One of the most curious of Carabideous Beetles, Monnolyce S emceable in , decking the increase of insects phyllodes (Plate VI. fig. 5), is a native of Java. Its body is thevSrain- Tbc mandibles, by which about 3 inches long and 1^ inches across the elytra. The hooked nn ^sbar i ^ at tbe Prey5 are l°ng horny organs, latter are flat, thin, and greatly dilated, while the other mi . P points, and toothed on the inner parts of the body are remarkably depressed, the beetle thus mateVT flSS?nP11no(;lude3 the TiSer Beetles> Cicindelidce somewhat resembling the Orthopterous leaf-insects, and disposition SS‘ a’ roba [2hS0 Called from tbe fierceness of their hence the specific name phyllodes, or leaf-like. Many of with whirh P bly also from the spots and stripes the ground beetles, such as the typical Carabi (Plate VI. e are ^ ^ «?“erall atonh Most of the figs. 6, 7) and the Calosoma, live in the sunshine and are P irna , frequenting hotysandy districts, enjoying generally brilliant in colouring; others spend their existence VI — 17

130

COLEOPTERA

shaped antennae, the ends of which are slightly hollow, it in subterranean caves, and are botb colourless and blind, thus conveys little bubbles of air beneath the surface of the while such forms as Biennis areolatns, found on the coast water, where it brings them into contact with the tracheal of Normandy, live for the most part under water, being openings. The larvae swim with facility, and are provided only found when the tide is low. at the posterior extremity with two appendages which serve II. Hydradephaga, or Carnivorous Water Beetles, are to maintain them at the surface when they ascend to breathe. oval and somewhat depressed in form, with the two IV. Necrophaga are the beetles of most service in reposterior pairs of legs flattened and otherwise fitted for moving decaying animal matter, although a few species live swimming. They include the Diving Beetles {DyUscus) on putrescent fungi, and others resemble the carnivorous and the Whirligigs (Gyrinus). The former (Plate VII. figs. groups in attacking and devouring the larvae of other 3-7) occur in all quarters of the globe, and are truly insects. They are chiefly marked by the form of the anamphibious, for although water is their favourite element tennae, which are not much longer than the head, and get they survive for a long time on moist land, and most o thickened or club-shaped at the extremity. This group them fly about in the evening and morning twilight with comprises the Sexton Beetles (Necrophorus), of which great power and speed. When needing to breathe they allow Necrophorus vespillo (Plate VII. fig. 27) may be taken as the themselves to float on the surface of the water, raise their type. These insects have thick bodies and powerful elytra, and expose their stigmata to the atmosphere, thus limbs, and owe their popular name to the peculiar manner getting quit of exhausted air and obtaining a fresh supply, in which they provide a nidus for their eggs. Iheir which is stored up by closing the elytra. _ They are sense of smell is exceedingly acute, and no sooner does exceedingly voracious, devouring aquatic insects, as one of the smaller quadrupeds, as mice or moles, die, Hydrophilus piceus, much larger than themselves, and doing than several of those burying beetles, gathering about, considerable damage in fish ponds by devouring the young begin to remove the earth from beneath the dead animal, fish They are readily kept in confinement, having been and in a few hours succeed in sinking the carcase beneath known to live thus for 3J years, feeding on raw beef and the level of the ground, which they then cover over insects The larva are even more voracious than the perfect with earth. Having thus prevented the body from being insects', sucking the juices of their prey through perforated devoured by other carrion-eating animals, or from having mandibles, and protected from attack by their horny its juices dried up by exposure to the sun, they make integuments. Whirligigs (Gyrinus) (Plate PII. figs. 10, II) their way into the carcase and there deposit their eggs. differ from the Diving Beetles in the antenna, which are Several individuals generally work together in this short and stout, and are so placed as somewhat to resemble grave-digging operation, although Necrophorus germanicus ears. They are sociable creatures, and may be seen in is said to labour alone, and they have been known to show ponds and ditches, congregated in groups varying from 2 considerable intelligence in performing this operation ; thus to 100, swimming upon the surface with their backs above Gleiditsch states that in order to get possession of the the water, and chasing each other in circles or daiting body of a mole, fixed on the end of a stick, they underabout in more irregular gyrations. Unlike other water the latter and thus brought the dead body to the beetles their backs show a brilliant metallic lustre, and mined ground. The larvse on leaving the egg thus find themwhen darting about in the sunshine they look like pearls dancing on the surface. Their eyes are so divided as to selves surrounded by an abundance of food; and when appear to consist of two turned upwards and another pair full grown they bury themselves fully a foot beneath the looking downwards. The larvae (Plate \ II. fig. 17) are long, surface of the ground, where they form an oval chamber, slender creatures somewhat resembling small centipedes, the walls of which are strengthened by a coating of a gluey having each of the abdominal segments provided with a liquid, and in which they undergo metamorphosis. Shield pair of slender ciliated appendages employed as organs of Beetles (Silpha) (Plate VII. fig. 22) so. called from, the respiration as well as of locomotion, while the last segment flattened form of their bodies, feed chiefly on carrion; is provided with four hooked organs by means of which some, however, climb upon plants, particularly the stems of wheat and other grain, where they find small helices on they leap about. III. Philhydrida, or Water-loving Beetles, are aquatic which they prey ; while others, as Silpha punctata, dwell or subaquatic in their habits, being found in the water. or on trees and devour caterpillars. They exhale a disagreeon the moist margins of ponds and marshes. Along with able odour, probably arising from the nature of their food, the two following groups they feed on decaying animal and and when they are seized a thick dark-coloured liquid exudes vegetable substances, and for this reason those insects have from their bodies. The Bermestidae^ are a family of small been classed together as Rhypophaga, or Cleansers. The but widely-distributed beetles, which work great havoe antennae are short and clavate, and they are specially dis- among skins, furs, leather, and the dried or stuffed animals tinguished from other aquatic forms by the great length of in museums. The perfect insects are timid creatures, the maxillary palps, a feature which has procured for them which when disturbed fold their short contractile feet the name Palpicornes, often applied to them. The best under their bodies, and, remaining perfectly motionless, known forms belong to the family Hydrophilidce, of which admirably counterfeit death. The mischief. is main y one species, and that the largest, Hydrophilus piceus (Plate wrought by the larvae. These shed their skins severa VII. fig. 32), is an inhabitant of Europe. This beetle is oval times, and take nearly a year in attaining their full growth. in form, and of a dark olive colour, and measures 1| inches One of the most common and injurious species ot this in length. It uses its hind legs for swimming or rather family is the Bacon Beetle (Dermestes lardarius) (Plate VII. paddling, moving them not together, as the true water fio-. 14)—so called from its fondness for lard, but equally beetles do, but alternately. Its movements in the water are ready to attack the furrier’s wares. Their tastesI area thus slower than those of the former, but speed in this case exceedingly general, as they have been known to des VF is less necessary, their principal food consisting of aquatic whole cargo of cork and even to perforate asbestos. I he leaves. In the larval stage, however, H. piceus makes an larvae of Anthrenus museorum, a species not exceeding one approach to the true water beetles in its food, and is so tenth of an inch in length, is exceedingly injurious o ferocious as to have earned the name ver assassin on the collections of insects, among which it eludes observation y Continent. The mode of respiration in the perfect insect its minuteness and by working in the interior of the speci is curious; unable to raise its upper surface above the mens, which are thus ruined before the damage is observe . V. Brachelytra (Plate VII. figs. 12, 15 20) are readily water, it merely protrudes its head, and folding its club-

COLEOPTERA 131 distinguished from the other groups of beetles by having projections on the head and thorax, and in the greater size the elytra much shorter than the abdomen, although they of their mandibles. They are all winged insertf qE-v, i still suffice to cover the long membranous wings, which somewhat dull and heavy in their flight; and alike in the when not in use are completely folded beneath. The abdo- larval and perfect states they are herbivorous, feeding either men is long and exceedingly mobile, and is employed on living vegetation and flowers or on putrescent plants and in folding and unfolding the wings. It is furnished at its excrementitious substances. The following species may be extremity with two vesicles which can be protruded or regarded as illustrative of the most important subdivisons withdrawn at pleasure, and from which, when irritated BeefcleS many species emit.a most disagreeable odour, although in fPlateVllTfi (Lucanidce) (Piate yin fig. 14), with the club of the antennae coma few the scent is more pleasing ; “ one species, ” says posed of leaflets disposed perpendicularly to its axis like Kirby, “ which I once took, smelt precisely like a fine high the teeth of a comb, owe their most striking feature to the scented pear, another like the water-lily, a third like water- immense development of the mandibles in the males the cresses, and a fourth like saffron.” They are very purpose served by these formidable looking organs beinovoracious both in the larval and perfect states, feeding by no means fully understood. The males appear to be chiefly upon decaying animal and vegetable matters, more numerous than the females, and fierce contests take although a few species devour living prey. Many of the place among the former for possession of the latter. The smaller forms reside in and feed on mushrooms, some are Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus), of a uniform brown colour found abundantly under putrescent plants, others in measures 2 inches in length including the mandibles, and manure heaps, where they feed upon the maggots of flies, is the largest of British beetles. It inhabits woods, passing while there are a few forms which make their homes in the immature stages in the interior of the oak and beech nests of the hornet and the ant. The lame bear a con- its and may be seen flying in the evening in search of the siderable resemblance to their parents in form and habits, temale. It has a patch of golden-coloured hair towards the and have the terminal segment of the abdomen prolonged base of the foreleg with which it cleans its autenme after into a tube with two conical and hairy appendages attached. these have been in contact with any sticky substance. The Brachelytrous beetles form an extensive group, almost After coupling and depositing their eggs both sexes soon entirely confined to the temperate regions of the northern aie. Hie Dor Beetle {Geotrupes stercorarius) is the type hemisphere, Great Britain alone possessing nearly 800 tribe f dun eatin species. They are familiarly known in this country as 25, ola26) o?r§e It beetlesbrilliant (Plate VII. figs.blue 21, is a° blackg-insect,g with metallic Cock-tails, one of the largest and most familiar species or purple reflections on the under side, and well known as being that known as the Devil’s Coach-horse (Goerius . wheeling its drowsy flight” during fine evenings. This olem) It is about an inch in length, of a black colour, and it does in search of a patch of cow-dung, through which it its eggs are larger than those of any other British insect. It may often be seen crossing garden walks; and when makes its way until reaching the ground, where it bores a perpendicular tunnel about 8 inches deep, and as wide as a approached or otherwise threatened, it immediately assumes mans, finger; then ascending to the surface it conveys a a most ferocious aspect and attitude, elevating its head quantity of dung to the bottom, and on this it proceeds to and opening wide its formidable jaws, raising and throwing back its tail after the manner of the scorpion, protrudin0* deposit an egg; another layer of the same material and its anal vesicles, and emitting a disagreeable odour. It is another egg follow until the entire shaft is filled The larvae on leaving the egg thus find themselves surrounded carnivorous. with their appropriate food. The Sacred Beetle of Egypt Glavicornes have the antennae terminating in a Ateuchus sacer (Plate VII. fig. 29), somewhat resembles the solid or perfoliated club, and include the Pill Beetles (Byrrhido}) and the Mimic Beetles (Histeridce). The Dor in form and habits. After depositing her eerg on a former are small insects, generally short, oval, and highly piece of dung the female rolls the mass about in the sunconvex, although a few species found under the bark of shine with her forelegs until it forms a rounded ball. The trees are flattened. They most frequently occur in sand- process of hatching is thus accelerated, and a thin hardened crust is formed around the softer material inclosing the pits and on pathways, and when in danger withdraw their egg. A hole is then dug in the earth by means of its highly contractile legs into cavities prepared for them on powerful forelegs, into which the ball is rolled and then e under side of the body, at the same time folding up covered over with earth, where it remains until fully fir antennae and remaining motionless. In this condition developed. Those beetles show great perseverance in ey may readily be mistaken for oval seeds or pills conveying the egg-laden pellets to their destination, frenence the common name. The Mimic Beetles (Plate VII.’ quently carrying them over rough ground on the broad flat ng. lb) seldom exceed one-third of an inch in length, and are ot very solid consistence, their elytra being so hard surface of their heads, and seeking, when unable singly to tnat the pm of the entomologist is with difficulty made to complete the work, the assistance of their fellows. ° Two species of Sacred Beetles were worshipped by the ancient are somewhat square in form, with the upper Egyptians, who regarded them as emblems of fertil%, and nnrl f6 klfk.lnly polished, feeding chiefly on putrid substances as representing the resurrection of the soul, owing to their ovpn ° i i great al3undailce in spring on the dung of sudden appearance in great numbers on the banks of the un nna^d h0rSe3‘ t^8 PiU Beetles they ro11 themselves Nile after the annual subsidence of that river. They form nLT™ anceaPProach of danger and feign death with great a conspicuous feature in the hieroglyphics of that nation, ^ ’ and to this they owe their generic name and aie found sculptured on their monuments, sometimes of gigantic size. They were also formed into separate VT? fr0m mtri0’ a stage mimic, c m rise manv nf ? P a vast assemblage of beetles, figures, as seals and amulets, made of gold and other precious Sucl1 as feed ori livimr nlalf 1Ch’ eSpeCially . flowers and materials, and hung around the necks of the living, or r einar aB e and snlpnrl ^ ^ l ^ ^ al'^6 f°r beauty of form buried along with their mummies. The insect itself is are form o °! C0l0Ur' distinguished by the sometimes found in their coffins. The male Hercules ante !e comnowd ,,f ™ > which always terminate in a club Beetle (Scarabceus hercules) of Guiana has the head proof a fan the I6™1,4 'fd-hke joints, disposed like the spokes duced into an enormous horn, bent downwards at the exseriesof fani, 1 ? b“°k>or tia tee* °f a comb, or in a tremity, and clothed on the under surface with a reddish and within ea males 0often ff ° d.6fer S,plafrom ?ed above ch other. The brown pile, and measures 6 inches in length. The Cockthe females in having horn-like chafers, Melolonthidce (Plate VII. fig. 28), have a short

132

COLEOPTERA

families. “ Nothing can exceed,” says Westwood, “ the labrum and strong mandibles suited for feeding on leaves. splendour of colour in many of the species, being decorated The club of the antennae consists of a variable number ot with the most brilliant metallic tints ; some have a general plates, those in the male being considerably elongated and coppery hue, whilst some present the beautiful contrast of resembling a folded fan (Plate VII. fig. 23). The common fine yellow spots and marks upon a highly polished blue Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) is of a pitchy biacK or green ground, and others exhibit the appearance of colour clothed with a white pubescence or layer of minute burnished gold or of rubies, inlaid on emerald or ebony.” scales. It is one of the commonest and most destructive The elytra of the Metallic Beetles are those usually of beetles, feeding in the perfect state on the leav^ of ^e employed in the embroidery of ladies’ dresses and for other oak, beech, poplar, and elm, and sometimes appearing purposes of personal ornament. They are most plentiful in such numbers as to utterly destroy the fo lag , the thick forests of tropical countries, and seem partial to districts; thus in the year 1688 they are said to have the various species of fir-trees. They pass their larval covered the hedges and trees in a district of Galway m stao-e in the heart of timber, and there is an instance such infinite numbers as to have hung ^ cluster hke bees recorded of the escape of Buprestis splendens from the when they swarm. When on the wing they almost dark wood of a desk which had stood in one of the Guildhall ened the light of day, and when feeding the noise of the offices for over twenty years. Springing Beetles, Elateridx laws might have been mistaken for the sawing of timber (Plate VII. fig. 30), are narrower and more elongate than ‘in a short time the foliage of the trees for ^ the former, and their legs are so short that when they fall so totally consumed that at midsummer the country wore on their backs they are as unable to right themselves as a the aspect of leafless winter. Destructive as they ^1^ capsized turtle, but by bending the head and thorax backthe perfect state they are still more inju d wards, and making use of the prolongation already The female buries herself beneath the surface of the ground described, they are enabled to spring to a height fully ten “re deposits about 40 eggs. The ^ times their own length, and this operation they repeat from these feed on the roots of grass and grain, thus under until they fall on their feet. The noise which accompanies mining,” according to Kirby and Spence, the richest the springing process has earned for them the name of meadows, and so loosening the turf that it will roll up as Click Beetles. Some species of EUxteridce are luminous in if cut with a turfing spade.” These grubs continue their the dark, and are known as Fireflies. A South American ravages for three years before undergoing metamorphosis, form diffuses during the night from its thoracic spots a and thus do incalculable damage to the agriculturist. They strong and beautiful light sufficient to enable a person to are believed to have spread with the progress of agr - read ordinary type, particularly if several are placed culture, for it is only on soil rendered light and porous by together in a glass vessel. By means of this natural tillage that they thrive. Enormous numbers of the grub illumination the women of the country can pursue their are consumed by birds of the crow tribe, and it is princi- ordinary work, and ladies use this fire-fly as an ornament, pally in search of these that rooks so industriously follow placing it among their tresses during their evening prothe plough in England and France. The species is rare in menades. The larva of Elater lineatus is known as the Scotland. “ Spinning ” the cockchafer is a favourite but Wire-worm, a grub which often does great damage to the barbarous sport, practised by the boys of most countries in turnip crop. The Malacodermata include the Glowwhich this beetle commonly occurs, and seems to be at worms, Lampyrida, (Plate VII. fig. 1), of which the best least as ancient as the time of Aristophanes, who refers to known is the common Glow-worm (Lampyns noctiluca) it in his Clouds as practised by the youth of Greece. Rose (Plate VII. figs. 8, 9, 16), found in meadows and under Beetles, Cetoniida (Plate VIII. fig. 7), a beautiful tribe of hedges in England, but rare in Scotland. The male of this insects, are distinguished from other Lamellicorn Beetles beetle has large wings and elytra, and flies swiftly, bu by the membranaceous character of their mandibles and the female is wingless and is a sluggish nocturnal creature; maxillae The Rose-Chafer (Cetonia aurata) is common the latter, however, emits a beautiful phosphorescent light, in the south of England, where it feeds on the juices and by means of which the male, who is generally concealed by petals of the rose, honeysuckle, and privet. It is about day in the trunks of trees, is directed to his mate. In the an inch long, of a brilliant-golden green above with coppery perfect insect the luminous matter chiefly occupies the reflections beneath, and with whitish markings on the under part of the three last segments of the abdomen, elytra Its eggs are deposited among decayed wood, but which differ from the rest in colour, being usually ot a certain species make use for this purpose of the nests of yellow hue, and the luminous property is apparently under ants. The Goliath Beetles (Plate VIII. fig. 11) of tropical the control of the Glow-worm, for when approached it may Africa are the largest of known Coleoptera, and their frequently be observed to diminish or extinguish its light larvae form enormous cocoons of mud in which they under- In form the larvae somewhat resemble the female, and go metamorphosis. One of these, Goliathus cacicus, is possess in common with the pupae and eggs a shg it e^rio said to be roasted and eaten by the natives. luminosity. The larvae are predaceous, attacking and VIII. Serricornes form a group of beetles chiefly distin- of devouring the smaller snails and slugs, but in the perlec guished from the others by their elongate filiform antennae thev become entirely herbivorous, only eating the of equal thickness throughout, or tapering towards the state leaves of plants. Many of the Malacodermata are extremity, but generally serrated or pectinated. They are tender wood-borers; these include the Death-watch Beetle, subdivided into the Sternoxi, characterized by the solid con sistence of their bodies, and by having the middle portion (Anobium), which as larvae perforate chairs, tables, an other wood-work in such numbers as usually to render the of the thorax elongated and advanced as far as beneath the wood completely rotten. During the pairing season they mouth, and usually marked by a groove on each side, in a noise like the ticking of a watch, by striking wi which the short antennae are lodged, while the opposite make 18 their jaws the object on which they rest. extremity is prolonged into a point which is received into intended asagainst a mutual call of the sexes, but it has ioii^ a cavity on the hinder part of the breast; and the Mala- been regarded by the ignorant as of evil omen, hence tuo code,-data, characterized by their bodies being general y, name, and the import of Gay’s words— in whole or in part, of a soft or flexible texture and by ‘ ‘ The solemn death-watch clicked the hour she died. the absence of the prolongation just referred to. The Htermxl include the Metallic Beetles, Mpmtidx Plate Another species, Lymexylon navale, abundant in the foicsts VII. figs. 18 19) the most gorgeous of the FoLeopteious

COLEOPTERA

133 I. Rhynchophora, the species of which are readily reof Northern Europe, does great damage by boring into the timber of the oak tree. cognized by having the front of the head produced into a Hetebomeea.—The beetles comprising this section have rostrum or snout, which bears the organs of the mouth five joints to the first four tarsi, and four to the posterior at its extremity. The larvae are either entirely destitute of legs, or have them in the form of small fleshy tubercles, pair, and form two groups, Trachelia and Atrachelia. I. Trachelia have the head triangular or heart-shaped, and are in most cases equally destitute of eyes. The most and connected with the thorax by a kind of neck or abrupt numerous and best-known tribe of Bhynchophorous beetles pedicle. Most of the species in the perfect state live on are the Weevils (Plate VIII. figs. 8, 9, 15, 16, 20, 22), of various plants, of which they devour the foliage or suck which several thousand species have been described, and the juices, and many when seized bend their heads, contract whose larvae, dwelling in the interior of fruits and seeds, their limbs, and simulate death. This group includes the do immense damage to the produce of the farmer, the Oil Beetles (Melee) (Plate YIII. fig. 2), large black insects, grain dealer, and the horticulturist. They are generally destitute of wings, and with short elytra. They secrete an minute in size and exceedingly varied in colour, the South oily fluid possessing slightly blistering properties, which American forms, known as Diamond Beetles, being among when alarmed they emit from the joints of their legs, and the most gorgeous of insects. These owe their colour, when eaten by cattle, as they sometimes are when feeding which in the finest of them is a light-green tinged with on the wild buttercups of pasture-lands, they produce sores golden yellow', to the presence of minute scales on the in the mouth. In some parts of Spain they are used elytra. The Weevil par excellence (Calandra granaria) instead of the Blistering Fly, or are mixed with it. The measures about one-eighth of an inch in length, is of a young larvae of several species of Oil Beetles, it has been pitchy red colour, and does great damage in granaries. ascertained, get conveyed to the nests of bees, where alone The female buries herself among the grains of wheat, in they can find their appropriate food, and where also they each of which she bores a small hole, where she deposits a undergo metamorphosis. The most important insect of single egg, thereafter closing the aperture with a glutinous this group is the Spanish Fly, or Blistering Beetle (Lytta secretion. The egg is soon hatched, and the larva, furnished vesicatoria) (Plate VIII. fig. 19), found abundantly in South- with two strong mandibles, eats out the interior of the Western Europe, but of rare occurrence in England. It is grain, becomes a nymph, and in the course of eight or ten a handsome insect of a golden green colour, and measures days is transformed into the perfect insect, ready to raise about three-fourths of an inch in length. In Spain, where another brood. The whole time occupied with their this species is most abundant, they are collected for reproduction, from the union of the sexes to the appearance commercial purposes in the month of June. A sheet is of the perfect Weevil, is not more than 50 days, and it placed beneath the trees frequented by the blister-flies, and has been calculated that from a single pair 23,600 the branches are shaken, so as to cause the insects to fall off. individuals may thus take origin in a single season. Grain They are then killed by exposure, to the vapour of vinegar, injured by these insects is readily detected, from the fact and completely dried after they are dead. The blistering that it floats when immersed in wrater. Kiln-drying the principle, known to chemists as cantharadin, is contained grain is the mode most generally adopted for arresting the in their integuments. See Cantharides. evil. Filberts, acorns, rice, the sugar-cane, and the palm II. The Atrachelia have no distinct neck, the part of the tree have each its own species of Weevil. The Palm head behind the eyes being immersed in the thorax. They Tree Weevil (Calandra palmarnm) is the largest of the are in most cases nocturnal insects, obscure in colour, and tribe, measuring 2 inches in length, and its larva?, as well slow in motion. The Church-yard Beetle (Blaps mortisaga) as those of the sugar-cane species, are, v/hen cooked, (Plate VIII. fig. 1) is one of the commonest species. It is considered delicacies by the natives of Guiana and the of a shining black colour, avoids the light, and emits an West Indies. Bruchus pisi (Plate VIII. fig. 12), belonging offensive odour. It is found in cellars, store-rooms, and to another family of this group, deposits its eggs in peas, the neglected parts of houses, feeding on rubbish of all the interior of which is devoured by the larva. It has kinds, and regarded as of evil omen by the superstitious. probably been introduced into Britain from America, where It is very tenacious of life, having been known to survive its ravages are occasionally such as totally to destroy the several hours immersion in spirits of wine, and cases are pea crop over large districts. The larva? of many species on record in which the larvae have been discharged from burrow beneath the bark of trees and thus destroy immense the human stomach. The Meal-worm is the larva of quantities of timber. Of these the most familiar are enebrio mo/ifor (Plate VIII. figs. 4, 5), a well-known insect Scolytus destructor, whose curiously designed burrows in belonging to this group, which appears in the evening in the bark of the elm are well known, and the Typographic the least frequented parts of houses. It is found abundantly Beetle (Tomicus typographies), so called from the m flour-mills and bake-houses, greatly relishing the heat of resemblance wdiich its burrows, made in the soft wood ie after. The larvae, which are long, cylindrical, and immediately beneath the bark, bear to printed characters. o an ochry yellow colour, pass their lives enveloped in the II. Longicornes (Plate VIII. fig. 13) form an extensive flour winch forms their favourite food, and in the midst of group of beetles characteristic of tropical forests, and w ich they become pupae. While injurious to flour and readily distinguished by the great length of their antenna?, ran, and destroying great quantities of ship biscuits, the which in some cases are several times longer than the body. ,,ea ~.w°rm used as bait by fishermen, and as food for These are usually setaceous or filiform, and are occasionally ie nightingale and other pet insectivorous birds. adorned with tufts of hair at the joints (Plate VIII. fig. 3). etramera.—-The beetles composing this section have The larvae of almost all the Longicorns live in the interior, our apparent joints to all the tarsi, but in most cases the or beneath the bark, of trees, perforating the timber of the arsi are in reality five-jointed, the fourth being so minute as o lave een overlooked by the founders of the tarsal system. largest forest trees, and thus hastening in these the natural ror this reason Westwood proposed the term Pseudo- process of decay. They are either apodal, or furnished e ramera in place of Tetramera, a change which has been with inconspicuous feet, but progress chiefly by the aid of aaopted by several systematic writers. This section in- small tubercles on the upper and under surfaces of the segments. The female is provided with an ovipositor of V t number of sma11 or fJ moderate sized beetles, all horny consistence, issuing from the posterior segment, by e ee found ininto thethe perfect on flowers and j means of which the eggs are deposited in cracks and fissures Pnlfnto* • isders, subdivided three state following groups:— of wood. The larvae remain for several years buried in the

0 0 L —-G O L garden bushes. When alarmed the Lady-birds retract heart of timber, and in this way many exotic species are infest their limbs and emit a yellow juice from their joints, which conveyed to this country, and are occasionally taken alive has a very disagreeable odour. They occasionally occur in in the London and Liverpool docks. Several of the great numbers, extending for miles, in the south-eastern Longicorn Beetles are among the largest of Coleopterous districts of England, where they are invaluable for freeing insects, Prionus giganteus measuring 5 inches in lengt , the hops of aphides. They walk slowly but fly well. The while its eggs are nearly as large as those of the smaller Seven-Spotted Lady-bird (Coccinella 7-punctata), the combirds. The Harlequin Beetle (Acrocinus longimanus), so mon species of Britain, is found in all quarters of the globe. called from the variety of its colouring, the grotesqueness ' On Collecting and Preserving Coleopterous Inof its markings, and the enormous elongation of its front sects. The collector of beetles, in order to obtain perfect pair of legs, is a South American species of this group, as specimens, need not have recourse to the plan adopted by is also the Musk Beetle {Callichroma moschata), one ot the lepidopterist of rearing the insect from the egg, The the handsomest of our native species, and remarkable tor successful rearing of these is much more difficult than in the musky odour of its body. the case of butterflies and moths, and the specimens so III. Phytophaga comprise the tetramerous beetles procured are generally inferior to those collected in the which have neither the rostrum of the first group nor tfie ordinary way. The complete life history, however, of comlengthened antennae of the second. They are small insects paratively few even of our native species has yet been of an oval or quadrate shape, and include the Holden fully traced; and although the collector thus might not Beetles, Chrysomelidce (Plate VIII. fig. 21), ornamented greatly enrich his cabinet with specimens of his own rearing, with metallic colours, among which blue, green, gold, yet by adopting this method he would almost certainly add and copper are conspicuous. The Turnip-fly (Haltica to the general stock of knowledge regarding the transformanemorum), a small species belonging to a family in which tions of these insects. Beetles may often be obtained in the posterior thighs are enlarged for leaping, devours the what may be termed accidental situations,—sand-pits into young leaves of the turnip as soon as they appear above which they have fallen, or artificial traps set for them, as a ground, and occasionally does immense injury to the turnip white sheet spread on the grass ; but sweeping” and crop. Helmet or Tortoise Beetles, Cassidw (Plate Vlli. hgs. u beating ” are the means mainly relied on by the coleopterist 20 24), so called from the thorax and elytra overlapping for filling his cabinet, and for these all the apparatus necesso as to shield the limbs and abdomen on all sides, are oval, consists of an umbrella-net and a stick for beating. The and in some cases almost square, flat insects, and otten sary beautifully marked with combinations of green and golden net is swept over the grass, and among the foliage of trees, when the branches are shaken with the hand, or beaten hues. They are herbivorous, and are specially fond of and artichoke and thistles. The larvae are provided at the with the stick, the net is held beneath to catch the falling posterior extremity with a two-branched fork, curved over insects. An umbrella inverted, or a sheet placed beneath the back, and usually bearing a pile of excrementitious the tree, serves the same purpose. A knowledge of the matter, under which they lie partly concealed. It can habits of the various tribes of beetles will give the collector elevate or depress this stercoraceous parasol at pleasure, a clue to the localities in which, and the time when, he according as it needs shade or shelter. The Colorado may expect to find the species he is in search of. In this Potato Beetle (Boryghora decemlineata) belongs to the way the bark and timber of trees, decaying branches and phytophagous family Chrysomelidce. It measures nearly leaves, putrescent fungi, the droppings and the dead bodies half an inch in length; its body is of a tawny or yellow of mammals, fresh water ponds, and even the nests of cream colour, darkly spotted; and the elytra are marked wasps, bees, and ants will all be found to yield their own with ten black longitudinal stripes. It is a native of the harvest of Coleoptera. Beetles, when caught may . either eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it fed on a be dropped into a phial containing spirits of any kind, or wild solanaceous plant, Solanum rostratum, until the into what is known as the “ killing bottle,” the bottom of introduction of the potato plant, consequent on the settle- which contains cyanide of potassium covered over with a ment and cultivation of the “ Far West,” provided it with layer of gypsum. In either case, with few exceptions, the what appears to have been a more appropriate food. Since beetles die almost instantaneously. If kept too long in 1859 it has travelled eastward, towards the more highly spirits, however, the limbs get loosened through maceration cultivated lands, at the rate of nearly 100 miles per annum, and fall off. The “ setting ” of a beetle, or of any other until it has reached the Atlantic Coast. It is now found insect, consists in placing its limbs and antennae in a over all the central and northern parts of the United States natural position and fixing them thereby means of pms east of the Rocky Mountains, and throughout Canada, and until they stiffen on a board on which there is a layer o has already done incalculable mischief to the potato crops cork. If not set when either moist or recent, they may be of those regions. The damage is chiefly wrought by the softened by being placed for a night in any small vessel larvse, which are hatched on, and greedily devour, the containing a layer of wet sand, and covered with a damp leaves and stalk of the potato plant. They are said to cloth to prevent evaporation. The smaller beetles are usually mounted on card, each insect being stuck on a produce three broods annually. Trimeea.—The majority of the beetles composing this small dab of gum with its legs and antennae properly set; section have only three apparent joints to the tarsi of all all others are pinned through the centre of the upper part the feet, but a small articulation has been found to lie be- of the right elytron. In the case of large beetles as much tween the second and third joints, so that they are in reality of the contents of the body as possible should be removed four-jointed, and for this reason Westwood has changed by making an opening in the abdomen ; and with the Oi Beetles it is necessary to stuff the abdomen. This can the name of the section to Pseudotrimera. Trimerous beetles form a single group, the species of be best effected by separating the latter from the body, which are partly herbivorous, feeding on fungi (Plate VIII. emptying it, and refilling with wadding; it can then e figs. 17, 18), and partly carnivorous, devouring aphides or readily gummed to the body. Mould may be got rid of by plant lice. The most familiar examples of this group are exposing the specimens to a strong heat for some hours, small Lady-birds, Coccinellidce (Plate VIII. fig. 23), small con- and mites and grease by washing the beetles withJ aGL (- ) vex insects of a black colour, spotted with red or yellow, brush dipped in benzine. COLERAINE, a municipal and parliamentary borough or of a reddish colour, spotted with black. The larvse do and market-town of Ireland, in the county of Londonderry, great service by devouring the plant lice, which usually 134

COL-COL

135 on the Bann, four miles from its mouth, and 145 miles ( L E G felR JoH T Taylor * ? t ™ ®’ ? (1790-1876), nephew north of Dublin. The town stands upon both sides of the T bornat Tiv Vu with '£0Arnold lendif’and Keble, erton,Christi and was eduriver, which is there crossed by a handsome stone bridge of cated, at Corpus College, three arches, 288 feet in length by 32 in breadth. °The Oxford.. In 1810 he won the Latin verse prize; in 1812 principal part is on the east bank, and consists of a central he obtained a first class in classics; and in 1813 both the square called the “ Diamond,” and several diverging English and Latin essay prizes were awarded him. He was streets; the portion on the west side is called the Water- soon after made a fellow of Exeter ; in 1819 he was called side, or Killowen. Coleraine has two parish churches, two to the bar, and practised for some years on the Western Roman Catholic churches, a town-hall, a market-house, a Circuit. In. 1824, on Gifford’s retirement, he assumed work-house, an endowed school, a national model school, the editorship of the Quarterly Review, resigning it a and free schools founded by the Irish Society of London! year afterwards in favour of Lockhart. In 1825 he pubThe linen trade has long been extensively carried on in the lished his excellent edition of JBlackstone's Commentaries, town, from which, indeed, a fine description of cloth is and in 1832 he was made a serjeant-at-law. In 1835 ho known as “ Coleraines.” Pork-curing and the salmon and was appointed one of the judges of the King’s Bench. In eel fisheries are prosecuted. The mouth of the river, which 1852 his university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 was formerly obstructed by a bar, now admits vessels of he.resigned his judgeship, and was made a member of the 200 tons. The principal trade is carried on through Port Privy Council. In 1869, although in extreme old age, he Rush, where a harbour is formed by two moles, with an produced his pleasant Memoir of the Rev. John Keble, M.A., entrance of 200 feet wide, an area of 8 acres, and a depth a third edition of which was issued within a year. of from 15 to 20 feet at the wharves. In 1873, 422 vessels COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), one of the entered with a tonnage of 46,589. The parliamentary most remarkable of English poets and thinkers, was born borough has a population of 6552, and returns one member. on the 21st of October 1772, at his father’s vicarage of Coleraine is reputed to have been the seat of a Christian Ottery St Mary’s, Devonshire. His father was a man of bishop previous to the arrival of the great apostle of some mark. He was known for his great scholarship, Ireland. It owes its modern importance mainly to the simplicity of character, and affectionate interest in the Company for the New Plantation of Ulster, on which it was pupils of the grammar school, where he reigned until his bestowed in 1613. Though fortified only by an earthen promotion to the vicarage of the parish. He had married wall, it managed to hold out against the rebels in 1641. twice. The poet was the youngest child of his second wife, COLERIDGE, Hartley (1796-1849), the elder son of Anne Bowden, a woman of great good sense, and anxiously Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the 19th of ambitious for the success of her sons. On the death of his September U96, at Clevedon, a small village near Bristol. father, a presentation to Christ’s Hospital—acceptable in a His early years were passed at Keswick, where his education family of ten—was procured for Coleridge by Judge Buller, was conducted in a somewhat desultory manner. He gave an. old pupil of his father’s. He had already begun to give promise of great mental power, but derived less advantage evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described from systematic studies than from intercourse with S. T. in a letter to his valued friend, Mr Poole, the pernicious Coleridge, Wordsworth, Southey, De Quincey, and Pro- effect which the admiration of an uncle and his circle of fessor Yvilson. In 181 a he went to Oxford, as scholar of friends had upon him at this period. For eight years ho Merton College, the means for his support being principally at Christ’s Hospital. Of these school-days provided by Southey. His university career, however continued Charles Lamb given delightful glimpses in the Essays was very unfortunate. He had inherited the weakness of oj, Elia. . Thehashead master, Bowyer, though a severe purpose, as well as the splendid conversational powers, of disciplinarian, was on the whole respected by his pupils. his father, and, having never enjoyed the benefit of a Middleton, afterwards known as a Greek scholar, and bishop regular discipline, lost all self-restraint amidst the gaieties of Calcutta, reported Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who ■ o Oxford, and finally lapsed into habits of intemperance. read Virgil for amusement, and from that time Bowyer De was successful in gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at tlm close. of the probationary year was judged to have began to notice him, and encouraged his reading. Some forfeited it The authorities could not be prevailed on to compositions in English poetry, written at sixteen, and not reverse their decision ; but they awarded to him a free without a touch of genius, give evidence of the influence gift of £300 With this, Hartley Coleridge came to which Bowles, whose poems, now forgotten, were then in London in 1821, and remained there for two years, during vogue, had over his mind at this time. Before he left which he wrote short poems for the London Magazine. His school his constitutional delicacy of frame, increased by next step was to set up school at Ambleside, but this imprudent bathing in the New River, began to give him serious discomfort. ed aft r Ve ears of In February 1791, he was entered at Jesus College, ’ f ? y smuggle in a position for w“ 1 Cambridge. A school-fellow who followed him to the Cmom ere6 unfit. Coleridge then removed to p . ’1Q^ere lived in great seclusion,—writing university has described in glowing terms evenings in his rr and Essays for Blackwood, and in rooms, when -ZEschylus, and Plato, and Thucydides were Borealis wJti; > or Lives of Northern pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons and the like, to t ' In 18?? aPPeared his Ia«t work, the Life of discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and anon a closinc^T’ T ® a^orate and artistic production. The pamphlet issued from the pen of Burke. There was no 1dm effort6/ Colri(Jge’s life was wasted in what he need of having the book before us ;—Coleridge had read it 1848 his R8 ff1® woeful impotence of weak resolve.” In in the morning, and in the evening he would repeat whole on the PuWf T beCam mechanical but living.” Alter having abandoned the teaching of Hartley he SSeJalT^land the creator of that higher directed his attention for a time to Leibnitz and Spinoza. much in (•} ^ iad a^eady in Germany accomplished so But . the systems of these two great men never really and Goethe Trefer 11 ^ i ^ f . - ^ ^ enough captivated him. It was to Kant that he owed his initiation 6 ra men a criticisms ntaming ? • ^ ^ eVldence S t ryofseries of his Shakespearian into the higher sphere of philosophy, and it is to Kant that the truest mSw . msight, and a he repeatedly refers as to a master who had moulded his StS,~tl0n °f the judicial “sanity” which t lought. It is impossible to enter here upon the question ln llterature far highest igbest of the poets whoG approached him. above even the as to whether Coleridge has represented Kant’s system completely. De Quincey, in one of his Letters to a Young s own the emaS Lole0 fndge ’ place is safe. His niche in haS r(derre d to thein modification and Coleridge’s alteration passing through it be monf emnl ,.®ag ^Poets i® secure. Of no one can which all things received P atlcal Said thoughts, ^and has declared that this “ indocility of mind ” all compact” Jl )e CvJlar V t ^at he was “of imagination may prevent his ^J . ^uc1h of melancholy tenderness has led Coleridge to make various misrepresentations of ng tion He does nnf ^ pIaCe in p0pular estima- Kant. A similar accusation has been preferred by Dean of Burns buM^ P°S-Se.SS the fie7 Pulse aud humaneness Mansel; but to these charges it maybe answered that subtle alliance of fXqiJflte Perfection of his metre and the Coleridge nowhere professes to interpret or describe Kant’s secure for him thpIS ougllt 3:1 ^ expression must always teaching. He was content to adopt the distinction between admira Poetic art • Hn his bi early TmeSt tmnfound of true lovers of the understanding and the reason, but it was to the doctrine poems may be traces of the of the practical reason dominating and controlling speculaVI. — 18

138

COLEI

I D G E

sympathy with all inquiring spirits, lift the book into a tion that lie was irresistibly attracted. The immediate place in the affections of its readers. It is impossible almost contemplation of truth enjoyed by the reason was the sum and substance of his speculations in this province. This to convey any adequate idea of the richness and variety Coleridge’s speculations on theology and religion, scattered doctrine constituted in Coleridge’s mind the bridge of of throughout his too fragmentary works. The Confessions of passage from metaphysics to theology. “ There, to use an Inquiring Spirit, published since his death, intended the words of Mr Hort, in an able essay on Coleridge, e not to lessen but to increase the reverence with which found an assurance that man’s reasoning powers are not Christians regard the Bible, has been more misunderstood man himself, and that he may rise above their impotence, than any portion of his writings. That the real object of and have direct faith in unseen realities.” At a time when Coleridge was to conserve and not to destroy, now that the low and grovelling ideas had obtained great predominance, mists of controversy are dispelled, must be apparent to Coleridge recalled men’s thoughts to the reality of spiritual every one who peruses this little volume. Much, indeed, truth, and attempted again to enlist interest for a recon- that seemed startling in it on its first appearance has now ciliation between metaphysics and ordinary modes ot been accepted as matter of familiar truth. thought. The Friend contains an interesting application The fame of Coleridge as a philosophic thinker is of the Platonic idea to induction. Coleridge declares that undoubtedly, at present, not so great as it was during the there is no real opposition between the method of Plato twenty years immediately after his death. The generation and that pursued by Bacon. It must, however, be acknow- of those who “ owed ” to his teaching “ even their own ledged that the ground of his defence of Bacon hardly selves ” has nearly passed away. But the influence which satisfies; and the observation of DrWhewell, “ that Bacon he exerted as a stimulating force, and the intellectual does not give due weight to the ideal element ot our activity of many of his disciples, remain to testify to ths knowledge” will occur to the reader cf the Essays on greatness of the services which he rendered to philosophy Method, however he may admire the skill and finish ot Coleridge’s treatment. Scattered throughout the frag- and religion. He was a true lover of light, and desired mentary writings of Coleridge may be found remarkable that all philosophical investigation should be conducted in independent spirit which is reflected in the noble protests against the school of moral philosophy of which the 11 aphorism of his Aids to Reflection— he who begins by Paley was the chief. The governing nature of the moral principle with him determined the quality of moral action. loving Christianity better than truth will proceed by loving Morality and religion are in his system twin stars, never to his own sect and church better than Christianity, and end be divided. The real code, imperatively demanding the in loving himself better than all.” After Coleridge’s death, several of his works were edited by liia subjugation of man, issues from the divine will, resident, nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poets in a measure, in each man. He eagerly disclaims, how- only daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the Biographia ever, all theories which would claim an inherent power in Literaria, enriched with annotations and biographical supplement reason to determine questions of civil government. His from her own pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled contention against Bousseau is most effective, and even at Essays on his own Times, were also published by. Sara Coleridge in Besides the essay on Coleridge contained in the first volume the present time must possess an interest for all engaged in 1850. of J S. Mill’s Dissertations, there is a very complete study of Coleridge political deliberation. Since the able defence of Sara in Principal Shairp’s Studies in Poetry and Philosophy.. Mr Hort’s Coleridge, contained in her edition of her father’s Biographia Essay, in the Cambridge, Essays of 1856, is full of interest. In Liter aria, discussions regarding the plagiarisms of Coleridge Archdeacon Hare’s Mission of the Comforter will he found valuable (G. D. B.) may be said to have been forgotten. The infirmity of his reflections on the theological position of Coleridge. COLERIDGE, Sara (1802-1852), was the fourth child character, and the mental confusion caused by the unhappy habit which so long had dominion over him, indisposed him and only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his wife for the exactitude rightly demanded from all who under- Sarah Fricker of Bristol. She was born December 22, take philosophical discussion. An interesting communica- 1802, at Greta Hall, Keswick, the residence of her parents, tion from Schelling to Dean Stanley declares that that where they were shortly afterwards joined by Southey and great thinker vindicated Coleridge from the charge of his wife, who was Mrs Coleridge’s sister, and by Mrs plagiarism. In the latter part of his life, more than one of Lovell, a third sister, and widow of the young quakerpoet, those admitted to his confidence have given curious instances Robert Lovell. Here, after 1803, they all lived together; of his confusion between the words of an author and the but Coleridge was often away from home; and “ Uncle marginalia which he had written in that author s pages. Southey” was a pater familias. The Wordsworths at A letter to Mr Cottle, written in the year 1807, describes Grasmere were their neighbours ; and the children of the in an interesting way Coleridge’s abandonment of Unitari- three families grew up together. Wordsworth, in his poem, anism and his final acquiescence in the creed of the church. the Triad, has left us a description, or “ poetical glorificaAs a theologian he contended earnestly for the self- tion,” as Sara Coleridge calls it, of the three girls his own evidencing nature of revealed religion. To historical and daughter Dora, Edith Southey, and Sara Coleridge, the miraculous proof he may be said to have assigned a “ last of the three, though eldest born. ” Greta Hall was secondary place. Grasping the idea of the Incarnation, Sara Coleridge’s home until her marriage; and the little he held that miracles were the needful outcome of the Lake colony of poetical and speculative genius seems to have great fact, and he taught that the adaptation of truth to been her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his the moral nature constituted its strongest evidence. For ample library at her command, she read by herself the chief the teaching of Luther he had a profound admiration, Greek and Latin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty and with the works of the great English divines he was had learnt French, German, Italian, and Spanish.. thoroughly familiar In the Aids to Reflection—a work In 1822 Sara Coleridge published a translation in three which has been the especial favourite of some of the most large volumes of Dobrizhoffer’s Account of the Abipones) remarkable of recent divines—after discussing the diffi.- undertaken in connection with Southey’s Tale of Paraguay) culties of thought and speculation, he grapples with the which had been suggested to him by Dobrizhoffer’s volumes ; moral impediments which surround the doctrines of original and Southey alludes to his niece, the translator (canto m. sin and atonement. His earnest, passionate yearning after stanza 16), where he speaks of the pleasure the old mis* truth is manifested in every page of this remarkable book. sionary would have felt if “ . . . .he could in Merlin’s glass have seen Whatever may be thought of the conclusions at which he n By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught. arrives, the convictions of the writer, and his intense

c 0 L —C O L

139 In less grandxloqent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about Martins le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendthe Tale of Paraguay to Southey in 1825, says, “How she ary of Sarum, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul’s and Dobrizhoffered it all out, puzzles my slender Latinity to immediately afterwards dean of that cathedral, having conjecture.” In 1825 her second work appeared, a transla- previously taken the degree of doctor of divinity. He was tion from the mediaeval French, in 2 volumes, called The no sooner raised to this dignity than he introduced the Right Joyous and Pleasant History of the Feats, Jests, and practice of preaching and expounding the Scriptures ; and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard, the Good Knight with he soon afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture out Fear and without Reproach: By the Loyal Servant. on three days in each week, in St Paul’s Church,—an In September 1829, at Crosthwaite Church, Keswick, institution which helped to pave the way for the Reforafter an engagement of seven years’ duration, Sara Coleridge mation. About the year 1508 Dean Colet formed his plan was married to her cousin, Henry Kelson Coleridge, then for the foundation of St Paul’s school, which he completed a Chancery barrister in London. The first eight years in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of of her married life were spent in a little cottage on Down- £122 and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William shire Hill, in the town of Hampstead. There four of her Lilly was the first master, and the company of mercers children were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs were appointed trustees. The dean’s religious opinions Coleridge published her Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good were so much more liberal than those of the contemporary Children; with some Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme. clergy, that they deemed him little better than a heretic ; These were originally written for the instruction of her own and on this account he was so frequently molested that children. On their publication they became very popular • he at last determined to spend the rest of his days in and a new edition has been lately published by Henry S. peaceful retirement. To carry this resolution into effect King & Co. In 1837 the Coleridges removed to Chester he built a house near the palace of Richmond ; but being Place, Regent’s Park ; and in the same year appeared seized with the sweating sickness, he died in 1519, in the Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale, Sara Coleridge’s longest fifty-third year of his age. He was buried on the south original work. An edition of this also was published in side of the choir of St Paul’s, where a stone was laid over 1874 by Henry S. King & Co., with a preface by Lord- his grave, with no other inscription than his name. Besides Chief-Justice Coleridge. The Songs of Phantasmion were the preferments above mentioned, he was rector of the much admired at the time by Leigh Hunt and other critics; guild of Jesus at St Paul’s, and chaplain to Henry VIII. and Mr Justice Coleridge is not afraid to say of them in Dean Colet, though in communion with the Church of his preface that they are “ surely worthy of any great Rome, disapproved of auricular confession, of the celibacy lyrical writer.” Without meriting such praise as this, how- of priests, and other tenets and ceremonies which have since ever, some of these songs, such as “ Sylvan Stay ” and been rejected by all Protestants. He wrote—Absolutissi“ One Face Alone,” are extremely graceful and musical, mus de octo orationis partium constructione Libellus (Antand the whole fairy tale is noticeable for the beauty of the werp, 1530), Rudimenta Grammatices (London, 1539), story and the richness of its language. Daily Devotions, Alonition to a Godly Life, Epistoloe ad In 1843 Mr Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow Erasmum, and commentaries on different parts of the the unfinished task of editing her father’s works. To sacred books, together with a number of smaller theological these she added some compositions of her own, among works. which are the Essay on Rationalism, with a special applicaCOLET, Louise Revoil (1808—1876), French poetess tion t0' the Doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration, appended to and novelist, belonged to a Provengal family, and was born Coleridge’s. Aids to Reflection, a Preface to the Essays on at Aix. In 1834 she came to Paris j and in 1836 appeared his Own Times, by S. T. Coleridge, and the Introduction to her Fleurs du Midi, a volume of verse, of liberal tendency, the Biographia Literaria. During the last few years of which made some noise, and gained her the friendship of her life Sara Coleridge was a confirmed invalid. Shortly Teste and Cousin. It was followed in 1839 by Penserosa, before she died she amused herself by writing a little auto- a second volume of verse j by Le Musee de Versailles, a biography for her daughter. This, which reaches only to poem crowned by the Institute ; by La Jeunesse de Goethe, ier ninth year, was completed by her daughter, and pub- a one-act comedy; and by Les Cceurs Prises, a novel. In lished in 1873, together with some of her letters, under the 1840 she published Les Funerailles de Napoleon, a poem, title Memoirs and Letters of Sara Coleridge. These let- and La Jeunesse de Mirabeau, a reckless novel. The ters show a cultured and highly speculative mind. They criticisms on her books, however, on her academical contain many apt criticisms of known people and books, successes, and on her connection with several celebrated and are specially interesting for their allusions to Words- men this time, exasperated her to an incredible deworth and the Lake Poets. Sara Coleridge died at Chester gree ;about and in 1841 Paris was diverted by her attempted reilace, May 3, 1852, and was buried by the side of her prisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices in Les Guepes. a In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her ri^r r!m ier , ail(^ (1466-1519) husband, in Highgate COLET, John dean of churchyard. St Paul’s, the by the heirs of Madame R^camier, whose correspondence eldest son of Sir Henry Colet, was born at London in with. Benjamin Constant she had taken it upon herself to • hi18 eQucation commenced in St Anthony’s school publish in the columns of the Presse. She was crowned w five or six times by the Institute, a distinction which she m a College,^rom hich, After in 1483, was study sent to dalen Oxford. sevenheyears’ of Maglogic owed, however, to the influence of Cousin rather than to 1 !!qoP v1 0Swe °phy’ hc to.ok his degree in arts. About the year the quality of her work. She produced a host of writings ® (lt _k° Paris, and thence to Italy, in order to im- in prose and verse—novels, plays, anacreontics, didactic Pl T6.. lmseh m the Greek and Latin languages, which at poems, travels, copy for a milliner’s journal, translations Dunn 18 Wer?1 imperfectly taught in our universities. from Shakespeare—singularly unequal in matter and style. Pnri ° andWhence became acquainted with Only one of her books has survived—Lui: Roman Conudams Erasmus. abroad On hishereturn to England in 1497 temporain, the novel in which she told the story of her life; tnr!rk •adei;vnd settled at 0xford> where he read lec- and that, whatever value it may possess as an historical the Epistles ofSt Paul netiodSTiff,0n - At this document, is worthless as a work of art. Madame Colet rect0ry of St Cb Bennington in Suffolk, to seems to have been a woman of some literary talent, wantlad een lnstituted and b! !? prebendary atofthe earlyand age canon of nineteen he was also York, of St: ing altogether in the quality of self-respect and the power of self-control.

1 140

o o L—C 0 L

COLIC (from kcuXov, the large intestine). By this term characteristics is essentially the same as ordinary colic, is is generally understood an attack of pain in the abdomen, only one of a train of symptoms produced by the absorpusually seated in the neighbourhood of the navel, of tion of lead into the body. From prolonged exposure to spasmodic character, and attended for the most part with the action of this poison, the general nutrition of the body constipation of the bowels. Various forms of this complaint becomes deteriorated, and serious nervous phenomena are described by medical writers. The most important are present themselves, sometimes in the form of epilepsy and simple or flatulent colic and lead colic. The former of coma, but more usually as a variety of palsy. This palsy these commonly arises from the presence in the alimentary is of local character, affecting in the first instance the canal of some indigestible matter, which not only excites muscles composing the ball of the thumb, and also those spasmodic contraction of the muscular coats of the intestines, muscles of the fore-arm which extend the wrist, and giving but also, by beginning to undergo decomposition, gives rise rise to the condition known as “ wrist-drop,” from the cirto the presence of gases, which painfully distend the bowels cumstance that when the arm is extended the hand hangs and increase the patient’s suffering. The pain of colic is down and cannot be raised by voluntary effort. The relieved by pressure over the abdomen, and there is no affected muscles undergo atrophy while the paralysis conattendant fever—points which are of importance in distin- tinues. If the patient is removed from further exposure to the influence of the lead poison, and suitable treatment guishing it from inflammation. Attacks of this form of colic may occur in connection employed, complete recovery from all the ill effects may with a variety of causes other than that above mentioned, take place; but otherwise all the symptoms become e.g., from accumulations of feculent matter in the intestines aggravated, the health becomes completely ruined, and in the case of those who suffer from habitual constipation; death may result. One of the phenomena which accompany lead poisoning is also as an accompaniment of nervous and hysterical ailments, and not unfrequently as the result of exposure to the existence of a blue line along the margins of the gums cold and damp, particularly where the feet become chilled where they meet the teeth. This is almost never absent, as in walking through snow. Similar attacks of colic are and is an important aid to the diagnosis of the disease. The absorption of copper into the system produces a apt to occur in young infants, especially those who are fed artificially; and in such cases it will generally be found series of symptoms similar to those of lead poisoning, inthat the food is passing through them almost wholly cluding a form of colic. It is of comparatively rare occurundigested, and that a temporary change of diet will be rence, being chiefly observed among workers in copper. The treatment of colic consists in means to relieve the necessary. The duration of an attack of simple colic is seldom long, and in general no ill consequences follow from spasmodic pain, and in the removal, where possible, of the it. It is, however, not free from risk, especially that of cause upon which it depends. The former of these indicasudden obstruction of the bowel from twisting, or invagina- tions is fulfilled by the administration of opiates (except in tion of one part within another (intussusception) during the the case of children) and the application of warm fomentaspasmodic seizure, giving rise to the terrible disease known tions to the abdomen. Where the attack appears to depend on accumulations of irritating matter in the as ileus. Of greater importance and interest in a medical point of alimentary canal, a brisk purgative will, in addition, be view is the disease known as lead colic {Syn. painters’ colic, called for. In the case of lead colic it is imperatively necessary that colica Pictonum, Devonshire colic, dry belly-ache), from its having been clearly ascertained to be due to the absorption the patient be removed from the source of the lead poisonof lead into the system. This disease had been observed ing. Here, too, the free evacuation of the bowels by and described long before its cause was discovered. Its castor oil or saline purgatives is an important part of the occurrence in an epidemic form among the inhabitants of treatment. As an antidote to the lead absorbed into the Poitou was recorded by Francis Citois, in 1617, under the system, the administration of iodide of potassium is recomtitle of Novus et popularis apud Pictones dolor colicus mended, while for the paralysis nerve tonics, such as biliosus. The disease was thereafter termed colica Pictonum. quinine and strychnia, and the use of galvanism, will in It was supposed to be due to the acidity of the native general yield good results. Where the patient’s occupation wines, but it was afterwards found to depend on lead con- necessitates his exposure to the constant influence of the tained in them. A similar epidemic broke out in certain lead poison, as in the case of colour-grinders or manufacparts of Germany in the end of the 17th century, and was turers of white lead, the evil consequences can in great at the time believed by various physicians to be caused by measure be averted by scrupulous attention to cleansing the admixture of acid wines with litharge to sweeten them. the body, particularly before eating, by abstention from About the middle of last century this disease, which had eating in the work places, and by the habitual use of a long been known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully drink slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The terms hepatic colic and renal colic are applied to investigated by Sir George Baker, who succeeded in tracing it unmistakably to the contamination of the native that violent pain which is produced, in the one case, where beverage, cider, with lead, either accidentally from the lead- a biliary calculus or gall stone passes down from the gall work of the vats and other apparatus for preparing the bladder into the intestine, and in the other where a renal calculus descends from the kidney along the ureter into the liquor, or from its being sweetened with litharge. It has subsequently been made out that this complaint is bladder. These affections are, however, entirely different (J- O- A-) apt to affect all persons who work among lead or its pre- from true colic. COLIGNI, Gaspaed de (1517-1572), admiral of France, parations, especially lead-miners, manufacturers of white lead, colour-grinders, and painters, also to a less extent was son of the Marshal Gaspard de Coligni and Louise de plumbers, potters, type-founders, &c. It is said to have Montmorency, and was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing, the occurred in persons who have slept for only a few nights in hereditary domain of his house. At twenty-two he came a newly-painted room. It has frequently arisen from the to court, and there contracted a friendship with Francis of use of drinking water containing salts of lead in solution, Guise. In the campaign of 1543 Coligni distinguished as also from food and condiments adulterated with prepara- himself greatly, and was wounded at the sieges of Monttions of this metal, and it has even been known to follow medy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian camthe habitual use of cosmet ics composed in part of white lead. paign under the Due d’Enghien, and was knighted on the The colic due to lead poisoning, which in its general field of Cerisolles. Beturning to France, he took part in

C 0 L —C 0 L 141 different military operations; and having been made colonel- mostly paved a Government house, a college, several general of the infantry, exhibited great capacity and in schools and churches, and two squares, and is a place of telligence as a military reformer. He was soon afterwards considerable trade in linens, woollens, cotton goods, and made admiral in room of D’Annebaut. At the battle of hardware The population exceeds 31,000. Colima was Renty (1554) began the quarrel between him and Francis founded by Gonzalo de Sandoval in 1522, received incorof Guise, which was to bring such evil on both their houses atl0 ^°- PhdlP 11 > and attained the rank of a city in and on their native land, and the enmity was increased f1S24. Thirty miles to the N.E. is the volcano of Colima tenfold in 1556 by the rupture, at the instance of Guise the most westerly in Mexico, and 12,000 feet in height’ of the Treaty of Vauxcelles. In 1557 he was intrusted with tor some days previous to the earthquake which visited the defence of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed the Pacific coast of Mexico on the 20th December 1868 great courage, resolution, and strength of character; but the volcano emiUed smoke and steam; and in 1869 after the place was taken, and he was imprisoned in the strong- 40 years’ inactivity, there was another eruption. ’ Manhold of L’Ecluse. On payment of a ransom of 50,000 zamlla, the port of Colima, about 60 miles west of that town crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had by this time has a good anchorage, and is sheltered from the south become a Huguenot, through the influence of his brother winds prevalent during the rainy season ; but, on account Dandelot; and he busied himself secretly with protectin°- ot the proximity of a stagnant marsh, it is an unhealthy his co-religionists, a colony of whom he sent to Brazil, whence place; and it abounds, moreover, with mosquitoes and they were afterwards expelled by the Portuguese. ’ On the sandflies. death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince Alexander (1526-1612), a Flemish sculptor of Cond6, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious wasCOIdN, born at Mechlin. In 1563 he went, at the invitation toleration and certain other reforms. In 1560 atT the of the emperor Ferdinand L, to Innsbruck, to work on the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligni and Francis of Guise broke violently forth • magnificent monument which was being erected to Maxithe death of Francis IL and the policy of Catharine preci- milian I. in the nave of the Franciscan church. Of the pitated matters to an issue; the civil war began • and twenty-four marble alti-rilievi, representing the emperor’s the battle of Dreux (1562), clearing the ground of the principal acts and victories, which adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were executed by Colin, apparently in three Constable Montmorency and the prince of Cond5, set the years. The work displays a remarkable combination of two great rivals at the head of their respective parties in 1563 however, the Pacification of Amboise was liveliness and spirit with extreme care and finish, its effected; Francis of Guise was assassinated; and peace was delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is to have pronounced _ it the finest work of its kind. maintained for some years. The Huguenot attempt to seize said on the person of Charles IX. at Monceaux brought about Cohn, who was sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the archduke Ferdinand, did a great deal a resumption of hostilities. At St Denis (1567) Coligni ot work for his patrons at Innsbruck, and in its neighbourdefeated Montmorency; in 1561) he was defeated at Jarnac nood ; particular mention may be made of the sepulchres of by the duke of Anjou, and repaired with the remains of his army to Cognac. There he was joined by the prince of the archduke and his first wife Philippa, both in the same Navarre, who was forthwith placed at the head of the Pro- church as the Maximilian monument. His tomb in the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief executed byJ testent party; the two laid siege to Poitiers, which was himself. e e eti by HeUry of Guise bufc tbe COLLAERT, Hans, a Flemish engraver, was the son iT siege (1569) was raised, anda ?i? the Huguenots were routed> at Moncontour with terrible slaughter A price of 50,000 crowns was set upon o Adrian Gollaert, a draughtsman and engraver of repute and was born at Antwerp about 1545. After working the admiral s head ; but the peace of St Germain was con- some years in his father’s studio, he went to Rome to percluded m 1570, and he returned to court. He grew rapidly in favour with Charles IX. As a means of eman- fect himself in his art. His engravings after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left many works ; among the m be frotn the tutelage of his mother and the est may be mentioned a Life of Saint Francis, 16 prints • f P- ° f Gl es the ad q™ ° , ^ f > with anmiral proposed to himboth a descent on Spanish Flanders, army drawn from sects, a Last Judgment, folio; Monilium, Bullarum, Inauriumque Artificiosissimae leones, 10 prints, 1581 ; The Dead Christ and commanded by Charles in person. The king’s regard in his Mother’s Lap; Marcus Curtius ; Moses Striking for the admiral, and the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the Rock, and The Resurrection of Lazarus, after Lambert he queea mother. and the massacre of |fc Lombard; the Fathers of the Desert; and Biblia Sacra and a 22d Au sfc 1572 Coli ni was the History of the Church, after Rubens. hot h ILTTTZ S ^ S Maurevert a COLLE, Charles (1709-1783), dramatist and songHenri nf a eefc tbe bt > bravo in the pay of 1 diefcs> however, only tore a finger writer, was the son of a notary, and was born at Paris. S kinaviLd b- hTl Td shattered his lef/elbow. The A.t a very early age he began to study the writings of Marot vatf inf 1 d hlmVbut the queen m°ther prevented all pri- and La Fontaine, of Chapelle and MolRre, to take delight Z? ZUtSQ betWeln them- 0n the 24th AuSasfc> the in the theatre, and to be specially interested in the rhymes 3 attacked in his minis of gT ^ ^7 WaS house by the of Jean Heguanier, then the most famous maker of coupUIS a Germ slew him and castf' h r au named Behme, who ets m Paris. From a notary’s office Coll an(l a third in 1709. All ing the separation of the countries, continued to trade to annea reT^^ P°Pulai% a* the time of their the West Indies, although that privilege was by law theP book B 1 ri1? 1798best ’ however>that Collier produced exclusively confined to British vessels. In 1786 Colliughas been m ^ known, and for which he wood returned to England, where, with the exception of a Immoral if n ^S // Praised> the famous Short View of the voyage to the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in publicatiorfin” 1 'f°fanelless of the English Stage. Its which year he was appointed captain of the “ Prince,” the Congreve VnWK ved ^im in a lengthened controversy with flag-ship of Rear-Admiral Bowyer. About two years prebook abound* ^ ^ 0ther wifcs of the day- Tke vious to this event he had married Miss Sarah Roddam—a rc ltlcism a learning neGb1Q ^yP? f nd in useless display of fortunate alliance, which continued to be a solace to him the argument eiv1^tr.lnsi^ady valuable nor conducive to amidst the privations to which the life of a seaman must an admirable account'of ^heT^8 °- Macaula^ who Sives ever be subject. As captain of the “ Barfleur,” Collingwood was present Comic BrnnmG ? , Itha dlscussion m his essay on the 6 Eestoration at the celebrated naval engagement which was fought on tions have Teen Id great > “when all deducwork. There is h di /nendi must be allowed to the the 1st of June 1794 ; and on that occasion he displayed rd y any book of thafc it wouldd be nn •t , time from which equal judgment and courage. On board the “ Excellent ” 1 b6 )0sslble l to select specimens of writing so ex- he shared in the victory of the 14th of February 1797 VI. — 19

i

COL- COL when Sir John Jarvis humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preservation St Vincent. His conduct in this engagement was the of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured the enemy. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron theme of universal admiration throughout the fleet, and from Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer. Aftei blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a few thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of per annum. weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1/99 £2000 From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood Collingwood was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and great naval action was fought; but he was much hoisting his flag in the “ Triumph,” he joined the Channel no occupied’in important political transactions, in which he Fleet, with which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, displayed remarkable tact and judgment. Being appointed where the principal naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood continued actively employed in to the command of the Mediterranean fleet, he continued to watching the enemy, until the peace of Amiens restored cruise about, keeping a watchful eye upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which had begun to him once more to the bosom of his family. The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished, decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1805, seemed was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested GovernFrance, and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to ment to be relieved of his command, that he might return which he was never again to return. The duty upon which home ; but he was urgently requested to remain, on the that his country could not dispense with his he was employed was that of watching the French fleet off ground Brest, and in the discharge of it he displayed the most services. This conduct has been regarded as harsh; but unwearied vigilance. Nearly two years were spent in this the good sense and political sagacity which he displayed employment; but Napoleon had at length matured his afford some palliation of the conduct of the Government; plans and equipped his armament, and the grand struggle and the high estimation in which he was held is proved by which was to decide the fate of Europe and the dominion the circumstance that among the many able admirals, of the sea was close at hand. The enemy’s fleet ^having equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was appointed prominently forward as to command the confidence of to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue ministers and of the country to the same extent as he did. them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after After many fruitless attempts to induce the enemy to put spreading terror throughout the West Indies, returned to to sea, as well as to fall in with them when they had done Cadiz. On their way thither they bore down upon Admiral so (which circumstance materially contributed to hasten his Collingwood, who had only three vessels with him j but death), he expired on board the “Ville de Paris,” then he succeeded in eluding the pursuit, although chased by lying off Port Mahon, on the 7 th of March 1810. Lord Collingwood’s merits as a naval officer were in every sixteen ships of the line. Ere one-half of the enemy had respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic entered the harbour he drew up before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing an ingenious artifice daring he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal to conceal the inferiority of his force. But the combined in an age fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the battle of general talent, and in reasoning upon the probability of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant conduct of events from a number of conflicting and ambiguous stateAdmiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much ments, Collingwood was equal to the hero of the Nile; and justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his indeed, many wdio were familiar with both give him the His political penetration was fleet in the form of a crescent, and in a double line, every palm of superiority. alternate ship being about a cable’s length to windward of remarkable ; and so high was the opinion generally enterher second, both ahead and astern. The British fleet bore tained of his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, down upon this formidable and skilfully arranged armament and on all occasions, upon questions of general policy, of in two separate lines, the one led by Nelson in the regulation, and even of trade. He was distinguished for “Victory,” and the other by Collingwood in the “Royal benevolence and generosity ; his acts of charity were freSovereign.” The latter vessel was the swifter sailer, and quent and bountiful, and the petition of real distress was having shot considerably ahead of the rest of the fleet, was never rejected by him. He was an enemy to impressment the [first engaged. “ See,” said Nelson, pointing to the and to flogging ; and so kind was he to his crew, that he “ Royal Sovereign ” as she penetrated the centre of the obtained amongst them the honourable name of father. enemy’s line, “ see how that noble fellow Collingwood Between Nelson and Collingwood a close intimacy subsisted, carries his ship into action ! ” Probably it was at the same from their first acquaintance in early life till the fall of the instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observa- former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the tion of his great commander, remarked to his captain, cathedral of St Paul’s. The selections from the public and “ What would Nelson give to be here h ” The consummate private correspondence of Lord Collingwood, published in in 1828, contain some of the best specimens valour and skill evinced by Collingwood had a powerful 2 vols., 8vo, r moral influence upon both fleets. It was with the Spanish of letter-w riting in our language. See also A Fine Old admiral’s ship that the “ Royal Sovereign ” closed; and English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character with such rapidity and precision did she pour in her broad- of Lord Collingwood, a Biographical Study, by William _ , sides upon the “ Santa Anna,” that the latter was on the Davies, London, 1875. COLLINS, Anthony (1676-1729), an English writer eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a gun. on theology and philosophy, born at Heston, near Hounslow Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril in Middlesex, on the 21st June 1676, was the son of a of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed country gentleman of good fortune. Alter being educated in the “Royal Sovereign” on all sides; but the latter, at Eton, and at King’s College, Cambridge, he was entered after suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the at the Middle Temple, but he did not pursue the profession episode of his life was rest of the British squadron ; and not long afterwards the of the law. The most interesting T “ Santa Anna ” struck her colours. The result of the his intimacy with Locke, w ho in his letters speaks of him battle of Trafalgar, and the expense at which it was with the most affectionate regard. During a visit to purchased, are well known. On the death of Nelson, Holland, made, it is said, in order to escape the storm Collingwood assumed the supreme command ; and by his raised by the Discourse of Freethinhing, he also made the 146

COLLINS 147 acquaintance of Leclerc and several other Dutch scholars. thus secretly aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation In 1715 he settled in Essex; and he was in that county The canomeity of the New Testament he ventures „penlv appointed to the offices of justice of the peace and deputy- to deny, on the ground that the canon could only be fixed Jieutenant, which he had before held in Middlesex. His by men who were inspired. No less than thirty-five answers open expression of his opinions, with all its freedom, was, as were directed against this book, the most noteworthy 3 he owns, carefully kept “ within the bounds of doing him- which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler, Arthur self no harm ; ” he always published anonymously, though Sykes, Clarke, and Sherlock. To these, but with special the authorship of his books never appears to have been reference to the work of Chandler, which maintained long a secret ; and the independence of his position f *u^ber of prophecies were literally fulfilled in together with his pure and genial character, saved him n Christ, Collins replied by his Scheme of Literal Prophecy from all personal annoyance. The only attack reported to have been made upon him, otherwise than by means i172/^ Al1 appendix contends against Whiston of the press, was the fruitless petition presented by Whiston Epiphanes°0k ^ Damel ^ f°rSed ^ the time of Antiocbua while smarting under his criticism, praying that he mioffit In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender be removed from the commission of the peace. Collins o Necessitarianism. His brief Inquiry Concerning Human died at his house in Harley Street, London, on December Liberty (1715) gives, in a remarkably clear and concise 13, 1729, at the age of fifty-three. form, all the important arguments in favour of his theory The first work of note published by Collins was his Essay with abie and suggestive replies to the chief objections concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the Evidence that have been urged against it Little, in fact, of moment whereof depends on Human Testimony (1707). He demands nas been added by modern determinists. One of his that the revelation of God should be conformable to man’s arguments, however, calls for special criticism,—his assertion natural ideas of God, but draws a distinction between what that it is self-evident that nothing that has a beginning can is contrary to reason and what is merely contrary to our be without a cause is an unwarranted assumption of the very experience. point at issue. CoHins’s position was attacked in an elaborate Six years later appeared his most famous work, A Dis- treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose system the freedom of course of Freethinhing, occasioned by the Rise and Growth the will is made essential to religion and morality. During of a Sect called Freethinkers (1713). Notwithstanding Clarke s lifetime, fearing perhaps (as has been suggested) the ambiguity of its title, and though it attacks the to be branded as an enemy of religion and morality, Collins priests of all churches without moderation, it contends for gave no reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled the most part, at least explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every Protestant, or than is maintained in Liberty and Necessity. such works as Taylor’s Liberty of Prophesying; and it is ■ A Letter ^tberto 0Mr LCollins ’s two APurel y philosophical treatises Dodwell. controversy was then being points out forcibly that the first introduction of Christianity, carried on between Clarke, who asserted the natural imand the success of all missionary enterprise, involve freemortality of the soul, and Dodwell, who held that the soul thinking (in its etymological sense) on the part of those is mortal till baptism confers immortality upon it : and converted. In England this essay, which was regarded and treated as a plea for deism, made a great sensation, Collins entered^ the lists to suggest other possibilities. calling forth several replies, among others from Whiston, Adopting Locke s suggestion, he maintained that it is conBishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and-Richard Bentley, who ceivabie that the soul may be material; and, secondly, that under the signature of Phileleutherus Lipsiensis, rouo-hly it the soul be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had handles certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins contended, that it is immortal; indeed in no way, he argues can philosophy prove its immortality. but tnumphs chiefly by an attack on his scholarship! bwift also, being satirically referred to in the book, made , . T^° °7f. Collins’s early works yet remain to be mentioned— it the subject of a caricature. In France, where it was his Vindication of the Divine Attributes, in which he attacks answered by Crousaz, it produced a still deeper im- a sermon of King, archbishop of Dublin, and maintains that from our knowledge of human qualities we can attain to a pression. ^ true, if hunted, knowledge of the divine attributes; and his Collins published his extraordinary Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, with Priestcraft in Perfection, or a Detection of the Fraud of ft poogy for Free Debate and Liberty of Writing pre- inserting and continuing the Clause, “ The Church hath power to decree Rites and Ceremonies and Authority in ConOstensibly it is written in opposition to Whiston’s troversies of Faith f in the Twentieth Article of the Church of t0Sh at tlle assa es of nmnW,-ies , P S the Old Testament England (1709), to which—as the question excited a very < uT^ J °ta(i tlle New had since the time of Christ active controversy—he added, early in the next year a U ed by JeWS aud with the ob ect of (t. m. w.) that tW ?fli ’ by the events jof Christ's proving tha the fulfilment of prophecy life second pamphlet on the same subject. COLLINS, Mortimer (1827-1876), novelist and writer L • “Uegorical, and mystical," since of lyrics, was born at Plymouth, and was educated at a fact T a,“d h,teral reference is to some other private school. _ After some years spent in tuition and some or ca rea the 'DiitcWr eb ^ St Si ade ® ^ ^ ” ding, he quotes from contributions in verse to the Bristol newspapers, he reto which «,? nI ;re"hu3'u3 ten methods according paired to London, and devoted himself to journalism in an the Conservative interest. In 1855 he published a volume writers anion ° t i0 ter ®emara d otherarts allegorical eWS ret diffic lt Starer.^ M “ P “ P of *0 of verse ; and in 1865 appeared his first story, IF/w is the the New To t asserted to have been used in Heir ? A second volume of lyrics, The Inn of Strange 0f these methods the gentlest is Meetings, was issued in 1871 ; and in 1872 he produced 84 se is ordpr J ’ “. thl mosii severe “ changing order rtf of wr wo?r^i “f '7e is 'hanging the his longest and best sustained poem, The British Birds, a Ug which is a meth A ' ! aud retrenching words, communication from the Ghost of Aristophanes. He wrote imrpose oftheb n°fte f,Used ^ PauI;” and the true profusely for journals and magazines’—the Owl, the Globe, a 0U veiled satire +h° f )T P appear to have been to show, in Punch, Temple Bar, Belgravia, the World, Ac.—and prom t of Testament is of 'th,. ^ f“ C,a,ld T 38 Prophecy in the New duced, besides, several novels, the most readable of which, rabbis And fnrth aST 8trives that contrived by the perhaps, is Sweet Anne Page (1868). As novels merely, t0 roTe « if nTonl.eef rs ■ .h ^ valid proof P of Christianity, that the fnlfilot prophecy the only he these works are not greatly to be commended; as the work of a clever man of pronounced opinions, they are often interest-

148

COLLINS

T ing enough. Their author’s great claim to remembrance, The original project w as to have combined them with the of Joseph Warton, but the latter, now forgotten, however, is based upon his lyrics ; some of these, in their odes proved at that time to be the more marketable article. light grace, their sparkling wit, their airy philosophy, are Collins’s little volume fell dead from the press, but it won equal to anything of their kind in modern English. him the admiration and friendship of Thomson, with whom, COLLINS, William (1721-1759), who divides with until the death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of Gray the glory of being the greatest English lyrist of the affectionate intimacy. The Odes, in the volume of that 18th century, was born on the 25th of December, 1721, at name, were twelve in number; to their contents we shall Chichester, of which city his father, a rich hatter, was the presently return. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the mayor After some childish studies in his native town, e fear of poverty by the death of his uncle ; and he left was sent, in January 1733, to Winchester College where London to settle in his native city. He had hardly begun Whitehead and Joseph Warton were his schoolfellows to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature and quiet, When he had been nine months at the school, Pope paid before the weakness of his will began to develop in the Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize direction of insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to poem : it is legitimate matter or fancy to suppose that dispel the gathering gloom by travel. In the interval he the lofty forehead, the brisk dark eyes, and gracious oval had published two short pieces of consummate grace and of the childish face, as we know it in the only portrait beauty—the Elegy on Thomson, in 1749, and the Dirge existing of Collins, did not escape the great man s notice, in Cymbeline, later in the same year. In the beginning then not a little occupied with the composition of the Assay of 1750 he composed the Ode on the Popular Superstitions on Man. In 1734 it is supposed that the young poet of the Highlands, which was dedicated to the author of published his first verses, on The Royal Nuptials, of. which, Douglas, and not printed till long after the death of Collins, however, no copy has come down to us; another poem, and an Ode on the Music of the Grecian Theatre, which no probably satiric, called The Battle of the Schoolbooks, ^ longer exists, and in which our literature probably has written about this time, and has also been lost. Fired by sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary career his poetic fellows to further feats in verse, Collins produced, closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly nine in his seventeenth year, those Persian Eclogues which were years. From Gilbert White we learn that his madness the only writings of his that were valued by the world was occasionally violent, and that he was confined for a during his own lifetime. They were not printed for some time in an asylum at Oxford. But for the most part he years, and meanwhile Collins sent, in January and October resided at Chichester, suffering from extreme debility of 1739, some verses to the Gentleman's Magazine, which body when the mind was clear, and incapable of any regular attracted the notice and admiration of Johnson, then occupation. Music affected him in a singular manner, and young and uninfluential. In March 1740 he was admitted it is recorded that he was wont to slip out into the U a commoner of Queen’s College, Oxford, but did not S° P cathedral cloisters during the services, and moan and to Oxford until July 1741, when he entered Magdalen howl in horrible accordance with the choir.. In this College. At Oxford he continued his affectionate intimacy miserable condition he passed out of sight of all his friends, with 'the Wartons, and gained the friendship of Gilbert in 1756 it was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was White. Early in 1742 the Persian Eclogues appeared in and dead ; in point of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease London. They were four in number, and formed a modest the 12th of June 1759. No journal or magazine pamphlet of not more than 300 lines in all. Those pieces until recorded the death of the forgotten poet, though Goldsmith, may be compared with Victor Hugo’s Les Orientates, to only two months before, had commenced the laudation which, of course, they are greatly inferior. Considered which was soon to become universal. ■with regard to the time at which they were produced, they No English poet so great as Collins has left behind hun are more than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least so small a bulk of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of —the second—can be read with enjoyment at the present his have been handed down to us, but among these notone day. The rest, perhaps, will be found somewhat artificial is slovenly, and few are poor. His odes are the most sculpand effete. In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor turesque and faultless in the language. They lack fare, of arts, and a few days after taking his degree published but in charm and precision of diction, exquisite propriety his second work, an Epistle to Sir Thomas Hanmer. This of form, and lofty poetic suggestion they stand unrivalled. poem, written in heroic couplets, shoivs a great advance in That one named The Passions is the most popular ; that individuality, and resembles, in its habit of impersonifying To Evening is the greatest favourite with imaginative qualities of the mind, the riper lyrics of its author. For persons. In reading this, and the Ode to Simplicity, one the rest, it is an enthusiastic review of poetry, culminating seems to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy in a laudation of Shakespeare. It is supposed that he left and elegance. Distinction may be said to be the crowning Oxford abruptly in the summer of 1744 to attend his mothers death-bed, and did not return. His indolence, grace of the style of Collins ; its leading peculiarity is tlio which had been no less marked at the university than his incessant impersonification of some quality of the charac er. genius, combined with a fatal irresolution to make it In the Ode on Popular Superstitions he produced a sti extremely difficult to choose for him a path in life. The nobler work ; this poem, the most considerable m size army and the church were successively suggested and which has been preserved, contains passages which are rejected ; and he finally arrived in London, bent on enjoying beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy fulness in literature between Milton and Keats. _he i e a small property as an independent man about town. our Collins was written by Dr Johuson, he found an enthusiast! He made the acquaintance of Johnson and others, and was admirer in Dr Langhorne ; and more recently a Mncuy urged by those friends to undertake various important biographer in Mr Moy Thomas. (Ewritings—a History of the Revival of Learning, several COLLINS, William (1787-1847), painter, was the son tragedies, and a version of Aristotle’s Poe^'cs, among others of an Irish picture dealer and man of letters, the author a\l of which he commenced and lacked force of wdll to Life of George Morland, and was born in London. & continue. He soon squandered his means, plunged, with astudied under Ettyin 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his hrst most disastrous effects, into profligate excesses, and sowed pictures of repute—Boys at Breakfast, and Boys wi < the seed of his untimely misfortune. It was at this time, Bird’s Nest. In 1815 he was made associate of the hoy however, that he composed his matchless odes, which Academy, and was elected It.A. in 1820. For the nex appeared on the 20th of December 1746, dated 1(47.

C O L —0 O L

149 sixteen years he was a constant exhibitor; his fishermen, made from collodion G oz., Canada balsam 120 grs., castorshrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of coast and sand, oil one fluid drachm. Vesicating or Blistering Collodion and, above all, his rustic children were universally popular. contains canthandm as one of its constituents. The styptic Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of Wilkie, colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in aunand for two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners, cotton collodion. Small balloons are manufactured from and scenery of Italy. In 1839 he exhibited the first fruits collodion by coating the interior of glass-globes with the of this journey; and in 1840, in which year he was ap- liquid ; the film when dry is removed from the glass by pointed librarian to the Academy, he made his first appear- applying suction to the mouth of the vessel. M. E. Gripon ance as a painter of history. In 1842 he returned to his has found (Covipt. Rend., April 5, 1875) that collodion early manner and choice of subject, and during the last membranes, like glass, reflect light and polarize it both by years of life enjoyed greater popularity than ever. As a transmission and reflection; they also transmit a very much painter Collins is entitled to high praise. He was a good larger proportion of radiant heat, for the study of which colourist and an excellent draughtsman ; he was also con- they are preferable to mica. See Photograpiiy. scientious exceedingly, and an ardent lover and student of COLLOT D’HERBOIS, Jean Marie (1750-179G), a nature. His earlier pictures are deficient in breadth and prominent actor in the French Revolution, was a Parisian force,—are feeble, in fact, from excess of care and finish ; actor. After figuring for some years at the principal probut his later work, though also carefully executed, is rich vincial theatres of France and Holland, he became director in effects of tone and in broadly painted masses. His of the playhouse at Geneva. He had from the first a share biography, Life of William Collins, 11.A., 2 vols., by his in the revolutionary tumult; but it was not until 1791 that son Wilkie Collins, the well-knowm novelist, appeared in he became a figure of importance. Then, however, by the 1848. publication of 1JAlmanach du Fere Gerard, a tract designed COLLODION (from KoWa, glue), a colourless, viscid to set forth, in homely style, the advantages of a constitufluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties tional government, he suddenly acquired great popularity. of pyroxylin, or cellulotrinitrin, r C6H702(N03)3, 111 a mix- His renown was soon increased by his active interference ture of alcohol and ether. It w as discovered in 1848 by on behalf of the Swiss of the CMteau-Vieux Regiment, Maynard in Boston. The quality of collodion differs condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His according to the proportions of alcohol and ether and the efforts resulted in their liberation ; he went himself to nature of the pyroxylin it contains. Collodion in which Brest in search of them ; and a civic feast was decreed there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a on his behalf and theirs, which gave occasion for one of very tough film; the film left by collodion containing a the few poems published during his life by Andr purposes to docstonotthecrack in drying, is preferordinary preparation, is Florence, where his father was stationed as resident at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany. After a preliminary

L

150

0 0 L—0 O L

display than to any intrinsic vitality. The best of them course of study at a private academy in Marylebone, he was are John Bull (1805), for which the author received the sent to Westminster School, which he left in due course largest sum of money that had till then been paid for any for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaintance single play, The Poor Gentleman, and The Heir-at-Law. of Bonnel Thornton, the parodist, and together they Colman, whose conversational powers were remarkable, as founded The Connoisseur (1754-1756), a periodical which Byron has recorded, was also the author of a great deal of reached its 140th number, and which, Johnson said, so-called humorous poetry (mostly coarse, though much of “ wanted weight.” In 1758 he took the degree of Master it) was popular)—My Night Gown and Slippers (1797), of Arts, came to London soon afterwards, was entered at Broad Grins (1802), and Poetical Vagaries (1812). Some Lincoln’s Inn, and was duly called to the bar ; and m 17 of his writings were published under the assumed name of he produced his first play, Polly Honeycomb, which met Arthur Griffinhood of Turnham Green. See Random with great success. In 1761 he brought out The Jealous Records, London, 1830, 2 vols., and R. B. Peake, Memoirs Wife, a comedy rich in borrowed excellences ; m 1704 the of the Colman Family, London, 1842, 2 vols. death of Lord Bath placed him in possession of an COLMAR, or Kolmar, till 1870 the chief town of the annuity; in 1765 appeared his brilliant metrical transla- department of Haut Rhin in France, but now of the district tion of the plays of Terence; and in 1/66 he produced of Upper Alsace, in the German empire, is situated on the The Clandestine Marriage, jointly with Garrick, whose Lauch and the Fecht, tributaries of the 111. It communicates Lord Ogleby was one of his finest impersonations. n by a canal with the Rhine, and has a station on the railway 1767 he succeeded to a second annuity, on the death ot from Basel to Strasburg, being about 40 miles S.S.W. of the General Pulteney, purchased a fourth share in Coven latter city. It is the seat of the administrative offices for Garden Theatre, and was appointed acting manager. In Upper Alsace, an imperial court of appeal for Alsace-Lor1768 he was elected into the famous Literary Club, then raine, a commercial court, an imperial lyceum, a Protestant nominally consisting of twelve members; m 1774, after normal college, a literary, an agricultural, and a natural seven years of managership, he sold his share in the great history society. The last, founded in 1861, maintains a playhouse to Leake ; and in 1777 he purchased of Foote, valuable museum in the old convent of Unterlinden, and then broken in health and spirits, and near his end, the publishes valuable contributions to local science. There is Little Theatre in the Hay market. In 1778 he published another museum, named after the old painter Schongau, an edition of Beaumont and Fletcher ; and in 17bd for the preservation of works of art; the town library conappeared his translation of Horaces Epistle Be ArC 50,000 volumes, and the archives of Upper Alsace Poetica, with notes and a commentary. He was attacked tains reach back to the 7th century. The most remarkable with palsy in 1785 ; in 1789 his brain became affected, edifices in the town are the so-called cathedral, or St and he lapsed gradually into idiocy. Besides the works Martin’s church, a Gothic structure built in 1363, the already cited, Colman was author of some 35 plays, of an prefecture or administrational buildings, . and the townexcellent translation from the Mercator of Plautus for house j and there are also civil and military hospitals, Bonnell Thornton’s edition (1769-1772), and of many barracks, a theatre, and a deaf-mute institution. The parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of manufactures of the town comprise cotton goods of various his dramatic works was published in 1777, in four volumes. sorts, packing-cloth, hosiery, starch, silk thread, iron and See also Prose on Several Occasions, with some Pieces in copper wares, engines, sewing-machines, bricks, matches, Verse, by George Colman, London, 1787, 3 vols.; and Some Particulars of the Life of the Late George Colman, Written and leather; and there are eight breweries, a dye-work, and several printing and lithographic establishments. The by Himself, London, 1795. COLMAN, George (1762-1836), the Younger, son of domestic trade of the country is centred in the city, and transactions are effected in wine and hops. . Colmar the preceding, passed from Westminster School to Christ large Church, Oxford, and King’s College, Aberdeen, and was grew up round a royal residence called Columbaria, which finally entered as a student of law at the Temple, London. is first mentioned in the 8th century. It obtained a charWhile at Aberdeen he published a poem in honour of ter of incorporation in 1226, and wus afterwards made a Charles James Fox, called The Man of the People ; and in free imperial city by the Emperor Frederick II. It was 1782 he produced, at his father’s playhouse in the Hay- taken after a six weeks’ siege by^ Adolphus, of Nassau m market, his first play, The Female Dramatists, for which 1293, invested by Duke Otto of Austria in 1330, occuRoderick Random supplied the materials. It was unani- pied by Duke Rudolf in 1358, seized by the Swedes in mously condemned, but his next attempt, Two to One, was 1632, and finally dismantled by the French after the . , entirely successful, and the young Templar’s vocation was siege of 1673. COLNE, a market town of England, in the county ol decided on. The failing health of the elder Colman obliging him to relinquish the management of the Haymarket Lancaster, 26 miles north of Manchester, on a small afflutheatre, the younger George succeeded him, at a yearly ent of the Calder, near the Liverpool and Leeds Canal, with salary of £600. On the death of the father the patent a station on a branch of the Midland line. It is a place ot was continued to the son; but difficulties arose in his way, great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been louna lawsuits and pamphlets accumulated round him, and he on the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat was forced to take sanctuary within the Rules of the King’s of a woollen manufacture; but its principal manufactures Bench. Here he resided for many years. Released at last now are printed calicoes and mousselines-de-laine. the through the kindness of George IY., who had appointed chief buildings are the parish church of St Bartholomew, him exon of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity disposed an ancient edifice which has been frequently restored, an cloth or piece-hall, in the Elizabethan style. Ihe of by Colman to the highest bidder, he was made examiner the school is interesting as the place where Archbishop of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord chamberlain grammar Tillotson received his early education. In the neigh our This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists to whose MSS. he was as illiberal as severe, he held till his hood are several limestone and slate quarries. Population 1851, 6644 ; in 1871, 7335. . death. Colman’s comedies, which have never been collected, in COLOCYNTH, Coloquintida, or Bitter Apple, luare a curious mixture of genuine comic force and rullus or Cucumis Colocynthis, a plant of the natural or ei platitudinous sentimentality. Several of them are yet Cucurbitaceoe or Gourds. The flowers are unisexua , acted; but their popularity is rather to be attributed to the humour of the actors who adopt them as vehicles foi the male blossoms have five stamens and sinuous anthers,

C 0 L —C O L the female have reniform stigmas, and a 3 to 6 celled ovary. The fruit is round, and about the size of an orange; it has a thick yellowish rind, and a light, spongy, and very bitter pulp, which furnishes the colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to 300, and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal placentae of the fruit, are flat and ovoid, and dark-brown; they are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse oil may be expressed from them. The foliage resembles that of the cucumber and the root is perennial. The plant has a wide range’ being found in Ceylon, India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the Cape Verd Islands and the south-east of Spain. The term pakkuoth, translated “ wild gourds ” in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer to the fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Celsius, it signifies a plant known as the squirting cucumber, Ecbalium purgans. The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried fruits, which are imported from Aleppo, Smyrna Mogadof, Spain, and other localities. In the preparation of the drug, the seeds are always removed from the pulp Its active principle is an intensely bitter glucosidej colocynthin, C56II84023, soluble in water, ether, and alcohol and decomposable by acids into glucose and a resin, colocynthein, C40H54O13. Colocynth is a drastic purgative, and in large doses the powdered drug or its decoction has an inflammatory action on the intestines, and may produce fatal effects. It is administered in combination with aloes scammony, cardamoms, and potassium sulphate, also with henbane. Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek Roman, and Arabic physicians; and in a herbal of the 11th century, written in Saxon (Cockayne, Leechdoms, &c., vol. i. p. 325, Lond., 1864), the following directions are given as to its use “For stirring of the inwards, take the inward neshness of the fruit, without the kernels, by weight of two pennies ; give it, pounded in lithe beer to be drunk • it stirreth the inwards.’1 ’

151 and at the tune of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the 19th century the repairing' nf +l cathedral was taken in hand, and in 1842 the bnUdL^f fresh port.ons Mcessaiy for the completion of the whole structure was commenced. The cathedral, which is 1 the form of a cross has a length of 480, a breadth of 282 feet; the height of the central aisle is 154 feet; that of each of the towers, when completed, will be upwards of 500 leet. Ihe heaviest of the six bells weighs 11 tons. In the choir the heart of Mary de’ Medici is buried; and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of the founder and other archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine of the three kings, which is adorned with gold and precious stones. he very numerous and richly-coloured windows, presented at various times to the cathedral, add greatly to the

a town province of Frasana Yerona, A) miles south-east of the city of that name on the Lanai It has a cathedral, and carries on an extensive

7000 m hemP’Sllk’ Wine’ Srain’ and almonds- Population, CQLOGNF, German Koln or Coln, the chief city of Rhenish Prussia, and a fortress of the first rank, capital of a government of the same name, is situated in the form of a alf rnrele 0n the left bank of the Rhine, 45 miles N.N W of Coblentz, in 50° 56' 29" N. lat., 6° 57! 52" E. long li is 1 the U Urb f Deutz on the ofTheRV^ K of ° boats nearly > opposite side ot the Rhme,^by a fbridge 1400 feet long,

rait.v a handsome mm bridge which serves both for distanced Street Although when viewed from a irreXl^ m 7 aspect, it is very older streets are andgdirt/ tv, *’ ^ ^ ortant narrow, crooked, NeumarVt T? ™P squares are the Heumarkt, k A mark fc and stations i’he Cen p ,’ Waidmarkt. There are two railway Th re are nl 4tra1’ near the cathedral, and the Pantaleon S 10nS in I)eutz Dom the nr n°cl ai° ^ - The cathedraI ^ Coloo-ne i'q P ^ edifice and chief object of interest in Gothic architent °f •the1?finest and purest monuments of stands on caSral co^ ^ abvrUfc °pe- theJt be of a century bvHild ° !oHton gmnmg of the 9th f Colo ne alld under WmiberU^m •S ° S Normans waAl-n t lh!S strucfcure was ruined by the alm St Wb lly destroyed by fire The f nd at n of the resent ° ° was then kid bv n ^ f ^ P cathedral nrai Pdoc lst plan of the bnildf n r ! aden. The original Rile. Iu iqoo ^as ^eei} attributed to Gerhard von uuuu WaS WdS bones of the execrated and the i-lip three kln i• consecrated, Place they had 2 f were removed to it from the former cafchedral Ponrad’s death tJeTf After the work of building advanced but- slowly,

i

Flan of Cologne. 1. St Cunibert’s Church. 16. St Martin s Church. 2. Civil Jail. 17. Synagogue. 3. St Ursula’s Church. 18. Church of the Apostles. 4. St Gereon’s Church. 19. Bank. 5. Archbishop’s Palace. 20. Civil Hospital. 6. Government Palace. 21. Casino. 7. Palace of Justice. 22. St Maria’s Church. 8. St Andreas’s Church. 23 Gurzenich (Merchant’s ITali) 9. Jesuits’ Church. 24. St Mauritius’s Church. 10. Cathedral. 25. St Peter’s Church. 11. Diorama. 26. Tempelhaus (Exchange) 12. Post Office. Gymnasium 13. Church of the Minorites. 27. 28. St Pantaleon Church. 14. Museum of Paintings. 29 Garrison Lazaretto. 15. Eathhaus (Town Hall). 30. St Severin Church. imposing effect of the interior. (See Aechitectube, vol. ii. p. 431.) Many of the churches of Cologne are of interest both for their age and for the monuments and works of art they contain. In St Peter’s are the famous altar-piece by Rubens, representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several other works by Lucas of Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St Martin’s, built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine bapistery, and paintings by Du Bois and Honthorst; St Gereon’s, built in the 11th century on the site of a Roman rotunda, is noted for its mosaics

152

C 0 L—C 0 L and glass and oil paintings; the Minorite church, com- that of Spain and Portugal. About four-fifths lies to the menced in the same year as the cathedral, contains the north of the equator. On the Atlantic it possesses a coast line of upwards of Coast. tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned the 1000 miles, richly furnished with bays and natural harbours. Pantaleon church, a 12th century structure, with a monument to Theophania, wife of Otto II.,; St Cunibert, in Proceeding westward from Calabozo Creek, in the Gulf of the Byzantine-Moorish style, completed in 1248 ; St Maria Maracaibo, the first inlet of real importance which we im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne, dedicated in 1049 discover is the Bahia Honda, which is well protected from strong winds of the east and north, but is rendered by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ, and paintings; the unsuitable for the establishment of a port by its lack of St Cecilia, St Ursula, and St George. Other public drinkable water. Passing by the Bay of El Portete, we buildings are the Giirzenich, the former meeting-place of next reach the ports of Riohacha and Dibulla, of which the the diets of the German empire, built between 1441 a.nd former is of considerable commercial importance as a centre 1474, the great hall of which is capable of accommodating of exportation, though it is greatly surpassed by that of 3000 persons ; the Eathhaus, which dates from the 13th Santa Marta, which is the next to break the coast-line. century j .the Tempelhaus, built partly in the 12th century , Marta is situated at the side of the Cienega Lagoon, the Museum Wallraf-Bichartz, in which is a collection of Santa paintings by old Italian and Dutch masters, together with which stretches 25 miles from south to north, with a breadth some works by modern artists; the Zeughaus or arsenal, of 11 from east to west, has communication with the lakes Pajaral and Cuatro Bocas, and, though rather shallow, situated on Roman foundations; the Government buildings, of can be navigated by flat-bottomed steamboats. At the erected by Bircher in 1830 ; the archbishop’s palace, three mouth of the Magdalena lies the port of Barranquilla, and gymnasia, several normal and commercial schools and a short distance to the west that of Sabanilla, one of the literary and scientific institutions, and three theatres. Ihe university, founded in 1388, was suppressed by the French most active along the whole coast. After these comes the during their occupation of the country. The walls which splendid Bay of Carthagena, known for centuries to all surround the city are about seven miles in circuit. Outside navigators of the Caribbean; and still further to the west the walls, to the north side, are the Zoological and the the coast is broken by the port of Zapote, the Bay of Botanical Gardens. Cologne has a considerable trade in Zispata, the Gulf of Morrosquillo, and finally by the noble corn, wines, hides, and rape-seed with Holland, Belgium, Gulf of Darien, with the estuary of the Atrato and the and other countries; and steamers ply regularly between ports of Turbo, Guacuba, Candelaria, &c. Along the the city and the ports on the Rhine. The principal isthmus are the Mandinga Creek; the Bay of Portobello, manufactures are cotton yarn and stuffs, hosiery, woollens, so famous in the history of Spanish America; the modern silks, tobacco, sugar, soap, wax-lights, starch, malt, dyes, port of Colon, or Aspinwall, at the entrance of Navy Bay; white-lead, porcelain, carpets, brandy and spirits, eau-de- and the now decadent port of Chagres. The coast-line cologne, and leathern and metal wares. In 1815 the of the Pacific is hardly so important as that of the Atlantic, population of Cologne was 47,000; in 18^1 it amounted except along the isthmus, where it forms the great Bay of to 129,233, or, if that of Deutz be included, about Panama, with the subordinate inlets of Parita Bay on the west and the Gulf of San Miguel on the east. Along the 141,000. remainder of the line are Cupica, San Francisco, Solano, Cologne occupies the site of Oppidum Uliorum, the chief town Palmar, and Charambira (the last obstructed by a bar), of the Ubii, and there in 51 a.d. a Roman colony was planted by the Emperor Claudius, at the request of his wife Agrippina, the large Bay of Malaga, protected by the Isla de Palmas, who was born in the place. After her it was named Coloma with the harbours of Guapi and Izcuandd, the Bay of Pasa Agrippina or Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to be the chief town of Caballos, the harbour of Tumaco, and in the Island of Germania Secunda, and had the privilege of the Jus Italicum. Both Gorgona the fine harbour of Trinidad. Vitellius and Trajan were at Cologne when they became emperors. The western part of Colombia is one of the most moun- Surface, Statues, sarcophagi, and other Roman remains, and portions of the old Roman walls have been found at Cologne. About 330 the city tainous districts in the world; its eastern extension belongs was taken by the Franks, and in 475 it became the residence of the to the great plains of the Orinoco and the Amazon. I he French king Childeric. In 870 it was annexed to the empire. mountains are all more or less directly portions of the The bishopric was founded in 314, the archbishopric about the end of the 8th century; in the 14th century the arch- system of the Andes. Entering at the south from the bishops were made electors of the German empire. The last elector, territory of Ecuador, they form an extensive plateau from Maximilian, died in 1801. Cologne was besieged by Emperor which a large number of rivers take their rise. The portion Henry V. in 1160, and by Philip of Swabia in 1201. From 1452 to 1474, having taken part with England, it was excluded from the known as \\iq paramo of Cruz Verde has, according to SteinHanseatic League, of which it was one of the most important and heil, an elevation of 10,975 old Paris feet, or about wealthy cities. The intolerance of its magistrates in expelling 11,695 English feet. From this table-land the system Jews and Protestants, and the closing of the Rhine navigation in breaks up into three ranges, which stretch north through the 16th century by the Dutch, contributed to its decline. This nearly the whole length of the country, with a general last restriction having been removed in 1837, the trade of Cologne has greatly improved. In 1794 Cologne was taken by the French; parallelism of direction least maintained by the eastern it was ceded to them by the Treaty of Luneville in 1801, and from portion. Of these ranges the loftiest at first is the Central, that time till 1814, when it was restored to the Prussians, it was or the Cordillera of Quindiu, which contains the snowthe capital of the department of the Roer. peaks of Huila, Ruiz, and Tolima, the culminating peak of COLOMBIA, or, according to the official title, the the Andes north of the equator ; but in 5° 5 N. lat., Republic of the United States of Colombia, is a modern where this range sinks down, the Eastern rises to the snow confederation in South America, consisting^ of the nine limit, and is the most elevated of the three Cordilleras. states of Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyac&, Cauca, Cundinamarca, The Eastern Cordillera, or the Cordillera de la Suma Paz, Magdalena, Panamd, Santander, and Tolima, and comprising runs north-east to the paramos of Pamplona, from widen a considerable portion of the territory of the old Spanish it sends out a branch to meet the massif of the Sierra vice-rovalty of New Granada. It is bounded on the N. by Nevada of Santa Marta. In its passage through the state the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by Venezuela, on the S. by of Santander it attains in the Alto de el Viejo an altitude Ecuador and Brazil, and on the W. by the Pacific. It of 12,965 feet, in Alto de el Trio of 9965, and in tke thus extends from 12° 20’ N. to 2° 30’ S. lat., and from 65 Boca del Monte of 12,735. The Sierra Nevada is said to 50' to 83° 5' W. long.,—its total area being roundly reach a height of 23,779 feet, and it is certainly covered estimated at 500,000 square miles, or more than double with perpetual snow over a large part of its summit. The

COLOMBIA 153 Western Cordillera, or Cordillera de Choco, is the least boat-the “ Moltke ” three times to the town of Neiva remarkable of the three, and has been worn down in many The Cauca rises to the west of the source Tib' places into what are comparatively mere rounded hills with Magdalena, in the Lake of Santiago, -in the paramo of easy passages between; it continues northward, however Guanacas. In upper part of its course it flows through much further than the central chain, and in fact extends a volcanic regiontheand its waters are so impregnated with right through the Isthmus of Panamd. The llanos or plains of the Orinoco extend eastward sulphuric and other acids that they are destructive of fish from the slopes of the Cordillera de la Suma Paz. As far These acids are mainly contributed by the headstream of south as the Yichada they form an almost complete level the Rio Vmagre or Vinegar River, which rises in the destitute of trees, and affording abundant pasturage • while Purace volcano. The principal tributaries are the Piendamd further south they are covered with forests, display con- the Ovejas, the Palo, the Amaime, and the La Vieia from siderable irregularity of surface, and are not unfrequently the Central Cordillera; and the Jamundi and 1’large broken by steep rocks rising to a height of from 300 to number of minor streams from the Western. After tL junction of the Cauca and the Magdalena the united 600 feet. The fundamental formations throughout Colombia are stream attains an imposing breadth; but it breaks up into igneous and metamorphic, the great masses of the Cordilleras several channels before it falls into the sea. The River consisting of gneiss, granite, porphyry, and basalt. In many Atrato, which disembogues in the Gulf of Darien and places the Carboniferous strata have attained considerable separates the main branch of the Eastern Cordillera from development, though they have been thrown into strange the isthmmn ranges, is of high importance, not only in confusion by some unknown disturbance. Volcanic forces itself as an actual means of communication, but as affording are still at work, as is shown by occasional earthquakes and m the opinion of many engineers, one of the most feasible also by such phenomena as those at Batan near Sogamoso means of forming an interoceanic canal. So important where the subterranean heat is great enough to affect the was it regarded by Philip II. that its navigation was local climate. Glaciers are still extant in the Paramo del forbidden in 1730 on pain of death; and the prohibition Kuiz, and possibly in some of the other snow-clad heights. was not removed for a considerable period. The account The slopes of the various Cordilleras are frequently covered however, so frequently repeated, of the possibility of passing with deep beds of gravel; and the valleys are full of rom the Atlantic to the Pacific versant by means of a alluvial deposits of very various periods. The rivers have canal, excavated about 1788 in the Raspadura ravine by in many instances cut remarkable passages for themselves some enterprising monk, seems to have little or no foundathrough the mountains; and, according to Codazzi, the tion. The Atrato rises in the slopes of the Western Sogamoso has at one time been the outlet of a vast series Cordillera, has a course of about 300 miles, and a breadth, o lakes which he believed to have occupied the highlands during the last 96 miles, of from 750 to 1000 feet. Its epth in this lower part of its passage varies from 40 to of Bogota, Tunja, and Velez. 70 feet or even more. At Quibdd, 220 miles from the The rivers of Colombia belong almost entirely to the great Atlantic versant; but they are distributed by the embouchure, it is still 850 feet wide and 8 to 20 feet deep ,• principal water-shed in very various directions. The two and as the fall of the river is only about 3 inches to a mile most important are the Magdalena or Rio Grande and the steamboats can pass as far as the confluence of the San Cauca, which both flow from south to north through Pablo and Certigui, 32 miles above Quibdd. Of those rivers that belong to the Orinoco system the nearly the entire length of the country,—the former occupying the valley between the Eastern and the Central most important are the Guaviare, the Meta, and the ordifleras, and the latter that between the Central and Vichada. The first is formed of the Guayavero and the the Western. They unite about 130 miles before reaching iriwida, which flows from the mountains of Tunahl • and the sea but they so long maintain an independent course the principal tributaries of the second are the Chire, the t at neither can fairly be regarded as a mere tributary of Casanare, and the Lipa. Of those that belong to the Amazon are several tributaries of the Rio Negro branch, Ma al na takes its rise in a smaI1 and the Caqmta, or Japura. This last rises in the eastern called^ f1 ^ lake 0r slopes of the same table-land which gives birth to the Uktean °X Lake’ situated in ataU n? T Laa^ Pa as^ ESua °J . P \ It receives from thetheright hand the the Magdalena and the Cauca ; and its principal affluents are a the Rio Neiva, the Cabrera, Prado, tiie Pescado, the Caguan, and the Apoponi. Though fam0U 0f belonging to Colombia only by its head waters, there is LU:ryVa^ale, \f0rAhefalls Tequendama, the rnms'ri ’ ^ stream, ? Opon ) the Sagamoso, itself considerable and the Rio Cesar, a fine river froma another tributary of the Amazon which bids fair to be of great importance to the country as a means of communicaPaezSthrpa^lJa~a;i.ailifr0m the leffc the La Plata> the tion with Brazil. This river, the Rio Iga or PotumayoMid thl V-Ht006110 ’ the GuaIi’ the Samana, or nses m the Andes in the province of Pasto, under 2° N. ro and The Mn ovl alena i e °- S Rln° eNe / ’ various minor tributaries, iat has a total length from its source to its confluence of wavs >i \ ° . of the most important water high- J32 miles, receives in its course 36 affluents, of which il so rL ?deCfl°Utamake f y’ ? ^ °f the facfc tkafc it® current several would afford passage for steamboats, and waters and tJil tke upward voyage both difficult a region that abounds in gum elastic, sarsaparilla, cocoa, interruutprld b ’■a™'a native ^°?daboat ’ where the progress is nut-wood, Pasto resin, gold, and other means of wealth. takes oKi r r: y ^ ^ Its depth is from 7 to 34 feet during low water, and twice While n f6Wer than Sk£ a St even J 116 T’ ° ^ -great during flood ; at some places it has a breadth of is ]oW; n 300 feet, and its current is from 3 to 4 nautical miles an the stream sf 110 i returning against koweTer W nrT'8 ° ^ 50 to 200 tons burdeib hour. A steamer only takes 10 days to pass from the SillCe 1833 between Honda confluence with the Amazon to the mouth of the Guamu4s ; Barranqffina haulage and st ^ Hjnda raPlds can be surmounted by and this place is only 80 or 90 miles from the province of them in safet tbou b i Tfal ’of 1 y’ g there Pasto. The opening up of this route is due to Raphael and of 16 feefc Above tht noi , .1" cbannel ^ mi eS > tie first, Reyes, a full account of whose exploration will be found in 18 clear ab source and lb out half-way to the Petermann’s Mittheilungen for 1876. The only rivers tboUgb the traffic CM is still mainly carried on that remain to be noted are those of the isthmus ; and 0 name( Alexander these are chiefly of importance for their bearing on the eel, in 1875, -"Tt• in taking a ?large steamWeckbecke^succeTded^n'lSTS question of interoceanic communication. The principal VI. — 20

COLO M B i A aro the Chagres, disemboguing in the Atlantic, and the Pamplona, and forms an important Government monoTuyra, the Chepa or Bayanos, and the Chiriqui, which poly. Though Colombia is situated within the tropics, and, in Climate, find their way to the Pacific. fact, as we have seen, is crossed by the equator in its Lakes. Many of the Colombian rivers take their rise in mountain lakes, and several of them fill considerable basins in southern limits, its great irregularity of surface and its their course ; but throughout the country there are very extensive coast-lines develop a great variety of climatic few of those extensive sheets of water that form so usual a conditions. A comparatively short journey transports the feature in most mountainous regions. The River Cesar flows traveller from the sultry valley of the Magdalena, where through the lakes of Zipatosa and Adentro; between the the water grows tepid and the stones burning hot in the Cauca and the ISTechi lies Lake Caceres, as well as several sun’s rays, to the summits of a mountain where the snow others of less importance ; the district of Tunja still pre- lies cold from year to year. In the table-lands and valleys serves the Lake of Tota j and in Bogota is the famous of the Eastern and Western Cordilleras, at a height of 800 Guatavita, where the Muiscas are reputed to have sunk their to 9500 feet above the level of the sea, there are two dry seasons and two rainy, the former commencing at the treasures. Minerals. Colombia is distinctively a mineral country, and the list solstices and the latter at the equinoxes, while in the of its productions in this department includes gold, silver, lowlands both of the Pacific and the Atlantic seaboard there platinum, copper, lead, iron, mercury, and antimony, is only one dry and one rainy of six months each. In the limestone, potash, soda, magnesia, alum, and salt, coal Gulf of Darien and the Isthmus of Panamd there is no such and asphalt, emeralds, amethysts, and amber. Many of distinction, and rain occurs in any part of the year. The the most important deposits are as yet untouched, owing greatest mean temperature in the country is about 86 Fahr., mainly to the defective state of internal communication, and and the lowest in the inhabited parts of the Cordilleras is even those that have been worked have proved much less about 44°. At Honda, which is about 1000 feet above remunerative from the same cause. Gold especially is very sea-level, the daily range of the thermometer is only from widely diffused; it was freely used by the natives before 8° to 12°, and the annual not more than 20°. “The the arrival of Europeans, and formed a valuable source of hottest place,” says Mosquera, to whom we are largely revenue to the Spanish Government, who employed indebted, “ which I have found in New Granada, is the thousands of negroes and Indians in the task of collection. port of Ocana, where I have on several occasions seen the It is principally obtained from alluvial deposits ) and in thermometer in the shade at 104° Fahr.'’ In the llanos of some districts there is hardly a stream that would not the Orinoco the mean annual temperature is about 80 furnish its quota. Hydraulic appliances were introduced Fahr., while in the forest district to the south the average about 1870 in some of the workings; and a more systematic is about 8° higher. In the latter the rain is distributed treatment is being gradually adopted. Antioquia is the throughout the year, while in the former the seasons are most important gold-producing state in the confederation ; distinctly marked, and from November till April the rains the total value of gold and silver exported from the capital fall in torrents accompanied with dreadful thunderstorms. In keeping with this variety of climate the Colombian plants, in 1875 was 2,403,241 dollars; there were upwards of eighty lode mines at work in 1875 ; and 15,000 men and women flora ranges from purely tropical forms in the lowlands up are employed in the mining. The silver frequently occurs to purely Alpine or boreal types in the mountains. The in very rich lodes ; but, owing it would seem to various tree limit on Tolima, in the Central_ chain, is. 10,360 economical causes, many of the mining operations have feet. The country abounds with extensive forests, in which been unsuccessful. The “ Santa Anna ” mines in Tolima, timber of gigantic proportions waits for the settler’s axe. which were worked from 1826 to 1873 (for some years under Besides several of the common species of palm trees which the direction of Mr Robert Stephenson, the railway engineer), are found as high as 2500 feet above the sea, there are two yielded during that period about £700,000 worth of ore, remarkable species, the Ceroxylon andicola, Palma de Cera, but ultimately proved a failure. The “ Frias ” silver mine, or Wax-palm, and the Oreodoxa regia, or Palmita del belonging to the Tolima Mining Company of London, Azufral, which in company with the oak, frequently clothe yielded in 1875 300 tons of ore valued at £100 per ton. the Cordilleras to a height of 6000 or 8000 feet. They The emerald mines are remarkable as being the only known are both of extreme beauty, and the former shoots up to source of the genuine stone. They are situated at Muzo, about 180 or 200 feet. From the Sierra Nevada and in the state of BoyacA, in the Central Cordillera, to the other districts are obtained logwood, Brazil-wood, and north of Bogota. Soon after the Spanish Conquest they were fustic; and the Myroxylon toluifera, from which the balsam worked on a large scale by the Government ; but towards of Tolu is collected, grows luxuriantly on the banks of the the close of the 18th century it was found that it cost 6500 Rio Negro. Excellent Indiau-rubber is obtained'from the pesos to extract 1000 pesos worth of emerald, and they Gastilloa elastica, a lofty and luxuriant tree, which occurs in were consequently abandoned (see Ezpeleto’s report in considerable abundance in Panamd, Cauca, and other states. lielac. de los Vireyes, p. 347). After the war of independ- The quantity and quality of the material might be greatly ence the mines were appropriated by the republic, from increased and improved, as the collection is still in the which a French company obtained a monopoly from 1864 hands of a very rude and careless class of men. Under to 1874. During this period the stones found a ready the superintendence of Mr Cross the tree is being introduced market in Paris, where green was the imperial colour. into British India. Cinchona of six or seven different Since the expiry of the contract the mines havebeen demono- varieties is common throughout the country,—the elevation polized. The emeralds are found in two distinct layers of most favourable for its growth being between 7800 and calcareous bitumen, the upper of which is black and friable, 9000 feet above the sea. Of other medicinal plants there and the under compact. In the upper the emeralds may be mentioned the aloe, the sarsaparilla, the albataque, occur in “ nests/’ in the lower in veins, and usually in and the vine of the cross. The cotton plant grows wild the neighbourhood of bands of fluor-spar. The finest stones in many parts and yields an excellent fibre; indigo is may be worked up to a value of £20 a carat; the worst indigenous; and an almost endless variety of fruits are _ sorts are only worth about 5s. Coal is pretty generally found throughout the country. The fauna is perhaps hardly so rich as the flora, but it Aiuma a. distributed throughout the republic, and the great bed of Cali probably extends to the Pacific. Rock-salt is does not fall far behind. Of monkeys there are at least obtained in the table-lands of Bogota, Tunja, and seventeen distinct species; the feline race is represented 154

COLOMBIA 155 by seven or eight, including the puma and the jaguar; there are two species of bears; the alligator swarms in the 111 7l 0m the Magdalena and some of the other rivers; deer are common custom-ho^ses^establislfe^a^Binmaventur^^arlosama ^ j. Io7>u 7o tlie various receipts were rimfoinQ o 'i'jk akci t* at various elevations; the sloth, the armadillo, the guagua monopoly, 799,213 ; PaniaSwar 2™ 0M • to^afT^ (Ccelogenus subniger), the opossum, and the cavy prevail in 67,609; telegraphs, 10,627; mint, ^is,000; nitihal property’ the forests, and the tapir or danta wanders in the higher 72 595 ; ecclesiastical property, 6506. The customs would yield a regions. Aanong the birds may be mentioned the condor still greater return were it not for smuggling, which prevails and ten other birds of prey, several species of swallows, largely, especially at Cartagena. The tariff hitherto in usJdivides aitides into classes, which pay so much per kilogramme; and thus numerous varieties of parrots, paroquets, lories, and the burden of the duty falls most on inferior goods. The salt cockatoos, cranes and storks, the pleasant-singing tropial, works yielded m 1869-70, 136,568 cwts., of which 81 per cent obtained from Cundinamarca, 18 per cent, from Boyaca, and and the strangely-coloured sol-y-lune, which takes its name was 1 per cent, from the territory of San Martin. The postal service is Communifrom the figure of the sun and moon on its wings. The m a very backward state, and the charges are very high • but cation boa constrictor, the yaruma, the cascabel, and various other still his cannot be otherwise till the road system of the country has serpents are frequent enough in the warmer regions, but been developed. Eapid progress, however, is being made by several are not met with at a greater height than 5400 feet above of the states m this preliminary undertaking. In April 1875 there the sea. Insects are abundantly represented, the most f tele ra 11600 “iles ph, the principal lines stretch! t0 Bo ota« ando from important practically being the ants, which in some districts TnS l i # ’, Ambalema to Manizales. to al as for instance the isthmus, are almost a plague. Turtle 500,000. ^nnnnrf *1In the f less number of telegraphic messages amounted to populous districts the maintenance of the abounds on the coasts; and pearl-oysters are the object of fines is very costly, as not only are the wires stolen by thieves, but they are frequently damaged by the monkeys, who use them for a very considerable fishery. purposes. The only two railways actually in operation LgriculAgriculture holds the first place among the industries of gymnastic a ^ Barranqmlla fhe Panama (17 linemiles); (46 miles), and efforts the line Sabanilla Colombia; but the methods employed are still of a very and but great arebetween being made, both rude description. Maize, wheat, and other cereals are by the central Government and by the separate states, to construct cultivated on the elevated plains; rice, cotton, tobacco, lines throughout the country, and contracts have already been made sugar, coffee, cocoa, yams, arracacha, and bananas for some of the most important. The national property consists of waste lands, which are allotted to applicants on very in the coast region. Tobacco is especially successful mainly liberalterms- A great deal of the church property confiscated by m Ambalema, Carmen, Palmira, Jiron, and Morales, the republic has been sold; some of it is rented out; and manv of and it foims an important export. In the plains of the the convents are used for public offices. The public debt amounted to 10,105,500 dollars, of which 10,000,000 are the old debts Orinoco and the undulating savannahs of Panama the m 1875, tde f independence, whichcleared pay anoff.interest cent. breeding of cattle and horses is largely carried on by the m, Ihe English °debt of 1863 has been Thereofis 44 noper national creole inhabitants, and several of the Indian tribes are also in navy, and the armed force in time of peace only amounts to 1420 possession of valuable herds. Beyond such common (almost men; in time of war the states have to furnish 1 per cent, of their domestic) trades as hand-weaving, dyeing, tanning, and population. The separate states have their own constitutions and basket-making, there is almost no manufacturing industry dencies°rS’ ^ t lCy differ considcraWy in their political tenin the country, though the basis for future development has i Ti;16but, c^ncntional condition in of Colombia hitherto been very Education, been laid by the establishment in Bogota of glass-works low by a law published 1870, the has management of public distilleries, a cigar-factory, and a sulphuric acid factory! instruction was taken from the hands of the clergy and intrusted the state, a complete reform of the school system was effected One product of the domestic industry alone finds its place toeachers were introduced from Europe, and compulsory education the llst of m . . exports—namely, straw hats, usually known was adopted. In this last point Colombia has taken the lead in as jipijapa or Panamd hats. The raw produce, however A e Woidd ff T an attendance - 111 Antioquia, 486 21,500; schools were in operation in 1873’, with of about in Bolivar, 44; in is largely exported ; the principal articles being cinchona !o7o. i0 aC 8 sc ols bark, indigo, coffee, cotton, tobacco, silver ore, hides, and ri 9925; n(,ort° •in Cundinamarca, fi° ), with 229, 338, 9000 with pupils; 16,489 ; inin Cauca, Magdalena, tiie minor items—ivory-nuts, ipecacuanha, and balsam of with iOO, with 2968 ; in Santander, 300, with 11,974; in Tolima, 100 ioiu. the relation between the exports and imports and schools and 3640 scholars. In Panama the state of education is the variations of amount from year to year will be seen by not so good, but public schools are being established there also. J Ihe expense is borne partly by the special states and partly by the the following table :— national treasury, which devotes 317,120 dollars annually to this 1 o/’q Imports. [Exports. purpose, assigning 200,000 to subsidize the states, and 117,120 to S 7,255,092 dollars. 8,137,000 dollars. the_ institutions_ for the higher education. These include the 5,843,451 8,077,153 national university, the Yasquez academy, and schools of engineer{oil 5,862,711 8,247,817 mg, natural science, &c., established in the federal capital, state JsJo 8,427,175 8,253,806 colleges, and normal schools. istitu tu 10,500,000 It can hardly be said that Colombia possesses a national litera- Literature 11111 11 12,500,000 f Co 0mbia is i. basis oftheTonsfiT !! * ° I republican, —the main ture, the writing and printing hitherto effected serving mainly ing model of fC n -f*1° o?! ^“heme drawn up in 1863 after the the immediate purpose of the day. Its inheritance of the Spanish power is exeroifiPanedi10tateS °I an America. The executive language, however, leaves it in vital contact with one of the The nresidonHai i L- Presi nd drawFace affor 3 a for tb/p ^ d favourite promenade instrumental parts different from the vocal. The same bv ,EUrOI)ri Prlafcioni Petfcah is mainly inhabited practice, however, was adopted by several of Colonna’s suburb pia/;, castes i and Colpetty is a beautiful contemporaries. COLONNA, Yittoria (1490-1547), the daughter of species'of HN ° t^e Stj00tS are fine,y sliaded with a SCWS Fabrizio Coionna, grand constable of the kingdom of he older F PeanhoUS0S Plantedbear by the Dutch; and the most of the marks of tion m i! Dntch occupa- Naples, and of Anna da Montefeltre, daughter of the Good Duke Frederick of Urbino, was born at Marino, and k G ombo contain3 tl16 Government offices and courts, the s altcivil and milita^ authorities, a Roman fief of her father’s house. Betrothed when En an Roman CaihoT Sl d bishop, and a centre for four years old, at the instance of Ferdinand of Ara-on 0 1 es e an organizations ^Ike ^ rinci ! y a» Baptist, and other missionary to Francisco D’Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she orQueen’s Ur' P 0OUrfcP house l buildings are the Government received the highest education, and gave early proof of a love the asylum thet ’et tbe ' ’ town-hall, the lunatic ot letters. Her hand was sought, among other suitors, by Galle Face W 1Caddejai1..milltar y barracks and hospitals at the dukes of Savoy and Braganga, but at seventeen, as the nublk • S ’ and Wolfendahl church; amon- she ardently desired, her marriage with D’Avalos took place. m y be St letS eX f Thomas's col® Ihe couple resided on the islet of Ischia till 1511, when 1821 • Weslev'c n ac i00 ’ loonded by Bishop Chapman in the husband offered his sword to the Holy League, in school establish0 ]mduSl 'r'la* scho°l 1 the medical whose service he was taken at Ravenna (1512), and carried a branch “f '.f l"1 8(°’ Wi(h s“ ^^hips attached; to France. During the months of exile and the long Asiatic S ciet theUnfed st' b Xrav; ° y’ wit,la and the years of campaigning that followed this mishap, they correcoloniataedtTl the ■nilitacymedical sponded in most passionate terms, in prose and verse. They ; Pettah library establishedt 1829^it w”T ’ saw each other but seldom, for Pescara was one of Charles model farmimnrT \ ke^^'horticultural and the Y.’s most brilliant and active captains; but Yittoria’s inaugurated by Prince Alfred. society; The cinnamon influence over him was sufficient to keep him, after Pavia

158

C 0 L —0 O L

(1525), from joining the projected league against the triumphant faction within the native state. The polity of new community, often founded in defiance of the home emperor, and to make him refuse the crown of Naples that the authorities, might either be a copy of that just left behind was offered him as the price of his treason. The same or be its direct political antithesis. But wherever they year he died of wounds at Milan. Yittoria, who was went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek hastening to tend him, received the news of his death at blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as Yiterbo. She halted, and turned off to Rome, whence, in Magna Gracia and Sicily, it was mingled, with that of after a brief stay, she departed for Naples. There she the aboriginal races, the Greek emigrants carried with them remained for about ten years. She refused several suitors, the Hellenic spirit and the Hellenic tongue ; and the and began to produce those Rime Spintuah that form so colonies fostered, not infrequently more rapidly and more distinct a feature in her works. In 1536 she left Naples brilliantly than at home, Greek literature, Greek art, and for Ferrara, calling at Rome, where she was visited by Greek speculation. The relation to be preserved towards Charles Y., and whither in 1538 she came to take up the mother states was seldom or never definitely arranged. her abode. In Rome, besides winning the esteem ol But filial feeling and established custom secured a measure Reginald Pole and Cardinal Contarim, she became the of kindly sympathy, shown by precedence yielded at public obiect of a passionate friendship on the part of Michel- games, and by the almost invariable abstinence of the angelo, then in his sixty-fourth year. The great artist colony from a hostile share in wars in which the mother wrote for her some of his finest sonnets, made drawings city was engaged. for her, and spent long hours in her society. Her removal The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether from Rome to Orvieto (1541), on the occasion of her different. No Roman colony started without the sanction brother Ascanio Colonna’s revolt against Paul 111., and and direction of the public authority ; and while the Colonia her subsequent residence in Yiterbo (1541 45), where Romance differed from the Colonia Latina in that the Reginald Pole was governor and legate, produced no former permitted its members to retain their political rights change in their relations; they visited and corresponded as before. She returned to Rome in 1546, and died there intact, the colony, whether planted within, the bounds of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or Britain, remained an about the end of February 1547. integral part of the Roman state. In the earlier colonies, The amatory and elegiac poems of Yittoria Colonna, which are the state allotted to proposing emigrants from amongst the production of a delicate and sympathetic imitativeness rather than of a vigorous and original talent, were printed at Parma in the needy or discontented class of citizens portions of 1538 ; a second edition appeared in the following year ; a third, such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile people, containing sixteen of the Rime Spirituali, was published at the state took into its possession as public property. Florence soon afterwards; and a fourth, including a still larger At a later time, especially after the days of Sulla, the proportion of the religious element, was issued at Venice m 1544. COLONY. The term colony, often loosely applied, distribution of the territories of a vanquished Roman party is most commonly used to denote a settlement of the sub- was employed by the victorious generals as an easy means jects of a sovereign state in lands beyond its boundaries, of satisfying the claims of the soldiery by whose help they owning no allegiance to any foreign power, and retaining a had triumphed. The Roman colonies were thus not merely greater or less degree of dependence on the mother country. valuable as propugnacula of the state, as permanent The founding and the growth of such communities furnish supports to Roman garrisons and armies, but they proved matter for an interesting chapter in the history as well of a most effective means of extending over wide bounds the ancient as of modern civilization ; and the regulation of language and the laws of Rome, and of inoculating the the relations between the parent state and its dependencies inhabitants of the provinces with more than the rudiments abroad gives rise to important problems alike in national of Roman civilization. The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman policy and in international economics. It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that empire by the northern barbarians had little in common led the Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands with colonization. The Germanic invaders came from no and along the southern coast of the Mediterranean ; and settled state ; they maintained loosely, and but for a short even beyond the Pillars of Hercules this earliest great while, any form of brotherhood with the allied tribes. A colonizing race left enduring traces of its maritime nearer parallel to Greek colonization may be found in supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the Phoenician Iceland, whither the adherents of the old Norse polity fled settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests and from the usurpation of Harold Haarfager ; and the early strengthen her military power; and these sub-colonies natu- history of the English pale in Ireland shows, though not in rally remained in strict subjection to her power, whereas orderliness and prosperity, several points of resemblance to the other young Phoenician states assumed and asserted the Roman colonial system. Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day. of entire independence. In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those power planted numerous trading posts on various portions of the Phoenicians. From a very early period the little of the Mediterranean shores, of which some almost deserve civic communities of Greece had sent forth numerous colo- the name of colonies, the history of modern colonization, on nizing streams. At points so far asunder as the Tauric a great scale opens with the Spanish conquests in America. Chersonese, Cyrene, and Massilia were found prosperous The first Spanish adventurers came, not to colonize, but to centres of Greek commercial energy ; but the regions most satisfy as rapidly as possible and by the labour °f .. thickly peopled by settlers of Greek descent were the enslaved aborigines, their thirst for silver and gold. Iheir western seaboard of Asia Minor, Sicily, and the southern conquests were rapid, but the extension of their permanen parts of the Italian peninsula. Nor were the least prosper- settlements was gradual and slow. The terrible cruelty a ous communities those which were sprung from earlier first exercised on the natives was restrained, not merely by colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective officia Greek colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pres- measures ; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and Creoles sure created by the narrow limits of the home country coin- lived on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians an cided with an adventurous desire to seek new sources of with the half-breed population. Till the general an wealth beyond seas ; but very many Greek emigrations successful revolt of her American colonies, Spain mainwere caused by tlie expulsion of tbe inhabitants of conquered tained and employed the latter directly and solely for wna cities, or by the intolerable domination of a hated but she conceived to be her own advantage. Her commercial

COLONY 159 policy was one of most irrational and intolerable restriction surface of the globe, and nearlv tt>« and repression ; and till the end of Spanish rule on the its population. The various origfn of thes“ ookSto11 °f American continent, the whole political power was retained sions, and their different relations to the Crown ofPGreJt by the court at Madrid, and administered in the colonies Britain, suggest the question, How the foreign dependencies P dencies by an oligarchy of home-bred Spaniards. of a sovereign state may best be classified 1 The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects t is clear that the ultimate constitution of a colonv resembling that of Spain, is remarkable for the developdepends but little on the manner in which the territory ment there given to an institution sadly prominent in the for settling was originally acquired. Whether it was bv history of the European colonies. The nearness of Brazil conquest or by formal cession from a foreign power the to the coast of Africa made it easy for the Portuguese to new population, even if, as in the case of Canada, it at’first supply the growing lack of native labour by the wholesale consisted largely of people alien in blood and language to importation of purchased or kidnapped Africans. the colonizmg country, may soon obtain a constitution and Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial to the_ruling state identical with those of lands possessions they displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating relations originally acquired from thinly-scattered and wandering the prejudices of native races, and even for assimilating savages merely by the occupancy of citizen emigrants. Of themselves to the latter. But neither this nor the genius eqUal l ninportance for the future of successive governors and commanders succeeded in the tW? Ii motives which led the earliest organization of colony are the settlers to preserving for France her once extensive colonies in Canada migrate. The caprice of mere adventurers, the desperate or her great inHuence in India. In Algeria the French Government has not merely found a practical training desire ° broken men to repair their fortunes, and the school for her own soldiers, but by opening a recruiting tein determination of public-spirited men to escape for field amongst the native tribes it has added an avaib ever some unendurable civi! or religious grievance at home, Imye m them turn given rise to colonies now hardly distinable contingent to the French army. The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying guishable in their general features. Whether the^migratrade of the various European colonies. They have still tion be purely voluntary and undertaken with or without extensive plantations in the East Indian Archipelago • and official sanction, or systematically promoted by a Governthough their settlement at the Cape passed into° British ment for the furtherance of national commerce or in order hands, a republic of Dutch-speaking boers maintains a to relieve itself of over-population; whether the new lands precarious existence northward from the British possessions f jded °Ver .under a r°yal charter to a company, or The Danish and Swedish dependencies in the Antilles are g anted, as proprietary, to an individual, the traces of the initiatory conditions may speedily disappear. And around but trifling in extent or importance. It is the English-speaking race that has shown an un°UfcPi°S\fi mere tradinS factoIT> or the prison exampled energy and capacity for colonization. The wX3, X? ? a Peiial settlement, a numerous and enterprizing English settlements in Virginia, Mew England, Maryland popu ation may soon be tending increasing herds or engaged S 8 and Pennsylvania had, between the second decade of the in the steady and profitable tillage of the soil. Ifie circumstances whereon the characteristic develop17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century, developed mto a new nation that was soon able to take rank with ment and permanent constitution of the colony depend are e physical conditions of the territory—its climate and its the most powerful of European states. Promoted in great A colony in the fullest sense of our usage of the measure by the desire to escape from the political or products. c re iglous oppression of the English court, the transatlantic erm a,n arise only where the European colonist may look settlements were, though remaining under governors on his adopted habitation as his permanent home, where appointed by England, permitted to arrange their civil fa n and rear his cllildren bll+r XX? T their ? in robust ealth, where his and growing patriotism may come polity—necessarily assuming a democratic shape—very to regard their interests as bound up with the well-being UC S c 030 anc a ]later | their ,^ . distance, saved > *>thet colonies first, troubles at home, and of the community of which they form a part. Here alone from much political can daughter lands ” hope to establish a polity that, ThoughTr ^Pa-fc °f SUCCessive EnSlisl1 Governments. without wholly severing the bond that unites them to the ^ , Ration Laws ” and other enactments, parent country, shall secure for them the self-government Sf eTt t^n TOy3-rd?rtak0n t0 r0^ate, in her own which the British emigrant regards as his birthright. betW6en herself and ter Mew nations of the European stock can arise only where Amer can^i r"01 ^ in the the cereals thrive, where the settler can without physical tioT on ’ enCr0achment , matter of taxaspirit that in 177? «mt3i ^ then eiWed Provoked the herm undergo the fatigue of rearing and tending his flocks these Unted p17i76- S°lemnly Published and declared that and where the line that divides master from servant is ri htou bt Setdent S g to be, free and narrow and easily passed—that is, in a temperate climate. 6 V St the United tat S Telr eVQ ?!her unoccupied territories of On these conditions it depends whether a foreign settlement citizens grants?^ ^ l } ^ ^ immi- shall be, on the one hand, an agricultural or pastoral colony, J< them ekin SC0 e for their prize beytnd the ^f g P enter- or, on the other, ^plantation colony merely. In the plantahe method 1 the ,rec°gmzed limits of the Republic ; but tion the European is a cultivator too, and may from year 7hicl1 the United States G0vera- to year superintend his crops of sugar, coffee, or tobacco; settlemenfs • a® continuous westward advance of new but Ins relation to the soil on which he lives is comparatively a loose and transitory one. The diflflculty of mainSwt fapL“l7 a SyStem of Tlo fte Federal OotemmentaTilldgtbe rmed iV “ter;itory” >>7 ainmg health undeteriorated by the tropical climate for limit high ennnah f •’ reaches a fixed more than a few years, and the impossibility of rearing a a population dem the Union on antt and to be admitted to amily in physical vigour, compel the planter to regard “ American Coh>n,W f0°Qm? Wlth the other Sfcates. The Europe, as his home, even though his interests in the philanthropic experiment^001??” bas made 1X1 mteresting plantation pass to sons bred in a northern climate. They freedmen in Africa • the or tbe establishment of negro in their turn go abroad only to hasten home as soon as Republic of Liberia^ msultis the existing independent their views of what constitutes a competency admit. The number of European residents remains small; and the ex stdn c dencies of Great ^ g one-sixth °lonies nf andtn.depen- necessity of employing negro or coolie labour must divide ureat Butain cover about the population into two castes,—one of masters and one of

160

COLONY

dependencies, and to additional expense in providing against servants. And thus results the impossibility of that equal risk ; while the colonies are liable to be dragged into distribution of privileges and of responsibilities wherein lies that wars with which they have no concern. The good-will the advantage of local self-government. Into one or other arising from the sense of common origin would, it is said, of the two classes of colonies thus distinguished those some- amply" maintain all the mutual advantages enjoyed under times technically termed mining and trading colonies are, the present system, and would secure a virtual confederacy. according to circumstances, likely to pass. The trading colony, The democratic experiments some of our colonies have been so long as it is a mere factory or emporium of commodities, freely permitted to carry out, and their trade legislation, differs but little from the settlements of Europeans within divergent from that of England, the incorporative federathe bounds of foreign states such as China, sometimes tion of contiguous colonies, and the withdrawal of royal loosely spoken of as colonies of Europeans. I he term troops from the most developed colonial communities, are internal colonization is occasionally used of schemes tor by many regarded as actual steps taken in the direction of promoting the prosperity of thinly-peopled and unfertile an eventual separation. To another class of theorizers it areas in some European states. The military colonies appears that a “personal union,” the entire legislative planted by Austria along her southern frontier serve a independence of the colonies with allegiance to the so\ ereign useful and very obvious purpose. . of the old country, would better secure the well-being of The Colonial Office List arranges British dependencies the several parts of the empire thus constituted; while under three heads, according to their governmental relations again others contend that the interests of England and with the English Crown. Officially, British _ colonial of her possessions abroad, and the cause of freedom and possessions” are either:—!. “Crown colonies, in which civilization throughout the world, would gain if the bonds the Crown has the entire control of legislation, while of relation were yet more closely drawn together, and if prothe administration is carried on by public officers under the vision could be made for the representation of the colonies control of the Home Government; 2. Colonies possessing in the imperial parliament. Meanwhile, that parliament is representative institutions but not responsible government, supreme over the whole British empire; all the proceedings in which the Crown has no more than a veto on legislation, in the colonial legislatures are liable to be annulled by the but the Home Government retains the control of public Crown. The Crown appoints all governors, is the supreme officers ; 3. Colonies possessing representative institutions fountain of justice, and has the sole right of declaring peace and responsible government, in which the Crown has only and war save in so far as that power is, under certain cona veto on legislation, and the Home Government has no ditions, delegated to the Governor-general of India; while control over any officer except the governor. . . . Under the admitted aim of colonial policy is to develop the colonies responsible government the executive councillors are socially, politically, and commercially quite as much as if appointed by the governor alone with reference to the their ultimate independence were the end contemplated. exigencies of representative government, the other public Whether European Governments systematically encourage officers by the governor on the advice of the Executive or repress emigration, it is clear that the overgrowth of Council. In no appointment is the concurrence of the population in the more densely-peopled centres of the old Home Government requisite.” Some of the dependencies civilization must continue to send forth emigrants and to ranked here as Crown colonies can be called colonies only increase the already rapid growth of the existing colonies. in a very loose sense. Military stations, such as Gibraltar, It is significant for the future of European colonization that, Malta, Aden, are convenient both to the navy and the commercial marine as coaling stations or ports for repair and of available territory in the temperate regions of America for provisioning. The distinction between classes 2 and 3 is and Australasia (the temperate portions of Central Asia manifestly temporary, in most cases at least; there being, being, as inaccessible, ill adapted for European settlements), per cent, is calculated to belong to the Anglofor example, no reason why an agricultural colony like that eighty Saxon race; and while the colonies of the English-speaking at the Cape, at present without “ responsible government,” race have welcomed industrious men of all nationalities, should not ere long possess that privilege. India, a “ Crown colony ” in the list, is rarely spoken of under that name; tongues, and religious and political prepossessions, the the enormous numerical disparity between the handful of colonial institutions, even where they differ most widely m administration from those of England, bear an unmisresident Europeans and the millions of civilized natives their takably English stamp, and have been manifestly moulded makes it seem incongruous to put India under the same by an English spirit. category as Canada or Victoria, and to some extent justiSee Heeren, Geschichte d. Europ. Staatensystems u. seiner fies the recent adoption of the title “ Empress of India Colonien, 1809 ; H. Merivale, Lectures on Colonization by the Queen. Colonies, 1839-41, new edition, 1861 ; Arthur Mills, C'ota jnIt is rather the force of circumstances than the consistent stitutions, 1856 ; Sir E. Creasy, Imperial and maintenance of any definite policy that has shaped the rela- of the Britannic Empire, 1872 ; W E. Forster, Our Colonial tion of England to her various dependencies. But the Empire, 1875. The following table, which is based on the latest returns an colonial policy of the future has of late been largely debated, and with widely divergent issues. The “ colonial system ” estimates, indicates the extent and population of the coiomal posof the various European countries, but does not include any so long maintained by England, as well as by all other sessions colony that was settled before the 15th century . powers, iias been finally abandoned. No one now claims Great Britain. that the mother country has the right, still less that in Area. Population. self-defence she is bound, to restrict and hamper the trade Eng. sq. miles. of the colony for her own benefit; nor are there now found Europe— _ 2,000 Heligoland (German coast) » many to advocate the differential duties in favour of colonial 15,000 Gibraltar (Spain) ^ produce, which that ancient system rendered all but neces150,000 Malta, &c. (Mediterranean) H5 sary. Many, indeed, go to an opposite extreme, and argue N. America— 4,000,000 that for both sides it would be better that the interdependent Dominion of Canada 3,o00,000 161,000 Newfoundland 40,000 relation should be totally sundered, and each colony, as 12,000 Bermudas 1 250,000 soon as possible, left to shift for itself. The trade of neither West India Islands, various 14,000 25,000 party, it is alleged, gains anything by the maintenance of Honduras (Central America) 13,500 the connection; the European state is exposed to needless 5^615^000 Carry forward 3,567,646 risk in time of war by her responsibility to her scattered

c 0 L —C O L Brought forward S. America— Guiana Falkland Islands Africa— Ascension and St Helena West Coast Settlements Cape Colony Natal .. Mauritius, &c Asia— Aden and Perim India Ceylon Straits Settlements Labuan (Borneo) Hong Kong (China) Australasia— Australia.. Tasmania New Zealand Oceania— Fiji

'Area. Eng. sq. miles. Population 3,567,646 5,615,000 76,000 194,000 6,500 800 80 6,300 17,000 578,000 230,000 1,110,000 11,200 290,000 70S 316,000 12 26,000 938,360 191,300,000 25,740 2,406,000 1,210 308,000 45 4,900 32 120,000 3,000,000 1,725,000 26,215 105,000 106,250 345,000 8,030 85,000 8,015,028 204,535,000

America' kance. St Pierre and Miquelon (Newfoundland 81 Martinique, Guadeloupe, &c. (West Indies) 1,093 Guiana (South America) 47"000 Africa— Algeria 150,500 Coast of Senegambia 10,000 Coast of Guinea 7 759 Mayotte Island and Madagascar Settlements 270 Reunion (Indian Ocean) 970 Asia— Pondicheny, &c. (India) , .... 200 Cochin China 21 700 Oceania— New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands 7,600 Marquesas ’473 247,642 America— Spain. Cuba and Porto Rico (West Indies) Africa— Ceuta, Tetuan, &c. (Marocco) Canary Islands Coast of Guinea Asia— Philippines (Eastern Archipelago) Oceania— Caroline, Pelew, and Marion Islands „ Portugal. turope— Azores Africa— Madeira Cape Verd Islands ’ Coasts of Senegambia and Guinea Angola J^ique, &c. (East Coast) AsiaGoa, &c. (India)

J

>

te^Cer...i8la.n*.(Ea“,m

i

2,150,000 200,000 180,000 28,500 194,000 266,000 1,486,000 60,000 10,000 4,919,500 2,250,000

3,250 850

33,000 237,000 30,000

65,800

6,000,000

1,300 120,703

34,000 8,584,000

1,000

250,000

320 j ^qq 500 300 000 380,’000 j 610

115,000 70,000 33,000 2,000,000 300,000 528,000 250,000 72,000 37618,000

Holland.

a &C (W St Illdies

Guian°a h ; - x Cmana (S. America) Asia-

315,000 25,000

49,500

690,451 America—

5,000

436 66j000

40,000 70,000

615,000 661,436

24,000,000 24,110,000

161 , , Denmark. Greenland— Coast Settlements America— St Thomas Ac. ("West Indies) ,

Area. Eng. sq. mUes

Population

34 000 ’ 140

37,700

34,140

47,500

9,800

Sweden. America— St Bartholomew (West Indies)

2,900 COLOPHON, an ancient city of Asia Minor, situated a s rort distance from the coast, and about eight miles north ot Lphesus. It was founded by the lonians, but did not take part m the great political festival of the Apaturia. the principal facts in its history are its capture by the Persians and its depopulation by Lysimachus. At a later date the name was not unfrequently applied to the contiguous city of Notium, which continued to tiourish till the time of Cicero at least. The site of Colophon is easily determined, but there are hardly any traces of its buildings It claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, and, besides various lesser names, it numbered among its celebrities Mimnermus the elegiac poet, and Nicander the author of the 1 kenaca. Its name was given to a resin obtained from the pines on the neighbouring Mount Gallesus, and is still recognizable in “ colophony,” and in the French colophane. the ailment proverb, rw Ko\owa irriSrjKtv (he has put the Colophon to the matter), has likewise left its trace in the modern languages, and more particularly in the vocabulary ot bibliography, where the word “colophon” is employed to designate the concluding lines of early printed works containing the title, date, &c. The adage is said to have arisen either from the decisive influence of the Colophonian cavalry m a contest, or from the fact that the citizens had the casting vote in the great Ionian assembly. COLORADO, one of the United States of North America. Boundaries : N., Wyoming and Nebraska ; E. Nebraska and Kansas; S., the Indian Territory and New Mexico; and W., CJtah. Latitude, between 37° and 41° N.; longitude, from 102° to 109° W. Breadth N. to S. about 280 miles, length E. to W. about 380. Area estimated at 106,500 square miles, or 68,160,000 acres Population, 120,000. Mountains.—This territory is traversed from north to south by the great continental chain of the Rocky Mountains, and according to its orographical configuration may be divided into a mountain district, a hill district and a plain district. The principal range of these mountains bears the name of the Sawatch Range. It C n St S lid maSS of ranite an Lnf f average elevation ot? ?Q 13,500 feet,° presents a Sbroad > and massive outline, and has a mean breadth of from fifteen to twenty miles. It is really a prolongation of the Sierra Madre of Mexico, and up to about 40° N. lat. it forms the dividing line between the Atlantic and the Pacific versants. Beginning at the taVe tte followin

g Peaks .-—Mount Bowles, iion ' twemiles ^ve miles Mount 14,208;* eleven to thenorthward, north-east, La PlataHoward, Mount, 14,126 ; seven miles from La Plata, Grizzly Peak, 13,786, and Mount Elbert, 14,150; and six miles from Mount Elbert, Massive Mountain, 14,192. For about eighteen miles north of this last elevation the range is comparatively low, but it rises again in the great terminal peak of the Holy Cross, which attains a height of 13,478 feet, and owes its name to the figure emblazoned on its summit by the white lines of its snow-filled ravines. Second only in importance to the Sawatch range are the Elk Mountains, which strike off from it in a south-west direction, and extend for a distance of upwards of thirty miles They VI. — 21 eet

COLO R A D O are geologically interesting for the almost unexampled diffused, and zinc and copper occur in many of the mines. displacement of the strata of which they are composed, Coal is also found extensively on both sides of the main of mountains; the area occupied by the Tertiary and the apparent confusion which has thence arisen. range being no less than 7200 square miles, and the Among the most remarkable of its separate summits are deposits annual yield about 200,000 tons. The mining districts are Italian Mountain, 13,431 feet in height, so called because five in number, are distinguished as the district of the it displays the red, white, and green of the Italian national northern mines, and the mines of the eastern base, the Conejos colours: Whiterock Mountain, 13,847 feet; TeocalliMoun- county mines, the southern mines, and the mines of Summit tain, 13,274; Crested Butte, 12,014; Gothic Mountain, County. At Murphy’s mine, about twelve miles from 12,491; Snow Mass, 13,961 ; Maroon Mountain, 14^)00 ; Denver, the stratum is about 16 • feet thick, and the perCastlepeak, 14,106; Capitol, 13,992, and Sopris Peak, centage of fixed carbon is found to be 55-31. 12 972. Of less importance, but still distinct and weiJ The climate of Colorado is remarkable for its regularity defined, are the Wet Mountains in the south-east, the and salubrity. During the day the thermometer not Raton Mountains in the south, and the Uncompaligre unfrequently rises to 90° in summer, but the nights are Mountains in the south-west. The eastern series of eleva- always cool and dewless. In winter the weather is tions which abut on the region of the plains are known as generally mild,—the lowest thermometric marking being the Front Range, and present a fine bold outline, broken only 7° below zero, in Middle Park 15°, and in Denver by several peaks of about 14,000 feet or upwards in 13°. Snow often lies deep in the higher inhabited districts, height. One of the most remarkable features of the but in the lowlands it is never more than 10 or 12 inches, orography of Colorado is the unusual development of its and it disappears again almost immediately. All through upland valleys, or “parks,” to use the term that has the year the atmosphere is so dry and light that butcher become distinctively their own. The four most exten- meat can be preserved by the simplest process of desiccation. sive are known respectively as the North, the Middle, Between July and October there is very little rain, day the South, and the San Luis; the last is . by far the finest of the four. They stretch almost in a line from the after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky. “ An air southern to the northern boundary of the State, just on the more delicious to breathe,” says Bayard Taylor, “ cannot western side of the Front Range, and occupy an average anywhere be found; it is neither too sedative nor too breadth of 50 miles. The San Luis Park is, as it were, an exciting, but has that pure, sweet, flexible quality which immense elliptical bowl” with an area of 9400 square seems to support all one’s happiest and healthiest moods. miles, bounded on the E. by the Wet Mountains and For asthmatic and consumptive patients it exercises a the Sangre de Cristo range, and on the W. by the Sierra restorative influence which cannot be disputed; and the de San Juan, which is part of the great Sierra Miembres. State consequently promises .to become an extensive Its surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it almost sanatorium for the eastern districts of the continent. The certainly was at one time the bed of a great inland sea. only flaw in the climate of Colorado is its violent storms of The centre of the northern part, which bears the distinctive wind, and in some parts of the country heavy falls of hail. title of the Rincon, is still occupied by a considerable sheet It would seem, however, that the humidity is on the of water, fed by nineteen mountain streams, and accustomed increase ; and whatever be its cause, the change is quite in the winter to overflow a large stretch of the neighbouring perceptible since the colonization of the territory. The savannah. The southern part, which continues onwards Cache h la Poudre, for instance, is said to be yearly into New Mexico, is traversed by the Rio del Norte and increasing in volume, and streams which formerly dried up in the summer now maintain a continuous flow. Among several of its tributaries. Rivers.—Of the rivers of the Atlantic versant, the most the secondary hygienic advantages of which Colorado can important are the South Platte, the Arkansas, and the Rio boast, the mineral wells hold an important place. They Grande del Norte ; those of the Pacific are all members of occur in various parts of the country, and belong to different the great Colorado River. The South Platte has its head classes. Chalybeate waters are found at Manitou, Carlisle, waters in Buckskin Mountain, and its earlier tributaries and Red Creek; soda springs at Manitou, Trinidad, and flow from the slopes of the northern part of the Front Canon City; sulphur springs at Fairplay, on the Navajo Range. At its source at Montgomery it has a height River, and at Idaho springs; and thermal springs, partly above the sea of 11,176 feet; at its exit from the upper sulphur and partly soda, exist at Pagosa, in the Middle caiion it is still 7623, but by the time it reaches Denver Park, in Seguache County, at Wagon Wheel Gap, and at Del it is only 5176. The Arkansas rises in the same district, at Norte. Manitou is already becoming a fashionable watera height of 10,176 above the sea, in Tennessee Pass, but ing-place ; the fountains and the surrounding land were as it leaves Chalk Creek has come down to 7877. In the purchased by a company in 1870 ; and in 1873 there were upper part of its course it passes through a canon from already six large hotels and numerous private residences 1000 to 1500 feet in depth. The Rio Grande del erected round the spot. In the lowland districts water for Norte has its head waters in the Sawatch range and the drinking is very scarce; but supplies can frequently be Sangre de Cristo range, and flows south through the valley obtained by the sinking of Artesian wells. Vegetation.—The mountains of Colorado were, till a San Luis Park. The river which gives its name to the State belongs to the territory only by some of its most comparatively recent date, richly clothed with forest; but important tributaries, of which it is sufficient to mention owing partly to natural causes, and still more to the lavish the Bear River, and the Gunnison and Grand River, which consumption and reckless destruction of the early settlers, unite before they pass into the territory of Utah. The the quantity of growing timber in the State is exceedingly numerous minor “ creeks ” which feed the main streams small, and before long, if restorative measures are no must not be forgotten in forming an idea of the main adopted, the Colorado demand for wood will require to be supplied from without. Whole mountain sides often features of the country. Minerals.—Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral district, present the appearance of monstrous cheavaux-de-frise, the and to this fact it owes its colonization. It possesses dead trunks of the wind-thrown pines being tossed abou extensive deposits of gold and silver ore, and between the in all directions. The principal trees, after the pine, are years 1859 and 1872 it furnished to the United States the so-called hemlock and cedar, the cotton wood, and thee mint upwards of $20,000,000 worth of the former metal aspen (or Populus tremuloides). The minor flora of t and $1,114,542 of the latter. Iron is pretty widely country is exceedingly rich; and especially in the plani 162

COLORADO 163 region the abundance of flowers is amazing. “ The colour that of Nebraska, and 8,960,000 from New Mexico of the landscape,” says Dilke, “ is in summer green and making a total of 66,880,000. The first governor S flowers; in fall time yellow and flowers; but flowers Wdham Gilpin, a Pennsylvanian by birth and a OuaLr in ever.” lehgion, who has done a great deal for the development of Agriculture. —Wherever irrigation can be obtained the y an t 6 originator of soil of eastern Colorado is well fitted for agriculture. whmh wbVbTr ? r" ? scheme by it was ’ made to include part of boththeslopes of the Wheat, oats, and barley afford heavy crops ; potatoes suc- Sierra, hrom 1862 to 1865 the natural progress of ceed except in the extreme south, and owing to the dryness immigrational movement was checked, partly by the great of the atmosphere are easily kept; onions vie in size and national struggle, and partly by the local Indian war which flavour with any in the continent ; beans might be grown broke out in 1864, and for a time rendered the routes more extensively, but they suffer from the attacks of a small extremely unsafe, and even threatened the existence of the insect, possibly a species of Haltica; and almost all the new settlements. Many of the sites, indeed, were deserted garden products of the same latitude in Europe can be and large_ numbers of the miners left the country In this satisfactorily cultivated. The wheat affords a very white way Empire greaHy decayed, and Gold Dirt and Bakerville dry flour, and competes with the finest in the markets of absolutely disappeared. Happily it was only the Indians the world. The yield often reaches forty or fifty bushels of the plains who took part in the attacks, and though thev per acre, and in exceptional cases considerably exceeds this numbered from 10,000 to 15,000, they were quickly quelled7 amount. In the higher districts—the parks and the In 1865 the immigration again flowed on; and it was mountain-valleys—a greater proportion of ground is devoted ound that at the census of 1870 the population was 39 864 to pasture either of sheep or cattle. The native grasses are of excellent quality as fodder ; and during the winter the lDlAnQS\dlStnbUtmC} int° 9358 famiIies> and inhabiting r0pOI 0f males t0 females natural hay that has withered where it grew is preferred -.4,8^0 94 890 ?fc)0U15,044. 1^ JV ?°n date Since that the population ™ has by the cattle to the best that'can be furnished bv the very rapidly increased, and it was estimated at ] 20 000 in labours of the husbandman. In certain districts the pasColorado was received into the Union as L State toral departments of husbandry have had to be abandoned, in 1877 owing to the presence of poisonous plants, the most important See Fremont, Narrative of Exploring Expedition, 1846 • Cant of which seems to be Oxytropis Lamberti; but these districts Stan&uvy Expedition to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake 1852 are of very limited extent. The cost of pasturing is merely Edward Bhf^Sj rAe Gold Mines of Colorado; Hollister, Flying Trip nominal, as the cattle can be driven over extensive districts to the Silver Mines of Colorado; Bayard Taylor, A Summer Trio Colorado, 1867 ; Bowles, Summer Vacations in the Paries and under the charge of Mexican or Indian herdsmen. Wool to can be produced for ten cents per ft., and a four-year-old Mountains of Colorado, 1869 ; W. Blackmore, Colorado ■ its 18 69 steer for ten dollars. The chief plague of the agriculturist CJoZrmln isvl P r , Coulter '’ ^reatorex, Summer Etchings in ColZafn mV ° 'i as ^ ’ Synopsis the Flora of 1874 and the mam source of alloftopographical is the locust, or grasshopper, as it is called in America Colorado This insect is usually hatched in the month of June, when of the United States aniC de ail s re ardin K / * g g the State, the Reports Geological and Geographical Survey, which 7 the cereals are well advanced ; but occasionally in dryer have been published from 7 time to time by the Government and warmer seasons it appears as early as April and does RWBR, or Rio Colorado, a large river great damage to the young crops. Another insect, the of COLORADO Nor h America, which rises in the Rocky Mountains Doryphora decenlimeata, popularly known as the Colorado and falls into the Gulf of California. Thermain stream Beetle (see p. 134 of the present volume), has recently as the Green River, has its source in Fremont’s become famous for its attacks on the potato, not only in known Peak on the western borders of Wyoming, so that the whole t na*State but as far east as Ohio. It appears formerly to have fed on the Sdanum rostratum, but to have found the extent of its course must be upwards of 2000 miles After receiving the waters of the Yampuh and the White River new tuber a better habitat. it flows south for about 150 miles without any important History. Recent explorations have shown that the western parts, at least, of the Colorado territory were at augmentation till it meets with the great rival stream of the one time inhabited by a native American race of consider- Grand River, which by means of its numerous confluents drains so large a portion of the western versant in the State abie^civilization, who were perhaps connected or even of Colorado. The united stream continues to force its way identical with the Moquis of the regions further south, the-nrst important European mission was that of Vasquez south, till at its junction with the Colorado Chiquito, or Loronado, despatched from Mexico in 1540. In 1821 the Little Colorado, which takes its rise in the’Sierra Madre of New Mexico, it turns almost due west, and cuts right ainS We e visited b S T athwart the line of the mountain ranges. Its southern enS™ eM0Un ! / y Long, the American pvnln a’nn and 1862, there was a Colorado Chiquito, and its walls rise almost sheer from the 0f 1 rnigration Golden 0;ff n + , ^ i hoover, Black Hawk, water’s edge to a height of from 4000 to as much as 7000 city were -Clty’ Mounfc Vernon, and Nevada feet. Further down is Black Canon which, with a length m 1359 ; next year saw BrSridt Lm Pnded the rise of of 25 miles and a height of 1000 or 1500 feet, would be 1 re and Gold Hdl Mill Citv 1 ’ ?1 ; 1 George Town and considered a magnificent phenomenon, were it not so com61 a d seSSlSel itM “ ^ District was pletely thrown into insignificance by its more stupendous tbs ’re lon was territorv in o ’ S organized as a neighbour. These very features which give the river its who had iel!l C anCe Wlth tbe wisb of the inhabitants, uniqueness prevent it from being of much use as a means n in 1859 wideclared Aa10TT. ir_atDe,lrer i its area of navigation; but steamers can proceed upwards as far as uda acr to the territorip es previously assigned dories of Utah and Kansas, 10,262,400 from Callville, about 612 miles from the mouth. The discovery of tbe Colorado is dm? to Fernando Alascon

0 0 L —C O L endeavouring to beguile them with plausible talk (ii. in 1540; but it was not till Lieutenant Ives’s expedition in there 4), and Paul, as a minister of the gospel earnestly labouring 1857 that even the lower part of its course was properly the cause of proclaiming Christ to the nations (i. 24—29), explored. The mysteries of the Great Caiion were first in feels his heart called out towards those whose faith is being invaded by an unlucky “prospector,” James White, who insidiously assailed, although he is absent from them, and along with a companion thought it safer to trust himself to has never personally visited Coloss® or Laodicea (ii. 1). the river than to the Indians. In 1869 the whole course He accordingly writes an epistle the polemical purport of from the head-waters in Wyoming to the town of Callville which is patent. Paul’s polemic, however, is no mere was traversed by a party of explorers, commissioned by tbe negative protest. He sets up, as against, the “false United States Government and commanded by i'rotessoi philosophy ” which he so strenuously repudiates (ii. 8), J. W. Powell. Since that date the river and its basin have a “ theological conception of the person of Christ, ” which been the object of systematic survey under the same strikes at the root of all vain speculations concerning the auspices, and the results of the gigantic undertaking have unseen w7orld, and shows that the work of reconciliation been published by Professor Powell in his Exploration of effected by Christ is complete, so that in Him Christians the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries explored are to see the one Mediator through whom God is to be in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872 (Washington, 18 < 5). _ known, approached, served. The latter part of the epistle COLOSSI, a once large and important city of Asia consists of various practical exhortations, both general and e Minor, in Phrygia Major, on the Lycus, o. branch o specific; and it closes with several notices of a personal Mseander. The notices of Colossse in ancient history are character. Tychicus was the bearer of this letter (iv. 7), few and brief. Xerxes passed through it on his way to as he w^as also of that known as the epistle to the Ephesians, Greece, 481 B.c., and at the close of the same century it which by some critics is identified with “ the letter from was visited by Cyrus the younger. It is described by Laodicea” (iv. 16). . Xenophon in the Anabasis as being at that period a large But are these letters genuine ! There is no historical and flourishing city. Like Laodicea, and other cities in ground for doubting the Pauline authorship, or for the that part of Phrygia, Coloss® carried on an extensive trade m theory which has been advanced that the tw o epistles are wool, and derived a large revenue from the skill of its inhabitants in dyeing that article. After the time of inventions of a later age, or for the supposition that, whilst of them is genuine, the other is made up of materials Cyrus the city seems to have gradually decayed, till in the one r Middle Ages it disappeared altogether. Near its rums derived from that one which w as really written by St Paul. there sprang up another town called Chon®, the birthplace The fact that opponents of the genuineness of the letters not agree as to which was the original is significant. of the Byzantine historian, Nicetas Choniates, now repre- do Mayerhoff thinks, indeed, both epistles to be spurious, but sented by the town of Khonas. Excavations made in the considers that the epistle to the Colossians was compiled neighbourhood of this place have brought to light the rums from that to the Ephesians ; while De Wette holds the of a large city, which is believed, with good reason, to be epistle to the Ephesians to be a “ verbose enlargement of Coloss®. The Epistle to the Colossians _ (see below) is addressed to the inhabitants of this city, in which one of that to the Colossians, and advocates the genuineness of the earliest of the Christian churches in Asia was planted. the latter. The opponents of the Pauline authorship rest COLOSSEUM. See Amphitheatre, vol. i. p. 774; mainly on three lines of argument, viz., the similarity of the two epistles, the peculiarity of their contents, and Architecture, vol. ii. p. 419; and Rome. COLOSSIANS, The Epistle to the, belongs to the peculiarities of style. The objection founded on the similarity of the language third of the four groups under which the Pauline and matter of the two epistles is one that cannot be epistles may be chronologically arranged,—a group which occupies a midway position between the letters sent to substantiated. For whilst there are striking resemblances, Corinth, Galatia, and Rome, in the apostle’s third mis- there are no less striking differences ; and whilst the can be very naturally accounted for by the sionary journey, and the letters known as the Pastoral resemblances contemporaneousness of the letters, the differences are so Epistles. By similarity of language and matter the epistle to the Colossians is intimately connected with that to the markedly in accordance with the apparent designs of the Ephesians ; and the notices of St Pauls companions, and separate letters,—that to the Colossians being primarily of Onesimus and Archippus, which occur in the epistle to polemic, and that to the Ephesians being of a mystic and Philemon, show that this last epistle was also written and devotional character,—that we may fairly use of each sent at the same time as the other two. The epistle to epistle the words applied by Meyer to the epistle to the the Philippians belongs to the same group, and the most Colossians,—“ The supposed forgery of such an epistle probable view is that it was from Rome that all four were would be far more marvellous and inexplicable than its . . , written by Paul, “the prisoner of Jesus Christ” (comp. genuineness.” Another objection brought forward is that in tnese Philem. 1; Col. iv. 10, 18; Eph. iii. 1, iv. 1, vi. 20; Phil, i. 13, 14, iv. 22). Some critics—among whom may be epistles we have sentiments that savour of heresies later mentioned Schulz, Bottger, Thiersch, Meyer, and Reuss, than the apostolic age. This objection seems to be based whose opinion is strongly advocated by De Pressens6 in upon very superficial grounds, and to spring from preju ice his Histoire des Trois Premiers Siecles—contend that at rather than from research. What definite ground is there least three of the epistles were written from C®sarea; but for asserting that “ Gnostic and Montanist sentunen s the traditional view that all four were written from Rome are to be found in these epistles 1 W bileT certain a se is supported by most modern writers, and is freest from teachings and tendencies are alluded to, .w hich evi en y difficulties. The date of the epistle to the Colossians may go beyond the more naked Pharisaic Judaism con trover e be placed about 62 or 63 a.d. Assuming for the present in the epistle to the Galatians, nothing can be produced to its genuineness, we may gather from the contents of the show that the heretical teaching animadverted upon in tne epistle itself its occasion and object. Epaphras, wdio. is epistle to the Colossians, or even in the later epistles o spoken of in high terms by the apostle, and may with Paul to Timothy and Titus, is Gnosticism in the sense in some probability be considered the founder of the church which that term is applied to later systematic theosophies at Coloss® (i. 7), has brought tidings to St Paul which and cosmologies, such as those of Basrlides and \ alentinus. make him anxious concerning the Christians in Coloss® And would it not Tbe natural, as Neander points out, o and its neighbourhood (ii. 1, iv. 13). False teachers are postulate, even if w e had no records to testify to the ac,

164

.i

COLOSSIANS

165 the existence of certain transitional links between the in the Pastoral Epistles form the intermediate link between gnosis of the 2d century and the earlier stages of the the Gnostm Judaism of the Essenes and teachers allied apostolic preaching 1 Such links are found in the to them and the “Judaizing Gnosticism” of the 2d incipient Gnosticism, if so it is to be called, of which we century, have traces in the epistles of the imprisonment and the The question whether Paul himself planted the church at subsequent Pastoral Epistles. Coloss® is one of minor importance, which has been much A third objection has been made to the genuineness of discussed by commentators. Lardner argues elaborately the epistle to the Colossians, as well as to the Ephesian m favour of a visit by Paul to Coloss® and Laodicea. He epistle, on the ground of the peculiarity of their style and bases his view upon a passage cited from Theodoret, in of certain terms used in them, some of which are asserted which ch. ii. 1 is interpreted so as to distinguish between to be technical terms, as aeon, pleroma, dec., and others are the Colossians and Laodiceans on the one side and the words not elsewhere used in the Pauline writings. The “ as many as had not seen Paul’s face ” on the other. This answer to this objection is that the peculiar terms are view has been controverted in detail by Davidson,' but is not used in the sense which they acquired in heretical advocated by Wordsworth. Bleek mentions Schulz writings of a later period, and that the unusual words are Wiggers, and others as following Theodoret, but he takes to be attributed partly to the nature of the subject and the contrary view himself, as do also Alford, Conybeare partly to the disposition of the writer’s mind at the time. and Howson, and Lightfoot. The last-named commentator If, indeed, we are to condemn any writing of an author for says that Theodoret’s interpretation is “ opposed alike to containing peculiarities not exhibited in other writings of grammatical and logical considerations.” the same author, the questions arise, whence are we to take Another disputable though not very important point is our standard of judgment, or how are we to know in what whether the Ephesian or the Colossian letter was written cases we should apply so vague a critical canon ? Bleek first. Critics are divided, and it is somewhat difficult to says, sensibly enough, in view of this line of objection, gather from a comparison of the epistles which view is “We do not for a moment deny that the epistle to the most probable. We are inclined to favour the view that Colossians contains much which is peculiar to itself; but the briefer, more controversial, and in some respects more its contents, such as they are, do not tell against its coming vigorous letter was written first, and was followed by the from the same author as the other epistles of St Paul, for fuller and more mystic one. It has been said that this even those which Baur allows to be genuine contain much epistle is characterized by a “ ruggedness of expression and that is distinctive and peculiar, e.g., the Galatians as com- want of finish that borders on obscurity ” (Lightfoot), and pared with the Corinthians, and 2 Corinthians as it has been suggested that the absence of personal conneccompared with 1 Corinthians.” The fact is that in the tion on St Pauls part with the Colossian church might Tubingen school “subjective criticism” has run to riot. partially account for “the diminished fluency of this The phenomena to be investigated are interpreted according letter,” as compared with other and earlier ones. We do to a preconceived theory, rather than fairly looked a£ not think this explanation a satisfactory one. The “ ruggedexamined, and explained. The testimony of the early ness ” should rather be attributed to the intensity of feeling church to the Colossian and Ephesian letters is unexcep- wherewith the apostle, confined as he was in his far-off tionable. In the case of the epistle to the Colossians, there place of imprisonment, threw himself into the controversy are indications of its recognition in allusions by Justin with the false teachers,—persons whom he must have i.Iartyr and Theophilus of Antioch; it occurs in the regarded as among the “ grievous wolves,” of whom he had Muratorian canon (circ, 170 a.d) ; it is cited by Irenams, forewarned the elders at Miletus some few years previously Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Origen; Eusebius (Acts xx. 29, 30), men who should “arise out of the places it among the “ acknowledged ” books of the Christian community itself, and speak perverse things to apostoheal writings; and it occurs in Marcion’s list, as draw men after them.” This explanation is somewhat given by Epiphanius. Nor is there anything in the epistle itself that is out of accordance with the circumstances of corroborated by what Alford points out, viz., that the majority of peculiar expressions in the epistle occur in the the apostle Paul, or the condition of the Asiatic churches second chapter. And Professor Lightfoot himself adds— in the seventh decade of the 1st century. “ No epistle of St Paul is more vigorous in conception or must now briefly notice the character of the teaching more instinct with meaning. It is the very compression against which St Paul directed the controversial portion of thoughts which creates the difficulty. If there is a of the epistle to the Colossians (ii. 4-23). His warnings want of fluency there is no want of force. Feebleness is are against a philosophy which is vain and fallacious: the last charge which can be brought against this epistle.” agains a system of multiplied religious observances and The value of this epistle to the church historian, to the is me ions of meats; against an arbitrary system of angelChristian theologian, and to any one •who wishes fairly to a a Dst §^ certain rigorous rules of asceticism, ine oasis ot this alien teaching was unmistakably Judaic, estimate the “ philosophic ” bearings of Christian dogma is very great. A commentator of the ] 7th century, H. and if -11 aizln& effort was of a mystic and ascetic type; Suicer, mentioned by Walch in his Bibliotheca Theologica, snonnlof18 n0t unreasonat)le to see in the theosophical calls the epistle to the Colossians theologies Chvistiancs nitnrfTfl au d aSCetlC ordinances, indicated in St Paul’s compendium. Authorities for what has been said, and references to an adlvVhedfferS. Which beset the Colossian Christians, and riental further literature upon the subject, may be found in Li^htfnff ?reS ofS1, Jewish 9 elements. Professor evil nf m ff jWn ^ba^ Oriental notions concerning the “ Introductions,” such as those by Davidson and Bleek, er a nd tbe need with “an p . . of rigid abstinence, together and in “ Prolegomena ” of commentators, e.g., Alford, a tendpn f° enC doctldne relating to angelic beings ” and Wordsworth, and Braune in Lange’s BibelwerJc, a treasury ‘welLtr » ^ which he of information made accessible to English readers in Dr Of Judaism^ 3 Calbt SdessGnostlc Judaism- The Essene side Schaff’s edition, published by T. various P^ces in recent very valuable commentary of Professor Lightfoot. congenial soiM n pI myatic aad ascetic ideas would find a In addition to the exegetical notes, he gives us thorough alluded to in tl e epistle to the Colossians, teachingand and tendencies dissertations on “ the churches of the Lycus,” the “ Colossubsequently sian heresy,” and “ the Essenes,” There is also a digest

166

C 0 L —0 O L

of the principal various readings, containing an ingenious a committee for managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685 again appears as the city’s creditor for about £2000, conjecture as to the original reading in chap. ii. 18. he repayment of which he is found insisting on in 1686. In Attention is drawn to the fact that the epistles to the Ephesians and the Colossians, alone among the Pauline 1689 he was chosen auditor by the Vestry at Mortlake, where he was residing in an old house once the abode of Ireton epistles, are exposed to those “ harmonizing tendencies and Cromwell. In 1691, on St Michael’s Hill, Bristol, at in transcribers which have had such an influence on the a cost of £8000, he founded an almshouse for the receptext of the gospels. Professor Lightfoot deals, also, in a tion of 24 poor men and women, and endowed with accommost exhaustive manner, with the subject of the apocrypha modation for “ Six Saylors,” at a cost of £600, the letter to the Laodiceans (connected with Col. iv. 1G), which Merchant’s Almshouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost appears in a considerable number of MSS. of the New of £8000, he endowed a foundation for clothing and Testament, and shows it to be “ a cento of Pauline phrases teaching 40 boys (the books employed were to have in them strung together without any definite connection or any “ no tincture of Whiggism ”); and six years afterwards he clear object.” Paley, in his Eorce Paulina, has a very expended a further sum of £1500 in rebuilding the schoolsatisfactory section on the similarity of the epistles to the house. In 1708, at a cost of £41,200, he. built and Ephesians and the Colossians. On the character of the endowed his great foundation on Saint Augustine s Back, heretical tendencies in Asia Minor the general reader wi for the instruction, clothing, maintaining, and apprenticing find all requisite information in Neander, History of the of 100 boys ; and in time of scarcity, during this and next Planting, &c., of Christianity, and Pressens6, Histoire des year, he transmitted “ by a private hand ” some £20,000 Trois Premiers Siecles de VEglise Chretienne. Mansel, in his the London committee. In 1710, after a poll of four Gnostic Heresies, has a chapter devoted to Notices of to days, he was sent to Parliament, to represent, on. strictest Gnosticism in the New Testament. Both Neander and Pressens6 draw attention to the arbitrary and unsound Tory principles, his native city of Bristol; and in 1713, three years of silent political life, he resigned this theorizing of the Tubingen school in respect to the group after charge. He died in 1721, having nearly completed his to which the epistle to the Colossians belongs, (w. s. s.) COLOSSUS, in antiquity, a term applied generally to eighty-fifth year; his remains were conveyed, with all the magnificence his own solemn fastidiousness could statues of great size, and in particular to the bronze statue funereal suggest, from his house at Mortlake to Bristol, where he of Helios, in Rhodes, which for its size came to be reckoned among the wonders of the world. It was made from the was buried in All Saints’ Church. Colston, who was in spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes when he raised the the habit of bestowing large sums yearly for the release of prolonged siege of Rhodes. The sculptor was Chares, a poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and sickness, native of Hindus, and of the school of Lysippus, under and who gave (1711) no less than £6000 to increase Queen whose influence the art of sculpture was led to the pro- Anne’s Bounty Fund for the augmentation of small, livings, always keenly interested in the organization and duction of colossal figures by preference. The work occupied was him twelve years, it is said, and the finished statue stood management of his foundations; the rules and regulations 70 cubits high. It stood near the harbour {hrl Xigevi), but were all drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details at wdiat point is not certain. When, and from what of their constitution and economy were dictated by him. grounds, the belief arose that it had stood across the A high churchman and Tory, with a genuine intolerance entrance to the harbour, with a beacon light in its hand of dissent and dissenters, his name and example have served excuses for the formation of several politic benevolent and ships passing between its legs, is not known, but the as belief was current as early as the 16th century. M. societies—the “Anchor,” the “ Dolphin,” the “ Grateful, Benndorf has recently endeavoured to trace it to a mistaken whose rivalry has been perhaps as instrumental in keeping reading of a Greek epigram on the Colossus, and his con- their patron’s memory green as have the splendid charities jecture seems probable (Mittheilungen des deutschen Institute with which he enriched his native city. See Garrard, in Athen, part 1, p. 45). The statue was thrown down by Edward Colston, the Philanthropist, 4to, Bristol, 1852; an earthquake about the year 224 B.C., that is about 56 and Pryce, A Popular History of Bristol, 1861. COLT, Samuel (1814-1862), the.inventor of . the reyears after its erection. Then, after lying broken for nearly volver, was bom at Hartford, Connecticut, where his father 1000 years, it is said, the pieces were bought by a Jew, and possessed a manufactory of silks and woollens. At ten probably reconverted into instruments of war. years old he left school for the factory, and at fourteen he COLOUR. See Light and Optics. COLSTON, Edwakd (1639-1721), was the son of made a runaway voyage to India, during which he made a William Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position. He wooden model, yet existing, of what was afterwards to be is generally understood to have spent some years of his the revolver. On his return he learned chemistry from his youth and manhood as a factor in Spain, with which country father’s bleaching and dyeing manager, and travelled, over his family was long connected commercially, and whence, the United States and Canada lecturing on that science. by means of a trade in wines and oil, great part of his own The profits of two years of this work enabled him to continue his researches and—r experiments.. In. 183b bill U.U JJ.IO i ne T vast fortune was to come. On his return he seems to have UUI1 settled in London, and to have bent himself resolutely to visited Europe, and patented his inventions in London the task of making money. In 1681, the date of his father’s and Paris, securing the American right on his return; ana decease, he appears as a governor of Christ’s Hospital, to the same year he founded the Patent Aims ompan}', which noble foundation he afterwards gave frequently and for the manufacture of his revolvers only. The scheme did largely. In the same year he probably began to take an not succeed; some use was indeed made of the arms, bu y active interest in the affairs of Bristol, where he is found were not generally appreciated ; and in 1842 the company about this time embarked in a sugar refinery ; and during became insolvent. No revolvers were made for five ye^ > the remainder of his life he seems to have divided his and none were to be had when Taylor sent from Mexico tor a attention pretty equally between the city of his birth and supply. The Government ordered 1000 from theinven o , that of his adoption. In 1682 he appears in the records but before these could be produced he had to construe of the great western port as advancing a sum of £1800 new model, for a pistol of the company s make cou n to its needy corporation^ in 1683 as “a free burgess and where be found. This commission was the beginning meire (St Kitts) merchant ” he was made a member of the an immense success. The little armoury at Whitneyv. Merchant’s Hallj and in 1684 he was appointed one of (New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for J»es

0 0 L —c O L 167 was executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at on the Continent, with which also their ritual agreed excent Hartford, the inventor’s birthplace. These in their turn m a few unimportant particulars, such as the precise time gave place (1852) to the enormous factory, doubled in of keeping Easter The confusion in these matters has 1861, on the banks of the Connecticut Eiver, whence so been chiefly owing to the careless and incorrect identification many millions of revolvers, with all their appendages, have of the Columbites with the clergy afterwards known by y issued, and whence was sent, for the Russian and English the name of Culdees. Governments, to Tula and Enfield, the whole of the elaborate Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of machinery devised by Colt for the manufacture of his Britain and Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts ■pistols. mafnla and in his character of chief ecclesiastical ruler or primate COLUMBA, St, was born on the 7th of December 521, he gave formal benediction and inauguration to Aidan the and the place of his birth is supposed to have been Gartan successor of Conal, as king of the Scots. He accompanied in the county, of Donegal. Both on the father’s and on that prince to Ireland m 590, and took a leading part in the mother’s side he was descended from princely families a council held at Drumceat in Ulster, where a controversy in Ireland, and Conal, king of the Scots in Northern was settled which had existed between the king of Ireland Britain, was his kinsman. Some writers are of opinion and the sovereign of the British Scots. The last years of that his original name was Crimthan, and that he received Columba s life appear to have been spent at Iona There the surname of Columba from the dove-like simplicity of he was already revered as a saint, and whatever credit may his character, but it is more probable that the latter was be given to some portions of the narratives of his his baptismal name. He was afterwards known as biographers, there can be no doubt as to the wonderful Columbkille, or Columba of the Churches, to distinguish influence which he exercised, as to the holiness of his life him from others of the same name. Ireland was already and as to the love which he uniformly manifested to God famous for the learned men who taught in its numerous and to his neighbour. monasteries ^ and Columba studied for some time under In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was one of the most distinguished of these, St Finian of Moville approaching. On Saturday the 8th of June he was able Almost as a matter of course, under such circumstances with the help of one of his monks, to ascend a little hill he embraced the monastic life. He was ordained deacon above the monastery and to give it his farewell blessing. while at Moville, and afterwards, when about thirty years Returning to his cell he continued a labour in which he of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his residence in Ireland he founded two famous monasteries, one named had been engaged, the transcription of the Psalter. Having Dair Calgach, on. the banks of Lough Foyle, the other finished the verse of the 34th Psalm where it is written, Ihey who seek the Lord shall want no manner of thing Dair-magh in Leinster, better known by their modern that is good,” he said, “ Here I must stop what follows names of Derry and Durrow. let Baithen wnte;” indicating, as was believed, his wish . When upwards of forty years of age he left his native that Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was island, accompanied by twelve disciples, and went on a present at evening in the church, and when the midnight mission to Northern Britain. Argyll and the neighbouring islands were at this time portions of the Christian kingdom bell sounded for the nocturnal office early on Sunday of the Scots, and from its sovereign Conal he received the morning he again went thither unsupported, but sank down Island of Hy, or Iona, where he fixed his residence. His before the altar and passed away as in a gentle sleep. ihe original materials for a life of St Columba are first task was to erect a church and monastery—humble unusudly full. The earliest biography was written by one structures of timber and reeds, according to the fashion of the country and the age, Having spent some years in —i118 successors, Cuminius, who became abbot of Iona in 7. Much more important is the enlargement of that preparation, he began the great work of his life —the conversion of the heathen kingdom of the Northern Piets. work by Ad.amnan, who became abbot of Iona in 679. rossing over to the mainland he proceeded to the residence Ihese narratives are supplemented by the brief but most on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of the Piets! valuable notices given by the Venerable Bede. The first modern writers who discussed the life and actions of SJA E,reacllm& y8 My life, and, as his earliest Columba, with any approach to critical accuracy, were two by fche erforma rnnvp P nce of miracles, he learned clergymen of the Roman communion,—Thomas ed the klns a d man of dPtJilf exCe , ln a ?ew cases y are tis subjects. The precise Innes, the Scottish antiquary, and Dr John Lanigan, the bv pyq p / j unknown, or obscured ecclesiastical historian of Ireland. In 1857 Dr Reeves i;"n and fiction ; but it is certain that the now dean of Armagh, published his edition of Adamnan’s 1 S 0tland was conv of ColnmC^^n - r erted by the labours x/z/is, enriched with notes and dissertations which throw 11 kls dlscl les an( of Hip n f ^ P > i the religious instruction light on all the events of the saint’s personal history and InasteS ^ ^ by the ereCti°n °f numerous on everything connected with the state of Celtic Britain at the time. Later still we have an account of Columba by I na Was reveren Count Montalembert, who, in his third volume of the ho^orX?6176 ^ ? ced as the mother as the chipf T foundafcl0ns> an(i its abbots were obeyed Mon™ °f the West> gives us, to use Gibbon’s well-known 1 Northern pSf68^?kere ^ rUlerS °f the w.hole nafcion of ^ words about Pope’s Homer, “ a portrait endowed with every parishes in I i i a dwere then neither dioceses nor merit excepting that of likeness to the original.” (g. g.) Geltic Scot a Columbite v ^ l nd i and by the . COLUMBANUS (c. 550-615), an Irish monk, was born 1 ? s ordained tbp11]6, be kls6^°P . themselves, although they in Leinster about the year 550, and was educated in the abbots of lorn Tf sabject to the jurisdiction of the monastery of Bangor. He left the monastery in 590, only meivZ: Allkethe foundor of the order, were together with twelve youths whom he was training, and subject are wpII controversies connected with this established himself in the Vosges, among the ruins of an bistory and nporl f ^ tbe sfcudents of ecclesiastical ancient town called Anagratis. Crowds quickly flocked disputes have ^ ^ farther adverted to- Similar round them, and the monasteries of Luxeuil and Fontenay and his followers TPeSardmg ^ doctrines of Columba were erected. But the enemies of Columbanus accused the present artl i’ ^-n.18 p01nt a 80 is beyond the range of him before a synod of French bishops (602) for keeping there is no real dtffi Tf,may be sufficient to mention that Easter according to the old British and now unorthodox in its eneral way, while a more powerful conspiracy was organized featured R was the same as that of belief S the Western Church against him at the court, for boldly and haughtily rebuk-

168

COLUMBIA

ing for their crimes both the king of Burgundy, Thierry II., bilious fevers are sometimes prevalent on the low grounds. staple product before 1800 was tobacco, the culture of and the queen-mother Brunehaut. In consequence of this The which has of late years been abandoned for grain, Indian he was banished, but he proudly refused to stir. He was at corn, hay, fruit, and vegetables, all of which are produced length removed from his monastery by force, and, with St in great abundance, and sold at remunerative prices in the Gall and others of the monks, he withdrew into Switzerland, markets of Washington and Georgetown. The shad and where he preached with no great success to the Sueyi and herring fisheries of the Potomac yield a large revenue. Alemanni. Being again compelled to flee, he retired to The population of the district at each census since its Italy, and founded the monastery of Bobbio, in which he organization is thus stated :—■' remained till his death. His writings, which include some Latin poems, prove him a man of learning, and he appears Total. Coloured. White. to have been acquainted not only with the Latin classics, 8,144 2,472 but also with Greek, and even Hebrew. His works were 5,672 1800 15,471 5,126 10,345 1810 published at Louvain in 1667. His Regula Ccenobitahs 23,336 7,278 16,058 1820 cum Pcenitentiali is to be found in the Codex Regularum 30,261 9,109 21,152 1830 (Paris, 1638). The order of the Columbans merged in that 33,745 9,819 23,926 1840 51,687 13,746 of the’Benedictines in the beginning of the 8th century. 37,941 1850 75,080 14,316 60,763 COLUMBIA, the capital of South Carolina, United 1860 131,700 43,404 88,278 1870 States of North America, is a city of nearly 10,UUU inhabitants. It lies on the east bank of the Congaree River, lust below its junction with the Broad and Saluda, The native-born population in 1870 was 115,446; the and is 124 miles N.N.W. of Charleston, the principal foreign-born, 16,254. The number of dwellings was 23,308; seaport of the State. It is noted for its salubrity and the persons to a dwelling, 5'65 ; valuation of real and personal natural beauty of its site and surroundings. As the capital estate, $126,873,618; value of farms, $3,800,000 ; of farm and pohtical centre of the State, it has held a position productions, $319,000. The number of manufacturing second only in importance to Charleston, and has been the establishments was 952; steam-engines, 54; water-wheels, home of many distinguished men. Several public institu- 15; hands employed, 4685; capital, $5,021,925 ; products, tions enhance its dignity. _ Among these are the South $9 292,173,—consisting mainly of flour, building materials, Carolina College, founded in 1804, with which the late furniture, clothing, and iron. The debt of the district, mainly Professor Francis Lieber was long officially connected, the incurred since 1872 in the construction of sewers and the asylum for the insane, a theological school, the State- paving of streets in Washington and Georgetown, is about house, court-house, &c. It is the terminus of three railroads $25,000,000. which connect it with Charleston and the sea-coast, and The district is under the control of Congress, and its with points west and north, and is also the head of steamboat municipal affairs are regulated by three commissioners navigation on the River Congaree. A fertile agricultural appointed by the president and Senate, by virtue of a law region surrounds it, and it enjoys a fair degree of com- of 1874. The courts are constituted by Act of Congress, mercial prosperity. Near the close of the civil war (1865), and the judges appointed by the president and Senate. By the Union army of General Sherman entered the city, being the law of 1874, the municipalities of Georgetown and feebly opposed by the Confederates. During the Federal Washington were abolished, and the elective franchise occupation, fires were set—whether by invaders or defenders throughout the district suppressed. It has no representahas never been determined beyond doubt—by which many tive in Congress. buildings and a large amount of property were destroyed. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal connects Georgetown, the COLUMBIA, District of, a territory of the United head of tide-water on the Potomac, with Cumberland, the States of America, originally erected under a law of Congress centre of the bituminous coal region of the State m Maryof July 1790, for the establishment of a permanent seat of land. It is 180 miles in length, and transports 1,000,UUU government. This law authorized the acquisition by the tons of coal per annum. The district is intersected by the United States of a territory not exceeding ten miles square, Washington and Metropolitan branches of the Baltimore at the confluence of the Potomac and its eastern branch. and Ohio Railway, and by the Baltimore and Potomac A part of the territory thus designated was ceded to the Railway, and is connected with the south by rail to United States by Virginia, and included the city of Alexandria, the northern terminus of the Virginia railway Alexandria, and a part by Maryland including the city ot system. There are well-managed lines of steamboa s Georgetown. Outside of these cities the territory was to Norfolk, Baltimore, and New York the hist occupied by planters and farmers, as it had been from the running freighted mainly with flour from the district mills, ih . latter part of the 17th century. By a law of Congress of coal tonnage of the Potomac exceeds 600,000 tons annua y July 1846, that portion of the district which had been from the port of Georgetown, which is the port of entry I ceded to the United States by Virginia was ceded back to district of Columbia. that State. The present area of the district is 64 square theSince 1793 the United States Government has expended miles. Under the law of 1790, three commissioners were $60,000,000 in the erection of public buildings and imappointed to receive the cession of the district, and to lay provement of public grounds in the district. lor eacn o out the city of Washington and erect the public buildings years 1873, 1874, and 1875, Congress apF°P for the reception of the Federal Government. The corner- the over $2,000,000 as its share of the expenses of tbedistr stone of the Capitol was laid by Washington, September government. The free schools of the district are maintain 18 1793. On the first Monday of December 1800, the an annual cost ot *400,000. The Columbian uiuotei J, removal of the Government from Philadelphia was effected. at established by the Baptists in 1821, m a well-endowed ana The surface of the district is diversified by hill and dale, flourishing institution. The Howard universi y, es , is well wooded with oak, maple, chestnut, hickory, and for the education of the freed men, is also well patro • other trees, is productive when well cultivated, and affords There are 120 church edifices in the district, of ^ 1 .. at several points extended and beautiful views of the valley Baptists have 25, the Methodists 42, the Roman Catdou of the Potomac. The scenery of Rock Creek, ati affluent 14, the Episcopalians 20, the Presbyterians 14, ana of the Potomac, is also celebrated for its romantic beauty. Lutherans 8. The United States navy yard m Washing . The climate is temperate and healthy. In the autumn

COLUMBIA 169 is one of the most complete in its appointments of all the into a province of the Dominion all the more welcome to dock-yards in the country. ^industrious settlers who were there seeking a permanent COLUMBIA, Bbitish, the first of the Canadian provinces organized on the Pacific, was admitted into the Under the new orderly rule the crowd of gold-seekers was Dominion in 1871. Including Vancouver’s Island, it em- speedily followed by emigrants in pursuit of more settled braces an area of 233,000 square miles, of bold sea-coast industry. Agricultural labourers soon found that the lofty mountain ranges, and rugged picturesque river courses’ golden harvest could be secured to themselves by providing as well as rich fertile valleys. Unlike the great river sys- for the miners the fruits of the soil. It is probably no tem to the east of the Pocky Mountains, the rivers of British Columbia make their way by abrupt rapids and. falls exaggeration to estimate the worth of the gold carried' out t0 1875 11 in their comparatively brief courses from the Rocky Moun- *36 ^ 000,000. Much of this might ot less be considered as than protains to the sea. ductive of no direct benefit to the country, Indirectly British Columbia owes its rise to the status of a pro- however, it has largely contributed to the opening up of vince of Canada to the sudden influx of gold-diggers the nevv province, and making its many attractions known in 1856 and following years. The bed of the Fraser It led to the construction of roads, developed the mining River had been discovered to be a rich auriferous deposit • districts encouraged agricultural and general trade, and and all who preferred the lottery-like chances of the’ stnnulatecl the growth of permanent settlements. In 1841 diggings to the more laborious but certain fruits of ? yincenn ®s ” ,sblPofofDe the Fuca; American expedition patient industry hastened to this new Eldorado. In a lentered the Straits andexploring Dr Pickering has semi-official publication of 1864, it is stated that, in 1860 preserved a vivid picture of the forbidding aspect of rudest “ Antler, the most important creek, yielded at one time at savage life which then met his eye. Contrasting the then the lowest estimate, gold to the value of $10,000 per day strange uncultivated scenes of that wild coast with the On one claim $1,000 worth was taken out of the sluiceboxes as the result of a single day’s work.” But it was not familiar centres of American civilization on the opposite till 1862 that the unsystematic process of mere surface shores_ of the same continent, he says, “Scarcely two diggings and washings of nomad adventurers was super centuries ago our New England shores presented only scenes : Wbat is t0 be the la se seded. by sinking shafts and carrying on a regulated system bird ww P of the rrdl Within T less ^ than twenty years thereafter of mining under the direction of experienced engineers town of Victoria was rising on Vancouver’s Island, and Companies were formed; large capital was invested’ that of New Westminster on the neighbouring mainland. and an official report of 1870 states the yield of gold for The printing press was in full operation. The British that year from the mines of Cariboo, Silionet, Lilloet r Columbia, Yale, and Lytton at $1,333,745, in addition to Colonist, the A ew Westminster Times, and other newspapers the large quantities of the precious metal carried out of the were in circulation, where so recently the Indian trail and province by private adventurers. It appears from authentic wigwam were the sole evidence of the presence of man. ie produce and manufactures of the province exported fr0n 1862 t0 1871 during the year ending June 1874 are valued in The \ gold to the value of $16 650,036 was shipped from British Columbia by the banks, and so registered and put on record; while the liade and JS avigatwn Returns for the year at $2 120 624 • estimated value of that which was carried out of the the customs receipts are being chiefly expended on public country by miners themselves during the same period is works, and the varied resources of the country have been probably not over-estimated at $6,000,000. Nor is this a rapidly developed and turned to the best account. mere temporary supply derived from surface washings. Minerals.—The mineral products of British Columbia still occupy _ xtensive tracts of gold-bearing quartz rocks constitute an exp rts ° - forTll< Vare m 1874 a! lt ia ^ im rtant the fu important element in the permanent mineral resources of ’ProvanceBut P° ture progress 1 on the Pacific that its minerals include coal.of the Mr theav country According to the Tables of the Trade and m blS ana a 011 ^ , ^ ^ Pacific, describes the shipping of f ^dionof the Dominion of Canada, printed at Ottawa potI at v’ ver Isl d f0r 16 San Francisco market at ^12 T:rr T A»T nGrant . . where it fells P ; and n L87o, the export of gold in dust and bars from the hisvUU tnM > m hisof Ocean to eight Ocean,hundred reports his visit to banaimo, with a population seven or 8 C OOtambiadUrinSthepre U3 year is all depending on the neighbouring Douglas mine. “The man?re5 atfl 07V22 ™ mformed Roo tons this season, probably shipa 50,000 and, us thatthat nextthey year would they would be in e l0rat K lrv 3 are i„dl A ‘°f ' '--'' earned further into the position to ship 100,000 or more. The coal measures which r e a f er0US re ions rove t0 be r f lf . ° P ^dely extended, the few seams now worked represent extend over the whole eastern coast of Vancouver Island.” Fine anthracite coal is also var an al hfirp,TiSedthan Jield200 - Gold has bee* ^und tound near the coast, and in vast quantities, of superior qualitv obhined L flhe and is readily on Queen Charlottes Island ; and about 160 miles in the interim’ ZTr ' i f^P16 Presses of the adventurous gold- U ie P e 13 r fiiu® United T -f i States i^h0!'and ) 50,671 coalofwere exported in 1874 P c ’a O bedu°f tbe rFraSer ’ the Thompson,8 the to Mexico,tons the of value which was $278,213 the Creeks and When the census was taken in 1870, the population of the flowing ° tributaries fetlckeen Ptlver capital of Victoria amounted only to 3,270, including 211 frontier tbP , towards the Alaska httle Chinese, but exclusive of Indians. Already it exceeds 5,000 souls g ld field has been woTk d sine, 75 11 contmue3 ° ’ successfully of very diverse character and nationality, but with abundant return Pmfc tbou Jv ’^ ? to yield an abundant energy, and an assurance of progress. The Government of the ornmion is extending its aid to the young province with a sand istbp Sb the rumour of river-beds of golden liberal hand In the fiscal year 1872-3, the total receipts to the of gold diewerq -leSfc fin stimulants to emigration, a rush b ab s S n fc the st safcisfac °urces_ in British Columbia amounted to 1* puttioff ° r tory addition to the vi°U ue > ' f f fne expenditure,—apart from railway surveys,— y g COl ny n r is Wealtb tb was $639,037. The same spirit still prevails. Buildings are in Sfierenlli r , t0° g0id account ° us easily m Victoria for a post-office, savings bank, Government population S J ° - Tbe immigrant progress and Indian department; plans have also been prepared for a custom lawless advei turers Te ; ’ ^S’ house and revenue office; and the efficient organization of courts A and Chinese^old rli l Callfo.raian> Australian, American, of law and a system of police is being followed up by the erection of reckless W " 1gge^s, Wlfcb a heterogeneous gathering of a penitentiary. Fisheries.—Attention is now being energetically directed to the The tlrt70erhunters fro^ aii Parts of the world^ treasures of the ocean, the value of which has long been familiar government to Pi fST° r®gularly-organized form of to the native tribes. Mr J. W. Powell, Indian commissioner, in a SU< a 0 ula ion o lzatl0Q of the beyond Mountains organization tl1P territory f Pthe P Rocky t made the report to the minister of the interior, dated at Victoria, February 4, 1875, after a general survey of the condition of the Indians of the YI. 22

C 0 L —C O L conciliatory mediation. The construction of a railway through province of British Columbia, and the results of efforts to encour- his the province is attended with more than the usual difficulties. In age their attention to agriculture, thus proceeds contrast to the vast level ranges of prairie to the east of the Rocky “ Fish is the great Staple product of: all the. coast Indians, anc Mountains, its surface is extremely irregular; and the selection of owing to the numerous lakes and rivers with which Bntisli a railway route is controUed by the necessity of finding both a pass Columbia is most bountifully supplied, affords the chief means of through the Rocky Mountains and a suitable access to the seaboard. subsistence to almost all of the interior tribes. All kinds of hsl Yellow Head Pass affords what appears to be the most advantage, are found in great abundance in the Northern Pacific waters, but ous route, at an elevation of about 3700 feet above the level of the the salmon, of which there are some six vaneties, is the most con- sea Immediately to the west of this an irregular plateau extends stant and appreciated article of diet. The fish is ^ fo™ S . to within less than 100 miles of the coast, where the Cascade of the most important exports of this province. Tke dog-fis ^ Range is reached. From this the descent to the coast is abrupt; caught in large quantities for the oil contained m the liver, whic the rivers have furrowed deep channels, or directed their courses not only forms a common article of barter between Indians them- into the natural canons of this rugged coast line, and much diffiselves but is sold to and exported as one of the chief products of culty has been experienced in selecting an available route. From mouth of the Columbia River, for 700 miles northward, the ^.CS*Sp»CeoSr».oU, and fun, (the two latter hdng the coast is indented with numerous inlets which cut deep into the almost solely obtained by Indians) for the fiscal year ended June land, and are comparable to the rugged'fiords of Norway. Bute 1874 were^ July Inlet which was first selected as the terminus of a proposed route 1874. June 80,18(1. through the Homathco Valley, is of this character. It is an exposed sound, walled by lofty cliffs, and with its waters of great Fish $69,665 00 27,638 00 depth, so that no suitable roadstead or anchorage is available^ ihe S'nil .... 44,453 00 200,407 00 latest surveys (1876) indicate that the line must pass by the Frasei Fms. 307:625 00 to New Westminster, where suitable natural harbourage can $421,743 00 $228,045 00 ” River Total be found. The chief objection to this route is its . vicinity to the All this it has to be borne in remembrance, is the produce of frontier, so that it very partially opens up the interior of the counnative Indian enterprize, under the stimulus tosupplied by the try But Dean Inlet, which has been advocated as a preferable White traders. The co-operation indeed extends T°^erf terminus, lies too far to the north. The project of an interoceamc besides those of the hunter and the fisher. The iur-bearing railway through British American territory is, under any circumanimals of the province include the bear, rac beaver, land and sea stances, a bold one ; and the way in which it is being pressed otters, fur and hair seals, martens, minks °°nS’ onward to practical realization abundantly illustrates the enterrines wolves, foxes, lynx, ermines, skunks, and pumas. Besides prize of this young country, which only requires the increased the produce resulting from the hunting and trapping of those fur- population which such facilities would supply to develop its inexbeaiSg animals, and the fruits of native industry m the fisheries haustible resources. „ , , of the rivers and the coasts, the Indian commissioner also notes Altogether, evidence enough has already been disclosed to show the collection of cranberries as another productive resource of natrv the great future which is in store for the Canadian provinces on the industry. The export of cranberries from British Columbia vanes Pacific The next decennial census will embrace British Columbia, according to favourable or less productive seasons. In tke year 1874, and furnish more definite statistics as to its industrial progress which was regarded as a poor season, cranberries, gatheied by the and natural resources. A steady influx of emigration of the best Indians, were exported to the value of $2011. , T ^* quality is its first great need. The present population,, apart from With such results from the unregulated labours of rude Indian the native Indian and half-breed, is of a very miscellaneous tribes, it is manifest how great must be the resources of the country character, including British, Canadian, American, trench, German, not only in the furs which have long been an object of trade, but and Chinese settlers, with as yet a large preponderance of the in the unheeded fisheries of the ocean and rivers. The whale still frequents the coast, and is pursued with success by the Clallums, In the Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion for Macaws, and other coast tribes. Now regular companies are 1874 the province of British Columbia not only exceeds in the being formed for its capture. In 1871 the “British Columbia value of its exports both the provinces of Prince Edward Island Whaling Company” had produced 20,000 gallons of oil ; and the and Manitoba, but it exhibits the exceptionably favourable conresults continue on a progressive scale. The dog-fish also,, which trast of an excess in value of exports over imports, ihe total has long been an object of special favour among the Indians is value of all goods imported for the year .1874 amounted.to now taken in large quantities by the Whites for its oil. In 1870 $2,048,336, while the value of its exports during the same period the produce of this fishery alone yielded 50,000 gallons of oil,ye anda was $2,120,624. . t if the price which it commanded in California has since pro d Under the principles of confederation, the full rights of sellsufficient stimulus to increased zeal in prosecuting the fisheries. government and representative institutions both in its own local Cod, halibut, haddock, salmon, sturgeon, smelt, and. sardines, all parliament and in that of the Dominion have been accorded to abound along the coasts, or in the straits and estuaries, and. with this young province. It has its own lieutenant-governor and the growing population and wealth both in the provinces and m the Legislative Assembly, and is represented at Ottawa by. three neighbouring States of the Pacific, the value of this branch of senators and six members of the House of Commons m the industry must rapidly increase. The riches of the sea. must, indeed, Dominion Parliament. \ • y in the end, far outrival all the produce of the gold mines, and may COLUMBUS, a city of the United States of America, yet rival the fisheries of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Even now, with a sparse population, and trade in its infancy, the exports capital of the State of Ohio, in Franklin county, is situated of the fisheries for 1874 are valued at $114,118. The province of British Columbia has the same advantage- over on the Scioto, a tributary of the Ohio, about 100 miles norththe neighbouring States of the Pacific, owing to climate , and east of Cincinnati. It is well laid out on a level site m the favourable geographical position, which the eastern provinces midst of an extensive plain, and possesses very broad and enjoy in comparison with the States on the Atlantic. Ihis is handsome streets pleasantly shaded with elm-trees. High specially manifest in the value of its timber ; and this must go on Street is its principal thoroughfare, and Capitol Square one increasing with the wealth of the surrounding States. Already the value of the produce of the forest has amounted in the year 1874 to of the most spacious of its open areas; while Broad Street, $260,116; and in its various forms of planks,. spars, laths, and 120 feet wide, is laid out for a stretch of two miles. As the shingles, it is being exported not only to the neighbouring States capital of the State it contains the usual public buildings, and to South America, but to Australia and China, as well as to Great which are of a higher character than are to be found m Britain. The white and yellow pine and the valuable Douglas pine abound. Cedar and hemlock attain to a great size ; fine oak and other cities of the Union. The Capitol is an imposing edifice maple are also abundant; and the rivers and the natural harbours built of grey limestone, with a rotunda 150 feet high, i ' afford every facility for a lumber trade for which the countries on both covers an area of 55,936 square feet, and its in erm sides of the Pacific will supply as ready a market as the Eastern accommodation is most complete. There are also m an States and the ports of Europe afford to the lumberers of the pro- around the city the penitentiary, extending over more tna vinces of Eastern Canada. . . . , T ,, , Already railway enterprize is abundantly stimulated by the de- 10 acres of ground, and accommodating upwards ol i velopment of the resources of this young province ; and now the prisoners; the new lunatic asylum, capable of contain g great question of the future is the route of the projected Pacific 600 patients; the blind asylum, the idiot asylum, the ^ Railway, and its terminus on the Pacific coast. 1 he . disputes be- and dumb asylum, the United States arsenal, various ho. tween the Provincial Government and that of the Dominion relative to its immediate construction have been the cause of much local pitals and charitable institutions, a city hall, a county cou irritation. In the summer of 1876, the Earl of Duffenn, as house, a county infirmary, the Starling medical cofiege, Governor-General of the Dominion, made a tour through British Lutheran university, an agricultural and mechanical col 0 i Columbia, and greatly contributed to a more reasonable leeiing y 170

COLUMBUS 171 the odd-fellows’ hall, and the opera-house. The city pos- ments by reading and meditating on the works of PtnU™ Pt 1 17 sesses a fine park of about 40 acres, named in honour of and Mannus, of Nearchus and Pliny the fLl f its donor, Dr Lincoln Goodale, and another of equal extent of Cardinal Aliaco, the travels of Marco Polo and° called the City Park. The grounds of the Franklin County ville. He mastered all the sciences essential to his callim! Agricultural Society occupy 83 acres, and the gardens of learned to draw charts and construct spheres and tl?0’ the Columbus Horticultural Society 10. The manufactures of the city are rather miscellaneous, and none of them aad navigator40 beCOme a 00ns'lmmate ^amaa have as yet developed to any great proportions; flour-mills, engineering works, and factories for agricultural implements' brushes, carriages, harness, files, and furniture are among d on a plank In Portugal he married Felipa Munnis the chief establishments. Railways radiate from Columbus Perestrello, daughter of a captain in the service of Prince in all directions; and it has water-communication by means Henry calied the Navigator, one of the early colonists and of a branch of the Ohio Canal. The first settlement of the first governor of Porto Santo, an island off Madeira. Columbus dates from 1812 ; its borough charter was o umbus visited the island, and employed his time in bestowed in 1816, when it also became the seat of the State making maps and charts for a livelihood, while he pored Government; it was made the capital of the county in over the logs and papers of his deceased father-in-law, and 1824, and ten years after was raised to the rank of a city. talked with old seamen of their voyages, and of the The population in 1830 was 2437: in 1850, 17 882 • and mystery of the western seas. About this time, too he Idea of a in 1870, 31,274. seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much of’ the western COLUMBUS, a city of the United States, capital of world remained undiscovered, and step by step to Iwvp ?assage to Muscogee county, in Georgia, is situated on the east bank of conceived that design of reaching Asia by sailing west theChattahochee, opposite the town of Girard, 84 miles south- which was to result in the discovery of America. In west of Macon. The river, which here separates the States 1474 we find him expounding his views to Paolo Toscanelli of Georgia and Alabama, is navigable from Macon to the the Florentine physician and cosmographer, and receiving Gulf of Mexico during the greater part of the year, and tHe Heartiest encouragement. ° affords ready communication with the neighbouring cottonThese views he supported with three different arguments growing districts. A change in the level of the°river at this place furnishes a strong head of water, which has derived from natural reasons, from the theories of geographers’ been turned to practical use by the construction of a dam and from the reports and traditions of mariners. “ He beand other hydraulic contrivances. The town, which occu- lieved the world to be a sphere,” says Helps; “he underpies a pretty extensive area, is regularly laid out, and estimated its size; he over-estimated the size of the Asiatic its streets are of a good breadth. It contains a court- continent. The farther that cohtinent extended to the east nearer it came round towards Spain.” And he had house, a temperance hall, and several churches. Its chief the industry is connected with the cotton trade, but there are but to turn from the marvellous propositions of Mandeville also some flour-mills and other works. The town dates and Aliaco to become the recipient of confidences more from 1828, when it was laid out on the Coweta Reserve marvellous still. The air was full of rumours, and the Population in 1850, 5042, and in 1870, 7401, of whom weird imaginings of many generations of mediseval navigators had taken shape and substance, and appeared 3204 were coloured. Martin Vicente, a Portuguese COLUMBUS, Christopher (>, 1436-1506), was the bodily to men’s eyes eldest son of Dominico Colombo and Suzanna Fontanarossa pilot, had found, 400 leagues to the westward of Cape St and was born at Genoa in 1435 or 1436, the exact date Vincent, and after a westerly gale of many days’ duration being uncertain. His father was a wool-comber, of some a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not with iron; Pedro small means, who was yet living two years after the dis- Correa, his own brother-in-law, had seen another such waif covery of the West Indies, and who removed his business at Porto Santo, with great canes capable of holding four from Genoa to Savona in 1469, His eldest boy was sent quarts of wine between joint and joint, and had heard of to the university of Pavia, where he devoted himself to the two men being washed up at Flores, “very broad-faced, and in aspect from Christians.” West of the Azores mathematical and natural sciences, and where he probably differing d lecmved instruction in nautical astronomy from Antonio now an then there hove in sight the mysterious islands of a lerzago and Stefano di Faenza. On his removal from St Brandam ; and 200 leagues west of the Canaries lay the university it appears that he worked for some months somewhere the lost Island of the Seven Cities, that two at his fathers trade; but on reaching his fifteenth year valiant Genoese had vainly endeavoured to discover In his northern journey, too, some vague and formless tradi0 1S ctl01ce of an tions nTn^ d became a sailor. Cf his apprenticeship, and the first years of his career, an may have reached his ear, of the voyages of Biorn d Leif and of the pleasant coasts of Helleland and no records exist. The whole of his earlier life, indeed, is Vinland that lay towards the setting sun. All were hints a nd C njectural rW ,i i ? > funded as it is on the half and rumours to bid the bold mariner sail westward, and h el“ “d evafve chapters devoted by Fernando, this he at length determined to do. The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, Quest of a Ufhl’ tnd bl°SraPher> t0 first half century of his atron seems uni™ 8 timeS‘ certain, however, that these was necessary for the success of this design. The Senate P -wh°!n yT Yere St0rmy> laborious, and eventful; of Genoa had the honour to receive the first offer, and Sailed journeyed’’ ^ ^ ’” be writes’ “tbere have I the responsibility of refusing it. Rejected by his native visiter/LV i /(STTbr!0Wn> among other places, to have city, the projector turned next to John II. of Portugal. Thule S and fh ^ ” (Iceland)> tbe Guiliea This king had already an open field for discovery and he Greek Isles and he some’time • ., , 5 appears to have been enterprise along the African coast; but he listened to the f Ren6 of Pr lie“s f™ln °erce ovence, for whom Genoese, and referred* him to a Committee of Council for traileV with °f ^ Pted and seized a Venetian Geographical Affairs. The council’s report was altogether hi son n feat -hVery and audacity- According to adverse; but the king, who was yet inclined to favour the W th Colombo el Mozo a bold captama^ ; 6 T and I a Sea figbt under this ’ ^a theory of Columbus, assented to the suggestion of the was the mean commander bishop of Ceuta that the plan should be carried out in X a(We er he h brmgmg him asbore in Portugab Mean- secret and without Columbus’s knowledge by means of a ’ ' > was Preparing himself for greater achieve- caravel or light frigate. The caravel was dispatched, but

172

COLUMBUS

it returned after a brief absence, the sailors having lost versation with Juan Perez de Marchena, the guardian, who heart, and having refused to venture farther. Upon invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery, and discovering this dishonourable transaction Columbus felt introduced him to Garci Fernandez, a physician and an so outraged and indignant that he sent off his brother ardent student of geography. To these good men did Bartholomew to England with letters for Henry VII., to Columbus propound his theory and explain his plan. Juan whom he had communicated his ideas. He himself left Perez had been the queen’s confessor; he wrote to ber, Lisbon for Spain (1484), taking with him his son Diego, and was summoned to her presence; and money was the only issue of his marriage with Felipa Munnis, who sent to Columbus, to bring him once more to court. He was by this time dead. He departed secretly, according to reached Granada in time to witness the surrender of the city; negotiations were resumed. Columbus believed in his some writers, to give the slip to King John, according to and others, to escape his creditors. Three years after (20th mission, and stood out for high terms; he asked the rank March 1488) a letter was sent by the king to “Christopher of Admiral at once, the vice-royalty of all he should discover, and a tenth of all the gain, by conquest or by trade. Colon, our especial friend,” inviting him to return, assuring him against arrest and proceedings of any kind ; These conditions were rejected, and the negotiations were again interrupted. An interview with Mendoza appears to but it was then too late. _ . Columbus next betook himself to the south of 8pain, have followed; but nothing came of it, and in January and seems to have proposed his plan first to the duke of 1492 Columbus actually set out for France. At length, Medina Sidonia (who was at first attracted by it, but finally however, on the entreaty of Luis de Sautangel, receiver of threw it up as visionary and impracticable), and next to the ecclesiastical revenues of the crown of Aragon, Isabella the duke of Medina Celi. The latter gave him great was induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger encouragement, entertained him for two years, and was sent after Columbus, and overtook him at the Bridge even determined to furnish him with the three or foui of Pines, about two leagues from Granada. He returned caravals. Finally, however, being deterred by the con- to the camp at Santa F6; and on 17th April 1492, the sideration that the enterprize was too vast for a subject, he agreement between him and their Catholic majesties was turned his guest from the determination he had come to signed and sealed. His aims were nothing less than the discovery of the of making instant application at the court of F ranee, by writing on his behalf to queen Isabella j and Columbus marvellous province of Cipango and the conversion to Christianity of the Grand Khan, to whom he received a repaired to the court at Cordova at her bidding. It was an ill moment for the navigator’s fortune. Castile royal letter of Introduction. The town of Palos w’as and Leon were in the thick of that struggle which resulted ordered to find him two ships, and these were soon placed in the final defeat of the Moors ; and neither Ferdinand at his disposal. But no crews could be got together, in nor Isabella had time to listen. The adventurer was in- spite of the indemnity offered to all criminals and deed kindly received^ he was handed over to the care of broken men who would serve on the expedition ; and Alonso de Quintanilla, whom he speedily converted into an had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting Martin Alonso enthusiastic supporter of his theory. He made many other Pinzon and Vicente Yaliez Pinzon in the cause, Columbus s friends, and here met with Beatrix Enriquez, the mother departure had been long delayed. At last, however, men, First ships, and stores were ready. The expedition consisted of '0Pge' of his second son Fernando. From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca, the “ Santa Maria,” a decked ship, with a crew of 50 men, where he was introduced to the notice of the grand commanded by the Admiral in person ; and of two caravels, cardinal, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, “ the third king of the “ Pinta,” with 30 men, under Martin Pinzon, and the Spain.” The cardinal, while approving the project, thought “ Nina,” with 24 men, under his brother Vicente Yanez, that it savoured strongly of heterodoxy ; but an interview afterwards (1499) the first to cross the line in the American with the projector brought him over, and through his Atlantic. The adventurers numbered 120 souls; and on influence Columbus at last got audience of the king. The Friday, 3d August 1492, at eight in the morning, the little matter was finally referred, however, to Fernando de Tala- fleet weighed anchor, and stood out for the Canary Islands. An abstract of the Admiral’s diary made by the Bishop vera. who in 1487 summoned a junta of astronomers and cosmographers to confer with Columbus, and examine his Las Casas is yet extant; and from it many particulars may design and the arguments by which he supported it. The be gleaned concerning this first voyage. Three days after Dominicans of San Esteb&n in Salamanca entertained the ships had set sail the “Pinta” lost her ruddei; Columbus during the conference. The jurors, who were most the Admiral was in some alarm, but comforted himself of them ecclesiastics, were by no means unprejudiced, nor with the reflection that Martin Pinzon was energetic and were they disposed to abandon their pretensions to knowledge ready-witted; they had, however, to put in (August without a struggle. Columbus argued his point, but was 9) at Teneriffe, to refit the caravel. On 6th September overwhelmed with Biblical texts, with quotations from the they weighed anchor once more with all haste, Columbus great divines, with theological objections; and in a short time having been informed that three Portuguese caravels the junta was adjourned. In 1489 Columbus, who had been were on the look-out for him. On 13th September the following the court from place to place (billeted in towns variations of the magnetic needle were for the first time as an officer of the king’s, and gratified from time to time observed; on the 15th a wonderful meteor fell into the with sums of money toward his expenses), was present at sea at four or five leagues distance. On the 16th they the siege of Malaga. In 1490 the junta decided that his arrived at those vast plains of seaweed called the Sargasso project was vain and impracticable, and that it did not Sea; and thenceforward, writes the Admiral, they had most become their highnesses to have anything to do with it; temperate breezes, the sweetness of the mornings being and this was confirmed, with some reservation, by their most delightful, the weather like an Andalusian April, and only the song of the nightingale wanting. On the 17th highnesses themselves, at Seville. Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook him- the men began to murmur; they were frightened by the self to Huelva, where his brother-in-law resided, with the strange phenomena of the variations of the compass, but intention of taking ship for France. He halted, howevei, the explanation Columbus gave restored their tranquilat Palos, a little maritime town in Andalusia. At the lity. On the 18th they saw many birds, and a gwa monastery of La Rabida he knocked and asked for bread | ridge of low-lying cloud; and they expected to see lan . and water for his boy Diego, and presently got into con- I On the 20th they saw two pelicans, and were sure the Ian

COLUMBUS 173 must be near. In this, however, they were disappointed, cession, was received by their majesties in full court and the men began to be afraid and discontented; and and, seated m their presence, related the story of his thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a wanderings exhibiting the “rich and strange ” spoils double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself of the new-found lands,—the gold, the cotton, the parrots had great difficulty in restraining the men from the ex- the curious arms, the mysterious plants, the unknown cesses which they meditated. On the 25th Alonso Pinzon birds and beasts, and the nine Indians he had brought raised the cry of land, but it proved a false alarm ; as did with him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were the rumour to the same effect of the 7th October, when confirmed to him ; the title of Don was conferred on the “ Nina ” hoisted a flag and fired a gun. On the 11th himself and his brothers ; he rode at the king’s bridle • the “Pinta ” fished up a cane, a log of wood, a stick he was served and saluted as a grandee of Spain. And' wrought with iron, and a board, and the “Nina” sighted greatest honour of all, a new and magnificent scutcheon was a stake covered with dog-roses ; “ and with these signs all blazoned for him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle of them breathed, and were glad.” At ten o'clock on that and lion of Castile and Leon were combined with the four A srica night Columbus perceived and pointed out a light ahead • anchors of Ins own old coat of arms. Nor were their Catholic overed and at two in the morning of Friday, the 12th October' highnesses less busy on their own account than on that of 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor aboard the “Nina, ” an- their servant. On 3d and 4th May Alexander YI. granted nounced the appearance of what proved to be the New bulls confirming to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the World. The land sighted was an island, called by the In- lands discovered,2 or to be discovered, beyond a certain line dians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador.1 ot demarcation, on the same terms as those on which the The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and I ortuguese held their colonies along the African coast A bearing the royal banner of Spain. He was accompanied new expedition was got in readiness with all possible disby the brothers Pinzon, bearing banners of the Green patch, to secure and extend the discoveries already made. Cross, a device of his own, and by great part of the crew. fter several delays the fleet weighed anchor on 25th When they all had “ given thanks to God, kneeling upon September and steered westwards. It consisted of three the shore, and kissed the ground with tears of joy, for the gieat carracks (galleons), and fourteen caravels (light great mercy received,” the Admiral named the island, and trigates), having on board about 1500 men, besides the took solemn possession of it for their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time such of the crews as animals and material necessary for colonization. Twelve had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous sought his missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the orders of Bernardo Bud, a Benedictine friar; and Columbus had been pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet. directed (29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means in his Into the detail of this voyage, of highest interest as it is, power to Christianize the inhabitants of the islands, to make Fin er it is impossible to go farther. It will be enough to say disc eries. that.it resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa them presents, and to “honour them much,” while all under Maria del Concepcion, Exuma, Isabella, Juanna or Cuba, him were commandedto treatthem “welland lovingly ’’under Bohio, the Cuban Archipelago (named by its finder the pain of severe punishment. On 13th October the ships which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and so early Jardin del Rey), the island of Santa Catalina, and that as bunday, 3d November, after a single storm, “ by the of Hispaniola, now called Haiti, or San Domingo. Off the last of these the “ Santa Maria ” went aground, owing to goodness of God and the wise management of the Admiral” the carelessness of the steersman. No lives were lost, land was sighted to the west, which was named Dominica. but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and Northwards from this new found island the isles of Maria Galante and Guadaloupe were discovered and named; and Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the on the north-western course to La Navidad those of Montnews of his achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to build a fort out of the material of the serrat, Antigua, San Martin, and Santa Cruz were sighted the island now called Porto Rico was touched at, hurstranded hulk, and to leave the crew. The fort was called and La JNavidad ; 43 Europeans were placed in charge : and riedly explored, and.named San Juan. On 22d November Columbus came in sight of Hispaniola, and sailing eastward °’1 January 1493, Columbus, who had lost sight ot Martin Pinzon, set sail alone in the “ Nina ” for the to La Navidad, found the fort burned and the colony diseast; and four days afterwards the “ Pinta ” joined her persed. He decided on building a second fort; and coasting sister-ship off Monte Christo. A storm, however, separated on forty miles east of Cape Haytien, he pitched on a spot tne vessels, and a long battle with the trade winds where he founded the city and settlement of Isabella. The character in which Columbus had appeared had caused great delay; and it was not until the 18th February that Columbus reached the Island of Santa Maria till now been that of the greatest of mariners; but from this point forward his claims to supremacy are embarrassed zores iny tne A0 "Portuguese - Here he waswho threatened withforcapture governor, could not some and complicated with the long series of failures, vexations, miseiies, insults, that have rendered his career as a planter of ° e brought to recognize his commission. On colonies and as a ruler of men most pitiful and remarkable, Uar 0wever was alI I he climate of Navidad proved unhealthy ; the colonists on Ail fW > °wed to proceed; and Marc h7’ ^ he T| „ J “Nina” dropped anchor off Lisbon. were greedy of gold, impatient of control, and as proud, of l honours; Portugal the Admiral with put the ignorant, and mutinous as Spaniards could be; and ColumReti i to h- 0rhest and onreceived 13th March the “Nina” -pain bus, whose inclinations drew him westward, was doubtless aDd two da s Mnrl° u 6 T,§U35 y afterwards, Friday, March, dropped anchor off Palos. ^ 15th glad to escape the worry and anxiety of his post, and to avail himself of the instructions of his sovereigns as WaS atBarcelcma and a ; thither, after despatching to further discoveries. In January 1494 he sent home, arriva1 Colum n4son Zne°Uentered Vng, hi9 bustriumphal proceededproin by Antonio de Torres, that dispatch to their Catholic the city in’ a sort of highnesses by which he may be said to have founded ne f the Baliamas vaiiously8 A >“8 °Island ° - ” It has bem 2 Turk “ The countries which he had discovered were considered as a part Cat Island > hy1836 Navarrete (1825); with (182 ant Humboldt of India. In consequence of this notion, the name of Indies is given hy VarnWen . ?,finadl1 wit ( > 5 ™th Mayaguarra, with Watline IsUn 1 \ L )h SUpP greatest shew of probability, to them by Ferdinand and Isabella in a ratification of their former Pesehel (1857), and MJor (Wlb ’ °rted by Becher (1856>’ agreement which was granted to Columbus after his return.”—Robertson’s History of America.

C 0 L U M B U S the West Indian slave trade. He founded the mining a dukedom or a marquisate at his pleasure; for three camp of San Tomaso in the gold country ; and on 24th years he was to receive an eighth of the gross and a tenth April 1494, having nominated a council of regency under of the net profits on each voyage; the right of creating a . his brother Diego, and appointed Pedro de Margarite his mayorazgo or perpetual entail of titles and estates was captain-general, he put again to sea. After following the granted him; and on 24th June his two sons were received southern shore of Cuba for some days, he steered south- into Isabella’s service as pages. Meanwhile, however, the wards, and discovered the island of Jamaica, which he preparing of the fleet proceeded slowly; and it was not till 30th May 1498 that he and his six ships set sail. named Santiago. He then resumed his exploration of the theFrom San Lucar he steered for Gomera, in the Canaries, Third Cuban coast, thread his way through a labyrinth of islets supposed to be the Morant Keys, which he named the and thence dispatched three of his ships to San Domingo, voyage. next proceeded to’ the’ Cape Yerd Islands, which he Garden of the Queen; and after coasting westwards for many He quitted on 4th July. ‘On 'the 31st of the same month, days, he became convinced that he had discovered con- being greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land tinuous land, and caused Perez de Luna, the notary, to draw lay westwards as they had hoped, Columbus had turned up a document attesting his discovery (12th June 1494), his ship’s head north, when Alonso Perez, a mariner of which was afterwards taken round and signed, in presence Huelva, saw land about 15 leagues to the south-west It of four witnesses, by the masters, mariners, and seamen o was crowned with three hill-tops, and so when the sailors his three caravels, the “ Nina,” the “ Cardera, ’ and the had sung the Salve Regina, the Admiral named it Trinidad, “San Juan.” He then stood to the south-east, and sighted the island of Evangelita; and after many days of which name it yet bears. On Wednesday, 1st August, difficulties and anxieties, he touched at and named the he beheld for the first time in the mainland of South island La Mona. Thence he had intended to sail east- America the continent he had sought so long, It seemed him but an insignificant island, and he called it Zeta. wards, and complete the survey of the Caribbean Archi- to Sailing westwards, next day he saw the Gulf of Paria, pelago. But he was exhausted by the terrible tear and which was named by him the Golfo de la Balena, and wear of mind and body he had undergone (he says himse f borne into it at immense risk on the ridge of waters that on this expedition he was three and thirty days almost was formed by the meeting with the sea of the great rivers without any sleep), and on the day following his departure from La Mona, he fell into a lethargy, that deprived him that empty themselves, all swollen with rain, into the of sense and memory, and had well nigh proved fatal to ocean. For many days he coasted the continent, esteeming life. At last, on 29th September, the little fleet dropped as islands the several projections he saw, and naming them anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the great Admiral accordingly; nor was it until he had looked on and considered the immense volume of fresh water poured out lay sick for five months. The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discon- through the embouchures of the river now called the tented, and many were sick, for the climate was unhealthy Orinoco, that he concluded that the so-called archipelago be in very deed a great continent. and there was nothing to eat. Margarite and Buil had must Unfortunately at this time he was suffering intolerably quitted Hispaniola for Spain; but ere his departure, the from gout and ophthalmia; his ships were crazy; and he former, in his capacity of captain-general, had done much was anxious to inspect the infant colony whence he had to outrage and alienate the Indians. . The strongest been absent so long. And so, after touching at and naming measures were necessary to undo this mischief; and backed by his brother Bartholomew, a bold and skilful marinei, and the island of Margarita, he bore away to the north-east, a soldier of courage and resource, who had been with Diaz and on 30th August the fleet dropped anchor off Isabella. He found that affairs had not prospered well in his in his voyage round the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway. absence. By the vigour and activity of the adelantado, Alonso de Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant coup de main in the whole island had been reduced under Spanish sway, capturing the cacique Caonabo, and the rest^ submitted. but at the expense of the colonists. Under the leadership Live ship-loads of Indians were sent off to Seville (24th of a certain Roldan, a bold and unprincipled adventurer, June 1495) to be sold as slaves; and a tribute was im- they had risen in revolt, and Columbus had to comproposed upon their fellows, which must be looked upon as mise matters in order to restore peace. Roldan retained the origin of that system of Tepavtimientos or encomiendas his office; such of his followers as chose to remain in which was afterwards to work such cruel mischief among the island were gratified with repartimientos of land and the conquered. But the tide of court favour seemed to labour; and some fifteen, choosing to return to Spain, have turned against Columbus. In October 1495 Juan were enriched with a number of slaves, and sent home in Aguado arrived at Isabella, with an open commission from two ships which sailed in the early part of October 14 . Five ship-loads of Indians had been deported to Spain their Catholic majesties, to inquire into the circumstances of his rule; and much contest and recrimination followed. some little time before. On the arrival of these living Columbus ffound that there was no time to be lost in cargoes at Seville, the queen, the stanch and steady friend returning rhome; he appointed his brother Bartholomew of Columbus, was moved with compassion and indignation. “adelantado” of the island; and on 10th March 1496 No one, she declared, had authorized him to dispose ot ner he quitted Hispaniola in the “ Nina.” The vessel, after a vassals in any such manner ; and proclamations at Seville, protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on 11th Granada, and other chief places ordered (20th June 1499) June 1496. The Admiral landed in great dejection, wear- the instant liberation and return of all the last gang o ing the costume of a Franciscan. Beassured, however, by Indians. In addition to this the ex-colonists had become the reception of his sovereigns, he asked at once for eight incensed against Columbus and his brothers. They were ships more, two to be sent to the colony with supplies, wont to parade their grievances in the very court-yards o and six to be put under his orders for new discoveries. the Alhambra, to surround the king when he came lorm The request was not immediately granted, as the Spanish with complaints and reclamations, to insult the discovere exchequer was not then well supplied. But principally young sons with shouts and jeers. There was no ou owing to the interest of the queen, an agreement was come that the colony itself, whatever the cause, had not pro^ to similar to that of 1492, which was now confirmed. By pered so well as might have been desired. And, o this royal patent, moreover, a tract of land in Hispaniola, of the whole, it is not surprising that Ferdinand, whose sup50 leagues by 20, was made over to him. He was offered port to Columbus had never been very hearty, sno 174

COLUMBUS

175 about this time have determined to suspend him. Accord guese Asia. After the usual inevitable delays his prayers ingly on March 21, 1499, Francisco de Bobadilla was were granted, and on 9th May 1502, with four caravels and ordered “ to ascertain what persons had raised themselves loO men, he weighed anchor from Cadiz, and sailed on his against justice in the island of Hispaniola, and to proceed fourth and last great voyage. He first betook himself to against them according to law.” On May 21st the govern- the relief of the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which had been ment of the island was conferred on him, and he was besieged by the Moors, but the siege had been raised volunaccredited with an order that all arms and fortresses should tarily before he arrived. He put to sea westwards once be handed over to him; and on May 26 he received a letter more, and on 13th June discovered the island of Martinique. for delivery to Columbus, stating that the bearer would He had received positive instructions from his sovereigns “ speak certain things to him ” on the part of their high- on no account to touch at Hispaniola; but his largest caravel nesses, and praying him “ to give faith and credence, and was greatly in need of repairs, and he had no choice but to to act accordingly.” Bobadilla left Spain in July 1500, abandon her or disobey orders. He preferred the latter and landed in Hispaniola in October. alternative, and sent a boat ashore to Ovando, asking for Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity a new ship and for permission to enter the harbour to as was possible in his government. With Roldan’s help he weather a hurricane which he saw was coming on. But had beaten off an attempt on the island of the adventurer his requests were refused, and he coasted the island, castOjeda, his old lieutenant; the Indians were being collected ing anchor. under lee of the land. Here he weathered the into villages and Christianized. Gold-mining was actively storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and anniand profitably pursued; in three years, he calculated, the hilated the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had royal revenues might be raised to an average of 60,000,000 till then been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla reals. The arrival of Bobadilla, however, speedily changed perished with others of the Admiral’s enemies; and Ferthis state of affairs into a greater and more pitiable con- nando Colon, who accompanied his father on this voyage, fusion than the island had ever before witnessed. On wrote long years afterwards, “ I am satisfied it was the landing, he took possession of the Admiral’s house and hand of God, for had they arrived in Spain they had never summoned him and his brothers before him. Accusations been punished as their crimes deserved, but rather been of severity, of injustice, of venality even, were poured favoured and preferred.” down on their heads, and Columbus anticipated nothing After, recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put all three in at Jaquimo and refitted his four vessels; and on 14th July irons, and shipped them off to Spain. 1502 he steered for Jamaica. For nine weeks the ships Alonso de Villejo, captain of the caravel in which the wandered painfully among the keys and shoals he had illustrious prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of named the Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune the honour and respect due to Columbus, and would have easterly wind prevented the crews from open mutiny. The removed the fetters; but to this Columbus would not fiist land sighted was the islet of Guanaja, about forty consent. He would wear them, he said, until their high- miles east of the coast of Honduras. Here he got news nesses, by whose order they had been affixed, should order from an old Indian of a rich and vast country lying to their removal; and he would keep them afterwards “ as the eastward, which he at once concluded must be the long relics and as memorials of the reward of his services.” sought for empire of the Grand Khan. Steering along He did so.. His son Fernando “ saw them always hanging the coast of Honduras, great hardships were endured, but in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they nothing approaching his ideal was discovered. On 12th might.be buried with him.” Whether this last wish was September Cape Gracias-A-Dios was sighted. The men complied with is not known. had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until the 5th A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to December, however, would he tack about, and retrace his Dona Juana de la Torre, the governess of the infante Don course. It now became his intention to plant a colony on Juan, arrived at court before the despatch of Bobadilla. It the river Veragua, which was afterwards to give his was read to the queen, and its tidings were confirmed by descendants a title of nobility; but he had hardly put communications from Alonso de Villejo, and the alcaide of about when he was caught in a storm, which lasted eight Cadiz. There was a great movement of indignation; the days, wrenched and strained his crazy, worm-eaten ships u ar an severely, and finally, on the Epiphany, blew him into an ao ^ P°Pfavour. ^ d He royal feelinga turned once tomore in the Admiral’s received large sum defray his embouchure which he named Bethlehem. Gold was expenses; and when he appeared at court, on 17th Decem- very plentiful in this place, and here he determined to ber, he was no longer in irons and disgrace, but richly found his settlement. By the end of Alarch 1503 a numapparelled and surrounded with friends. He was received ber of huts had been run up, and in these the adelantado with all honour and distinction. The queen is said to with 80 men was to remain, while Columbus returned lave been moved to tears by the narration of his story, to Spain for men and supplies. Quarrels, however, iheir majesties not only repudiated Bobadilla’s proceedings, arose with the natives; the adelantado made an attempt to but declined to inquire, into the charges that he at the same time brought against his prisoners, and promised seize on the person of the cacique, and failed; and before Columbus could leave the coast he had to abandon a Uolumbus compensation for his losses and satisfaction for caravel, to take the settlers on board, and to relinquish the ns wrongs. A new governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appoin e in Bobadilla’s room, and left San Lucar on 18th enterprize. Steering eastwards, he left a second caravel at e ruary 1502, with a fleet of 30 ships. The latter was Porto Bello; and on May 31st he bore northwards for o e impeached and sent home; the Admiral’s property Cuba, where he obtained supplies from the natives. From was o be restored, and a fresh start was to be made in Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there, in the harbour of Santa Gloria, now St Anne’s Bay, he ran his ships aground tbe conduct of colonial affairs. Thus ended Columbus’s in a small inlet still called Don Christopher’s Cove. us orj as viceroy and governor of the new Indies which The expedition was received with the greatest kindness ue Bad presented to the country of his adoption. by the natives, and here Columbus remained upwards of a A™ • , F °f rest’ however> was not yet come. Ever year awaiting the return of his lieutenant Diego Mendez, -UV Serve Catholic highnesses, “and parti- whom he had dispatched to Ovando for assistance. Durih U n Hrm/i M r ’” .k® determined to find strait ing his critical sojourn here, the admiral suffered much gh which he might ^ penetrate westwards intoa Portu from disease and from the lawlessness of his followers,

I

176

0 0 L —C O L

whose misconduct had alienated the natives, and provoked was temperate in eating, drinking, and dress; and “so them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until he strict in religious matters, that for fasting and saying all divine office, he might be thought professed in some dexterously worked upon their superstitions by prognosti- the religious order.” His piety, as his son has noted, was cating an eclipse. Two vessels having at last arrived for earnest and unwavering; it entered into and coloured their relief from Mendez and Ovando, Columbus set sail alike his action and his speech; he tries his pen in a Latiu for Spain, and after a tempestuous voyage he landed once distich of prayer; his signature is a mystical pietistic more at Seville on 7th September 1504. Closing As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent device. He was pre-eminently fitted for the task he created years, thither in his place, to look after his interests and transact for himself. Through deceit and opprobrium and disdain he pushed on towards the consummation of his desire; his business. Letter after letter followed the joung^ man and when the hour for action came the man was not found from Seville,—one by the hands of Amerigo Vespucci. A wanting. licence to ride on muleback was granted him on Lod See Washington Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, London, February 1505 ; and in the following May he was removed 1831 ; Humboldt, Examen Critique de VHistoire de la Geographic to the court at Segovia, and thence again to Valladolid. du Nouveau Continent, Paris, 1836 ; Spotorno, Codice Liplomatico On the landing of Philip and Juana at Coruna (25th April Colombo-Americano, Genoa., 1823; Hernan Colon, Vita delV Amnxi1571 (English translation in vol. ii. of Churchill’s Voyages 1506) although “much oppressed with the gout and troubled raglio, and Travels, third edition, London, 1744; Spanish, 1745); Prescott, to see himself put by his rights,” he is known to have sent History of Ferdinand and Isabella, London, 1870 ; Major, Select off the adelantado to pay them his duty and to assure them Letters of Columbus, Hakluyt Society, London, 1847, and “On that he was yet able to do them extraordinary ser\ice. the Landfall of Columbus,” in Journal of the Royal Geographical for 1871 ; Sir Arthur Helps, Life of Columbus, London, The last documentary note of him is contained in a final Society 1868 • Navarrete, Colcccion de Viages y Descubrimientos desde Fines codicil to the will of 1498, made at Valladolid on 19th May del Siglo xv., Madrid, 1825 ; Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature, 1506. By this the old will is confirmed; the mayorazgo London, 1863. See also Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, Opus Epistois bequeathed to his son Diego, and his heirs male, failing larum, 1530, and De Rebus Oceanicis et de Orbe Novo, 1511; in Historiadores Primitivos de Indias, vol. xxii. of these to Fernando, his second son, and failing these Gomora, Rivadaneyra’s collection ; Oviedo y * aides, Cronica de las Indias, to the heirs male of Bartholomew; only in case of the Salamanca, 1547 ; Ramusio, Raccolta dells Navigations et Viaggi, extinction of the male line, direct or collateral, is it to iii. Yenetia, 1575; Herrera de Tordesillas, Histona de las Indias descend to the females of the family; and those into whose Occidcntales, 1601; Antonio Leon Pinelo, Epitome de la Bibhoteca hands it may fall are never to diminish it, but always to Oriental y Occidental, Madrid, 1623 ; Munoz, Historia del Nuevo Madrid, 1793 ; Cancellieri, Notizia di Chnstoforo Colombo, increase and ennoble it by all means possible. The head Mundo 1809 • Bossi, Vita di Christoforo Colombo, 1819 ; Charlevoix, Ihsof the house is to sign himself “The Admiral.” A toire ’de San Domingo; Lamartine, Christoph Colomb, Paris, 1862 tenth of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for (Spanish translation, 1865); Crompton, Life of Columbus, London, distribution among the poor relations of the house. A 1859 ; Voyages and Discoveries of Columbus, sixth edition, London, chapel is founded and endowed for the saying of masses. 1857 ’; H. R. St John, Life of Columbus, London, 1850. COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius Modekatus, the author Beatriz Enriquez is left to the care of the young admiral of the most complete classical treatise on agricultural affairs, in most grateful terms. Among other legacies is one of “ half a mark of silver to a Jew who used to live at the was born at Cades (Cadiz), and belongs to the 1st century gate of the Jewry, in Lisbon.” The codicil was written A.D., being contemporary with Seneca. He possessed an and signed with the Admiral’s own hand. Next day (20th estate called Ceretanum, perhaps near the Pyrenees, perhaps in Sardinia, and he also travelled extensively, but he prinMay 1506) he died. He was buried at Valladolid; but his remains were cipally resided at Rome. His extant works treat with soon after transferred thence to the Carthusian monastery great fulness, and in a diffuse but not inelegant style which of Las Cuevas, Seville, where the bones of Diego, the well represents the silver age, of the cultivation of all kinds second Admiral, were also laid. Exhumed in 1536, the of corn and garden vegetables, trees, flowers, the vine, the bodies of both father and son were taken over sea to olive, and other fruits, and of the rearing of all the domestic Hispaniola (San Domingo), and interred in the cathedral. animals. They consist of the 12 books of the De Re In 1795-96, on the cession of that island to the French, Eustica, that which treats of gardening being in dactylic the august relics were re-exhumed, and were transferred hexameters, T and of a book De Arboribus, which is t e with great state and solemnity to the cathedral of the only part w e possess of a work treating of the same Havana, where they yet remain. The male issue of the subjects as De Re Eustica, but earlier and less elaborate. Admiral became extinct with the third generation, and the The editio princeps was published by Jenson at Venice in estates and titles passed by marriage to a scion of the 1472, in the Eei Rusticce Scriptores Varii. A good edition is contained in the Eei Rusticce Scriptores Veteres LatmuA house of Bragan§a. Gesner (Leipsic, 1735, again edited and collated with a newly discovered MS. by Ernesti, 1773); and the es is that given in the Scriptores Eei Eustica} by Schneider (Leipsic, 1794). There are translations in English (1/40), French (1551), Italian (1554-57-59 and 1808), and German

Columbus’s Cipher. The internretation of the seven-lettered cipher accepting the smaller letters of the sec ^d Hne as the final ones of the words, seems to XristiU, Maria, Yosephus. The name Christopher appears in the last line. In person Columbus was tall and shapely, long-faced and aquiline, white-eyed and auburn-haired, and beautifully complexioned. At thirty his hair was quite grey. He

^ COLZA OIL is a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of Brassica Napus, var. oleifera, a variety of the plant w ic produces Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivateu in France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany; and, especia y in the first-named country, the expression of the on m important industry. In commerce colza is classed wit r p oil, to which both in source and properties it is very c o ) allied. It is a comparatively inodorous oil of a P5 colour, having a specific gravity at 60° Fahr. of 0 > and it solidifies at 22° Fahr. The cake left after expres sion of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for ca • Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for mac in H

C 0 M —c O M

177 and for burning in lamps. It was for many years employed Erazos and Colorado on the one hand and the Arkansas in British light-houses, having been favourably reported on and Missouri on the other. They were brought to nominal for that purpose in 1845 by Professor Faraday, but submission in 1783 by the Spanish general Ansa, who mineral oils are now more generally used. killed thirty of their chiefs; but they again became COMACCHIO, a town of Italy, in the province of troublesome, and continued to harass the district of Texas Ferrara, at the head of a circondario, is situated on a lon°- till they were settled in a reservation in the Indian island near the seaward side of an extensive lagoon in the Territory. In 1872 a portion of the tribe, called the Adriatic, known as the Yalli diComacchio, in 44° 41' 36" Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches, had to be reduced N. lat. and 29° 51' 23" E. long. It is the seat of a bishop, by military measures. Their total numbers, estimated by and possesses a Capuchin convent and several fine churches. President Burnet in 1847 as 10,000 or 12,000, are now It was at one time strongly fortified, and still has remains reduced to little more than 3000 or 4000. of the citadel, which, in accordance with the treaty of COMAYAGUA, a city of Central America, capital of Vienna, was held by the Austrians till 1859. The inhabi- the republic of Honduras, and of the department of tants are mainly engaged in the manufacture of salt and Comayagua, is situated in 14° 28' N. lat. and 87° 39' W the prosecution of the fisheries in the lagoon, which with long about half way between the Pacific and the Atlantic’ its shallow area of 41,600 acres, affords a rich feeding on the right bank of the Humuya or Ulua River, and near ground for eels and grey mullets. The seaward entrance the southern edge of a wide and fertile valley to which it is carefully guarded by a system of nets, so that the fish, gives its name. It lies 2060 feet above the level of the once within the lagoon, cannot find their way out again! sea; and the valley is shut in by mountains varying in Ihe eels are exported to all parts of Italy, sometimes alive, height from 5000 to 6000 feet, so that it enjoys a comout more usually in a pickle ; and they are greatly paratively temperate and equable climate. It is the residesteemed for their delicate flavour. The average annual ence of the president and the seat of the only bishop in production is 1,800,000 lb, and the value about £10 000 Honduras; but the political disturbances of the country Population, 8900 have reduced it to a very poor condition. The houses are COMAN A (frequently called Chryse, or A urea, i.e., the mainly of one story and built of sun-dried bricks; and golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus), a city of the fine fountains, monuments, and public buildings, of Cappadocia, in a deep valley of the Anti-Taurus range which it once could boast, have for the most part fallen into through which the Biver Sarus (Sihun) flows. This city rums or decay. Of those still left the principal is the was celebrated in ancient times as the place where the rites cathedral, a rather imposing building, with cupolas and of the goddess Ma, the Greek Enyo, were celebrated with much solemnity. The service was carried on in a towers dating from the beginning of the 18th century. Ihe university, founded in 1678, and more than once sumptuous temple and with great magnificence. To defray nominally in the present century, does not pracexpenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a tically exist.restored trade of the city is very small, in spite more than royal revenue. The city of Comana, which was of the fertdity The of the neighbouring district; but a railway a mere apanage of the temple, was governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always a member of the is in course of construction, which will put it in direct reigning family, and took rank next to the king. The communication with both sides of the continent. In the number of persons engaged in the service of the temple, neighbourhood, Mr Squier informs us, “hardly a step can be even in Strabo’s time, was upwards of 6000. Under taken without encountering evidences of aboriginal occupaCaracalla, Comana became a Roman colony. Its site has tion; but the only relic mentioned in the city itself is a dogshaped figure built into the walls of the church of Our not been identified. COMANA, an ancient city of Pontus in Asia Minor, said ira?1yJ0lr?0!0re>;” The Present cit7> originally designated la Nueva, was founded in 1540 by Alonzo to have been colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It Valladolid stood on the River Iris (or Tocat-su), not far from its source, Caceres, who had been instructed to find out an eligible and from its central position was a favourite emporium of site for a town midway between the oceans. In 1557 it he Armenian and other merchants. The moon-goddess received the rights of a city, and in 1561 was made a was worshipped in the city with a pomp and ceremony in bishop’s see. Its prosperity is shown by the fact that at respects analogous to those employed in the Cappadocian the great revolution of 1827 it had about 18,000 inhabitants. Burned in that year by the monarchical party of 7 Lar e multlt g udes were attracted to the place by the Guatemala, it has since suffered during successive contests [fr 'f great annual processions, and the permanent population more especially in 1872, when it witnessed the defeat of y of de ^ees. The1 slaves General Medina’s army by the allied forces of San Salvador 6 f emple alone num Rpt; n bered not less than called 6000. and Guatemala, and in 1873, when it was besieged for f emains of Comana are still to be seen near a village Gumenek on the Tocat-su, seven miles from the city ?f Tocat. about two months. In 1854 Scherzer estimated the They consist,” says Van Lennep, “of a low hill upon population at only 2000; but it is believed now to number between 7000 and 8000. bri COMB, a toothed implement for arranging and dressing will! J A —ui uiiux ih 'ra*m“ts lc (2q)~% (£-T) \ cotan. | = Vcotan- v ( . . (XIII.) then tan. 4 r = 2 cotan. 2 | " — cos.^ 24r l We have thus the true anomaly and radius-vector. Then, if the motion be direct,— cos. A. cos. (0-&) = cos. (vl-Tr-&) 'j (XIY.) cos. A . sin. (0- &) = sin. a). cos. i £ sin. } — sin. (v + tt— a) • sin. i ) or, if the motion be retrograde,— cos. A. cos. (a - 0) = cos. [v-ir+ 9,) | (XY.) cos. A . sin. (a - 0) — sin. (v-ir+ 9). cos. i c sin. A = sin. (v-ir+ a). sin. i ) —equations which give the heliocentric longitude and latitude (9, X). The geocentric longitude and latitude (a, /?) and the true distance from the earth (A) are then obtained from—■ A . cos. P. sin. (a - A) = r. cos. A. sin. (0-A) 1 (XYI.) A. cos. P. cos. (a — A) = r cos. A. cos. (0 — A) 4- R > A. sin. 8 —r. sin. A J If the position of the comet as referred ta the equator is required,— Put tan.. N = | (XVII.) Then cos. (X + e) tan. a tan.. Deck = tan. (N 4- e).sin.R. A. tan. R. A.— cos. N

225 2 19 Correction. + 11 Long. M.Eg. 1875-0...225 2 30 And so for the second and third positions. The interpolation of the sun’s longitudes and the log. radii-vectores of the earth from monthly page hi. of the Nautical Almanac requires no illustration. ^ ^ We now form the angles a! — A", a" - A", a" - A , ®c-, and take out the sines and cosines required; and it is always convenient to have these functions and other of t e principal quantities copied in plain figures on a paper separate from the calculations. Thus we have, // Sine. Cosine. a' - A" 319 54 44 -9-8088592 a"-A" 316 39 30 -9-8365440 a'"-A" 307 36 17 -9-8988564 a! -A' 7 329 29 41 -9-7055368 +9'9352968 a"'- A" 297 51 48 -9-9464841 +9'6696554 a' - A'" 310 10 15 +^22 a'"-A' 317 11 14 io 0718170

d" — d 347 41 33 +9-9899024 We have— £"-£' = 9-41851 days; t"' -1” = 9-565G1 As an example of the calculation of the orbit of a comet t?" - £'= 18-98413 days. by Olbers’s method, we will compute the elements of the

COMET

185 And thus substituting logarithms in the factors for o' and The calculation of M = - -, is as follows, by (II.):— P thus ia the form Log. tan. 0"'...+0-5509163 Log. tan../S"...+ 0•3232781 Log. sin.(a"-A")... — 9'8365440 No. 3.. + 3-5556279 Log. m...-0-4867341 T = 0109U4 “ --- ST IKSK Log. m... -0-4867341 P = [9-2612653].;' i g-sIoS]1 ^ Log. sin. (g- p - . 9-81224 Log. 2 0.3010300 Log. Log. R' 9-9933590 Log. R'" 9-9926916 (b) -0^04193 (2.) +0-11891 + 2-28482 Log. cos. («'-A')... 9-9352968 Log. M 9-6699800 -9-63336 Log. cos. (a'"-A'").. 9-6696554 + 0-47485 No. (1.).... -1-10135 2 " 0-2296858 Log. p'.... 9-81224 Log. p' 9-62448 1-18347 No 1-697015 9-6333570 3 0-07316 ( -) -9-44560 (4.) + 0-09933 Log./1 N Log. sec. 0' 0-2472153 ° Q-429890 0-03658 -9-26127 + 9-54082 Log. / Sec 9-81224 Log. p'2 9-62448 Log. sec. £'2 0-4944306 " 0-5674468 Log. p'. (5.) -9-07351 (6.) ....+9T6530 No + 3-121983 Log. sec. yS'"22 1-1348936 — M 9-3399600 R'"2.... 0-96690 No. (6.) +0-14632 No. (4.)....+ 1-25697 Constant ... + 0-10911 0-4748536 + 2-22387 No + 2-984376 + 0-25543 No. (5.) -0-11844 No. (3.)....-0-27900 2 2 2 Therefore the equations for r' and r'" are /" ....- 1-94487 P..+0-13699 2 9(i98 0 2 Log./" ... 0-28890 Log. F..+ 9-13669 ^ -- Q-429890.// 1 697015. p' + 3-121983. o'2 rCo ~— °' 0-966903 + 2-984376.p' Log./"..... 0"14445 Log. *... + 9-56835 r'2 + r"'2 = 1-936783 - 2-126905. p' + 6-106359. p'2 L *... 0-37012 / .... 1-08788 0-3010300 Rog- 2 0-3010300 L°g- 2 /". 1-39460 L °gR' 9-9933590 P... 0-18506 L °g- M 9-6699800 T R'" 9-9926916 Log. cos. (a"-a')...+ 9-9899024 TLog. cos.°g= i(r' + r'")... 1-24124 (A'"-A')..+9-9748170 p 0-18506 + 9-9609124 + 0-2618976 B = i(/+/") + P 1-42630 No. 8 + 0-913929 No 5 L> = i(/+/")-!* 1-05618 + 1-827669 Constant 1 -43781 Constant 1-43781 Log. 2 0-3010300 2 0^3010300 Log. B 0-15421 Log. D .0-02373 Log. M 9-6699800 Log R 9-9926916 £Log. B 0-07711 Log. tan. ^ + 0-1633710 pog. D 0-01187 Log. cos. (a-A'")..+9-8096060 Log. tan. ,8"' + 0-5509163 Log- ^ 1‘66913 Log. /' 1-47341 + 0-1033276 + 0-6852973 / 46-6800 No. 6. 297447 • +1-268608 No. 9 + 4-845039 Log. 2 16-9353 No. 8 +No. 9 + 5-758968 Log. M •• 90-3010300 6699800 ( 75.Jc.(t-T) 01M " an equation, which, when q is known, allow's either of (t — T) being found from M, and consequently from v, or w-hen (£ — T) is known, gives M, and then, by means of the table, the corresponding v. Put C=-—t=~ ; C is therefore a constant and log. C = 9 9601277. J2 ’ If, then, there be calculated for any comet the quantity— C m=— 2* we shall have— M = m( pril 25-9922 e 0-931220 « 5-75652 .116 4 35 1870 “ 17-6338 Period... 13 "81 years. 149 1 56 .269 17 12 1815 Period 74-05 years. Direct. « 83 28 54 . 54 17 0 Direct. i 44 29 55 Penodmity discovered m 1858, when the comet was detected by Discovered by Gibers at Bremen 1815, March 6. The elements Mr Tuttle at Cambridge, U.S. (January 4). It was soon found to present a great similarity of elements to those of the second comet transcribed were calculated by Bessel upon the whole comse of of 1790, which was found by Mechain at Paris on January 9 and observation ; very similar ellipses were also found by Gauss, Nicoatriacfurther investigation established the identity of the comets five lai, and Nicollet. Bessel computed the effect of planetary 7 revolutionshaving been performed between 1790 and 1858 ’ The tion upon the motion of the comet in the actual revolution and aL two appearances have been connected by the calculation of tire Pert0 1887 Feb 9 but thisedateeiseno?et0 t 1be nrehed fTge ’ - ’ unfortunately turbations in the interval by Clausen and Tischler. Up n Within limit!!1 * ° anything like narrow VII. Brorsen's Comet. 1847, V. Group B. T 1847, Sept. 9-5427 e 0-972560 I. Comet 1866 I. (Tempel.) « 17-7795 w 79 12 6 Period 74-97 years. T 1866, January 111339 Si 309 48 49 1847 e 0-905420 Direct. i 19 8 25 a 10-32479 v 60 28 1866-0 Period...33-18 years. Discovered by Brorsen at Altona, 1847, July 20. While there & 231 26 Retrograde. appears to be no doubt of the ellipticity, the period is yet open to i 17 18 nsnleiable uncertainty Dr Gould (the present director of the kn wn as the mp?n!Lb0. delelo^muchwerthand great8' distances is inconceivable. It may beandoubted whether in the ante-Chnstran ages there I “fZ transport over even 500 miles, save re for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the public sources of impeml states, and in which the idea of commerce, as now under atonrl is in ei £cr6£it m6£isu.r6 lost. • i. The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient S Xerxes, appear to |3xistence ^ tl3 Almcaudeb nations in their warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works of more or less utility, or of mere ost™‘at;“ on^onqueringPersia^n^watering Lid monumental magnificence, was dearlI should dream that he was master of J.11 ^ ^ ^ sacrifice of individual freedom, the right ,P ^ and exchange under the steady tliaa operation of natural T toco“ and“LC in short, over the growth of these economic principles, which more a d muitiplies ancient civilisations of Eastern ^',1’ vitalizes the individual and social energ ’ an race erce ? all present day and embracing about a half of th« human , the commercial resource of communities f doin and the curtain of history should drop as b ankly as if they periods and cou^ies has obtained bas belonged to another planet, or could be seen only throng hospitality from the fact that tLie io g . ding [s a X:t"ri"0ensse„tia, to extensive something desirable to offer; but the acton rfWduig reciprocal, and requires multitudes of produce defective • i trciffio as diversity of natural resources, merchants, as free agents, on both 6lde;’' londitions ST^^J^m^her Ued by .f com- division of labour, accuiuuxa^xx ^ v of patient experiment wants more advautageouslyupp J f nercein _•„! element—(1) means of transport, (2) freedom oi exchange than by direct production before it can^ ^ ;he labour and exchange, and (3) security ; and in all these con- either permanence or magnitude, oi ca 0|fered much 'vorlddiHons the ancient world was signally deficient. ment of national life, ihe ancien p y plLe p0wer The mat rivers, seatsasofchannels populaihe nveimust , which utility o( tion andgreat empire, havebecame been ot the mu first „f resistance to this development, and in their “b over the liberty, industry, and prope .V 10 commerce their subjects raised barriers to the “ “ “ “jTcom°f, Ae g^hicrdelineation, and probably scarcely less formidable than the want of means ^ munication itself. The conditions of secunty and ^ foreign trade can alone flourish equally exceeae oom 0 The abundance of gold, silver, and other “ ^ ties gathered from distant parts, of “ days of greatest Hebrew prosperity, has more the ctoc of snoils of war and tributes of dependent states than the conquest bylree exchange of th-r domesMc produce an^ manufactures. The varied merchandize of Tyre and^m must have passed over the roads by Solomon

COMMERCE 199 resources of ancient civilization. Sucli roads as exist must quests in some degree as before; but these were grave be protected from robbers, the rivers and seas from pirates ; events to occur within a brief period, and the spirit of the goods must have safe passage and safe storage, must be seat of trade in every case having been broken, and its held in a manner sacred in the territories through which means and resources more or less plundered, and dissithey pass, be insured against accidents, be respected even pated—in some cases, as in that of Carthage, irreparably in the madness of hostilities; the laws of nations must the most necessary commerce could only proceed with give a guarantee on which traders can proceed in their feeble and languid interest under the military, conoperations with reasonable confidence; and the Govern- sular, and proconsular licence of Rome at that period. ments, while protecting the commerce of their subjects with It may be remarked that Tyre, the great seaport of Palestine, foreigners as if it were their own enterprise, must in their having been destroyed by Alexander the Great, Palmyra’ Palmyra fiscal policy, and in all their acts, be endued with the the great inland centre of Syrian trade, was visited with a highest spirit of commercial honour. Every great breach still more complete annihilation by the Roman Emperor of this security stops the continuous circulation, which is Aurelian within little more than half a century after the the life of traffic and of the industries to which it ministers. capture and spoliation of Athens. The walls were razed But in tire ancient records we see commerce exposed to to their foundations; the population—men, women, great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted down in children, and the rustics round the city—were all either peace, and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became massacred or dispersed ; and the queen Zenobia was carried necessary that foreign trade should itself be an armed force captive to Rome. Palmyra had for centuries, as a centre in the world; and though the states of purely commercial of commercial intercourse and transit, been of great service origin soon fell into the same arts and wiles as the powers to her neighbours, east and west. In the wars of the to which they were opposed, yet their history exhibits Romans and Parthians she was respected by both as an clearly enough the necessity out of which they arose. asylum of common interests which it would have been Once organized, it was inevitable that they should meet simple barbarity to invade or injure ; and when thePartbians intrigue with intrigue, and force with force. The political were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman annexe, sho empires, while but imperfectly developing industry and continued to flourish as before. Her relations wfith Rome traffic within their own territories, had little sympathy with were more than friendly ; they became enthusiastic and any means of prosperity from without. Their sole policy heroic ; and her citizens, in a most brave expedition, having was either to absorb under their own spirit and conditions inflicted signal chastisement on the king of Persia for the of rule, or to destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admiration of their borders. this conduct at Rome was so great that their spirited Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world leader Odenathus, the husband of Zenobia, was proclaimed than this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of Augustus, and became co-emperor with Gallienus. But security and means of communication with distant parts, the Palmyrians, on receiving this exalted honour from the When almost driven from the land, it often found both Roman senate and people, might have said, “ Timeo Danaos on the sea; and often, when its success had become dona ferentes/’ for it introduced into their secure, palmbrilliant and renowned, it perished under the assault of covered, and lucrative groves of commerce the bane of stronger powers, only to rise again in new centres and imperial politics and ambition ; and it was the passionate to find new channels of intercourse, hage. . While Rome was giving laws and order to the half- impulse of Palmyra and her widowed queen to erect an empire of their own that brought down upon them the cmlized tribes of Italy, Carthage, operating on a different terrible and enduring retribution of Aurelian. It is obvious base, and by other methods, was opening trade with less accessible parts of Europe. The strength of Rome was in that the destruction of Palmyra must not only have doomed Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater poverty her legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships and commercial isolation than had been known in long could cover ground where the legions were powerless. Her manners had passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, preceding ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to and established the port of Cadiz. Within the Mediter- Rome herself to hold or turn to any profitable account her ranean itself they founded Carthagena and Barcelona on the conquests in Asia ; and, being an example of the policy of same Iberian peninsula, and ahead of the Roman legions Rome to the seats of trade over nearly the whole ancient ad depots and traders on the shores of Gaul. After the world, it may be said to contain in graphic characters a destruction of Tyre, Carthage became the greatest powei presage of what came to be the actual event—the collapse and fall of the Roman empire itself. in the Mediterranean, and inherited the trade of her The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns Venice, n a cestors Wlth E wTas ?her own settlements gypt, Greece, and and Asia on Minor, as wefi in Sicily the gave rise to a seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during more than a thousand years a history of antagonism unusual splendour. The Veneti cultivated fertile lands on and between the great naval k lmlltar other y. Power> whose interests crossed each the Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the three Pnn;° many P°[nts, was sure to occur; and in the chief. They appear from the earliest note of them in of Rome WIT WR Carthaant ge measured ner her strength with that history to have been both an agricultural and trading people ; But a commp -T ,Sea lmpelled * bindinto witha no unequal success, and they offered a rich prey to the barbarian hordes when series has departed An ^ of great wars these broke through every barrier into the plains of Italy. P Wn proper base and in the 146 b.c Sw ° 1 year Thirty^ years before Attila razed the neighbouring city of lests - that of the ptp P P8'8 S° totaPy destroyed by the Romans Aquileia, the consuls and senate of Padua, oppressed and and cont nin,t 7’ m0re,than 20 miles in circumference, terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric passed a decree for near a million of only a few tho§ " T ^habitants erecting Rialto, the largest of the numerous islets at the 6 f Und within its InthesaLtro 111 -T ne° f the greatest ruined walls, mouth of the Po, into a chief town and port, not more as a of capitals andPeqnnrf ^’ ° ° Ibe Greek convenience to the islanders than as a security for themwealth and pP ^ +’ WfS caPtured, plundered of vast selves and their goods. But every fresh incursion, every flames a AtC a„d C ° ^ consul. new act of spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the C6 harb Ur of the Pir eus flight of the rich and the industrious to the islands, and into fte^ame hf d Bo ° ‘ h presumed that Wo \ 60 It maycon be thus gradually arose the second Venice, whose glory was so tr i i weut on years underlater. the Roman greatly to exceed that of the first. Approachable from the

200

COMMERCE and service under a legal systemT to each other and to the mainland only by boats, through river passes easdy defended sovereign power, must have been w ell adapted to the necessity by practised sailors against barbarians who had never plied of the times in which it spread so rapidly ; but it would an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in P^ce on the be impossible to say that the feudal system was favourable desolation which swept over Italy ; their warehouses, the to trade, or the extension of trade. The commercial spirit markets, their treasures were safe from P1™1^ > in the feudal, as in preceding ages, had to find for itself stretching their hands over the sea, they found in it ^ mid places of security, and it could only find them in towns Xandl the rich possessions of trade and temtog whrch armed with powers of self-regulation and defence, and it opened to them, more than compensation for the fat fan prepared like tbe feudal barons themselves, to resist and^inland towns’ which had long been their home, Ihe violence 'from whatever quarter it might come. Rome, in Venetians traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syna a her best days, bad founded tbe municipal system, and Egypt. They became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, when this system was more than ever necessary as tbe Cyprus and other islands of the Levant. The trade o bulwark of arts and manufactures, its extension became an Venice’with India, though spoken of, was Ptobably never essential element of tbe whole European civilization. great But the crusades of the 12th and 13 th centuries Towns formed themselves into leagues for mutual protection, aoainst the Saracens in Palestine extended her and out of leagues not infrequently arose commercial widely east and west, and increased both her nevaUnd h republics. Tbe Hanseatic League, founded as early as commercial resources. It is enough, indeed to aewunt t 1241 gave tbe first note of an increasing traffic between the grandeur of Venice that in course of centuries, from tlie countries on tbe Baltic and in northern Germany, which a secudty of Ter position, the growth and energy of her century or two before were sunk in isolated barbarism. population, and the regularity of her government at a period From Lubeck and Hamburg, commanding tbe navigation when these sources of prosperity were rare. became the of tbe Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including great emporium of the Mediterranean—all that LaithaDe, Amsterdam, Cologne, and Frankfort m the south and Corinth, and Athens had been in f £orm“ ^ Dantzic, Konigsberg, and Riga in the north The last trace the most remarkable in the world for its fertility and of this league, long of much service in protecting trade, and facilities of traffic,-and that as Italy and other parts of the as a means of political mediation, passed away the other Western empire became again more settled her commerce year in tbe erection of the new German empire, but only found Sways a wider range. The political history of the from tbe same cause that bad brought about its gradual disVenetian Republic is deeply interesting were this tbe prope solution—tbe formation of powerful and legal governments place to do more than glance at the fortune of commerce which, while leaving to the free cities their municipal rights, and the circumstances and conditions under which it attains were well capable of protecting their mercantile interest, its grandest success. The bridge built from tbeRial largest of Tbe towns of Holland found lasting strength andsecuny tbe islands to tbe opposite bank became tbe t°> from other causes. Their foundations were laid as literally famous exchange of Venice, whose transactmns reached in tbe sea as those of Venice bad been. They were farther, and assumed a more consolidated form, than be easily attacked whether by sea or land, and if attacked had / been known before. There it was where tbe first public formidable means of defence. The Zuyder Zee, wbiChhad bank was organized ; that bills of exchange were first been opened to tbe German Ocean in 282 earned rnffith negotiated, and funded debt became transferable; that docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the po s o finance became a science, and book-keeping an art. Nor tbe Baltic of tbe English Channel, and of the south o must tbe effect of tbe example of Venice on other cities of Europe and what tbe seas did for Amsterdam from without f Italy be left out of account. Genoa, following her steps, the Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and ““ rose into great prosperity and power at the foot of the the interior. By the Union of Utrecht ^ m9 Holtod Maritime Alps, and became her rival, and finally her enemy. became an independent republic, and for long after m tf Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other towns of Italy, and had been for some time before, was the greatest Rome herself, long after her fall, were encouraged to struggle maritime traffic in Europe. The rise of the Duteh Power for the preservation of their municipal freedom and to in a low country, exposed to the most d®tru t _ foster trade, arts, and navigation, by the brilliant success tions, difficult to cultivate or even to mhoM;. set before them on the Adriatic ; but Venice from the early striking illustration of those conditions which in all me start she had made, and her command of the sea, had the have been found specially favourable to c»mm re commercial pre-eminence. development, and which are not indistinctly reflected The Middle The state of things which arose on the collapse of the the mercantile history of England, preserved hyiteinsu^ Ages. Roman empire presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting position from hostile invasions, and capable by ‘ ^ the course of trade-(l) the ancient seats of industry and and arms to protect its goods on the seas and t g civilisation were undergoing constant decay, while ( ) e its subjects in foreign lands. . energetic races of Europe were rising into more civilized Tbe progress of trade and productive .a, al forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. Ihe Middle Ages, though not rising to much mt ^ fall of the Eastern division of the empire prolonged the exchange, was very considerable _ both m q y ^1 effect of the fall of the Western empire ; and the advance extent. The republics of Italy, which bad no cHi ^ of the Saracens over Asia Minor, Syria, Greece, Egypt, Venice or Genoa in maritime power or traffic, dip ^& over Cyprus and other possessions of Venice in the degree of art, opulence, and LasMediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spam, and admiration of modern times ; and if any - q gonl0 ha alread finally across the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces Alpine Europe, when Venice ^ /JterwarqS) the of Europe, was a new irruption of barbarians from another greatness, could have seen it 500 year point of the compass, and revived the calamities and many strong towns of France, Germany, a^ the^ disorders inflicted by the successive invasions of Goths, Countries, tbe great number of their artlzaaS’ ^ workHuns and other Northern tribes. For more than ten of their looms and anvils, and their various cunning ^ centuries tbe naked power of the sword was vivid and mansbip might have added many a ffidhan p g ^ ^ terrible as flashes of lightning over all the seats of commerce, annals. Two centuries before England bad disc W ^ whether of ancient or more modern origin. The feudal manufacturing quality, or knew even bow from system of Europe, in organizing the open country under most valuable raw materials, and was importing g military leaders and defenders subordinated in possessio

COMMERCE 201 the Continent for the production of which she was soonr to first factory of the Company in India must be dated some be found to have special resources, the Flemings w ere ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to selling their woollen and linen fabrics, and the French discover the two Americas, and another, in any real sense their wines, silks, and laces in all the richer parts of the to possess or colonize them, or to bring their productions British Islands. It is more commonly, indeed, when com- into the general traffic and use of the world Spain merce is somewhat still, and men, finding their means following the stroke of the valiant oar of Columbus found resting within limited bounds, learn to delight in labour in Mexico and. Peru remarkable remains of an ancient and invention for their own sake apart from their imme- though feeble civilization, and a wealth of gold and silver diate profits, that the quality of work is improved, and a mines which to Europeans of that period was fascinating vantage*ground is established for more extended operations, Irom the rarity of the precious metals in their own realms than when commerce is in full career, everything buoyant, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and saleable, and rising in value, and the lust of gain has conquests in South America an extraordinary but tinsolid taken possession of the human spirit. The Middle Ages prosperity. The value of the precious metals in Europe may be said to have had this result on a large scale. They was found to fall as soon as they began to be more widely placed the barbarous populations of Europe under a severe distributed, a process in itself at that period of no small discipline, trained them in the most varied branches of tediousness ; and it wras discovered further, after a century industry, and developed an amount of handicraft and or two, that the production of gold and silver is much like ingenuity which became an always more solid basis for the the production of other commodities for which they exchange future. But trade was too walled in, too much clad in viz., limited, and only increased in quantity at a heavier cost’ armour, and too incessantly disturbed by wars and tumults that is only reduced again by greater art and science in the and violations of common right and interest, to exert its process of production. Many difficulties, in short, had to full influence over the general society, or even to realize be overcome, many, wars to be waged, and many deplorable its most direct advantages. It wanted especially the free- errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to dom and mobility essential to much international increase, account. But given a maritime route to India and the and these it was now to receive from a series of the most discovery of a new world of continent and islands in the pregnant events. richest tropical and subtropical latitudes, it could not be 0 ling of The mariner’s compass had become familiar in the difficult to foresee that the course of trade was to be wholly a v era. European ports about the beginning of the 14th century, changed as well as vastly extended. and the seamen of Italy, Portugal, France, Holland, and England entered upon a more enlightened and adventurous India r jfdieby . suksta ^^aI ofadvantage of as theseen oceanic to route Maritime the Cape Good Hope, at thepassage time, was to course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted by to enable European trade with the East to escape from the Indiaa French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the Moors, Algerines, and Turks wdio now swarmed round the Portuguese, who two years later landed on Madeira. In shores of the Mediterranean, and w^aged a predatory war 1431 the Azores were discovered by a shipmaster of on ships and cargoes which would have been a formidable Bruges. The Atlantic was being gradually explored. In obstacle even if traffic, after running this danger, had not 1486, Diaz, a Portuguese, steering his course almost to be further lost, or filtered into the smallest proportions unwittingly along the coast of Africa, came upon the in the sands of the Isthmus, and among the Arabs who land’s-end of that continent; and nine years afterwards the navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Vasco de Gama, of the same nation, not only doubled the commanded \ enice had already begun to decline in her wars with the Cape of Good Hope, but reached Zanzibar. About the same period a Portuguese traveller penetrated to India by Turks, and could inadequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed vessels sent out in strength from the old time-honoured way of Suez; and a land, which the Western ports often fared badly at the hands of the tradition and imagination had invested with almost fabulous pirates. Euiopean trade with India can scarcely be said, wealth and splendour, was becoming more real to the indeed, to have yet come into existence. The*maritime European world at the moment when the expedition of route wTas round about, and it lay on the hitherto almost Vasco de Gama had made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One can hardly now realize the untrodden ocean, but the ocean was a safer element than impression made by these discoveries in an age when the inland seas and deserts infested by the lawlessness and minds, of men were awakening out of a long sleep, when ferocity of hostile tribes of men. In short, the maritimo loute enabled European traders to see India for themselves, ne printing press was disseminating the ancient classical mi sacre literature, and when geography and astronomy to examine what were its products and its wants, were subjects of eager study in the seats both of traffic and and by what means a profitable exchange on both sides or learning. But their practical effect was seen in swiftly- could be established; and on this basis of knowledge, ships ucceeding events. Before the end of the century Columbus could leave the ports of their owners in Europe with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places to C r SSe d tlie Atlantic which they were destined without transshipment or other T ° > touched at San Salvador, "i i Gtje Jamaica, Porto Paco, and the Isthmus of Darien, intermediary obstacle. This is the explanation to be given e Waters of the MeamJvfna? Orinoco in South America, of the joy with which the Cape of Good Hope route was fnnnrll ^ )ot’sent °ut by England, had discovered New- icceived in one age, as well as the immense influence it and V,\.USlm’.Pa ant(A th0 Fnglishflagon Labrador, Hova Scotia, exerted on the future course and extension of trade, and of and made know End n the existence of an expanse of the no less apparent satisfaction with which it has been 1’ W aS Canada navL?n - This tide of discovery by to some extent discarded in favour of the ancient line, via oat s flowed on of a °r, . without intermission. But the opening the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez, and the Red Sea in our to Ind a surnrisi nlaie, 50lde i and the discovery of America, own time. The maritime route to India was the discovery to the Discovery slow in n -eSe e.verds must have been at the time, w ere results of wkicl1 the European nations of a “ new world ” quite as much as the of America, Prognostic0 y were a sure Euronean •P?rfcl1.guese establ>shed at Goa the first discovery of North and South America and their central expedition ^ a! dndla a few years after Vasco de Gama’s isthmus and islands. The one was the far, populous Eastern similar coiir«n °Tkc'r.mai'itiine nations of Europe traced a world, heard of from time immemorial, but with which Put lfc W not tdI 1600 0 there had been no patent lines of communication. The India Comr.™ ff. EnglishofEast P y was established, and thetPopening the other was a vast and comparatively unpeopled solitude VI. — 26

202

COMMERCE yet full of material resources, and capable in a high degree West Indies, at a later period into New England and the of European colonization. America offered less resistance Southern States, and finally domiciled by royal privilege of to the action of Europe than India, China, and Japan ; trade in the Thames and three or more outports of the but on the other hand this new populous Eastern world kingdom,—after being done on an elaborate scale, and made held out much attraction to trade. These two great ter- the basis of an immense superstructure of labour, property, restrial discoveries were contemporaneous; and it would be and mercantile interest over nearly three centuries, had, difficult to name any conjuncture of material events bear- under a more just and ennobling view of humanity, to be ing so importantly on the history of the world. 1 he as elaborately undone at a future time. These are some of Atlantic Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves the difficulties that had to be encountered in utilizing the of the Atlantic beat into all the bays and tidal rivers of great maritime and geographical conquests of the new epoch. Western Europe. The centre of commercial activity was But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles, arising from thus physically changed; and the formative power of trade other sources, to what might be dreamed to be the regular over human affairs was seen in the subsequent phenomena, and easy course of affairs. Commerce, though an undying —the rise of great seaports on the Atlantic seaboaid,and the and prevailing interest of civilized countries, is but one of ceaseless activity of geographical exploration, manufactures, the forces acting on the policy of states, and has often to shipping, and emigration, of which they became the yield the pace to other elements of national life. It were needless to say w hat injury the great but vain and purposeoutlets. less wars of Louis XIV. of France inflicted on that country, Increase of The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing or how* largely the fruitful and heroic energies of England trading the new sources of wealth and commerce. I hey obtained settlements jjaca0 ^ a settlement from the Chinese os early as 1537, were absorbed in the civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty Scotland was reduced, or “J1 . e«. andtheir theirnavigators trading operations followed close onin the discoveries on the coast of Africa, India, and in in what distraction and savagery Ireland was kept by the the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion over same course of events. The grandeur of Spain in the Central and South America, and forced the labour of the preceding century w as due partly to the claim of her kings subject natives into the gold and silver mines, which seemed to be Holy Roman Emperors, in which imperial capacity in that age the chief prize of her conquests. France intro- they entailed intolerable mischief on the Low Countries duced her trade in both the East and NN est Indies, and was and on the commercial civilization of Europe, and i>artly the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi. to their command of the gold and silver mines of Mexico The Dutch founded New York in 1621 ; and England, and Peru, in an eager lust of whose produce they brought which in boldness of naval and commercial enteq>rize had cruel calamities on a newly-discovered continent where attained high rank in the reign of Elizabeth, established there were many traces of antique life, the records of which the thirteen colonics which became the l nited States, and perished in their hands or under their feet These ephemeral otherwise had a full share in all the operations which were causes of greatness removed, the hollowness of the situation transforming the state of the world. The original disposi- was exposed; and Spain, though rich in her own tion of affairs was destined to be much changed by the natural resources, was found to be actually poor—poor fortune of war; and success in foreign trade and coloniza- in number of people, poor in roads, in industrial art, tion, indeed, called into play other qualities besides those and in all the primary conditions of interior developof naval and military prowess. The products of so many ment An examination of the foreign trade of Europe new countries—tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, two centuries after the opening of the maritime route to chemical substances—greatly extended the range of India and the discovery of America wouli probably give European manufacture. But in addition to the mercantile more reason to be surprised at the smallness ihau the magnifaculty of discovering how they were to be exchanged and tude of the use that had been made of these events. Mr David Macpherson, who published his elaborate wrought into a profitable trade, their use in arts and manufactures required skill, invention, and aptitude for Annals of Commerce in 1S05, states that in 1764 the total to manufacturing labour, and these again, in many cases, imports of Croat Britain amounted in official value 1 were found to depend on abundant (lossessiou of natural £11,250,660, and the total exports to iHT^IO.SOO. lie materials, such as coal and iron. In old and populous found from the Custom House books that in 1800 the countries, like India and China, modern manufacture had imports had increased to £30,570,004, and the exports to to meet and contend with ancient manufacture, and had at £43,152,010, which he deemed an encouraging amount of once to learn from and improve economically on the estab- progress, as. in view’ of the events, then deemed peculiarly lished models, before an opening could be made for its disastrous, that had occurred in the interval—the loss of the extension. In many parts of the New World there were American colonies, the French Revolution, and the wars of vast tracts of country, without population or w ith native Bonaparte—it may, no doubt, be held to be. Of the races too wild and savage to be reclaimed to habits of exports in 1800 £24,304,283 were British, and £18,847,735 industry, whose resources could only bo developed by the foreign and colonial merchandize. The proportion of the introduction of colonies of Europeans ; and innumerable latter shows to what extent this country had become the experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among medium of trade between Europe and the East and M est the European nations for the adventure, hardship, and per- Indies ; but as these re-exports must bo deducted from the severance of colonial life. There were countries which, total imports, there is left only £11,722,260 of imports to whatever their fertility of soil or favour of climate, produced 1 nothing for w'hich a market could be found ; and products The imports and exports of Ireland at thia period, and till th® such as the sugar-cane and the seed of the cotton plant had Union, formed a separate account, but the great bulk of them were to be carried from regions where they were indigenous to in her trade with England and Scotland. In 1799 the imports of Irefrom all other ports than Great Britain were £1,263,595, and her other regions where they might be successfully cultivated, land exports £759,692; while her imports from Great Britain were and the art of planting had to pass through an ordeal of £4,011,468, and her exports to Great Britain £4,891,161. Foreign risk and speculation. There were also countries where no markets were found for Irish manufactures through the British ports, European could labour; and the ominous work of transport- and Ireland was supplied with foreign and colonial merchandize through same channels. In 1771 the exports of British linen from England ing African negroes as slaves into the colonies—begun by the were 4,411,040 yards, and of Irish linen 3,450,224 yards. In the Spain in the first decade of the ICth century, followed up by same year the exports of linen from Scotland included 701,012 yards Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the of Irish manufacture.

COMMERCE

ra riffs.

Great Britain for her own purposes of manufacture and consumption. At the beginning of the century two-thirds of the foreign commerce of England was through London, and was largely in the hands of privileged companies. The commercial towns of the provinces and of Scotland had only begun to make some Hguro. In 1787 Liverpool was a small seaport, having only 445 vessels of 72,731 aggregate tonnage, and clearing inward and outward in foreign trade less than double the amount of her own tonnage. At the same period Glasgow, enriched though she had been by the trade with America, had only 46,000 inhabitants; and Manchester, though a place of considerable manufacture, was still waiting the great impulse to be given to her industry by liberal supplies of cotton, and by the inventions of Arkwright and Crompton. It may be said, however, that in throe eventful centuries the world had been well explored. Colonies had been planted on every coast; great nations had sprung up in vast solitudes or in countries inhabited only by savage or decadent races of men ; the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations had opened their ports to foreign merchantmen ; and all parts of the world been brought into habitual commercial intercourse. The seas, subdued by the progress of navigation to the service of man, had begun to yield their own riches in great abundance; and the whale, seal, herring, cod, and other fisheries, prosecuted wdth ample capital and hardy seamanship, had become the source of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of imports and exports and of the places from which they flowed to and from the centres of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show how busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a security and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. Apart from wars, which commerce directly tends to avert, but which often spring from forces more powerful for the time than commercial interest, there remained little more by which a rapid extension of international trade could be impeded, save causes arising from ignorance or impolicy j and among these deserves chiefly to be noticed the prevailing practice of nations, in promoting their owu several industries and trade, to wage a subtle war in times of peace on the industries and trade of each other. That foreign imports, and even domestic exports, should contribute some quota to the public revenue is in itself a reasonable proposition. The custom-house, which has to register goods coming in and going out, and to exercise an official regulation in the ports, should defray at the least its own expense, like any other necessary mercantile function. The convenience of raising public revenue by duties on imports and exports is amply evinced by the universal adoption of this expedient ; and the convenience will always be materially modified by the more or less crude or scientific form which the system of taxation has assumed, by the financial exigency of states, and by the degree in which other objects than those of revenue have been permitted to enter into the general policy. It has been argued with much plausibility that there are certain stages and conditions of some branches of industry, in which it is politic to protect them against unequal competition in their own markets with the more advanced arts and appliances of foreign countries, until they have by this means acquired ability to stand upon their own merits ; and this being once admitted, the transition is easy to the general doctrine that, since every nation always finds that there are commodities which other nations can produce much better and cheaper than it can produce them for itself, it is wise and expedient to place the admission of nearly all foreign goods and produce under a custom duty protective of the native industry. The interest of the public revenue

203

is here lost in another line of policy, because protective duties carry the Consequence that several parts of a nation have to pay to several other parts more of their ow n means for what they need than they should have had to pay to the foreigner, and under a system of this kind the sources of public revenue, so far from being increased, are certain of being impaired. On the other hand, there are imports so entirely of foreign origin, and so free from considerations of competition with domestic industry, that a large revenue may be raised upon them in the custom-house, without disturbing the freedom or equity of international trade. The immense customs revenue of the United Kingdom from duties on tea, coffee, and tobacco (duties on wines and foreign spirits may be excluded since they are set off by excise duties on native liquors) is a remarkable example of the power of levying public revenue in the ports without infringing any commercial or economic principle. The question of tariffs thus appears to bo capable of reasonable solution ns long as it is kept within the circle of what is permanently expedient to the public revenue. When it posses beyond these bounds it launches into a sea of complicated errors. The idea or self-interest that has force to discourage the imports of foreign commodities by protective duties passes naturally onward to bounties on the export of some favoured articles of domestic produce, under which the same practical result is conversely produced, and one part of the nation has to pay in taxes to the state some proportion of the price necessary to effect a sale abroad of the produce of another part of the nation. When bounties are given, they have to be accompanied with a series of compensations or “ drawbacks ; ” and the confusion has often become so great, as when the export bounty is on the manufactured article and the protective duty on the imported raw material, or as, say, when there is a duty on foreign wool, and woollen goods on export are entitled to a drawback, that the state has been reduced to a dilemma, and anything it did seemed only to make the condition worse. This medley of crosspurpoeee is increased by the means adopted by parent states on one hand to bolster, on another to monopolize to themselves, the trade of their colonies, and by the elaborate rules of preference and exclusion by which maritime nations have attempted to favour their own ships in the carrying trade of the seas. All the mischief of the protective and prohibitory system was exhibited by the Orders in Council of the British Government, and the Berlin and Milan decrees of Bonaparte, fulminated in the passion and fury of war ; and if these high acts of power were seen to be not only futile and sublimely ridiculous, but in their aim and effects destructive of all commercial civilization, it would argue little reason on the part of nations to carry out the same objects through the more calm, systematic, and insidious operation of mutually hostile tariffs. Though nothing dies more slowly than the spirit of monopoly in trade, yet from many signs it may be hoped that this obstacle to commerce will gradually disappear like (it hers. The present century has witnessed an extension of the ^ great^ commercial relations of mankind of which tlie^e 18 n0inteniaparalle! in previous history. The facts are so well known tioual that it is unnecessary to reproduce them in any detai ; trade, and vet it may be useful to indicate, however lightly, 110 principal phenonema. The heavy debts and taxes and the currency complications in which the close of | Napoleonic wars left the European nations as well as the fall of prices which was the necessary effect of the sudden closure1 of a vast war expenditure and absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on trading energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce is usually

204

COMMERCE

it, viz., the profit accruing from the exchange of goods less found on its well-established modern basis, to make steady valuable for goods more valuable in the respective countries, procress from one series of years to another. The powers and is probably only accounted for by the large investments of production had been greatly increased by a brilliant of British capital of late years abroad, the interest of which development of mechanical arts and inventions. e has for the most part to be paid in merchandize.1 United States had grown into a commercial nation ot t An increase of the foreign trade of the United Kingdom first rank. The European colonies and settlements were from £115,281,580 to £625,454,078, in the course of being extended, and assiduously cultivated, and were open- thirty-four years, presents a vaster theme than can be easily ing larger and more varied markets for manufactures. _ ^ grasped, and it may be enough here simply to supply 1819 the first steamboat crossed the Atlantic fiom ISe °ome concise information—(1) as to the commodities York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure ^ accom- v'hich entered into so large a commerce, and (2) as to the 182 ven 31 plished from England to India in ^—- f distribution of the movement in the various quarters of themselves the harbingers of a new era m trade ihere the world. In the Parliamentary Account of Pievenue, becan also to be signs, in the general prominence ^ven Population, and Commerce for 1839, a summary is given to°the study of economic principles, and in the po i y of the principal articles of British and Irish export, and Mr Huskfaon m England, of a gromng pnU.c opm on their respective values ; and by placing these in juxtaposiin favour of greater freedom of trade; and China, atter tion with the same articles of export from the Board of many7 efforts, was opened under treaty to an intercourse Trade returns for 1873, as in the following table, a pretty with. foreign nations which was soon to attam surprising comprehensive view may be obtained of the impulse given dimensions. These various causes supported the acti y to our various manufacturing industries :— of commerce in the first four decades ; but the great 1873 1839. movement which has made the century so remarkable was £10,032,483 Apparel and Haberdashery... £1,332,427 chieflv disclosed in practical results from about lodU. Brass and Copper Manufac-l 1,280,506 3,820,503 tures ) It has been seen above what the amount of the foreign ra, e Copper Unwrought... 1,207,411 542,609 13,205,618 Coal of Great Britain was in the first year of the century. In 16,378,445 61,447,357 Cotton Manufactures 1839 the total value of British produce and manufactures 6,858,193 15,876,363 „ Twist and Yarn 771,173 2,063,633 Earthenware exported, then including under the Legislative Lmon of 357,315 1,344,694 Glass the Kingdoms Irish produce and manufactures, 1,828,521 4,938,182 Hardware and Cutlery Iron and Steel, Wrought and) 2,719,824 37,779,586 £53 233,580 : and the total value of imports Unwrought > 3,292,220 7,295,121 £62 018 000, of which £12,796,000 was exported to other Linen Manufactures 818,485 „ Yarn countries. The number of vessels belonging to the British Jute Manufacture ... 1,591,581 Yam 206,525 empire in 1839, while the navigation laws were still it Machinery and Mill Work force, was 27,745, of an aggregate tonnage of 3,068,433 868,118 1,8*6,313 Silk Manufactures Thrown, Twist, and^ j ,567,837 and 191,283 men. In 1850 the exports of home proYam •f duce and manufactures had increased to £ < 1,368,000, and Woollen Manufactures— By Piece 5,300,869) 25.279,235 the imports to £100,469,000, of which £21,874,000, was By Yard 55 403^ Woollen and Worsted Yam... 423,320 -40 exported. In 1873, which may be taken as the close of the period under review, the declared value of exports of These figures speak largely for themselves. The British British and Irish produce and manufactures reached the export of cotton manufactures in 1839 was so great as h> enormous total of £255,073,336, and the imports the cast into the shade every other export, and, though its still more astonishing total of £3 < 0,380,* 4^. In the increase since that period has been wonderful, yet it is returns for 1873 the exports of foreign and colonial gratifying to observe, in the progress of other branches, tne merchandize are given only in quantities, but in the two greater breadth and variety which the manufacturing succeeding years the value of this branch of export trade industry of the United Kingdom has assumed. Ihe is given as £10,251,220 in 1874, when the total imports export of cotton goods and yarns in 1839 was nearly a halt were £370,054,834, and £12,103,732 in 1875 when of our whole export of produce and manufactures. In the total imports were £373,941,125—much less than m 1873 they were less than a third. Indeed, if coal and 1800, when the official value of re-exports is given as iron, and iron and steel manufactures be put together, they £18 847,735, on a total import of only £30,570,004, indicating, on the one hand, how greatly direct import The difference between official and reed value in the'hereturns, figures, over not from the countries of origin to the countries of use must the periods here referred to, vitiates in some measure the figures, not the balan of have increased during the century, and, on the other only as regards the old and discarded criterion of_ the balance hand, in how much larger proportion our imports ot trade,” but as a means of exact comparison of one period with anothe , at the same time, they hold valid enough as regardsthcrelame foreign and colonial merchandize had been entered for while value of the several branches of import and export trade. OftaM home consumption. The shipping in 1873, not of the valuation, the rates of which were fixed as far back as 1698, was tong British empire as in 1839, but of the L nited Kingdom applied both to imports and exports, till at the close of !ast c J alone had increased, under repeal of the navigation laws, the real or declared value of domestic exports began to be g^en Jong with the official value, and the discrepancy of the two-the offlci to 21,581 vessels, 5,748,097 tons, and 202,239 men value increasing, and the real value declining m propo ^ The total value of British and Irish exports in 1873, as quantities—gave rise to an opimon that we were aiways selh g m< ^ compared with 1839, shows an increase of 379 per cent., of the products of our industry for less value in exchange - ^ and of imports an increase of 496 per cent.—an expansion was the result of the cheapening of production by machm^^^ and anything but a proof either of in us ‘ adhered of trade within the third of a century wholly without steam-power, tile loss. The official valuation of imports was much example. In the years from 1800 to 1839 the increase to than in the case of exports, till of late years the P^ctlce of domestic exports had been only 119 per cent., and of to give the real or declared value in both branches of the comine imports 102 per cent. A larger progressive increase ot It must be admitted, however, to Mr M-Culloch and other auth these returns of value, however near the mark, can ne * imports than of exports has been a feature of British com- that a balance of trade in the sense once supposed. The vain c merce for the last twenty years, and would seem to bear in the ports cannot exactly correspond with the value mhzed^ ^ out the opinion of economists that this is the result ot all the whole system of trade proceeds on the fact that certam g ^ prosperous foreign trade, though an excess of imports over produce are of more value in one country than m another it as long ago as 1800 that the export of coffee was much °v«j exports so large ^s £120,000,000 per annum cannot possibly marked valued in the official returns, and if coffee, one would say tea. be due to the cause which they have usually assigned tor

C 0 M M E R C E

205 will bo found much to exceed in export value the cotton Decennial Increase of Trade. industry, though it must be added that to the extension of 1840-50. 1850-60. 1860-70. Europe 24 64 the latter there are yet no apparent limits. Many articles 63 Asia 45 156 34 of export, which in 1839 were too inconsiderable to be Africa 61 114 84 included in a summary of principal articles, and not a few Australia 26 274 1 All countries 39 which had not then appeared in the export list, have since 90 46 risen to a value much exceeding that of some principal It is always critical to assign specific causes for comarticles in 1839 ; as for example, in 1873 alkali and chemi- mercial results on so vast a scale and over so wide a theatre cal products, £4,676,861; beer and ale, £2,419,575; books, for in such cases there must not only have been a lon^ £912,534; herrings, £1,027,121 ; paper manufactures’ antecedent preparation of means to enable such rapid and £973,899; painters’ colours and materials, £1,016,975: gigantic efforts to be made, but it is certain that many stationery other than paper, £672,970 ; telegraphic wire’ economic causes will be found to have been in concurrent and apparatus, £2,359,563 ; and iron, steam, and sail- operation, effects themselves becoming causes in turn, and ing ships, made to foreign order, of which there is no though in apparent conflict, one checking the excess o’f the record in the Board of Trade returns whatever. The other, yet in reality extending and sustaining the general imports of the United Kingdom in 1873, besides many impulse. But three grand characteristics of the period have new commodities of great aggregate value, such as esparto, been adduced with almost common consent as affording an guano, gutta-percha, hops, jute, oil-seed and oil-seed cakes, explanation of the phenomena—(1) the adoption of free petroleum, pyrites, and various chemical substances, present trade by Great Britain, (2) the Californian and Australian a general increase over the whole range of foreign and gold discoveries, and (3) steam navigation, railways, telecolonial merchandize, most marked in raw materials and provisions, of which the chiefly notable example, since they graphs ;—and these may obviously be accepted as the most forces ever brought to bear on the extension of may fitly be embraced in the same category, includes wheat powerful trade in any one age. corn, flour, rice, cattle, sheep, pigs, bacon, butter, cheese’ measures by which Sir Robert Peel introduced Adoption eggs, poultry, potatoes, all manner of farm and dairy pn> thisThe great change in the policy of the Uriited Kingdom offreetrade duce, the import value of which in 1873 is found to have were marked by four general objects, merging byby. Great amounted to £85,036,365. practical sequence in the absolute principle of freedom Britain’ Ihis, however marvellous, is indeed but the commerce of trade—1st, to remove from the tariff all prohibiof our kingdom, but it contains the main current of the commerce of the whole world, and is consequently an tions of foreign import, among the chief of which were example, though a strong and concentrated example, of agricultural live stock, while retaining for a limited what has been passing in other mercantile communities. period some protective regulation; 2d, to place hundreds The exports of all nations have not been computed at more of articles of the nature of raw materials of manuthan £800,000,000 to £850,000,000. Deducting from facture, and others of less importance, yet useful in the larger sum the British and Irish exports, it follows the arts, on a footing of entire freedom from customs that more than two-thirds of the exports of all other parts duty ; 3d, to reduce the duties on foreign manufactures of the world are imported into the United Kingdom. Any which came into competition with home manufactures; permanent increase of trade in so large a centre is impossible and 4th, to repeal the corn laws, admitting foreign grain on without an increase throughout the general sphere, though a nominal fixed duty, which last involved an equally comthis increase may be variously distributed. The following plete relief to provisions, live stock, agricultural produce of statistical results of Professor Levi exhibit in the briefest every kind, and to foreign manufactures. When the landform where the chief movement has been in the remarkable lords and farmers were placed in full and direct competition epoch under consideration, so far as it can be seen throu-h with the world, no class of manufacturers had any excuse the trade of the United Kingdom * * ° left for the slightest shred of protection. All these measures had the appearance more of liberal concessions Mation of Whole Trade of United Kingdom. to foreign nations than of any advantage to home pro187a ducers ; and this is, no doubt, the reason why free trade With Europe ^ 40 per cent. » Asia to was so long resisted, and many were unable to see, until 18 „ » Africa 5 the problem was visibly demonstrated, that in liberating ,, America ’ ’ 37 29 commerce, even in developing foreign resources, the most >, Australia 4 5 powerful impulse may be given to all the springs of domestic prosperity. The immediate effects in increasing the public 1 c lonia artirie^havin^W ? | produce s ame * but the import of these aifect the rirounr+'n ^i16^ •°11 fiuantit: . y orofficial scale, this could not revenue—even the customs revenue, which seemed enand the total import f T ^ value between the re-export dangered Ly the abolition of so many duties—in revivin lived in theFrom townllim for a except the chief pontificate. On the death of Aurelius, P Se< 11Sm emoirs duFe bomine was purchased by Charles lV d v fJ ’ h whom he had accompanied in the war against the Germans, Ds daughter Anne nn Tio, > who bestowed it on the b nmg ot century ^ it formed a principality under Commodus hastily concluded peace, and hurried back to InthebVnnfng of the 18th iLr^ P™ ^cmne. the pleasures of the capital (180). From the first he gave

208

0 0 M —c 0 M

the living oracles who must decide in all cases of doubt, himself up to unbounded licence; but for some years bis and who are bound by an oath to decide according to the vices were all private. In 183, however, he was attacke , law of the land.” Their judgments are preserved as records, at the instigation of his sister Lucilla, by an assassin, who and “ it is an established rule to abide by former precedents declared that he struck in the name of the senate; and the where the same points come again in litigation.” The nobility paid the penalty by the murder of any oi that extraordinary deference paid to precedents is the source of rank who afterwards aroused the slightest suspicion m the the most striking peculiarities of the English common law. mind of the emperor. At the same time the vulgar vain } There can be little doubt that it was the rigid adherence of of Commodus manifested itself in a manner that expose the common law courts to established precedent, which him to the scorn of the meanest citizen. Iso longer conten caused the rise of an independent tribunal administering with showing his strength and dexterity to a little group justice on more equitable principles—the tribunal of the of favourites in the palace, he presented himself as a chancellor, the Court of Chancery. And the common spectacle in the arena, and, carefully protected from serious law courts—the Queen’s Bench, Common Pleas, and danger, displayed his skill by shooting hundreds of wild Exchequer—have always, as compared with the Court of animals, and by meeting in fight hundreds of gladiators Chancery, been distinguished for a certain narrowness and He called himself the Homan Hercules, and commanded technicality of reasoning. At the same time the common that he should be worshipped as such. Plots against his law has never been a fixed or rigid system. In the life naturally began to spring up. That of his favourite application of old precedents to the changing circumstances Perennis was discovered in time. The next daugei was of society, and in the development of new principles to from the people, who were infuriated by the dearth of corn. meet new cases, the common law courts have displayed an The mob repelled the praetorian guard, but the execution o immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity and a great deal the hated minister, Oleander, quieted the tumult Ihe of sound sense. The continuity of the system is not less attempt also of the daring highwayman Maternus to seize remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form the empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus _ the disfigure the English law. The first is the separation, of emperor’s chamberlain, Laetus the prefect of the praetorians common law and equity. The second is the overwhelming and his mistress Marcia, finding their names on the list mass of precedents in which the law is embedded. The of those doomed to death, united to destroy him. He was recent Judicature Act is an attempt to remedy the first by poisoned, and then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, merging the jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme on the 31st December 192, in the thirty-second year of his court, and causing equitable principles to prevail over those It was said that he had intended to disgrace t le of the common law where they differ. The second can ao-e. office of consul by taking the auspices at the commence- only be removed by some well-conceived scheme of the ment of a new year of office, not in the consular robe but nature of a code or digest (see Code).. The English in the garb of a secutor, and surrounded not by the senate common law may be described as a pre-eminently national but by a band of gladiators. His guards alone, accustomed system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded, by Norman to his lavish bounty, regretted his death ; and Pertinax, lawyers, and jealous of foreign systems, it is,, as Bacon being chosen by the conspirators, was allowed quietly to says, as mixed as our language and as truly national. . SU.CCC6(1 llltH. COMMON PLEAS, Court of (Communia Plaata), COMMON LAW, like civil law, is a phrase with many was one of the three common law courts at Westminstershades of meaning, and it is probably safest to define it with the other two being the Queen’s Bench and Exchequer. reference to the various things to which it is opposed It The jurisdiction of all three, together with that ot the is contrasted with statute law, as law not promulgated by Court of Chancery, the Court of Probate and Matrunona the sovereign body; with equity, as the law prevailing Causes, and the Court of Bankruptcy, is vested, in the new between man and man, unless when the Court of Chancery High Court of Justice, established by the Judicature Act, assumes jurisdiction ; and with local or customary law, as 1873. One division of that court is called the Common the general law for the whole realm, tolerating variations Pleas division, and there all the business which before the in certain districts and under certain conditions.. It is Act was “ within the exclusive cognizance of the Court ot also sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or interna- Common Pleas ” must still be transacted. tional law, which are foreign systems recognized in certain COMMON PBAYER. See Liturgy. special courts only and within limits defined by the common COMMONS. ' It is a well-known result of. the applicalaw. As against all these contrasted kinds of law, it may tion of the historical method to laws and institutions, that be described broadly as the universal law. of the realm, it has reversed many of our leading conceptions ot. the which applies wherever they have not been introauced, and natural or original forms of property. That the primitive which is supposed to have a principle for every possible form of property in land was not severalty but commonal y, appear to be used in a sense ^0.00. Occasionally,j it would ' AA which would exclude the law developed by at all events that land was held not by individuals but by communities, and that individual ownership was slowly evolved 088 ou the more recent decisions of the courts. Blackstone divides the civil law of England into lex common ownership, are propositions as near y as P ^ scripta, or statute law, and lex non scripta, or common law. the opposite of our a priori ideas on the subjec . existence of rights of common is one of the traces o The latter, he says, consists of (1) general customs, which ancient system still remaining m our law DA\ V i nfk are the common law strictly so called, (2) particular customs significance was for a long time obscured, y prevailing in certain districts, and (3) laws used in particular courts. The first is the law by which “ proceed- theories on which the law of real property is based. ^ There seems to be good reason to believe that amoi g ings and determinations in the king’s ordinary courts of English, as among other Teutonic nations, the syste justice are guided and directed.” That, the eldest son land-holding by village communities prevailed, t alone is heir to his ancestor, that a deed is of no validity account of that system reference may be made to • unless sealed and delivered, that wills shall be construed Maine’s lectures, or to the short essay ^ Pfof^S kp n J o r de more favourably and deeds more strictly, are examples of a translation of which has been published by the common law doctrines, “not set down in any. written Club (On the Agricultural Community of ihe Midcll J. statute or ordinance, but depending on immemorial usage It may be sufficient to state here the bare outlines o_ for their support.” The validity of these usages is to be system. The “mark,” or territory occupied by the commum ., determined by the judges—“the depositaries of the law

COMMONS 209 was divided into the following parts:—(1) The township, useful for tillage—such as horses, oxen, and sheep and where were the houses held by heads of families in in respect of arable land only (for manure); if appurtenant severalty: (2) The arable land, divided into several plots, it may extend to swine goats, and geese, Ac., and is not conbut subject to regulations as to common cultivation the fined to arable, land; if mgross, it is subject to no restriction most usual of which is the three-field system; the land as to the species of beasts. The claim must be for some was to be fallow every third year, and the whole commu- number limited and defined, and where no number is fixed nity had rights of pasturage on the fallow portion, and on it is restricted to beasts levant and couchant—a phrase the stubble of the fields under crop at certain portions of which, according to judicial interpretation, means such the year between harvest and seed-time ; (3) The meadow- cattle as the winter eatage of the tenement, together with land, which in like manner was common for a period after m hay, Ac., obtained from it in summer, could support, the hay harvest, and was afterwards fenced off in separate borne lands are subject to this common of pasture during allotments for the new crop ; (4) The common or waste certam portions of the year only—^ i the case of lammasland, not appropriated for cultivation, and over which the lancis from the 1st of August, for eightnmonths after which community had rights of pasturage, wood-cutting, &c. This arrangement may be comare held in severalty. After the Conquest we find the mark superseded by the they pared with what is said of the village community above, manor, and although it has long been the fashion to find ouch lands are said to be commonable. the absolute beginning of the latter system in the Conquest, PiSCarV there seems to be good reason to believe that its leading ^ a risbt °f &hins in a Particular elements—the ideas of lordship and tenure—had been Common of Estovers is the right of cutting wood on developed among the Anglo-Saxons themselves (seeDigby’s ° Introduction to the History of the Law of Real Property). another’s estate. CWoi* of Turbary is the right of cutting and At all events, the manorial system became defined and must be claimed in respect of land on which a turfs, house has fixed under the Norman lawyers, and remains still the leo-al been built, as turves are only wanted to burn in a house ” basis of property in land. All land is regarded as beinoIn some manors there is a right of digging and taking held of the king, and the king’s tenants might have tenant coals, minerals Ac. Subject to these rights, everything of their own. The practice of sub-infeudation, as it was belongs to the lord of the manor, and a custom to exclude called, was stopped by the statute Quid Rmptores, 1290 which enacted that, when a lord alienated a portion of his him from a 1 manner of profit would be held void as being & land, the alienee, instead of being tenant of the alienor unreasonable. should take his place as tenant to the lord next above him’ • S 0U!’ ®arllesfc legislation on the subject of commons, the Since this statute, therefore, no new manors could be created' ights of the commoner appear to have a firmer footiim AH lands were supposed to be traceable originally to a grant than the theory which derives them from the grant of the from the king. Out of the lands so granted to him, the ord would lead us to expect. The Statute of Merton lord would grant certain portions to free tenants on certain (1235) gives relief to the lords whose efforts to improve rents and services, and these are the freeholders of the then wastes have been frustrated by commoners bringing manor His own portion would be cultivated by villains an assize of novel disseisin for their pasture, and the lord or serjs, attached to the soil, and these ultimately developed in such cases was to be held blameless if sufficient pasture mto the important class of copyholders. There remains the with ingress and egress, had been provided. It onl^ uncultivated and unappropriated land, over which the free- applied, as we learn from the criticism of Bracton to lolders had certain rights of common supposed to be inci- common appendant, and to cases where the right is expressly dent to their original gran t. Within the manor were certain ZZ ^noQK\T °r ^ Tbe Sfcafcute of Westminster courts (Court Leet, Court Baron, Customary Court), the the second (1285) extended it to rights appurtenant. Under most important of which is the Court Baron, or assembly of these statutes inclosures can be made on the following ° the freeho ders, partly judicial and partly administrative. conditions only :— ard ed by the 6 Pr0 d SUffici paStUra e h s b ° off a manor, amnion as the inseparable con- the commonei^ ''* “‘ « * “” comitaut so that iflaw there be no Court Baron T ie h rical ! fc ^° irrigations P the identi cf the

to which w thX T\ ° ^ Court Baron 7 f the Village Set lT ° re resenfcs tlie The lord’s commnnl k P common waste of the a r nated iuTmln f PP °P in severalty, and used by all &C 2Z™t^C7T’ .Th.elegal ^ory, however, th h e or aillza the lord °! S tion is created by grant; and the rights of am m re v tVT ^ ^ ^ tion for fentfo ^ granted to them °'jt of considera86 3 reserve been so /ratd ti ™ d. Whatever has not The rights of n 6 ^ aS a mafcfcer of course to the lord, of serlude I?”0" C°T t0 bereSa^d as of the nature granted over landd by bv bfc real owner ^—exceptional privileges t0 his ftwhtsnf t . tenants, by the freeboId as incident TZ* ers of the manor 61 enUre Saad to be a e>l ant attached to their f id- S3, EishtS PPnofc^ coeva , or f COmm011 with the origtal ^? ° l 8 a 01 nj0yed b °f land noAelnn - ^ f T strangers in respect ^ a11’ ^ Sald t0 be gether are called riJ Td lrresPectively of land altorights in copyholders^ n 0d C°T0n ^ ^ SimiIar The mosfflt d6pe11 0n the custom of tbe manor. n ngbt Pasture, which °i common is Common of 7 ' 1Ch lf aPP^t can only be claimed for baa.i

mSe.If ‘here ” C°n'ra°n 0f ImtUre “ «ross' cannot bo The s atlltes do not I authorize inclosures which would upon any other common rights, as turbary, piscary, &c. infringe 4. They do not affect copyholders. (See Six Essays on the Preservation of Commons). It will be observed that, in relation to the rights described, the ord and the commoners are the only parties recognized by the law. The public in general have no rights. It has been alleged, indeed, that the immemorial use of open spaces near large towns by the inhabitants for exercise and recreation raises the presumption of a dedication—a question we need not discuss here. It is chiefly, however, in connection th the needs of the public, especially of the inhabitants of large towns, that the law of commons is still a subject of some practical importance. Until quite recently the inclosure of commons was regarded as a matter affecting the lord alone, or at most the lord and the commoners. Of ate, the interest of the public at large in preserving the commons uninclosed has been strenuously asserted, and as we shall see has been recognized in legislation. At. common law, in spite of the predominance given to the rights of the lord, there was no means of converting the common or any portion of it into the severalty of the lord, unless to a comparatively small extent, under the statutes of Merton and Westminster the second. The inVI. — 27

210

COMMONS

portant of these cases is that of Warrick Queen s College, crease of population and the growing need for food-producing Oxford (6 Chancery Appeals, 716), in which the plaintiff, land made it the interest of the lord, and it may he considered as a freeholder of the manor of Plumstead, obtained a of the public also, that much of the common ground shoul decree against the defendants, who had inclosed a portion be brought under cultivation. Down to the year 1800 of the common of the manor. The judgment of the Lord this was effected by private Inclosure Acts, of wbrch the Chancellor (Hatherley) on that occasion contains a statewere as many as 1000 or 1700. The P™v.su>ns whrch rt ment of the view now taken by the courts of claims to had been customary to inser t in these special rights of common. In the Commissioners of Sewers,. 1801, after tlie manner of winch we have so ma y ^ > Glasse, the Corporation of London defeated attempted mconsolidated in Sir John Sinclair's Mosure Act 41 Geo TTT o 109. At tins time the inclosure and cultivation oi Cl°InT869, a committed the House of Commons presented common lands were looked forward to as a ^ a report on metropolitan commons, and many of their recreasin" the national wealth. It is not till 1836 that we commendations have been embodied in the Inclosure Act finTa w recognition of the desirability, on public grounds, of 1876, of which the following are the chief provisions. nreveK “nclosures under certain circumstances vis. in The preamble of the Commons Act 1876 states that, under the 6 and°7 Will. IV. c. 116, for facilitating the “closure o the Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1868, the commissioners are open and arable fields (which applied to what have been empowered to authorize, by provisional orders subject to called commonable lands and not to manorial wastes). Th assent of Parliament, the inclosure of commons, provided 56th section forbids inclosures within tel' ™!es " Lo‘gllbl ?he inclosure is made on such terms as may be necessary or within corresponding distances of for the protection of public interests, and provided they are Iu. iect to the provisions of these Acts about 2000 private In of opinion that such inclosure is expedient, having regard 8 c closure Acts had been passed, when “ 1 « ame the to the benefit of the neighbourhood; and that it is desnable Ppnpral Inclosure Act, 8 and 9 A ict. c. 118. J that circumstances bearing on the expediency of the pre Sated to be to facilitate the inclosure and improvement of posed inclosure should be more fully brought undti the commons and other lands, now subject to rights of proper y, notice of the commissioners, and that inclosure of common which obstruct cultivation and the productive employment in severalty should not be made unless the commissioners of labour &c. Commissioners are to be appointed wh are satisfied that it would be of benefit ^^ shall iud4 of the expedience of an inclosure and superin- hood as well as to private interests, and that further effec tend its execution. All common lands are brought within ouoht to be given to the provisions relating to allotments the scone of the Act, but manorial wastes are not to be m forpur poses of exercise and recreation. The commissioners IteT^out the previous sanction of ^ may entertain applications either for (1) the regulation or 2Hhe inclosure of a common. The regulation includes was also made necessary for me osures within fifteen mi of London, or within two miles of any city of 10,000 the adjustment of rights and the improvement of a common inhabitants, or within two and a half miles o any cdy f and the latter comprises (1) draining, manuring, and levelling 20 000 inhabitants, and so on. (A latei Act, 15 and the common, (2) planting trees, or otherwise beautifying Viet c. 79, made the consent of parliament necessary in all it, (3) making bye-laws, (4) general nianagement and (o cases under this Act.) Village greens are not to be me ose appointment of conservators. In case of inclosure, as and bv § 30 the commissioners are authorized to require, as wed as “ regulation,” the commissioners may ^ert p cue of the conditions of the iuclosure, the appropmtion of visions for the benefit of the neighbourhood, e.g., the seci an allotment for the exercise and recreation of the neigh- Lg free access to particular points of view, presemng ^es bourhood on the following scale -.-In a parish of60 10,000 or historical objects, reserving playing-grounds, mal ^ inhabitants not more than 10 acres; between °0 and roadsl&c. In the case of suburban conimonsi^ sit noted 10,000 inhabitants not more than8 acres; between 20J within six miles of any town) the sanitary a ^ • and 5000 not more than 5 acres ; and under -0 be represented. The commissioners are ebrected to requM more than 4. Allotments might also be made for the evidence as to the benefit of the neighbourhood, and, m th labouring poor. Under this Act inclosures proceeded apace, case of inclosure, information as to the advantages ^m 8 and'the commissioners have been accused of undu y favour closure as compared with regulation. Rule are p ing inclosure, and neglecting the powers tvuft *htch they inspecting the common, holding meetings, tie. _ . were intrusted for the protection of the public. _ Alluding Snal order shall contain all the statutory provisions for to this feeling the Home Secretary (Mr Cross) in propos- the benefit of the neighbourhood that a« apphcabl * ja ing the Bill which afterwards became the-Act of 18/ 6 case and, where the common to be inclosed is /\ stated that of 414,000 acres which had been inclosed under of a’manor, a description of the anotments for recr ^^ the Act less than 4000 had been dedicated to purposes _o around Compensation must be provided tor P recreation and exercise, and he admitted that, whereas m- fnterests affected by the order. Two-th.rds of t^rsons closures had formerly been treated as a private estate im- whose interests are affected must assent to the order provement to which the owner was entitled, a great change of in the case of a manorial waste the lord must conseot,jr opinion had taken place as to the rights of the public his representative in interest, before tl'““Iri“ frM|ue„ „f This feeling found expression in the Metropolitan Commons certify the expediency of the order. W hen tl Act 1866, which absolutely prohibits all further mclosure a town have interests m the commen t e ^ Acts are of metropolitan commons, and facilitates schemes foi e thirds of them must be obtamed The liac «s"redens and management and improvement of such commons for the amended by certain sections relating to clcsure 0f benefit of the public, due compensation being made for recreation-grounds. Encroachments on Illegai beneficial interests affected thereby This it wil! be village-greens are to be deemed a public nuisance ^ observed, is a complete change of attitude. Whereas the inclosures on commons settled under intending to f lord was formerly treated as the real owner, and allowed to the jurisdiction of the county court. Pemojis mte^ g.^ buy off partial interests, the public is now placed in that inclose a common otherwise than under „f]vertisenient. position, and the lord becomes an encumbrancer, to be three months’notice of their intention by adver^ The section of the Inclosure Act 1845 which ^ ^The* revived of^publicinterest in commons led to resistance to allotments for recreation grounds is repealed, being offered in courts of law to the unauthorized me osum does not apply to metropolitan commons. 1 of commons by lords of the manor. One of the most im

0 0 M —C 0 M

211 ’ COMMONS, House op. See Parliament. some way towards the refutation of the popular conception COMMUNE, the smallest administrative division of of a communist as a needy adventurer seeking a means to France, corresponding in its main features to the muni- possess himself of the property of others. There may have cipal borough of England. Communes constitute legal been some so-called communists attracted to the movement corporations of elaborate organization, capable of holding by the hope of being enabled to live on the labour and property, contracting debts, and appearing as persons in industry of their neighbours; but such men have never court. The chief magistrate of a commune is the maire originated any socialistic movement, and their motives have who is assisted by one or more adjoints, and a deliberative generally been quickly detected by the genuine communists assembly, called the conseil municipal, or municipal council. who have not infrequently adopted very vigorous means to As an agent of the national Government, he is charged with expel such black sheep from their flock. Among the the local promulgation and execution of the general laws modern leaders of communistic movements who have and decrees of the country; and as a member of the actually reduced to practice the theoretical schemes of The municipality he has to attend to the police, the revenue Republic and Utopia have been men who have devoted and the public works of the commune, and, in general, to great wealth and rare organizing faculties to the carrying act as representative of the corporation. In communes that out of their plans for the reconstruction of society. It has either rank as the administrative centres of a department, been estimated that Robert Owen, during the course of his arrondissement, or canton, or have a population of more than long life devoted no less a sum than £60,000 from his own 3000, the maire is nominated by the central Government • private fortune to the promotion of communistic schemes • in those which are not thus distinguished, the appointment what he sacrificed indirectly to his views on social reform lies with the prefect of the department. Suspension from cannot be easily estimated. His faculty for the successful office may be inflicted by the prefect; but deposition can conduct of business was so remarkable that at the early only proceed from the Government. An adjoint may be age of twenty-six, without a shilling of capital of his own intrusted by the maire with the discharge of any of his he was appointed manager of the mills of the Chorlton functions, and as the maire s representative he may preside Company with a salary of £1000 a year, besides one-ninth over the conseil municipal even if he be not otherwise a o the profits realized by the company. There can member of the body. The councillors are elected by the be no doubt that Owen had the personal qualities which votes of the communal electors ; and like the maire and would have enabled bun to amass a colossal fortune if his the adjoints, they hold office for a term of five years. The ambition had lam in that direction. The immense pecuniary decisions of the council in regard to the local budget and and personal sacrifices which he made to the cause of various other matters are subject to revision and amendment communism show that he at least was animated by motives by the prefect of the department. the (flrect opposite of the selfishness and sloth generally See Leber, Hist, critique du pouvoir municipal, 1828 • Revnouard attributed to the advocates of that system. Another Dupin IIisL de loctb 1829, ^OUChampagnac, orniCipal' 1Du n9;passe, locale, du’ present, et^Ministration de Vavenir de eading communist, Saint Simon, was the representative of one of the most ancient families of the French nobility l :znen7z:;^ 1843 ; Gorges> ^ ^ — A career in the army was open to him in which he might COMMUNISM is the name that has been given to the easily have satisfied the usual ambition of the class to schemes of social innovation which have for their starting- which he belonged As a young man he served with point the attempted overthrow of the institution of private distinction through five campaigns. property. It is not to be wondered at that so stupendous . Many other instances might be given of the disan undertaking should have failed, except in a very few interestedness of the _ leaders of communistic schemes. instances, in its immediate object. The principle of private Among American associations one of the most successful as proper y as been called by one who was by no means a to the number and material prosperity of its members is blind worshipper of the social condition which has been the society known as the Perfectionists of Oneida and Wallingford. Their founder, John Humphrey Noyes is rimai and nnluT Tthatin Psome Texceptional fundamental institution kich, ^ unless and very limited the son of a banker, and a man fitted by education and natural gifts to have succeeded in any of the ordinary rran emeiltS f SOcie have alwa s careers of professional or commercial activity. Whether resteV’heTCn011atHmi w^ ? ° ^ 7 tion inHi.it 'ac-k this primary and fundamental institu- we look at communism as depicted in the pages of Plato’s md b ld as weI1 30 miStt n n n f ? “ imaginative that Republic and Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, or in the practical t WUgh t that the assaults few and ff h ' "P™ it would be efforts made to realize these philosophical speculations by 1 e ve sinedp q f' en, limited to a single country or to a such men as .Owen and Noyes, we find no justification for desperatf bv'^1 ^ ^ class of indiv^uals rendered the assumption that the movement is one for enabling idlers and bunglers ” to live on the industry and talents solutionn0th TS t0 1086 by a &eneral social has no fP1,111011 tliat a communist is a man who of their more energetic and skilful neighbours. As we are here saying what communism is not, rather general redfsT'K f° 4°Sr anc4 wbo ^leref°rG advocates a Sit U 0Knvf-ealth iS V6ry Wide-SPread and than endeavouring to define what it is, this is perhaps the comdaw rhymer :~b0d m th6 WeU'known lines of the right place to state that communism, meaning thereby community of goods and the abolition of private property has no connection with the doings of the Commune of Paris For eauaf S10n une( • One who hath yearnings IdW pv i J !er 01°f iual earnings. which was overthrown in May 1871. The French word To loik forlr out Tf’ ’ and Pe is willing his penny pocket your shilling.” Commune is a household word in France for “ Township ” Pre ence r Cor or of c (. ? P ation.” Every town and village in France has •tbe °f communism \ s Commune or municipality. In nearly every town and mm ;i0 show that thetavorti'^h 1K l S a amst tdie viev property have tike 'i .° institution of private village there is corporate property called Les Biens Comalmost every age TWh m neady eVery countr^ and munaux, and this property is vested in the corporation or < r mated divergent intelleetnal 7 ) l !S ^en of such Commune. .The similarity, however, of the French word Hat0 and Eobert 0we11 as for corporation to ours for expressing the doctrine of comwidely sunderein ri P6Ct,Qfr" m? ’ 0 C0Untl rounding as the ’ 7’ and social surmunity of goods, has led to a great amount of misconception aa Slr Th maS More Saillt d Father Ran ’ ° ’ names goes and confusion, even among writers who are generally careful Rapp.ith The mere mention of these and well informed. The revolution of the Commune was

212

COMMUNISM

“ Enough, my friend! but what is enough while anything remains wanting V' These sentences indicate the spirit m wUch philosophical as distinguished from practical communists from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken to reconstruct human society. Sir Thomas More's Vlopia has very many of the More, characteristics of The MepuUu. There is m ,t the same wonderful power of shaking off the prejudices of the place and time in which it was written. The government of Utopia is described as founded on popular election ; community of goods prevailed, the magistrates distributed the instruments of production among the inhabitants and the “d”eh more^iolmit and unscrupulous oomtades JMs wealth resulting from their industry was shared by a 1 The use of money and all outward ostentation of wealth iS “thrWe^etTofVe—i^hi^h indeed were forbidden. All meals were taken in common, and they were rendered attractive by the accompaniment of that its doings were not even tmgeu wi sweet strains of music, while the air was hi ed by ft scent of the most delicate perfumes. Mores ideal »tato ^rrutr^iK found every age and m many different coun ty time t0 time differs in one important respect from PMo s There was no community of wives in Utopia. The sacredness ot men bo b of thought and act 0 ^ in the family relation and fidelity to the marriage contract were recognized by More as indispensable to the wellsreaand 1 amort of deytail with which they are being of modern society. Plato, notwithstanding all the described by their authors is so considerable that it is extraordinary originality with w^ch he advocated the difficult to get at the underlying ^ilZphic emancipation of women, was not able to free him to them all It must be remembered that the philosop from the theory and practice of regarding the wile as communism of Plato and More has been adapted tc Ue part and parcel of the property of her tasband. T e f. wants of actual daily life by rough Gf ^ therefore, that he advocated community of property W Lancashire operatives ; and though of course the actual him also to advocate community of wives. ^eaks f has differed a good deal from the ideal commune, yet their “the possession and me ol women “d “‘dren, an "ance is! under the circumstances very much more proceeds to show how this possession and use must^ to striking than their divergence. The one thing tha regulated in his ideal slate. Monogamy was to hm mere shared by all communists, whether speculative or practical exclusive possession on the part of one man “fa Piece d is deep dissatisfaction with the economic conditions by which nrooertv which ought to be for the benefit of the public dlssa lsf Plato’s they are surrounded. In Plato’s Republic *. ^' W circumstance that he could not think of wives ^ie Republic. tion i3 not limited to merely economic condition . wise than as the property of their husbands only makesff examination of the body politic there is Wly any part the more remarkable that he claimed which he can pronounce to be healthy. He e^amy of training and careers. The «tance « the life of the citizens of his state from the very moment communists have so frequently wrecked tbei^ ^ejects by of birth. Children are to be taken away from them paren attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous ™terc^s and nurtured under the supervision of the state. The old “Sthe sexes may probably be traced to he notion rmr«prv tales “ the blasphemous nonsense with wnicn which regards a wife as being a mere iten & mothers fool the manhood out of their children,” are to be goods and8 chattels of her husband. It « f"*” suppressed. Dramatic and imitative poetry Mt ‘o b find evidence of the survival of this uncient hal f allowed. Education, marriage, the number of births, the «I will be master of what is mine own, says Uetrucnio. occupations of the citizens are to be contro led by the guardians or heads of the state. The most ‘‘?h^ of conditions and careers is to be preserved, the women society in the United States which has put into pra are to have similar training with the men, no careers an community of wives, or, as they call it, complex marrwg , ambition are to be forbidden to them; the inequalities justify their extraordinary social system y ^sons and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease because there is “ no intrinsic difference between property ^ persons all will be provided for by the state. Other cities are and property in things; and that the same spmt wh^i divided against themselves. “ Any ordinary city, however abolished exclusiveness in regard to money woffid abohsh, small, is in fact two cities, one the city of the poor, th if circumstances allowed full SC°P®J° V JfC rommUnistic other of the rich, at war with one another {Republic, Mk. regard to women and children " (Nordoff » « iv. p. 249, Jowett’s translation). But this ideal state is to Societies of the United States, pp. wild opinions be a perfect unit; although the citizens are divided in o of a wife as property that is responsible for th P of classes according to their capacity and ability, there is no communists have often held in favour of ^id If of the exclusiveness of birth, and no inequality is to brea wives and the break-up of famdyjeHtmus ^on 0f the accord which binds all the citizens both male and shake off this notion and take hold of the con ^ female, together into one harmonious whole The marvel- marriage as a contract, there is no rea ^ t think ous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the government on the community of property should iead them t ^ of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern that this contract should not include mutual fi U as to the ancient world. Many of the social problems to remain in force during the Stion which Plato draws attention are yet unsolved, and some aie It was probably not this conception of the ma^mg to in 1process of solution in the direction indicated by hn . so much as the influence of Christianity which lea ^ ,g He is not appalled by the immensity of the task which he discountenance community of wivesmb I)has sketched out for himself and his Mlowera Headnu s strange that the same influence did not make h^ ^ ^ that there are difficulties to be overcome but te says in a the absence of slavery as one of the c c , . -gtopia sort of parenthesis, “Nothing great is «aay. He refuse ideal state. On the contrary, however, we find in to be satisfied with half measures and patchwork reforms. entirely political; it propounded no new economic theories It arose from a joint effort of many sections of extrem politicians who were agreed in nothing but in the establishment of (1) a democratic ^public, and (2^the communal (or corporate) independence of -Pans U y about seven out of the seventy member of Communm Government were communists in t e . . . ’jeas^ these seven were among the most houghtful and least violent of the party to which they belonged ^0^ had an opportunity of ^ving any « thrust on one

COMMUNISM

213 the anomaly of slavery existing side by side with institu- proposed to his partners to spend £5000 upon new schools. tions which otherwise embody the most absolute personal, They not unnaturally objected to an expenditure at that political, and religious freedom. The presence of slaves in time quite unprecedented; whereupon Owen bought his Utopia is made use of to get rid of one of the practical partners out for £84,000, and took his own course upon difficulties of communism, viz., the performance of disagree- the educational system he had brought forward. It is to able work. In a society where one man is as good as be observed that communists have seldom or never relied on another, and the means of subsistence are guaranteed to all their peculiar system alone for the regeneration of society. alike, it is easy to imagine that it would be difficult to Community of goods has indeed been their central idea, but ensure the performance of the more laborious, dangerous, they have almost invariably supported it by other projects and offensive kinds of labour. In Utopia, therefore, we of less questionable utility. Compulsory education, free are expressly told that “ all the uneasy and sordid services ” trade, and law reform, the various movements connected are performed by slaves. The institution of slavery was with the improvement of the condition of women, have also made supplementary to the criminal system of Utopia, found their earliest advocates among theoretical and as the slaves were for the most part men who had been con- practical communists. The communists denounce the evils victed of crime ; slavery for life was made a substitute for of the present state of society ; the hopeless poverty of the capital punishment. poor, side by side with the self-regarding luxury of the rich, In many respects, however, More’s views on the labour seems to them to cry aloud to Heaven for the creation of question were vastly in advance of his own time, and a new social organization. They proclaim the necessity of indeed of ours. He repeats the indignant protest of the sweeping away the institution of private property, and Republic that existing society is a warfare between rich insist that this great revolution, accompanied by universal and poor. “ The rich,” he says, “ devise every means by education, free trade, a perfect administration of justice, which they may in the first place secure to themselves and a due limitation of the numbers of the community, what they have amassed by wrong, and then take to their would put an end to half the self-made distresses of own use and profit, at the lowest possible price, the work and humanity. Has it never occurred to them that a similarly labour of the poor. And so soon as the rich decide on happy result might be attained if all these subsidiary adopting these devices in the name of the public, then they reforms were carried out, leaving the principles of private become law.” One might imagine these words had been property and competition to their old predominance in the quoted from the programme of the International Society, economic world 1 If the principles of communism and of so completely is their tone in sympathy with the hardships private property are to be fairly compared, the comparison of the poor in all ages. More shared to the full the keen must not be between communism as it might be and private sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which has property as it is. Communism to r>e successful requires to been the strong motive power of nearly all speculative be accompanied by important reforms, towards which communism. The life of the poor as he saw it was so existing society founded on private property is gradually wretched that he said, “ Even a beast’s life seems enviable ! ” finding its way. The power which society, as at preBesides community of goods and equality of conditions, sent constituted, has shown of adapting itself to altered More advocated other means of ameliorating the condition circumstances, and of assimilating by slow degrees the more of the people. Although the hours of labour were limited valuable concomitants of the most revolutionary theories, is to six a day there was no scarcity, for in Utopia every one strong proof that it does not deserve to be dealt with in worked) there was no idle class, no idle individual even. the summary manner advocated by the communists. The importance of this from an economic point of view is We find in many socialistic writings of thirty or forty years Louis insisted on by More in a passage remarkable for the ago the assumption expressed or implied that, in society as it Kane on importance which he attaches to the industrial condition of is, the most valuable and essential reforms are impracticable. women. “ And this you will easily apprehend,” he says, M. Louis Blanc, for instance, in his book called EOrganisa- J^11* if you consider how great a part of all other nations is tion du Travail, first published in 1839, says that in the quite idle. First, women generally do little, who are the existing order of society the spread of education among the half of mankind.” Translated into modern language his masses would be dangerous,—would, in fact, be impossible. proposals comprise universal compulsory education, a This, if true, would be the strongest possible indictment reduction of the hours of labour to six a day, the most against the existing order of society. But how have events modern principles of sanitary reform, a complete revision ot cninmal legislation, and the most absolute religious falsified the assumptions made in the following passage ? “ On a vu pourquoi, dans le systeme actuel, 1’^ducation des toleration _ The romantic form which Sir Thomas More enfants du peuple £tait impossible Beaucoup gave to his dream of a new social order found many d’esprits sthieux pensent qu’il serait dangereux aujourd’hui imitators. The Utopia may be regarded as the prototype de r^pandre I’instruction dans les rangs du peuple, et ils p ns ampanella’s City Defoe’s of the Essay Sun, Harrington’s Oceana, ont raison. Mais comment ne s’apenjoivent-ils pas que ova Atlantis, of Projects, Fdnelon’s Voyage dans lHe des Plaisirs, and other works of minor ce danger de 1 Education est une preuve accablante de 1 absurdity de notre ordre social 1 Dans cet ordre social, importance. tout est faux : le travail n'y est pas en honneur ; les proiversal ication. prMt13 re'na,r5{la1’Ie that all communists have made a fessions les plus utiles y sont d6daign4es ; un laboureur y jl?! P°mt °f thf lmpartance of universal education. All est tout au plus un objet de compassion, et on n’a pas assez a rfTDUn?-haVe been Provided by their authors with de couronnes pour une danseuse. Voilfi, voiffi pourquoi securin child S the education of every I’^ducation du peuple est un danger!” (p. 100). Hence, 0 tbe rst carrv m ^ ^. ^ things done in every attempt to he concludes, a social revolution ought to be attempted; int0 establish TUn!iStlC t th,e0rieS Practice, has been to a new system of society ought to be introduced ; the old s bo and child Th , ^ °i guarantee education to every system of society is, he says, so “ full of iniquities ” that to national present education in the it cannot co-exist with a diffusion of education among the success of T?UF P^bably sprang from the very marked people Even at the time when these words were written cotton mills at^wT8 SfhoolsA in connection with the there was much to show that they were not true. Since La nark popular edVw. - At a time (1806) wben they were written the spread of education has been most ln th8 Iowesfc ossi Owen as mann ^ P ble condition, general in those countries in which the old social order, ' Ser and Part owner of the New Lanark Mills, founded on private property and competition, is unshaken,

214

COMMUNISM

enablin" the members to obtain by means of .credit the capital °necessary to production. These associations are entirely self-supporting ; they have supplanted nothing, they have up-rooted nothing.. Their success so far from weakening the ordinary banking system, has strengthened it by supplying one of its deficiencies. The mdividua workman cannot obtain an advance of capital upon credit because he cannot give adequate security, that it will be repaid But the credit banks are associations or workmen who are jointly and severally responsible for the repaymen of loans made to any one of their number. A member of one of these associations can through, its means obtain a loan on favourable terms, because the principle of the unhm t liability of each of the members for the repayment of a loan made to any one of them affords the means o offenng to the lender most ample and sufficient security. The fact that the principle of unlimited habi ity is stnctly maintained is really the essential charactenstic of the security which the association is able to give to those who advance capita! to it. If this principle were relaxed it is more than doubtful whether the security offered by the association would be sufficiently good to ensure advances of (in an article in the Revue de Progres called Question des capital being made to its members on remunerative terms. Banques ”) “ le credit est tout autre chose. ^ Les bauques S unSed liability of each for the debts o aU nec^ ne pretent qu’au riche. Youlussent-elles P^ter au Pauvre tates o-reat caution before a new member can be elected into elles ne le pourraient pas sans counr aux ablmes. Les one of these associations. The circumstances and = banques constitutbcs an point de vue indmduel ne saura ^ career of candidates for membership are most carefully ent done jamais etre, quoi quon fasse, quun proc6de inquired into. They must give satisfactory evidence as to admirablement imaging pour rendre les riches plus nc . their previous character and industry, and they are required et les puissants plus puissants. Toujours le monopole sous to give substantial proof that they are m a position to share les dehors de la liberty toujours la tyrannic sous les appar- the pecuniary responsibilities of the association by becoming ences du progres ! POrganisation propose (that ot the shareholders^!! it. Care, however, is taken to elect.no one national workshops') “couperait court h taut diniquites. wlm is not a honafide workman. The capital requnred ^ Cette portion de b6nefices, specialement et mvariablement making loans is partly obtained from the subscriptions of consacihe h Pagrandissement de Patelier social par le recr i members, but the principal part o it is obffimed in the ment des travailleurs, voilk le credit., Maintenant, qiPavez open market, where the association, being a g vous besoin des banques 1 Suppnmez-les (pp. 97-8 . security can obtain money on reasonable terms. This passage is a striking instance of the way in which The success of these associations has been most striking. communistic writers are inclined to treat social and economic In 1865 there were 961 credit banks in existence m problems. M. Louis Blanc observed that the banking Germany. Of these 498 sent in a report of their hnancia system at the time in which he wrote was in some respects condition to the central bureau, and their accounts shoved defective. From the nature of their business and the that they then possessed nearly HQ,000 member^ and t security they were obliged from motives of self-preserva- the money annually advanced was equal to £10^000 UUU tion ^demand, the banks lent only to those, who were sterling As ten years have passed since the time when able to give them that security, i.e., to. the rich. . Lven these reports were sent in, and the prosperity of the this statement requires some modification unless in the associations has during the interval been unmterrffi.^. expression “ the rich ” is included every struggling farmer there is every reason to believe that the number .. or tradesman vAo is helped over a time of pecuniary d.ffi- and the amount ot the loans would at the present time culty by the credit afforded to him by his banker. The “ow a ^ considerable increase. . The very jemarMto fac/remains, however, that the banks did not give ciedi success of the credit banks is an instance of what great to the labouring classes. Credit, urges M. Louis Blanc things can be done by self-help and without vitiating y which ought to be a means of furnishing the mstiumen s attack on the existing order of economic life of production to the labourer, is in reality no such thing. the least pleasing aspects of communism tha What is the remedy which he suggests for this, deficiency not only do not attempt themselves to bring about by simfia in the credit system 1 An entire reorganization ot the means L amelioration in the economic industrial world, in which every labourer will be supplied but they have often gone out of their way to pou^ontemp by the state with the tools and raw materials which his and ridicule on such reforms as that introduced by Hm work requires. If this proposed reorganization were Schulze-Delitzsch. The establishment of the c^^ ^ adopted there would no longer be any scarcity of credit, was looked on with great disfavour y pfished a and as for banks, he cries triumphantly, they would no munists. Their leader,. Ferdinand P^ritings, longer be necessary, let them be put down, book, said to be the most important o ns r pin It is not M. Louis Blanc only who observed that the in which he bitterly attacked the credit banks ^d ffie cm banks in ordinary banking system cannot from, wdnt of secun y, “pemHve system "generally (Her Schuhe-M^^ Germany. aqord to make advances to the labouring classes. I lommuche Mian, odtr Kapdal mid Berl , Schulze-Delitzsch noted the same fact, but the remedy Don deutschen Arbatsstande nnd dm t|ie which he suggested, and which has been carried out with geividmet). Co-operation, he saw, inane and it was such great success in Germany, is very different from t principles of private property and compel t.on, o«d ^ heroic treatment recommended in the passage we h these principles which he had set hmeelUo destr J ^ quoted from M. Blanc. The Schulze-Dehtzsch credit banks good achieved by an amelioration of *e cond,t‘p ^1, which began to be established in Germany in the year 1851 people did not appear to him to outweigh the c are associations of artizans formed for the purpose of

Germany, Scotland, and America have an educated people, and they are distinguished among other countries f'jr possessing a peaceful, law-abiding, and order-loving population So fai from education being a danger to the institution of private property, nearly every one has been convince y events that it is much more seriously threatened y 0 mice and the helpless desperation 1^or,an.C® of the old order of society has recognized the necessity ot urotectino' itself by the diffusion of education. he a Oppcsiti in L1 Organisation du Travail % ^°f.C7ft^eeces to banking, the mistake communists often make m. • pout sary to turn the world upside down in ^der to bnn ^ ^ some desirable economic change. M. Louis Blanc is desc itm the organization necessary for the establishment of his ^fteUers naLnaux,” which became so famous nine years

COMMUNISM he believed to be associated with every circumstance that favoured the accumulation of capital in private hands. Cooperation, he urges, is only improved capitalism, and the very improvement by making it more formidable seemed only to make it more hateful to him. Contempt In the same spirit of bitter hostility to all means of apolitical improving the existing condition of society without changiberalism. jng the basis on which it rests, communists have often shown great contempt for political liberalism, The changes proposed and carried out by political liberals are condemned by the communists as a mere patching up of an essentially worthless fabric which must be got rid of before anything better can be substituted in its place. At the time when the agitation for the Eeform Bill carried in 1832 was uppermost in the minds of all English politicians, Robert Owen took an opportunity of proclaiming in public his belief in the utter futility of all political reform. The German communists, or socialists as they are often called, have, generally speaking, been very emphatic in expressing themselves in a similar strain. The following passage, taken from the writings of Karl Marx, a member of the International Society, is scarcely an exaggeration of the views of the German school of communism on the value and results of political liberalism :— “Although the liberals have not carried out their principles in any land as yet completely, still the attempts which have been made are sufficient to prove the uselessness of their efforts. They endeavoured to free labour, but only succeeded in subjecting it more completely under the yoke of capital; they aimed at setting at liberty all labour powers, and only riveted the chains of misery which held them bound; they wanted to release the bondman from the clod, and deprived him of the soil on which he stood by buying up the land ; they yearned for a happy condition of society” and only created superfluity on one hand and dire want on tbe other; they desired to secure for merit its own honourable reward, and only made it the slave of wealth ; they wanted to abolish all monopolies, and placed in their stead the monster monopoly, capital ; they wanted to do away with all wars between nation and nation, and kindled the flames of civil war ; they tried to get rid of the state, and yet have multiplied its burdens; they wanted to make education the common property of all, and made it the privilege of the rich; they aimed at the greatest moral improvement of society, and have only left it in a state of rotten immorality; they wanted, to say all m a word, unbounded liberty, and have produced the meanest servitude; they wanted the reverse of all which my actually obtained, and have thus given a proof that Utopk™

111 a 1 ltS ramifications is

nothing but a perfect ^on °I England is often pointed at triumphantly England tinn !TlilmiSt3 °f other countries as a complete condemnae of )rivate uiism comneHHrf ® I property, capitalism, and n emote ’ ^a®sa^e> Marx, Louis Blanc, and others statesmen SuS fr°m bluebooks’ speeches of English condl?’ °f 0ur P*bbcmen in which the poor is ainted in tbe colours. In P P darkest you have In i n?S r ’ ^ iey say> ^or tke last half century llb absm 111 tbe trade f ascendant; you have had free ic “ih rcSarcrT ^ unlimited • , ger for employment is practically baS ba( trade the mnqf- ^ ** * ^ near^y every branch of anywhere wefcmnreStn?ed develoPment. In England, if a roach to Perfection of wMch^the P esent ^^ PP ec society is capable Ti 1011 v °nomic condition of from parliament^ s eeckes Proceed to quote passages from English wnt^ P and official reports, and econ witness to the ten •n'S poverty °n Pobdc£d all bearing terrible and squaloromy, in which a largt

ndition

conc

215 proportion of the labouring class in this country spend their lives. M. Louis Blanc, in the book already referred to quoted from Lord Lytton’s England and the English a passage showing that the amount and quality of nutriment consumed by the inmates of our jails and workhouses were at that time far in excess of what could be obtained by the wages of the frugal and industrious working-man. Marx cites the following passage from Dr Hunter’s report to the Privy Council (1862-3) on the domiciliary condition of the agricultural labourer“ The means of existence of the hind are fixed at the very lowest possible scale. What he gets in wages and domicile is not at all commensurate with the profit produced by his work. His means of subsistence are always treated as a fixed quantity; as for any further reduction of his income he may say nihil habeo, nihil euro. He is not afraid of the future; he has reached zero, a point from which dates the farmer’s calculation. Come what may he takes no interest in either fortune or misfortune.” Whatever may be the value of the remedy which communism suggests for so melancholy a condition as that here described, it is surely useful that the attention of people who have “ much goods laid up for many years ” should be forcibly arrested, and that they should be made to consider why it is that in the richest country in the woi Id the condition of a large proportion of the labouring classes is so bad that it can hardly be made worse. But at present there is a general conviction that the remedy proposed by communists is one which it would be overwhelmingly difficult to apply, and it is also believed that even if it were applied it would be of doubtful efficacy. Some of the most obvious difficulties associated with the practical adoption of communism have been already adveited to. I he social, political, and industrial edifice whicn is the outcome of centuries of effort and sacrifice would be destroyed by the adoption of communism; it would be necessary to reconstruct society from its very foundations ; and society, like a constitution, is one of those things which cannot be made—it must grow. Then also the efficacy of communism as a remedy for the miserable condition of the poor is, to say the least, doubtful. To vdiat cause may be assigned most of the pauperism, misery, and squalor which hang like a cloud over the lives of so many of the labouring classes ] What was the principal agency which brought about calamities like the Irish and the Orissa famines 1 There can be but one answer to these questions,—the pressure of population on the means of subsistence. Many communistic writers have passionately denied this, and have denounced with all the fervour of emotional natures the doctrine laid down by Malthus that population tends to increase faster than subsistence is capable of being increased. No one, however, has Checks on attempted to throw doubt on the main fact on which the P°rulaMalthusian doctrine rests, that everywhere, except in very ^0I1, new countries with a large extent of unoccupied fertile land, checks on population are in active operation. These checks must exist everywhere where population does not increase at its greatest possible speed. Under favourable conditions population sometimes has doubled itself in 20 jears. Professor Cairnes has stated that in Ireland the population more than doubled itself in the 38 years between 1/G7 and 1805. At the rate of increase of the ten years ending 1870, the population of England would double itself in 63 years, that of France in 265 years. In France and England, therefore, checks on population are, in a varying degree, in active operation; and the same may be said of all old countries. It is important, however, to inquire into the nature of the checks on population in actual operation. They may be divided into two classes, the first carrying with it nothing but misery and degradation, the second implying a high degree of self-

COMMUNISM 216

The Separatists, an American community of German origin, established in 1817, favour celibacy although they doDnot enforce it. No marriage can take place without the consent of the trustees of the society; and they farther discourage marriage by entering among the articles of their religion a declaration of their belief that celibacy is more in accordance with the divine will than marriage. -^eSr^n^ised^ The Amana community also, a German society m the United States, which dates its origin from early in the second class necessarily adds to Uie torc last century, discourages marriage among its members. which we have placed in the first c ass. Jn any circumstance which relaxes the fence J-series of No man is allowed to marry before he is twenty-four checks on population ten 3 P™ » ^yhat would years of age. Mr Nordhoff relates that the reason for this rule was explained to him by one of the elders of the y th^population question 1 Amana Society in these words,-« They (the young men) ercfo f - have few cares in life, and would marry too early for their own good—food and lodging being secured them if SSSESSHS there were not a rule upon the subject ” The religious tone of the community is also set against marriage. In the Amana Church there are three classes, orders or grades, the highest consisting of those members who have manifested in their lives the greatest spirituality and pie y. SU e Control of pi ato seems to have thought the matter an easy one, Now if the newly-married couple should have belonged for marriages and says that the guardians of his ZZZcTmTn and years to this highest class, their wedding would put them down into the lowest, or the ‘ children’s order,’ for a year or two until they had won them slow wa,y back by deegnimr piety” (Nordhoffs Communistic Societies of the United mmished . The population wasmalso to beemigration, kept withioi States pp 36-7). Even the Perfectionists, whose extrapunisne i f ^ratxon, of ordinary system of “ complex marriage ’’ has been already colonization But the theoretical communists of modern referred to, take many precautions against a superabundant str0 times have hardly found words "S “"“^ZSnls population. The number of births is controlled by the their detestation of the principle that any ' “‘“nn * heads of the society. The founder of the community desirable to the possible number of births^ T1 writes as follows: “Previous to about two and a half of Malthus are spo ^ ^ ^ „ brutflfized the purest years a-o, we refrained from the usual rate of child-bearing for several reasons—financial and otherwise. ven w feeiinvs of dom?sticity.” M. Louis Blanc mve.ghs against the number of births was increased it was ^d that they the doctrines of political economists, and protests that were purposely kept within such limits that judicious illpv ore blaspheming God when they say that the pros moral ^md spiritual1 care, with the advantage of a M parity of the poor would be promoted by a hnntation of pdneation ” could be guaranteed to every child (hiordHott, the population. Why are you kiUreTof p 976) ’The practical answer made by communists o e If von were you would recommend that the children oi population question, even in ^ Jwoor should be put to death ! And in another place America in which unoccupied fertile land can be easily he speaks of “ cette tainomie politique sans entrailles and cWy obtained, is that a strict "n o ™dont Ricardo a si complaisament P03/ ’0®- Iters is absolutely essential to their social and industrial dont Malthas a tir4 avee taut de sang-froid 1 hor ‘ble con tell-Zr As a matter of fact the population of nearly elusion. Cette 6conomie politique portait en elle me Tl! the American communistic societies has no increased at un vice qui devait la rendre fatale ii 1 Ang e erre e all, but has greatly declined during the last fifty monde” (L’Organisation du Travail, p. 71). practical The number of Shakers, for instance, in 1 communists ka?e not, however, met the popdat.on question their number in 1874 was 2415 The P in the spirit indicated by these quotations. Several o American community which makes marn „ the most successful realizations of communistic life h have declined in twenty-five years fr°m 150^° ^ . fact3 maintained the strictest celibacy among their ^mber. It would, however, be rash to conclude d t ai adoption oi The Essenes, who practised community of goods before the that the general w i e ChristiaTera, were a sect composed entirely of men, who strengthen the prudential checks on populatiom W lived in seclusion from the world and were in many impo seen that modern communists, when ^^^they tant respects the prototypes of Christian hermits or monk of actual experience of the daily working ^ ^ Two of the most important communistic societies of advocate, have vigorously denounced t ^nities comiM' the United States have also made celibacy an essential practice of Malthusianism. The American tbenistici“ feature of their system. The “Economites an Ce dected in numbers partly in consequence, of the Shakers ” the societies to which reference is made, have adoption in two of them of celibacy asareig P tj’ar'n!af,: existed since 1805 and 1792 respectively. They are It is also impossible to avoid the conclusion ma ^ strictly celibate, their numbers being recruited by converts numbers have fallen off partly in youug i from the outside world and to a slight extent y e unattractive conditions of communistic li . leaveytliem adoption of pauper children and orphans from neighbouring members of these societies not unfrequent y towns Other communistic societies maintain the authori y when they arrive at manhood and wmmanhoo. 1 ^ ,g a of the' heads of the society to limit the number of marriages and absence of spontaneity of: a comm ^ ^ counterThe Spartan Government, which in many important weight to young and active minds th ^a communistic, exercised tire absolute balanced by security from want or wh^ b marriages control over the increase of population. Among1 the bread-and-butter prosperity. The tlie3e societies Moravians marriage is not permitted to ta e p ace w and of births have been controlled in other of h ^ the consent of the heads of the society, who furnish the in virtue of the absolute despotism which is veste newly married couples with a suitable marriage poitio . restraint, independence, and foresight. ^

ik i .

COMMUNISM

217 chiefs; individual liberty is entirely suspended; the There are some charges made against communism which smallest minutiae of the daily life of their members is may be brought with at least equal force against the regulated from headquarters. A government which decides economic and industrial arrangements which now prevail. at what hour its subjects shall go to bed at night and rise One of these is that communism does not avail itself Selfin the morning; which prescribes the colour, shape, and sufficiently of the motive of self-interest in order to obtain interest as material of the dresses worn, the time of meals, the quality from each labourer the best and most conscientious work a motive t0 of the food consumed, the daily task apportioned to each of which he is capable. If, it is urged, the result of a man’s labour* member; which enforces a rule that each of its subjects industry belongs not to himself solely but to the whole shall leave every morning a notice stating at what exact community of which he is a member, he will not throw the spot he or she will be found during each hour of the day ; same energy and zeal into his work as he will if everything a government which can do all these things will find no which he produces belongs solely to himself. There can great difficulty in controlling the number of marriages be no doubt of the truth of this statement; self-interest and births. Mr Nordhoff states that “the fundamental is a force on which industrial machinery chiefly relies for principle of communal life is the subordination of the motive power. But it is remarkable that the prevailing individual’s will to the general interest or the general will; system of working for fixed weekly wages checks the play practically this takes the shape of unquestioning obedience of self-interest in the workman much more completely than by the members towards the elders or chiefs of their it is checked in a communistic society by the fact that the society.” If, however, communism were adopted through- results of the labour of each are shared by all. A workman out a whole nation, the minute despotism which now who is in receipt of fixed weekly wages has no motive to distinguishes the government of existing communistic reach any higher standard of excellence or expedition in societies, and which furnishes them with an effectual con- his work than such as will prevent him from being distrol over the growth of population, would cease to be charged for bad work or laziness. It is a complaint conpossible; or if, indeed, it should ever become possible it stantly heard among employers of labour that the only would be through the careful suppression of individual ambition of the men seems to be to see how little work liberty, and through the strenuous encouragement of they can do for their wages. The actual existence of this everything which tended to destroy self-reliance on the part feeling among workmen is proved by many of the rules of the people and to build up the absolute power of the of trades’ unions,—such as that which limits the number state. A people who purchased material prosperity at the of bricks which a hod-man is allowed to carry, and which price of their liberty would strike a bad bargain, especially in one case forbade the use of wheel barrows in taking when it is remembered that the limitation of the number bricks from one spot to another. Mr Thornton’s book On of marriages and births which is enforced by the central Labour gives several examples of the rules adopted by authority in a communistic society can be effected by trades’ unions to check the tendency which is sometimes voluntary self-control in a society based on private property found in a workman to exert himself to do his best and and competition. The difference, therefore, so far as the thus show his superiority over his fellows. “ ‘Not besting population question is concerned, between communism and one s mates ’ has by several unions been made the subject private property is whether the necessary restraint upon of special enactment The Manchester Bricklayers’ * the possible number of births shall proceed from the direct Association has a rule providing that ‘any man found intervention of the state, or whether it shall proceed from running or working beyond a regular speed shall be fined the combined motives of self-interest, self-control, and 2s; dd. for the first offence, 5s. for the second, 10s. for the parental obligation on the part of the people themselves. third, and if still persisting shall be dealt with as the It should be remembered that what communism professes committee think proper.’” It was urged by the trade to be able to do is to ensure to every member of a com- unionists in the textile manufactures of Lancashire and munistic society an ample supply of the necessaries and Yorkshire as a serious argument for placing impediments conveniences of life. If the population question is pressing in the way of the employment of women in these industries now when the workhouse and parochial relief are the only that they were apt to take a pride and pleasure in the excelrefuge of those who cannot maintain themselves, would it lence and rapidity of their work, and that their vanity was not become much more pressing if a man could obtain such that a word of praise or encouragement from the ireely and without fulfilling any disagreeable conditions, oo , house, and clothing for himself, and as many children overlooker would cause them to redouble their exertions (Report of Dr Bridges and Mr Holmes on the condition of as he chose to bring into existence 1 It is this consideration women and children employed in Textile Industries, 1873). which has forced upon the government of communistic examples are more than sufficient evidence that societies the control of the marriages and births of their theThese present industrial system does not bring into play niem ers. E\en where the principles of communism are adopted in so very materially modified a form as they are the motive force of direct self-interest in stimulating n om poor law system, legislative control over population the exertions of the labourers. In this respect communism would seem at first sight to compare favourably orcc inri u?en Gn^the ^' regulation which separates man with mere wages-receiving industry; for in a commulJn ! !“ workhouse is a practical recognition of the nistic society every man and woman has some direct 1 6 W iere t e fcate Lieu *^ exercise ^ guarantees a maintenance, it ‘ share, however small, in the results of his or her labour. mm, m self-protection, control over the numbers If more is produced, there will be more to receive; and with^6 d1efPenden1fc °n it; for suPPorfc. Self-help brings instead of a trades’ union, every member of which is nensahl/6 "coutl'°l i state-help makes state-control indis- pledged, under penalties, to work slowly and to watch the sjnlnf' nf ,e P^ent economic condition of society that his fellow-workmen do the same, communism gives in nlaci"11- oftlie Population question is not to be found to each labourer a direct interest not only in workdone absolve ^ ,lr?as of the state, as communism has ing well himself, but in watching to see that honest and the nrohli n f?01 0Ver domestic life. The solution of steady work is done by his neighbours. As a matter of standard of c 1Up f" SlluS^lt education, in an improved fact, the American communistic societies have found no difficulty in enforcing the habit of careful and regular ina determinatiou peonl not ^ T °utbe part of the and in a communistic0 ^ reform of the most dustry on their members. The American communists do 8 Stem distribution ofSlo0/Xf” >' >-‘he la™h not as a rule work hard; for they find that they can provide for all the wants of the community without excesYI, — 28

218

COMMUNIS M

the English poor. Since they wrote, co-operation has in Co-operasive or exhausting toil. But there are no idle members, some parts of England done much to brighten the social tive and every member works well and steadily while he is and industrial condition of the working classes. Thesocletieaworking. That the quality of their work is good is proved Times of 18th August 1875 gives an account of the coby the fact that their commercial reputation stands, very operative manufactures in the town of Oldham. In this hi°h. The garden seeds, the production of which is the one town there are 80 joint-stock co-operative mills j in the staple trade among the Shakers, have been celebrated for county of Lancashire there are 150. The bulk of the sharetheir excellence for more than seventy years all over the holders are artizans, who labour in the mills, and who thereUnited States. “ The Oneida Perfectionists established fore have a direct and immediate interest in the results of the reputation of their silk twist.in the market by giving their industry. Cotton-spinning and weaving are the accurate weight and sound material; the woollen stuhs ot principal businesses carried on in these mills. The principle Amana command a constant market, because they are well of self-interest has had the effect of producing, not mere and honestly made ; and in general I have found that the activity on the part of the labourer, but thoroughly sound communists have a reputation for honesty and fair dealing and honest work. We are told by the Times that these among their neighbours, wherever their products are bought mills possess a high reputation for probity of manufacture. and sold ” (Nordhoff). , ,, They are worked partly with capital subscribed by the It must, however, be remembered that a few small shareholders, in £5 or £10 shares, and partly with borrowed communities, such as those which exist in America, afford capital which bears a fixed rate of interest. Many of. the no fair test of what would be the effect of a general adoption mills pay a dividend of 10 per cent, on their share capital; of communism on industrial activity and efficiency. Ihe the ledgers and account-books of each society are open to communists in the United States only number about 5000 all the shareholders, who also exercise the power of electing including children; and though there are eight different in open meeting the managers and officers of the association. societies, these are divided into 72 separate communities, The shareholders frequently invest money on loan to the the Shakers alone having 58. On an average, therefore, societies of which they are members, so that the interests each community consists of less than /0 persons. The of the lenders and of the shareholders are identified in the elaborate despotism of communistic government, together absolute manner possible. The most important, of with the minute surveillance which the small size of these most communities renders possible, makes it easy for the leaders these associations is perhaps the Industrial Co-operative Society of Oldham founded in the year 1850-1. From of these societies to exact from each member his quota of small beginnings it has gradually extended its operatoil ; idleness would be at once detected and. would not very tions until in the year 1874 it divided a dividend of be suffered to exist, as the power of expelling an idle £40,000 among its shareholders in four quarterly instalmember would be resorted to if the voice of public opinion were not sufficient to induce him to mend his ways. Similar ments of £10,000 each. The total turnover of this society means of detecting and preventing idleness would be is £250,000 a year. It forms, as it were, a kind of bank completely absent if communism were generally adopted. to the other co-operative societies. At Christmas 1874 it out on loan to these associations a number of sums There would, of course, in this case be no power, of ex- had varying from £11,732 downwards, making a total of pelling an idle member, and the difficulty of detecting and The Sun Mill Company, another of the Oldham proving to the central authorities a disposition on the part £45,437. co-operative associations, has a share capital of £100,000. of any'of the members to avoid a fair share of work would increase ’p&vi jmssu with the size of the community. The It is stated in a parliamentary return published in 1874 motive of self-interest in promoting good work, is much more that there are in England and Wales 790 co-operati\e powerful in a small communistic society than in a large one. societies, with 340,930 members, a share capital of £3,334,104, and a loan capital of £431,808.. Their net A man can appreciate the value of his own industry much profits for the year 1873 were £958, < 21, of which £861,964 more clearly if the resulting product is shared between.60 . among the members of or 70 persons, every one of 'whom is well known to him, was distributed as dividends 7 than he can if it is thrown into the common stock of the society, and £18,555 w as paid away as interest to non20,000 people. The weakening of the motives of self- members. There can be no doubt that co-operation was interest which is inherent in communism is reduced to. a to a great extent originated in England by communists. minimum in small communities, but it would act with It is an outcome of the communistic movement, for it was fatal results to industrial activity if there should ever be in the first instance mainly promoted by social reformeis an attempt to make communism universal. For, much as who had proved by many failures the futility of communism the present system falls short of making the most of the as an engine of social regeneration. Notwithstanding its great engine of self-interest among those who merely, work origin, there is, however, no movement more distinctly .nonfor wages, there is no such failure among the other indus- communistic than co-operation. It strengthens the principles trial classes. Capitalists, landowners, inventors, Cornish of capital and private property by making every co-operator tributers, and members of co-operative productive societies a capitalist, and thus personally interesting him m the and copartnerships are all brought under the stimulating maintenance of the present economic condition of society.. When the really great results of co-operation in this influence of self-interest, and thus devote themselves to country are compared with the very limited success , ot industrial projects with a zeal completely and necessarily unknown among those who work for wages or those who nearly a century of communism in America, the conclusion are members of communistic societies. It is the special is inevitable that co-operation is much more effectual than feature of co-operation that it brings the motive of self- communism in producing a radical improvement m the interest into activity among manual labourers. Without condition and status of labour, that it is easier to graft upon attempting, as communism does, to overthrow all existing existing institutions, and that its working is unaccompanie 6 economic institutions, it takes these as they are, and men by the despotism, the crushing of individuality, anc and women as they aire, and suggests a means by which discouragement of self-help, which are the admitted dangeis the labourer, no less than the capitalist, can be stimulated and drawbacks of communism. The state banks anc^ workshops of M. Louis Blanc’s economic dreams by direct self-interest to throw some energy and enthusiasm national were realized in 1848-50 in a manner that must have cause. into his work. We referred above to the melancholy picture drawn by the severest disappointment to their philanthropic aut or, Karl Marx, Louis Blanc and others of the condition of failure and discredit were their only practical results, t

C 0 M— c 0 M 219 Social Democrats of Germany, with Lassalle at their head, compares with that of the well-to-do small farmer in England have left nothing tangible which can be said to have or America. Tim fa m email feat; ami they have”also advanced their cause. The Schulze-Delitzsch credit banks, pioved the possibility of putting communism into a which they assailed as an improved form of capitalism, have piactical form, at any rate on a small scale, and under done and are doing more for labour in Germany than the exceptionally favourable economic conditions. But it is whole Social Democratic party has ever done, impossible to doubt that their principal value to the wrorld of In France the names of Saint Simon, Fourier, Hazard has been in illustrating the limitations and drawbacks of - and Enfantiu suggest chiefly a series of tragic failures. In the system. As long as communism remained an unexEngland Owen's name recalls the brief existence of Harmony plored region given over to the dreamers of dreams and Hall and Orbiston, the establishment of the Labour the seers of visions, it was impossible to prove that it did Exchange and the issue of Labour Notes, and a number of not possess all the marvellous perfection they fondly other schemes which raised great hopes and expectations attributed to it. The American societies offer a life which that were doomed to a speedy disappointment. In is confessedly attractive only to those whose original circumAmerica the success of communism, such as it is, is hardly stances are exceptionally unfortunate; to these communism more encouraging than its failure in Europe. The mea- can give, together with a congenial religious atmosphere, sure of material prosperity achieved is not very con- material prosperity of a humble type, accompanied by the siderable, bearing in mind the length of time most of the sacrifice of individuality, liberty, privacy, and intellectual societies have existed and the ease and cheapness with development. It can hardly be denied that these experiwhich unoccupied land can be obtained in ‘ the United ments prove that, even were communism on a large scale States. Mr Nordhoff estimates the capitalized wealth of practically possible, it could never satisfy the aspirations of the 72 American communes at twelve millions of dollars, or those who look for a time when increased material prosperity about £2,400,000 sterling. They own between 150,000 among the working-classes shall be accompanied by a and 180,000 acres of land, or on an average about 36 acres corresponding increase of intellectual activity, political a head—a comparatively small holding for America. The responsibility, and personal independence. The old form 72 communes are spread over 13 States; they possess of society would seem to be more favourable than comsome of the most fertile land in the world; one of the munism to the growth of these qualities; and it is Shaker villages owns a magnificent estate of 4500 acres probable that the American experiments may help to lying in the famous Miami bottom, a soil much of which is establish the conviction among economic revolutionists that so fertile that after sixty years of cropping it will still more can be accomplished by grafting new institutions, yield from 60 to /0 bushels of corn to the acre without such as co-operation, on the old plant of private property manuring. The material condition of the inhabitants of than can be achieved by rooting it up altogether, and the communistic villages compares favourably, no doubt, planting the seedling of communism in its stead. with that of the German peasants by whom the majority See Reybaud, Zcs lieformateurs Modernes; Nordhoff Commuof American communes were originally started ; but the nistic Societies of the United States; Rev. M. Kaufmann, Socialism; J monotony, the personal submission, the impossibility of r;°jus FJanc> L Organisation du Travail; A. J. Booth, Life of Owen, Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism, and art. “Charles privacy or temporary seclusion, the absence of anything Robert Fourier” in Fortnightly Review, vol. xii., new series. See also the like intellectual activity in these societies, would render the articles I ouiuer, Owen, and Saint Simon. (m. G. F.) life well-nigh unbearable to people who had been previously COMO, a city of Italy, capital of the province of its own accustomed to a higher standard of happiness than that at name, at the south-west corner of the Lake of Como, in a present within. the reach of the ordinary day-labourer. beautiful valley surrounded by richly-clad mountains It Many communistic experiments in America have been lies in 45° 48' 26” N. lat. and 9° 4' 45” E. long., and is unsuccessful. Mr J. H. Noyes, in his book on “ American distant. twenty-eight miles by rail from Milan. °The city socialisms,” gives a short history of no fewer than fortyis still surrounded by its ancient walls and towers; seven of these failures.. Comparing the history of those proper but two pretty extensive suburbs, known as Vico and St societies which have died a natural death with that of Agostino, have grown up outside—the former containing a those which still continue to exist, it is found that the large number of fine villas, and the latter devoted specially successful societies had no advantage either in the wealth to manufacturing purposes. The principal buildings are ot their members or the intellectual ability of their leaders. Most of the successful societies began poor ; most of the the cathedral, the broletto or town hall, the churches of St Fedele and St Abondio, the Palazzo Giovio, with its library unsuccessful societies began with what were believed to be and collection of antiquities, the Gallio College, and the sumcient means to achieve success. Many of the unsuc- theatre. The cathedral, erected by the voluntary contribucesstul societies were founded by high-minded, highlytions of the citizens, is a structure of various dates and cultivated men and. women, and their members were styles of architecture,—the earliest portions being by istmguished for their education and intellectual attainments. From these facts and with ample means through Lorenzo de Spaziof the end of the 14th century, while the persona experience for forming a correct opinion, Mr cupola is the work of Guvara, an architect of the first half of the 18th. The most interesting, perhaps, of or o draws the conclusion that in a communistic the monuments which it preserves, is that of Benedetto experiment success depends upon a feeling among all the Giovio, an early historian of the city. The broletto dates i™1. . °j-. ^le unbearableness of the circumstances ” in from 1215, and is built of alternate courses of black and were ori inall r wfrom lves g y cast. They must want, have white marble; but of still greater value as an artistic effort suttered wrong and oppression, as well as from ore communism can appear as a welcome change in their is the church of St Abondio, a small but exquisite structure of the 11th century, built, it would seem, in the lower e 0 f, ^e’ Hence the poorer and more narrow and portions of Roman remains, and remarkable for an “ apse n mnn,S 6 the (?01lditiori of the People who start a com- of extraordinary height and richness rising between two tall leadpr^frv ^Peruucnt the more likely is it under judicious campaniles.” There are extensive factories in Como for d anv rbcm S^mCC®® : People are easily satisfied when almost the spinning and weaving of silk; it also manufactures bemn^ F, .thf1r llves must be for the better. It would woollens, cotton, and soap; and there are iron-works in the AmpnV n esirable to detract from the achievement of the immediate vicinity. To its position on the lake and its 8 raisin the oorest and miserablpnoTTF “ost command of the Spliigen and St Gotthard lines of comp asants to a ^ degree ofSmaterialP prosperity, which munication, it is indebted for a considerable trade by way

220

c 0 M —0 0 M

lake are studded with ancient castles, flourishing hamlets, of transit and distribution. About a mile to the south of and the villas of wealthy proprietors. On the eastern side the town is the tower of Baradello, famous as the place the principal places are Colico-piano, Dervio, Bellano, where the Torriani of Milan were confined in cages by the Varenna, Mandello, and Lecco; and along the western Visconti party, over whom they had previously tyrannized. Gravedona, Bongo, Menaggio, Cadenabbia, Argegno, The population of Como is 24,350. . » Como is readily identified with the ancient Comum a city o Moltrasio, and Cernobbio. Bellaggio, as already mentioned, Gallic origin, situated within the territory of the Galli Insuhres. is situated at the promontory where the lake bifurcates Though from an early period a flourishing and important centre, it southwards. The Villa Vigorni, near Menaggio, formerly never played a very conspicuous part in ancient history. Soon after the property of Mylius of Frankfort, contains sculptures the beginning of the 2d century B.c., the people of Comum join d of Thorwaldsen, Marchesi, and Argenti; the Villa Giulia, the Iniubres in an attack on the Romans; but they were defeated near Bellaggio, belongs to the king of the Belgians; the and their city fell into the hands of the conquerors, and became a Roman colony. The first colonists, however, were unable to mam- Villa Carlotta or Sommariva, near Cadenabbia, took its Sn aemSs against the inroads of Etetian Ga„l, i and name from Charlotte of Prussia, wife of the duke of Saxeadditional settlers were sent down from time to time. Julius Meiningen; the Villa d’Este, near Cernobbio, was at one cLsar in particular, introduced 5000, of whom a tenth were Greeks; and [he colony assumed for a short time the name of Novum time the residence of Queen Caroline of England. The Comum On the accession of Csesar to supreme power, Comum Villa Raimondi or Odescalchi, is the largest of all. obtained the complete right of citizenship ; but though it was at further details, besides the publications already referred to, this time at the height of its prosperity, 1\n®ye^te°^(1X ^ R seeFor Como e il suo lago (last edition, 1872) ; Leonhardi, than a municipal town. In the early part of tbe IRudie Ages^ it Der Cantu, Comersee und seine Umgebungen, Leipsic, 1862 ; P. A. Curti, formed for a time, like many of the towns of Italy, an mdepena 11 lago Como e il pian d’Erba, 1872 ; and an article by John ent repubfic ; but’after a considerable struggle ^ ^ ^nit to Ball in di the eighth volume of the Geol. Mag. Milan Its deliverance was effected m 1158 by lieaeiicK i. Germany, to whom its citizens had appealed ; but m the 15th cenCOMONFORT, Ignacio (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier turv it again succumbed before the Milanese ucbles In 1520 it was and politician, who, after occupying a variety of civil and captured by Charles V. During the Roman period the Pliny family wereconnected with the city ; and in more modern times it numbers military posts, was in Becember 1855 made provisional among8 its celebrities Paulus Jovius, Piazzi the astronomer, and president by Alvarez, and from Becember 1857 was fora Volta the electrician. See Cantu, Storm di Como, 1829 , and few weeks constitutional president, feee Mexico. Monti, Storia di Como, 1829. _ , COMORES or Comoro Islands, a group in the MozamCOMO Lake of, or, in Italian, Lago di Como, known to bique Channel, between Madagascar and Cape Delgado, the Romans as Lams Larins, is, from the beauty of its on the east coast of Africa, discovered by Houtman in 1598, scenery and the mildness of its climate, one of the most and consisting of the four main islands of Angaziya, celebrated of all the Italian lakes. It is situated m the Angazecha, or Great Comoro, Anzuan or Johanna, Mohilla, province of Como, in that part of the country which and Mayotta, and a considerable number of diminutive belonged to the kingdom of Lombardy; and it occupies islets. 1. Comoro, the largest, has a length of about the bottom of a great valley, which, stretching so^ from thirty-five miles, with a width of about twelve, and a the neighbourhood of Chiavenna at the foot of the Splugen, population of 35,000. Near its southern extremity it breaks up at Bellaggio into two branches which run respec- rises into a fine dome-shaped mountain, which has a tively south-east and south-west. The lake is thus dmded height of upwards of 8500 feet, and is visible for more into three basins, of which the south-western is known than 100 miles. Eruptions are recorded for the years 1830, more particularly, as the Lago di Como, and the south- 1855, and 1858 ; and traces of the last of these commotions eastern as the Lago di Lecco. The northern part of the are still very distinct. The island is politically divided original basin has been silted up by the debris brought into various petty principalities, and maintains its own down from the valleys of San Giacomo and Bregaglia by petty feuds. The natives are tall of stature and wellthe River Mera; and not only has the Adda, which enters formed, and appear to be mainly of Arabic descent, with a from the east, filled up the branch that in all probability mixture of Malagasy blood. The chief towns are Marom, once extended up the Valtelline as far as Morbegno, but it Itzanda, and Mouchamouli; the first, situated at the head has also, by its delta, or cone of ejection, cut off from the of a bay in 11° 40' 44" S. lat., being the seat of the main body of the lake the part now known as the Lago di principal sultan in the island. 2. Johanna, next m size, Mezzola. Of the real form of the bed of the lake there rises in a succession of richly wooded heights till it was hardly any knowledge till 1865, when a survey was culminates in a central peak, upwards of 5000 feet above undertaken by Signor Gentilli and MM. Casella and the sea, in 12° 14' 17" S. lat. and 44° 27' 34" E long. Bernasconi. The results obtained were published by The whole island is under one sultan, who resides at ttie Gentilli in the second volume of the Memoirs of the town of Johanna on the north side. The natives are Society Ltaliana di Scienze Naturali, and by his coadjutors hospitable to foreigners, and especially to Englishmen. in a separate pamphlet entitled Genni Orografici sul Lago Domestic slavery exists, but of a very mild description. di Como. It appears that the greatest depth is 1341 feet, The capital, which is sometimes called Moussamondou, is which was registered in a section of the Lago di Como from substantially built of stone, surrounded, by a wall, and Torrigia to Como. From the northern extremity of the commanded" by a dilapidated citadel ; it is the sea o an lake the basin gradually grows deeper as we advance English consul, and carries on a considerable trade in southwards, till it shallows towards the promontory of ships with provisions. There is a small jut sale BellagAo ; in the south-western branch it grows rapidly supplying deeper° ao-ain, while in the south-eastern it shallows to 390 anchorage at Pomony, where coal is kept for H.i . s 1 in the Mozambique Channel. The population amounts t or 290 feet This difference of the two branches is easily about 12,000. 3. Mayotta, about 21 miles long by b or i explained by the fact that the_ Lago di Como is a closed miles in breadth, is surrounded by an extensive and basin except at its junction with the main body of the gerous coral-reef. The principal heights on its extreme y lake, and throughout a coast line of upwards ol forty miles irregular surface are Mavegani Mountain, which rises in receives only two unimportant torrents, while the Lago di peaks to a maximum of 2164 feet, and Uchongin,whicn Lecco is in the direct course of the Adda, which makes its only falls below it by about 60 feet. The island be g exit by the southern extremity. The total length of the to the French since 1843, and they have established a lake, from Como to its northern extremity, is about thirty small military and naval colony on the contiguous me miles, and its greatest width, between Menaggio and Zaudzi, which lies within the reef in 12° 46 4b 8. Varenna, about two miles and a half. 1 he shores of the

JJ

c 0 M—C 0 M

221 regarded at first with great disfavour by the Legislature In 1719 was passed the Bubble Act (6 Geo. I. c. 18)’ The first part of the Act, reciting the utility of the practice of assuring ships and lending money on bottomry, empowers the king to create by charter two corporations to deal in such ventures; and all assuring of ships, or lending of money on bottomry by any other corporation, partnership or society, is made illegal. Private persons, acting for themselves, may still continue to underwrite policies'5 and lend money. The Act then recites the growth of dangerous and mischievous undertakings and projects, wherein the undertakers and subscribers have presumed to act as if they were corporate bodies, and have pretended to make their shares transferable, and enacts that “ all and every the undertakings and attempts described as aforesaid, and all other public undertakings and attempts tending to the common grievance, prejudice, and inconvenience of his Majesty’s subjects, or great numbers of them, in their trade, commerce, or other lawful affairs; and all public subscriptions, receipts, payments, assignments, transfers, pretended assignments and transfers; and all other matters and things whatsoever, for furthering, countenancing, or proceeding in any such undertaking or attempt; and more particularly, the acting or presuming to act as a corporate body or bodies, the raising or pretending to raise transferable stock or stocks, the transferring or pretending to transfer or assign any share or shares in such stock or stocks, without legal authority, either by Act of Parliament or by any charter from the Crown, to warrant such acting as a body corporate, or to raise such transferable stock or stocks, or to transfer shares therein ; and all acting, or pretending to act, under any charter formerly granted from the Crown for particular or special purposes therein expressed, by persons who do or shall use, or endeavour to use, the same charters for raising a capital stock, or for making transfers or assignments, or pretended transfers or assignments, of such stock, not intended or designed by such charter to be raised or transferred; and all acting or pretending to act under any obsolete charter, become void by non-user or abuser, or for want of making lawful elections which were necessary to continue the corporations thereby intended, shall (as to all or any such acts, matters, and things, as shall be acted, done, attempted, endeavoured, or proceeded upon after the said 24th day of June 1720) for ever be deemed to be illegal or void, and shall not be practised, or in wise put in execution.” And all such undertakings are to be deemed public nuisances. Although wholly powerless to prevent the growth of joint-stock companies, the Bubble Act was not repealed till 1825. The Bubble Act is supposed to have been passed in the interest of the famous South Sea Company. By 9 Anne c. 21 the Crown was empowered to incorporate the persons interested in the public debt, with certain privileges of tiade on the South Seas. By 6 Geo. I. c. 4 the company thus created was authorized to increase its stock. The supposed advantages of the company turned out to be a delusion,. In the meantime numberless other speculations of a similar character were started, and in many cases pretended to act under charters which were either obsolete or insufficient for the purpose. The South Sea Company prosecuted these adventurers under the Bubble Act, but while it succeeded in exposing their real character it also helped thereby to weaken public confidence in its own. For a period of nearly ninety years the Bubble Act remained inoperative, but at the end of that period several cases under it were brought into court (Collyer On Partnership). At the same time, by 6 Geo. IV. c. 91 the Crown wras enabled to grant charters of incorporation under which members might be made responsible for the corporation’s debts. In 1834 the Crown was empowered to grant to com-

and 45° 20' 14" E. long. There are substantial Government buildings and store-houses; the garrison numbers about 100 soldiers; and a number of sugar estates have been formed, especially on the eastern side of the island. Before the French acquisition Mayotta was subject to Dansulu, king of the Sacalavas, who had been expelled from the north-west coast of Madagascar by the conquests of Radama, king of the Ovahs. Population, 12,000. 4. Mohilla, the smallest, is 15 miles in length, and 7 or 8 miles at its maximum breadth, with a population of 6000. Unlike the other three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a central ridge about 1900 feet in height. It is governed by an independent sovereign resident at Douany, a walled town close to the .— coast,, — in 12° 17'S. lat. and 43° 46' ^ E. The most important town besides the capital is Numa-Choa. All the islands possess a very fertile soil; they produce cocoa-nuts, rice, maize, sweet-potatoes, yams, sugar, coffee cotton, indigo, and various tropical fruits. A large number of cattle and sheep, the former similar to the small species at Aden, are reared by the natives; turtle is caught in abundance along the coasts, and forms an article of export, and the fauna is comparatively rich for the size of the area. Population of the group, 65,000. See T. S. Leigh, “Mayotta and the Comoro Islands,” in Jour Roy. Geog. Soc., 1849 ; De Horsey, “On.the Comoro Islands ” in Jour. Roy. Geog. Roc., 1864. COMPANY is one of the many words used to denote the association of individuals in the pursuit of some common purpose. Partnership, union, society, club, corporation, and company, all have this shade of meaning in common although they differ from each other in many particulars. The suggested derivation of the word company (from cu7n panis) may be compared with the original meaning of gild. A gdd was a feast, and the first associations named gilds, like the first associations named companies, had for their object the furtherance of. a common entertainment. Corporation unlike the other words of similar meaning, has in law a very definite signification. It applies only to an association winch has been endowed with a fictitious personality, enabhng it to sue and be sued, to acquire rights and incur obligations, without the individual members thereof bein" implicated. Company, on the other hand, may be used generally to describe almost any kind of association. In practice, however, it is confined to two classes of associalons. he first are those joint-stock companies whose vast proportions and wide ramifications are among the most striking features of modern industrial life. The other are ie ivery or city companies, which still retain the name and oLir81^!^116 iions3 ° 6 ^

the

y.

have lon

g abandoned the A&es- See Coepora-

commfni^T^ ^oy^Pan^- Commercial companies are a moTlaw ? 7 t0 Creati °n in English law- The comreco mzed no tions excenWbn S privileged associaetatuHor prescrteiln AretrCOrf'0ra— by °r ptlori A11 what thpir 7, , other associations, no matter 1 purpose were mere individuals U A t^rT " ’ assemblages of partner !in \ *radinS association was at the best only a betwe nerskios f larSe partnerships and small partn le al differen the membt/® respo ° 31? e Por oe whatever. Each of tion and all 41^ £ hi all the debts of the associahad to uni defenClv CeSS f aW te in instituting or lncon disabilities musM° •° ‘ The venience of such witIl the On the other haad if T™™** growth of trade, 1 a charter and cm ’ i i6 .so?lety applied to the Crown for a corporation members’were rendered6^ becama ’ and the onsib e was wanted for t i66(1 lrres What a Ps efc i tor its debts. be sued like a corn °m y which might sue and 10n any hable Joint-stock companies were personally liablp for fn pits .ara^debts. ’ while its members remained

222

COMPANY

pauies by letters patent, without incorporation, the privilege seal, and power to hold lands, but with liability on the part of suing and being sued by a public officer’. When a charter of members to contribute to the assets of the company in could not be obtained, companies might be incorporated, or the manner prescribed by the Act. Companies, not empowered to plead by public officers, under special Acts intended for the pursuit of gain, may not hold more than of Parliament. For such corporate or quasi-corporate 2 acres of land without a licence from the Board of Trade. privileges application had to be made either to the Crown or Part II. deals with the distribution of capital and liabilities Parliament. In 1826 banking companies were allowed, to of members of companies and associations under this Act. obtain the privilege of suing by public officer on complying When a company is wound up, every present and past with certain rules. In 1844, all companies (with some member shall be liable to contribute to the assets of the exceptions) were enabled to obtain a certificate of incoipoia- company, with the following (among other) qualification without applying for a charter. or a special Act. tions :—No past member shall be liable, if he has ceased to Banking companies, however, were required.to apply to the be a member for a year before the winding-up, nor shall he Crown for a charter. Members of companies thus created be liable for any debt contracted by the company after he were still responsible, to the whole extent of their fortune, for has ceased to be a member, nor unless present members the debts of the companies. In 1855 limited liability are unable to satisfy the contributions required. Part HI. was introduced by 18 and 19 Yict. c. 133, shareholders contains provisions for the protection of creditors and of being made responsible to the extent only of the amount members. Part IY. treats of the winding-up of companies, of their shares. Companies with this privilege must use which may be either by the court or voluntary. A company the word “ limited ” after their names, ffiie dissolution and may be wound up by the court (i.e., the Court of Chancery winding-up of insolvent companies remained to be simplified, in England and Ireland, and Court of Session in Scotland) and from 1846 to 1850 various measures were introduced, in the following cases, viz., when a special resolution of the enabling different classes of companies to be wound up, with- company has been passed requiring it; when the company out the usual process by bill to which the shareholders, as does not begin business within a year from its incorporation, partners, necessarily had to appear. The legislative history or suspends business for a year ; when the members are of companies, thus briefly traced, exhibits their development reduced to less than seven ; when it is unable to pay its out of simple partnerships in a not uninstructive manner. debts ; and when the court thinks it ought to be wound up. Partnerships in the eye of the law, they are looked upon Where a voluntary winding-up has been begun, the court by the Legislature as false pretenders to the character of may order it to be continued, subject to the supervision of corporations; they are at first denounced as nuisances, then the court. Part Y. constitutes a registration office. Part tolerated, and gradually relieved one by one from those YI. applies the Act to companies registered under the legal incidents of partnership which impede their functions various Joint-Stock Companies Acts. Part YII. defines the in the organization of commerce. In 1862 a consolidation companies “ authorized to register under this Act.” Part of the numerous Acts relating to companies was effected by VIII. applies the Act to unregistered companies. Part IX. the Act for the incorporation, regulation, and winding-up of contains a repealing clause and some temporary provisions. trading companies and other associations, which gave to After five years’ experience of the original Act an amending the Court of Chancery exclusive jurisdiction in winding-up. Act was published in 1867, and the two are to be construed The following are a few of the chief provisions of this together. The Companies Act 1867 contains provisions important Act. It prohibits the formation of any company, facilitating changes in the constitution of companies. A association, or partnership, of more than ten persons for limited company may have directors 'with unlimited the business of banking, and of more than twenty persons liability. A company limited by shares may under for any business having for its object the acquisition, of certain conditions reduce its capital, or divide its capital gain, unless it is registered under this Act. Companies, or part thereof into shares of smaller amount than is fixed formed by Act of Parliament or letters patent, or engaged by the memorandum of association. Associations not in mining within the jurisdiction of the stannaries, are intended for gain may have the privileges of limited liability exceptions. Or, as it may be otherwise stated, all associa- without being compelled to use the word “limited'’ after tions for the acquisition of gain, other than those last their names. A company may have some shares fully paid mentioned, and excluding banking partnerships of fewer and others not. A limited company may issue warrants than ten, or other trading societies of fewer than twenty for shares fully paid up, in name of bearer. There are members, will be illegal unless registered under this Act. several sections dealing with contracts made on behalf of Any seven or more persons, joining together for the a company, and one important section, the 38th, enacts pursuit of any lawful object, may form an incorporated that any prospectus not specifying such contracts shall be company by subscribing a memorandum of association and deemed fraudulent on the part of the promoters, &c., registering. The liability of members may be unlimited, issuing the same, as regards any person taking shares in or it may be limited to the amount unpaid of the nominal the company on the faith of such prospectus. This section value of their shares, or to sums guaranteed. The memor- was drawn to meet the practice of concealing from investors andum of association must contain particulars as to the contracts which would be binding on the intended company name, object, &c., of the proposed company ; and companies when formed, and its somewhat ambiguous phraseology has limited by share or guarantee must use the word “ limited ” been the subject of much discussion in the law courts. after their names. Companies limited by shares may, See, for example, in re Coal Economizing Gas Companj— and other companies, whether limited by guarantee . or Lover’s Case, Law Reports 1, Chancery Division 182. The objects of certain trading companies, as, for example, unlimited, must also send articles of association, containing regulations for the management of the company. The railways, involve an interference with the rights of piiyate Act contains in a schedule a table of regulations which persons, which requires the direct authority of the Legislamay be adopted in such companies, and in the case of ture. Such undertakings are therefore authorized y companies limited by shares will be held to apply, unless special Acts of Parliament, which begin as private hi s expressly modified or excluded by the articles. The before one or other of the two Houses, and pass throng memorandum and articles of association are sent to the both, and receive the assent of the sovereign in the samo registrar, who issues a certificate of incorporation, and the manner as public bills (see Bill). The principles on wbic subscribers and persons joining them thereupon become a state interference with private rights is thus gran e corporate body with perpetual succession, and a common have so far been ascertained and fixed by the practice o

Ji

COMPANY 223 miny parliaments, that the procedure in private bills has elect after dinner two persons of the company so assembledtended to assimilate itself more and more to an ordinary- Eoger Oseltyn and Lawrence de Hallwell—as their first litigation. The committees are tribunals acknowledging governors or wardens, appointing, at the same time, in certain rules of policy, and hearing evidence from witnesses conform, y with the pious custom of the age. a priest or and arguments from professional advocates. An important chaplain to celebrate divine offices for their souls ” /Heath’s point in the history of this kind of legislation is marked ‘‘Account of the Grocers’ Company,’’ quoted il fit’s by the three Consolidation Acts of 1845 (8 and 9 Viet.) Twelve Great Livery Companies, vol. i p 43) q,],,, The Companies Clauses Consolidation Act consolidates religions observances and the common feasta were sundry provisions relating to the constitution and manage- characteristic features of those institutions. They were ment of joint-stock companies, usually introduced into Acts therefore not merely trade unions in the current meaniii" of Parliament authorizing the execution of undertakings ot that, phrase, but may rather be described as forms ol of a public nature by such companies. The Lands Clauses industrial self-government, the basis of union beino- the Consolidation Act applies to undertakings authorized by membership of a common trade, and the authority of the special Act to take or purchase land. The Railways society extending to the general welfare, spiritual and Clauses Consolidation Act applies to Acts authorizing the temporal, of its members. It must be remembered that construction of railways. The clauses of the Consolidation my flourished at a time when the separate interests of Acts are to be taken as incorporated in a special Act of the master and servant had not yet been created; and indeed, class in question, unless they are expressly varied or when that fundamental division of interests arose, the excepted thereby. A further development of the same gradually lost their functions in the regulation tendency may be observed in proposals which have been companies of industry. The fact that the craftsmen were a made from time to time to hand over the authority of order will account for the wide authority Parliament, in relation to such companies, to a permanent homogeneous c aimed by their societies, and the important public powers tribunal. Livery Companies. —-These societies, now chiefly remark- winch were conceded to them. Their regulations, says Herbert, chiefly regarded the qualifications of members, able as a feature in the municipal organization of London keeping trade secrets, the regulations of apprenticebelong to a class of institutions which at one time were sinp andofoftheir the company’s peculiar concerns, the domestic universally prevalent in Europe. In most other countries management of the fraternity and its funds, and the they have disappeared; in England, while their functions have wholly changed, the organization remains. The uniting together of it in brotherly love and affection. To origin of the city companies is to be found in the craft^ilds these may be added, as forming a prominent feature in all of the_ Middle Ages. The absence of a strong central the ancient communities, the regulation of their reliHous authority, such as we are now accustomed to, doubtless and other ceremonies.” In the regulation of trade'they accounts for the tendency to confederation in thebe^innino- of possessed extensive powers. They required every one modern societies. Artificial groups, formed in imitation of earning on the trade to join the company. In the 37th the family discharged the duties which the family was no o _ Edward III in answer to a remonstrance against the longer able, and which the state was not yet able to mischief caused by “ the merchants called grocers who undertake. The inhabitants of towns were forced ’ by engrossed all manner of merchandize vendable, and who external pressure into the societies known as gild- suddenly raised the prices of such merchandize within ie realm, it was enacted “ that all artificers and people of merchants, which in course of time monopolized the municipal government, became exclusive, and so caused the nySSrieS S lad eacl1 cb°ose bis own mystery before next growth of similar societies among their excluded citizens, Candlemas, and that, having so chosen it, he shall henceihe crattgilds were such societies, composed of handicrafts- forth use no other.” Dr Brentano {On Gilds) holds that it m, which entered upon a severe struggle for power with is wrong to represent such regulations as monopolistic, inasmuch as there was no question whatever of a monopoly in th. earlier gdds and finaily defeated them. The circum- that time nor until the degeneration of the craftgilds into reSU tS the stru le ar °[ SS e stated to have been limited corporations of capitalists. In the regulation of 0“ Sa Ch acteria En lan “\ T f § d and on the Con- trade the right of search was an important instrument, the Vi Ct0ry f tlie crafts is mr e'd bv ^180nd?amatlCe , ° decisively ihe wardens of the grocers are to “assayenvzeights,powders, re uke l eV ° v °[ tlle time of Edward II., which confeccions, platers, oyntments, and all other things belongmvsterv ®ver y cltlzen to be a member of some trade or ing to the same crafte.” The goldsmiths had the assay of in which11! bVUOt iei; orduiance ia the 49th of Edw. metals, the fishmongers the oversight of fish, the vintoffiir .tbT erred1the rigllfc 0f electlon of corporate ners of the tasting of wine, &c. The companies enforced embe rS f Parliament their regulations on their members by force. Many of renres-nLtiv J ° com aaie3 ) from the wardand for nnnvl eaiS, le dmg - Henceforward, theii ordinances looked to the domestic affairs and private om aniesP municipal1 nZ/ P of P London. engrossed political and conduct of the members. The grocers ordain “ that no munidpa power m +u the city man of the fraternite take his neyghbor’s house y1 is of mitieS aS3Umed eneral ofcorpoSn?, the ih rei n of S ly the character the sunie fraternite, or enhaunce the rent against the will hirl kf , S Edward III. Many of them of the foresaid neyghbor.” Perjury is to be punished by exerciseroiiRon1'6^11^01’8’ but their Privileges, hitherto the wardens and society with such correction as that other Were now Zmfi su^erance and by payment of their terms, men of the fellowship may be warned thereby. Members himself becam^T^ \ 1SttfS patent Edward III. reduced to poverty by adventures on the sea, increased price Armourers" or Mp ime?br,8r ,°f t5ie Maternity of Linen of goods, borrowing and pledging, or any other misfortune, persons fo’llowHlaylors’ and otber distinguished are to be assisted “ out of the common money, according le # tiuiu forward iurwara to his situation, if he could not do without.” tbey are caUrfliy er3 examPit— -. From this time assuming. j- .. T y eompanies, “from now ?ene srenemllv Following what appears to be the natural law of their assuming a„ distbcilv^dr^r "livery’^Tbr^ /af1,ly Glrocers’Commn^ic ri las j or livery. Ibe origin of the being, the companies gradually lost their industrial characcarrying on tlip^b ! described:—“Twenty-two persons, ter. The course of decay would seem to have been the CheVde 4e AW™ Soper’s Lane, following. The capitalists gradually assumed the lead in of Il,ry.s; ag°t j[*° eAet tr‘S,;t,1l,:'r.t0 a dinner, at the Abbot the various societies, and the richer members engrossed the Cll,nlfl t their formation into a T’ r" society ' tothewfiting. particulars of power, and the companies tended to become hereditary and rmation into trading They exclusive. Persons might be members who had nothing to

224

COMPANY

da with the craft, and the rise of great capitalists and the believed by Herbert to be the first instance of a pecuniary development of competition in trade made the regulation grant to the Crown, but the practice rapidly gained ground. of industry by means of companies no longer possible. 1 or The confiscation of ecclesiastical property at the time of Reformation affected many of the trusts of the coman account of the “ degeneration of craftgilds ” a general the ; and they were compelled to make returns of their reference may be made to Brentano On Gilds, c. iv. The panies property devoted to religious uses, and to pay over the rents usurpation of power on the part of the richer members was to the Crown. course of time the taxation of the comnot always effected without opposition. Brentano refers to panies became “aInregular source of supply to Government.” a pamphlet on the Clothworkers’ Company, published in The historians of the city have for the most part 1619, which asserts that “the commonalty” in the old described these as unjust and tyrannical exactions, but, charters meant, not the whole gild, but only the masters, looking at the representative and municipal character wardens, and assistants. Herbert records a most interesting of the companies and the purposes to which their contridispute in the Goldsmiths’ Company in 1529. The mode of butions were applied, we may regard them as a rough but electing officers, and the system of management general y, not unfair mode of taxation. The Government, when was challenged by three members who called themselves money was wanted for public works, informed the lord “ artificers, poor men of the craft of goldsmiths. Ihe mayor, who apportioned the sums required among the company, or rather the wardens, the assistants, and various societies, and issued precepts for its payment. livery, presented a petition to the lord mayor, which was Contributions towards setting the poor to work, erecting answered by the discontented craftsmen. The dispute was the Royal Exchange, cleansing the city ditch, discovering carried into the Court of Chancery and the Star Chamber. new countries, furnishing military and naval armaments, The artificers accused the company of subverting then grants, misappropriating the funds, and changing the con- for men, arms, and ammuniton for the defence of the city, stitution of the society, and they complain of this being are among what Herbert calls the sponging expedients of Government. The Crown occasionally interfered in a done by the usurpation of persons who “ were but merchant the more unjustifiable manner with the companies in the goldsmiths, and had but little knowledge in the science. ” of their patronage. The Stuarts made strenuous In 1531 the three complainants were summarily expelled exercise efforts to get the control of the companies. Terrified by the from the company, and then the dispute seems tg have proceedings in the quo wctTvcinto case, most of the comended. In the last stage of the companies the members have ceased to have any connection with the trades, and in panies surrendered their charters to the Crown, but such most cases their regulative functions have disappeared. The surrenders were annulled by the Act of 2 V illiam and Mary one characteristic which has clung to them throughout is reversing the judgment in quo wuTVunto against the city. now in existence are the following:— that of owners of property and managers of charitable The livery companiesFelt Needlemakers. Makers. trusts. The connection between the companies and the Apothecaries. Painter Stainers. Armourers and Bra- Fishmongers. municipality is shortly as follows. The ordinance Parish Clerks. Fletchers. ziers. Pattern Makers. Founders. of Edward II. required freemen of the city to be members Bakers. Framework Knitters. Pewterers. of one or other of the companies. By the ordinance of 49 Barbers. Plasterers. Fruiterers. Makers. Edw. III. the trading companies were to nominate the Basket Plumbers. Girdlers. Blacksmiths. Poulterers. members of common council, and the persons so nominated Bowyers. Glass-sellers. Saddlers. Glaziers. alone were to attend both at common councils and at elec- Brewers. Salters. Glovers. tions. An ordinance in 7 Richard II. restored the elections Broderers. Gold and Silver AVire Scriveners. of common councilman to the wards, but corporate officeis Butchers. Shipwrights. drawers. Carmen. Silkthrowsters. and representatives in Parliament were elected by a conven- Carpenters. Goldsmiths. Skinners. Grocers. tion summoned by the lord mayor from the nominees of Clockmakers. Spectacle Makers. Gunmakers. the companies. An Act of Common Council in i Edw. IV. Clothworkers. Stationers. appointed the election of mayor, sheriffs, &c., to be in the Coach and Coach- Haberdashers. Tallow Chandlers. Horners. harness Makers. common council, together with the masters and waidens Cooks. Tilers and BrickInnholders. layers. Ironmongers. of the companies By 15 Edw. IV. masters and wardens Coopers. Tinplate Workers. Joiners. were ordered to associate with themselves the honest men Cordwainers. Turners. Leathersellers. of their mysteries, and come in their best liveries to the Curriers. Upholsterers. Loriners. Cutlers. elections; that is to say, the franchise was restricted to Distillers. Makers of Playing Vintners, j Watermen. Cards. the “liverymen” of the companies. At this time the corpora- Drapers. Wax Chandlers. Masons. tion exercised supreme control over the companies, and the Dyers. Weavers. Mercers. companies were still genuine associations of the traders and Fan Makers. Wheelwrights. Merchant Taylors. Farriers. householders of the city. The delegation of the franchise Fellowship Porters. Musicians. Woolmen. to the liverymen was thus, in point of fact, the selection of The following are the twel ve great companies -Mercers, a superior class of householders to represent the rest. When the corporation lost its control over the companies, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, Skinners, and the members of the companies ceased to be traders and Merchant Taylors, Haberdashers, Salters, Ironmongers, householders, the liverymen were no longer a representative Vintners, Cloth-workers. The “Irish Society” was inclass, and some change in the system became necessary. corporated in the 11 James! as “the governor and assistants The Act 11 Geo. II. c. 18, and the Reform Acts of 1832 of the new plantation in Ulster, within the realm o and 18G7, reformed the representation in several particulars. Ireland.” The twelve companies contributed in equa The liverymen of the companies, being freemen, of the city, portions the sum of £60,000 for the new scheme, bywlncti have still, however, the exclusive power of electing the lord it was intended to settle a Protestant colony m the lan forfeited by the Irish rebels. The companies divided tne mayor, sheriffs, chamberlain, and other corporate officeis. one settlement into twelve nearly equal parts, assigning The contributions made by the companies to the public purposes of the state and the city are interesting points in each, but the separate estates are still held to be unc er their early history. Their wealth and their representative paramount jurisdiction of the Irish Society. The c ar character made them a most appropriate instrument for the of the society was revoked by the Court of Star Cha enforcement of irregular taxation. The loan of .£21,263, 6s. in the reign of Charles I, but a new one was granted ) 8d. to Henry VIII. for his wars in Scotland, in lo44, is Charles II., under which the society still acts.

c 0 M —C O M 225 Most of the companies administer charities of large but surface of the card is divided by radiating lines into 32 unascertained value. Many of them are governors of im- parts, each containing 11 15'; these constitute the 32 points portant schools, e.g., the Skinners have the Tonbridge or rhumbs; the half-points and quarters are subdivisionsTf Grammar School; the Mercers, St Paul’s School; the the same I he north pole is denoted on the card by a Merchant Taylors, the school bearing their name, &c. fleur-de-hs ; and the line which joins the north and south There is no exact information to be had as to the value of poles passes through the axis of the needle. The points these trusts, or the manner in which they are administered. are named according to their proximity to the four cardinal The History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies, by W. points ; for instance, the point mid-way between N and Herbert (London, 1837), may be referred to on this subject. AI.E. is called north-north-east, being nearer north than Admission to the companies is now subject to the pay- east, and is marked N.N.E ; the point mid-way between ment of considerable fees. For example, in the Merchant N. and N.N.E. is termed north by east, and is marked N Taylors the fees are—Upon taking up the freedom, by py E. The circumference of the card is sometimes divided patrimony or servitude, £1, 3s. 4d., by redemption, £84 ; into 360°. _ The divisions of the card are shown in the on admission to the livery, £80, 8s.; on election to the accompanying figure. The card is directed by the needle, Court of Assistants, £115, 10s. The hospitality of the companies is well-known. The advantages of being a member, still more of being a liveryman or assistant, of one of the rich companies are doubtless considerable. There are indications that the position of the city companies is likely to be for some time to come the subject of political discussion. It may be briefly said that they are beiim threatened on two sides— on one side by those who desire to see extensive reforms in the municipal organization of the metropolis; and on the other by those who wish to carry forward the process of inspection and revision of endowments, which has already overtaken the universities schools, and other charities. (e it) * COMPARATIVE ANATOMY is the term employed to express that branch of anatomy in which the construction, form, and structure of two or more animals are compared with each other, so as to bring out their features of similarity or dissimilarity. It is sometimes used, in contrast with the term human anatomy, to signify the anatomy of the lower animals, but this is an imperfect and inexact use of the term, as the anatomy of man may be made comparative when it is examined in comparison with that of animals. The study of comparative anatomy is of Fia. 1.—Compass Card. especial importance to the physiologist, the embryolomst which, with it, is pivoted on a vertical axis. With a little the veterinarian, and the zoologist. To the physiologist variation, the needle points nearly to the geographical because, from the comparison of the bodies of different north, and hence the mode of steering by the compass. animals with each other, modifications in the size, form, ' our or more parallel magnets, with like poles pointing in and structure of any particular organ can be traced, and like directions, may be combined to form the needle • and conclusions can be drawn on the importance of the function by phis arrangement the magnetic moment is increased for o the organ in the economy. Moreover, with a knowledge a given weight of steel. The needle is usually suspended of comparative anatomy, the physiologist can conduct on a central cap of ruby or agate, the point of suspension experiments on animals which have organs similar in being of a similar hard material. On the inside of the structure to those of man, and determine their function compass-box is a vertical line known as lubber’s point; and ore precisely than would be possible in the human body. since this and the pivot of the card are in the same plane l with the ship’s keel, the point on the circumference of the ° ian a animals knowledge of the tocomparative a anatomy °f the domestic is essential the study card opposite to lubber’s point shows the angle the ship’s course makes with the magnetic meridian. The compass anatmv^ff6d??’erentT°anim ^ ^^ogist, a knowledge of the is kept horizontal by the use of a gimbal, or ring moving tim nTn f als throws light on the significafreely on an axis, within which it swings on an axis at right narticuW n U?Ura Changes wllidl the body of any angles. In the azimuth compass the circumference of the develnnmp a1 oral passes through in the course of its card is divided into degrees and parts by a vernier, and is the eJlpr V, dodle zoologist, a knowledge not only of , s esSlT ^ bl°f ^ internal stracfcure of animals fitted up with sight-vanes to take amplitudes and azimuths, for the purpose of determining the variation of the compass clsSSn 0r?er ihat 11(3 ma^ frame a Precise system of by observation. The variation is applied to the magnetic 1 tbe resent worb tbe different otppi i* P anatomy of the course shown by the steering compass, and thus the true orders of fh a c.asses and some of the more important course with respect to the meridian becomes known. l klnsd m is aiTan ed heads W6 TT ° § under special The conditions that chiefly affect the use of the mariner’s underBml°f ^ Tphibia under Amphibia, of birds compass are those of the magnetic declination and deviation. under AnatomyTnl PP> 799 and 818 Apes, &c. See also The declination is the angle contained between the geoGOMpaS'm er, parts —the card ^Pari ^ s, consists of three principal graphical or true and the magnetic meridian ; or, as needl 0n its lower case. The ? surface, and the Barlowe defines it, the swerving of the pointing of the 6 18 endo sed n tbe binnacle The u’ . p compass-box, or magnetical needle in the horizon from the meridian line the instrument bT COmfiaSS *S Said to bave been aPPbed to there. The angle of declination varies according to 186 t lG card nvcdves whole plane of th^p ^ or compasses the locality, and must be ascertained at sea by means of the ll0nZ r beCaUSe tbe needle indicat 1 the whole cirClenf -n °variations of direction. The es aoie circle of possible According to Mr T. S. Davies, this may originally have been an ornamented cross. YI. — 29

226

COMPASS

in early Chinese records. The power of the loadstone to azimuth, compass. The discovery of the variation. of tained communicate polarity to iron is said to be for the first time declination was made by Stephen Burrowes when voyaging explicitly mentioned in a Chinese dictionary, finished in 121 a.d., between the north cape of Finmark and Yaigatch (Vay- where the loadstone is defined as “a stone with which an attraction be given to the needle.” The first mention of the use of tlie gates),and was afterwards determined by Gillebrand, pro- can compass for the purpose of navigation—an art that has apparently fessor of geometry at Gresham College. In 1683, in a retrograded rather than advanced among the Chinese—occurs in communication to the Royal Society {Phil. Trans., Juno the Chinese encyclopaedia, Boei-wen-yun-fou, in ■which it is stated 16, p. 214), Dr E. Halley shows that the irregularity that under the Tsin dynasty, or between 265 and 419 a.d., “there observed in the variations of the compass at sea is not due were ships directed to the south by the needle.”. The Chinese, Mr Davis informs us, once navigated as far as India, but their most to the attraction of the land, and comes to the conclusion distant voyages at present extend not further than Java and the that the whole globe of the earth is one great magnet, Malay Islands to the south [The Chinese, vol. iii. p. 14, London, having four magnetical poles or points of direction. . The 1844). According to an Arabic manuscript, a translation of which declination for any place is subject to secular variations. was published by Eusebius Kenaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in to the Persian Gulf and Eed Sea in the 9th century. Staunthus, at Paris in 1681, it was 2° 30 to the W., in I860 1 ships ton, in vol. i. of his Embassy to China (London, 1797), after referwas 18° 44' W. Halley, in a paper entitled “Account ot ring to the early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the Cause of the Change of the Variation of the Magnetical the magnet to point southwards, remarks (p. 445), “ The nature the cause of the qualities of the magnet have at all times been Needle ” {Phil. Trans., Oct. 19, 1692, pp. 663-578), and subjects of contemplation among the Chinese. The Chinese name points out, with other instances of secular variation, that for the compass is ting-nan-ching, or needle pointing to the south; between 1580 and 1692 the direction of the needle at and a distinguishing mark is fixed on the magnet’s southern pole, London changed from 11° 15' E. to 6° W., or more than as in European compasses upon the northern one.” . “ The sphere 17°, and demonstrates that the direction is in no place of Chinese navigation,” he tells us (p. 447), “is too limited to have experience and observation for forming any system of laws fixed or constant, though in some places it changes faster afforded supposed to govern the variation of the needle. . . . The Chinese than in others. Besides the secular, there are annual and had soon occasion to perceive how much more essential the perfection diurnal variations of small amount. The existence of the of the compass was to the superior navigators of Europe than, to latter was discovered by Mr Graham about 1/19. The themselves, as the commanders of the ‘Lion’ and ‘Hindostan,’trusting that instrument, stood out directly from the land into the sea.” deviation of the compass is the departure of the north and to The number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is south line from the magnetic meridian, owing to the twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole ; the form magnetism of the ship itself, or that induced in it by the also of the instrument they employ is different from that familiar to earth’s magnetic force. It was first observed during 1772- Europeans. The needle is peculiarly poised, with its point of susbelow its centre of gravity, and is exceedingly 74 by Mr Wales, the astronomer of Captain Cook. When pension a; itlittle is seldom more than an inch in length, and is less than surveying along the coast of New Holland in 1801 and sensitive a line in thickness. It appears thus sufficiently evident that the 1802, Captain Matthew Flinders made the discovery that Chinese are not indebted to Western nations for their knowledge of there was a difference in the direction of the magnetic the use of the compass. “It may be urged,” writes Mr T. S. “that the different manner of constructing the needle needle, according as his ship’s head pointed to the E. or W. Davies, the Chinese and European navigators shows the independence —westerly in the former, easterly in the latter case. When amongst of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse method, and had they the ship’s head was N. or S. the needle took the same copied from us, they would have used the better one ” (Thomson’s direction, or nearly so, that it would on shore, and showed British Annual, 1837, p. 291). On the other.hand, it does not improbable that a knowledge of the mariner s compass was a variation from the true meridian which was about a seem by them directly or indirectly to the early Arabs, medium between that given by it when east and when west. communicated and through the latter was introduced into Europe. Sismondi has He found, also, that the error in variation was nearly remarked {Literature of Europe, vol i.) that it is peculiarly characproportionate to the number of points which the shipjs teristic of all the pretended discoveries of the. Middle Ages that head was from the north or south. {Phil. Trans., 1805, when the historians mention them for the first time they treat them things in general use. Gunpowder, the compass, the Arabic p. 186.) The deviation in wooden ships can be practically as numerals, and paper, are nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they obviated, but in iron ships it has to be partly allowed for, must have wrought a total change in war, in navigation, in science, partly compensated. Barlow used a correcting plate of and in education. Tiraboschi {Storia della Lctteratura Itcdicuw., iron to overcome the directive action on the compass due to tom. iv. lib. ii. p. 204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the conjecture that the compass was introduced into Europe by the the magnetism of wooden vessels. On Professor Airy’s Arabs, adduces their superiority in scientific learning, and their early method, the permanent magnetism of ships is compensated skill in navigation. He quotes a passage on the polarity of the by a steel magnet placed at a given distance below the loadstone from a treatise translated by Albertus Magnus, attributed compass; it is, however, liable to changes of intensity, by the latter to Aristotle, but apparently only an Arabic compilation the works of various philosophers. As the terms Zoron &m occasioned by shocks, vibration, unequal heating, and other from Aphron, used there to signify the south and north poles, are neither causes, a fact which led the late Dr Scoresby to propose Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi suggests that they may be of Arabian the employment of a compass aloft, out of the region of ori"in, and that the whole passage concerning the loadstone may the ship’s influence. The induced magnetism of ships can have been added to the original treatise by the Arabian translators. Dr W. Eobertson asserts {Historical Disquisition concerning be only imperfectly compensated, since it varies according Ancient India, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks, and Persians have no to the ship’s bearing, and as she rolls and pitches; but original name for the compass, it being called by them Bossoia, corrections can be made for the heeling error. The discovery the Italian name, which shows that the thing signified is foreign of the dip of the magnetic needle is ascribed by Gilbert to to them as well as the word. The Eev. G. P. Badger has, however, Robert Norman, a nautical instrument maker at Wapping, pointed out {Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, trans., J- • ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt Soc., 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32) who, about 1590, introduced the employment of a sliding Jones, that the name of Bushla or Busba, from the Italian BussW, weight on the needle for the correction of the dip at different though common among Arab sailors in the Mediterranean, is y seldom used in the Eastern seas,—AairaA and Beit el-lbroJi (tn points of the earth’s surface. The earliest references to the use of the compass are to be found in Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary appellatives Chinese history, from which we learn how, in the sixty-fourth year in the Eed Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf Kiblah-ndm 1 general use. Eobertson quotes Sir J. Chardin as boldly ase of the reign of Ho-ang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or more “that the Asiatics are beholden to us for this ,, Ho-ang-ti, attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and ing which they had from Europe a long time belore finding his army embarrassed by a thick, fog raised by the instrument, conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly enemy, constructed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, Portuguese and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can, s so as to distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus ours, to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly, enabled to pursue Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Klaproth, daring that the old navigators only coasted it along, which 11. P Lettre A M. le Baron IJwnboldt sur Vinvention do la Boussole, Paris, certain their want of this instrument to guide and instruct the™ 1834. See also Mailla, Histoire ginirale de la Chine, tom i. p. to I have nothing but argumen 316, Paris, 1777.) Several other allusions to the compass are con- middle of tlie ocean

J

COMPASS

227 The Saracen geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100 is said touching this matter, having never met with any person in Persia or the Indies to inform me when the compass was first known by Boucher to give an account, though in a confused manner of among them, though I made inquiry of the most learned men the polarity of the magnet (Hallam, Mid. Ages, vol. iii. chap! 9 in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to Persia in Indian pait 2); but the earliest definite mention as yet known of the use ships, when no European has been aboard but myself. The pilots of the mariner s compass in the Middle Ages occurs in a treatise were all Indians, and they used the forestaff and quadrant for their entitled De Ctensilibus, written by Alexander Neckam in the 12th observations. These instruments they have from us, and made by century. He speaks there of a needle carried on board ship which our artists, and they do not in the least vary from ours, except that being placed on a pivot, and allowed to take its own position of the characters are Arabic. The Arabs are the most skilful navi- repose, shows mariners their course when the polar star is hidden. gators of all the Asiatics or Africans ; but neither they nor the In another woik, De Baturts Berum, lib. ii, c. 89, he writes . Indians make use of charts, and they do not much want them; “ Mariners at sea, when, through cloudy weather in the day which some they have, but they are copied from ours, for they are alto- hides the sun, or through the darkness of the night, they lose the gether ignorant of perspective.” The observations of Chardin, who knowledge of the quarter of the world to which they are sailing, flourished between 1643 and 1713, cannot be said to receive support touch a needle with the magnet, which will turn round till, on its from the testimony of some earlier authorities. That the Arabs motion ceasing, its point will be directed towards the north” must hare been acquainted with the compass, and with the construc- (W. Chappell, Nature, No. 346, June 15, 1876). The magnetical tion and use of charts, at a period nearly two centuries previous to needle, and its suspension on a stick or straw in water, are clearly Chardin’s first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the descrip- described in La Bible Guiot, a poem probably of the 13th century, tion given by Barros of a map of all the coast of India, shown to by Guiot de Provins, wherein we are told that through the magnet Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the 15th July 1498), [lamanette or Vamaniere), an ugly brown stone to which iron turns in which the bearings were laid down “after the manner of the of its own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them. Moors,” or “with meridians and parallels very small (or close A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its together), without other bearings of the compass ; because, as the point towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the needle squares of these meridians and parallels were very small, the coast on dark nights, the proper course is known [Hist, litteraire de la was laid down by these two bearings of IST. and S., and E. and W., France, tom. ix. p. 199 ; Barbazan, Fabliaux, tom. ii. p. 328). with great certainty, without that multiplication of bearings of the Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Aeon in Palestine, in his points of the compass usual in our maps, which serves as the root History' (cap. 89), written about the year 1218, speaks of1 the of the others.” Further, we learn from Osorio that the Arabs at magnetic needle as “ most necessary for such as sail the sea ; ” and the time of Gama “were instructed in so many of the arts of navi- another French crusader, his contemporary, Vincent de Beauvais, gation, that they did not yield much to the Portuguese mariners in states that the adamant (loadstone) is found in Arabia, and menthe science and practice of maritime matters.” (See The Three tions a method of using a needle magnetized by it which is similar Foijagesof Vasco da Gama, Hakluyt Soc., 1869 ; note to chap. xv. to that described by Kibdjaki. From quotations given by Antonio by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley, p. 138.) Also the Arabs that Capmany [Questiones Griticas) from the De Contemplatione of Raynavigated the Eed Sea at the same period are shown by Varthema mond_ Lully, of the date 1272, it appears that the latter was well to have used the mariner’s chart and compass [Travels, p. 31). acquainted with the use of the magnet at sea ;2 and before the Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description, middle of the 13th century Gauthier d’Espinois alludes to its which can hardly be supposed to have been brought from polarity, as if generally known, in the lines :— Europe, were employed in the East Indies certainly as early as “ Tons autresi comme 1’aimant deceit [detourne] several years previous to the close of the 16th century. In William L’aiguillette par force de vertu, Barlowe’s Navigator's Supply, published in 1597, we read:—“ Some A ma dame tot le mont [monde] retenue Qui sa beautd connoit et aper9oit.” fewe yeeres since, it so fell out that I had several! conferences with two East Indians which were brought into England by master Candish Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes :—“ In those [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our language : The one of them parts under the north are the mountains of loadstone, which give was of Mamillia [Manilla] in the Isle of Luzon, the other of Miaco the virtue to the air of attracting iron; but because it [the loadin Japan. I questioned with them concerning their shipping and stone] is far off, [it] wishes to have the help of a similar stone to3 manner of sayling. They described all things farre. different from make it [the virtue] work, and to direct the needle towards the star.” ours, and shewed, that in steade of our Compas, they use a mag- Brunette Latini also makes reference to the compass in his encycloneticall needle of sixe ynches long, and longer, upon a pinne in a paedia Limes dou trtsor, composed about 1260; and a letter written in dish of white China earth filled with water; In the bottome 1269, attributed to Peter Adsiger, shows that the declination of the whereof they have two crosse lines, for the foure principall windes; needle had already been observed at that date. From Torheus we the rest of the divisions being reserved to the skill of their Pilots.” learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was already in use among Bailak Kibdjaki, also, an Arabian writer, shows in his Merchant's the Norwegians about the middle of the 13th century [Hist. Rer. Treasure, a work given to the world in 1282, that the mag- Norvegicarum, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniaj, 1711); and it is probable netized needle, floated on water by means of a splinter of wood that the use of the magnet at sea was known in Scotland at or or a reed, was employed on the Syrian seas at the time of his voyage shortly subsequent to that time, though King Robert, in crossing from Tripoli to Alexandria (1242), and addsThey say that from Arran to Garrick in 1306, as Barbour writing in 1375 informs the captains who navigate the Indian seas use, instead of the needle us, “na nedill had na stane,” but steered by a fire on the shore. and splinter, a sort of fish made out of hollow iron, which, when From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe remarks lown into the water, swims upon the surface, and points out the concerning the compass, “ the lame tale of one Flavius at Amelphus, north and south with its head and tail ” (Klaproth, Lettre, p. 57). in the kingdome of Naples [Flavio Gioja of Amalphi, cir. 1307], urthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels in which for to have devised it, is of very slender probabilitie ; ” and as Aiccola de Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are stated to have regards the assertion of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester [De Magnete, p. 4, nad no compass still, on board the ship in which Varthema, less 1600), that Marco Polo introduced the compass into Italy from the ian a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java, both, the mariner’s East in 1260,4 we need only quote the words of Col. Yule [Book of cui and compass were used; it has been questioned, however, Marco Polo) :—“ Respecting the mariner’s compass and gunpowder, A,,1' A “ti118 case the compass was of Eastern manufacture I shall say nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco to \l™vets Jarthema, Introd. xciv., and p. 249). We have already have had anything to do with their introduction.” seen that the Chinese as late as the end of the 18th century made When and by whom the card was added are still matters of convoyages with compasses on which but little reliance could be placed ; jecture ; but the thirty-two points or rhumbs into which it is divided 1 ma A A, y Perhaps be assumed that the compasses early used in the were recognized at least as early as the time of Chaucer, who, in A were mostly too imperfect to be of much assistance to navi- 1391, wrote, “Now is thin Orisonte departed in xxiiii partiez by a We e m. sim n v ! therefore often dispensed with on customary routes. thi azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii partiez of the world ; al be it so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in xxxii” [Treatise on the l + asPthe ? middle ater-compass saidcentury; to have been used the Coreans so late of the is18th and Dr T. by Smith, writing Astrolabe, ed. Skeat, Early Eng. Text Soc., Lond. 1872). The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process. A for 1683-4, says of the Turk! llie ilavo Transactions no A' J . genius for Sea-voyages, and consequently The Libel of English Policie, a poem of the first half of the 15th tnrnirr + raSai w a*M inexperienced in the art of Navigation, scarce ven- century, says with reference to Iceland (chap. x.)— traripA; A6r *anc^ ^ sPeak of the natural Turks, who 1 Adamas in India reperitur Ferrum occulta quadam Cmi • the Sea or some part of the Korea, or between aild natura ad se trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad who n-P r A16 mos Alexandria, and not of the Pyrats of Bariary, semper convertitur, unde valde ChmtpnU ° ^ I>art Renegade’s, and learnt their skill in stellam septentrionalem necessarius est navigantibus in mari. noint ^w0Ur• n ’ • 1Tlie 2 and Msh compass consists but of 8 Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a of the Vnmn S WaS the four Collateral.” That the value acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione. so imnerwAf 0 12 e111 .ven in the latter part of the 17th century, magnete.—Sicut 3 earlier timpsfi&AA ^' ^ the East may serve to explain how in 4 Ginguene, Hist. lit. de VItalic, t. i. p. 413. “ According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or, as perties nnv have i, ^tmment, longneglected after the first discovery of its pro1 ties, may been generally by navigators. more probable, in 1296.”—Yule.

C O M—0 O M rim gives a long period of free oscillation, and consequently great “ Out of Bristowe, and costes many one, steadiness; and as the card of a 10-inch compass, with its suspended Men haue practised by nedle and by stone Thider wardes within a title while.” needle and sapphire, weighs only 178 grains, the frictional error is Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, p. 201, Bond. 1 very slight. Owing to the smallness of the needles, a perfect corFrom tliis it would seem that the compasses used at that time by rection for all latitudes of a quadrantal error of 5 or 6 degrees for n, English mariners were of a very primitive description. Barlowe, 10-inch, and of 11 or 12 degrees for a 7-inch compass can be effected in his treatise Magnetical Advertisements, printed in 1616 (p. 66), by means of a couple of iron globes not more than 6 inches in diacomplains that “the Gompasse needle, being the most admirable and meter, fixed on opposite sides of the binnacle. > The thwart-ship usefull instrument of the whole world, is both amongst ours and and the fore-and-aft components of the ship’s magnetic force other nations for the most part, so bungerly and absurdly contnv ed, are neutralized by two adjustable correctors placed one over the as nothing more.” The form he recommends for the needle is that other, and so arranged that in their zero position the middle line of of “ a true circle, having his Axis going out beyond the circle, at both is vertically under the centre of the compass. Each corrector each end narrow and narrower, unto a reasonable sharpe point, an consists of two bar magnets movable round a common horizontal being pure steele as the circle it selfe is, having m the middest a axis perpendicular to their lengths. To correct the heeling error, convenient receptacle to place the capitell in. In 1750 Di Go\\ an an adjustable magnet is applied below the compass in a line through Knight found that the needles of merchant-ships were made of two its centre perpendicular to the deck. For taking bearings, anew pieces of steel bent in the middle and united m the shape of a instrument, the azimuth mirror, is provided, whereby the image of rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of sma the object reflected from a plane mirror is thrown, as in a camera breadth, suspended edgewise, and hardened throughout. He also lucida, on the graduated circle of the compass _ card, and is seen showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle conduces through a convex lens. Another improvement is the use of knife most to sensibility. In 1820 Prof. Barlow reported to the Admi- edges instead of journals for supporting the gimbals. A hemiralty that half the compasses in the Royal Navy were mere lumber, spherical space below the compass-case, nearly filled with castor-oil, and ought to be destroyed. Since then many improved varieties serves to calm the vibrations of the bowl. of ships’ compasses have been introduced, of which may be menSee articles Magnetism and Navigation ; Cavallo, Treatise on tioned those of Pope, Preston, Walker, Dent, Stebbmg, Gowland, Magnetism, 2d ed., Bond. 1800 ; Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, Gray, Duchemin, and Harris. In the last the needle turns upon 1805 ; Airy, Phil. Trans., 1839, and 1846, part i., and Magnetism, a point which is the centre of a doubly-curved bar of copper, fixed sect, x., 1870 ; Johnson, On the Deviations of the Compass, 1852; as a diameter to a ring of the same metah In the Admiralty com- Evans, Phil. Trans., 1860 ; Scoresby, The Compass in Iron Ships, pass the bowl is of copper, the card of mica ; and compound mag- 1855, &c.; Evans and Smith, The Admiralty Manual of the Compass; netic bars, as proposed by Scoresby, are employed. Merrifield, Magnetism and the Deviation of the Compass, part ii., The most remarkable and, as shown by trial, most satisfactory 1872 ; Harris, Pud. Treat, on Magnetism, 1872 ; Thomson, in form of the compass is that patented in 1876 by Sir William Thom- Nature, vol. x. p. 388, 1874. (F. H. B.) son (see fig. 2). The card consists of a central boss and an COMPIEGNE, a town of France, at the head of an arrondissement, in the department of Oise, situated on the left bank of the Oise, which is there crossed by a handsome bridge of three arches, 36 miles east of Beauvais, on the railway between Paris and St Quentin, in 49° 25' 4" IST. lat. and 2° 49' 35" E. long. It is famous as the occasional residence of the French kings from a very early period; and it possesses a considerable number of fine edifices. Among these may be mentioned the church of St Jacques, of the 13th century ; Saint Antoine, of the 15 th and 16th ; the town-house, a picturesque building of the late Gothic style, dating from the 16th; the theatre; and the royal palace, which is one of the most extensive and magnificent structures of the kind in France. It was erected mainly under Louis XV. and XVI., but large additions have been made in more recent times. The gardens are beautifully laid out, and in the neighbourhood is the famous forest of Compihgne, which covers an area of 30,000 acres, and includes the site of the camp constructed b}r Caesar in his campaign against the Bellovaci. The town is the seat of a civil and a commercial tribunal, and has a communal college, a public library, and a museum in the town-hall. The principal manufactures are hosiery, muslins, ropes, and wooden wares ; and there is a fair trade in corn and wood. Population in 1872, 11,859 in the town, and 12,281 in the commune. Compiegne, or, as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Compendium, seems originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the early Frankish kings. It was enriched by Charles the Bald with two castles, and a Benedictine abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille, the monks ot which retained down to the 18th century the privilege of acting for three days as lords of Compiegne, with full power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and even inflict sentence of death. It was in Compifegne that Louis the Debonnaire was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in 1430, Joan of Arc was taken prisoner ly the English. The abbey church received the dust of Louis H, Louis V., and Hugh the Great; and for a long tinie it had the Fig. 2.—Plan and Transverse Section of Sir William Thomson’s distinction of possessing the oldest organ in France, a gift from Compass-card. B, Corrector for quadrantal error; C, Box for corrector; a, Aluminium boss; Constantine Copronymus to Pepin the Short. In 1624 the town ’b, Central cap of sapphire; c, Cords connecting rim and boss; d, Magnets; gave its name to a treaty of alliance concluded by Richelieu wit e, Threads connecting magnets; /, Aluminium rim; /, Cords supporting the Dutch ; and it was in the palace that Louis XV. gave welcome magnets; S',/, Knife edges for gimbals. to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I. received Marie Louise o outer rim, both of aluminium, connected together by fine silk cords. Austria, that Louis XVIIL entertained the Emperor Alexander Eight or twelve small magnets, 2 to 3 inches long, having their of Russia, and that Leopold king of the Belgians was married o corresponding ends tied together by threads of equal lengths, are the Princess Louise. Under Napoleon III. it was the annual resor suspended by silk cords from the rim, to which is attached thin of the court during the hunting season, and thus became the scene paper marked with the points of the compass and degrees. The of many a remarkable assembly. In 1871 the town was an imporconcentration, in this wise, of the greater part of the weight in the | tant post of communication between France and Germany. 228

C 0 M—C 0 M 229 COMPOSTELLA, a city of Spain in the Galician pro- 1814 was admitted to the £cole Polytechnique. His youth vince of Coruna, more frequently called Santiago, in was marked by a constant willingness to rebel 125 honour of its patron saint, St James, whose shrine was Ion" merely official authority; to genuine excellence, whether one of the principal places of pilgrimage in Christendom0 moral or inteUectual, he was always ready to pay unbounded It gives its name to one of the four military orders of deference. That stienuous application which was one of Spain which rank as follows Compostella, Calatrava, his most remarkable gifts in manhood showed itself in his Alcantara, and Manresa. See Santiago. youth, and his application was backed or inspired by suuerior COMPTON' Henry (1G32-1713), bishop of London, intelligence and aptness. After he had been two years was the youngest son of the earl of Northampton. After at the Ecole Polytechnique he took a foremost part in a the restoration of Charles II. he became cornet in a mutinous demonstration against one of the masters • the regiment of horse, but he soon quitted the army for the school was broken up, and Comte like the other scholars church. He was made bishop of Oxford in 1674, and in was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his parents the following year was translated to the see of London. he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his living He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin Franklin intrusted with the education of the two princesses Mary was the youth’s idol at this moment. “ I seek to imitate and Anne. Compton showed a liberality most unusual at the modern Socrates,” he wrote to a school friend, “not in the time to Protestant dissenters, whom he wished to reunite talents, but in way of living. You know that at five and with the established church. He held several conferences twenty he formed the design of becoming perfectly wise on the subject with the clergy of his diocese; and in the and that he fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake hope of influencing candid minds by means of the opinions the same thing, though I am not yet twenty.” Though of unbiassed foreigners, he obtained letters treating of the Comte s character and aims were as far removed as possible question (since printed at the end of Stillingfleet’s from Franklins type, neither Franklin nor any man that Unreasonableness of Separation), from Le Moyne, professor evei lived could surpass him in the heroic tenacity with of divinity at Leyden, and the famous French Protestant which, m the face of a thousand obstacles, he pursued his divine, Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he was own ideal of a vocation. strongly opposed. On the accession of James II. he For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking consequently lost his seat in the council and his deanery a caieei in America, but a friend who preceded him thither in the Chapel Royal; and for his firmness in refusing to warned him of the purely practical spirit that prevailed in suspend Dr Sharpe, whose writings against Popery had the new country. “ If Lagrange were to come to the rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was himself United States, he could only earn his livelihood by turning suspended. At the Revolution, Compton embraced the and surveyor.” So Comte remained in Paris, living as he cause of William and Mary; he performed the ceremony best could on something less than £80 a year, and hoping of their coronation ; his old position was restored to him • when he took the trouble to break his meditations upon and, among other appointments, he was chosen as one of greater things by hopes about himself, that he might bythe commissioners for revising the liturgy. During the and-by obtain an appointment as mathematical master in reign of Anne he remained a member of the Privy Council, a school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in and he was one of the commissioners appointed to arran"e the house of Casimir Pbrier. The salary was good, but the terms of the union of England and Scotland ; but, to the duties were too miscellaneous, and what was still worse Ins bitter disappointment, his claims to the primacy were there was an end of the delicious liberty of the garret. After twice passed over. a short experience of three weeks Comte returned to neediness and contentment. He was not altogether without e b ed,b deS S er 1 he0l0 ical works A ^ r S fi r -f 5 D Translation the young man’s appetite for pleasure; yet when he was nZr^ the Church Z Pia Maladichini, governed during the time of Popey Innocent X., which who was only nineteen wo find him wondering, amid the gaieties 64 4 1655 1667) and A iZ > Translation from the of the carnival of 1817, how a gavotte or a minuet could trenchtrV of the Jesuits, .^Intrigues( (1669). COMTE, Auguste, the most eminent and important make people forget that thirty thousand human beings ot that interesting group of thinkers whom the overthrow around them had barely a morsel to eat. Hardship in ot old institutions in France turned towards social specu- youth has many drawbacks, but it has the immense advanlation. Vastly superior as he was to men like De Maistre tage over academic ease of making the student’s interest in on the one hand, and to men like Saint Simon or Fourier men real, and not merely literary. Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and influence Wdl in scientific of Saint I as in mental capacity, still the aim and interestacquisitions of all his thinking was disciple with a man who was destined to exercise a very Sim0D decisive influence upon the turn of his speculation. Henry, thP ^T namelyA ^ renovation of the conditions of count of Saint Simon, was second cousin of the famous “r" classify him, not thus duke of Saint Simon, the friend of the Regent, and author accordm ruiikamnn! aim,,fbufc g to method, then he takes of the most important set of memoirs in a language that is a Very different disth, S68 fU1° 111 from these. What so incomparably rich in memoirs. He was now nearly me hisdi^ t. i th°d from his contemporaries is sixty, and if he had not gained a serious reputation, he until alTTeiflthat the SOCial °rder Cannot be transformed had at least excited the curiosity and interest of his conC COnce tions tta been reLdL en°r SCientific Ps irit andt belong to it have temporaries by the social eccentricities of his life, by the ud h o o V " P > maturely gathered multitude of his schemes and devices, and by the fantastic hole knowledge SyS,ematlc ,^ along with the rest of our ingenuity of his political ideas. Saint Simon’s most charthe social ’thi l/8 Prepsidln^ doctnne connects Comte with acteristic faculty was an exuberant imagination, working ZZzuiM X™/ th° 18th century,-indirectly with in the sphere of real things. Scientific discipline did nothing either SV f ly mtb TurSot' and more closely than for him; he had never undergone it, and he never felt its value. He was an artist in social construction; and if right ideas, or the suggestion of right ideas, sometimes came into in JanuMvTTflS6 fAr""FraU50'S''XaV^er Comte was born his head, about history, about human progress, about a eiver-oiJX at ncatpelher, where his father was a stable polity, such ideas were not the products of trains He was sent for of ordered reasoning; they were the intuitional glimpses ion to the school of the town, and in of the poet, and consequently as they professed to be in

230

C 0 M

real matter, even tlie right ideas were as often as not accom- of Comte’s as if it were in some sort connected with Saint Simon’s schemes of social reorganization. Comte was never panied by wrong ones. The young Comte, now twenty, was enchanted by the a man to quarrel by halves, and not only was the breach philosophic veteran. In after years he so far forgot him- not repaired, but long afterwards Comte, as we have said, self as to write of Saint Simon as a depraved quack, and to with painful ungraciousness took to calling the encourager deplore his connection with him as purely mischievous. of his youth by very hard names. In 1825 Comte married. His marriage was one of those Man e, While the connection lasted he thought very differ ent y. of which “magnanimity owes no account to prudence,” Saint Simon is described as the most estimable and lovable of men, and the most delightful in his relations; 1m is and it did not turn out prosperously. His family were the worthiest of philosophers. Even after the association strongly Catholic and royalist, and they were outraged by had come to an end, and at the very moment "^hen his refusal to have the marriage performed other than civilly. Comte was congratulating himself on haying thrown off They consented, however, to receive his wife, and the pair the yoke, he honestly admits that Saint Simon s influence went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame Comte conceived dislike to the circle she found there, and this was the too has been of powerful service in his philosophic education. aearly beginning of disputes which lasted for the remainder “ I certainly,” he writes to his most intimate friend, . am of their union. In the year of his marriage we find Comte under great personal obligations to Saint Simon; that is to writing to the most intimate of his correspondents:—“I say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch me in the have nothing left but to concentrate my whole moral existphilosophical direction that I have now definitely marked in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate out for myself, and that I shall follow without looking ence compensation; and so I must give up, if not the most back for the rest of my life.” Even if there were no such unmistakable expressions as these, the most cursory dazzling, still the sweetest part of my happiness.” We glance into Saint Simon’s writings is enough to reveal the cannot help admiring the heroism which cherishes great thread of connection between the ingenious visionary and ideas in the midst of petty miseries, and intrepidly throws the systematic thinker. We see the debt, and we also see all squalid interruptions into the background which is their that when it is stated at the highest possible, nothing has true place. Still, we may well suppose that the sordid really been taken either from Comtes claims as a powerful cares that come with want of money made a harmonious life original thinker, or from his immeasurable pre-eminence none the more easy. Comte tried to find pupils to board over Saint Simon in intellectual grasp and vigour and with him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent coherence. As high a degree of originality may be shown away for lack of companions. “ I would rather spend an in transformation as in invention, as Molicre and Shakespeare evening,” wrote the needy enthusiast, “ in solving a difficult have proved in the region of dramatic art, In philosophy question, than in running after some empty-headed and the conditions are not different. Ilfaut prendre son lien consequential millionaire in search of a pupil.” A little money was earned by an occasional article in Le Producteur, oio on le trouve. It is no detriment to Comte’s fame that some of the ideas in which he began to expound the philosophic ideas that which he recombined and incorporated in a great philoso- were now maturing in his mind. He announced a course phic structure had their origin in ideas that were produced of lectures (1826), which it was hoped would bring money almost at random in the incessant fermentation of Saint as well as fame, and which were to be the first dogmatic Simon’s brain. Comte is in no true sense a follower of exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend had said Saint Simon, but it was undoubtedly Saint Simon who to him, “ You talk too freely, your ideas are getting abroad, launched him, to take Comte’s own word, by suggesting to and other people use them without giving you the credit; his strong and penetrating mind the two starting points of put your ownership on record.” The lectures were intended what grew into the Comtist system—first, that political to do this among other things, and they attracted hearers phenomena are as capable of being grouped under laws as so eminent as Humboldt the cosmologist, as Poinsot the other phenomena) and second, that the true destination of geometer, as Blainville the physiologist. Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte Seric philosophy must be social, and the true object of the thinker llllie must be the reorganization of the moral, religious, and poli- had a severe attack of cerebral derangement, brought on tical systems. We can readily see what an impulse these by intense and prolonged meditation, acting on a system far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte’s meditations. that was already irritated by the chagrin of domestic There were conceptions of less importance than these, in failure. He did not recover his health for more than a which it is impossible not to feel that it was Saint Simon s year, and as soon as convalescence set in he was seized by wrong or imperfect idea that put his young admirer on the so profound a melancholy at the disaster which had thus track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is not overtaken him, that he threw himself into the Seine. worthy of further discussion. That Comte would have Fortunately he was rescued, and the shock did not stay performed some great intellectual achievement, if Saint his return to mental soundness. One incident, of this Simon had never been born, is certain. It is hardly less painful episode is worth mentioning. Lamennais, then certain that the great achievement which he did actually in the height of his Catholic exaltation, persuaded Comte s perform was originally set in motion by Saint Simon’s con- mother to insist on her son being married with the religious versation, though it was afterwards directly filiated with ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte apparently the fertile speculations of Turgot and Condorcet. Comte did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite of the thought almost as meanly of Plato as he did of Saint Simon, fact that the unfortunate man was at the time neither and he considered Aristotle the prince of all true thinkers ; more nor less than raving mad. To such shocking conyet their vital difference about Ideas did not prevent spiracies against common sense and decency does ecclesiastical zealotry bring even good men like Lamennais. h Aristotle from calling Plato master. After six years the differences between the old and the the other hand, philosophic assailants of Comtism have no young philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte always resisted the temptation to recall the circumstance began to fret under Saint Simon’s pretensions to be his that its founder was once out of his mind,—an umvor 7 director. Saint Simon, on the other band, perhaps began and irrelevant device, that cannot be excused even by to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority of his provocation of Comte’s own occasional acerbity. -Af disciple. The occasion of the breach between them (1824) been justly said, if Newton once suffered-a cerebral attach was an attempt on Saint Simon’s part to print a production without on that account forfeiting our veneration for

COMTE

231 Princvpia, Comte may have suffered in the same way, and the centre of the writing-table, laid his hat on the left-hand still not have forfeited our respect for what is good in the corner; Ins snuff-box was deposited on the same side beside systems of Positive Philosophy and Positive Polity. the quire of paper placed in readiness for his use and In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then bringino- it Ofij j published the first volume of the Course of Positive Phi- to within an inch of his nose, to make sure it was properly \>’0 losophy. The sketch and ground plan of this great under- filled, he broke silence: ‘ We have said that the chord taking had appeared in 1826. The sixth and last volume AB,’ &c. For three quarters of an hour he continued his was published in 1842. The twelve years covering the demonstration, making short notes as he went on, to guide publication of the first of Comte’s two elaborate works were the listener in repeating the problem alone ; then, takinoyears of indefatigable toil, and they were the only portion up. another cahier which lay beside him, he went over the of his life in which he enjoyed a certain measure, and that written repetition of the former lesson. He explained a very modest measure, of material prosperity. In 1833 corrected, or commented till the clock struck nine; then’ he was appointed examiner of the boys in the various with the little finger of the right hand brushing from his provincial schools who aspired to enter the Ecole Poly- coat and waistcoat the shower of superfluous snuff which technique at Paris. This and two other engagements as a had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box, and resumin0teacher of mathematics secured him an income of some his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by which he gratified as often as he could, until his to Comte, and that, in the portion of that work which treats relaxatiobnCame ^ narr°W t0 aff°rd eVen that sinSle of the logic of the moral sciences, a radical improvement in the conceptions of logical method was derived from the follnwtm-r manner and personal appearance we have the Positive Philosophy. Their correspondence, which was one the clonk accoant who was his pupil:—“ Daily as extremely full and copious, and which we may hope will rU( ei 0n while thn r'ln ln - ? ^ ^h® horologe of the Luxembourg, one day be made accessible to the public, turned principally door of ^ S hammer on the bell was yet audible, the upon the two great questions of the equality between men rather ston/00?1 0Pened) and there entered a man, short, and women, and of the expediency and constitution of a shaven wif-k’ amost. what one might call sleek, freshly sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte found himself or invariably drn? ? ln86a °SUf .whisker moustache. He was straitened, he confided the entire circumstances to his English fcke mos s if Koine to n ^ i' P°tiess black, as friend. As might be supposed by those who know the from the hnnr]lUn ^rikar inti r< ground of historic evolution. It abounds with remarks of;*® known best to that which is unknown or less well known extraordinary fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is and as, in social states, it is the collective phenomenon that often arbitrary; its views of the past are strained into is more easy of access to the observer than its parts coherence with the statical views of the preceding volume; therefore we must consider and pursue all the elements o and so far as concerns the period to which the present a given social state together and in common. The social writer happens to have given special attention, ff is usually organization must be viewed and explored as a whole. slight and sometimes random. As it was composed in rather There is a nexus between each leading group of social less than six months, and as the author honestly warns us phenomena and other leading groups ; if there is a change that he has given all his attention to a more profound coin one of them, that change is accompanied by a cone- ordination, instead of working out the special explanations sponding modification of all the rest. “ Not only must more fully, as he had promised, we need not be surprised political institutions and social manners, on the one hand, if the result is disappointing to those who had mastered and manners and ideas, on the other, be always mutually the corresponding portion of the Positive 1 hdosophy. connected: but further, this consolidated whole must be Comte explains the difference between his two works. In always connected by its nature with the corresponding the first his “ chief object was to discover and demonstrate state of the integral development of humanity, considered the laws of progress, and to exhibit in one unbroken in all its aspects of intellectual, moral, and physical sequence the collective destinies of mankind, till then activity.”—(Comte.) , . . invariably regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the Is there any one element which communicates the decisive reach of explanation, and almost depending on arbitrary n , importance impulse to all the rest,-any predominating agency in the will. The present work, on the contrary, is addressed to Of intellec- course of social evolution 'l The answer is that all the those who are already sufficiently convinced of the certain tualdeparts of social existence are associated with, and velopment. drawI1ralono. w the contemporary condition of intellectual existence of social laws, and desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive system.” development. The Reason is the superior and preponderant What that system is it would take far more space than we TteP^ element which settles the direction in which all the other can afford to sketch even in outline. All we can do is to s faculties shall expand. “ It is only through the more and enumerate some of its main positions. They are to be more marked influence of the reason over the general con- drawn not only from the Positive Polity, but from two duct of man and of society, that the gradual march of our other works,—the Positivist Catechism: a Summary race has attained that regularity and persevering continuity Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and between a Woman and a Priest of Humanity ; and, second, barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, wine The Subjective Synthesis (1856), which is the first and only share, and with enhanced strength, the appetites, the volume of a work upon mathematics announced at tlie passions, and even the primary sentiments of man. Ihe of the Positive Philosophy. The system for which the history of intellectual development, therefore, is thu key end Positive Philosophy is alleged to have been the scientific to social evolution, and the key to the history of intel- preparation .contains a Polity and a Religion ; a complete lectual development is the Law of the Three States. arrangement of life in all its aspects, giving a wider spfiera Among other central thoughts in Comte’s explanation of to Intellect, Energy, and Feeling than could be found elucida history are these -.—The displacement of theological by any of the previous organic types,-—Greek, Roman, tions. positive conceptions has been accompanied by a gradual Catholic-feudal. Comte’s immense superiority over swm rise of an industrial regime out of the military regime pree-Revolutiouary Utopians as the Abbd Saint Tier, the great permanent contribution of Catholicism was the no less than over the group of post-revolutionary u opi > separation which it set up between the temporal and the especially visible in his firm grasp of the cardinal tru spiritual powers the progress of the race consists in the is that the improvement of the social organism can ctian on y 0, increasin preponderance of the distinctively human effected by a moral development, and never by any % elements over the animal elements;—the absolute tendency in mere political mechanism, or any violences in the way of ordinary social theories will be replaced by an unfailing an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral transto ^ adherence to the relative point of view, and from this it tion must precede any real advance. The aim, bo follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has been public and private life, is to secure to the utmost po. as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition ot extent the victory of the social feeling over self-io j hurnanitv and its environment would allow. theory. As Mr Mill puts it“ If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence, contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to use i . Comte’s instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any very decided natural bent, either in a good or m a baa direction; if it supposes that the reason, in average human beings, predominates over the desires, o disinterested desires over the personal—we may know tl * history has been misinterpreted, and that thetenome theory is false. On the other hand, if laws of social P ^ empirically generalized from history, can, when once suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of human nature f The di ection actually taken by the developments and changes of human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of man and of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology becomes a science. 1 result of this method is an exhibition ot the events of human experience in co-ordinated series that manifest their own^graduated proceeds from that which is

COMTE

237 The y to Altruism over Egoism. This is the key to the regenera- even incorporated in some radically antagonistic system. soci te- tion of social existence, as it is the key to that unity of Adoption, for example, as a practice for improvino1 the gent *on' individual life which makes all our energies converge happiness of families and the welfare of society, is capable freely and without wasteful friction towards a common of being weighed, and can in truth only be weighed, by cud. What are the instruments for securing the pre- utilitarian considerations, and has been commended by men ponderance of Altruism1? Clearly they must work from to whom the Comtist religion is naught. The singularity the strongest element in human nature, and this ele- of Comte’s construction, and the test by which it must be ment is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic tried, is the transfer of the worship and discipline of system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Catholicism to a system in which “ the conception of God Intellect was made its slave. Then followed a revolt of is superseded by the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived Intellect against Sentiment. The business of the new as a kind of Personality. system will be to bring back the Intellect into a condition And when all is said, the invention does not help us. not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. We have still to settle what is for the good of Humanity* The Bi. The subordination never was, and never will be, effected and we can only do that in the old-fashioned way. There gion except by means of a religion, and a religion, to be final, is no guidance in the conception. Ho effective unity can Hum :ty- must include a harmonious synthesis of all our conceptions follow from it, because you can only find out the right and of the external order of the universe. The characteristic wrong of a given course by summing up the advantages basis of a religion is the existence of a Power without us, and disadvantages, and striking a balance, and there^s so superior to ourselves as to command the complete sub- nothing in the Religion of Humanity to force two men to mission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the find the balance on the same side. The Comtists are no Positive stage, in Humanity, past, present, and to come, better off than other utilitarians in judging policy, events conceived as the Great Being. conduct. The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly The worrhe C!tat “A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at Being length the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose ingenious re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent ship and destiny it is to bring that order continually to perfection by con- signs, down even to the invocation of a new Trinity, need disciphnestantly conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to us that system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the not detain us. They are said, though it is not easy to supreme dispenser of our destinies, becomes in the natural course believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. If so, the common centre of our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style so little Although this Great Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings, to of any, even of any collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its peculiar function endow it with the truest sympathy soothe the insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to towards all its servants. The least amongst us can and ought con- present a great body of hypotheses—if Comte meant them stantly to aspire to maintain and even to improve this Being.5 This for hypotheses—in the most dogmatic and peremptory natural object of all our activity, both public and private , determines the trae general character of the rest of our existence, whether form to which language can lend itself. And there is no in feeling or in thought; which must be devoted to love, and to more extraordinary thing in the history of opinion than know, in order rightly to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the perversity with which Comte has succeeded in clothing the means which it furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued a philosophic doctrine, so intrinsically conciliatory as his, service, whilst strengthening our true unity, renders us at once in a shape that excites so little sympathy and gives so much both happier and better.” provocation. An enemy defined Comtism as Catholicism emarl The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by i the the Supreme Being under monotheistic systems made all minus Christianity, to which an able champion retorted by eligio the rest of Comte’s construction easy enough. Utility calling it Catholicismyifws Science. Hitherto Comte’s Utopia has pleased the followers of the Catholic, just as little as remains the test of every institution, impulse, act; his those of the scientific, spirit. fabiic becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian proThe elaborate, and minute systematization of life, pro- The priestpositions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top per to the religion of Humanity, is to be directed by a Jloodto. keep them in their place. The Comtist system is priesthood. The priests are to possess neither wealth nor utilitarianism crowned by a fantastic decoration. Transpower; they are not to command, but to counsel; lated into the plainest English, the position is as follows : material their authority is to rest on persuasion, not on force. bociety can only be regenerated by the greater subordina- When religion has become positive, and society industion ot politics to morals, by the moral ization of capital, by the renovation of the family, by a higher conception of trial, then the influence of the church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which was not the marriage, and so on. These ends can only be reached by a case in the Middle Age. The power of the priesthood heartier development of the sympathetic instincts. The rests upon special knowledge of man and nature; but eympathetic instincts can only be developed by the Religion to this intellectual eminence must also be added moral ot Humanity.” Looking at the problem in this way, even a moralist who does not expect theology to be the instru- power and a certain greatness of character, without which ment of social revival, might still ask whether the force of intellect and completeness of attainment will not the confidence they ought to inspire. The functions sympathetic instincts will not necessarily be already receive of the priesthood are of this kind:—To exercise a systematic their hl liest ncrmTa ^ S P°int> before people will be direction over education ; to hold a consultative influence 0 accept the reli ior mal S b which is at bottom hardly over all the important acts of actual life, public and private ; pvw +i af symp"thy un(^er a more imposing name. How- to arbitrate in cases of practical conflict; to preach sermons nni onf1 may ^e’ whole battle—into which we shall recalling those principles of generality and universal aS t0 relipinn ^efifhnateness of Comtism as a harmony which our special activities dispose us to ignore; Beinl TirnS U?°n ?lis erection of Humanity into a to order the due classification of society; to perform the the familv ? Vari?u® hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion. able bv In 0 eaphal, &c., are merely propositions measur- The authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on f UtiHty and a balance of ex encL yMr tlieSe °nS °ro P^i- voluntary adhesion, and there is to be perfect freedom of and manv d +°/ P Posafs are °f the highest interest, speech and discussion; though, by the way, we cannot m ar e not s“em to n 0ne , 1 iem of avaiIa ble; but there does forget Comte’s detestable congratulations to the Czar an availa Nicholas on the “ wise vigilance ” with which he kept watch could not ennnH iM T y well be approached from ble otherkind, sides,which and over the importation of Western books.

238

C 0 M —0 0 N

COMUS (from kw/xos, revel, or a company of revellers) From Uis earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully imin the later mythology of the Greeks, the god of pressed by the necessity of elevating the condition of women. was, festive mirth. In classic mythology the personification (See remarkable passage in his letters to M. Yalat, pp. does not exist; but Comus appears in the EikoVcs, or 84-7.) His friendship with Madame de Yaux had deepened Descriptions of Pictures, of Philostratus, a writer of the 3d the impression, and in the reconstructed society women century a.d., as a winged youth, slumbering in a standing are to play a highly important part. They are to be care- attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with wine, fully excluded from public action, but they are to do many his head—which is sunk upon his breast—crowned with more important things than things political. To fit them dewy flowers, his left hand feebly grasping a hunting for their functions, they are to be raised above material spear, his right an inverted torch. Ben Jonson introduces cares, and they are to be thoroughly educated, ifie Comus, iu his masque entitled Pleasure reconciled to Virtue family, which is so important an element of the Lomusu (1619), as the portly jovial patron of good cheer, “First scheme of things, exists to carry the influence of woman father of sauce and deviser of jelly.” In the Comus, over man to the highest point of cultivation. Through sive Phagesiposia Cimmeria: Somnium (1608, and at affection she purifies the activity of man. “Superior in Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a Dutch author, Hendrik power of affection, more able to keep both the intellectual van tier Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the conception is and the active powers in continual subordination to feeling, more nearly akin to Milton’s, and Comus is a being whoso women are formed as the natural intermediaries between enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of Humanity and man. The Great Being confides specially Jonson’s deity. But Milton’s Comus is a creation of his to them its moral Providence, maintaining through them own. His story is one the direct and constant cultivation of universal affection, “ Which never yet was heard in tale or song , in the midst of all the distractions of thought or action, From old or modem bard, in hall or bower.” v/hich are for ever withdrawing men from its influBeside the uniform influence of every Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is “ much woman on every man, to attach him to Humanity, such is like his father, but his mother more ”—a sorcerer, like her, the importance and the difficulty of this ministry that each who gives to travellers a magic draught that changes of us should be placed under the special guidance of one their human face into the “ brutal form of some wild beast, of these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to the Great and, hiding from them their own foul disfigurement, makes Being. This moral guardianship may assume three types,— them forget all the pure ties of life, “ to roll with pleasure the mother, the wife, and the daughter ; each having several in a sensual sty.” modifications, as shown in the concluding volume. Together CONCA, Sebastiano (1676-1764), a painter of the they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or unity Florentine school, was born at Gaeta, and studied at haples with contemporaries,—obedience, union, and protection,—as under Francesco Solimena. In 1/06, along with his well as the three degrees of continuity between ages, by brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he settled at uniting us with the past, the present, and the future. In Home, where for several years he worked in chalk only, accordance with my theory of the brain, each corresponds to improve his drawing. He wras patronized by the with one of our three altruistic instincts,—veneration, Cardinal Ottoboni, who introduced him to Clement XL; attachment, and benevolence.” and a Jeremiah painted in the church of St John Lateran, Conclusion. How the positive method of observation and verifica- was rewarded by the Pope with knighthood and by the tion of real facts has landed us in this, and ^ much else of cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew quickly, the same kind, is extremely hard to guess. Seriously to ex- and by-and-by he received the patronage of most of the amine an encyclopaedic system,'that touches life, society, and crowned heads of Europe. He painted on till near the knowledge at every .point, is evidently beyond the compass day of his death, and left behind him an immense number of such an article as this. There is in every chapter a of pictures, mostly of a brilliant and showy kind, which whole group of speculative suggestions, each of which would are distributed among the churches of Italy.. Of these need eT long chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam, in the hospital of Santa There is at least one biological speculation of astounding Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered the finest. audacity, that could be examined in nothing less than a CONCAN, or Kong an, a maritime tract of Western India, treatise. Perhaps we have said enough to show that after situated within the limits of the Presidency of Bombay, performing a great and real service to thought, Comte and extending from the Portuguese settlement of boa on almost sacrificed his claims to gratitude by the invention the S. to the territory of Damfin, belonging to tbe same of a system that, as such, and independently of detached nation, on the N. On the E. it is bounded by the OMts, suggestions, is markedly retrograde. But the world has and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. This tract comprises strong self-protecting qualities. It will take what is the two British districts of Tannah and Itatnagm, and may available in Comte, while forgetting that in his work which be estimated at 300 miles in length, with an average is as irrational in one way as Hegel is in another. breadth of about 40. From the mountains on As easte The English reader is specially well placed for satisfying such frontier, which in one place attain a height of 470 , curiosity as he may have about Comte’s philosophy. Miss Martineau the surface, marked by a succession of irregular hilly spw condensed the six volumes of the Philosophic Positive into two volumes of excellent English (1853); Comte himself gave them a place in from the Ghfits, slopes to the westward, where the mea the Positivist Library. The Catechism was translated by Dr Con- elevation of the coast is not more than 100 feet above te greve in 1858. The Politique Positive has been reproduced in level of the sea. Several mountain streams, but lion ^ English (Longmans, 1875-7) by the conscientious labour of Comte’s any magnitude, traverse the country in the same •bre • London followers. This translation is accompanied by a careful running analysis and explanatory summary of contents, which make One of the most striking characteristics of the cbmat the work more readily intelligible than the original. For criticisms, the violence of the monsoon rains—the mean annual the reader may be referred to Mr Mill’s Auguste Comte and Posi- Mahdbleshwar amounting to 239 inches. It is tivism; Dr Bridges’s reply to Mr Mill, The Unity of Comte’s Life that the abundant moisture borne along from th 1 , and Doctrines (1866); Mr Herbert Spencer’s essay on the Genesis of Science, and pamphlet on The Classification of the Sciences; Iro- Ocean by this aerial current, becomes arrested and con^^^ fessor Huxley’s “Scientific Aspects of Positivism,” in his Lay Ser- by the mountain barrier of the Ghats, and in this mons; Dr Congreve’s Essays Political, Social, and Peligious (1874); accounts for the excessive rains which deluge the O n ^ Mr Fiske’s Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy (1874); Mr Lewes’s The products of this country are the same as t History of Philosophy, vol. ii. (!• MO.)

Women.

c 0 N—C 0 N

239 Malabar ; and the hemp raised is said to be of a stronger disuse. The next step was to allow the privilege of the quality than that grown above the Ghdts. The coast has vote only to the chief among the clergy—carctamAs—the a straight general outline, but is much broken into small cardinal clergy, so called as the principal virtues were called bays and harbours. This, with the uninterrupted view cardinal virtues (see Cardinal). During some centuries along the shore, and the land and sea breezes, which force the emperor was understood to have a controlling voice in vessels steering along the coast to be always within sight the election, in such sort that his approbation was necessary of it, rendered this country from time immemorial the seat for the validity of it. But the practice varied much in this of piracy ; and so formidable had the pirates become in respect, according as the emperor was or was not strong the 18th century, that all ships suffered which did not near at hand, or interested in the election. The history of receive a pass from the chiefs of the pirates. The Great this part of the subject is exceedingly obscure; but it is Mogul maintained a fleet for the express purpose of certain that at least one Pope provided that the consent of checking them, and they were frequently attacked by the the emperor should be necessary for the election of his Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional successor, and on the other hand that other elections were expeditions from Bombay, commencing about 1756 ; but made about the same period without , the emperor’s parthe piratical system was not finally extinguished until ticipation. 1812. It was not till many years after the right of election had According to ancient traditions, this country was inhabited by a been abusively confined to the cardinals, that the practice tribe of savages, till they were conquered by the Hindus, who gave of shutting up those dignitaries for the purpose of exercising it to a tribe of Brahmans ; and it was held by them until it was that right was resorted to. And in the earliest instances taken possession of by the Mahometan kings of Bijapiir. It was conquered in the 17th century by Sivajf, the founder of the the “ conclave ” seems to have been an involuntary imMahratta empire. Towards the close of the same century Konaji prisonment imposed on them ab extra. In 1216 the Angria established a kingdom on this coast, extending 120 miles Perugians constrained the nineteen cardinals who elected from Tannah to Bankut, together with the inland country as far back as the mountains. The dominion of this prince and his Honorius III. to enter into conclave the day after the family over a portion of the tract continued till the line became death of Innocent III., who died at Perugia, keeping them extinct, and the territory lapsed to the paramount power. The imprisoned till the election should be completed. Gregory remainder of the Concan had been already incorporated with the IX. vvas similarly elected at Borne in 1227, the cardinals British dominions since the fall of the Peshwa in 1818. having been shut up against their will by the senators and CONCEPCION, a city of Chili, the capital of the pro- people of Borne. In 1272 Gregory X. was elected at vince of the same name. Founded by Pedro de Valdivia, it \ iterbo by seventeen cardinals, who had not only been was originally situated where the small village of Penco now shut up against their will, but from over whose heads the stands, on the Bay of Talcahuano ; but having been first roof of the building in vdiich the conclave was held was pillaged and destroyed by the Araucanians, and in 1730 removed by the citizens in order to hasten their deliberalevelled to the ground by an earthauake, the town was tions. removed to its present site, 36° 49' S. ’lat., 72° 50'W. long., This Gregory, in a council held at Lyons in 1274, m a fertile plain on the north side of the Bio-Bio, about promulgated a code of law for the conducting of the Papal five miles from the sea and 270 miles south-west of election, comprised in fifteen rules. And these rules, Santiago. In the year 1835 it was again laid in ruins by though modified by subsequent pontiffs m some respects) an earthquake, which so terrified the inhabitants that for and supplemented by a vast number of more minute a long time the place remained partly unoccupied. After- regulations, remain to the present day the foundation and wards, however, the streets were rebuilt, and the area occu- origin of all the law and practice of Papal elections. The pied by the town has been greatly extended. The main text of this code is too lengthy to be given here. It may streets and squares are broad and spacious ; the dwelling- be read in the original Latin in the Life of Gregory X., by houses (mostly of only one floor) are among the best planned Pagi, as in many other works,—the Xotes to Platina by and constructed in Chili; and the cathedral, churches, and Panvinius, &c.;—or in English, slightly abbreviated, in public buildings are handsome edifices. Powerful flour a volume on the Papal conclaves by T. A. Trollope mills are in the town and neighbourhood, as well as (p. 64). The substance of some of the more important immense cellars (bodegas) for the- storage of wheat and provisions may be given summarily, as follows. Cardinals wnm It is connected by rail with its two ports—Tomb to go into conclave on the tenth day after the Pope’s death, and falcahuano, and with all the important towns of the attended by one person only, unless in a case of evident interior. Population, 19,200. need, when two may be permitted. Cardinals to live in CONCLAVE. The word conclave is used to signify any conclave in common without separation between bed and company of persons gathered together in consultation ; its bed by wall, curtain, or veil (modified by subsequent rules pioper meaning is any such gathering of persons locked up to the present practice of a wooden cell for each cardinal). together (con, collective pronoun, and clavis, a key); and No access to conclave to be permitted. An opening to he technical meaning, which has superseded all other uses o le word, save where some other significance is specially be left for food to be passed in. No vote shall be given save in conclave. Cardinals who quit the conclave by indicated is the meeting of the members of the Sacred reason of sickness cannot vote. Those who arrive after 0 lege of Cardinals for the purpose of electing a Pope, the closing of it may enter and vote. Cardinals who may nr!,/ n °Pv’ 'V^° *S simpiy th® bishop of Borne, was have been censured or excommunicated cannot be excluded caifm-a ^,1c16^0C 1sen by the entire body of the people con- from conclave. An election can only be made by a twothirds majority of those present. Any man, lay or nf o ncroachment, ^ i lurcthe b at several Borne. steps Gradually, andare, by as a process of which might ecclesiastic, not a heretic and not canonically incapacitated, confined C+6 A Ve^ °^scure> tbe right of nomination was may be elected Pope. No entreaties or promises to be obieoHnn °e ercisecl -C vei tl13muPeoP.le still retaining a right of made by one cardinal to another with a view of influencing forbidri; ' ^ 7 _ch in the same manner as the the vote. All bargains, agreements, undertakings, even erasnin^f anUS “carriage is now exercised. The though corroborated by an oath, having such an object to t Le cler turbuw/^!-1/ ^ gy combined with the lawless be of no validity; and “ let him that breaks such be ai cons s of ascWf K i ^. i tmg no longer, as originally, deemed worthy of praise rather than of the blame of re i 10us men perjury.” tion > to camp his participation ? > but thealso entire populaof the of laity to fall into Very many popes have sought to enforce and make yet

0 O N—0 0 N Thereupon the “ adoration ” immediately more stringent this last all-important rule, by reiterated subtracted. fulminationa of excommunication ipso facto, in any and takes place, and the Habemus Pontificem is proclaimed (T- A. t.) every case of its contravention. The most solemn forms “ Urbi et Orbi.” CONCORD, a city of the United States of America, of oath that language can devise have been prescribed. capital of New Hampshire, is situated near the centre of The Bulls condemning all simoniacal bargainings have been ordered to be invariably read with every circumstance the State, on the Merrimack River, 42 miles N.W. of Portsof solemnity in every conclave before the business of the mouth and 75 miles N.N.W. of Boston by railroad. It is meeting is entered on. And the result of all these pleasantly laid out, for the most part on the west side of multiplied precautions, precepts, prohibitions, and menaces the river ; and its principal streets are lined with trees. has been that a study of the history of the Papal conclaves The State-house, which is a handsome edifice built of leaves the student with the conviction that no election granite, occupies an open space ornamented with elms and untainted by simony has ever yet been made, while in a maple trees. The town contains also a city hall and three great number of instances the simony practised in the con- public libraries ; while in the neighbourhood there is the clave has been of the grossest, most shameless, and most State asylum for the insane, with a farm attached for the employment of the inmates. Concord is well supplied with overt kind The form of oath, as practised at the present day, which water, and, having both railroad and canal communication, the cardinal pronounces in the act of delivering his vote, is advantageously situated for the development of its manuis as follows: “Tester Christum Dominum, qui me factures. These consist chiefly of carriages, dry goods, judicaturus est, me eligere quern secundum Deum judico leather goods, and furniture. Granite of a superior quality eligi debere—“ I call to witness Christ our Lord, who is also quarried in the neighbourhood ; and a large trade shall be my judge, that I am electing him who before is carried onr in dressed and undressed blocks. I he site of God I think ought to be elected.” The words seem at first the town w as first occupied by settlers in 1725; it was sight to have been chosen and put together with the view known as Rumford until 1765, when it received its present of rendering them as solemn and as binding on the con- name. It was incorporated as a city in 1853, and is now science of the elector as possible. T et a little examination the seat of the courts formerly held in Portsmouth. Popuof them will show that they are well adapted to afford room lation in 1870, 12,241. CONCORD, a town of the United States, in Middlesex for a whole host of equivocations. And, in fact, volumes of subtle casuistry have been written on the exact sense of county, Massachusetts, is 20 miles north-west of Boston by the terms of the cardinal’s oath, and on the degree of railroad. It is a quiet place of 2400 inhabitants, containliteralness in which it must be assumed to be binding on ing a good public library. The interest attached to the the conscience j c.g., it is the opinion of conclave tacticians town arises from the prominent part its citizens took in the that an elector may often injure the final chance of success early revolutionary war. It was here, on the 19th April of a candidate by voting for him at those first scrutinies, 1775, that the first blood was shed in the War of Independwhich are not intended really to result in any election, but ence (concurrent with the battle of Lexington), when an are a mere exploring of the ground and trial of strength. English detachment was driven from the town by Colonel Is an elector, then, to injure the chance of the man he Barrett at the head of some militia and “ minutemen.” A deems the fittest to be elected by voting for him at such granite obelisk, 25 feet in height, was erected in 1835 on times'! Again a man may, doubtless often does, con- the spot where the first English soldiers fell. CONCORDANCE, a verbal index, in which all the scientiously believe himself to be the fittest man to be elected. Must he invalidate his own election by voting leading words used by an author are alphabetically for himself 1 Or must he vote for some other, whom he arranged, with a reference to the place where each occurs. does not think the fittest man 1 It has been asked, may a The want of such a work first made itself felt in the man vote for a candidate whom he does not think the department of biblical interpretation, and the earliest confittest man, when it is clear that that candidate will be cordances were those of the Scriptures. Hence the elected 1 The answer has been in the affirmative, “ because application of the term has been generally limited to it is fitting that an election be made with concord and a Biblical index. The first of these was compiled under the without giving rise to evil passions.” In fact, it is well- direction of Cardinal Hugo de St Caro, who died about nigh certain that if every elector at every scrutiny voted 1262. This concordance was formed from the Vulgate for the man whom he thought fittest to be elected, there translation, and it is said that nearly 500 Dominican could not be any election by a two-thirds majority at all,— monks were employed on it, The earliest Hebrew conso absolutely and necessarily a matter of compromise is cordance, called The Light of the Way, was produced by Rabbi Mordecai Nathan (1438-48), and published at every election ! The present practice is for such cardinals as are present Venice in 1523. This was followed by the much more in Rome to enter conclave on the tenth day after the complete and accurate work of Marius de Calasio, a Pope’s death. Each cardinal finds a boarded cell constructed Franciscan friar, whose concordance, based on that o in the Quirinal or Vatican,—recently the Quirinal, hence- Nathan, was published at Rome in 1621. Buxtorf s is tii forward necessarily the Vatican,—assigned to him by lot. next Hebrew concordance that deserves mention a wor Every morning and every evening they proceed to a marked by much care and scholarship, but following > scrutiny, i.e., to a solemn voting by specially prepared Masoretic divisions of the Old Testament, and so less i e y voting papers (whicn conceal the name of the voter, to be to be of use to the general student. It was pubhs ec . opened only in the case of an election being made at that Basel in 1632, and abridged by Ravius, under the tit scrutiny) in the Sistine or in the Paoline Chapel. After Fount of Zion (Berlin, 1677). In 1754, Dr John ' 7 each scrutiny an “ accessit ” takes place ;—i.e., after the of Norwich published his Hebrew Concordance, Adap number of the votes for each candidate has been declared, the English Bible, Disposed after the Manner of ihW it is open to every voter to declare by a similar secret vote This held the first place among works of the kind, unti that he “accedes” to such or such a candidate. If no appearance of Dr Julius Fiirst’s Hebrew an e ’V , ’ election is thus arrived at, the same process is repeated Concordance. Of Greek concordances to they P ^ the best is that compiled by Abraham Trommius, _mn every morning and every evening, till some cardinal is • found to have the requisite majority of two-thirds of those of Groningen, which was published at Amsterdam m This is a wmrk distinguished by great industry an who are present, plus one, the candidate’s own vote being 240

c o N —C O N

241 tion; it forms a complete index and lexicon to the contain the latest expression by the Pope of his interSeptuagint, all save the book of Daniel, which was not at national functions It was after the empire had, by that time included in the Septuagint version. Among Greek the decree of Irankfort (1338), declared that Papal con concordances to the New Testament, the principal place is farmation and coronation were unnecessary, and the reforma held by that of Erasmus Schmid (1638), reprinted in a t°ry councils of Constance and Basel had increased the corrected form at Gotha in 1717. An abridged edition of controlling power of the whole church, and diminished the this valuable work is published by Messrs Bagster, in their appeals and annates which caused so much discontent that Polymicrian Series. The first of English concordances was pragmatic sanctions and concordats began to be used to reguone to the New Testament, published at London, before late the relations between the different European powers and 1540. The earliest concordance to the entire Bible, in the Papacy. The French Pragmatic of 1268, which defended English, was formed by Marbeck (London, 1550). This the local jurisdictions and rights of presentation, and prohibiwork is very imperfect, and refers only to chapters, not to ted Papal imports except forpious, rational, and urgentcauses verses. It was followed by various others, among which and the Pragmatic Sanction which in 1438 at the Council may be noted the Cambridge Concordance (1689). The of Bruges the French clergy composed in imitation of the Englishman's Concordance, designed for the use of students Basel decrees, were largely modified in favour of Rome by who are acquainted only with the vernacular, is valuable the concordat entered into in 1510 between Francis I. and for purposes of exegesis, and the comparison of different Leo X. This arrangement left the nomination of bishops English translations of the same Greek and Hebrew words. with the Crown, which had before merely given a conge But all of these were thrown into the shade by the full and delire for the election by chapter, but assigned no term trustworthy work of Alexander Cruden. This is entitled A within which the Pope must institute. The consequence Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old was. that whenever it suited his purpose the Pope delayed and New Testament, and was published in 1737. It has institution. After a long period of irritating dispute the been frequently re-edited, and still retains its place as an French clergy, led by Le Pellier and Bossuet, in their authority. Besides concordances to the entire Bible, verbal famous declaration of 1682, formally asserted what are indexes to separate portions of it have been prepared. now called Cismontane or national church principles. There is a Concordance of the Proverbs of Solomon, and of Louis XIV. had considerably enlarged the Crown right of his Sentences in Ecclesiastes ; a Concordance of the Metrical Itegale, which included the revenues of vacant churches, Psalms and Paraphrases (Edin., 1856); and a Concordance but he was now (1693) ignominiously compelled to write a of the Prayer-Book Version of the Psalms. There is also letter to Innocent XL, in which he undertook not to enforce a Concordance of the Apocrypha. Concordances to other the edict of 1682. The suppression of the Jesuits, in 1773, works than the Scriptures are of more recent date. The very was a heavy blow to the temporal influence of Rome. It earliest is a Concordance of Feudal Law, compiled at the urns mainly brought about by the behaviour of Clement end of the 17th century. Twiss and Ayscough each The duke of Parma had prohibited appeals from prepared a concordance to the works of Shakespeare, but his territory to Rome in questions about the benefices of these were both incomplete and incorrect. Mrs M. Cowden I arma, and had also republished the principle, familiar in Clarke, in 1847, supplied the deficiency by her elaborate the common law of Europe, that no Papal rescript should Concordance to Shakespeare. A Concordance to Milton was take effect in 1 arma without receiving the ducal exceyuatur. published in 1867. The latest works of this class are the Clement then fired off the “ Monitorio di Parma,” excomConcordance to the Works of Alfred Tennyson, D.C.L by municating in terms of the Bull “ In Coena” all concerned H B Bngktwell (1869), and that to the works of Alex. in the Parmesan edict. The indignant reaction which Pope by Edwin Abbott (1875). followed in all the courts of Catholic Europe decided the CONCORDAT is an agreement between the Pope, as of Ganganelli and the Regalisti party, who were representing the Catholic Church, and a temporal triumph opposed at the Vatican by the Ultramontane party of sovereign, with reference to the rights of the church within Zelanti. Under the civil constitution which the French the territory of the latter. It must be borne in mind that the pretensions of Hildebrandism (1074 to 1300 a.d.) were Church received from the Revolution, the bishops received very great; they included a power of absolving sovereigns institution from their metropolitan. In 1801, a concordat and subjects from their oaths, a large feudal revenue col- was arranged between Napoleon as first consul and Pius VII. Under this the consul nominated and the Pope lected abroad, a peculiar status for the Catholic clergy. appointed bishops, who were all required to swear allegiance Against these, temporal sovereigns claimed what were called to the republic1. The much more important matters of the jura majestatiscirca sacra,—viz., jus advocation (Schutzrecht), verification of Bulls by Exaequatur, Placitum, or Letters of or the supreme patronage of the national church ; jus cavendi (Recht der Yersorge), or right of considering whether Pareatis, the position of the delegates of the church, the effect to be given to the decrees of councils held out of ecclesiastical regulations conflict with civil duties ; and jus France, and the Appel comme d'Abus, were all settled by nc enci or :i * > general right of superintending the morals of the “ Regulations of the Gallican Church,” better known as .rrAft,C?Ur,ch.an1d the administration of its property. The the Organic Articles, with regard to which the Pope was -p. 18 °l|cai assertions of Papalsent supremacy made in not consulted. Shortly afterwards Napoleon, by the o Decretals“ Venerabilem," in 1197were by Innocent decree of Schonbrunn (1809), annexed the Papal dominions pi.:']-° e^Jonty of the imperial electors who had chosen to France, and imprisoned the Pope at Fontainebleau, ia U where the “ false ” concordat of 1813 wp^ signed. The IV in 0io,^deposed ’ AdFrederick Apostolicw, ” from by which Innocent r thmno ™ ^ -L'icuericK II. 11. irom the tne imperial imperial main provision of this w as to devolve the right of instituoun< er ur tion on the metropolitan bishop, if not exercised by the “ Cleric t ^ ^ ^ P j y, sacrilege, and heresy ; whkh liaW?n fd “ ^nam Sanctam ” C1^ and 1302), Pope within six months. In 1817 the Bourbons tried to n downthnn •Wl- i 6^ taxat i°au °f church property, and laid negotiate a retrograde concordat, but the attempt wars foror The °P ^ fem Sodium esse sub gladio.” tunately frustrated. The political attitude of Guizot and suetudiT” C a]m,S taPPear in tlle Extravagant “ Be Con- Napoleon III. towards Gregory XVI. and Pius IX. was ^,iohn XXIL in in the fre- friendly, but in 1870 the Prussian victories brought to an CW 1 Encychcal T1 Domini” (1773). The Several bishops, who refused this oath, were driven from France, uanta 1864 andd tb - Cura,” and relative Syllabus of and formed in England La Petite Eglise, which existed for some time tae ^ Q ’ Dostxtuzione “Pastor AEternus ” of 1870 (see The Guardian, 4 Feb. 1852). vi. - 31

1

242

CONCORDAT

Pope Leo NIL, which confirmed and, extended the end the French occupation of the Papal States which had with provisions of the earlier concordat relating to the institubegun in the intervention of 1849, and had been continuous of bishops by letters apostolic. The power which the from 1864. By the Italian statute of guarantees (13th tion Crown then reserved of striking out objectionable names May 1871) personal inviolability and the honours of from the list of candidates prepared by the chapter was a sovereign are secured to the Pope. He has also a large entirely renounced by the 16th Article of the Belgian income and several residences, and a private postal and Constitution of 1830, which declares that the state lias no telegraphic service; and he is allowed to receive diplomatic riffiit to interfere with the nomination or installation of agents from foreign states. The same statute gives com- any religious ministers, or to prevent them from correplete freedom to the church, but deprives it of coercive sponding with their superiors or from publishing their Acts. jurisdiction. The royal Placet is relinquished as unne- But then the Government has this indirect control, that all cessary, but a stringent penal law (7th June is the salaries of the Catholic clergy are voted in the annual directed against seditious words, writings, or acts of the budget, and do not belong to the church. The concordat clergy. of 1827 was never in force in Holland, where tlie In the empire the earliest concordat is the Con fundamental law of 1848 (§ 65) declares that no Dutchcordatum Calixtinum of 1122, between Henry V. and man can accept titles without the permission of the ling, Pope Calixtus II. The benefits of the Basel Decrees were and where public opinion has prevented the creation of in great measure lost by the concordat entered into in Catholic bishops. 1448 between Frederick III. and Nicholas Y. The politiSpain, although the most Catholic of powers, has, at cal position of the Pope was much altered by the Treaty least since the accession of the Austrian dynasty, zealously of Westphalia, which, without his consent, and. even against defended its national church rights against the Pope. In his protests, conceded the right to certain nations of fieely 1568, Philip II. claimed as royal prerogative the right to exercising the Protestant religion. to all Spanish bishoprics, and created a Board, Early in the 18th century the cause of the national present “Supremo de la Camara,” to preserve the royal church in Austria, and of the immediate divine right of jurisdiction,Consejo to protect the canons, and to watch over the Episcopacy, was placed on solid foundations of learning external policy in ecclesiastical matters. The Pope having and argument by the writings of Van _ Espen (Jus ecclesiaslicum univeTswnz hodievna? disciplines, Cologne, sided with Austria in the Succession War, the breach 1702; Tractatus de promulgatione legum ecclesiasticarum). between Spain and Rome widened during the 18th century. The abuses of the permanent Nuntiatura, maintained by The principles that no causes should be carried before a outside the kingdom, that benefices should he conthe Pope, called forth the Punctation of the four archbishops judge ferred only on natives, that sovereigns are not subject to who met at Ems, 25th August 1786. Joseph II. had or spiritual censure, that all Bulls should, before already carried out large reforms, but these episcopal interdict publication, be subject to the royal 6edida, were loudly resolutions recommended still further changes in the : and angrily proclaimed ; and in 1805 the king attacked ‘ RecursuS ad Principem,” or prohibition of appeals. to the secret influences the Curia by directing that all Rome, the power of dispensation and of granting faculties, applications to Rome of for grants and dispensation should the administration of conventual property and charitable funds, the reservation of benefices and their transmission receive the Vista Bueno of the royal agent at Rome. by inheritance, the exaction of annates and pallium money, The estrangement continued in the 19 th century, when till &c. Under the decrees of Joseph II. in 1781, no Papal 1848 the Pope refused to recognize the succession of Bulls or rescripts were allowed to be published, except such Isabella II. under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830. _ From 1753 to 1851, matters had stood on a concordat which the as bad received the Placitum Regium, and had been eminent statesman, De Carbajal, persuaded Ferdinand VL effected through the intervention of the imperial and royal to negotiate with Clement XII. It gave the king the right agency at Rome. In 1850, however, both the bishops and the faithful under their charge were allowed to have of presentation to vacant bishoprics (patronatos), and to recourse to the Pope in spiritual matters, and to receive the the Pope 22,000,000 reales as compensation for the Joss of decisions of his Holiness without the previous consent of annates and fees on briefs. The concordats of 1851 and are more favourable to Rome; but the attempt ot the secular authorities. With the exception of the three 1859 Canovas del Castillo and the Cardinal Simeoni to procure a archbishoprics of Olmiitz, Salzburg, and Breslau, where the archbishop is elected by the chapter, the practice was, recognition of the 1851 concordat, in 1875, was defeated General Jovellar. on a bishopric becoming vacant, for the emperor to by In non-Roman Catholic states, of course, no valid concoipropose three candidates from whom the Pope selects one— a selection subsequently ratified by the emperor. I he dat could be framed. Accordingly, as in the cases of same decree of 1850, proceeding on the anti-revolutionary Prussia (1821) and Hanover (1824), edicts relating to imperial patent of 4th March 1849 (§2), permits Catholic the adjustment of dioceses, or other matters not purely bishops to issue admonitions and ordinances, without spiritual, were issued by the Pope under the name of But ®0 consent of the civil power, to decree ecclesiastical punish- Circumscriptionis. These were formally sanctioned y ments which do not affect purely civil rights, to suspend Home Government, and directed to be printed in the co and remove from ecclesiastical office, and to declare emolu- lection of laws. ments forfeited, and to control education in primary and The most important sources of information on this subject are th« intermediate schools and in the universities. This arrange- reports presented to Parliament in 1816 and l851, on the ^ re 1 0 tr e ment was sealed by the concordat of 18th August 1855 lation of Roman Catholic Subjects in P° igl riP ™ i) Alll-mr.ve’3 . (printed fully in Times, 20th November 1855), which, have been summarized in the 2d volume ot Sir R. bDb Commentaries on International Law. The works of \ an R l however, was repealed by the series of Church Acts the Enchiridion Juris Ecclesiastici of George Rechberger ( / passed by Prince Auersperg in 1874, in imitation of the standard works. The French concordats have been elaborately u cussed by M. de Pradt, at one time archbishop of Malmes, m ^ Falk legislation of Prussia. t The relations of Belgium with Rome were of course at Quatres Concordats, 3 vols., Brussels, 1815, and Concordats, 1 vol., Paris, 1820. The works of the eminent J m one time determined by the decree of the French National Portalis, who took an active part in the discussion °t “ Assembly (1791), and the concordat between Pius VII. French concordats, may also be consuRed,—Zhscours, and Napoleon (1801). On 18th June 1827, William L, Travaux intdits sur Ic Conccn-dat de 1801, Ls Articles Org^ ^ ' Protestant king of the Netherlands, entered into a concordat &c.

c 0 N— C 0 N

243 CONCOEDIA, the goddess of concord, a Roman extent upon the nature and qualities of the materials most divinity, in whose honour several temples were erected at available for making it. The bdton agglomdrd of M F Rome. The most ancient of these was that built on the Coignet is composed of about 180 parts of sand, 44 of declivity of the Capitol by Camillus, 367 B.c. In this slaked lime, 33 of Portland cement, and 20 of water. A temple the senate sometimes assembled. It was restored mixture of the cement with the sand and lime is first by Livia, the wife of Augustus, and consecrated by made, with the addition of small quantities of water • the Tiberius, 9 a.d. In the time of Constantine and Maxentius mass is then incorporated with the requisite amount of it was destroyed by fire, but was again restored. The second water in a cylindrical machine, from the bottom of which temple was erected close to that of Vulcan by Cn. Flavius; it is delivered ready for compression in moulds. This and there was a third built by L. Manlius, on the Capitoline composition can be formed into blocks of any desired bulk • Hill. Concordia was represented as a matron holding in and these, after exposure to the weather for a few weeks; her right hand a patera, or an olive branch, and in her left acquire a hardness equal to that of good building stone. A a cornucopia. Her symbols were two hands joined together, good concrete can be made from 60 parts of coarse pebbles and two serpents entwined about a caduceus, or herald’s 25 of rough sand, and 15 of lime. Semple recommends a staff. mixture of Smarts of pebbles, 4 of sharp river sand, and CONCORDIA, a village of Italy in the province of 1 of lime. Ihe proportions given by Treussart are unVenice, 35 miles N.E. of the city of that name, and in the slaked hydraulic lime 30 parts by measure, trass of immediate neighbourhood of the town of Portogruaro, of Andernach 30, sand 30, gravel 20, broken stone or hard importance as preserving the name and marking the site limestone 40 parts; and for another concrete, hydraulic lime of a famous Roman city of the later empire. It was pro- 33 parts, pozzuolana 45, sand 22, broken stone and gravel bably founded by Augustus, on the pacification of his 60 parts; the former is used as soon as made, the latter dominions, and consequently bears the full title of Colonia should be exposed about 12 hours after preparation. Burnt Julia Concordia. Its rapidly growing prosperity, well clay and pounded brick may be used in the same proporattested even by the fragmentary remains of its buildings, tions as the trass, but are best not employed in sea-water. was suddenly crushed by Attila in 152 a.d. ; but its con- The quantity of natural or artificial pozzuolanas is increased tinued existence throughout the Middle Ages is proved and that of the gravel or stone decreased, if rich limes are both by history and by archaeology. The baptistry still ex- used (Burnell, Limes, &c). Excellent concrete is made tant is in the style of the 9th century, and an inscription from Thames or other river ballast mingled with 1th or 4th preserves the memory of a bishop Regimpotus of the 10th. its bulk of lime ; in setting it contracts by about one-fifth The place has been brought again into notice by the dis- of its volume, a cubic yard of the concrete requiring 30 covery, in 1873, of the old Christian cemetery which has cubic feet of ballast and 3J cubic feet of lime. Hydraulic furnished upwards, of 160 stone coffins, in several cases concrete must contain a sufficiency of mortar to aggregate distinguished by inscriptions of considerable import to the whole mass of rubbly material, and the lime or cement the historian.—See Bullettino delV Institute) di Corr Arch should be thoroughly slaked before the immersion of the 1874. concrete. For the breakwater at Dover Mr Lee employed CONCRETE, an artificial conglomerate or rubble 16 foot cubes of concrete made ill moulds, composed of masonry, consisting of a mixture of coarse pieces of stone, lortland cement, Portland stone chippings, sand, and gravel, shingle, broken brick, or crushed slag with sand shingle. The blocks at the mole, Marseilles, were formed and Portland or other cement. It is employed for laying from 5 parts of sand, 2 of broken stone, and 3 of Theil the foundations of bridges and of buildings on soft or wet lime. The concrete used at the extension of the London ground, as also in the construction of moles and break- docks consisted of 1 part of blue Lias lime to 6 of gravel waters, and of houses and churches; for the backing of and. sand ; and that made by M. Vicat for the bridge at wharves, of the abutments of arches, and of masonry Souillac, on the Dordogne, contained, with 26 parts of hygenerally where heavy walls are required; for the draulic lime, 39 of granitic sand, and 66 of gravel. The substance of fire-proof doors; for the making of sewer-pipes; composition for the Copenhagen sea-forts was 1 part and as a paving for streets and floors. It soon hardens after use, becoming a stony mass little permeated by of Portland cement, 4 of sand, and 16 of fragments of stone. moisture. In the shape of blocks, sometimes weighing Austin's artificial stone is a concrete of sand and other very many tons, it has' been found of great value for the materials cemented by lime, llcinsome's concrete stone is tormation of harbours and sea-walls in places to which made by subjecting a mixture of sodium silicate and clean stone could not have been transported. The foundations o the breakwater pier at Douglas, Isle of Man, were made pit sand, to which between 5 and 10 per cent, of chalk lias y aymg down concrete within frames resting on sub- been added, to the action of a solution of calcium chloride, larme rock. The quay walls of Stobcross Docks, Glasgow, whereby insoluble calcium silicate and soluble sodium chloride, or common salt, are produced, the former acting fPPi inPiP°rt?u °n ntriple SrouPs of concrete cylinders, 271 as a cementing material for the particles of sand. The is fnrmoi^ 1Sl ln re^ing on iron shoes. Each cylinder stone is made non-a,bsorbent by giving the face of it a wash i 0p ^ f ^ ^ g in the soil a column of eleven rings with sodium silicate, and then a second application of tlie gravel it °5 ains ^1S’ a18^ter cleared of the sand and calcium chloride. (See H. Reid, A Practical Treatise on crete ’ filled with Portland cement con- Concrete, London, 1869.) in„ A , ,a ® ar.e macle of concrete either by allowCONCUBINAGE, the state of a man and woman cohabitea in lass or° bv ™ • ^ between two faces of boarding, ing as married persons without the sanction of a legal marbricks ^ int;o blocks and building as with riage. In a scriptural sense, it denotes cohabiting lawfully the term •nCI-e 6 Was employed by the Romans, by whom with a wife of second rank, who enjoyed no other conjugal applied t0 a killd of laster posed P com- right but that of cohabitation, and whom the husband tke idea of nn\e • tl>eS and lnor*;ar f ancl Smeaton gained could repudiate and dismiss with a small present (Gen. xxi.) t0 tPe from an contraction of river-works In like manner he could, by means of presents, exclude his P the shire a Saxo n ™inS of Corfe Castle iri Dorset- children by her from the heritage (Gen. xxv.) To judge from the conjugal histories of Abraham and Jacob, the imomposition of concrete necessarily depends to some mediate cause of concubinage was the barrenness of the lawful wife, who in that case introduced her maid-servant

244

CON- -CON

to her husband, for the sake of having children. This resembles the singular practice authorized not only in Israel (Deut. xxv.), and anciently in Athens and Sparta, but by the laws of Menu, that a brother, or some other person, should be substituted when the married couple had been unable to produce offspring. In process of time, however, concubinage appears to have degenerated into a regular custom among the Jews ; and the institutions of Moses were directed to prevent excess and abuse in that respect. The Roman differed from jushvnuptuv in not giving the father the jx>le$tas over his children, and from contubemium, which was the concubinage of slaves. It was a permanent monogamous relation, free from some of the restrictions imposed by the civil law uinm marriages. Although the married woman had a more dignified position, concubinage was thought the appropriate union for persons of different ranks, as a patroniu and libevta. Ry imperial legislation, naturales librri and concubines were gradually admitted to limited rights of succession ; and the legitimation per subsequens mairimonium completed their status. Concubinage is also used to signify a marriage with a woman of inferior condition, to whom the husband does not convey his rank. Such concubinage was beneath marriage both as to dignity and civil rights, yet concubine was a reputable title, and very different from that of “ mistress ” among us. The concubine also might be accused of adultery in the same manner as a wife. Ry French law the presence of a concubine in the house entitles the wife to a divorce. This kind of concubinage is still in use in some countries, particularly in Germany, under the title of halbehe (half-marriage), or left-hand marriage, in allusion to the manner of its being contracted, namely, by the man giving the woman his left hand instead of the right. This is a real marriage, though without the usual solemnity ; and the parties are both bound to each other for ever, though the female caunot bear the husband’s name and title. Neither spouse has any right of succession to the other, but the children take a third of the father’s estate, if he leaves no lawful children. Du Cange observes that one may gather from several passages in the epistles of the popes that they anciently allowed of such connections. The seventeenth canon of the first Council of Toledo (400 a.d.) declares that he w ho with a faithful wife keeps a concubine is excommunicated ; but that if the concubine serve him as a wife, so that he has only one woman, under the title of concubine, he shall not be rejected from communion. This applied not only to laymen, but to inferior priests, who were then allowed to marry. The latter councils extend the name concubine to disreputable women not kept in the house. That is also the meaning of the word in the 8th rubric of the concordat of 1517 between Leo X. and Francis I. The Council of Nicjea refers to a class of secret concubines, sujierinductee, and bt Augustine denounces all irregular relations. It is certain the patriarchs had a great number of wives, and that these did not all hold the same rank,—some being inferior to the principal wife. Solomon had 700 wives and .*100 concubines. Q. Curtius observes that Darius w’as followed in his army by 365 concubines, all in the equipage of queens. In most Mahometan and other polygamous countries, female slaves are used as concubines and etijoy a certain status. Under the ancient Fuero»t which succeeded the Lex Visigotfwrum in Spain, concubinage w as recognized by the name of barragania. The parties entered into a contract [carta de mancebia e campanera), by which the man took the concubine por todos los dios que yo visquiere, and she received right to bread, table, and knife [a pan, mesa, e cuchello). Apart from contract, some Fueros gave the faithful concubine a right of succession to one-half of the man’s

acquired property. The Council of Valladolid (1228) reproved the barragania of priests. Similarly the Gragas, or ancient law of Iceland, recognized the frilla, or concubine, alongside of the husfreyia, or law ful wife, though the two were not permitted to dwell in the same house. According to the Danish hand vesten, the concubine who had publicly lived with a man and partaken his meals for three winters became a lawful wife. The Celtic handfast marriage may also be referred to. (w. c. 8.) CON DAM INK, Charles Marie de la. See La ConDAMINE. COND&, a town of France, in the department of Nord, arroudissement of Valenciennes, is situated at the continence of the Scheldt and the llaiue, and at the terminus of the Mons canal, two miles from the Belgian frontier. It contains a hotel de ville and an arsenal, a church and a hospital. Rrewing is carried on to a small extent, as well as the manufacture of oil and salt, and there is a large trade in coal. The place is of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later Roman period. Taken in 1076 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into the possession of France by the Treaty of Nimeguen two years later, and was afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the revolutionary war it was attacked and taken by the Austrians (1794); and in 1815 it again fell to the Allies. Cond ystallized sugar, may The growth of private (or auricular) confession is more diffiIfc is re ared from either ^n or'redn d Sll P P ^^s of cult to trace. Even those who would be most inclined to neal or so 8 other , colo c uringar, to the latter of which cochi- represent it as primitive admit that for the first three These snW g ingredient is frequently added, centuries little or no mention is made of any such practice; 1 i into moiilrk10nS’ wPeaP°de(t to a proper degree, are poured and though they would fain attribute such silence to perPieces of , •aCr0SSAdllcP at sufficient intervals are stretched secution, or to the reserve known as the disciplina arcani, solution on tl!”' v5T le ®uSar gradually crystallizes from its they seem inclined to admit that private confession was a SgTn tL 0< ^ °\ the mould and on the string,-it development, and grew up gradually. Passages from the 90° to 100° ^,IltlIne kePt in an apartment heated from fathers, such as St Cyprian, St Basil, St Gregory of When remaining efficiently deposited, the Nyssa, and others, recommending the practice, have to be and dried in^n °h • ^ drai,ued od> and the crystals removed confronted with the small prominence given to it in the heafc s paration o ' Fond^ > are themade pre- works of St Augustine and the strong declarations of St c the French confectioners excel, Chrysostom on the sufficiency of confession to God. But VI- - 33

CON- ■ CON the practice gradually became more common, especially in confessor—say of the king of Spain—means, of course the West, and more a matter of rule and precept; until at that he is the person to whom that sovereign confesseslength, in the fourth Lateran Council, held under Pope but the term found simply after a name, as “ St Leonard Innocent III, in 1215, it was enjoined upon all members confessor,” means that the person so designated underwent of the Church of Rome once a year, by the famous 21st more or less of suffering on behalf of the Christian faith canon, beginning with the words, Otnnis utriusgue sexus though he may not have been an actual martyr. This Jidelis. The mediaeval church of the West fixed the number latter sense is the usual one in ancient writers. In like of sacraments as seven, and insisted on auricular confession manner the term confessional, which is now commonly as an essential part of the sacrament of penance. Confes- employed to signify the structure placed in Roman Catholic sion and absolution was reserved for the priesthood.. Yet churches for the purpose of hearing confessions, meant a certain recognition of a quasi-priestly power, residing in originally, in Christian antiquity, the place where a martyr the church at large, and in some sense therefore in the laity, had been buried. It was subsequently applied to a tomb appears in the Roman office-books, and we find laymen, in built over a spot thus hallowed either in the crypt or in cases of extreme emergency, confessing and absolving each the upper part of a church. The authorities on the subject embrace, as has been seen, acts of other. (An instance occurs in one of the earliest and confessions of faith, and an abundance of controversial works, most admirable of French biographies, Joinville s Life of councils, The foreign Reformers—Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, Zwingli— St Louis.) Russia appears now to be the country where, have all touched upon it in their writings. Among Anglican at least in theory, confession is most insisted upon as a works may be named Jewell’s Apology, and Marshall’s Penitential certificate of annual confession (often, it is said, purchased) Discipline of the Early Church (republished in the Anglo-Catholic Library, 1844), and various modern Catenae of authorities, as Gray’s is a condition of being a witness in court. Statement on Confession. The Roman Catholic view is set forth At the Reformation the reformed communities were ■ in such works as Klee’s Dogmatilc and History of Dogmas (Mayence, unanimous in rejecting enforced auricular confession, but ISIW, 1838), and Martigny’s Didionnaire des antiquites chretiennes, it is a mistake to suppose that they were equally unanimous Paris, 1865. The subject is a prominent one in the Acts of the of Trent, and for the fourth Lateran Council the student in reprobating its use in cases where it was sought by the Council may refer to Labbe’s Concilia (tom. vii.,Paris, 1714). (J. G.C.) free choiceof penitents. The Augsburg Confession (part i. CONFIRMATION, an ecclesiastical term denoting the art. 11) retains it, and Melanchthon asserts that many frequently availed themselves of it. Luther did not even laying on of bands, in the admission of baptized persons to deny its claim to a sacramental character; nor has it ever the enjoyment of full Christian privileges. The antiquity died out among the Lutherans. But the sacramental of this ceremony is, by all the older writers, carried as high character is denied by Calvin and the Calvinistic churches as the apostles, and founded upon their example and generally. Peter Martyr, Chamier, and others seem to practice. In the primitive church the ceremony was identify absolution with the preaching of God’s Word. performed immediately after baptism, if the bishop were Nevertheless absolution still retained, for a long time, a present at the solemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughdisciplinarian character even among these bodies. Thus out the East, it still accompanies baptism; but the we find the Scottish ministers offering absolution to the Roman Catholics make it a distinct and independent marquis of Montrose before his execution at Edinburgh on sacrament. Seven years is the stated but not the uniMay 21, 1650 ; and his refusal seems, according to the, form age for confirmation. The view put forth in the historian Burton, to have influenced his enemies in the English prayer-book is, that the person confirmed releases matter of the sepulture granted to his remains. Private his godfather and godmother, by taking upon himself the confession also finds a place in the English prayer-book and baptismal vows in their place,—an aspect of the matter not homilies. Before the Revolution of 1688 it was so far apparently recognized in the ancient church, which regarded common that we find Bishop Burnet, in his History of it almost exclusively as a means of grace and a preparaHis Own Times, naming this or that clergyman as confessor tion for the reception of the Holy Communion. This in the family of such and such a nobleman. To divulge ordinance is usually reserved for the bishop only. It has, anything thus confided is as strictly forbidden in the however, always been a moot point, whether he may not reformed English as in the mediaeval or modern Roman delegate a presbyter to perform it for him. Such delegachurch, though an exception is made in the English canons tion is not uncommon in the Eastern Churches, but is in the case of such crimes as might endanger the life of the practically unknown in the West. The Calvinists (in comrecipient of the confession by making him an accessory in mon with most non-episcopal communities) have always rejected confirmation. the eye of the law. CONFUCIUS, the famous sage of China (550 or 551The connection of confession with casuistry and with the morality of nations, cannot be discussed here. As regards 478 B.c.) They are very few among all the millions of casuistry, it must suffice to allude to the great name of the Chinese people who would not heartily repeat the lines Pascal, and the controversy arising out of his celebrated with which the first paragraph in a popular history of the Lettres Provinciates. The question of its effect on morality sage concludes :— is still more complex and difficult to estimate. As a “ Confucius ! Confucius ! How great was Confucius ! rule, we may expect to find its influence well spoken Before Mm there was no Confucius, Since him there has been no other. , „ of by Roman Catholics and the reverse in the opposite Confucius ! Confucius ! How great was Confucius. camps; nevertheless, some Protestant writers, as Hallam, The man whose memory is thus cherished by a third and perhaps Sismondi, appear to view it with a certain amount of tolerance and even favour, while some Roman portion of the human race, and the stamp of whose Catholic writers {e.g., Vitellaschi, under the pseudonym character and teachings is still impressed, after so long a Pomponio Leto), on the contrary, seem inclined to censure time, on the institutions of his country, demands our1S at any rate its extreme development in the form of direction, careful study. In order to understand the events of ^ as injurious to proper self-reliance and independence of life and the influence of his opinions, we must endeavour^ to get some impression of the China that existed in 18 Cok character. It remains to add, that the terms confessor and con- time, in the 5th and 6th centuries before our Christian era. The dynasty of Chow, the third which within hs one fessional are used by ecclesiastical writers in very distinct senses, which can only be judged of by the context in which time had ruled the country, lasting from 1122 to ^ they are found. The statement that a given priest is the had passed its zenith, and its kings no longer held 258

•

CONFUCIUS

259

sceptre with a firm grasp. It must not be supposed that had its historiographers and musicians. Institutions of an the territory under their sway extended over all the eighteen educational character abounded. There were ancient hisprovinces which now constitute what is called “ China tories and poems,and codes of laws, and books of ceremonies. proper.” It was not a sixth part of the present empire. Yet the period was one of wide-spread and ever-increasing On the south it hardly reached half-way from the Ho, or suffering and degeneracy. While the general government Yellow River, to the Kiang, or Yang-tze. Cheh-kiang, was feeble, disorganization was at work in each particular Kiang-si, Hu-nan, Fuh-kien, Kwang-tuug, Kwang-si, Kwei- state. But three things must be kept in mind when we compare chow, and the great provinces of Yun-nan, Sze-ch‘uen, and Kan-suh on the west, were thinly peopled by barbarous feudal China with feudal Europe,—three elements which tribes which acknowledged no subjection to “ the Middle wrought to give to the former peculiarities of character for State.” Ho-nan and Shan-si, with portions of Shen si, which our better acquaintance with the latter will not Chih li, Shan tung, Gan-hwui, Kiang-su, and Hu-pih, were have prepared us. First, wu must take into account the all which formed the dominions of Chow. For thirteen long duration of the time through which the central years of his life Confucius wandered about from state to authority was devoid of vigour. For about five centuries state, seeking rest and patrons ; but his journeyings were state was left to contend with state, and clan with clan in confined within the modern provinces of Ho-nan and Shan- the several states. The result was chronic misrule, and tung, and the borders of Chih-li and Hu-pih. Many misery to the masses of the people, with frequent famines. Europeans now living have travelled over much more of Secondly, we must take into account the institution of polyChina than ho did. The fact helps us to realize the gamy, with the low status assigned to woman, and the many relation of Confucius to his age, and it shows us that restraints put upon her. In the ancient poems, indeed, he gained his high position through his own unaided there are a few pieces which arc true love songs, and expowers and the influences of his native country. It has press a high appreciation of the virtue of their subjects ; never been hinted, as in the case of his contemporary, the but there are many more which tell a different tale. The founder of Taoism, that ho learned anything from abroad. intrigues, quarrels, murders, and grossnesses that grew out Within this China of the Chow dynasty there might be of this social condition it is difficult to conceive, and w ould a population, in Confucius’s time, of from 10,000,000 to be impossible to detail. Thirdly, we must take into account 15,000,000. We read frequently, in the classical books, the absence of strong and definite religious beliefs, properly of the “ ten thousand states,” in which the people were so called, which has always been a characteristic of the distributed; but that is merely a grand exaggeration. In Chinese people. We are little troubled, of course, with what has been called, though erroneously, as we shall see, heresies, and are not shocked by the outbreaks of theologiConfucius's History of his oxen Times, we find only 13 states cal zeal ; but where thought as well as action does not of note, and the number of all the states, large and small, reach beyond the limits of earth and time, we do not find which can be brought together from it, and the much more man in his best estate. We miss the graces and consolaextensive supplement to it by Tso K‘iu-ming, not much tions of faith; we have human efforts and ambitions, but they are unimpregnated with divine impulses and heavenly posterior to the sage, is under 150. Chow was a feudal kingdom. The lords of the different aspirings. Confucius appeared, according to Mencius, one of his most territories belonged to five orders of nobility, corresponding closely to the dukes, marquises, earls, counts, and barons distinguished follow'ers (371-288 B.C.), at a crisis in the of feudal Europe. The theory of the constitution required nation’s history. “ The world,” he says, “ had fallen into that the princes, on every fresh succession, should receive decay, and right principles had disappeared. Perverse investiture from the king, and thereafter appear at his discourses and oppressive deeds were waxen rife. Ministers court at stated times. They paid to him annually certain murdered their rulers, and sons their fathers. Confucius specified tributes, and might be called out with their was frightened by what he saw’,—and ho undertook the military levies at any time in his service. A feudal work of reformation.” The sage was born, according to the historian Sze-ma History of kingdom was sure to be a prey to disorder unless there life were energy and ability in the character and administration Ts’in, in the year 550 B.C.; according to Kung-yang and Kuh-liang, two earlier commentators on his Annals of Lu, of the sovereign ; and Confucius has sketched, in the w'ork referred to above, the Annals of Lu, his native state, for in 551 ; but all three agree in the month and day assigned 242 years, from 722 to 481 b.c., which might almost be to his birth, which took place in winter. His clan name summed up in the words: “ In those days there was no w’as K‘ung, and it need hardly be stated that Confucius is king in China, and every prince did what was right in merely the Latinized form of K*ung Fu-tze, meaning “ the his own eyes.” In 770 b.c. a northern horde had plundered philosopher or master K‘ung.” He was a native of the the capital, which was then in the present department of state of Lu, a part of the modern Shan-tung, embracing Si-gan, Shen-si, and killed the king, whose son withdrew the present department of Yen-chow and other portions of across the Ho and established himself in a new centre, the province. Lu had a great name among the other states near the present city of Loh-yang in Ho-nan ; but from of Chow, its marquises being descended from the duke of that time the prestige of Chow was gone. Its representa- Chow, the legislator and consolidator of the dynasty which tives continued for four centuries and a half with the title had been founded by his father and brother, the famous of king, but they were less powerful than several of their kings Wan and Wu. Confucius’s own ancestry is traced feudatories. The Annals of Lxi, enlarged by Tso K‘iu- up, through the sovereigns of the previous dynasty of Shang, ming so as to embrace the history of the kingdom generally, to Hwang-ti, whoso figure looms out through the mists of are as full of life and interest as the pages of Froissart. fable in prehistoric times. A scion of the house of Shang, Feats of arms, great battles, heroic virtues, devoted friend- the surname of which w’as Tze, wTas invested by King Wu ships, and atrocious crimes make the chronicles of China W’ith the dukedom of Sung in the present province of Ho in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries before the birth of nan. There, in the Tze line, towards the end of the 8th Christ as attractive as those of France and England in the century b.c., w’e find a K'ung Kia, whose posterity, accord14th and some other centuries after it. There was in ing to the rules for the dropping of surnames, became the China in the former period more of literary culture and of K'ung clan. He was a high officer of loyalty and probity, many arts of civilization than there was in Europe in the and unfortunately for himself had a wife of extraordinary latter. Not only the royal court, but every feudal court, beauty. Hwa Tuh, another high officer of the duchy, that

T! >1

260

CONFUCIUS

lie might get this lady into his possession, brought about complete this work. They were long in rejoining him, and the death of K‘ung Kia, and was carrying his prize in had then to tell him that they had been detained by a a carriage to his own palace, when she strangled herself on heavy fall of rain, which threw down the first product of the way. The K‘ung family, however, became reduced, their labour. He burst into tears, and exclaimed, “ Ah | and by-and-by its chief representative moved from Sung to they did not raise mounds over their graves in antiquity.” affection for the memory of his mother and dissatisLu, where in the early part of the 6 th century we meet His with his own innovation on ancient customs thus with Shuh-liang Heih, the father of Confucius, as command- faction blended together ; and we can sympathize with his tears. ant of the district of Tsow, and an officer renowned for his For the regular period of 27 months, commonly spoken of feats of strength and daring. _ _ . . three years, he observed all the rules of mourning, There was thus no grander lineage in China than that o^ as they were over he allowed five more days to elapse Confucius ; and on all his progenitors, since the throne of When before would take his lute, of which he had been deShang passed from their line, with perhaps one exception, votedlyhefond, in his hands. He played, but when he tried he could look back with complacency. He was the son of sing to the accompaniment of the instrument, his feelHeih’s old age. That officer, when over seventy years, to overcame him. and having already nine daughters and one son, because that ings For some years after this our information about Conson was a cripple, sought an alliance with a gentleman of fucius is scanty. Hints, indeed, occur of his devotion to the Yen clan, who had three daughters. The father sub- the study of music and of ancient history; and we can mitted to them Heih’s application, saying that, though he was old and austere, he was of most illustrious descent, and perceive that his character was more and more appreciated the principal men of Lu. He had passed his thirtieth they need have no misgivings about him. Ching-tsai, the by youngest of the three, observed that it was for their father year when, as he tells us, “ he stood firm ” in his convicto decide in the case. “ You shall marry him then,” said tions on all the subjects to the learniug of which he had the father, and accordingly she became the bride of the old bent his mind fifteen years before. In 517 b.c. two scions man, and in the next year the mother of the sage. It is of one of the principal houses inLu joined the company of one of the undesigned coincidences which confirm the his disciples in consequence of the dying command of its credibility of Confucius’s history, that his favourite disciple chief; and being furnished with the means by the marquis of the state, he made a visit with them to the capital of the was a scion of the Yen clan. Heih died in the child’s third year, leaving his family in kingdom. There he examined the treasures of the royal straitened circumstances. Long afterwards, when Confucius library, and studied the music which was found in its was complimented on his acquaintance with many arts, he highest style at the court. There, too, according to Szeaccounted for it on the ground of the poverty of his youth, ma Ts‘in, he had several interviews with Lao-tze, the father which obliged him to acquire a knowledge of matters of Taoism. It is characteristic of the two men, that the belonging to a mean condition. When he was five or six, latter, a transcendental dreamer, appears to have thought people took notice of his fondness for playing with his little of his visitor, while Confucius, an inquiring thinker, companions at setting out sacrifices, and at postures of was profoundly impressed with him. On his return to Lu, in the same year, that state fell into ceremony. He tells us himself that at fifteen his mind was great disorder. The marquis was worsted in a struggle set on learning ; and at nineteen, according to the ancient and modern practice in China, in regard to early unions, with his ministers, and fled to the neighbouring state of he was married,—his wife being from his ancestral state Ts‘i. Thither also went Confucius, for he would not of Sung. A son, the only one, so far as we know, that he countenance by his presence the men who had driven their ever had, was born in the following year ; but he had ruler away. He was accompanied by many of bis disciples; subsequently two daughters. Immediately after his. mar- and as they passed by the T‘ai Mountain, an incident riage we find him employed under the chief of the Ki clan occurred, which may be narrated as a specimen of the way to whose jurisdiction the district of Tsow belonged, first in which he communicated to them his lessons. The as keeper of stores, and then as superintendent of parks attention of the travellers was arrested by a woman weeping and herds. Mencius says that he undertook such mean and wailing at a grave. The sage stopped, and sent one offices because of his poverty, and distinguished himself of his followers to ask the reason of her grief. My by the efficiency with which he discharged them, without husband’s father ” said she, “ was killed here by a tiger, and my husband also, and now my son has met the same any attempt to become rich. In his twenty-second year Confucius commenced his fate.” Being asked why she did not leave so fatal a spot, labours as a teacher. He did so at first, probably, in a she replied that there was there no oppressive governhumble way; but a school, not of boys to be taught the ment. “ Kemember this,” said Confucius to his disciples, elements of learning, but of young and inquiring spirits “ remember this, my children, oppressive government is _ . who wished to be instructed in the principles of right con- fiercer and more feared than a tiger.” He did not find in Ts‘i a home to his liking, duct and government, gradually gathered round him. He accepted the substantial aid of his disciples ; but he rejected marquis of the state was puzzled how to treat him. none who could give him even the smallest fee, and he teacher was not a man of rank, and yet the prince fel would retain none who did not show earnestness and capa- he ought to give him more honour than rank could c • ' city. “ When I have presented,” he said, “ one corner of Some counsellors of the court spoke of him as ‘ a subject, and the pupil cannot of himself make out the able and conceited, with a thousand peculiarities, i proposed to assign to him a considerable revenue, other three, I do not repeat my lesson.” not accept it while his counsels were not loll Grief for Two years after, his mother died, and he buried her in would _ loss of his the same grave with his father. Some idea of what his Dissatisfactions ensued, and he went back to Lu.nva L There for fifteen more years he continued m P ^ mother. " '“ future life was likely to be was already present to his mind. It was not the custom of antiquity to raise any tumulus prosecuting his studies, and receiving many access! over graves, but Confucius resolved to innovate in the his disciples. He had a difficult part to play Mf* matter. He would be travelling, he said, to all quarters different parties in the state, but he adroitly kept of the kingdom, and must therefore have a mound by aloof from them all ; and at last, in his which to recognize his parents’ resting-place. _ He returned ho was made chief magistrate of the^city of Ch^ home from the interment alone, having left his disciples to marvellous reformation, we are

CONFUCIUS

261 the manners of the people, and the marquis, a younger f^ersagcs still who lived in a more distant golden age. brother of the one that fled to Ts‘i and died there, called With his own lessons and those patterns, any ruler of his him to higher office. He was finally appointed minister of day, w/to would listen to him, might reform and renovate crime,—and there was an end of crime. Two of his his own state, and his influence would break forth beyond disciples at the same time obtained influential positions in its limits till the face of the whole kingdom should be filled the two most powerful clans of the state, and co-operated with a multitudinous relation-keeping, well-fed, happy with him. He signalized his vigour by the punishment of people. _ “ If any ruler, ” he once said, “ would submit to a great officer and in negotiations with the state of Ts‘i. me as his director for twelve months, I should accomplish He laboured to restore to the marquis his proper authority, something considerable ; and in three years I should attain and as an important step to that end, to dismantle the the realization of my hopes.” Such were the ideas, the fortified cities where the great chiefs of clans maintained dreams of Confucius. But he had not been able to get themselves like the barons of feudal Europe. For a couple the ruler of his native state to listen to him. His sage of years he seemed to be master of the situation. “ He counsels had melted away before the glance of beauty and strengthened the ruler,” it is said, “and repressed the the pomps of life. barons. A transforming government went abroad. DisHis professed disciples amounted to 3000, and among His dishonesty and dissoluteness hid their heads. Loyalty and them were between 70 and 80 whom he described uiples. good faith became the characteristics of the men, and as “ scholars of extraordinary ability.” The most atchastity and docility those of the women. He was the tached of them were seldom long away from him. They idol of the people, and flew in songs through their mouths.” stood or sat reverently by his side, watched the minutest The sky of bright promise was soon overcast. The particulars of his conduct, studied under his direction marquis of Ts‘i and his advisers saw that if Confucius were the ancient history, poetry, and rites of their country, allowed to prosecute his course, the influence of Lu would and treasured up every syllable which dropped from his become supreme throughout the kingdom, and Ts‘i would lips. They have told us how he never shot at a bird be the first to suffer. A large company of beautiful women, perching nor fished with a net, the creatures not having in trained in music and dancing, and a troop of fine horses, such a case a fair chance for their lives ; how he conducted were sent to Lu. The bait took; the women were welcomed, himself in court and among villagers ; how he ate his food, and the sage was neglected. The marquis forgot the lessons and lay in his bed, and sat in his carriage; how he rose up of the master, and yielded supinely to the fascinations of before the old man and the mourner; how he changed the harem. Confucius felt that he must leave the state. countenance when it thundered, and when he saw a grand The neglect of the marquis to send round, according to display of viands at a feast. He was free and unreserved rule, among the ministers portions of the flesh after a great in his intercourse with them, and was hurt once when they sacrifice, furnished a plausible reason for leaving the court. seemed to think that he kept back some of his doctrines He withdrew, though very unwillingly and slowly, hoping from them. Several of them were men of mark among the that a change would come over the marquis and his statesmen of the time, and it is the highest testimony to counsellors, and a message of recall be sent to him. But the character of Confucius that he inspired them with no such message came; and he went forth in his fifty-sixth feelings of admiration and reverence. It was they who set year to a weary period of wandering among various states. the example of speaking of him as the greatest of mortal It may be well to pause here in the sketch of his life, and men ; it was they who struck the first notes of that paean consider what his object and hope had been. which has gone on resounding to the present day. idea A disciple once asked him what he would consider the Confucius was, it has been seen, in his fifty-sixth year wen first thing to be done, if intrusted with the government of t. a state. His reply was, “ The rectification of names.” when he left Lu; and thirteen years elapsed ere he returned to it. In this period were comprised his travels among the When told that such a thing was wide of the mark, he different states, when he hoped, and ever hoped in vain, to held to it, and indeed his whole social and political system meet with some prince who would accept him as his 7L7aPPed U-P t'h® saying. He had told the marquis counsellor, and initiate a government that should become ot Ts‘i that good government obtained when the ruler was the centre of an universal reformation. Several of the ruler, and the minister minister; when the father was princes were willing to entertain and support him; but for at ler, and the son son. Society, he considered, was an all that he could say, they would not change their ways. ordinance of heaven, and was made up of five relationships,- His first refuge was in Wei, a part of the present Ho-nan, His wanruler and subject, husband and wife, father and son, elder the marquis of which received him kindly; but he was a brothers and younger, and friends. There was rule on weak man, ruled by his wife, a woman notorious for her ie one side of the first four, and submission on the other, i he rule should be in righteousness and benevolence ; the accomplishments and wickedness. In attempting to pass from Wei to another state, Confucius was set upon by a submission in righteousness and sincerity. Between mob, which mistook him for an officer who had made nends the mutual promotion of virtue should be the gui mg principle^ It was true that the duties of the several himself hated by his oppressive deeds. He himself was e a ions were being continually violated by the passions perfectly calm amid the danger, though his followers were en, and the social state had become an anarchy. But filled with alarm. They were obliged, however, to retrace ucius ad confidence in the preponderating goodness their way to Wei, and he had there to appear before the marchioness, who wished to see how a sage looked. There it ■vr'iman na^ure5 and in the power of example in superiors. was a screen between them at the interview, such as the 8Ur ly tilp " k® said, “ does the grass bend before present regent-empresses of China use in giving audience to an masses thorn ” n 1Ven - ^ moc yield to the will of those above their ministers; but Tze-lu, one of his principal disciples, forth mill ^ ruier, and the model people would was indignant that the master should have demeaned himrulor it ai,iJef1r‘ ■^IKi h® himself could make the model self to be near such a woman, and to pacify him Confucius d 1 tte riuces of omrh’t t?-enC0U P the states what they swore an oath appealing to Heaven to reject him if he 6; nerfoot v p ^ C0ldd point them to examples of had acted improperly. Soon afterwards he left the state. Twice again, during his protracted wanderings, he was their own^j16 8ln, ^ormer times,—to the sage founders of the Drevim/a ^ i to,tlie sag® T'ang, who had founded placed in imminent peril, but he manifested the same fearnas lessness, and expressed his confidence in the protection of established n /ereditary !^ of Simng; theChina; sage Yu,and whoto first kingdomto in the Heaven till his course should be run. On one of the

262

CONFUCIUS occasions he and his company were in danger of perishing master told him a dream of the previous night, which, he from want, and the courage of even Tze-lu gave w'ay. thought, presaged his death. “ No intelligent ruler, he said, arises to take me as his master. My time has come “ Has the superior man, indeed, to endure in this way ? he asked. “ The superior man may have to endure want,” to die.” So it was. Ho took to his bed, and after seven was the reply, “ but he is still the superior man. 1 he days expired. Such is the account we have of the last small man in the same circumstances loses his self-com- days of the sage of China. His end was not unimpressive, but it was melancholy. Disappointed hopes made his soul mand.” While travelling about, Confucius repeatedly came across bitter. No wife nor child was by to do the offices of recluses,—a class of men who had retired from the world affection, nor was the expectation of another life with him, in disgust. That there was such a class gives us a striking when ho passed away from among men. He uttered no glimpse into the character of the ago. Scholarly, and of prayer, and he betrayed no apprehension. Years before, good principles, they had given up the conflict with the when he was very ill, and Tze-lu asked leave to pray for vices and disorder that prevailed. But they did not him, he expressed a doubt whether such a thing might bo understand the sage, and felt a contempt for him strug- done, and added, “ I have prayed for a long time.” Deepgling on against the tide, and always hoping against hope. treasured now in his heart may have been the thought that We get a fine idea of him from his encounters with them. he had served his generation by the will of God ; but he Once he was looking about for a ford, and sent Tze-lu to gave no sign. When their master thus died, his disciples buried him ask a man who was at work in a neighbouring field where it was. The man was a recluse, and having found that his with great pomp. A multitude of them built huts near questioner was a disciple of Confucius, he said to him : his gnive, and remained there, mourning as for a father, “ Disorder in a swelling flood spreads over the kingdom, for nearly three years ; and when all the rest were gone, and no one is able to repress it. Than follow a master Tze-kung, the last of his favourite three, continued alone who withdraws from one ruler and another that will not by the grave for another period of the same duration. take his advice, had you not better follow those who with- The news of his death went through the states as with an draw from the world altogether 1” With these words he electric thrill The man who had been neglected when resumed his hoe, and would give no information about the alive seemed to become all at once an object of unbounded ford. Tze lu went back, and reported what the man had admiration. The tide began to flow which has hardly ever said to the master, who observed : “ It is impossible to ebbed during three-and-twenty centuries. The grave of Confucius is in a large rectangle separated withdraw from the world, and associate with birds and beasts that have no affinity with us. Writh whom should from the rest of the K'uug cemetery, outside the city of I associate but with suffering men 1 The disorder that K‘iuh-fow\ A magnificent gate gives admission to a fine prevails is what requires my efforts. If right principles avenue, lined with cypress trees and conducting to the tomb, ruled through the kingdom, there would be no necessity a large and lofty mound, with a marble statue in front for me to change its state.” We must recognize in those bearing the inscription of the title given to Confucius words a brave heart and a noble sympathy. Confucius under the Sung dynasty :—“ The most sagely ancient would not abandon the cause of the people. He w’ould Teacher ; the all-accomplished, all-informed King.” A hold on his way to the end. Defeated he might be, but little in front of the tomb, on the left and right, are smaller mounds over the graves of his sou and grandson, from the he would be true to his humane and righteous mission. It was in his sixty-ninth year. 483 n.c., that Confucius latter of w hom we have the remarkable treatise called The returned to Lu. One of his disciples, who had remained Doctrine of the Mean. All over the place are imperial in the state, had been successful in the command of a mili- tablets of different dynasties, with glowing tributes to the tary expedition, and told the prime minister that he had one man whom China delights to honour; and on the learned his skill in war from the master,—urging his right of the grandson’s mound is a small house said to recall, and that thereafter mean persons should not be mark the place of the hut where Tze-kung passed his nearly allowed to come between the ruler and him. The state was five years of loving vigil. On the mound grow cypresses, now in the hands of the son of the marquis whoso neglect acacias, what is called “ the crystal tree,” said not to be had driven the sage away ; but Confucius would not again elsewhere found, and the Achillea, the plant whose stalks take office. Only a few years remained to him, and he were employed in ancient times for purposes of divination. devoted them to the completion of his literary tasks, and The adjoining city is still the home of the K'ung family; the delivery of his lessons to his disciples. and there are said to be in it between 40,000 and 50,000 The next year was marked by the death of his son, which of the descendants of the sage. The present chief of the he bore with equanimity. His wife hod died many years family is in tbe lino of the 75th generation, and has large before, and it jars upon us to read how he then commanded estates by imperial gift, with the title of “Duke by imthe young man to hush his lamentations of sorrow. We perial appointment and hereditary right, continuator of like him better when he mourned, as has been related, for the sage.” It is thus no empty honour w’hich is still his own mother. It is not true, however, as has often given by the sovereigns of China to Confucius, in the been said, that he had divorced his wife before her death. persons of his descendants. The death of his favourite disciple, Yen Hwui, in 481 b.c., The dynasty of Chow finally perished two centuries and Influence was more trying to him. Then ho wept and mourned a quarter after the death of the sage at the hands of the on chi"a beyond what seemed to his other followers the bounds of first historic emperor of tbe nation,—the first of the dynasty gene ^ propriety, exclaiming that Heaven was destroying him. His of Ts’in, w ho swept away the foundations of the feudal own last year, 478 b.c., dawned on him with the tragic end system, and laid those of the despotic rule which was of his next beloved disciple, Tzo-lu. Early one morning, subsequently and gradually matured, and continues to the His death. wo are told, in the fourth month, ho got up, and with his present day. State after state went down before his blow’s, hands behind his back, dragging his staff, he moved about but the name and followers of Confucius were the chief his door, crooning over— obstacles in his W’ay. He made an effort to destroy the memory of the sago from off the earth, consigning to the “ The great mountain must crumble The strong beam must break flames all the ancient books from which he drew his rules The wise man must wither away like a plant.” and examples (save one), and burying alive hundreds of Tze-kung heard the words, and hastened to him. The scholars who were ready to sw’ear by his name. But

CONFUCIUS Coufucius could not bo so extinguished. Tho tyranny of Ts’in was of short duration ; and tho next dynasty, that of Han, while entering into the new China, found its surest strength in doing honour to his name, and trying to gather up the wreck of the ancient books. It is a great and a difficult undertaking to determine what there was about Confucius to secure for him the influence which he has wielded. Reference has been made to his literary tasks; but the study of them only renders the undertaking more difficult. Ho left no writings in which ho detailed the principles of his moral and social system. The Doctrine of the Mean, by his grandson Tze-sze, and The Great Learning, by Ts&ng Sin, the most profound, perhaps, of his disciples, give us the fullest information on that subject, and contain many of his sayings. The Lun Yu, or Analects, “ Discourses and Dialogues,” is a compilation in which many of his disciples must have taken part, and has great value as a record of his ways and utterances; but its chapters are mostly disjecta membra, affording faint traces of any guiding method or mind. Mencius, Hsiin K’ing, and writers of the Han dynasty, whose works, however, are more or less apocryphal, tell us much about him and his opinions, but all in a loose and unconnected way. No Chinese writer has ever seriously undertaken to compare him with the philosophers and sages of other nations. Connection The sage, probably, did not think it necessary to put rith the down many of his own thoughts in writing, for he said of teratnre that he was « a transmitter, and not a maker.” i ana. ^ jay ciajm to have any divine revelations. Ho was not born, he declared, with knowledge, but was fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking knowledge there. The rule of life for men in all their relations, he held, was to be found within themselves. Tho right development of that rule, in the ordering not of the individual only, but of society, w’as to be found in the words and institutions of the ancient sages. China, it has already been observed, had a literature before Confucius. All the monuments of it, however, were in danger of perishing through tho disorder into which the kingdom had fallen. The feudal system that had subsisted for more than 1500 years had become old. Confucius did not see this—did not see how “The old order changeth, giving place to new, And God fulfils himself in many ways, Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.” It was impossible that in his circumstances he should see it. China was in his eyes drifting from its ancient moorings, drifting on a sea of storms “to hideous ruin and combustion;” and the expedient that occurred to him to arrest the evil was to gather up and preserve the records of antiquity, illustrating and commending them by his own teachings. For this purpose he lectured to his disciples on the histories, poems, and constitutional works of the nation. What ho thus did was of inestimable value to his own countrymen, and all other men are indebted to him for what they know of China before his time, though all the contents of the ancient works have not come down to us. He wrote, we are told, a preface to the Shu King, or Book of Historical Documents. The preface is, in fact, only a schedule, without any remark by Confucius himself, giving the names of 100 books, of which it consisted. Of these we now possess 59, the oldest going back to the 23d century, and the latest dating in the 8th century b.c. The credibility of the earlier portions, and the genuineness of several of the documents have been questioned, but the collection as a whole is exceedingly valuable. The Shi King, or Ancient Poems, as existing in his time, or compiled by him (as generally stated, contrary to the evidence in the case), consisted of 311 pieces, of which we possess 305, The latest of them dates 585 years b.c., and

263

tho oldest of them ascends perhaps twelve centuries higher. It is tho most interesting book of ancient poetry in tho world, and many of tho pieces are really fine ballads. Coufucius was wont to say that he who was not acquainted with tho Shi was not fit to be conversed with, and that tho study of it would produce a mind without a single depraved thought. This is nearly all wo have from him about tho poems. Tho Li, or Books of Rites and Ancient Ceremonies aud of Institutions, chiefly of tho Chow dynasty, have come down to us in a sadly mutilated condition. They are still more than sufficiently voluminous, but they were edited, when recovered under the Han dynasty, with so many additions, that it is hardly worth while to speak of them in connection with Confucius, though much of what was added to them is occupied with his history and sayings. Of all the ancient books not one was more prized by him than the Yih King, or “ The Book of Changes,” the rudiments of which are assigned b- Fuh-hsi in the 30th century b.c. Those rudiments, however, are merely the 8 trigrams and 04 diagrams, composed of a whole aud a broken lino ( ), without any text or explanation of them 1 earlier than the rise of the Chow dynasty. The leather thongs, by which the tablets of Confucius’s copy were tied together, were thrice worn out by his constant handling. He said that if his life were lengthened lie would give fifty years to tho study of tho Yih, and might then be without great faults. This has come down to us entire. If not intended from tho first for purposes of divination, it was so used both before and after Confucius, and on that account it was exempted, through the superstition of the emperor of tho Ts’in dynasty, from the flames. It is supposed to give a theory of the phenomena of the physical universe, aud of moral and political principles by tho trigrams and the different lines aud numbers of the diagrams of Fuh-hi. Almost every sentence in it is enigmatic. As now published, there are always subjoined to it certain appendixes, which are ascribed to Confucius himself. Pythagoras and he were contemporaries, and in the fragments of the Samian philosopher about the “ elements of numbers as tho elements of realities ” there is a remarkable analogy with much of the Yih. No Chinese critic or foreign student of Chinese literature has yet been able to give a satisfactory account of the book. But a greater and more serious difficulty is presented by his last literary labour, the work claimed by him as his own, aud which has already been referred to more than once as the Annals of Lu. Its title is tho Ch‘un lsliu, or “ Spring and Autumn,” the events of every year being digested under the heads of tho four seasons, two of which are used by synecdoche for the whole. Mencius held that tho composition of the Ch'un 'IViu was as great a wmrk as Yu’s regulation of the waters of the deluge with which the Shu King commences, and did for the face of society what the earlier labour did for tho face of nature. This wrork also has been preserved nearly entire, but it is excessively meagre. The events of 242 years barely furnish an hour or two’s reading. Confucius’s annals do not bear a greater proportion to the events which they indicate than the headings in our Bibles bear to the contents of the chapters to which they are prefixed. Happily 1 so K'iu-ming took it in hand to supply those events, incorporating also others with them, and continuing his narratives over some additional years, so that through him the history of China in all its states, from year to year, for more than two centuries and a half, lies bare before us. Tso never challenges the text of the master as being incorrect, yet he does not warp or modify his own narratives to make them square with it; and the astounding fact is, that when we compare the events with the summary of

C 0 N F 1J C I u s them, we must pronounce the latter misleading in the tion in all the relations of society. He taught emphatically a bad man was not fit to rule. As a father or a extreme. Men are charged with murder who were not that magistrate, he might wield the instruments of authority, guilty of it, and base murders are related as if they had punish the transgressors of his laws, but no forthbeen natural deaths. Villains, over whose fate the reader and putting force would countervail the influence of his rejoices, are put down as victims of vile treason, and those example. of On the other hand, it only needed virtue in the who dealt with them as he would have been glad to do higher position to secure it in the lower. This latter side are subjected to horrible executions without one word of of his teaching is far from being complete and correct, but sympathy. Ignoring, concealing, aud misrepresenting are the former has, no doubt, been a check on the “powers the characteristics of the Spring and Autumn. that be,” both in the family and the state ever since And yet this work is the model for all historical Confucius became the acknowledged sage of his country. summaries in China. The want of harmony between the It has operated both as a restraint upon evil, and a stimulus facts and the statements about them is patent to all scholars, to good. and it is the knowledge of this, unacknowledged to tnemA few of his more characteristic sayings may here beWisen selves, which has made the literati, down to the present day, given, the pith and point of which attest his discrimination “gs, labour with an astonishing amount of fruitless ingenuity of character, and show the tendencies of his views :— and learning to find in individual words, and the turn of “What the superior man seeks is in himself; what the small every sentence, some mysterious indication of praise or man _ . i seeks is in others.” blame. But the majority of them will admit no flaw in ‘ The superior man is dignified, hut does not wrangle; social, the sage or in his annals. His example in the book has but not a partisan. He does not promote a man simply because of been very injurious to his country. One almost, wishes his words, nor does he put good words aside because of the mam “A poor man who does not flatter, and a rich man who is not that critical reasons could be found for denying its proud, are passable characters; but they are not equal to the poor authenticity. Confucius said that “by the Spring and who yet are cheerful, and the rich who yet love the rules of pro* Autumn men would know him and men would condemn “Learning, undigested by thought, is labour lost; thought, him.” It certainly obliges us to make a large deduction ^unassisted by learning, is perilous.” _ from our estimate of his character and of the beneficial in“In style all that is required is that it convey the meaning. fluence which he has exerted. The examination of his “Extravagance leads to insubordination, and parsimony to meanliterary labours does not on the whole increase our appre- ness. It is better to be mean than insubordinate.” “A man can enlarge his principles; principles do not enlarge the ciation of him. We get a higher idea of the man from the That is, man is greater than any system of thought. accounts which his disciples have given us of his intercourse man.” “The cautious seldom err.” aud conversations with them, and the attempts which they Sententious sayings like these have gone far to form the made to present his teachings in some systematic form. If ordinary Chinese character. Hundreds of thousands of the he could not arrest the progress of disorder in his country, nor throw out principles which should be helpful in guid- literati can repeat every sentence in the classical books; ing it to a better state under some new constitutional the masses of the people have scores of the Confucian system, he gave important lessons for the formation of in- maxims, and little else of an ethical nature, in their dividual character, and the manner in which the duties in memories,'—and with a beneficial result. Confucius laid no claim, it has been seen, to divine revela- His nthe relations of society should be discharged. Foremost among these we must rank his distinct enuncia- tions. Twice or thrice he did vaguely intimate that he had tion of “ the golden rule,” deduced by him from his study a mission from heaven, and that until it was accomplished ^ of man’s mental constitution. Several times he gave that he was safe against all attempts to injure him; but his rule in express words :—“ What you do not like when done teachings were singularly devoid of reference to anything to yourself do not do to others.” The peculiar nature of but what was seen and temporal. Man as he is, and the the Chinese language enabled him to express this rule by duties belonging to him in society, were all that lie conone character, which for want of a better term, we may cerned himself about. Man’s nature was from God; the translate in English by “ reciprocity.” When the ideagram harmonious acting out of it was obedience to the will of is looked at, it tells its meaning to the eye,—“ a thing seen God ; and the violation of it was disobedience. But in weightier than a thing heard.” It is composed of two affirming this, there was a striking difference between his other characters, one denoting “heart,” and the other— language and that of his own ancient models. In the King itself composite—denoting “as.” Tze-kung once asked the references to the Supreme Being are abundant; there if there were any one word which would serve as a rule of is an exulting awful recognition of Him as the practice for all one’s life, and the master replied, yes, nam- almighty personal Euler, who orders the course of nature ing this character ($2, shu), the “ as hearty my heart, and 'providence. With Confucius the vague, impersonal that is, in sympathy with yours; and then he added his term, Heaven, took the place of the divine name. There is usual explanation of it, which has been given above. It has no glow of piety in any of his sentiments. He thought been said that he only gave the rule in a negative form, that it was better that men should not occupy themselves themselves. but he understood it also in its positive and most compre- with anything but There were, wre are told in the Analects, four things ot hensive force, and deplored, on one occasion at least, that he had not himself always attained to taking the initiative which he seldom spoke—extraordinary things, feats ot strength, rebellious disorder, and spiritual beings. in doing to others as he would have them do to him. Another valuable contribution to ethical and social Whatever the institutions of Chow prescribed about the science was the way in which he inculcated the power of services to be paid to the spirits of the departed, and to example, and the necessity of benevolence and righteous- other spirits, he performed reverently, up to_ the letter; ness in all who were in authority. . 1200 years before he but at the same time, when one of the ministers of u was born, an ancient hero and king had proclaimed in asked him what constituted wisdom, he replied : “ To 1 China: “The great God has conferred on the people a one’s self earnestly to the duties due to men, and vmoral sense, compliance with which would show their respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them,—t a _ . , ,1 nature invariably right. To cause them tranquilly to may be called wisdom.” But what belief underlay the practice, as ancient as pursue the course which it indicates is the task of the sovereign.” Confucius knew the utterance well; and. he first foot-prints of history in China, of sacrificing to carried out the principle of it, and insisted on its applica- spirits of the departed 1 Confucius would not say. 264

C 0 N —0 O N was no need, in his opinion, to trouble the mind about it. “ While you cannot serve men,” he replied .to the inquiry of Tze-lu, “ how can you serve spirits?” And what becomes of a man’s own self, when he has passed from the stage of life ? The oracle of Confucius was equally dumb on this question. “ While you do not know life,” he said to the same inquirer, “ what can you know about death ? ” Doubts as to the continued existence of the departed were manifested by many leading men in China before the era of Confucius. In the pages of Tso K'iu-ming, when men are swearing in the heat of passion, they sometimes pause, and rest the validity of their oaths on the proviso that the dead to whom they appeal really exist. The “ expressive silence ” of Confucius has gone to confirm this scepticism. His teaching was thus hardly more than a pure secularism. He had faith in man, man made for society, but he did not care to follow him out of society, nor to present to him motives of conduct derived from the consideration of a future state. Good and evil would be recompensed by the natural issues of conduct within the sphere of time,—if not in the person of the actor, yet in the persons of his descendants. If there were any joys of heaven to reward virtue, or terrors of future retribution to punish vice, the sage took no heed of the one or the other. A very remarkable man Confucius was, persistent and condensed, but neither his views nor his character were perfect. In the China then existing he saw terrible evils and disorders, which he set himself, in the benevolence of his heart, to remedy, but of one principal cause of its unhappy condition he had no idea. Near the beginning of this article, the existence of polygamy and the evils flowing from it were referred to. Confucius never appeared to give the subject a thought. We saw how he mourned on the death of his mother ; but no generous word ever passed his lips about woman as woman, and apparently no chivalrous sentiment ever kindled in his bosom. Nor had he die idea of any progress or regeneration of society. The i stars all shone to him in the heavens behind ; none reckoned brightly before. It was no doubt the moral ■dement of his teaching, springing out of his view of luman nature, which attracted many of his disciples, and till holds the best part of the Chinese men of learning bound o him ; but the conservative tendency of his lessons towhere so apparent as in the Cttun TVra—is the chief eason why successive dynasties have delighted to do him lonour. le ) CONGld D’l^LIRE, a licence from the Crown issued in

Great Seal t0 the dean and Wj i church chapter of elect the 1 athedral of the diocese, authorizing them to ishop or archbishop, as the case may be, upon the acancy of any episcopal or archi-episcopal see in England

Accordin m oftn to the Chronicle Ingulphus, 1 moot Crowland, whogwrote in the reign ofof William the >onque.or, t le bishoprics in England had been, for many 'ears prior to the Norman Conquest, royal donatives cone lve -)• sputes , ^ arose l for ty of of the the pastoral staff, thethe firstring timeandbetween Crown of

bif, ?dfEandT)the See of Eome in the reiSn of William Io e claimin lishnriVin . ail , g King to dispose English d.P ultimately John, byofhisthecharter Ut de w tot he hi s s fl0ldd ™\ ™s Anglice (1214), granted that hanla' P f be elected freely by the deans and ernimirm° dle „cadiedral churches, provided the royal icmirpfl ffWaSirSe*i ecas.koned> and the royal assent was rmed i ^ ^ - This arrangement was condwarrl T Su1s®(luerit statutes passed in the reigns of as ultim'nM Edward respectively, and the practice >r the non-n ^ Sett ed firb*tst frui present form by the statute 15 Henryj Yll^cVm , ' ts to tothethe bishop of Rome • c. ZO). According provisions of

265 this statute, upon the avoidance of any episcopal see the dean and chapter of the cathedral church are to certify the vacancy o the see to the Crown, and to pray that they may be allowed to proceed to a new election. The Crown thereupon grants to the dean and chapter its licence under the Great. Seal to elect a new bishop, accompanied by a letter missive containing the name of the person whom the dean and chapter are to elect. The dean and chapter are thereupon bound to elect the person so named by the Crown within twelve days, in default of which the Crown is empowered by the statute to nominate by letters patent such person as it may think fit, to the vacant bishopric. Upon the return of the election of the new bishop, the metropolitan is required by the Crown to examine and to confirm the election, and the metropolitan’s confirmation gives to the election its canonical completeness. In case of a vacancy in a metropolitical see, an episcopal commission is appointed by the guardians of the spiritualities of the vacant see to confirm the election of the new metropolitan CONGER. See Eel. ^ CONGLETON, a market-town and municipal borough of England, in the comity of Cheshire, near the border of Staffordshire, 26 miles south of Manchester by rail. It is finely situated in a deep valley, on the banks of the Dane, a tributary of the Weaver. Its main streets are well built, and its western suburb consists of handsome villas and gardens. Though a place of considerable antiquity, it makes little figure in history, and possesses few buildings of architectural interest. The parish churches, the guildhall, built in 1822, the market hall, and the town-hall dating from 1864 are the most important. At Arms of Congleton. one time the leather laces known as “Congleton points” were in high repute ; but the principal industry of the town is now the manufacture of silk, which was introduced in 1752 by a Mr Pattison of London. The making of salt is carried on to an extent which gives employment to nearly 200 men; and at the census of 1871 upwards of 700 were engaged in the neighbouring coal mines. There is canal communication with Macclesfield. In 1871 the population of the municipal borough, which embraces 2564 acres, was 11,344, inhabiting 2559 houses. CONGLETON, Henry Brook Parnell, First Baron (1776-1842), was the second son of Sir John Parnell, chancellor of the Irish Exchequer, and was educated at Eton and Cambridge. In 1801 he succeeded to the family estates, and married a daughter of the earl of Portarlington; and in 1802, by his father-in-law’s interest, he was returned for Portarlington to Parliament, but he speedily resigned the seat. In 1806 he was returned for Queen’s County, for which he sat till 1832, when he withdrew from the representation. In 1833, however, he was returned for Dundee; and after being twice re-elected for the same city (1835 and 1837), he was raised to the peerage in 1841 with the title of Baron Congleton of Congleton. In 1842, having suffered for some time from ill health and melancholy, he committed suicide. He was a liberal Whig, and took a prominent part in the struggle of his party. In 1806 he was a lord of the Treasury for Ireland; it was on his motion on the Civil List that the duke of Wellington was defeated in 1830 ; in that year and in 1831 he was secretary at war; and from 1835 till 1841 he was paymaster of the forces and treasurer of the ordnance and navy. He was the author of several volumes and pamphlets on matters connected with financial and VI. - 34

266

0 O N—C 0 N

penal questions, the most important being that On Finan- June, and the “cacimbo” as occupying the rest of the year. In October there are usually light rains in the lower cial Reform, 1830. CONGO, a country of Western Africa, extending along country; and these are succeeded by the Moula na the coast of the Atlantic for about 185 English miles, Chintomba, or great rains, which are accompanied by violent from the River Zaire, or Congo (see Afiiica, vol. i. p. 254), storms and thunder. Next follows, from December to which separates it from Cacongo and Loango on the north, March, a period known as the “little dries,” and then to the Dande, which marks the boundary of Angola on the comes another spell of heavy rains and atmospheric dissouth. No very definite limit can be assigned on the turbance. In the neighbourhood of Banza U mpata, about eastern side; but it is hardly to be regarded as Congo 200 miles inland, the natives, according to Lieutenant territory at more than 250 miles inland. At one time Grandy, divide the year into the following five seasons the name Congo was applied not only to the country thus Sevoo, or summer, from the beginning of July to the defined, but also to Loango, Angola, and Benguela in middle of September ; Bangala, or the dry season, to the short, to all the territory claimed by the Portuguese in this end of November; Masanza, to the middle of February; Kundey, or the period of the heavy rains, to the middle of part of the continent. The coast of Congo presents for the most part a succes- April; and Kintombo, or spring, to the end of June. sion of low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone, sinking at In its effects on the human constitution, the climate of intervals almost to the level of the sea j and for about 30 Congo is much less deleterious than that of the coast to 60 miles inland the country remains comparatively flat. regions further to the north ; and in the higher districts It then begins to rise in irregular terraces till it reaches a even the European can maintain himself with ease in a fair height of about 1500 or 1600 feet; and its surface is state of health. Fevers and agues are not uncommon, but broken with an endless variety of hill and valley and do not last long; and the natives suffer from bronchitis, undulating plateau. The prevailing rocks in the lower pleurisy, small-pox, and skin diseases. The curious sleepterraces are mica, schist, gneiss, and shale; further inland disease appeared in 1870, but did not spread through the there are extensive limestone formations; and igneous rocks country. The flora of Congo is rich and various ; and the Vegsj In occur in several quarters. The whole country is abundantly watered, partly by tributaries of the Zaire, and partly by country may be divided with remarkable precision into independent streams that flow westward to the Atlantic. different zones, distinguished by the prevailing charOf the latter the more important are the Ambrizzette, the acter of the vegetation. According to Mr Monteiro, Loge, and the Lifune; but even these are only navigable the traveller, as he advances inland from Ambriz, finds for barges. The former, as far as Congo proper is con- during the first 25 miles baobabs, euphorbias, aloes, cerned, are individually insignificant. During the rainy “ muxixes ” or “ mukazo ” {Sterculia tomentosa), and a great season the surplus water is carried down in a thousand abundance of Sanseviera angolensis; he passes next into torrents, but the beds are quite dry during most of the a region of larger, shadier trees, which continue for the next 35 miles, when the scene again changes, and the year. The mineral wealth of Congo is only partially explored, whole forest becomes one tangled maze of the most Minerals. and even the deposits that are known to exist are very luxuriant and beautiful creepers. Near Bembe the sparingly utilized. Copper mines have been worked at country opens up and the oil-palm becomes the prevailing intervals for a considerable period at Bembe ; and, though tree. In the first zone the grasses are short and delicate, now abandoned by the Portuguese, they appeared to in the second they are stronger and taller; in the third Lieutenant Grandy to contain a good supply of ore. Very they develop into gigantic species with sharp knife-like fine malachite is also found in other parts of the country. blades, from 5 to 16 feet in height, which cover vast open Iron is obtained in the northern districts along the Zaire, stretches, and for several months in the year render comwhere the general diffusion of the metal is proved by the munication through the country almost impossible. The red ferruginous character of the soil, and the fact that most cashew tree is exceedingly abundant along the coast from of the streams are more on less chalybeate. A lake of Congo to Ambrizzette. The principal objects of native bitumen is reported at Kinsao, near Mangue Grande; cultivation are manioc or cassava, yams, ground-nuts the same substance occurs at Musserra, and another deposit (Arachis hypogcea), and maize. Sesamum and sweet has been worked by the natives at Libongo. Red gum- potatoes are sparingly grown. Coffee of good quality is copal occurs in various places,—among others, near Mangue found wild in various parts, especially in the neighbourhood Grande and in the Mossulo country; but the supersti- of Encoge. Chili pepper is abundant, and forms the printion of the natives interferes with its excavation. That cipal condiment in use among the natives, who not unfrediamonds have ever been found there seems no reason to quently eat it to their own injury. The plantain, the believe; but garnets and even rubies occur. Salt is manu- papaw, the orange, and the pine-apple are the principal fruits, but many others thrive well. Beans, cabbages, factured by the natives along the coast. The climate of Congo is, in comparison with that of pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, spinach, and other European Climate. most tropical countries, remarkably cool and agreeable. In vegetables can be successfully cultivated, and the first two the hot season the thermometer is seldom more than from are used by the natives. Of the beans, indeed, there aree 80° to 86° Fahr. in the shade, and in the “ cacimbo,” or two species, the ordinary haricot and the tree-bean; cool season, it usually ranges from 60° during the night to latter is sometimes left to grow for two years. The pnnci75° during the day. This low temperature is principally pal beverage of the inhabitants is the palm wine, but ey due to the westerly breeze which sets in from the Atlantic also manufacture a beer called “garapa,” from the n an about nine or ten o’clock in the morning, and continues corn. According to Selim Agha, who accompanied burton blowing, not unfrequently with considerable violence, till in 1863, cotton and rice come to perfection in four montn , after sunset. As this breeze dies away towards the the cassava takes six or nine, and three or four are sumcien interior, the heat is perceptibly greater; but the increasing for cabbages,'lettuce, endive, and carrots. The domestic animals of Congo consist chiefly oi g i elevation of the country soon reduces the temperature to similar limits. The different seasons of the year occur at swine, dogs, and cats ; and there are also a few sheep w slightly different periods, according to the altitude and coats of hair instead of wool. The goats are be-um position of the several districts; but the hot or rainy season creatures, but the swine and dogs are poor and half-star • may be regarded as extending from October to May or No beasts of burden are employed by the natives; an

CONGO

2(57

Besides the king of Congo, the king of North Bamba, or mules, asses, and camels introduced by the Portuguese died of the district between the Ambrizzette and the Loge, and out. Horned cattle there are none, though they thrive the king of Encoge, with the title of “ Dcmbo Ambuilla,” well enough on the coast under the white man’s care. The larger wild animals are similar to those of the neigh- possess a certain amount of prestige. Every “ town ” has bouring countries on the south; but the River Zaire seems its own headman and assembly of “ Macotas,” or councillors; and these in company manage its affairs. The to be a natural limit for many species on the north. The variety of birds Is remarkable. Flamingoes, spoon-bills, office of headman confers no despotic power; and it herons, ducks, and various other aquatic species abound in descends by inheritance not from father to son, but from uncle to nephew or niece. The languages of the Mus- Language, the rivers and marshes. The common African crow, brightcoloured starlings, rollers, and doves are very common in surongo, Mushicongo, and Ambriz tribes are radically one; the lower country; and sun-birds and other insectivora and indeed the natives of the whole of this part of the frequent the palm-trees. The white ant is the most coast, for a distance of 450 miles, can understand one abundant of the insect tribes; and mosquitoes of a most another’s speech. Under the name of Fiote, this comvirulent sort are very common. The chigoe (Pulex prnc- mon tongue has been the object of some little attention. trans), introduced in 1870, spread through the country, but Barbot gives a list of 33 words, Douville a more extended seems to bo dying out again. Bees abound, but are not vocabulary of what he calls la langue Magialoua, and the authors of the Congo Expedition a third and much better domesticated. , , Animal food is not in very general use, although the collection. Vowels and liquids are numerous, and gutturals natives will eat the flesh of almost any beast or bird. The altogether absent, so that the language has a soft and harMussurongos consider the cat a great dainty; field rats are monious sound. In number of words it is remarkably rich. regularly captured for the kitchen, by the various tribes ; According to Captain Burton, its likeness to the Kisawahili the king-cricket, and some species of caterpillars, are sought of Zanzibar is so great that he was frequently able to underafter for the same purpose ; and the white ant is greedily stand whole sentences from this resemblance alone. Along the coast a considerable number of the natives can speak devoured in the winged state. Congo is as destitute as the other countries of tropical Portuguese or even English; but their pronunciation is owns. Africa of what a European would call a city. The native extremely faulty, and they transfer the idiom of their own banzas, or townships, consist of a few hundred huts speech to the foreign tongue. The religion, if such it can be called, of the Congoese Manners clustered together; and the Portuguese settlements are is a gross fetishism, and almost the only trace of their and merely commercial factories or military posts. 1 he places fonner superficial Christianization is the superstitious' uston1*of most importance along the coast are Mangue Pequeno, Mangue Grande, Quinzao, Moculla, Ambrizzette, Musserra, value attached to some stray crucifix now employed as Quicimbo, Ainbriz, and Libongo. On the River Zaire may a charm, a little more potent, it may be, than a string be mentioned King Antonio’s Town, Boma (anciently of beads or a land-shell filled full of birds’ dung and Larnbi), and Yinda la Nzadi, or Congo Town ; but the last feathers. Belief in witchcraft is very general, and develops two are on the north side of the river, and therefore are itself in the most trivial and irrational style. Circumcihardly to be included within our limits. Hie principal in- sion is practised by all the tribes ; and the rite is usually performed on boys of from eight to twelve years of age, land town is Silo Salvador, or Congo Grande, with a population at one time extravagantly estimated at 50,000 ; and who have to undergo a preparatory discipline, and live Banza Noki to the north and Bembe and Encoge to the apart from the rest of the community for a month in a south are worthy of mention. The number of villages is special hut. Polygamy prevails,—every man having wives very considerable, and together they must make up a hiii according to his wealth and rank. There is no nuptial population ; but it is evident from the condition of the ceremony ; but the bridegroom makes a present to the country, as w’ell as from the reports of the older travellers, father-in-law, provides the bride with her marriage outfit, that formerly the inhabitants must have been much more and bears the cost of a family feast. The costume of eboth men and women varies considerably with rank and the d £Tee numerous. The ordinary huts of the natives are formed of mats of European influence; but in general it is very slight. woven from a reedy grass, or the fibres of plants. That of The bodies of the dead are not unfrequently desiccated by the chief is constructed more skilfully of palm leaves, and roasting, and then buried in the huts which they formerly The interment is often delayed for a^year or is encompassed with a fence of reeds. In the coast towns occupied. more, that all the relatives may be present at the wake. the huts, though each is built separate, are comparatively Since the stoppage of the slave trade, a very considerable Trade, close to each other; while further inland much more space traffic has been developed in the natural products of the is allowed to intervene, and hedges are frequently grown round small groups. The Mushicongos build on a larger country, and were it not for the inherent indolence of the scale than their Ambriz neighbours, and not unfrequently natives it might be increased almost to any extent. The have two compartments. The household furniture and principal exports are the fibre of the baobab, first utilized utensils, in simplicity and rudeness, are on a par with the Ju, a paper material by Mr Monteiro in 1858; ground nuts domestic inclosures. Baskets are made of the fibres of which find a ready market, especially in France, ns an oil the palm tree, and bowls and bottles of gourds and other seed - ivory brought down from the interior; palm oil, vegetables; earthen vessels are used for boiling the victuals, sesamum, coffee, and an inferior kind of Indian-rubber and wooden spoons to eat them ; while a mat of grass obtained from a species of Landolfia. The commercial thrown on a raised platform constitutes the only bedding. prosperity of the Congo River has been frequently interThere is no political or ethnographical unity in the rupted by the attacks of the Mussurongo pirates, but tins Tribes. country. No one tribe is predominant, and the king of annoyance has been somewhat checked by the vigorous Congo, whatever may have formerly been his authority, is measures of the English cruisers. The last expedition of now no more than a local chieftain, like a dozen others. repression was that of Commodore Sir W. Hewett in 1875. Congo was discovered by Diego Cam, probably in 1484 Ho History. The tribes numerically important are the Mussurongos, ? f utnriP iiillar at the mouth of the river, which accordingly who extend from the Zaire as far south as Manguo Grande; took the title of Rio de Radrao, and established friendly relations the Mushicongos, who lie inland to the north of Bembe; Sth the natives who reported that the country was subject to + i omi/ Mwani Congo, or Lord of Congo, resident at the Ambrizians along the coast, and inland as far as Amba^Congo ’ The'Portuguese were not long in making themQuiballa; and the Mossulos to the north of the Dande.

268

C 0 N —C O N

selves influential in the country. Gon§alo de Sousa was despatched on a formal embassy in 1490 ; and the first missionaries entered the country in his train. The king was soon afterwards baptized, and Christianity was nominally established as the national religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded, and in 1560 the Jesuits arrived with Paulo Dias de Novaes. Of the prosperity of the country at this time the Portuguese have left [the most glowing and indeed incredible accounts. The attention of the Portuguese was however, turned more particularly to the southern districts of Angola and Benguela, and their hold on Congo loosened. In 1647 then cathedral was removed to Sao Paul de Loanda, and bao balvador declined in importance. In the 18th century, again, m spite of idle invasions of the Dutch and French, some steps were taken towards re-establishing their authority ; in 1758 they formed a settlement at Encoge ; from 1784 to 1789 they carried on a war against the natives of Mussolo; in 1791 they built a fort at Quincollo on the Loo'e, the ruins of which are still existent, and for a time they worked the mines of Bembe. At present, however, they possess no fort or settlement to the north of Ambriz, wdiich was first occupied in 1855. The connection of other European nations with Congo has hitherto been either exploratory or commercial, and nothing more powerful has been established than a factory or comptoir. In 1816 an expedition wras despatched from England under the command of J. K. Tuckey, R.N., for the examination of the Zaire. It reached the river on July 6th, and managed to push up stream as far as Sangala, the highest rapid ; but sickness broke out, the commander and several others died, and the expedition had to return. A survey of the first twenty-five miles of the river was effected in 1826 by the “Levin” and the “Barracouta,” belonging to Captain Owen’s expedition ; and in 1827-29 the Frenchman Douville spent some time in various parts of the country. In 1857 the German explorer, Dr Bastian, passed from Ambriz inland as far as Sao Salvador; and in the same year Captain Hunt, in the “Alecto,” made an attempt to ascend the river, but only reached the.cataracts. Captain Burton attained the same limit in 1863, and also proceeded inland as far as Banza Noki. In 1872 an expedition under Lieutenant Grandy was despatched from England for the purpose of advancing from the west coast to the relief of Livingstone. Ambriz was chosen as the starting point, and Bembe was reached in 11 days, on the 23d of March 1873. The 15th of May found the party at Congo, but they were detained there till June 20th. Passing through Kilembella, Moila, and Tungwa (a place of about 1600 inhabitants), they arrived at Banza Umpala, on a tributary of the Zaire, about 200 miles inland, but were then obliged to retrace their steps to Congo, whence they proceeded to Banza Noki and the main river, intending to push their way up the stream. The death of Livingstone was soon after reported ; and a recall shortly reached them, which brought the expedition to a close. They found the natives “exceedingly timid, superstitious, and suspicious, evidently believing that the foreigners had come to interfere with their trade and country.” In 1875 a German expedition, under Captain von Homeyer, commenced exploratory operations along the Congo for the purpose of preparing the way for German colonization. Literature. See the older travellers in the collections of Astley, Pinkerton, Churchill, Purchas, and Philipp; Pellicer de Tovar, Mission Evangdicaal Reyno de Congo, Madrid, 1649; Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore the Congo, 1818; Douville, Voyage au Congo, 1832; Owen, Voyages to Africa, Arabia, &c., 1833; Hunt, “Ascent of the Congo,” in the Proceedings of the Roy. Geo. Soc. for 1858 ; Bastian, Ein Besuch in San Salvador, Bremen, 1859, and Die Deutsche Expedition an die Loango Kiiste, Jena, 1874; Behm, “ Die Congo Fluss,” in Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 1872 ; Lieut. Grandy’s report in the Proceedings of Roy. Geo. Soc., 1874, and also in the Geograph. Mag., 1875 ; J. J. Monteiro, Angola and the River Congo, London, 1875 ; Burton, Two Trips to Gorilla Land and the Cataracts of the Congo, 1876; P. Duparquet, “Voyage au Zaire,” and Codine, “ Decouverte de la c6te d’Afrique . . . pendant les annees 1484-1488,” in Bull, de la Soc. de Geogr., 1876. CONGREGATIONALISM, a designation assumed of late years by the religious denomination formerly known as Independents. This change of name has arisen from no radical alteration in the particular doctrinal or ecclesiastical opinions of that sect (see Independents), but in order tb express more definitely the positive aspects of their church life and organization. The negative term Independent implied chiefly a renunciation “ of the authority of pope, prelate, presbytery, prince, or parliament,” and thus brought into prominence the antagonistic position of the churches so named towards National, Episcopal, and Presbyterian Churches. The word Congregational has been now almost universally substituted for it to indicate more clearly the brotherhood and fellowship maintained in their separate communities, the spiritual equality of every

member, the right and the duty of all in the church to have a voice in its deliberations and decisions, the essential necessity for each society to originate its own outward forms of life. As one of the latest exponents of Congregationalism has said,1 “ When the restraints of outward law are repudiated, it is necessary to insist with all the greater intensity on making the polity of the church the expression of its own highest life. Everything must be subordinated to this. The polity must come from within ; it must not be imposed from without ; it may recognize outward circumstances but must not be controlled by them. If the organization of the church is to be a vital growth, the life which it is to reveal is the life which the church has received from Christ. Ecclesiastical statesmen have no right to construct various forms of polity to express the spirit and tendencies prevailing among different races of men, in different countries, and in different churches; the polity of the church must be created by the idea of the church.” It is maintained that this conception of a church organization is entirely in harmony with the genius of the New Testament, and is better expressed by the word Congregational than Independent. In this sense it is applicable to other communities, in particular to the Baptists, who sometimes adopt it. Probably another reason for its employment has been the growing tendency towards outward union among churches that were mainly characterized by their isolation from each other. Independency was often regarded as a synonym for non-catholicity, and there was so strict a jealousy against all possible interference from without that close association or united action was exceedingly difficult, even amongst those whose doctrinal beliefs and ecclesiastical polity were the same. An endeavour has been made to overcome such obstacles common to co-operation without destroying or infringing the independence of the individual church, and the Congregationalists now have numerous missionary societies for home and foreign work, an association in every county, and a general Congregational Union for England and Wales. The last was established after much discussion in 1833, when a declaration of faith, church order, and discipline was adopted under these express conditions. “It is not intended that the following statement should be put forth with any authority, or as a standard to which assent should be required. Disallowing the utility of creeds and articles of religion as a bond of union, and protesting against subscription to any human formularies as a term of communion, Congregationalists are yet willing to declare, for general information, what is commonly believed among them, reserving to every one the most perfect liberty of conscience.” In 1871 a revision of the constitution of the Union took place, when the “fundamental principle” of its existence wTas thus re-asserted. “ The Union recognizes the right of every individual church to administer its affairs, free from external control, and shall not, in any case, assume legislative authority or become a court of appeal. The objects it seeks to promote were then also more definitely stated in these words, “to uphold and extend evangelical religion primarily in connection with churches of the Congregational order; to promote Scriptural views of church fellowship and organization ; to strengthen tlie fraternal relations of the Congregational churches, and facilitate co-operation in everything affecting their common interests ; to maintain correspondence with the Congregational churches and other Christian communities throughou the world; to obtain statistics relating to Congregationa churches at home and abroad ; to assist in procuring p61, feet religious equality for all British subjects, and m 1 Ecclesia, A Second Series of Essays on Theological and Ecdesias tical Questions, p. 371.

C 0 N —C 0 N

269

cording to a religious census taken by the Government there were in the United States in 1850, 1725 Congregational churches with 807,335 sittings ; these had increased in 1870 to 2887 churches and 1,117,212 sittings. For the education of the ministry there are seven theological institutions. (w. b.) CONGRESS, in diplomacy, a term applied to an assemblage of sovereigns or ambassadors of the highest rank, convoked for the purpose of concluding a general i>eace, or of treating the general political interests of Europe. In this latter sense a modern congress may be regarded as a representative council of states or nations, by which differences may be adjusted, and the rules of international law determined and enforced. The greatest progress yet made in the relations of sovereign states is, that disputes, which in former times would have led to immediate w ar, may now be resolved, in many instances, by the common deliberations of the European powers. The term Congress, however, is only strictly applicable to meetings of this nature on the most important occasions, and when all the powers are represented. The term Conference is used to describe diplomatic meetings of ministers of the first or second rank, called together for a special purpose, either to modify existing treaties by consent, or to suggest means of dealing with a critical state of affairs. Meetings of this kind have become in modern times very frequent, and are the recognized mode of dealing with the questions arising between sovereign states, and sometimes even between states and their subjects. The proceedings of these conferences are recorded in protocols, agreed to and signed by the plenipotentiaries. These documents have not always the form of treaties or conventions, but they establish the pmncipdes on which the powers agree to act, and the rules by which they are bound in honour and good faith. The number of Congresses w’hich have been held in the last two centuries is not very large, and wo shall proceed briefly to pass them in review. Conferences have occurred so frequently that it would be impiossible to describe them in detail. Ihe most important examples ore, perhaps, the Conference of Petersburg in 1825, which led to the independence of Greece; the Conference of London in 1831, which separated the kingdom of Belgium from Holland ; the Conference of Paris on the affairs of Crete ; the Conference of 1871 for the modification of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 ; and the abortive Conference of Constantinople in 1877, when the six powers vainly endeavoured to obtain from the Porte guarantees for the better government of its Christian subjects. These two forms of diplomatic council differ more, however, in form ani degree than in kind. Their object is the same, namely, to determine and enforce the mutual obligations of states; and they may therefore be treated under one head. The first time we have been able to trace the use of the term Congress in its modern sense, is in 1636, when the Pope attempted to open negotiations for peace at Cologne, under his own mediation ; but the attempt failed, and the Thirty Years’ War continued for twelve years more to devastate the world. At length, however, it was agreed by the pjreliminaries of Hamburg, signed on the 25th December 1641, that a Congress should be held at Munster and at Osnaburgh, in Westphalia, meeting simultaneously in both those towns ; the French mediating minister, representing the Catholic party, being at Munster, and the Swedish minister, representing the Protestants, at Osnaburgh. The opening of the Congress was fixed for the 11th July 1643 ; but the proceedings wrere delayed by numerous formalities, by questions of rank and precedence, by questions of neutrality and safe-conduct, and by the death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. The negotiations began in earnest in June 1 See Congregational Year Book, 1877. 2 Congregationalism: What it is, whence it is, and how it icorks, 3d 1645. Never before had so august an assembly met in Europe for the termination of a sanguinary war, for the ed., Boston, 1871

promoting reforms bearing on their moral and social condition.” The chairman is elected annually by the vote of the delegates from the churches present at the annual meeting. Unions of a similar character exist in Scotland, Ireland, and the colonies. In 187G it was computed1 that the total of Congregational churches and branch churches in Great Britain and the colonies was 3895, with other preaching places, supplied mainly by lay agency, to the number of 1248. The ordained ministers, including the missionaries of the London Missionary Society, were 3205 ; there were 17 colleges, employing 52 professors and educating 430 students. The expenditure for missions at home and abroad, not calculating the amounts expended by individual churches throughout the world for special local missions, was £147,270. In 1875 the Congregationalists opened their Memorial Hall and Library, which is erected in London on the site of the old Fleet Prison, in commemoration of the heroism and spiritual fidelity of the two thousand clergymen who w’ere ejected “ from their homes and livings as ministers of Christ in the Church of England, under the stringent, inhuman, and unjust provisions of the Act of Uniformity.” In that building the various societies of the Congregationalists now hold their meetings. Congregationalism in the United States has, from the earliest period of its existence, recognized the principle that each Christian society, though complete in itself, is nevertheless related to all other churches of the same faith and order. The weakness and scattered condition of those little communities which followed the settlement of the Pilgrim Fathers threw them into close association, they assisted each other by friendly advice, and from that sprang the system of councils. These have now become important institutions exercising considerable influence. It is claimed that, though every church is “ independent of all outward control,” “ a fraternal fellowship is yet to bo maintained among these independent churches ; and when insoluble difficulties arise, or specially important matters claim decision—as where a pastor is to bo settled or dismissed, or a church itself is to adopt its creed and commence its organic life—it is proper that the advice of other churches should be sought and given in council; such action, however, in no case being anything more than a labour of fraternal suasion or self-justification.”2 Increase Mather says, “ It has ever been their declared judgment that, where there is want either of light or peace in a particular church, it is their duty to ask for counsel, with which neighbour churches ought to assist by sending their elders and other messengers to advise and help them in their difficulties; and that in momentous matters of common concernment particular churches should proceed with the concurrence of neighbour churches ; so in the ordination of a pastor, much more in the deposing of one. Thus it has ever been in the churches of New England.” Some writers contend that “ Congregationalism differs from Independency by its recognition of this practical fellowship between the churches.” The councils thus summoned are dissolved as soon as the business is settled, and should the church to which advice is offered be unwilling to accept and act upon it the other churches may consider the desirability of withdrawing from any further association with it. There are permanent councils in Connecticut, called “ consociations,” but they are not general in the States. In some of the county unions of England a committee is appointed annually, to which churches may appeal in any difficulty which they are unable to remove of themAcselves>—an approach towards the American system.

270

CONG BESS

Congress was occupied with formalities, Bolingbroke came establishment of peace between two hostile creeds, and for to an agreement with France, which broke up the alliance the regulation of territorial questions by common agreement. and compelled the other powers to terminate the war. The The Empire was represented by Count Maximilian other Congresses of The 18th century are those of Soissons von Trautmansdorf; France by Count d’Avaux; Sweden by in 1727, remarkable for the fact that Cardinal Fleury,then John Oxenstiern, a son of the great chancellor; the Pope by prime minister of Louis XV., attended it in person, and of Cardinal Chigi, afterwards himself Pope Alexander V . , Aix la-Chapelle in 1748, which terminated a general war. Spain by Count Penaranda, and by wo of her sublets By each of these Congresses the treaties of Westphalia, from Tranche Comt6, not to mention lesser n^- Nimeguen, Ryswick, and Utrecht were renewed and conEngland had no representative at the Congresa of firmed ; so that their labours formed a continuous series phalia. The questions in dispute and the res and identical body of international legislation. No Con long deliberations (which were not terminated until the gress was held at the termination either of the Seven Years’ War in 1763 or of the American war in 1783, wortl S^ z but the style of a Congress was assumed by the German plenipotentiaries who met at Teschen in 1779 to end the war of the Bavarian succession. It hardly deserved the name. The French Revolution and the wars of the Empire swept away the entire political fabric of continental Europe the war of 1870-71. It terminated the long contest and the treaties on which it was based. No attempt between France and Austria. It established the equa was made during that period to convoke a Congress rights of the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvimstic churd cs for the purpose of a general pacification and territorial in Germany. It rendered 350 German princes almost settlement; for the Congress of Rastadt, which met in independent of the Empire, and it planted the germ oUhe December 1797 and sat till April 1799, was designed future greatness of Prussia. This form of the Geiman mainly to re-establish amicable relations between France body remained unaltered till the French Revolution But and the German empire, and was not attended by the reit afso gave to France and Sweden a right, as mediating presentatives of England, Russia, or Spain. These negopowerstt Munster, to interfere in the affairs o? Germany tiations proved abortive; war was renewed; the Congress a right which supported the aggressive policy of Louis was broken up ; and the ministers of the French XIV., and caused, in the event, innumerable quanels. Directory—Bonnier and Roberjot w^ere massacied by a diplomatic communications at Munster all passed through party of Austrian Szeklers as they quitted the town. The the mediators, and were generally framed in Latin, llie Austrian Government never entirely cleared itself of comdiscussions were also carried on in tnat language, plicity in this crime against the rights and usages of separate peace between the Dutch and the Spaniards was nations ; and the event aggravated the hostility existing also signed at Munster in 1648, as represented m Terburgs between France and Germany. celebrated picture, now in the National Gallery, but this Upon the fall of Napoleon, it was agreed by the 32d was not an act of the Congress, . Article of the Peace of Paris, signed on the 30th May The term Congress was applied to the diplomatic 1814 between France and the allied powers, that “within meetings which negotiated the Peace of Nimeguen m 167 8 two months all the powers which had been engaged in the and the Peace of Ryswick (so called from a castle near the war on either side should send plenipotentiaries to Vienna Ha^ue) in 1697. A contemporary French author, De to settle, at a general Congress, the arrangements required Rouille, remarked that these meetings ought to be termed to complete the provisions of the Treaty of Peace, ine assemblies, not congresses, since the latter word was coarse Congress of Vienna, which met, with some allowance tor and inappropriate. The term has since entirely lost its delays, early in November of the same year, was hy tar improper meaning, derived from a,n obsolete form of the most splendid and important assembly ever convoked ecclesiastical procedure, and the diplomatic signification to discuss and determine the affairs of Europe, ike lias triumphed. At Nimeguen England appeared for the emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, the lungs ot first time at a Continental Congress, from the interest she Bavaria, Denmark, and Wurtemberg, were present in person took in the fate of Holland, and was worthily represented in the Austrian capital at the court of the Emperor Francis. by Sir William Temple; France by Colbert de Croissy, Prince Mettevnich presided over the Congress. Prince D’Estrades, and D’Avaux ; Spain by Don Pedro Ronquillo, Talleyrand represented France. Great Britain sent tke governor of the Low Countries ; and Holland by the count secretary of state for foreign affairs—Lord Castlereag ', of Nassau and Beverning. Separate treaties were signed besides the duke of Wellington, Lord Clancarty, and Lord between the various parties. The Congress of Ryswick Cathcart. Mr Stratford Canning, now the sole survivoi oi was of still greater importance to England, for it ter- that illustrious assembly, took part in the discussion o . minated the war in which we had long been engaged with affairs of Switzerland, where he was then minister, i France, and extorted from Louis XIV. the recognition was represented by Prince Hardenberg and Baron H»mhoW • of the right of William and Mary to the British crown. A hundred sovereigns and ministers were collected The peace was of short duration, for the War of Succession Vienna, all animated by a general desiie or peace broke out in 1701; the grand alliance was formed between England, Holland, and Austria; France was defeated; lively sense of their own interests. Chevalier Gei , named protocolist to the Congress, and whob al peace was nearly restored in 1709 at the conferences of was drafted the treaties which were ultimately signed y eed Gertruydenberg, which were privately carried on between powers, has left us a curious account of the secret p the marquis de Torcy and the Grand Pensionary, but not mgs ^ tl , ings or of tins this proaigioub prodigious cibbumu^. assembly. Strange to say, finally concluded till 1712, when a Congress of all the itself, that is to say, the representatives of al _ belligerent powers (except the king of Spain) assembled gress principalities and powers, never met in council, no d 3 at Utrecht. France was represented by the marshal formal exchange of their respective credentials ta P ^ d’Huxelles, England by the bishop of Bristol (it was the The business was entirely transacted by committe ^ last time an English bishop acted in a civil and diplomatic five great powers—Austria, England, France, ’ of capacity), the emperor by Count Sinzendorf. I he decisive ^ negotiation for peace was, however, carried on secretly and Russia ; to whom, for certain purposes, the m separately between London and Versailles, and whilst the Spain, Sweden, and Portugal were added. Even

C O N —C O N

271 arrangement the progress of the negotiations was extremely which has been discussed more fully in another place (See slow. For three months nothing was done. It was said, Declaration of Paris.) But this is an important “ Le Congres danse, mais ne marche pas.” Serious differ- example of the authority which may be fitly assumed and ences arose; the pretensions of Russia and Prussia, acting exercised by a Congress, to determine controverted quesin concert, seemed even to threaten a renewal of war; tions of public law by a species of declaratory enactment. and a secret treaty was concluded on the 3d December In the autumn of 1863, the Emperor Napoleon formally between England, France, and Austria, in view of that con- proposed to the.other great Powers that a Congress should tingency. The return of Napoleon from Elba in March assemble in Paris for the purpose of settling various ques1815 roused the Congress from its lethargy and terminated tions, which appeared to threaten the future peace of its disputes, by the necessity for common action ; and at Europe. To this proposal the Continental states assented ; length the great treaties of Vienna were signed on the 7th but England gave a positive refusal, on the ground, stated June 1815—eleven days before the battle of Waterloo by by Loid Russell, that such measures of prospective legislathe plenipotentiaries of the eight powers. It is acknow- tion weie more likely to embroil the several Powers than ledged by the draftsman of these treaties that, after all, to establish peace. The project was therefore abandoned ; this work was somewhat hastily and imperfectly done. Yet but the wars, which ensued in Denmark, in iAustria, and upon the whole, that Congress succeeded in restoring peace m France, within the next seven years, justified the views to Europe, which was not seriously disturbed for forty ta cen by Napoleon III. as to the dangers that threatened years; and it laid the foundation of a system of public the peace of the world. law, which was long held sacred, as the common basis The most convenient summary of the Acts of the various Conof the rights of every member of the European family. gresses which have been held from 1645 to 1815 is to be found in At the present time, after the changes which have taken n06 S 1I }'ltToirewere Alrtgle des Trades Paix. by Kluber The Acts of lVienna published at greatdelength place in Poland, in Italy, in Germany, in Denmark, oir+ithe Congress his Geschichte des Wiener Congresses. The proceedings of the and in France, it can hardly be said that any fragments of m Congresses and Conferences in which Vreat Britain has taken part the work of the Congress of Vienna retain their authority, have invariably been laid before Parliament. (H. iR.) or that any similar general compact has taken its place. CONGREVE, William (1670-1729), the greatest The intimate relations which had sprung up during the war gave rise, to a mystical union of the northern English master of pure comedy, was born, according to the soveieigns, projected and prepared by the emperor of latest, and likeliest accounts, in 1670, according to the inRussia, under the name of the(Holy Alliance; and the scription on . his monument, in 1672; and whether in intention of the authors of that agreement was that the England or in Ireland, at Bardsey near Leeds or at some powers should meet and act together in the event of fresh place unknown beyond St George’s Channel, has likewise disturbances occurring in Europe. The practical result of been matter of doubt and dispute; but we may presumthis policy was seen in 1823 when another Congress met a y accept the authority of Lord Macaulay, who decides at Verona, not for the purpose of restoring peace, but in against Dr Johnson in favour of the later date, and disorder to crush the signs of freedom and independence then misses without notice the tradition of an Irish birthbeginning to display themselves in Europe. In Spain the place. To Ireland, at all events, is due the credit of his nation demanded a constitution—she was invaded by education, as a schoolboy at Kilkenny, as an undertrance; mNaples a popular movement took place—Naples graduate at Dublin. From college he came to London, was occupied by Austrian troops, and the king fled to and was entered as a student of law at the Middle Temple. Lay bach; m Germany, the people were irritated by the I fie first-fruits of his studies appeared under the boyish breach of all the liberal promises made during the war. pseudonym of “Cleophil,” in the form of a novel whose 1 he Congress of Verona was the source and centre of the existence is now remembered only through the unabashed avowal of so austere a moralist as Dr Johnson, that he SwJk6? rea. (Eucl. vi. A) SZ bisects the external Fir. 6. . dieular to KX, and bisect SX angle of the triangle PSQ. in A; draw AZ at right angles to Corollary.—\i the point Q move up to and become coincident SX, and equal to AS. Join XZ. with Willi P, L J -it or 'JI if, Ilj in 111 othera"U words, the chord -PQ'V become the_ tangent , -» parabola n rr 1P to Let QN be any straight line the ati tvP, a!then the~ angle ‘DC! PSZ>7 will become oa TnrirTvf right aangle. parallel to the directrix, cutting Prop. IY. XZ in Q and the axis in X. With centre S and radius The tangent at any point of a parabola bisects the angle between equal to QX, describe va circle the focal distance of the point and the perpendicular from the cutting QN in P and I ; these point on the directrix. will be points on the parabola, Let PZ (fig. 7) he the tangent at P, meeting the directrix in Z ; because then, if PM he drawn perSP : XN = QN : XN pendicular to the directrix, =» ZA : AX = 1:1. it is easily seen that the SP = XN = distance of two triangles SPZ, MPZ P from the directrix. Fig. 2. are equal in all respects, AItL is IS ULCcU. clear that LllclU liif the j^aaau point a.P . , . T • » the angle SPZ equal to exists, the point P' on the opposite side of the axis also exists, and MPZ. and therefore the parabola is symmetrical with respect to the axis. theIfangle SM he joined, it can Again, the point P will exist, or, in other words, the circle will he shown that it is bisected cut QN, as long as SP or QN is greater than SN, which is always at right angles by PZ, and the case as long as QN lies on the same side of AZ as the focus. The whole of the curve, therefore, lies to the right of AZ, and that its middle point is the P0 branches off to an infinite distance from the directrix. TheHne AY?'itwill be observed, is the tangent to the parabola lt Prop. II. Karmears therefore, that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent at any point is the tangent at To find where a parabola of given focus and directrix is cut by straight line parallel to the axis. ^It^an^iso be seen that, if the tangent at P meet the a j in T, Let S (fig. 3) be the focus,_ and then SP= ST. For the angles STi, SPT are each equal to tlie XK the directrix ; draw AY bisectangle MPT, and therefore (Eucl. i. 6) SP, ST are equal. ing SX at right angles. It may further he remarked that, if 0 he any point m the tangent Let KQ he any line parallel to at P, then the triangles SPO, MPO are equal m all respects. the axis cutting the directrix'in K. If PN be drawn perpendicular to the axis to meet it m JN, tne Join SK cutting AY in Y, and it will he seen that PN = 2AY draw YP at right angles to SK cutand TN ==■ 2AN = 2 AT. ting KQ in P. P will he a point No\v, in the right-angled triangle TYS,— . on the curve. TA : AY = AY : AS (Lucl. vi. 8), It is easily shown that the tri2 Fig. 3. and therefore YA = TA . AS angles SPY, KPY are equal in all Therefore PN2 = 4YA = 4TA.AS respects, and that SP=PK. = 4AS.AN. . If the normal PG he drawn meeting the axis in G, then tne angles PNG, YAS NG■AS are similar, therefore-— D = and PN:YA = 2;1 NG = 2AS Prop. Y. To draw a tangent to a parabola at a point on the curve. a First Method.—Take a point T in the axis fp is Vl to SP, and join A Then STP mil ta the tang'n „»t ^ Second Method.—Draw SZ at right angles to SP, meetmD directrix in Z. ZP is the tangent at P. ^ - i . this will Third Method—On SP as diameter describe a circle, ^ touch the tangent at the vertex AY in a point x. xr Fig. 5. tangent at P. Prop. VI. Fig. 4. Now, the point P will exist, or, in other words, YP will inter- To draw a pair of tangents to a parabola from an external point. ^ sect KQ, for all positions of KQ. First Method.—Let 0 (fig. 8) be the point. Join OS, and wiU The parabola, therefore, branches off on either side of the axis to 274

CONIC

CONIC

SECTIONS

centre 0 and radius OS describe a circle cutting the directrix (which it will always do) in M and M'. Draw MP, M'P', parallel to the axis, cutting the parabola in P and P'. Join OP, OP'. They are tangents to the parabola at P and P'. Join SP, SP'. In the triangles OPS, OPM, OP, PM = OP, PS each to each, OM = OS by the construction; anj therefore the angles OPS, OPM are equal, and therefore OP is a tangent to the curve at P (Prop, iv.) Second Method—hat 0 (fig. 9) be the point. Upon OS as diameter describe a circle cutting the tangent at the vertex (which it will always do) in Y and Y'. Join YO, Y'O, and, if necessarj produce them to meet the curve in P, P'. They will be tangents to the curve at P, P'. Because OYS is a semicircle, therefore the'angle OYS is a right angle, and therefore YO is a tangent to the parabola (Prop, iv.) Prop. VII. If OP, OP'(fig. 8) be tangents to the parabola at P, P', then tho triangles2 OSP, P'SO are similar, and S0 = SP. SP'. Because the angle OSP=angle OMP=angle OM'P'=angle OSP', and the angle OPS=angle OPM=> angle SMM'=£ angle SOM' (Eucl. iii. 20)=angle SOP' (Prop, vi.); Fig. 8 therefore the remaining angles OPS, P'OS are equal, and the triangles OPS, P'OS similar: and therefore (Eucl. vi, 4) SP:SO2 = SO : SP', or SO = SP. SP'. Prop. VIII. If 0 be the intersection of OP, OP', the tangents to the parabola at P and P', then OV drawn parallel to the axis will bisect ITV. From fig. 8 we see that, if a line through 0 meet MM' in Z, MM' is bisected in Z; and, because MP. ZO V, and M'P' are parallel, therefore PP' is bisected in V. Prop. IX. The angle between two tangents is equal to half the angle subtended at the focus by tho chord of contact. From fig. 9 we see that angle YOY' = angle YSY' = angle naf angl1e Y'SA = l angle = psp'~ 2 an° e ^ ailgl° It may be shown, by means of this proposition, that tho circle which is described about tlie triangle formed by any three angents to a parabola passes through the focus. Fig. 9.

x ROP. x. If

raeet th i? t !°)angen parabola t at e is ecl! Y t0 m / paral. PP', and, OVQ will bo D0 bisected in Q.

Pa m IX, K'. Join IdtoMV Q e in Tr,; Lr t PQ inn W. W Then Pwrwog 7p :.. . Jlurefore 01:-Bp ,tn ?\ ."'D OP : RP = OB'• P'P' Fig. 10. OQ^Qy,

\

OQ:QV=OE:Rp

275 Suppose in fij 10 SQ, SR joined, and PC produced to meet the axis in T. Then angle ORQ = J angle QSP (Prop, ix.) = angle QSR (Prop, yn.), and angle QRS = angle RPS (Prop, vii.) = angle STP (Prop =ang]e Q°R (Eucl. i. 29); therefore the two triangles OQR,‘ SQR are similar, and ' OQ:QR=QR;SQ therefore QR2 = SQ.OQ. But PV=2QR, and OQ = QV, therefore PV2=4SQ.QV.

Prop XII. The parameter of the diameter QV is 4SQ. If (the tangent at Q (fig. 11) meets the axis in T, SQ = ST = QV. Therefore the equality PV2 = 4SQ. QV becomes py2 = 4gQ2 therefore PV = 2SQ ^ PP' = 4SQ. Prop. XIII. If POP' (fig. 12) be any chord, and OR be drawn parallel to the axis through any point 0 to meet the curve in R, then PO . OP'= 4SQ . RO, where 4SQ is the parameter of diameter PP'. Draw RW parallel to PP' to meet QV in W. Then py2 = 4SQ>Qy and RW2 = 4SQ . QW, and RO = WV and RW = 0V. Therefore PO. OP'=PV22 - OV2 2(Eucl. ii 5) = PV - RW = 4SQ . Q V - 4SQ . QW = 4SQ.WV=4SQ.RO Prop. XIV. If POP', pOp' beany two chords intersecting in 0, and Q, q are the points of contact of the tangents parallel to them, then PO . OP' :pO. Op' = SQ :Sq. By Prop, xiii., PO . 0P'=4SQ . RO Fig. 12. and similarly pO. Op'=4Sq. RO. Therefore PO. OP':pO. Op'=4SQ. RO : 4Sq. RO = SQ : Sq Prop. XV. The area included between any chord of a parabola and the curve is two-thirds of the area of the triangle formed by the chord and the tangents to the curve at its extremities. . It: is easily seen in fig. 10 that the area of the triangle ORR' is one quarter the area of the triangle OPP', and therefore one half the area of the triangle QPP'. Now if we draw tangents where RW, R'W' meet the curve, we snail have two pairs of triangles whose areas are in the ratio 1: 2, and so we. may go on indefinitely. The sum of all the external triangles will be half the sum of all the internal triangles. The sum of the external triangles is the curvilinear area OPQP', and the sum of the internal triangles is the curvilinear area POP'. Therefore 2 x area OPQP'=area PQP' .‘. 2 x triangle OPP' = 3 area PQP' or area PQP'=§ triangle OPP'.

PART II.—THE ELLIPSE. Definitions. A straight line passing through the centre, and terminated both ways by the ellipse, is called a diameter. The extremities of a diameter are called its vertices. The diameter which passes through the foci is called the transverse axis, also the major axis. .The diameter which is perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate axis, also the minor axis. Any straight line not passing through the centre, but terminated both ways by the ellipse, and bisected by a diameter, is called an ordinate to that diameter. Each of the segments of a diameter intercepted between at its vertices and an ordinate, is called an abscissa,

SECTION S or the sum of the focal distances oi any point on the ellipse is A chord, tangent, and normal are defined exactly in the equal to the major axis. The noint P will exist, or, m other words, the circle on RR' as same words as in tlie case of the parabola. diameter will intersect KQ, if OL is less than OR when 0 is tlie .ulddle point °fRR'. SX:SK_CA;0E, Prop. I. .-. OR.SX = SK.CA; To find where an ellipse of given focus, directrix, and eccentucity is cut by a straight line parallel to the directrix. and OL = OC + CL=KX. g^+KX. Let S (fig. 13) he the focus, XK the directrix, and 6 the eccenTherefore the point exists if KX. SC + KX. SX then Then qp=pq' = QD, p sec a tangent'at"^ ^ie ^ne t f H chords parallel to the Now 1 V is called an ordinate to the diameter Cp. and

PO.OP'=PV2- OV2 2 = PV2-RW2 CV 2 CW PV22 : CV22 - CQ22 = CD22 : CQ22 RW :CW - CQ = CD : CQ

• '• PV2" RW2 ’ ^ : CV2 ~ CQ2 ~ (CW2 - CQ2) = CD2 : CQ2. ^ Definition. paraPe 2 2 2 jugate to^p ^ tangent at P is said to be con- orPO.OP': CQ ^-^!2 - A-CD : CQ . \CW2 / 6 dr aw aralle 2 the conjugatebv^ru ! . 2v P l to the tangent at P to meet . •. PO . OP' : CD = CV - CW22 : CW22 2 sei a ln P = CO - C R : CR ni-diaiTieters ^ ^° ’ ^P, CD are said to be conjugate -RO.OR'iCR2. XV a Therefore chords which it bisects^' ' diameter is conjugate to the PO . OP' : RO. OR' = CD2 : CR2. yj> _

SECTIONS The fixed point V is called the vertex of the cone. Piiop. XI The circle ADB is If POP', pOp' be any two chords, and CD, Qd the semi-diameters called the base of the parallel to them, then 1 cone. PC . OF : pO . 0/ = CD2 : Cd2. Any straight line From the last proposition we have drawn from the vertex PO . OF : RO. OR' = CD2 :( CR2 2, to the circumference of and also pO • 0/ : RO . 20R' = Crf- : R Therefore PO. OP' : CD =^pO.Op'-.Qd\ RO . OR : CR the base is called a side of the cone. * PO.OF :i?0.0/ = CD2 :Cd2. or A straight line VC drawn through the verProp. XX. tex of the cone, and the If from a point Q on one asymptote (fig. 40) orainates 0™, QDN centre of the base, is be drawn to two conjugate hyperbolas m P, D, PD will be called the axis of the parallel to the other asymptote. cone. QM22 : QX22 = QM22 : CM22 = BC22 : AC22 If the axis of the . .Fig. - 43 and QM 2- PM 2 : QN 2-DN2 = BC 2 : AC2. • PM : DN = BC : AC = QM : QN cone be perpendicular to the base, it is called a right cone. or* ’ PM : DN = QM : QN . If the axis of the cone be not perpendicular to the base, Therefore DP is parallel to NM (Eucl. vi. 2), it is called a scalene cone. and NM is parallel to BA, and therefore to the other asymptote. „ , nT) Prop. I. Corollary.—It follows therefore that Cl, Fig. 40. If a cone be cut by a plane passing through the vertex, the section CD are conjugate (Prop. xvi.) will be a triangle. Prop. XXL Let ADVB be a cone of which VC is the axis ; let AD be the common section of the base of the cone and the cutting plane; join 2 2 2 If CP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters, CP - CD = CA - CB-. VA VD. When the generating line comes to the points A and JJ, Let ordinates PM, DN (fig. 41) in the two hyperbolas be produced, it is evident that it will coincide with the straight lines VA, VD ; lev are therefore in the surface of the cone, and they are m the they will meet in2 a point Q on the asymptote lPiop. xx., C .) SaL which pasSs through the points V, A, D therefore the tnThen CP - CD2 =2 CM2 +2 MP2 -2 CN2 -2 ND2 = QN2 + MP 2 - QM 2- DN 2 angle VAD is the common section of the cone and the plane which = QN2 - DN2 - (QM - PM ) passes through its vertex. F Prop. II. = CA - CB (Prop, xiv.) It follows that if the tangent at P meets the a If a cone be cut by a plane _ parallel to its base, the section will be axes in T, T', then a circle, the centre of which is in the axis. PT.PT' = CD2. Let EEC be the section made by a plane parallel to the base of For PT:CD = PM:CN the cone and VAB, VCD two sections of the cone made by any two and PT': CD2 = CM : DN ttaoagh the a* VO ; let K HF be fte c»= • PT PT' : CD = PM. CM : CN . DN sections of the plane EEC and the planes VAB, VUi. because = PM. QN : QM .DN =1 : 1 the planes EFG, ADB are parallel, HE, HE will be parallel to CA Fig. 4L PT.PT' = CD2. CD and ’ AC: EH = (VC: VH *= )CD : HE; , . Ari — rni tlwefore EH = HF. For the same reason EH - nr, Prop. XXII. therefore EFG is a circle of which H is the centre and EG t e If CP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters, the area of the triangle diameter. CPQ is constant. Prop. III. Produce QP (fig. 42) to meet the other asymptote in Q'; and join If a scalene cone ADBV (fig. 44) be cut through the axis by aphne MON. PLD. They are parallel to CQ'. perpendicular to the base, making the triangle VAB and ir (Eucl. vi. 2.) ’ QO2 : LO = QM : PM anv point H in the straight line AV a straight line HK be dram 2 2 2 : LO 2= QM 2 : PM 2 in the plane of the triable VAB so that the angle VEK m^ r • QO2 -QO 2 2 LO : QO = QM - PM : QM equal to the angle VBA, and the cone be cut another e or QL.LC : Q02 =2 BC2 2: QM2 2 passing through HK perpemficu^ co ne 4CL.LQ : CQ2 = BC2 : QM2 ABV, the common section HrKJN ot tms plane or 4CL.LQ : BC = CQ 2 : QM3 2 will be a circle. . j T = CA2 + CB2 : CB = CS2 : CB Tate any point I. in tie straight line HK, and throngh 1 taw EG parallel to AB, 4CL . LQ = CS . and let EFGN be a Now in the right angled triangle PQD, L is section parallel to the the middle point of the hypotenuse ; therefore base, passing through PL = LD = LQ. 2 .-. 4CL. LP = CS . EG ; then the two planes H F KN, EE GN If PL' be drawn parallel to CL to meet the being per pendicular to other asymptote, Fig. 42. 2 4PL . PL' — CS , the plane VAB, their common section FLN and the area of the quadrilateral CLPL' is constant. , It follows that, if the tangent at P meets the asymptotes m K, K , is perpendicular to the area of the triangle CKK' is constant ; also that the area ol ELG, and since EFGN the quadrilateral formed by the tangents at the extremities ol two is a circle (by last Prop.), and EG its conjugate diameters is constant. diameter, the square of EL is equal to the rectangle contained by PART IV.—THE CONE AND ITS SECTIONS. EL and LG (Eucl. iii. 35); but since the Definitions. angle VHK is equal VBA or VGE, the Fig, 44. If through, the point V, without the plane of the ciicle to mio*lps ° « r of angles EHK.ECjIv EHK, EGK are ADB (fig. 43), a straight line AV be drawn, and produced equal, therefore the points E, H, G, K, are in the circuni e indefinitely both ways, and if the point V remain fixed a/circle (Eucl. iii. 21), and HL . LK = EL . LG (Eucl 11.35).^. while the straight line AV is moved round the whole cir- therefore the section HFKN is a circle of which HLK cumference of the circle, a superficies of two. sheets, which ^ This section is called a Subcontrary Section. is called a cone, will be generated by its motion.

282

CONIC

i

CONIC SECTIONS 283 Pkop. IV. therefore KL:LG = KH:HQ HL:LE = KH;KR; If a cone be cut by a plane which does not pass through the vertex and 2 2 and which is neither parallel to the base nor to the plane of a therefore KL . HL: LG. LE (or LF ):: KH • HO KR subcontrary section, the common section of the plane and the £wSiewa^f-K,H2 t0 HQ • KR is tt*6 same wherever'the sections each other ; therefore KL. HL has a con! surface of the cone will be an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola, HFKM, EFGM intersect 2 according as the plane passing through the vertex parallel to the stant ratio to -LF , consequently (Prop. xii. on the ellipse) the sec-" cutting plane falls without the cone, touches it, or falls within tionHFKM is an ellipse, of which HK is a diameter and MF an1 ordinate. it. Cas ext > suppose touch the circumferLet ADBV (figs. 45, 46, 47) be any cone, and let OISTP be the ence of?Jthe ^ base in A. Let the I)ISline (fig.ONP 46) betothe common section of w the base and the plane FKM ; the line HIS is2 evidently parallel to PLM, and perpendicular to AB, therefore DI = AI IB Lqucc HI2: FL2 = AI. IB : EL. LG. * ’ But since EG is parallel to AB, and IK parallel to AV, AI is equal l to EL, and IB:LG=KI: KL, therefore DP: FL2 = KI: KL. 11 8 1 0111 r0 arabo]a DFKM^/o ^ / ! of? w-hich ?' KLI is a Pdiameter, that DFKMS is a paiabola, and the DISsection FLM ordinates to that diameter. ’ Ca s 3 , ’'; - Lastly, let the line PNO fall within the base : draw VT l(. (hg. 47) through the vertex parallel to EG. The triangles HVT 11 EL are similar, as also the triangles KVT, KGL, therefore HT: TV=HL: LE, an , d KT: TV=KL: LG; therefore HT . KT : TV2 = HL . LK : LE2. LG or LF2. Hence it appears that HL. LK has to LF a constant ratio, therefore the section DFKMS is an hyperbola, of which KH is a transverse diameter and FM an ordinate to that diameter (Prop v 1 xii common section of a plane passing through its vertex and the plane on the hyperbola). of the base, which will either fall without the base, or touch it or Frorn the four preceding propositions it appears that the onlv fall within it. ’ lines which can be formed by the common section of a plane and a Let FKM be a section of the cone parallel to VPO • through C cone are these five :—1. Two straight lines intersecting each other & the centre of the base in the vertex of the cone ; 2. A circle; 3. An ellipse ; 4. A paradraw ON perpendicu bola ; 5. An hyperbola. The first two of these, however, viz the lartoOP, meeting the pair of straight hues and circle, maybe referred to the hyperbola circumference of the and the ellipse ; for if the axes ol an hyperbola be supposed to rebase in A and B ; let tain a constant ratio to each other, and, at the same time, to dimia plane pass through msh continually, till at last the vertices coincide, the hyperbola V, A, and B, meeting will evidently become two straight lines intersecting each other in the plane OVP in the a point; and a circle may be considered as an ellipse, whose axes line NV, the surface are equal, or whose foci coincide ; so that the only three sections of the cone in VA, which require to be separately considered are the ellipse, the paraVB, and the plane of bola, and the hyperbola. the section FKM in q LK; then, because the planes OVP, MKF are PART V.—OF CURVATURE parallel, KL will be parallel to VN, and Definitions. will meet VBone side If a circle touch a curve at any point P and pass through of the cone in K; it will either meet VA another point. Q on the curve, then if Q move up to P the the other side in H, limiting position of the circle, when Q coincides with P, is as in fig, 45, within called the circle of curvature of the curve at P. Fig. 46. the cone; or it will The centre of this circle is called the centre of curvature of the curve at the point P. , Bet EFGM be a section of the cone parallel Pkoposition I. to the base, meeting the The common chords of any conic and any intersecting circle are plane VAB in EG, and equally inclined to the axis or axes of the conic. the plane FKM in FM and let L be the inter. Let P, Q, R, S be the points of intersection of a conic and a circle. section of EG and FM • Let PR, QS intersect in 0. then winFM be parallel Then because P, Q, R, S lie on a circle to KB,EGand will be parallel to PO, and PO . OR = QO . OS (Eucl. hi. 35); and because POR, QOS are two chords in a conic, the ratio therefore will make the same angle with LK PO.OR:QO.OS (in the parabola) = parameter of PR : parameter of QS wherever the lines FM,’ (in the ellipse and hyperbola) = square on the semi-diameter paral. cut each other: and lel to 1 R : square on the semi-diameter parallel to QS. since BN is perpendicuar Now parameters of chords in the parabola, and semi-diameters ,? BG is per. parallel to chords in the ellipse and hyperbola, are equal only when Pedicular to FM. Now the chords are equally inclined to the axes. the section EFGM is a circle of which EG is The same proof applies to the pairs of chords PQ, RS and PS the diameter (Prop, ii.) QR. therefore FM is biCorollary 1.—If a circle touch a conic at P and cut it in Q and te L and 2 R, the chords PQ, PR are equally inclined to the axis, and the P? r ^ ’ BL = EL. LG. chord. QR and the tangent at P are also equally inclined to the axis, ihis is seen by considering the case of S moving up to and coincidE ne PNOp ^ ing with P. ENObe without the base Corollary 2.—If the circle of curvature of a conic at a point P J the cone. Through intersect the conic again in Q, then the chord PQ and the tangent K and H (fig. 45) draw to the conic at P are equally inclined to the axis of the conic. par elt AB.aTh??f KLG, ° KHQ are similar, as also HLE, HER This is seen by considering the case of R and S, both moving up triangles to and coinciding with P.

C 0 N—C 0 N 284

Prop. V. Prop. II. If the chord of intersection PQ (fig. 50) of an ellipse or hyperbola with the circle of curvature at P meet CD the semi-diameter To draw the circle of curvature at any point of a conic. conjugate to CP in K, then J Praw the tangent at P./J ° PQ . PK = 2CD2 n rhS?0« ang£KWV and naahe the angle Draw the double ordinate PUP ; the tangents at P, P' meet in the ThS^efotocfnte rfihe ekcle ot curvature. axis at T, and the tangent at P is Prop. III. parallel to PQ, and therefore Cl bisects PQ in Y . Let PQ meet the axes m F, r , then The focal chord of curvature in the parabola is equal to 4tor. PY • PF' = FV : FC=TF : TC = PF : PK Let the common chord of the circle since CD is parallel to PT. Fig 50 of curvature and the parabola be 1 L, Therefore P V. PK - PF . PF ^ cd2 = 1 L . 1 -L — cutting the axis at F (fig- 4°). , (Ellipse, Prop. xv. and Hyperbola, Prop, xxi.) Draw the double ordinate riM , PQ.PK = 2CD2. cutting the axis at N ; the tangents and at P, F will meet the axis m the Prop. YI. same point T. Then angle PFT = angle FT F - angle P T1. If the chord of curvature PQ' (fig- 51) of an ellipse or hyperbola • TP'. PQ are parallel. in any direction meet ^P^^CD2. ^ •' PQ = 2PV = 4PF = 4PT . Now let PS produced cut the circle again in U ; join UQ. monY-T. i The angle Q'QP = angle TPK' = angle PKK'; Then angle UQP = angle TPIJ(Eucl. Fig. 48. therefore the triangles ^F.’p^pTfpK'^’ iii. 32) = angle PTS = angleisPFT ; and 2 t.. pQ'.PK'^FQ.PK^iCD . tnereiore puUQ• PSparallel = PQ : PF = 4 1, therefore to SF PU = 4SP. or Prop. IVTo find an expression for the chord of curvature at any point of a parabola drawn in any ' direction. Using the same construction as in Prop, iii., let PW (fig. 49) be the chord required. Fig. 51 Draw SY parallel to the given direction to meet the tangent at If PQ" be the chord of curvature through the focus, then P in Y. PK" — CA Then angle PWU = angle SPY , PQ". CA = 2CD2. a v /// (Fuel. iii. 32). if po'" be the chord of curvature through the centre 1.1 -L ^ ^ PK. =CP and angle UPW-angle YSP. Therefore the triangles U\Yi, p 2CD2 and Q"'- CU= • YTSP are similar, and If PQ"" of curvature PW : PU = SP : SY 2 * be the diameter PK"". CD = CA. CB or PW. SY = PU . SP i PO"" PK"" = 2CD2. 3 2 = 4SP . and 4SP . pw = iiF_. • PQ"" CA. CB = 2CD -. *• SY For other powerful method., of inve,tilting the Corollary.—The diameter of 4 0 022 1 J 4. conic SCCUUIIS section, which have beeii— muc r 1 M.T.) curvature 4SP ,where SY is the perpendicular on the tangent. geometry and other headings ig macle to

CONINGTON, John (1825-1869),' the first occupant of the “ Corpus ” chair of Latin literature in the University of Oxford, was born on the 10th August 1825 at Boston in Lincolnshire, his father, the Kev. Kichard Comngton, being incumbent of the chapel of ease in that town. He was a remarkably precocious child, knowing his letters when fourteen months old, and being able to read well at three and a half. After two years’ training at Beverley grammar school, he was sent in 1838 to Rugby, where his “ remarkable memory and very good scholarship” drew special commendation from Dr Arnold. In 1843 he went to Oxford, matriculating at University College at midsummer, but entering upon residence in the October term at Magdalen, where in the interval he had been nominated to a demyship. His university distinctions were numerous. He was Ireland and Hertford scholar in 1814; in March 1846 he was elected to a scholarship at University College ; in December of the same year he obtained a first-class in classics, graduating B.A. soon afterwards ; and in February 1848 he became a fellow of University College. Finding no career open to him at the university, and having obtained the Eldon scholarship in 1849, he proceeded to London in fulfilment of its conditions to keep his terms at

Lincoln’s Inn. The profession of law, ^wever p ^ eminently distasteful to him, and after six remon resigned the scholarship, and returned to m° congen work at Oxford. During his brief residence m London e formed a connection with the was maintained for some time. Ho ^ ^ aptitude for journalism, but a series of ^cl on Unn e 7 Reform (1849-50) are noteworthy a^ expression of his views on a subjec the chair of interested him. In 1854 College, Latin literature, newly founded by Corpus d gave him a position which exactly suited ^ published, in 1848, an edition . , pn£iish verse, ^schylus with notes and a translation jnt0 Engl ^ and he had devoted much study o very iEschylus, of which the only published resuh^ valuable edition of the Choephoi i ( ) v. e(j pimself that he became professor, however, h o gively to with characteristic conscientiousness almost - c Latin literature. The only important excepiaon^ ^ translation of the last twelve P°& 8 n 0f Worsleyi Spenserian stanza in completion ot the wo ^ and this was undertaken as a labour of love,

c 0 N —C 0 N of a promise made to his dying friend. In 1852 he commenced, in conjunction with Mr Goldwin Smith, a complete edition of Virgil with a commentary, of which the first volume appeared in 1858, the second in 1864, and the third soon after his death. Mr Goldwin Smith was compelled to withdraw from the work at an early stage, and in the last volume his place was taken by Mr Nettleship. In 1863 appeared Conington’s translation of the Odes and Carmen Seculare of Horace. This was followed in 1866 by the work by which its author is best known to the general public, the translation of the jEneid of Virgil into the octosyllabic metre of Scott, which deservedly takes almost the highest rank in its own department. The version of Dryden is the work of a stronger artist; but for fidelity of rendering, for happy use of the principle of compensation so as to preserve the general effect of the original, and for beauty as an independent poem, Conington’s version is unrivalled. That the measure chosen does not reproduce the majestic sweep of the Virgilian verse is a fault in the conception and not in the execution of the task, and Conington maintained that his choice had advantages which more than counterbalanced this defect. His last effort in his favourite task of translation was his rendering of the Satires, Epistles, and Art of Poetry of Horace, which was published in 1869. He died at Boston on the 23d October 1869. His edition of Persius, with a commentary and a spirited prose translation, was published posthumously in 1872. In the same year appeared his Miscellaneous Writings, edited by Symonds, with a memoir by Professor H. J. S. Smith. CONJEVERAM, a town of South-Eastern India, in the district of Chingleput, situated in the valley of the Wegawati, about 45 miles south-west of Madras, on the route to Arcot. It consists of wide irregular streets of mudbuilt houses, with cocoa-nut trees planted between them. The town is celebrated for its two pagodas, one dedicated to Kamachuma, and the larger one to Siva. The principal inhabitants are Brahmans. Handkerchiefs and cloths are manufactured.CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ireland, occupying the western quarter of the island. It comprises the counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim, and Roscommon, and contains an area of 6862 square miles, or 4,392,085 acres, of which 2,889,000 are under cultivation. The annual value of property, which, however, is based on a lower scale of prices than now obtains, is estimated at £4,188,631 ; and the land is divided among 5264 proprietors. An average holding in this province amounts in extent to 795 acres, while in all Ireland it amounts to only -93 acres; and the average value is 6s. 9|d. per acre, while ail J-reloccasionally d amounts mountainous, to 13s. 2d. The western is. i y and while the portion eastern part is generally level. It is well watered, and has on the greater portion of its eastern boundary the River Shannon, iiie River Moy is navigable from Killala to Ballina ; the ex ensive lakes Conn, Corrib, and Mask, are navigable ; m e sea coast affords many fine bays and harbours, e climate is moist and temperate. Agriculture is the am support of the population, but little progress has been Pursuit. The population may be considered as fiF6U1rens -yi Celtic’ and more than a of the people . h language—a larger proportion than in the rovinces vinnp ^ an since . - the Thecensus number of inhabitants the proof 1841 has been as in follows :—

„i

e lu

,

Inhabitants. Catholics. Protestants. • 1,418,859 .1,010,031 . 913,135 866,023 47,112 . 845,075 803,849 41,226 earl y times Connaught comprised, beyond its present 1841 1851 1861 1871

Ia

285 limits, the territory of Thomond, forming the present county of Clare, and North Breifne, the present county of Cavan. When Sir Henry Sydney, in the 16th century, divided the province into counties, he adopted the ancient boundaries, excluding North Breifne; but in 1602 the county of Clare was restored to Munster, and Connaught now comprises the counties mentioned above. CONNECTICUT (Indian, Quonehtacat, i.e., Long River), one of the six New England, and one of the thirteen original, States of the American Union, lies between 41° and 42° 3' N. lat., and 71° 55' and 73° 50' W, long.

Physical Description.—It is boundedN. by Massachusetts about 88 miles ; E. by Rhode Island, 45 miles; S. by Long Island Sound, 100 miles ; W. by New York about 68 miles (in a direct line). The S.W. corner projects along the Sound under New York for about 13 miles. The area is 4750 square miles, or one-tenth of that of New York. The State lies on the S. slope of the hilly regions of New England, with a general surface much diversified; there is, however, no land above 1000 feet in elevation. Besides the Connecticut, two other large rivers flow from the N. into the Sound—the Housatonic and the Thames. The Connecticut is the largest river in New England, rising cn the N. border of New Hampshire, 1600 feet above the sea, flowing S.S.W., separating Vermont and New Hampshire, crossing the W. part of Massachusetts, and central part of Connecticut, flowing S.S.E. below Middletown, and falling into the Sound at Saybrook. Its length is more than 400 miles, with a width in Connecticut varying from 500 to 1000 feet. It is navigable to Middletown (30 miles) for vessels drawing 10 feet, and to Hartford (50 miles) for those drawing 8 feet, Its principal tributary in Connecticut is the Tunxis, or Farmington, which flows S.E. from the slopes of the Green Mountains in Massachusetts, then abruptly N., and, breaking through the trap range, S.E. again to the Connecticut River atWindsor, instead of taking its seemingly natural course to New Haven, whither a part of its waters were formerly carried by the Farmington Canal. The E, part of the State is drained by the Thames, which is formed by the Yantic and Shetucket,—the Quinnebang joining the latter about two miles above. It is navigable to Norwich for the Sound steamers and West India trading vessels. In the W. part of the State is the Housatonic, with its main branch—the Naugatuck—which joins it at Derby. To this place it is navigable for small vessels. Besides these large streams there are very many smaller ones, affording, in their rapid descent from the hills, an immense amount of water power, Geologically the. State

286

CONNECTICUT

is chiefly Eozoic, excepting the Triassic Sandstone and post- bury (10,826), Middletown (6923), Meriden (10,521), New Tertiary terraces of the Connecticut River valley. There London (9576), New Britain (9480), and South Norwalk. are several well-defined ranges of hills. Of these the There were also 17 boroughs largely engaged in industry, Housatonic Hills are the most westerly, and extend along of which the chief are Birmingham, Danbury, Danielsonville, Fairfield, Stamford, Stonington, Willimantic, and Winsted, that river to the coast. The Green Mountain range, running S. from Vermont, terminates near New Haven. The The population of the State in 1679 was 12,535; in 1774 Blue Hills of Southington—the highest in the State—-are a it had risen to 197,856 ; and from 1790 it was as follows part of the Mount Tom range of Massachusetts, and lie be- (the last column showing its place among the other States tween the Green Mountain range and the Connecticut River. as regards population): On the E. side of the river is a fourth range which the river Free Total. Slave. White. Coloured. crosses at Chatham. While the hills run N. and S., it is noticeable that the three main rivers bend (and on about 237,946 2764 2808 232,374 1790 the same parallel) to the S.E. The ridges and dikes of 251,002 951 5330 244,721 1800 trap are exceedingly numerous through the centre of the 261,942 310 6453 255,179 1810 275,148 14 97 7870 State, having been forced up through the red sandstone 267,181 1820 297,675 16 25 8047 289,603 1830 which is found underlying and on the borders of the trap. 309,978 20 17 8105 301,856 1840 These ridges have abrupt columnar W. fronts and gentle E 370,792 21 none 7693 363,099 1850 slopes. The mineral wealth of the State is considerable. 24 460,147 8627 451,504 1860 537,454 25 Copper is found in the Simsbury mines at Granby, and at 9668 527,549 1870 Bristol; but these mines have lost their former importance since the-working of the abundant and purer ores of Lake In 1870 there were about 7000 more females than males. Superior. Iron ore is found in great quantities in Salis- About one-fifth of the population were foreign born, chiefly bury, Kent, Sharon, Cornwall, and Canaan, and has been Irish, German, English, French, Canadian, and Scotch. worked for 125 years. Limestone and marble of the very It is the third State in the density of its population (113T5 best quality are found at Canaan, Washington, and to the square mile), Massachusetts (186) and Rhode Island Milford. At Portland and Cromwell, on both sides of the (208) exceeding it, while New York follows next (87). In Connecticut River, are the well-known immense quarries 1875 the births were 14,328 (141 illegitimate): marriages, of freestone largely in demand for building.. The excellent 4385 (below the average for the last 11 years); deaths, slate flagging from Bolton and Haddam is abundant in (25 per cent, from diseases of the respiratory organs); supply, and in great demand. Granite, gneiss, hydraulic 9833 divorces, 476 (one for every 9'21 marriages solemnized, lime, tiling slate, clay (fire, potters’, and porcelain), and sulphate of barytes are found in great quantities. There were the average for 12 years is 455). Ihe laws legaiding twenty extensive quarries and mines in the State in 18/0. divorce are very lax. Industry and Finances.—Of the total population over There are over 100 miles of deeply indented coast on the ten years of age in 1870 (425,896), there were engaged in Sound (which measures 140 miles by 24 miles), affording all occupations, 193,421; chiefly classed as in agriculture, excellent harbours. The chief of these are Stonington, 43,653; in professional and personal service, 38,704; in New London, Saybrook, New Haven, Bridgeport, and trade, 24,720; and in manufactures, 86,344. There is Fairfield. The harbour at New London is one of the best very little soil that can be called good, except in the river in the country, capacious, and never frozen over. The valleys, and agriculture is as backward as in other parts of climate of the State, while very changeable, is very healthful—the mortality being below the average of the other New England. The hills through the State furnish excellent States. There is scarcely any spring season, but summer pasturage and cheap fuel. The chief cultivated fruits are opens abruptly about May 3, and the cold weather begins apples, pears, grapes, and the numerous kinds of berries. in November. The winters, with their keen N.W. winds, The principal crops are hay, oats, rye, corn, potatoes, and are severe, but the serenity of the sky and dryness of the tobacco ; and in the Connecticut River valley (extending, air make some compensation. The mean temperature for in this State, 30 miles N. of Middletown, and 20 miles the year is 48° Fahr. Consumption is the most fatal wide) farming is very productive. The tobacco raised m disease, causing 16 per cent, of all the deaths. The vege- the valley is said to be superior to any other. In the uptation is rich and varied. The most abundant trees are lands dairy products and cattle raising are the chief rechestnut, walnut, birch, oak, elm, maple, beech, and ash. sources of the farmer. There were in 1870, 25,508 farms, The forests have been recklessly cut away, and only patches having 1,646,752 acres of improved land, and 717,664 acres of woodland remain j but the people are waking up to the unimproved, of which 577,333 were woodland. The value importance of tree-planting. As for zoology, songbirds of these farms was $124,241,382. Though the number of of all sorts are plentiful, and the grouse and woodcock are farms has increased since 1850 and 1860, yet the acreage increasing under the game laws, after having been nearly devoted to them has decreased, as has also the cultivated killed out. The Sound abounds in the best qualities of farm land in proportion to the uncultivated. The farms fish and shell-fish, while the freshwater varieties of the are passing into the hands of the Irish and Germans,, w o former are found in great quantities in the rivers and ponds, do their own work and live with few comforts. PisciculAside from these there are few animals of importance save ture is receiving much attention, commissioners having been appointed in 1866, who have well stocked the ponds ana the domestio ones. Population. Divisions.—The State is divided into 8 rivers. Black-bass, trout, and shad have been very successcounties :—Hartford, New Haven, New London, Fairfield fully cultivated, and it is hoped as much can be done vatu (all incorporated in 1666), Windham (1/26), Litchfield, salmon. Notwithstanding the extensive sea coast and n (1751), Middlesex, and Tolland (1785). New London, harbours, the foreign commerce is not heavy,—the coas Middlesex, New Haven, and Fairfield occupy the lower trade and fisheries being more important. There are in half of the State, bordering on the Sound; the others occupy State five custom districts, of which the ports of entry the other half, adjoining Massachusetts. The number of Fairfield, Middletown, New Haven, New London, towns in 1876 was 167; and there were ten cities Hart- Stonington. The imports from foreign countries ford, the capital (population in 1870, 3 / ,180), New Haven domestic exports for the year ending June 30, (50,840), Bridgeport (18,969), Norwich (16,653), Water as fallows :—

Cs0 NNECTICU'T Ports. Fairfield Middletown New Haven New London Stonington

Imports. $6617 619 1,174,921 274,165 858

Exports. $28,927 none 2,925,631 118,605 none Total $1,457,180 $3,073,163 The chief articles of export were grain, fire-arms, provisions, and manufactures of wood. Of the total number of enrolled, registered, and licensed vessels (820), 718 were sailing vessels, with a tonnage of 53,329, and 78 were steam vessels, with a tonnage of 26,550. The fisheries are carried on from New London and Stonington. In 1875 there were 173 vessels engaged in the cod and mackerel fisheries, with a tonnage of 3756; and in the whale fishery 14, with a tonnage of 2050—a great reduction on the decade from 1850 to 1860. Engaged in coastwise trade and fisheries, there entered 2257 vessels and cleared 1678. In foreign trade there entered 161 and cleared 102. In 1870 1001 persons were engaged in fisheries, and’the annual product was $769,799. Ship-building is a considerable industry. In 1875, 34 vessels were built of 5915 tons The great industry of the State is in manufactures. These are exceedingly numerous and very productive, and most of them such as require ingenuity and intelligence on the part of the workmen. The chief industries and some of their statistics in 1870 were :— Steam WaterEstab- engines lish Horse- wheels Horse- Hands. Capital. ments. power power. Cotton goods (of all sorts) Ill Woollen goods 103 Hardware 145 Iron work (all sorts) 124 Machinery, „ 108 Paper, „ 66 Sewing-machines and fixtures 9 Plated ware Carriages and wag- 32 gons Indian-rubber and 205 elastic goods 13 Silk goods 23 Fireanns Cutlery and edge tool’s 418 Hats and caps Clocks, also materials 33 and cases 28 Boots and shoes Bleaching and dyeing 281 18 Total (the auuve above ana and)i 5, 128 .......lothers . -l > f! ’

860 2,258 2,640 2,721 1,424 567 815 685 185 1,183 401 654 376 534 481 19 13 25 »979

Annual Product.

10,840 12,086 12,710,700 14,026,334 6,110 7,285 12,490,400 17,365,148 1,773 7,246 6,863,395 12,111,034 1,480 3,486 5,320,650 7,552,725 728 2,770 5,010,379 5,007 1,497 4,342,641 2,988,046 4,874,291 30 2,525 2,492,000 499 2,107 2,337,500 3,949,000 4,066,806 401 2,341 2,292,810 4,164,480 981 1,946 300 1,703 2,345,000 1,414,130 4,239,329 224 1,607 1,793,770 3,314,845 2,222,873 1,046 1,788 1,306,550 2,099,895 56 2,464 1,153,300 3,740,871 430 1,471 1,008,650 7,153 30 2,417 9,546 258 188 586,800 150,100 9,743 54,395 | 89,523 | 95,281,2781161,065,474

168 rocl uction 111 P aS . in the total I’ubbeJgOTds^Mhlfrdwafe^ ^ tlie of clocks, Indianvalue of all manufactured product^ Tt USt e eighth ever, in connection with Z X,! f ?08 ^ atreme mbered, howStates census of 1870 ifverv Sn J" ! ’, ^ tlie ninth United the superintendent estimatre^tE t^V11 ruIatl°n t0 manufactures, a ou capital invested is reparted^and^ ^ ^ ^-quarter of the the way of under-esfimate l ! 87are.0.thf g^at errors in railway to 516 . Connecticut had 1 mile of 0 585 (Massachusetts had 1 mileSto 4•oq^01'7’ and .fhs and inhabitants, 909 inhabi tants; England 1 mile to \ 2 29SqU qUare T ants.) There were 23d railroad raillli ?re mi es and 1954 inhabitrack. The cost f companies, wrth H84 miles of single 210 & *>2,020,SJ $ Sr™,*76'831 1 foithe as - n ers $2,816,004, being 3 71 per cent n g ) ! net earnings, 0P ®® f the cosw nearly 8 millions, have no ^? ° rnr10ads- ,Nine ^ads, be m, companies / aid m ’ andThe stock of The amount paidwas i $59 divhl282 u784 ^ debt,capital $17,077,739 n

ei ht com a ^ 4’3 percent P ^ make any talof on th^enZ aP l f Z heC ^ the divided J °f a11 tlie roads- but 9-24 1 ns e ne ■i Stsf ^ erP ction of the °a ndj heir There accois an elaborate bon is aft 4aX 011 Pcash cent the ^^eket 4 ^tlu? ofstock unts.andThere ^Acting on on hand ^ gK and S prind al lin intrr!l nd ' form- connecW'tEe bore i? w T os are those New V n 1and anding highwws E ® itb imthe rta valleys of the 16 imnor^ld f eamboa &ewSYork ty *nnecte PO nt cities of New T Z t lines (mscipn ' P? d with these are heSb e

“ ”e

fe

l>‘ -veb^'coSrfS^t

287 the poorer hill towns. There are about 13,000 miles of pEo™, costing annually about $650,000. The banking interest of the' State is commensurate with its large business, and shows a steadilv increasing prosperity. _ At January 1, 1876, there were 79 natiW banks m the State, with a capital of $25,687,820 • 4 State hank* with a capital of $1,450,000, and assets $3,917’953 ■ 12 trust Wltb a ca al ETif’. Of $2,450,000, and assets $6,183,643 8< i1 d a heav pit • y ° discounting and lending business capital and deposits,N a,nd pay dividends of 8 to 12 perwith centtheir on U)®111 ®tock. The savings banks numbered 87, with a deposit of 4 cent.,0nearly depositors. The aveEge 1875) was 6-62fper all of which is paidLomeffirins to deposited lere being no capital stock. The management is very strictly controlled by law, and about three-quarters of the assets are ent on real estate m the State. The whole number of fire and Z?ZreE CoTpanie£ doin g business in the Tbe Statea in 1875 com anies 1 34^700 tTese kst weTe $m 7ne E-1CEUtover P16 millions ^etsheld of tuese last were 7,345,790, of which were Panie3 (m Stly 111 Prartford Tbe hi ,n T ° )- and Premiums received tbe losses $1,248,989 , total risks |1written in’ the State, $165,660,801 $1 ’949’867 corresponding b their fn+™1UEbS .received X tbe Connecticut companies from were $5 203 416° “y and corresponding losses $5,203,416. The life and$9,195,617, accident companies doing business numbered 27, of which 11 were Connecticut companies f the assets of the last were $98,964,945. There were 2740 life policies issued m Connecticut m 1875, insuring $5,066,438. The Fife premiums paid amounted to $1,927,663. The policies in force in Hie State mniesTall 2/>|59; insu.ring $51,()63,720. The Connecticut comFfTsvi /11 f Hartford).lssued 26,104 policies, insuring $48,822,881 and a d $6 - P1860 f0IioU3 P i which losseswas of $6,463,473. The State Ti? debt 1m wasTears only)> $50,000, t lC S ho 1 fund rrom Jul r off rbonds °1 were- made, amounting y 1. 1861, October , ve issues to to$10,000 0001, drawing 6 per cent, interest. This debt has been steadily reduced

P treasury only The014revenue the State cash for thein year nlv $4,302,775. $4 302677T g ’500’ orofdeducting the arCh 1 876 vas 117 7 5 0m ih’ l ’ ) mil ^ 011> 19. This amount was chfefly 4be rand list ?$437 473) f ° 11188 ° \ } 8 $46 g of the towns cSniei’Yfcofifll /^ i ($302,758). l’664b mutual companies ($398,266), and railroads In insurance 1860 the assessed value of all property in the State was $341,256,976 and 7 114 870 *204 - J”/ assessed value of real 2 10 5Jo aild ;o oZdno ’ The r,90’ true °f personal estate $221,322,728total,i $425,433,228. value was $774,631,524. In I860 ta tl0 n 1104 atldnal was 1 ^6 064 88433 TE16 tota 4 V I 111(! ? > $ )015,039; in 1870, L ifrl’ !1, '!1874, ovi was $13,995,090, l lebtednessmore of towns cities in of thewhich State on June thanand one-third was incurred m aid of railroads. Social Statistics.—A large number of public and charitable inor in art b themTsnent tnem it spentwboll $135, 463 during Tthe yearP ending N the March State,31,and 1876. for mong them are the following. The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, was incorporated in 1816, being the oldest institution of the kind in the United States. In all, 2056 ner™n9s| a aVV(ecei/ed “struction, with an average attendance in 1875 01 und nx Cgrant ?is °f$11,000._ the institution amount to $338,925. The annual State The charge per pupil is $175 a year. 1 here is no asylum for the blind, but an annual grant of $6000 is made for the care of the indigent blind at the Perkins Institute at 1807 -Zx •1S. a school ge,neral for hospital New Haven chartered i-XAt, witn a training nurses atattached: funds. $20 000in• annual grant, $2000; patients in 1875, 436. The Hartford’Hospital was opened August 1, 1860; funds, $153,500, but considerably m debt; annual grant, $2000; patients in 1875, 707. The Conf r the Insane at Mi,ldlet ° ’450 with attendants on, was opened in 1868 ; 1 cost, $640,043; it accommodates and physicians and is always crowded. To April 1, 1876, 1272 had been admitted! b ard 0 a f P ^pers is paid the State. in 1875, $124,305° of which the State paidbv$62,004. The Eevenue Retreat for tne Insane at Hartford was opened in 1824, and has treated 5786 patients. Though receiving large State and private aid, it is intended wbo can a for i nt'S 159 P N The comfortable accommodation. It hadwas in 1875 about inmates. Reform School at West Meriden p o ened m 1854; cost $115,000, with a farm of 195 acres. The expense to the State in 1875. was $30,368. Boys from ten to sixteen years old may be sent to it for crime, by the several courts, for not less than 9 months, and during minority. The inmates are required to labour 6| hours a day, and attend school 4| hours. The Industrial School for Girls at Middleton was opened in 1870. Its property has cost $122,363, mostly given by individuals. The expense to the State in 1875 was $16,223, and the inmates numbered 53. Girls from eight to sixteen may be committed to it for vagrancy, and are taught housekeeping, sewing, box-making, and farm and garden work. The School, for Imbeciles at Lakeville cost $10,000, appropriated by the legislature. In 1875 its income was $14,165, with an average of 95 inmates. The State prison at Wethersfield, erected

288

CONNECTICUT

in 1827, is inadequate to the needs of the State, having, m March has now six votes in the Presidential electoral college. The 1876, 40 more prisoners than cells, viz., 252 prisoners. Its income State constitution provides distinct executive, legislative, in 1875 was $25,539, and payments $28,414,—the_deficit being due and judicial powers. The chief officer, or governor, must to the recent decrease in the demand for convict labour, ine be over thirty years of age. A majority vote in each house punishments are solitary confinement, fetters, andimshackles. 1 of the legislature carries a bill over his veto. His salary iswarder may deduct five days from the term of P™o“t for $2000. The legislature, or General Assembly, consists of good behaviour. Schools were begun m New Haven in jeiO. T he provision and regulation of schools rested with the towns till 1712 , a senate and house of representatives, and meets annually K towns and parishes together till 1798 ; with panshes done till on the Wednesday after the first Monday in Januaiy, The 1856, when the towns were restored to their1725 origin P senate consists of not less than 18, or more than 24, memsystem. Though school districts existed m ’ in 1766 they were not fully endowed corporate bodies till 18^. bers from districts detennined by the Geneial Assembly Schools have been maintained in three ways,—by taxes by tuitao according to population. The representatives are two from fees or rate bills, and by the income of J Xed in each town incorporated before 1785 or having over 5000 er e a source of income from the beginning to 1821, f' ;^lool inhabitants, and one from every other. The senators now 1854 Rate bills were not discontinued till 1868. Local scnooi number 18, the representatives 244. Each legislator is paid funds were begun towards the close of the _l7th century, and increased by sales of land in 1733, and by excise on liquors tea &c , $300 a year. There is much special and excessive legisauthorized by Acts of May 1766 and October 1114. The State lation. All elections are by ballot. "Representatives are school fund was begun in 1795, it being the money procured by the elected annually, and the general State officers and senators sale of lands granted by Charles II. m ^/l^n^he on the Tuesday after the first Monday in i “from Narrogancett Bay on the east to the South Sea on the biennially, west ” TMswas, in fact, a strip of land 70 miles wide, and run- November. Any male citizen of the United States, aged ning8 one-eighth of the circumference of the globe. Subsequently twenty-one, who shall have resided in the State one year, this being found to interfere with other colonial grants, all tins and in the town where he offers to vote, six months, and territory was given up, save portions m New York and Ohio. The who can read any article of the constitution, is entitled to land was sold for $1,200,000; the fund, however has increased fnd at Sentember 1? 1874, was $2,044,266 ; the dividend per child vote. The pardoning power is vested in the Assembly. has varied from $1, 50 to $1 per year, decreasing with the increase The judicial power is vested in the following, courts •—A of population; the fund is almost wholly invested m real estate supreme court of errors, consisting, of a chief, and four mortgages at 7 per cent. Another fund, the entire income of associates; a superior court, consisting of six judges, which °since 1855 has been devoted to schools, is the Town Dpnosit Fund The 24th Congress of 1835-6 voted to deposit the together with the five of the court of errors. These are 23SU5SS* of the Union, then on hand, with the different alf chosen for eight years by the Assembly, but are disStates in proportion to their national representation. Connecticut qualified on attaining the age of seventy. They may be received $764,670, which was divided among the towns according removed by impeachment, or by the governor on a twoto their population in 1830 ; the present income from this is about $46 000 a year. (While Connecticut has preserved this fund almost thirds address of each house. Their salary is $4000 each. intact, in other States it has been squandered or lost.) At present, There are also five courts of common pleas, presided over aside from the income of these funds, the maintenance of the by a single judge, chosen for four years by the Assembly, schools is provided for by these taxes :-the town tax, which must with a salary of $2500. There, are inferior courts in be sufficient to maintain 30 weeks of school in the laigei, and 24 in the smaller districts ; the district tax to provide for building^ certain cities and boroughs, with judges chosen biennially and repairs, or any deficit ; and the State appropriation of $1, 50 by the Assembly. Numerous justices of the peace are per child per year. In 1865 a State Board of Education u as elected biennially by the people of the towns where they established, whose secretary is Superintendent of Public Instruc- live. Probate courts are held in each district, of which tion. The following are statistics for the year ending August 31, Districts, 1506 ; public schools, 1650; children from four to there are 113; the judges are elected biennially by the 1875 sixteen (on January 1, 1875), 134,976, of whom 95 per cent, attended people. A somewhat faulty revision of the Genera school. Average length of school, 176 days. Teachers: males, Statutes of the State was made in 1875. A peculiarity o 721 ; females, 1910. Average pay per month : maks, $70 ; females, State is that, when cities are formed, they still remain $39 Income of public schools from all sources, $1,592,858. di- the vision for higher education is made by various private and endowed (frequently) parts of towns, and have a double governmeu . schools, but is by no means complete. The State Normal School at The State militia embraced, in 1875, 2636 men, thong i New Britain was opened in 1850; the annual State grant is $12,00 , those liable to serve (viz., between the ages of eighteen and it graduates about 100 pupils a year. In 1870_there were in the and forty-five) numbered 62,103. The governor is comState 29 academies and seminaries, with 127 mstiuctois, 160_ pupils, and 8000 volumes in their libraries. There are three colleges. mander-in-chief, and under him are a brigadier-genera ai Yale College (Congregational), in New Haven, was established m staff and field officers. The brigade comprises four 1701 by the ten foremost ministers of the colony; m 1876 it ha reedments of infantry (one from each congressional district 90 instructors, nearly 1100 students in all departments, and and one section of light artillery. Two regiments go in 101,000 volumes in the libraries; its productive funds were about $1,500,000, and its property $5,000,000. Besides its classical encampment for a week, and the other two have a im course, it has faculties and schools of theology, law,_ medicme, fine parade each year. The arms of the State are-three vines arts, together with the very prosperous Sheffield ScientificfoSchool, in fruit—2 and 1, all proper—with the motto, h and several post-graduate courses of study. .T™*/ ( ™erly . • ifio0 Washington) College, at Hartford, was founded in 1823 by Episco- transtulit sustinet.” History.—The Dutch first explored the country m j > palians ; its property is about $1,000,000, a considerable portion of which is in productive funds ; it has about 20 instructors, 90 but made no settlement till 1633. Then they settled at students, and 16,000 volumes in its library. Wesleyan University Hartford, buying of the Pequot Indians, but selling s (Methodist) at Middletown was founded in 1831 ; property in 18 /5, ^ ^1 $400,000 ; income, $47,000 ; instructors, 15 ; students, 190 , after to the English. James I. panted the library 27,000 volumes ; women were admitted in 1872. There is a patent to all New England, in 1620, to Lord Say-andS j theological institute (Congregational) at Hartford, and the Berkeley and others. In 1634-36 permanent settlements were ^ Divinity School (Episcopal) is at Middleton. In 18/ 0 the State had at Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor by companies f 64 public libraries, with 285,937 volumes ; these receive State aid. Massachusetts under a patent from the Plymou . There are several valuable private libraries relating to American covering the present State and also portions ^ subiects at Hartford. The newspapers and periodicals numbered 71, circulating 203,725, and issuing annually 17,454,740 copies Island, Massachusetts, Long Island, and an und * There were 827 religious organizations, having 902 edifices, with territory to the west. In 1637 these towns organ^e 338 735 sittings, and property worth $13,428,109 The Congrega- independent government, declared war agains H . tionalist is by far the most numerous and wealthy denomination, and, under Captain J. Mason, nearly g to the even from most of the maritime towns, and finally completed TliPro i t i-e P°llfclcat parties who alternate in its conduct. his services to his country by restoring the long walls and com lete Records fm0 P history of the State, but its the fortifications of the Piraeeus. According to one account, of informal’1636 rm.6 Preserved> and fu™ish the best source he was put to death by Tiribazus, when on an embassy 16 PaDravp a general histories of Bancroft and from Athens to the Persian court; but it seems more prob11 Barber nr? T.Clal ones of Trumbull, Hollister, and able that he escaped to Cyprus, where he had considerable 7 Very fairIy down to centurv ^ hlfT the present property, and that he died there a natural death. See the War of Kn vU /T blstory of Connecticut during Greece. CONRAD. For the four emperors of this name, see is an eutl! o’-by Profut and Morri3- In Hartford bbstorlca Germany. collections ^ i Society with some published 9 e orts CONRADIN (1252-1268), son of the Emperor Conrad valuable in tv connection. ^' P the Boai’d of Education (w r a )are IV. and Elizabeth of Bavaria, was at the death of his and ctur west of Galwf i pi esque district in the father an infant some two years old. His uncle, Manfred, Ire aad the Atlanta j Ihhence ’ Rented by numerous bays from the illegitimate son of Frederick II., declared himself his it derives its name, [t corresponds champion, but, having recovered the Two Sicilies, himself VI--37

290

o o N —C 0 N

more thoroughgoing than they were. He permitted laymen seized the throne. Innocent IV. now called in the aid of to hold certain public offices, under surveillance of the preCharles of Anjou, who defeated Manfred, and took posses- lates, organized a guard from among the Ptoman nobility, sion of the crown. But Charles showed favour to none decreed a plan for redeeming the base coinage, permitted the but his own countrymen, and at the entreaty of the communes a certain degree of municipal liberty, and Ghibelline leaders, by whom he was acknowledged as promised the liquidation of the public debt. In the long emperor, Conradin, now only sixteen, led an army into debates between Rome and France about the Concordat, Italy After gaining some advantages he was utterly Consalvi was the leading power on the side of the church; defeated in August 1268, and soon after, being betrayed and he fought for the Papal privileges during his visit to into the hands of Charles, he was unjust y tried, con- Paris, with a pertinacity and spirit that won at once the demned, and executed in the market-place of Naples, with hatred and respect of Napoleon. Impressed with Napoleon’s the consent of the Pope. He left his kingdom by will to power, and anxious, if possible, to make him subservient Peter of Aragon. See Sicily. nro^ to the designs of Rome, he strongly urged the Pope to CONRART, or Conrabd, Valentin (1603-lb75), accede to the conqueror’s request that the imperial crown one of the founders of the French Academy, was born at should be placed on his head by the most sacred hands in Paris in 1603, and was educated, under Calvinist parents, for Christendom. During the Popes absence on this mission a commercial life. After his father’s death, however, he he remained as virtual sovereign in Rome ; and his regency turned his attention to literature, made himself proficient was rendered remarkable by a great inundation, caused by in his own language, and in those of Italy and Spain, and the overflow of the Tiber, during which he exposed himself being brought into contact with men of letters, soon acquired with heroic humanity, for the preservation of the sufferers. a reputation, which for many years he did nothing to sup- Not long after the return of the Pope, the amity between port. He was made councillor and secretary to the king, the Vatican and the Tuileries was again broken. Rome and this together with a benevolent character, a faultless was full of anti-Revolutionary and anti-Napoleomc strangers taste, and a certain charm of disposition and conversation, from all parts of Europe. The emperor was irritated; and gained him a host of friends in the highest circles. Some, his ambassador, Cardinal Fesch, kept up the irritation by however, refused to join in the applause that everywhere perpetual complaints directed more especially against greeted Conrart, and posterity has echoed their verdict. His Consalvi himself. “ Tell Consalvi,” wrote the conqueror, literary reputation has passed away almost as completely as still flushed with Austerlitz, “ that if he loves his country that of his friend Chapelain ; and a. certain distinction of he must either resign or do what I demand. Consalvi did style, recognized by Sainte-Beuve, is all that he is now accordingly resign on the 17th June 1807, and was followed credited with. In 1629 Conrart’s house became the resort in rapid succession by Casoni, Doria, Gabrielli, and Pacca. of a knot of literary men, who met to talk over professional When in 1808 Miollis entered Rome, and the temporal subjects, and to read for advice and approval such work as power of the Pope was formally abolished, he broke off all they produced. The indiscretion of one of the number led relations with the French, though several of them were his to an involuntary notoriety, and to the influx into the meet- intimate friends. In 1809 he was at Paris, and, in a reings of the club of many strangers. Among these was markable interview, of which he has left a graphic account Boisrobert, Richelieu’s newsmonger and jester, who reported in his memoirs, he received from Napoleons own lips to his patron what he had seen and heard. The eardinal what was practically an apology for the treatment he ha offered the society his protection, and in this way (1634) received. With unbending dignity, however, he retained the French Academy was created. Conrart was unani- his antagonism; and shortly afterwards he was one of the mously elected secretary, and discharged the duties of his thirteen cardinals who refused to recognize the marriage of post for forty-three years, till his death in 1675. The in- Marie Louise. The result, as is well known, was a contelligence and conscientiousness he displayed _ in this finement at Rheims which only terminated about three capacity are perhaps his greatest titles to distinction. To years afterwards, when Napoleon had extorted what terms the last he rigidly adhered to his hereditary faith. _ See he pleased from the half-captive Pope at Fontainebleau. Academy, vol. i. p. 74 j Petitot, Jlfemoires Relatifs (t VHistoire de France, tome xlviii.; and Sainte-Beuve, Cau- On his release Consalvi hastened to his master’s assistance, and he was soon after permitted to resume his functions series de Lundi, 19 Juillet 1858. CONSALVI, or Gonsalvi, Ercole (1757-1824), car- under the restored pontificate at Rome. Despatched o England to meet the allied sovereigns, he was well receive dinal and statesman, was born at Rome on the 8th of June 1757, of a noble family originally belonging to Pisa. His both by king and people; and at the Congress of Vienna boyhood was sickly, and presents nothing remarkable. he obtained the restitution of the Marches (Ancona, I revise, From the college at Urbino, he passed to the Frascati and Fermo) and the Legations (Bologna, Ferrara, an College and the religious academy at Rome, studying Ravenna). The rest of his life was spent in ^e work ot theology, politics, music, and literature. Entering the reorganizing the States of the Church, and bringing ® Pontifical court as page in 1783, he rapidly advanced, the allegiance of Europe to the Papal throne. and in 1797 obtained the office of auditor of the rota, practically governor of Rome; and Pius was so muc which brought him into public notice. Accused of partici- his control that “ Pasquin ” said the Pope would hav to pation in the assassination of Duphot, he was arrested by wait at the gates of paradise till, the cardinal cam the French on their seizure of Rome, and after a period of purgatory with the keys. . In his foreign po icy incarceration condemned, like so many of his brethren, to actuated mainly by antagonism to Austria ; in hisance exile. On the death of Pius VI. he succeeded, in' con- policy he imitated the centralizing system of fr junction with Cardinal Maury, in securing in the conclave all essentials a most rigid churchman, he was dispo at Venice the election of Chiaramonti as Pius VII.; and yield in minor matters, and obtained the prsDse Jthe new Pope rewarded his devotion by appointing him Protestant visitors to Rome for his affability and Science, literature, and especially the fine arts recei secretary of state. Though from the beginning an avowed ^ antagonist of the principles of the Revolution, Consalvi was most abundant patronage; the ancient building were excavated and preserved by his direction ;.chair too wise not to know that even Rome required in some in ican degree to acknowledge their influence. He accordingly natural science and archoeofogy were founded instituted various reforms, and but for the bitter opposition sity ; and extensive purchases were made ior t of the Conservative party his measures would have been Museum, which was augmented by the addition

C 0 N —C 0 N

291 beautiful Braccio Nuovo, or new wing. These and the CONSCRIPTION. See Akmy, vol. ii., pp. 565, 601 like expenses, however, were a heavy drain on the Papal 602, &c. treasury, and brought Consalvi into financial difficulties, from CONSECRATION, the act of devoting anything to which he only got free by the imposing of unpopular taxes. sacred uses. The Mosaic law ordained that all the firstOn the death of Pius VII. he retired to his villa of Porto born both of man and beast should be consecrated to God. d’Anzio; and, though he afterwards accepted from the new We find also that Joshua consecrated the Gibeonites as Pope the honorary office of prefect of the college De Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the service5 of Propaganda Fide, his political career was closed. He died the Temple; and that the Hebrews sometimes consecrated on 22d of January 1824, leaving the most of his mode- their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which they were rate fortune to the poor. A fine portrait of Consalvi no longer in their own power. In England (and, indeed, in by Sir T. Lawrence is preserved at Windsor, and his tomb all countries where any form of episcopacy prevails) in South Marcello is surmounted by a monument by churches have always been consecrated with particular Rinaldi. ceremonies, the form of which is either left in a great The memoirs of his life, written with great freedom of statement measure to the discretion of the bishops, or provided and considerable force of style, have been published by Cretineau- for in the recognized office-books. Cemeteries are in Joly in 1864. See also M. de Pradt, Histoire des Quatre Concordats, like manner episcopally consecrated. Consecration is also 1818-1820; L. Cardinal!, Elogio detto alia memoria del card. used for^the benediction of the elements in the Eucharist. Consalvi; Cenni Uografid sul Consalvi, published at Venice in 1824; Bartholdi, Ziige aus dem Leben des Cardinals Here. Consalvi, Consecration, or the ancient heathen ceremony of the 1825 ; Cardinal Wiseman, Recollections of the last Four Popes, 1858; apotheosis of an emperor, is thus represented on medals : Cretineau-Joly, L’eglise Romaine en face de la Revolution, 1859 ; On one side is the emperor’s head, crowned with laurel, and Ernest Daudet, Le Cardinal Consalvi, 1866. sometimes veiled, while the inscription gives him the title CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by the of clivus]; on the reverse is a temple, a bustum, an altar, writers on the subject to be vinculum personarum ab eodem or an eagle taking its. flight towards heaven, either from off stipite descendentmm, that is, the connection or relation of the altar, or from a cippus. In others the emperor is borne persons descended from the same stock or common ancestor. up in the air by the eagle. The inscription is always This consanguinity is either lineal or collateral. Lineal con- consecratio. These are the usual symbols ; but on the sanguinity is that which subsists between persons of whom reverse of that of Antoninus is the Antonine column. In one is descended in a direct line from the other, while col- the apotheosis of empresses, instead of an eagle, there is a lateral relations descend from the same stock or ancestor, but peacock. The honours rendered to these princes after death do not descend the one from the other. Collateral kinsmen, were explained by the words consecratio, pater, divus, and then, are such as lineally spring from one and the same deus. Sometimes around the temple or altar are put the ancestor, who is the stirps, or root, as well as the stipes, words memoria felix, or memorice ceternce; and for trunk, or common stock, whence these relations branch princesses, ceternitas, and sideribus recepta; whilst on the out. It will be seen that the modern idea of consanguinity one side of the head is dea, or 6ed. The term consecratio is larger than that of agnatio in the civil law, which was is also applied by Roman authors to the devotion of priests limited to connection through males, and was modified by and temples to the gods; this is likewise called dedicatio the ceremonies of adoption and emancipation, and also and inauguratio. In Greek we find the verbs Ihpvw, lepow, than that of cognatio, which did not go beyond the sixth used to express the same idea, with the cognate noun generation, and was made the basis of Justinian’s law of iSpvcns and (in late authors) KaOiepuKns. succession. The more limited meaning of consanguinei was CONSERVATORY (Ital. Conservatorio, Fr. Conservabrothers or sisters by the same father, as opposed to uterini, toire, Ger. Conservatorium), a name applied first in Italy, brothers or sisters by the same mother. The degrees of and .afterwards throughout the Continent, to institutions for collateral consanguinity were differently reckoned in the civil and in the canon law. “ The civil law reckons the training in music and for preserving the true theory and practice of the art. They arose out of the necessity of pronumber of descents between the persons on both sides from viding trained choristers for the service of the church, and the common ancestor. The canon law counts the number of descents between the common ancestor and the two were generally maintained upon some charitable foundation provided board in addition to a musical education persons on one side only,” and always on the side of the which person who is more distant from the common ancestor. A for orphans and the children of poor parents, other pupils being occasionally taken on payment of fees. When fully recent American writer, Lewis Morgan (Systems of Con- equipped, each conservatorio had two maestri or principals, sanguinity and Affinity in the Human Family, 1871), has one for composition and one for singing, besides professors t ms used t0 denote nT™ f in and 139 the languages. e Mongoloids, the Malays, thekindred Dravidas, Ameri- for the various instruments. Though St Ambrose and Pope can aborigines have the following system. All the Leo I., in the 4th and 5th centuries respectively, are named in connection with the subject, the historic descendants of a common ancestor or ancestors of the sometimes continuity of the conservatoire in its modern sense cannot same generation call each other brother and sister; they be traced farther back than the 16th century. The first to i ail males of the previous generation fathers, and of the which a definite date can be assigned is the Conservatorio :nf °Wln® T Sons‘ From this he draws the mistaken di Santa.Maria di Loretto, at Naples, founded by Giovanni 61106 S iared sht i kyorLubbock) that primitive marriage di Tappia in 1537. Three other similar schools were a e was hetansm, community of the wives. The linguistic afterwards established in the city, of which the Conservaconne torio di Sant’ Onofrio deserves special mention on account sooinlar8aUT°re dProbafcl y cted with considerations of firt / 1 T^ sucb ass°ciations as the vendetta. In of the fame of its teachers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti, both oiv-n^ a aildsavaand Persia, nearly the whole world, Leo, Durante, and Porpora. There were thus for a conThe eh; Se> have joined in repudiating incest, siderable time four flourishing conservatorios in Naples. transmit!' ^w1' ias now keen seen to lie in the risk of Two of them, however, ceased to exist in the course of last the fee ;!ing- defects.]'n an aggravated form. The force of century, and on the French occupation of the city the gamv bv ? 86611 ^ ^ custom of wife-stealing, or exo- other two were united by Murat in a new institution under ma n is heh/to^T^'v, . ^ P^aces everi identity of name the title Real Collegio di Musica, which admitted pupils M'Lennan 0n Pn .™PeJment to marriage. (See also of both sexes, the earlier conservatorios having been an ™tive Marriage, 2d edition, 1876.1 exclusively for boys. In Venice, on the other hand, there

292

0 O N —C 0 N

ordinary court in which the cardinals attend on the were from an early date four conservatories conducted on the Pope, and in which the Pope formally transacts certain a similar plan to those in Naples, but exclusively for gills. ecclesiastical matters, which are of high importance and These died out with the decay of the Venetian republic, are termed consistorial matters j for instance, his Holiand the centre of musical instruction for Northern Italy ness nominates in secret consistory to all consistorial was transferred to Milan, where a conservatorio on a large benefices, creates cardinals, appoints to vacant bishoprics, scale was established by Prince Eugene Beauharnais. in confirms the election of bishops, deposes bishops, decrees 1808 The celebrated conservatoire of Paris owes its origin the pallium to be sent to archbishops, unites churches, to the Ecole Royale de Chant et de Declamation founded grants extraordinary dispensations, &c. This ordinary by Baron de Breteuil in 1784, for the purpose of training consistory of the Pope is for the most part held in a sino-ers for the opera. Suspended during the stormy period chamber of the Papal palace at Rome known as the camera of the Revolution, its place was taken by the Conservatoire papagali or papagalli, which may be translated “The de Musique, established in 1795 on the basis of a school Painted Chamber,” as Ducange renders it, “aula ornafor gratuitous instruction in military music, founded y mentis decora.” The phrase seems to have come into use the mayor of Paris in 1792. The plan and scale on which in the Cserimoniale Romanum, as “the Star Chamber” it was founded had to be modified more than once in suc- at Westminster came to be so called from the painting or ceeding years, but it continued to flourish, and in the inter- tapestry on its walls. The term “ consistory ” is used in val between 1820 and 1840, under the direction of Cherubim, the Church of England to signify the tribunal or place of may be said to have led the van of musical progress m justice, which in olden times was fitted up within the nave Europe. In more recent years that place of honour belongs of every cathedral church, for the most part on the left decidedly to the conservatorium at Leipsic, founded by hand side of the western entrance, for the bishop of tbe Mendelssohn in 1842, which, so far as composition and instrumental music are concerned, is now the chief resort of diocese or his vicar-general to hold his court for the hearing deciding of ecclesiastical causes. Lnder the questionthose who wish to rise to eminence in the art. Of other and able influence of the spirit of resistance to the authority of Continental conservatoires of the first rank may be named bishop, which has been a distinctive characteristic of the those of Prague, founded in 1810, of Brussels, founded in the cathedral bodies in the Church of England from the earliest 1833 and long presided over by the celebrated Eetis, of period of the Papal exemptions, the deans and chapters Cologne, founded in 1849, and those instituted more recently at Munich and Berlin, the instrumental school in the of the cathedral churches of England have in most cases latter being under the direction of Joachim. In England caused the consistorial court of the diocesan bishop to be the functions of a conservatoire have been discharged by removed from the nave of the cathedrals, so that it is very the Royal Academy of Music of London, which was founded rare to find at the present time traces of any such strucin 1822, and received a charter of incorporation in 1830. ture. The last trace of the diocesan consistory of the archWith very limited resources as compared with the larger bishop of Canterbury was removed from his cathedral Continental establishments, it has done excellent service in within the memory of the living, when a restoration of the providing a constant succession of thoroughly trained pro- nave was made ; and the consistorial court of the bishop of fessional musicians. A national training school_ of music London, which was on the south side of the nave of St was opened at South Kensington under distinguished Paul’s cathedral church, has been converted in very recent auspices in May 1876, the object being to provide a free times, under the auspices of the late Dean Milman, into education of the highest kind to pupils of remarkable a memorial chapel for the reception of a national monument of the first Duke of Wellington. The consistonal courts of promise as tested by examination. CONSISTORY, a term applied originally to an ante- the bishops of the Church of England are now but “the chamber or outer-room of the palace of the emperors of shadows of great names,” as the state has deprived the Rome, where the petitioners for justice assembled and judges of the consistorial courts of the jurisdiction formerly awaited the presence of the emperor, who upon his entrance exercised by them in matrimonial and testamentary matters, into the consistory took his seat upon a tribunal, whilst the and their corrective jurisdiction over criminous clerks has others stood around him (consistebant). The word “ con- been transferred to other tribunals. It is not necessary, sistory,” as a term of ecclesiastical law, in which sense it is nor is it usual for the bishops to hold their diocesan visita_ , , for the most part employed in modern times, came to be tions in their consistorial courts. The term “consistory” is used in certain of the Retormea used first of all to denote certain ecclesiastical councils, in which the bishop was seated, whilst the presbyters and churches, which do not recognize the order of bishops, to other clergy stood around him. It came by degrees to be signify the supreme governing council of presbyters ana used generally for all ecclesiastical councils in which a elders, and such churches are hence termed consistonal . , . ., , bishop presided, and in which matters of order rather than churches. CONSOLIDATION ACTS. _ The practice of legisia of doctrine were discussed and decided. The term “ consistory,” as used in the Latin Church, is applied at Rome ing for small portions of a subject only at a time, w ic as to denote the assembly of the cardinals convoked by the is characteristic of the English Parliament, produces statu e .V Pope. This assembly is styled a consistory, “ quia simul necessary consequence great confusion in the The Acts relating to any subject of importance or praesente Papa consistunt cardinales,” the Pope’s presence being a necessary condition to constitute the assembly of culty will be found to be scattered over many years, through the operation of clauses partially repealing the cardinals a consistory. the Legisa There are two kinds of consistory which the Pope is in amending former Acts, the final sense ofcon ^radlctor^5PJ the habit of convoking—a public consistory and a private becomes enveloped in unintelligible or ex r pressions. Where opportunity offers, the law thus P , consistory. A public consistory is now rarely summoned; it is, in fact, an extraordinary assembly of the cardinals, at in any statute is sometimes recast in a single statute, c which other prelates and ecclesiastical magnates are present, a Consolidation Act. Among such are the Cnmma and over which the Pope presides in his pontifical robes of Consolidation Act and the Customs Laws Ckmsohd state. It was usual for the Pope to receive foreign Act. These observations apply to the public g sovereigns and their ambassadors in a public consistory, Acts of the Legislature. On the other hand, in s and the hat used to be conferred on newly-created cardinals private Acts, such as those relating to railway anc in such a consistory. The private or secret consistory is enterprize, the Legislature always inserted cei ain

C 0 N —C 0 N

293 single person, not acting in concert with others The following are enumerated in text-books as the things an agreement to do which, made between several persons constitutes the offence of conspiracy (I) Falsely to charge another with a crime punishable by law, either from a malicious or vindictive motive dr feeling towards the party or for the purpose of extorting money from him • (2) wrongfully to injure or prejudice a third person or any body of men in any other manner; (3) to commit any offence punishable by law; (4) to do any act with intent to pervert the course of justice; (5) to effect a legal purpose with a corrupt intent or by improper means; to which are added (6) conspiracies or combinations among workmen to raise wages. The division is not a perfect one, but a few examples under each of the heads will indicate the nature of the offence m English law. First, a conspiracy to charge a man lalsely with any felony or misdemeanor is criminal • but an agreement to prosecute a man who is guilty, or against whom there are reasonable grounds for suspicion, is not. Under the second head the text-books give a great variety of examples, e.g. mock auctions, where sham bidders cause the goods to go off at prices grossly above their worth • a conspiracy to raise the price of goods by spreading false rumours ; a conspiracy by persons to cause themselves to be reputed men of property, in order to deceive tradesmen : a conspiracy to cause by threats, contrivances, or other sinister means a pauper of one parish to marry a pauper of another in order to charge one of the parishes with the maintenance of both. These examples show hew wide the law stretches its conception of criminal agreement. The third head requires no explanation. A conspiracy to murder is expressly made punishable by penal servitude and imprisonment (24 and 25 Viet. c. 100). A curious example of conspiracy under the fourth head is the case in winch several persons were convicted of conspiracy to procure another to rob one of them, so that by convicting t e robber they might obtain the reward given in such cases. The combination to effect a lawful purpose with corrupt intent or by improper means is exemplified by agreements to procure seduction, &c. The most important question in the law of conspiracy apart from the statute law affecting labourers, is how farthings which may be lawfully done by individuals can become criminal when done by individuals acting in concert and some light may be thrown on it by a short statement ot the history of the law. In the early period of the law down to the 17th century, conspiracy was defined by the Ordinance of Conspirators of the 33 Edward I. • “ Conspirators be they that do confedr or bind themselves by oath, covenant, or other alliance, that every of them shall aid the other falsely and maliciously to indite, or cause to indite, or falsely to move or maintain pleas, and also such as cause children within age to appeal men of felony whereby they are imprisoned and sore grieved, and such as retain men in the country with liveries or fees to maintain their malicious enterpnzes, and this extendeth as well to the takers as to the givers.” The offence aimed at here is conspiracy to indict or to maintain suits falsely; and it was held that a conspiracy under the Act was not complete, unless some suit had been maintained or some person had been falsely indicted and acquitted. A doctrine, however, grew up that the agreement was in itself criminal, although

founded on reasons of public policy applicable to the business in question. To avoid the necessity of constantly re-enacting the same principles in private Acts, their common clauses were embodied in separate statutes, and their provisions are ordered to be incorporated in any private Act of the description mentioned therein. Such are the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, the Companies Clauses Consolidation Act, and the Railways Clauses Consolidation Act, all passed in 1845. CONSOLS, an abbreviation of Consolidated Annuities, had their origin in 1751, and now form the larger portion of the funded debt of the United Kingdom. In the progress of the national debt it was deemed expedient, on grounds which have been much questioned, instead of borrowing at various rates of interest, according to the state of°the market or the need and credit of the Government, to offer a fixed rate of interest, usually three or three and a half per cent., and as the market required to give the lenders an advantage in the principal funded. Thus subscribers of £100 would sometimes receive £150 of threepercent. stock. In 1815, at the close of the French wars, a large loan was raised at as much as £174 three per cent, and £10 four per cent, stockfor £100. Thelow rate of interest was thuspurely nominal, while the principal of the debt was increased beyond all due proportion. This practice began in the reign of George XL, when some portions of the debt on which the interest had been successfully reduced were consolidated into three per cent, annuities, and consols, as the annuities were called, and other stocks of nominally low interest, rapidly increased under the same practice during the great wars. In times of peace, when the rate of money has enabled portions of the debt at a higher interest to be commuted into stock of lower interest, it has usually been into consols that the conversion has been effected. Temporary deficits of the revenue have been covered by an issue of consols; exchequer bills when funded have taken the same form, though not constantly or exclusively; and some loans of the Government in recent times for special purposes such as the relief of the Irish famine and the expenditure m the Crimean war, have been wholly or partly raised in consols. The consequence has been to give his stock a pre-eminence in the amount of the funded a re ceat of £77^?PoeoaS parliamentary return than 1 1 229 f fl d d debt of the Unifced i^mn-s ° T ! Kingdom 47 0 5 consiste i, ,; ’ / , d of^consols, £107,227,854 of three ed C annuities K / r !? .and£225,256,099 of new threes. banks bave been a lied absornHon 1 ^ PP in to the absorption of reduced annuities and new threes larger

larToorH ( fi! T?°k The cbaracteristics of this ifc WOuld seem almosfc indistiSZbf ^ Z the tbree per cenfc reduced originated ah? Ip ^ > which are° hatfh? ? ? fame period as the consolidated threes, Varied no made? cttZZ i ^pt has been ofstock-an 1 fcflfc it0ra loWer mterest °r into another form n f Iar er is it most conZ °16 f /°? g amount than other stock and varietZnp! ?!? dealers’bat from the great number bo ders xt 18 greatest nZ ke S ta e believed to express with the of consols h ^ mnnctary affairs. The price 1 ^ It has a tendZVer- d,0es!not n seordinary times vary much, wben a11 ot are most shaken07’ |ndeed .’ ber securities n per lods f anic for monev it h’n , °f P and extreme pressure f r a few da s and 90- its mZ ^ d°7WDrange ° may be said ^ between 80 to be 95 to 97; and it has Z^ZT t0UChed par sions erectin?orfi10n ‘ The legal George II, c°Q7 0 8 are f°und in several clauses of 25 111 0118 tbeir redem tion msection‘24of P Acfc ^ CONSPIRAnthelme • ame Aft ' ayy 18 ^ tvvo llSh laW is an a reem or more nerlZ Z ° > an agreement between u l g ent may not, however ? 0 d° f Sin wrongful acts, which > e punishable when committed by a

was not; i ri ^).nspI’rac completed case, hisy developedactually into the rule that(Poulterer’s any agreement o commit a crime might be prosecuted as a conspiracy. A still further development of this doctrine is that a combination might be criminal, although the object apart from combination would not be criminal. The cases bearing on this question will be found arranged under the following

294

C O N—C 0 N

two or more persons to do, or procure to be done, any heads, and in chronological order, in the Law of Criminal by in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute Conspiracies and Agreements, by R. S. Wright (London, act 1873):—Combinations against Government; combinations between employers and workmen shall not be indictable as a conspiracy, if such act committed by one person would to defeat or pervert justice; combinations against public not be punishable as a crime. When a person is convicted morals or decency; combination to defraud; combination of any such agreement or combination to do an act which to injure otherwise than by fraud; trade combinations. is punishable only on summary conviction, and is sentenced “It is conceived,” says the author, “ that on a review of a to imprisonment, the imprisonment shall not exceed three the decisions, there is a great preponderance of authority months, or such longer period, if any, as may have been in favour of the proposition that, as a rule, an agreemen. prescribed by the statute for the punishment of the said or combination is not criminal unless it be for acts or act when committed by one person.” The effect of the two omissions (whether as ends or means) which would be Acts of 1875 is that breach of contract between master criminal apart from agreement.” A dictum of Lord and workmen is to be dealt with as a civil and not as a Denman’s is often quoted as supplying a definition o criminal case, with two exceptions. A person employed conspiracy. It is, he says, either a combination to procure on the supply of gas and water, breaking his contract with an unlawful object, or to procure a lawful object by his employer, and knowing, or having reasonable cause to unlawful means; but the exact meaning to be given to believe, that the consequence of his doing so, either alone the word “lawful” in this antithesis has nowhere been in combination with others, will be to deprive the precisely stated. A thing may be unlawful in the sense inhabitants of the place wholly or to a great extent of their that the law will not aid it, although it may not expressly supply of gas or water, shall be liable on conviction to a punish it. The extreme limit of the doctrine is reached penalty not exceeding £20, or a term of imprisonment not in the suggestion that a combination to hiss an actor at a exceeding three months. And generally any person theatre is a punishable conspiracy. . wilfully and maliciously breaking a contract of service or The application of this wide conception of conspiracy to hiring, knowing or having reasonable cause to believe that trade disputes caused great dissatisfaction among workmen. the probable consequences of his so doing either alone or in By the Master and Servant Act, 1867, breach of contract combination with others will be to endanger human life or of service might be made the subject of complaint before cause serious bodily injury, or to expose valuable property a magistrate, who was empowered to impose a fine when whether real or personal to destruction or serious injury, he thought it necessary. Trades unions were relieved from shall be liable to the same penalty. By section 7 every the stigma of illegality—which had hitherto attached to person who, with a view to compel any other person to them by reason of their being combinations “in restraint abstain from doing or to do any act which such other person of trade”—by the Trades Unions Act, 1871. In the same has a legal right to do or abstain from doing, wrongfully year the Criminal Law Amendment Act (34 and 35 Viet, and without legal authority, (1) uses violence to or intimic. 32) specified certain acts which, if done with a view to dates such other person, or his wife and children, or injures coercing either master or workman, were to be punishable his property; or (2) persistently follows such other person with imprisonment. But in the meantime, the mere com- about from place to place; or (3) hides any tools, clothes, bination of workmen not to work with a particular person or other property owned or used by such other person, or was held by the judges to amount to a conspiracy at deprives him of or hinders him in the use thereof; or (4) common law (so held by Mr Baron Pollock at Leeds assizes watches or besets the house or other place where such in 1874). And the case of the London gas stokers, who other person resides, or works, or carries on business, or were in 1872 convicted of a conspiracy to break their happens to be, or the approach to such house or place; or contract of service, directed attention to the question, of (5) follows such other person with two or more other punishing breach of contract as a crime. The following persons, in a disorderly manner, in or through any street extract from Mr Justice Brett’s charge to the jury will or road, shall be liable to the before-mentioned penalties. show the view taken by the judge : “If you think there Of course a combination to do any of these acts would was an agreement between the defendants to interfere be punishable as a conspiracy, as mentioned in section d with the masters by molesting them so as to control their will, and if you think that molestation was such Seamen are expressly exempted from the operation of as would be likely in the minds of men of ordinary nerve this Act. The exceptions as to contracts of service tor to deter them from carrying on their business according to their own will, then that is an illegal conspiracy.” Again the supply of gas and water, &c., were supported by circumstances of the London gas stokers’ case above “ was there a combination to hinder the company from the , ,, carrying on and exercising their business by means of the mentioned. Conspiracy at common law is a misdemeanour, ana me men simultaneously breaking their contracts of service 1 punishment is fine or imprisonment, or both, to whic Breach of contract is an illegal, nay more, it is a criminal act, and if they combined to interfere with their employers may be added hard labour in the case of any conspiracy o ialseiy by breaking their contracts this would be using unlawful cheat and defraud, or to extort money or goods or rev means.” So in 1867, in the case of Druett, it had been laid to accuse of any crime, and to obstruct,, pervert, P ® ’ mur , down that if any set of men agreed among themselves to or defeat the cause of justice. Conspiracyortoeslde “., coerce the liberty of mind and thought of another by com- whether the victim be a subject of the Queen )' dominions or not, is by 24 and 25 Viet. e. 100 pun* pulsion and restraint, they would be guilty of a criminal her able by penal servitude. . JVtlie offence. These judicial opinions led to much agitation, CONSTABLE, in England, an ancient officer o which ended in the legislation of 1875. In that year was The name, as well as the office, are, accordi passed the Act for amending the law relating to conspiracy peace. Blackstone, borrowed from the French. In the and to the protection of property, and for other purposes, was a great officer of this name, whos 38 and 39 Viet. c. 86. This Act was intended to regulate A^es there to matters of chivalry. “ The office of Lord Hg the criminal, as the Employers and Workmen Act of the related same year (c. 90) was intended to regulate the civil questions Constable,” says Blackstone, “hath been disused m Eng only upon great and solemn ^easions-as tb ^ arising out of the contract for service. The corresponding except e ynL Acts of 1867 and 1871 are repealed. The 38 and 39 coronation and the like ever since [ Stafford, duke of Buckingham, under King Ren y Viet. c. 86 enacts (§ 3) that “ an agreement or combination

I

CONSTABLE

295 as in France it was suppressed about a century after by an emergencies when the ordinary police force is thought to edict of Louis XIII., but from that office, says Lambard, be deficient. In the absence of volunteers the office is this lower constableship was first drawn, and is, as it were” compulsory, on the appointment of two justices. The a very finger of that hand.” lord-lieutenant may also appoint special constables, and The Statute of Winchester (13 Edw. I. st. 2, c. 6), ordain- the statutory exemptions may be disregarded. ing every citizen to have armour according to his condition The Acts establishing and regulating county constabulary are the to keep the peace, requires that in every hundred and fran- 2 and 3 Viet. c. 93, 3 and 4 Viet. c. 88, 19 and 20 Viet c 69 chise two constables be chosen to make the view of armour 20 Viet. c. 2, and 22 and 23 Viet. c. 32. The police force of every shall be under the superintendence of a chief-constable, wlm twice a year, and that the said constables “ shall present county with the approbation of justices in petty sessions, may appoint before justices assigned such defaults as they do see in the constables and provisional superintendents. The chief-constable county about armour, and of the suits, and of watches, and has the general superintendence and direction of the force (includof highways; and also shall present all such as do lodge ing the petty constables where they still exist), and he may dismiss them at his pleasure subject to the orders of Quarter Sessions, and strangers in uplandish towns, for whom they will not the iiiles established for the government of the force. The salaries answer.” These are the officers known as high constables ; and other expenses under these Acts are to be paid by a police rate who are especially charged with the peace of the hundred, to be made by the justices at Quarter Sessions. Counties and just as the gdty constables are charged with the peace of boroughs may consolidate their police force. The Crown appoints the parish or township. They were appointed at the court ZTfV i° iiTrt 0V:h effi7ency of the police, and whenever a certificate shall be granted by the Secretary of State that the police of the hundred, or in default thereof by justices at special has been maintained during the preceding year in a state of efficiency sessions (7 and 8 Yict. c. 33, § 8). By a recent Act, 32 and as to discipline and numbers, the Treasury shall grant a sum in aid 33 Viet. c. 47, they are practically abolished, as the 1 611868 110t exceedm g one-fourth of the charge for pay and justices of each county are required to consider and deter- 1 tV f ' mine whether it is necessary that the office of high conCONSTABLE, Archibald (1774-1827), the wellstable of each hundred, or other like district, should be known Edinburgh publisher, was born in the parish of continued. Carnbee, Fifeshire, on the 24th February 1774. Having The petty or parish constable unites two offices—the been educated a,t the parish school, he was, at his own ancient one of head-borough or tithing man, and the request apprenticed to a bookseller in Edinburgh, named modern one, instituted about the reign of Edward HI., of Peter Hill. From the first he took a great interest in assistant to the high constable. Considering what manner hG obtained AYui Permission to of men were for the most part appointed to these offices, attend book sales, and purchase rare from works,hisof master which he Blackstone thought it was well that they should be kept in drew up carefully executed catalogues. When not yet ignorance of the extent of their powers. Besides their twenty-one years of age he had married and commenced general duties in the preservation of the peace they are business, on his own account. He took special interest charged with the execution of warrants and the service of m Scottish literaturef; the rare works in that departsummonses. No action can be brought against a constable ment which he offered for sale soon brought him into for any act done in the execution of his office unless within notice, and from this and from his genial disposition and six months from the time of its being committed. By 24 lus unprecedented liberality towards authors, his business Geo. II. c. 44, the justice who signed the warrant must be grew rapidly. In 1801 he became proprietor of the made a co-defendant in any action against the constable, farmers Magazine and the Scots’ Magazine, and on the and on the production of such warrant at the trial the 10th October 1802 he published the first number of the jury must find for the constable, notwithstanding any want Edinburgh Review. Constable was for many years on the of jurisdiction in the magistrate. Petty constables were most intimate and friendly relations with Sir Walter formerly elected at the court leet or, in default thereof, by Scott. In January 1802 he had a share in the publication wo justices.. But by 5 and 6 Viet. c. 109, it is ordered f Mms rds a ° \ y proportion °f the Scottish Border, and and afterwards e justices shall annually issue their precept to the published a large of Scott’s poems novels. overseers of each parish in their county, requiring them to Besides these, he published the Annual Register, and the f return a list of persons in such parish qualified and liable ™-kso Dugald Stewart, Brown, Playfair, and Leslie. In o serve as constables, and that the justices on special petty 1812 he. purchased the copyright of the Encyclopaedia easions s all revise the list, and select therefrom such hmtanmea, to which he added the supplement to the 4th cons tables as they may deem necessary. Every 5th, and 6th editions (1815-1824), extending to six volumes, able-bodied man resident within the parish, between the and containing the celebrated dissertations by Stewart* n£r n t.we^y'five and fifty-five, rated to the relief of the Playfair, and Brande. Not the least important of his veirlvva'i Ue * c°unty rate, on any tenements of the net undertakings was Constable’s Miscellany, projected in 1825 4 nd u wards is servp oJ r P > qualified and liable to consisting of a series of original works, and standard works f r that arish persons 6 Specia exem ° P - But larSe classes of republished in a cheap form, the earliest and one of the includin 7 pted from the liability to serve,— most famous of the attempts to popularize wholesome literature. In 1826 pecuniary difficulties in which the dergymfn^and mffiiT^l awyers ^ °f 1>arliament’ JudSes’ Justices, firm of Constable and Co. became involved (its liabilities army and naw > Pecans, officers of the and beer spIW^’ put f servants, &c. Licensed victuallers exceeding £250,000) obliged it to stop payment. From Every person s ga!7e'keePers> and convicts are disqualified. this time Constable’s health gave way, and lie died on 21st Sprung „i._ ? chosen must serve: but those who have July 1827, having, by his generous dealings with authors, his literary enthusiasm, and his efforts to promote the to othlfperson^iab!16 ^ ke Bable serve again until every diffusion of standard literature, gained for himself one of the Municipal Pn rpora ^ ,iaveuoserved Boroughs under Tn o(\Y\cir\ rion Act do noc not com comee within this sta- the most distinguished names among British publishers. tute. In 31106 stabulary it k now* establishment of a county cconArchibald Constable and His Literary Correspondents, by his 35 “d 33 Viet. c. 92, that no son, Thomas Constable (1873). 1 a n regard to which u,' • PP°i ted unless for parishes in CONSTABLE, Henry, one of the most considerable of general or cmarv..6 ma?lstra^es f°r the county shall at their the Elizabethan sonneteers, was born about 1556, in Yorkshire, as it is supposed, and certainly of a Roman Catholic ^SapXerstterrthatitis—y family.. He was sent to St John’s College, Cambridge 1 ate appointed, to act on occasional where in 1579 he took his degree of B.A. In the sama

J

296

CONSTABLE

perfect himself as a painter; and on the 4th of February year there appeared a volume entitled The Forest of Taney he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy. The by H. C., which has been attributed to_ Henry Chettle, but lights and shadows of his studies from the antique at may with far more probability be assigned to Constable. this period are praised by Leslie, but they were sometimes This is a black-letter romance in prose and verse, of some defective in outline. He worked from dawn till dusk, and slight literary value. Until 1592 we lose sight of the poe was an untiring copyist of such masters as he had sympathy altogether, but in that year appeared his principal work, with, as Wilson, Ruysdael, and Claude. Drawings from the book of sonnets called Diana. The only sonnets in nature made during the next year or two, in Suffolk or in the Italian form which had preceded them were those ot Derbyshire, were of no great promise. Being naturally Sidney, printed the year before, and as Constable had been slow, he was yet groping blindly for something not to be writing those poems for many years he_ deserves credit as found for many years. In 1802 he attended Brookes’s being one of the first to introduce this elegant form ot anatomical lectures, exhibited his first picture, and, refusing verse among us. His sonnets are not merely quatorzains, a drawing mastership offered him by Dr Fisher, gave himlike Shakespeare’s ; he preserves the exact arrangement o self wholly to his vocation. He exhibited a number of rhymes, except that he usually closes with a couplet, bo paintings during the next eight years, but it was not till popular was Diana that in 1594 a second enlarged edition 1811 that he gave to the world, in his Dedham Yale, the appeared. But all this time a cloud was gathering lounc first work in which his distinctive manner and excellences the poet. As a Catholic and a pronounced admirer ot the are evident. In 1816, having inherited £4000 on his queen of Scots, he came under suspicion of plotting treason father’s death, he emerged from a painful state of poverty against Elizabeth. Almost immediately after ushering Sir with which he had been struggling, and married. In 1818 Philip Sidney’s Apology for Poetry into the world with he exhibited four of his finest works; and next year he four magnificent sonnets, in 1595, he was obliged, m sent to Somerset House the largest picture he had yet October of that year, to fly for his life to France After a painted, the landscape known as Constable’s White Horse. short stay in Paris, he wintered at Rouen, and then set oil In the November following he was made associate of the on a long pilgrimage to Rome, Poland, the Low Countries, Academy. His power at this time, though unrecognized, and Scotland. In 1G00 we find him still an exile, this was at its highest. In 1823, however, after the exhibition time in Spain. About the year 1601 he could endure the of such masterpieces as the Stratford Mill, the Hay Cart, and growing home-sickness no longer, and returned to England the Salisbury Cathedral, he did not disdain to copy two in disguise. He was discovered at once and committed to Claudes. In 1824 two of his larger pictures, which he sold, the Tower, where he languished until 1604, when he was were taken to Paris, and created there a profound sensation. released. Of the date of his death we know no more than Allowing a great deal for the influence of Bonington, who can be gathered from the fact that he is spoken of as alive four years afterwards, much of the best in contemin 1606, and as apparently not long dead in 1616. died porary French landscape may be said to date from them. Besides the Diana he was the author of _ four important Constable received a gold medal from Charles X., and his poems which were printed in the 1600 edition of England s pictures were honourably hung in the Louvre. Helicon. Two of these, the exquisite lyric of “ Diaphenia In 1825, he painted his Loch (“silvery, windy, delicious” like the Daffadowndilly,” and the charming pastoral song is his own description of it), and sent his White Horse to of Venus and Adonis, hold a prominent place in our for exhibition. It made, like the others, a great early literature,—the latter especially being believed to Lille precede Shakespeare’s epic in date of composition. Some impression, and procured the painter a second gold medal. great works followed; and in 1829 he was elected very fine Spiritual Sonnets of Constable have been printed Other Academician, to the astonishment and ill-concealed disin our ov/n day, and it is understood that certain compositions of this “ ambrosiac muse,” as Ben Jonson pleasure of many, and began to devote himself, in constyled it, are still awaiting an editor. The style of junction with Lucas, to the preparation of his book of Constable is fervid and full of colour. Mr Minto has English Landscape Scenery. Hard work brought on illwell said that his words flow with happiest impulse health and low spirits ; rheumatism laid hold of him, and “ when his whole being is aglow with the rapture of for some time he could neither write nor paint. In 1832, however, he exhibited his Waterloo Bridge (painted, said beauty.” CONSTABLE, John (1776-1837), landscape painter, his enemies, with his palette-knife only), with three other was born at East Bergholt, in the Stour valley, Suffolk, pictures and four drawings. In 1834 he painted his SalisJune 11, 1776. Under the guidance of a certain John bury from the Meadows, more generally known as the Dunthune, a plumber, he acquired in early life some Rainbow, a picture he valued greatly; and in 1836 he insight into the first principles of landscape art, together delivered a course of lectures on his art at the Royal with a habit of studying in the open air that was after- Institution. He died suddenly on the 1st of April 1837, wards of much service to him. His father, who was a leaving his Arundel Castle and Mill wet on his easel. The principles on which this great painter worked are yeoman farmer, did not care to encourage this tendency, and set him to work in one of his windmills. The in- not far to seek. He himself has said, “Ideal art in cessant watchfulness of the weather which this occupation landscape is all nonsense; ” and this sentence may be required laid the foundation of that wonderful knowledge said to sum up the whole of his theory and practice of of atmospheric changes and effects of which his works give painting. Turner’s pictures to him were merely “ golden evidence. From an introduction to Sir George Beaumont, dreams;” Both and Berghem were only fit for burning; n an amiable man but a poor painter, he became acquainted he proclaimed the greatness of Claude and Titian, it was with the works of Claude and Girtin. In 1795 he was that he recognized their truth. Truth in its broadest and sent to London with a letter to Farington, the landscape finest sense was his only aim. He studied the country painter. Farington encouraged him with predictions of untiringly and intently, sacrificing mere detail to the coming eminence; and for two years he plodded on, draw- larger necessities of tone (“ tone is the most seductive and ing cottages, studying anatomy, and copying and painting, inviting quality a picture can possess ”), reproducing to an sometimes in London and sometimes in Suffolk. His eminent degree the sentiment of what he saw, flooding his progress, however, was not encouraging j and in 1797 he canvas with light and shadows as one finds them, and returned home, and for some time worked in his father s faithfully translating such glimpses as were revealed to him counting-house. In 1799 he again went to London to of the geniality of nature. His range was limited; he sue-

CON -O O N ceeded best with the county familiar to him from his boyhood; but his repetitions of manner and subject are in reality so many tentatives towards perfection. His merits were recognized in France; but his studio was full of unsold pictures at his death, and it is certain that he could r.ot have earned a livelihood by his art without abandoning his theories. Since his death, however, his pictures have greatly increased in value; and his influence on contemporary French and English landscape is recognized as both great and good. See Leslie, Memoirs oj the Life of John Constable, R.A., London, second edition, 1845 ; and English Landscape Scenery, a Series of Forty Mezzotint Engravings on Steel, by David Lucas, from pictures painted by John Constable, E.A., London, folio, 1855. CONSTANCE, or Costnitz, a city of the grand duchy of Baden, and the chief town of a circle of its own name, formerly called the See Kreis, or Lake Circle, is situated on the southern or Swiss side of the Khine, at its exit from the Lake of Constance, 30 miles east of Schaffhausen by railway. It stands 1298 feet above the level of the sea. The older portion of the city is still surrounded by its ancient walls, but beyond their limits lie extensive suburbs, of which the most remarkable are Briihl, Kreuzlingen, Paradies, and Petershausen. The last of these, which has grown up round a free imperial abbey, is situated on the other side of the river, and communicates with the city by means of a long covered bridge raised on stone piers. A large number of the buildings of Constance are of mediaeval origin, and several are of high interest both to the historian and antiquary. Most remarkable are the minster, originally founded in 1048, but dating in its present form mainly from the beginning of the 16th century; St Stephen’s Church, belonging to the 14th; the old "Dominican convent on the island of Genf (now a cotton-printing factory); the Kaufhaus, or public mart, in the hall of which sat the famous council of 1414-1418 ; and the old chancery or town-hall, erected in 1503. Besides the various administrative offices of the circle the town further possesses a gymnasium, a lyceum, various collections of antiquities, a public collection of books and pictures in the Wessenberg Haus, and a valuable series of archives. Since the introduction of steam-boat and railway communication the commercial prosperity of the city has greatly increased. It now contains cotton-factories, linen-factories, carpet-looms, and breweries, maintains a considerable activity in printing and publishing, and has a vigorous and varied local trade. Population in 1864, 8516 ; in 1872, 10,061. Constance probably dates from the 3d or 4th century ; but it first began to be of importance in the 6th, when it became the seat of the bishop who had previously been settled at Windisch or yindonissa in Aargau. It afterwards obtained the rank of an imperial city, and rose to be one of the largest and most flourishing municipalities in Germany. From 1414 to 1418 it was the seat of the great ecclesiastical council which, under the presidency of the emperor Sigismund, and consisting of 26 princes, 140 counts, more than 20 cardinals, 20 archbishops, 91 bishops, 600 prelates and doctors, and about 4000 priests, constituted itself the highest authority in the church, condemned to death the reformers Huss and Jerome of Prague, expelled the three rival popes John XXIII., regory XII., and Benedict XIII., and elected Martin Y. as the egitimate successor of St Peter. Constance joined the Smalkaldic eague and refused to accept the “Interim.” It was accordingly t epnved of its imperial privileges, and in 1549 was presented by the emperor to his brother, the Archduke Ferdinand, in whose territory i remained till 1805, when it was acquired by Baden. The bishopric, v ich ivas secularized in the latter year, had become the largest in a a fetching over a great part of Wurtemberg, Baden, ‘,!L "uzerland, and containing 350 conventual establishments and •woOa parsonages. CONSTANCE, Lake of (German, Bodensee), a large s leet of water on the confines of Switzerland, surrounded on the S.W. by the cantons of Thurgau and St Gall, E. y yrol N.E. and N.W. by Wurtemberg and Baden respectively. It is of an oblong shape, the western extre-

297

mity being considerably contracted. The length of the lake from Bregenz to Spittelberg is 42 miles, with an average width of 7|- miles. It forms the great reservoir of the Khine, receiving the upper waters of that river near the village of Altenrhein and parting with them at Constance. The mean level of the surface is 1290 feet above the sea. The depth between Romanshorn and Langenargen is 152 fathoms, between Constance and Friederichshafen 120 fathoms, and between Lindau and the mouth of ■fno Tv In no TQ'f'nnmcj CONSTANT DE REBECQUE, Henri Benjamin,ran eminent French statesman and publicist, was born at Lausanne, 25th October 1757, and died at Paris 10th December 1830. His family was French, and had taken refuge in Switzerland during the religious persecutions. Till the age of thirteen' he lived in his father’s house at Lausanne; he afterwards studied at Oxford, Erlangen, and Edinburgh successively. It was in, these foreign studies that he made a beginning in the cosmopolitan culture which afterwards characterized him ; in England especially he learned to admire constitutional government, and made the acquaintance of such men as Erskine and Mackintosh. Shortly before the Revolution he went to Paris, and became acquainted with some of the leading liberal spirits of that city, where, after further travels, he finally settled in 1795. He attached himself to the moderate republican party, and supported it through many changes of fortune, both in the Assemblies and by writing, under the Directory and the Consulate, till 1802, when he was expelled from the Tribunate by Napoleon. The circle to which he belonged again provoked the anger of the First Consul by its private opposition to the Government, whereupon Constant, with his celebrated friend Madame de Stael, found it advisable to retire from France. Thus arrested in his political career he turned to literature, and proceeded to Weimar, where he enjoyed the acquaintance of Goethe and Schiller, translated Wallenstein, and wrote the romance of Adolphe. He did not return to France till the overthrow of Napoleon in 1814. Attracted by the prospect of the restoration of constitutional government he supported the Bourbons ; and, apparently for a similar reason, he adhered to Napoleon during the Hundred Days. After the violence of the second Bourbon restoration had subsided Constant reappeared on the political scene to maintain the principles of constitutionalism. By all legal means, in the journals and in the Chambers, as well as by political tractates and pamphlets, under Louis XVIII. and Charles X. he combated, not without success, the reactionary measures of the government. Ill-health detained him in the country during the revolution of July (1830); but at the urgent request of Lafayette he returned to the capital, and concurred in the elevation to the vacant throne of Louis Philippe. Notwithstanding his feeble health Constant continued to support the new Government, but an unsuccessful candidature for a seat in the Academy so aggravated his previous complaint, that he died a few months after the triumph of the principles to which he had consecrated his life. Adverse circumstances had prevented the champion of representative government from playing a first part in the history of France, assuming that he had the faculty to do so. His voice was dry, his manner deficient in ease and grace, and he did not excel in improvising a reply; but his intellect was clear and powerful, his culture wide, and his industry remarkable. The greater part of his political tractates have been collected by himself under the title of Cours de Politique Constitutionelle. J. P. Pages collected the speeches delivered at the Chamber of Deputies, 3 vols. in 8vo. (1832— 1833). His great philosophical work was De la religion consideree dans sa source, ses formes, et ses developpements. VI. — 38

298

0 O N —0 O N

conquest of the Arabians it shared the same fate as the surrounding country- During the 12th century it was still a place of considerable prosperity ; and its commerce was extensive enough to attract the merchants of Pisa, Genoa, and Yenice. Frequently taken and retaken by the Turks, it finally became under their dominion the seat of a bey subordinate to the dey of Algiers. In 1826 it asserted its independence of that potentate, and was governed by Hadj Ahmed, the choice of the Kabyles. In 1837 the French under Marshal Yalee took possession of the place, and about ten years afterwards it was occupied as a regular colony. CONSTANTINE. Of the thirteen emperors of this name, two are here noticed separately. For the others see Roman History and Greek Empire. CONSTANTINE I. (274-337). Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, surnamed Magnus, or the Great, was born at Naissus (Nissa)\ in upper Moesia, in February 274 He was the son of Constantins Chlorus and Helena, the wife of obscure origin (a stabulcina, or innkeeper, according to St Ambrose) whom her husband was comZport ormlpe" n! lat. and 6” 30' pelled to repudiate on attaining the dignity of Caesar in 292.2 The part of the empire assigned to Constamtius was the extreme West, including Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but but beautiful ravine, through which the Kummel finds its Constantine was detained in the East at the court of wav A striking contrast exists between the older and Diocletian, doubtless as a pledge for his father’s loyalty. Moorish portion of the city, with its tortuous Hues and He served with such distinction under Diocletian in the Oriental Architecture, and the modern and French portion, campaign in Egypt which closed in 296, and subsequently with its rectangular streets and wide open squares, under Galerius in the war with Persia, that he was appointed frequently bordered with trees and adorned with fountains a tribune of the first rank. His majestic presence, his perOf the squares the Place Nemours is the most spacious, but sonal courage, and his skill in military exercises made him the Place du Palais is of more importance m the commercial a great favourite with the army, and excited in a correspondand social life of the city. The public buildings may be ing degree the jealousy of the naturally suspicious Galerms, divided into those dating from before the French conquest who did not scruple, it is said, to expose him repeatedly to and later erections. Among the former are the Kasha or unusual hazards in the hope of getting rid of him. The citadel, the mosques, the palace of the bey, and the harem effect of this was to strengthen in Constantine a constituof Salah: among the latter the court-house or palais de tional wariness and discretion which were often of advanjustice, the theatre, the Protestant church, and several tage to him in after life. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian administrative buildings. The Kasha, which occupies the abdicated, and were succeeded in the supreme rank of northern corner of the town, is partly of Roman construc- Augustus by the two Csesars, Constantius and Galerius. tion, and preserves in its more modern portions numerous Constantine, who had naturally the strongest claim to a remains of other Roman edifices. It is now turned into Csesarship, was passed over by Galerius, and Constantius barracks, and contains within its precincts a hospital could not venture to bestow the office while his son recapable of accommodating 1500 patients. _ The mosque of mained at what was virtually a hostile court. It was only Sidi el Kattani, which ranks as the finest m the city dates after repeated letters from his colleague that Galerius gave only from the 18th century ; but that of Souk-er Rezel, a reluctant consent that Constantine should join Ins father. now transformed into a Christian church, and bearing the There was ground for supposing even then that the permisname of Notre Name des Sept Nouleurs, was built as early sion was given only to be cancelled, and Constantine as 1143. The Great Mosque, or Djama-Kebir, occupies accordingly acted upon it with the utmost promptitude, the site of what was probably an ancient Pantheon. A making the journey across Europe from Nicomedia to religious seminary, or Medersa, is maintained in connection Boulogne in an unusually short time. At Boulogne he with the Sidi el Kattain; and the French support a college found his father on the point of setting out for Britain, and and various minor educational establishments for both accompanied him. The death of Constantius soon after a Arabic and European culture. There is an archaeological York (25th July 306) brought Constantine to the first society, and a collection of local antiquities has been great turning-point in his career. The circumstances were formed. The native industry of Constantine is chiefly con- critical : it was necessary to avoid on the one hand losing fined to leather goods and woollen fabrics. A considerable the favour of the army by undue hesitation, and on tne trade is carried on with Tunis and other places on the other incurring the active hostility of Galenus y nn u Mediterranean, and caravans proceed regularly by Biscara self-assertion; and Constantine displayed just that union and Tuggurt into the interior. The population of the city, determination and prudence that the occasion require • composed of various elements, amounted in 1872 to Accepting with well-feigned reluctance the enthusiastic 30,330. nomination of the army to the vacant throne, he wro ^ Constantine, or as it was originally called, Cirta or Kirtha, from the same time a carefully worded letter to Galerius, ep hmi the Phoenician word for a city, was in ancient times one of the most sing regret that circumstances had not permitted important towns of Numidia, and the residence of the kings of the delay assuming the purple until the imperial aPPr® ® Massylii Under Micipsa it reached the height of its prosperity, could be signified, and begging to be recognized as Augustu and was’ able to furnish an army of 10,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry. Though it afterwards declined, it still continued to be in succession to his father. On the reception of them^ 1 considered an important military post, and consequently its name The legend that Constantine was a native of Bntam has ^ is frequently mentioned during successive wars. Csesar having generally The passage in the P,ane^f f to his bestowed a part of its territory on his supporter Sittius, the latter his havingabandoned. ennobled Britain “illic onendo refers probaby introduced a Koman settlement, and the town for a time was known as Gibbon suggests. . .. Hy Geoffrey as Colonia Sittianorum. In the war of Maxentius against Alexander, accession, A later tradition, adopted with characteristic credul ty by ,g a the Numidian usurper, it was laid in ruins ; and on its restoration of 2Monmouth, in 313 by Constantine it received the name which it still retains. It pure invention. that Helena was the daughter of a Butish K g, was left uncaptured during the Yandal invasion of Africa, but on the

The most important of his purely literary productions me the novels, Molplte and dale, and the translation ot Wallenstein. His philosophical work on religion, w occupied him more or less almost all his life 18 “ to trace the successive transformations of th 8 sentiment, his conclusion being that, while the religio instinct is imperishable, the doctrinal and ceremonml form by which it expresses itself are transitory. A q™tat ™ or two will suffice to indicate his attitude towards the liberalism of the 18th century. Chrnrtianlty has introduced moral and political liberty into the world. 1 Christianity has been often despised, it is t“anse men have not understood it. Lucian was incapable of unto standing Homer: Voltaire has never understood the Bible. CONSTANTINE, the capital of the 1 rench province the same name in Algeria, situated in the nchcst and most

CONSTANTINE Galerius was greatly incensed, and threatened to give both the letter and its bearer to the flames ; but more prudent counsels prevailed, and he ventured to indulge his resentment only so far as to deny the title of Augustus, which was conferred upon Severus, Constantine being acknowledged as Caesar. The latter acquiesced in this arrangement with apparent contentment, and at once set himself as the recognized inheritor of his father’s power to carry out his father’s wise and vigorous policy. The barbarians of the north sustained repeated defeats, and were permanently held in check by the building of a line of forts on the Rhine ; and the internal prosperity of the country was promoted by a confirmation of the tolerant policy adopted by Constantins towards the Christians, the persecuting edict of Galerius being treated as a dead letter. The events of the next few years showed clearly the essential instability of the arrangement devised by Diocletian for the partition of the imperial power among Augustuses and Caesars. It was in the very nature of the plan that under it those who were nominally colleagues should be in reality rivals, constantly plotting and counter-plotting for the sole supremacy. Accordingly the history of the empire from the period of the division of the imperial power by Diocletian to that of its reconsolidation under Constantine is mainly a record of the struggle for that supremacy. The narrative is necessarily intricate, and can only be fully given in a general historical article. The state of matters was complicated by a rebellion at Rome against Galerius, which had for its final result the contemporaneous reign of no less than six emperors,—Galerius, Licinius, and Maximin in the East, and Maximian, Maxentius, and Constantine in the West (308). Maxentius was the son of Maximian, and Constantine was his son-in-law, having married his daughter Fausta at Arles in 307, on which occasion he received the title of Augustus ; but this family relationship did not prevent a conflict of interests. Maxentius claimed to be the sole rightful sovereign of Italy, and being supported by the praetorian guards compelled his father to quit Rome. Maximian, after a brief residence in Illyricum, from which he was driven by Galerius, took refuge at the court of his son-in-law, Constantine, who received him with the respect due to his rank. For the second time he resigned the purple, and affected to have no longer any desire of power. Very soon after, however, he was tempted, during the absence of Constantine on the Rhine, to reassume the imperial dignity and to enter into a plot with Maxentius for the overthrow of his son-in-law. Constantine, on receiving the news, acted with the necessary promptitude. He appeared at once with his troops before Arles, and compelled Maximian to retreat to Marseilles, whither he followed him. The town might have stood a protracted siege, but it preferred to deliver up the usurper, who avoided the execution of the sentence of death pronounced upon him by committing suicide1 (February 310). The death of Maximian was the first of a series of events which ended in the establishment of Constantine as the sole emperor of the West. It was seized upon by Maxentius as a pretext for hostile measures, which Constantine, unwilling to engage in war, ignored as long as he safely could. When the time came for action, however, he acted, as was his wont, with decision. Maxentius was preparing to invade Gaul, when Constantine, encouraged by an embassy from Rome, anticipated him by entering Italy at the head of a large and well-disciplined army. He had crossed the Cottian Alps (Mont Cenis), and was in the plains of 1

According to Lactantius {Be Mart. Persec., c. 29, 30,) Maximian a em onlvPa! n!VOT tt Pt) and the clemency of Constantine was u-liir.w the discovery of a plot for his assassination in bed, WlnS t0 tho c crediH tv + ° °Wl fidelity of Fausta. Gibbon dis-

299

Piedmont before Maxentius knew that he had set out. A series of successes at Susa, Turin, and Verona culminated in the decisive victory of the Milvian Bridge, near Rome (28th October 312), which left the capital open to the invader. In the hurried retreat of the defeated army Maxentius was pressed by the throng over the bridge into the river, and was drowned. The conduct of the conqueror was marked on the whole by wisdom and moderation. The slaughter of the two sons and of the more intimate favourites of the fallen emperor was a measure deemed essential if the fruits of the victory were to be retained, and cannot be imputed to wanton cruelty, especially as Constantine seems to have abstained from the too common practice of an indiscriminate massacre. The final disbanding of the praetorian guards and the destruction of their camp, the imposition of a poll-tax on the senators, and the assumption of the title of Pontifex Maximus were the other chief events of Constantine’s first residence in Rome, which lasted only a few weeks,—a fact in itself significant of the decaying importance of the capital, if not prophetic of the early rise of a Nova Roma. It was in the course of the expedition that ended with the victory of the Milvian. Bridge that the celebrated incident occurred, which is said to have caused Constantine’s conversion,—the appearance of a flaming cross in the sky at noon-day with the motto 'Ev tovt(o vlkcl (By this conquer). The story is told by Eusebius, who professes to have had it from the lips of the emperor himself, and also with considerable variation in the details by Lactantius, Nazarius, and Philostorgius. In order to understand the true relation of Constantine to Christianity, however, it is necessary to consider all the incidents bearing upon that relation together, and this, therefore, along with the others. There is the less violence to chronological order in delaying the critical examination of the story, inasmuch as it was first communicated by Constantine to Eusebius several years later, and as the Labarum, or standard of the cross, made in obedience to the heavenly vision was not exhibited to the army, according to Gibbon, till 323. The conversion, whatever its nature and whatever its cause, was followed, indeed, by one more immediate result of a significant kind in the important Edict of Milan (March 313), issued by Constantine and Licinius conjointly, restoring all forfeited civil and religious rights to the Christians, and securing them full and equal toleration throughout the empire. By the victory of the Milvian Bridge Constantine became the sole emperor of the West. Very soon after a like change took place in the East. Galerius had died in May 311, and a war ensued between the two surviving emperors in which Maximin was the aggressor and the loser, as Maxentius had been in the West. After a decisive defeat near Heraclea (April 313) he took to flight, and died at Tarsus, probably by his own hand, in August of the same year. Licinius thus attained the same place in the East as Constantine held in the West. The interests of the two who now divided between them the empire of the world had been apparently identified by the marriage of Licinius to Constantine’s sister Constantia, which was celebrated with great pomp at Milan in March 313. But in little more than a year they were engaged in a war, the origin of which is somewhat obscure, though it probably arose from the treachery of Licinius. After two battles, in which the Eastern emperor suffered severely, he was fain to sue for peace, which Constantine granted only on condition that Illyricum, Pannonia, and Greece should be transferred to his territory. The peace lasted for nine years, a period during which Constantine’s position grew stronger while that of Licinius grew weaker, wise and humane legal reforms and vigorous

300

CONSTANTINE

building of which had been commenced m 328, was measures against the barbarians of the north marking the solemnly inaugurated on the 11th May 330, being dedipolicy of the one, and caprice, indolence, and cruelty being cated to the Virgin Mary. The fact that the_ ceremonial the most conspicuous features in the conduct of the other. was performed exclusively by Christian ecclesiastics, and When the inevitable struggle for the supremacy came, that no pagan temple was permitted to be erected in the though the army of Licinius was the larger, the issue was new city, marks in an emphatic way the establishment of scarcely doubtful. The origin of the war which broke out Christianity as the state religion. in 323 is, like that of the previous one in 314, not quite The closing years of Constantine’s life were uneventful. clear: but it is probable that Constantine, having eer- One of his last schemes was that for the partition of the mined to make himself the sole master of the world, did empire after his death among his three sons by Fausta, not think it necessary to wait for provocation. iJie Constantine, Constantins, and Constans; but it proved campaign was short but decisive. Licinius was totally even less stable than the analogous scheme of Diocletian. defeated in a battle fought at Adnanople on the 3d July In 337 Sapor II. of Persia asserted by force his claim to 323. This was followed by the siege of Byzantium, in the provinces that had been taken from him by Galerius. which Crispus, Constantine’s eldest son, who was in com- Constantine was preparing to meet him at the head of an mand of the fleet, co-operated with his father by entering army, when he was taken ill, and after a brief and vain the Hellespont and defeating Amandus, the admiral ot trial of the baths of Helenopolis retired to Nicomedia. Licinius, after a two days’ engagement. _ In a final battle Here he died on the 22d May 337. The significance of fought at Chrysopolis (now Scutari) Licinius was totally his baptism on his deathbed by the Arian bishop, Eusebius routed, and he fled to Nicomedia. On the intercession of of Nicomedia, will be indicated afterwards. _ His body was his wife Constantia, the sister of Constantine, the emperor taken to Constantinople, and buried according to his own promised to spare his life; but the promise was not kept. instructions in the Church of the Apostles with imposing In 324 the defeated monarch was put to death by Con- ceremony. stantine’s orders at Thessalonica, which had been fixed as The most interesting and the most disputed subject m the place of his exile. A treasonable conspiracy was alleged connection with the life of Constantine is the nature of his against him, but there is no evidence in support of the relation to Christianity. The facts bearing upon it are charge; and possible danger in the future rather than any enough, and the controversy must therefore be entirely plot actually discovered seems to have prompted Con- clear stantine to a deed which cannot escape the censure of bad attributed to the manipulation and distortion of partisans. A brief statement of these facts will suffice to show how faith, if not of wanton cruelty. With the war against Licinius the military career of far his acceptance of Christianity was a matter of personal Constantine may be said to have closed. He was now the conviction, and how far, on the other hand, it was a matter sole emperor of both East and West. His enlightened of statesmanship. The generous conduct of Constantins policy had made his power throughout the empire so secure towards the Christians betokens a certain measure of that any attempt to usurp it would have been utterly vain. sympathy, and the term Xpurriavd^pwi' (Christian-minded) Accordingly the remainder of his reign was passed in applied to him by Theophanes gives some ground for undisturbed tranquillity. The period of peace was not supposing that the paternal influence may have acted as a inglorious, including among lesser events the convocation sort of prceparatio evangelica in the mind of Constantine. of°the Council of Nicma (325) and the foundation of But whatever may have been due to this, it did not bring Constantinople (328). But unfortunately it was disgraced him over to the new faith. His own narrative to Eusebius by a series of bloody deeds that have left an indelible stain attributed his conversion to the miraculous appearance of a on the emperor’s memory. In 326 Constantine visited flaming cross in the sky at noon-day under the circumRome to celebrate the twentieth anniversary (yicennalia) of stances already indicated. The story has met with nearly his accession. During the festivities his eldest son Crispus every degree of acceptance from the unquestioning faith of was accused of treason by Fausta, and banished to Pola, in Eusebius himself to the incredulity of Gibbon, who treats Istria, where he was put to death. Licinius, the emperor’s it as a fable, while not denying the sincerity of the convernephew, being included in the same charge, likewise fell a sion. On the supposition that Constantine narrated tire victim, and a number of the courtiers also suffered. incident in good faith, the amount of objective reality that According to another version of the story Fausta accused it possesses is a question of altogether secondary importance. her step-son of attempting incestuous intercourse, and There is nothing improbable in the theory that accounts for Constantine, discovering when it was too late that the the appearance of the cross by the not infrequent natural accusation was false, caused her to be suffocated in her phenomenon of a parhelion. It seems likelier, however, bath. The whole circumstances of Fausta’s death, how- that Constantine gave external reality to what was nothing ever, are involved in uncertainty owing to the contradic- more than an optical delusion or a dream. Eusebius, it is tions of the different narratives. The bloody tragedy true, narrates both the appearance at noon-day and a dream struck horror into the minds of the citizens, and it was on the following night, in which the appearance was inamid ominous indications of unpopularity that Constantine terpreted ; but the very strength of the impression made on Constantine’s mind may have led him to magnify the quitted Rome for the last time. It had probably been for some time clear to his mind incident without conscious misrepresentation. Whatever that the empire required in its new circumstances a new the nature of the appearance may have been, its effect upon political centre. A Nova Roma would mark in a visible the emperor, to judge from his subsequent conduct, fell tar and concrete form the new departure in imperial policy short of a true or thorough conversion; it probably did not which it had been the main object of the emperor’s life to amount to more than the creation of a superstitious beliet initiate. At least two other places—Sardica in Mcesia, in the symbol of the cross. This is sufficient to account and Troy—had been thought of ere his choice was fixed for the edict of toleration and for all his legislation that upon Byzantium. No happier selection has ever been seems to be based upon sympathy with Christian ideas. made. The natural advantages of the site are probably On the other hand, the notion of conversion in the sense ot unsurpassed by those of any capital either in the Old or in a real acceptance of the new religion, and a thorough rejecthe New World, and its political importance is evidenced tion of the old, is inconsistent with the hesitating attitude by the frequency with which it has been the key to the in which he stood towards both. Much of this may indee situation in European diplomacy. The new capital, the be due to motives of political expediency, but there is a

CONSTANTINE good deal that cannot be so explained. Paganism must still have been an operative belief with the man who, down almost to the close of his life, retained so many pagan superstitions. He was at best only half heathen, half Christian, who could seek to combine the worship of Christ with the worship of Apollo, having the name of the one and the figure of the other impressed upon his coins, and ordaining the observance of Sunday under the name Dies Solis in his celebrated decree of March 321, though such a combination was far from uncommon in the first Christian centuries. Perhaps the most significant illustration of the ambiguity of his religious position is furnished by the fact that in the same year in which he issued the Sunday decree he gave orders that, if lightning struck the imperial palace or any other public building, “ the haruspices, according to ancient usage, should be consulted as to what it might signify, and a careful report of the answer should be drawn up for his use.” From the time of the Council of Nicsea there are fewer signs of halting between two opinions, but the interest of the emperor in Christianity was still primarily political and official rather than personal. He summoned the council, presided over its first meeting, and took a prominent part in its proceedings both before and behind the scenes. The year before it met he had, in a noteworthy letter to the Alexandrian bishops, urged such a scheme of comprehension as might include Ariaus and orthodox in the one church; and on this ground he has been claimed as the earliest of broad churchmen. When the result of its deliberations was the adoption, for the first time in the history of the church, of a written creed, he cordially approved of the proposal, and was thus the earliest to enforce uniformity by means of subscription. The twro plans were incompatible, but the conduct of Constantine in supporting first the one and then the other was perfectly consistent. Throughout he acted in the interest of the state. The splitting up of the church into a number of bitterly contending factions would be a constant source of danger to the unity of the empire, while on the other hand the empire might gain fresh strength from the growing power of Christianity if that power were embodied in a compact and united organization. It was by this consideration, probably, that Constantine was guided in dealing with the Arian controversy • there are no traces of any engrossing personal interest on his part in the cardinal question of the homoousion. There are not wanting, indeed, several facts that show a real concern in the truths of Christianity as distinct from its social and political influence. Eusebius has recorded one of his sermons, and he seems to have preached frequently in refutation of the errors of paganism and in illustration and defence of the doctrines of the new faith. The same historian speaks of his taking part in the ceremonies of worship, and of his long vigils at the season of Easter. His delaying to receive baptism until he was on his deathbed does not imply that he delayed till then the full acceptance of Christianity, though it has frequently been so interpreted by those who were unaware that the doctrine that all sin committed before baptism was washed away by the simple observance of the rite not unnaturally made such procrastination very common.. There is no historical foundation for the assertion of Baronius and other Catholic writers that the emperor received baptism from Pope Sylvester at Rome in 326. -qually baseless is the story of the so-called donation of onstantine, according to which the emperor after his apt ism endowed the Pope with temporal dominion. It is o this that Dante alludes in his Inferno:— Ah, Constantine ! of how much ill was cause, Not thy conversion, but those rich domains that the first wealthy Pope received of thee.

301 It has been remarked by Stanley that Constantine was entitled to be called Great in virtue rather of what he did than of what he was. Tested by character, indeed, he stands among the lowest of all those to whom the epithet has in ancient or modern times been applied. Fearlessness, decision, political sagacity, and religious tolerance he possessed from first to last; but the generous clemency of which there are traces in his earlier years cannot have any longer worked effectually in him when he sanctioned the treacherous treatment of Licinius and the atrocities that connected themselves with the murder of Crispus.. Tried by achievement, however, he stands among the very first of those who have ever won the title. In fact, there are two grounds at least on which as important a place may be claimed for him as for any sovereign who has reigned during the Christian era. What he did as the founder of the complex political system which exists among all civilized nations down to the present day, and what he did as the first Christian emperor, had results of the most enduring and far reaching kind. It belongs to the historian of the empire to give a detailed account of the elaborate scheme lie devised by which the civil functions of the state were separated from the military, and both from the spiritual,— the very idea of such distinctions having been previously unknown. The empire he by such means revived, though in the East it lasted a thousand years, was never again so strong as it was in his own hands ; but the importance of his scheme consisted in this that it gave to empire itself, regarded as a system of government, a new structure and a new power which still survive in the political constitutions of the various nations of Europe. As to Christianity the historically significant fact is not his personal acceptance of it. It is rather that by his policy as a statesman he endowed the new religion for the first time with that instrument of worldly power which has made it—whether for good or for evil or for both is a subject of much discussion—the strongest social and political agent that affects the destinies of the human race. The chief early sources for the life of Constantine are Eusebius, Be Vita Constantini, which is strongly partial from the Christian standpoint of its author, and Zosimus, Historia, lib. ii., which is tinged by Pagan prejudice. Of secondary importance are Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Lactantius Be Mortibus Persecutorum, and the Panegyrici Veteres, vi.-x. The most valuable modern sources are Manso’s Leben Constantins des Grossen (1817), Burckhardt’s Bic Zcit Constantinse des Grossen (1853), and Broglie’s L’Eglise et Vempire romain du IV sUcle. (W. B. S.) CONSTANTINE, a Roman soldier who, in the time of Honorius, in the 5th century a.d., rose to the dignity of emperor of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, but was finally conquered and put to death by Honorius. See Roman History. CONSTANTINE VII., Flavius Porphyrogenitus (905-959), emperor of the East, author, and patron of literature, born in 905 a.d., was the only son of Leo VI. The Eastern Church sanctioned no marriage beyond the second, and when Leo, being childless by three wives, had a son by his concubine Zoe, his attempt to legitimize his wife and his son was inflexibly resisted by the Patriarch Nicholas, and his will was only carried out at the expense of excommunication. These circumstances were probably the reason why the name Porphyrogenitus, “ born in the purple,” i.e., in the purple chamber in which the empresses were confined, was, while applicable to all the emperors, emphatically applied to Constantine VIL When Constantine was only six years old Leo died, leaving him under the guardianship of his uncle Alexander ; but Alexander also died in the next year; and Romanus Lecapenus, the chief admiral, supported by Zoe, was appointed colleague to Constantine, and held all real power till 944, when he was forced by his sons to entera monastery.

302

0 0 N—0 0 N

to allow himself to be crowned; but Constantine remained Meanwhile Constantine, though powerless, had been well true to his promise, and, though a conspiracy of the treated, and had married Helena, the daughter of Romanus. officers of the army in favour of a constitution took place, On the deposition of his colleague, the people gave wi iog and the conspirators proclaimed Constantine czar, he peraid to Constantine’s cause; and having banished 0Uin sisted in supporting his brother, at whose coronation he brothers-in-law, he became emperor in reality. ^ S appeared to take the oath of homage. After this Conwanting in strength of will, Constantine, ha m § stantine’s power in Poland became greater than before ; his and many other good qualities, and his reign on ew system of espionage and arbitrary government was more was not unsatisfactory. (See Geeek Empiue ) tin He was harshly put in force, and arrests without any specified Co st poisoned by his son Romanus in 959 ^ ^ ®J charge became more common. At length in 1830, that a painter and a patron of art, a literary man and a year of revolutions, the general hatred of Russia burst into patron of literature; and herein consists real impo a rebellion. Borne of the conspirators entered the princes ancc Unable as he was to sift out the really important palace at Warsaw; but, the Polish guard remaining from the unimportant, and the credible from the credible, faithful, he escaped. He was, however, forced to release it is yet from his pages that we gain the only knowledge of all Polish political prisoners, and to declare his intention any extent which we possess of his time. He is the author of not calling in the Russian army to attack Poland. His of several works of considerable size 1. Hept rcov fc/mrov, Polish guard now requested liberty to rejoin the rest of the an account of the provinces (themata) ol the empire Z. army. After granting permission, he withdrew it, and the De Administrando Impeno, an account of the con guard deserted him. He was, nevertheless, allowed to the empire, and an exposition of the authors vi reach the frontier in safety. In the consequent war government, written for the use of his son Romanus, Constantine took no important part, and after a time even also contains most valuable information as to the condition the inferior command which he held was taken from him. and history of various foreign nations with which The czar refused to allow him to live near Bt Petersburg, Eastern empire had been brought into connection —as he and the place of his residence was fixed at the little tovyn Arabs, Iberians, Armenians, and the tribes north of the of Bialystok, on the border line of Poland and Lithuania. Danube—the Russians, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Chazars He died on the 27th June of the following year (loU)and Patzinacitse; 3. "E^o-ts rf,? /Wciov ra^oj, which CONSTANTINOPLE, the capital of Turkey and of the describes the customs of the Eastern Church and cour , Ottoman empire, is situated at the junction of the Bosphorus 4 A life of Basilius I, his grandfather; u. Two treatises and the Sea of Marmora, in 41° 0' 16" N. lat. and 28 59 on warfare, of which his father Leo was perhaps.part or 14" E. long. It may be said to stand upon two promonsole author. The IWovikci, a treatise on agriculture tories rather than upon two continents, since the quarter now with which his name is connected, is generally suppose called Galata was reckoned in . the time of Arcadius the to have been executed at his command by Bassus Cas- 13th Region, whereas Kadikeui (Chalcedon) and iskudar sianus ; and under his patronage many other works- or Scutari (Chrysopolis), situated on the opposite coast of including collections of the ancient historians (of. which Asia Minor, have been always distinct . cities. ihe fragments are extant), lives of saints,, and treatises on promontories on which the capital lies are divided the one medicine—were compiled. Several Latin translations ot from the other by the last and largest of those inlets which the works of Constantine have been made, and his com- cut the western shore of the channel known as the plete works were published at Leyden, 1617, and Pans, Bosphorus. This inlet is a large and important harbour 1711 CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH (1779-1831), second running from east to north west, capable of floating 12 ships. It curls up in a course of little more than four son of the Czar Paul I. of Russia, was born at St Petersburg miles to the foot of the hills which, joining the heights on on the 8th May 1779. His name was chosen by his either side, seem to form a vast amphitheatre, till it meets grandmother, the Empress Catherine, on account, it was the united volume of two streams—the Cydans and Barbelieved, of the tradition according to. which an emperor bysus of the ancients—the two whelps of the oracle,— Constantine was to reign at Constantinople.. At the age “ Bless’d they who make that sacred town their home, of seventeen the prince was married to the Princess Juliana By Pontus’ mouth upon the shore of Thrace, of Saxe-Coburg, but after four years a separation took place. There where two whelps lap up the ocean foam, ( Where hind and fish find pasture at one place. In all affairs connected with the army Constantine took the intensest interest. In 1799 he served in Italy, and he This peculiar harbour has always, by reason both of its gained distinction at the battle of Austerlitz (1805) by the form and its fulness, been called the Golden Horn. It is admirable order in which he retreated. He also served “ like a stag’s horn,” Strabo says, “for it is broken into throughout the rest of the war with France, but never.held creeks like so many branches, into which11the0 rme hsn supreme command. In the end of 1815 he was appointed wavy . i^ 1 ^ generalissimo of the army of Poland. His rule was marked pelamys (Tr^Xa/xtis) running is easily snared. times this fish was, and at the present day might be, a by an unreasonable severity, which produced deep and source of rich revenue—ever from time immemorial rushing general discontent; but he introduced the strictest discipline, down from the Sea of Azoff and the Black Sea and when Though not nominally head of the Government, Constan approaches the white rock, on which stands the Maidens tine’s influence was very considerable ; and it was all it(miscalled Leander’s) Tower, glancing off it, and shooting employed in support of arbitrary principles. He abo- straight into the Horn, but never enriching tbenval city lished the liberty of the press, and any literary man or student who expressed any opinion obnoxious to him was on the coast of Asia—Chalcedon, “ the City of the Blind. immediately thrown into prison. On the other hand he If the figure of a stag’s horn resembles the harbour, th an ancient drinking-horn would represent the genera did much to carry out many material improvements. In of form of Constantinople proper—the Seraglio point bei g 1820 having fallen in love with a Polish lady, he obtained turned inward like the sculptured mouth-piece. On tnis through the influence of the emperor, his brother, a decree knot the Megarian city stood gathered about its Acropolis, of the"Holy Synod permitting him to marry the lady; and and occupying the easternmost hill on the verge of Lmop • in return he signed a paper resigning all claim to the Constantine aimed at building his new capital, alter succession to the throne. On the death of the Czar on seven hills; his wish was.fulfiRed—not at fi Alexander in December 1825, Nicholas, Constantines old, however, but a century after its dedication—and he \usne younger brother, and after him heir to the throne, refused

rr

CONSTANTINOPLE it to be in name, as in foundation, a counterpart of the ancient city. But it is the founder, not the model, that is commemorated in the name Constantinople, while its designation as “ New Borne ” lingers nowhere but in the official language of the Orthodox Eastern Church. Its Turkish name of Istamboul, or Stamboul, is said to be a corruption of the Greek words eis rrjv 7t6X.lv. About the end of the 18th century it was corrupted by a fanatical fancy into Islambol, or the city of Islam. Like the name, the emblem also of the city was adopted from the Greeks by the Ottomans. The crescent and star formed its device from the earliest times, and is found on Byzantine coins and on the statues of Hecate. So the body-guard of the Sultan retain insignia of the Varangian Guard of the Greek empire, of which traces seem to have been discovered in the Crimea. The sign manual of the sultans, rudely representing a left hand, originated with the action of a sultan who is said to have signed with a bloody hand a treaty with the republic of Bagusa. iension Under Constantine, who founded it on the site of der Con' Byzantium (q.v.), the city was more than doubled. His .ntine. forum was fixed on the second hill; the walls were extended till a new inclosure was made, which spanned the peninsula from about the end of the old bridge to the mouth of the Biver Lycus in Vlanga Bostan; the line of his walls was not direct, but made a compass round the Polyandrion, or Heroon. It is said that 40,000 Goths were employed in first raising and afterwards manning these works; the seven gates separated the eight cohorts, each of 5000 men. Being Arians, the Goths were allowed no room within the city which they made safe for the Orthodox, but had assigned to them a quarter outside, which was called, either from several columns or from the one of Constantine that stood thereabout, ExoTdonion (the region without the columns), and the Gothic inhabitants of the quarter were styled Exokionitoe. Go noble was this body or guild accounted among their countrymen, that many illustrious Goths were enrolled in it,—with others, the kings of Italy. In the course of time, after Anastasius had drawn a longer line of defences higher up, from the neighbourhood of Lake Dercon on the Euxine to Selymbria on the Propontis, and many of the Gothic cohorts were called away to defend these fortifications, the meaning of the name was by degrees forgotten, until it was changed into Hexe-Kionia, or Hexe-Marmora (six marble columns); and at last this corrupt form was rendered literally by the new occupants in their tongue AltiMermer (six columns), which name remains to the present day. As this is a landmark showing the limit of Constantine’s walls on the south, another sign is extant bearing witness to their extent on the north. This is a mosque, once a church, which is visible from the Golden Horn. Its urkish name, Kahireh, or Kahrieh, is thought to have ^en formed into a resemblance of that of the capital of gypt from the Greek The monastery to which this c urc of the Saviour belonged was Mora rfis voinas, or, us we say, “ in the fields.” This was an ancient establish’ „anc church, the oldest church in the city, 8 mV i/j111111 - sarc^ century- Hither were brought, and °phagi, the remains of St Babylas and ° ,.er martyr3 who suffered under Decius in the A,:Di cenhCU T G n t hs bein At the beginning of the 5th onf• °1 ’ S Pressed by Attila and his Huns Onnstanf6^ s1ettlemente below the Balkan, flocked towards refine •lno ? e to join their countrymen there and find n 1 tS su ur h bs. It then became necessary to entrL; +i ^ odosian under TV, ^ _extra-mural camp. Accordingly in 412, V Is, bv Hie eoc 0S1US the first Theodosian wall was raised ect added Krl and in 447 awho second was y e prefect Cyrus Constantinus, advanced

303 the fosse, and of the earth dug out of it formed an artificial terrace between two lines of defence. The Goths were long subjected to exclusion from the city; Justinian exempted the Exocionites, indeed, from the penalties which he exacted from all other Arians in the empire, but required them still to meet for public worship outside the walls. Some monuments to members of the body of Foederati, found outside the fifth gate, and perhaps the name Cerco-porta, a memento of their round church, or one of their circular forts, may mark the residence, as they intimate the heresy, of the noble guards of the Greek emperor. Arianism had died out when this body was reinforced by the Varangians—Anglo-Danes—in the 11th century; accordingly, it is not surprising to recognize in a Byzantine church in a quarter called Bogdan-Serai, within the walls on the fifth hill, the church of St Nicholas and Augustine, founded by an Anglo-Saxon who fled from the Normans to take service under the Greek emperor. It is maintained that most of the numbers distinguishing the cohorts attached to the several regions and walls remain to this day, as Deuteron, Triton, Pempton, and Hebdomon. Upon the completion of these Theodosian Gates, walls there ensued a double arrangement of gates ; towngates, communicating with the public roads, alternated with military gates which opened upon the terraces only. These town-gates, to the number of seven, communicated with the seven gates of Constantine’s wall each by a broad street, which separated the cohorts and their quarters. These gates were opened in peace but shut in time of war, and then the bridges connecting them with the country roads and crossing the fosse in front were taken down at the approach of the enemy. The military gates had no such bridges leading from them; they served only to give egress to that part of the garrison which was required to work the engines of war planted upon the terraces outside and below. The city gates in the Theodosian walls had for the most part the same names as the gates in the wall of Constantine which corresponded to them—with this difference, that they were styled “ New.” Thus the gate “Boussion,” so named from the “demus” of the “Beds,” in the latter, answered to the “New” Boussion in the former. It is on this account that the existing gate is to this day called Yeni Kapu {New gate) as well as Mevlaneh Kapusi (gate of the Dervishes). The gate of Adrianople (Edreneh Kapusi) was formerly that of Polyandrion, and took its title from the corresponding gate in the wall of Constantine, called so because it stood near the Polyandrion or Heroon adjoining it, which was attached to the church of the Holy Apostles; the site is now occupied by the mosque of Mahomet the Conqueror (Mehmedieh). The landward walls of Constantinople bear marks of the labour of many hands, and represent different and distant epochs.1 Their construction is unique. If the

1 At several points these walls have been repaired and restored, and display the names of “rois constructenrs ” from Theodosius to John Palseologus. They may be described roughly as four lines drawn across the promontory which they inclose for the distance of about four English miles, and knotted at each end into a citadel. The work at each extremity is more recent than what intervenes—that near the Sea of Marmora is to this day almost perfect; and the Golden Gate remains with its flanking towers of marble, much as it appeared in the 5th century, and fronted by the smaller arch which has generally appropriated the name. Of the five towers at the other end near the Golden Horn some remains exist, viz., the tower of Anema and that of Isaac Angelus. On the north side the wall of Theodosius breaks off at the palace of the Hebdomon, and the continuous fosse ceases where a later line has been thrown out with massive towers—this is the wall of Heraclius, supposed t@ have been raised to protect the imperial quarter of Blachernfe, containing the palace of that name and the church of St Mary. Similarly a second Wall was constructed to cover the dhurch of St Nicolas, in the time of Leo the Armenian, whence it is called the Leontine wall. This line of defence, long impregnable, withstood siege after siege till the new artillery made

304

CONSTANTINOPLE

hornet II., built his new palace (the seraglio) on the site of the Acropolis, about which ancient Byzaaitium had clustered, a situation specially favourable to his purpose, as it afforded the combined advantages of a lovely prospect, a perfect retreat from the noise of the city, and a facility for observing all the movements in the harbour. In erect''int and salio, so that consules signifies those who go together. They were in early times called preetores, imperatores, or judices. From the abuse of the power which had been vested in the kings, the Romans were induced not only to expel the hated Tarquins from the city, but even to abolish the monarchical form of government altogether. Brutus and his companions, after the rape of Lucretia, made the people swear that no king should ever again reign at Romet The state was henceforth ruled by two supreme magistrates called consuls. The consular office was instituted after the expulsion of the kings, 510 b.c., and continued, with few interruptions, till the establishment of the empire—a period of nearly 500 years. The leaders of the revolution which had expelled the kings were first raised to this rank. All the royal insignia were preserved except the crown. Twelve lictors preceded them alternately. The elder of the two, or he who had most children, or who had been first elected, had the fasces first, the other meanwhile being preceded by a public officer called accensus, and followed by the lictors. Sometimes they agreed to enjoy the fasces on alternate days, but generally for alternate months. By the law of Poplicola, the axe was taken from them and their fasces were lowered when they entered the assemblies of the people. A cloak with a scarlet border, and an ivory staff, were badges of their office. On public occasions they used a seat of ornamented ivory called the curule chair. From the great power which their order originally possessed in the state, the patricians succeeded for a long time in retaining the" consulship among themselves. It was not till the year 445 b.c. that the plebeians acquired sufficient courage and strength to make any attempts to acquire the right of being elected to this office. Having once begun the struggle, however, they maintained it for VI. — 40

CONSUL 314

being limited to five days, a succession of interreges had the space of eighty years with YriV^elW fromintema1! frequently to be chosen before tranquillity was restored. At length (154 b.c.) it was enacted that consuls and all the made even a foreign war desirable as a reM Irom ordinary magistrates, with the exception of the tribunes of r^siSaSedb/the p|JaZ under the guidance the people, should begin their duties on the 1st of January. That day was marked by peculiar solemnities. At daybreak the consuls arose and consulted the auspices. Afterwards the senate and people waited upon them at their houses and then, with the new magistrates clad in their state robes at their head, they all marched in solemn attempting an evasi^ the app— [aw, tribunes, were c0«1Pelledn67 B c \ that in all time coming procession to the capitol. There victims were offered and which it was ordained ( ■ '|bin l. Sextius was prayers presented for the safety and prosperity of the one of the consuls shouldEbe afcljf B0Wer which was effec- Roman people. After the conclusion of the religious rites a meeting of the senate was held, and the new consuls first feifitP heTass“e of Uie law was not equal to its exercised their functions by consulting it about the perS— Ch 355 B.c. .^E="C=d formance of religious ceremonies. Within five days after and, as was often the case wi ^ however, the demands their induction they were obliged to swear, as they had done necessary to re-enact it. , ’ t satisfied with having at their election, that they would strictly observe the laws; and at the close of their consulship they were required to take a similar oath declaring that they had done nothing contrary to the constitution. i The power of the consuls appears at first to. have been similar to that of the kings; but in process of time several of the apporntment^two plebe ^ ^ ^ distinctions arose which combined to render the consular Eg^SSu^^S authority inferior to the regal. The office of high priest which had been discharged by the kings, was in the time of ? v. onf Pori 17 > and a man of extraordinary wealth, a native the consulship executed by a special magistrate, called m enio ing tpe consalship was forty-five ; sacrorum, or rex sacrificulus. The power of life and death was afterwards denied to the consuls, and the symbolic axe removed from the/a***. While there was only one king, there were two consuls. The obvious design of the Romans in dividing the consulship was that their power might be weakened, and the safety of the people made more secure SsTarft Tandlt”\e dischigel the inferior by the resistance which the ambitious designs of the one would receive from the other. For the same reason they ^hlef^n^u was S^rey ^e elected them annually, and thus prevented that insolen e nresent at the election in a private capacity. It was also of authority which the long continuation of it is apt to enacted that no one should be made consul a second time produce They were restrained from illegal measures still till after the lapse of ten years But ^ find cases ^ tether by fe Jof punishment when their term of oBceM which all these conditions were disregarded. Som expired ^for the people had reserved to themselves the elected who had not previously borne any curule mag^tracy, S of Singing them to trial for misconduct The and others were appointed in their absence borne con Valerian law weakened their authority by decreeing that no tinued in office more than a year, as Manus, who was seven magistrate should scourge or put to death a Roman citizen times consul without intermission; and others were elected who appealed to the people. Even tbe decision o n before the allotted time had elapsed. . . consul could be repealed by the other. But it was the The election of consuls was made by the comitia creation of the tribunes of the people that especially concenturiata in the Campus Martius. The aasmUy at tributed to limit their prerogatives, and strengthen which they were elected was always convoked and presided cause of liberty. And as additional magistracies were over by a consul, dictator, or interrex. It generally took instituted, many of their old privileges ^re taken fro place in the month of July, that an opportunity might be them Their judicial power was transferred to the prm o , afforded for investigating the conduct of the 1 successful and their censorial to the censors, while otber duti candidates before they entered on their office. !1 t originally discharged by them devolved upon sediles they might have time to become conversant with then other new magistrates. . f ,-l duties. From their appointment to the day of then inBut notwithstanding these limitations, tbe power ^ duction they were called consules designate, or consuls elec , consuls was at all times very great. As civil mag and had the privilege of being first asked their opinion they were at the head of the government, and all oth s, in the senate. The day upon which they assumed office with the exception of the tribunes of the people, w^b was repeatedly changed. It seems originally to have been ject to them. They assembled and presffi^ over tl ^ the Ides of September, when, in the rude days of Boman and cormtia centuriata; they introduced of history the consuls used annually to fix a nail in the temple deliberation, proposed laws, and executed the of Jupiter Capitolinus to mark the year; but as it sometimes both senate and people. The laws proposed by them d happened, when one died before the term of bis office bad generally received their name. The year ed expired, that another was immediately chosen to BU his them. They gave audience to embassies, and com“u tor. place, the year of his successor was naturally finished with other states. _ Before the establishment of^th \ before the usual time, and this necessitated a repeated ship and censorship, they discharge d c-qzens, change in the days of their appointment and induction. functions, and superintended the assessment of incr tho Sometimes, too, civil commotions prevented the election They had the right of summoning and entoJclJ ound taking place at the usual time. As the consul whose year presence of any one they pleased. Every peison ^ ^ was completed could not in such cases discharge any of the to turn out of the way, dismount, use up, u ^bjh. consular duties, it was customary for the senate to nomma a or show some similar token of respect, on passing a temporary magistrate called interrex. His authority

CONSUL The consul Acilius ordered the curule chair of the prsetor Lucullus to be broken in pieces for a breach of this regulation. As military commanders they had absolute authority. They had the power of life and death over the lives of their soldiers ; and accordingly they had axes in their fasces when in the field. When any great danger threatened the state the consuls were invested by the senate with extraordinary powers, which made them supreme in the city as well as out of it. Accordingly, in the early days of the republic, when the patricians were in sole possession of the consulship, and wished to subdue any outbreak of the plebeians, they feigned that some powerful enemy was marching against the city, and thus succeeded in obtaining extraordinary powers for the consuls. After Hie consuls had resigned their office, they were commissioned by the senate to assume the government of provinces under the title of 'proconsuls. It was the prerogative of the senate to determine the provinces for the consuls, although it was left to themselves to decide by lot or agreement which of them each should receive. When the time arrived for a proconsul to set out for his province, he was furnished by the senate with the troops appointed for him, and everything requisite for his command. Surrounded by a train of friends, and a numerous personal staff, he marched out of the city with great pomp. He was bound to travel direct to his province ; and the towns through which he passed had to supply him with necessaries for his journey. Within his province he had the command of the troops, and could employ them as he pleased. He was supreme judge both in criminal and in civil causes, and could inflict the punishment of death—except on Eoman citizens, who could appeal to Home. Justice was generally administered at circuit courts, held once a year in the principal towns. The proconsulship continued likewise for one year only, but it was often prolonged by a decree of the senate. Under the empire the consuls were superseded by the emperors. The title, indeed, remained, and all the ceremonies were performed with exactness, and perhaps even with more magnificence than formerly. It would seem as if they attempted to conceal the loss of real power by the trappings of external pomp. The day of their induction was even more than ever a day of note in the city. Sitting on curule chairs, which were placed on lofty chariots, arrayed in rich dresses in imitation of those which used to be worn by generals in a triumph, with shoes of cloth of gold upon their feet and sceptres in their hands, they passed through the city, scattering money among the crowd, and bestowing gifts upon their friends. Their first duty, however, no longer consisted in consulting the senate about the religious duties of the state, but in formally returning thanks to the emperor for their election. The emperors had arrogated the right of assuming the consulship to themselves, or disposing of it as they thought proper, Julius Caesar was dictator and consul at the same time.. Augustus made himself consul thirteen times during his reign. Vespasian proclaimed himself perpetual consul. A.nd in bestowing it upon others, the emperors were not content with having one pair of consuls for one year. Desirous to conciliate as many of their friends as possible, they greatly shortened the duration of the office. It was mid generally for two months, which allowed twelve consuls during one year. But sometimes it lasted only a few weeks, a few days, or even a few hours, according to the P easi|re_of the emperor. There happened to be twenty-five consuls in the year 189 a.d. But those who entered upon eir office on the 1st of January were held in greater respect, and gave their names to the year. They were C fs in who time the republic, consules or dinar ii ; wV?i e ’ those wereofraised to the office at other times ere ermed consules suffecti, or consules minores.

j

315 While the republic lasted, the time that elapsed between the election and ordination of consuls was short, generally from July to January. In the time of the emperors ordination was sometimes deferred several years. The triumvirs in 39 B.c. nominated consuls for eight succeeding years. In this way the title of designatus was frequently enjoyed long before the actual consulship. Caius, the grandson of Augustus, was consul designatus for five years. Hero was fourteen years old when he was nominated consul designatus, and twenty when he became consul. Besides these different kinds of consuls, all of which existed in the republic, we find another class peculiar to the later days of the empire—honorary consuls. These enjoyed the titles and badges of consuls, but nothing more. They possessed their honours, though altogether free from their duties. All the consuls, in truth, during the period of which we speak, may with propriety be termed honorary, for the substance of their power had been taken from them. They had become the mere slaves of the emperors, although they still continued the formal discharge of their functions, nevertheless, even in this degraded condition, the consulship was alvrays regarded with veneration, and considered the highest dignity to which a Homan citizen could aspire. CONSUL, a public officer authorized by the state whose commission he bears to manage the commercial affairs of its subjects in a foreign country, and formally permitted by the Government of the country wherein he resides to perform the duties which are specified in his commission, or lettre de provision. A consul, as such, is not invested with any diplomatic character, and he cannot enter on his official duties until a rescript, termed an exequatur (sometimes a mere countersign endorsed on the commission) has been delivered to him by the authorities of the state to which his nomination has been communicated by his own Government. This excequatury called in Turkey a barat, may be revoked at any time at the discretion of the Government where he resides. The status of consuls commissioned by the Christian powers of Europe to reside in the Levant, and to exercise judicial functions in civil and criminal matters between their own countrymen and strangers, is exceptional to the common law, and is founded on special conventions or capitulations with the Ottoman Porte. The English consuls in the Levant were originally the officers of “the governor and company of merchants of England trading in the Levant seas,” created by letters patent from James I., which were cancelled in 1826. Besides the pure consular jurisdiction—exercised under the Order in Council 30th November 1864, by a judge in the Supreme Consular Court at Constantinople, and by the ordinary consuls in provincial courts, subject to an appeal to Her Majesty’s Imperial Court of Appeal, in cases beyond £500 in value—there is also the jurisdiction of the consular court of the defender’s nation, where the parties are both foreign Christians, and a Turkish tribunal for cases between Turks and foreign Christians. The tendency now is to substitute mixed tribunals in both these cases. The right of British consuls to be present in the native courts, when one of the parties is a British subject, was conceded by the Treaty of Dardanelles (1809). It is not unusual in the case of consuls-general resident in Mahometan countries that they should also be accredited as political agents, or charges d’affaires, in which case they are invested with the diplomatic character, and are entitled to the privileges of public ministers. The present system of consuls doutre mer, or d Vetranger, was preceded by the system of domestic consuls, juges consuls, or marchands, in the chief maritime cities of the south of Europe. These constituted mere tribunals of commerce which had no special concern with foreign

316

CONSUL appropriate to the case, having regard to the convenience shipping or trade. Later on, the need was felt of of witnesses and the time required for decision ; and, where safe place of deposit and of an independent jnnsdict'o^ local courts have wrongfully inteifered, he puts the Home Particular quarters of mercantile cities were Government in motion through the consul-general or foreign traders, and disputes were decided by oftcers ambassador. He sends in reports on the export and variously called governors, protectors, ancmots aide import trade of the district in which he resides; and lie men (in the Hanse towns), syndics, jurats, Pr6™.- . reports to the secretary of state when a vice-consul is capitouls, and 4chevins-all names borrowed from mu required in any place, generally naming an English merchant. Under the Act 12 and 13 Yict. c. 68, extended cipal offices. The consul was generally a wholesale d, named bv the rector and council of the home city. by the Consular Marriage Act, 1868, consuls are empowered, He had power to tine and banish from the quarter. on certain notices and declarations being given, to celebrate Similar to these were the judge-conservatoK elected by marriage between persons who have resided one month in British residents in the Portuguese lwr L / “ the district, one of them being a British subject. They are long cemented the friendly relations of the two natm , also empowered by statute to advance for the erection or and was formally renounced only Another maintenance of Anglican churches, hospitals, and places of singular institution, containing more than the germ ot t interment sums equal to the amount subscribed for tlie modern consulate, was “the Oour ascertaining the humanity of their treatment after sentence, and approved by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Supplementary Instructions, 1868. he has to consider whether home or foreign law is more

c o N —C 0 N list ” or list of passengers, so that the consul may transmit to the registrar-general, for insertion in the Marine Register Book, a report of the passengers dying and children born dul'incr the voyage. The consul may even defray the expenses of maintaining, and forwarding to their destination, passengers taken off or picked up from wrecked or injured vessels, if the master does not undertake to proceed in six weeks; these expenses becoming, in terms of the Passenger Acts 1855 and 1863, a debt due to Her Majesty from the owner or charterer. Where a salvor is justified in detaining a British vessel, the master may obtain leave to depart by going with the salvor before the consul, who after hearing evidence as to the service rendered and the proportion of ship’s value and freight claimed, fixes the amount for which the master is to gi ve bond and security. In the case of a foreign wreck the consul is held to be the agent of the foreign owner. Much of the notarial business which is imposed on consuls, partly by statute and partly by the request of private parties, consists in taking the declarations as to registry, transfers, Ac., mentioned in Schedules B, C, F, G, H, L of the Mercantile Shipping Act. .Under commercial treaties with China, British consuls in the free ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghae have extensive judicial and executive powers. The same observation applies to Japan. (See Order in Council of 9 th March 1865 and relative rules.) The position of United States consuls is minutely described in the Regulations, Washington, 1870. Under various treaties and conventions they enjoy large privileges and jurisdiction. By a treaty with Sweden in 1818 the United States Government agreed that the consuls of the two states respectively should be sole judges in disputes between captains and crews of vessels. By convention with France in 1857 they likewise agreed that the consuls of both countries should be permitted to hold real estate, and to have the “police interne des navires commerce.” In Eastern Asia an exclusive jurisdiction, civil and criminal, is always stipulated in cases where United States subjects are interested. Exemption from liability to appear as a witness is often stipulated. The question was raised in France in 1813 by the case of the Spanish consul Soller at Aix, and in America in 1854 by the case of Dillon, the French consul at San Francisco, who, on being arrested by Judge Hoffmann for declining to give evidence in a criminal suit, pulled down his consular flag. So, also, inviolability of national archives is often stipulated. The archives of a French consul in London were once seized by a collector of local taxes and sold by auction, and in 1858 the flag, seal, arms, and record-book of the United States consulate at Manchester were levied on for a private debt of the consul. To the consuls of other nations the United States Government have always accorded the privileges of arresting deserters, and of being themselves amenable only to the Federal and not to the States courts. They also recognize foreign consuls as representative suitors for absent foreigners. The United States commercial agents, although appointed y the president, receive no exequatur. They form a c ass by themselves, and are distinct from the consular agents, who are simply deputy consuls in districts where ere is no principal consul. France is distinguished among nations for an organization of trained consuls who iave intimate relations with the diplomatic corps. IStS*- T)6e ss Manud des Consuls, London and Berlin, 1837, 7, *j y> Reglcments Consulaircs des principcmx etats maridinlnmnt * ]uiro£e ^ I’Amcrique, 1851, and Dictionnaire du Eenortnf q i Leipsic, 1816- Fynn’s British Consul Abroad; Mart? ^ Committee on Consular Service (Pari. Papers), 1872; de dl lomatique Lei sic Vrutinvl des ?Tconsulats, ? 1858. ' P . 1866 ; and De Clercq, pratique (W C Guide S)

317 CONSULATE OF THE SEA, a celebrated collection of maritime customs and ordinances in the Catalan language, published at Barcelona in the latter part of the 15th century. Its proper title is The Book of the Consulate, or in Catalan, Lo Libre de Consolat. The earliest extant edition of the work, which was printed at Barcelona in 1494, is without a title-page or frontispiece, but it is described by the above-mentioned title in the epistle dedicatory prefixed to the table of contents. The only known copy of this edition is preserved in the National Library in Paris. The epistle dedicatory states that the work is an amended version of the Book of the Consulate, compiled by Francis Celelles with the assistance of numerous shipmasters and merchants well versed in maritime affairs. According to a statement made by Capmany in his Codigo de los Ccstumbras Maritimas de Barcelona, published at Madrid in 1791, there was extant to his knowledge in the last century a more ancient edition of the Book of the Consulate, printed in semi-Gothic characters, which he believed to be of a date prior to 1484. This is the earliest period to which any historical record of the Book of the Consulate being in print can be traced back. There are, however, two Catalan MSS. preserved in the National Library in Paris, the earliest of which, being MS. Espagnol 124, contains the two first treatises which are printed in the Book of the Consulate of 1494, and which are the most ancient portion of its contents, written in a hand of the 14th century, on paper of that century. The subsequent parts of this MS. are on paper of the 15th century, but there is no document of a date more recent than 1436. The later of the two MSS., being MS. Espagnol 56, is written throughout on paper of the 15th century, and in a hand of that century, and it purports, from a certificate on the face of the last leaf, to have been executed under the superintendence of Peter Thomas, a notary public, and the scribe of the Consulate of the Sea at Barcelona. The edition of 1494, which is justly regarded as the editio princeps of the Book of the Consulate, contains, in the first place, a code of procedure issued by the kings of Aragon for the guidance of the courts of the consuls of the sea, in the second place, a collection of ancient customs of the sea, and thirdly, a body of ordinances for the government of cruisers of war. A colophon at the end of these ordinances informs the readers that “ the book commonly called the Book of the Considate ends hereafter which there follows a document known by the title of The Acceptations, which purports to record that the previous chapters and ordinances had been approved by the Roman people in the 11th century, and by various princes and peoples in the 12th and 13th centuries. Capmany was the first person to question the authenticity of this document in his Memorias Historicas sobre let, Marina, Ac., de Barcelona, published at Madrid in 1779-92. M. Pardessus and other writers on maritime law have followed up the inquiry in the present century, and have conclusively shown that the document, whatever may have been its origin, has no proper reference to the Book of the Consulate, and is, in fact, of no historical value whatsoever. The paging of the edition of 1494 ceases with this document, at the end of which is the printer’s colophon, reciting that “ the work was completed on 14th July 1494, at Barcelona, by Pere Posa, priest and printer.” The remainder of the volume consists of what may be regarded as an appendix to the original Book of the Consulate. This appendix contains various maritime ordinances of the kings of Aragon and of the councillors of the city of Barcelona, ranging over a period from 1340 to 1484. It is printed apparently in the same type with the preceding part of the volume. The original Book of the Consulate, coupled with this appendix, constitutes the work which has obtained general circulation

0 0 N —C 0 N contempts is of great importance in these days, inasmuch as in Europe under tlie title of The Consulate of the Sea, and it involves the question of the liberty of the press. It will which in the course of the 16th century was translated be seen from the following statement that the judges have into the Castilian, the Italian, and the Frcnch languages assumed very extensive and arbitrary powers of interfering The Italian translation, printed at Yemce m 1549 by Jean with the free discussion by the public of the proceedings in Baptista Pedrezano, was the version whlch obtainel t courts of justice. . . largest circulation in the north of Europe, and led many A judgment prepared by Lord Chief-justice Wilmot in the iurists to suppose the work to have been of Italian ongi . case of an application for an attachment against J. Almon Ttt next following century the work w^ trunsWed mto in 1765, for publishing a pamphlet libelling the Queen’s Dutch by Westerven, and into German by Engelb , Bench, is, although it never was delivered in court, and it is also said to have been translated into Latin. A constantly referred to as authoritative by later judges and excellent translation into French of “The Customs of the writers. The chief-justice said that the offence of libelling Sea,” which are the most valuable portion of the 5 judges in their judicial capacity is the most proper case for the Consulate, has been recently published byMan attachment, for the “ arraignment of the justice of the in the second volume of his Collection des Lois judges is arraigning the king’s justice ; it is an impeachunder the title of “La compilation connue sous le nom d ment of his wisdom and goodness in the choice of his consulat de la mer,” whilst an Eughsh tranSia ion of judges; and excites in the minds of the people s general “ The Customs of the Sea,” under that title with the dissatisfaction with all judicial determinations, and Catalan text, has been published for the first time by S indisposes their minds to obey them. To be impartial, and Travers Twiss, in the appendix to the Black Book of to he universally thought so, are both absolutely necessary Admiralty vd, hi. London, 1874. The introduction to for the giving justice that free, open, and uninterrupted the latte/work contains a full account of the two Catalan current which it has for many ages found all over this MSS. in the National Library in Pans, and of the various kingdom, and which so eminently distinguishes and exalts editions of the Book of the Consulate. \ •) it above all nations upon the earth.” Again “ the constiCONSUMPTION. See Phthisis. < tution has provided very apt and proper remedies for corCONTEMPT OF COURT is any insult offered to a recting and rectifying the involuntary mistakes of judges, court of justice, or any defiance or resistance to its and for punishing and removing them for any perversion authority “If the contempt be committed in the face of of justice. But if their authority is to be trampled on by the court! the offender may be instantly apprehended and pamphleteers and news-writers, and the people are to be imprisoned at the discretion of the judges, without any told that the power given to the judges for their protection further proof or examination.” In other cases if the is prostituted to their destruction, the court may retain its fudges have reason to believe, from an affidavit that a power some little time, but I am sure it will eventually contempt has been committed, they make a rule calling on lose all its authority.” In several cases the judges have the suspected person to show cause why an attachment declared that while their administration of justice may be should not issue against him, or in flagrant cases the discussed fairly and bona fide, it is not open to a journalist attachment issues in the first instance. _ (See Attachment.) to impute corruption. A recent writer (Shortt, Law relating The process of attachment merely brings the accused into to Works of Literature) states the law to be that the court • he is then required to answer on oath interroga- temperate and respectful discussion of judicial determinatories administered to him, so that the court may be better tion is not prohibited, but mere invective and abuse, and informed of the circumstances of the contempt. If he can still more the imputation of false, corrupt, and dishonest clear himself on oath he is discharged; if he confesses the motives is punishable. In an information granted m 17oo court will punish him by fine or imprisonment, or both, at against the corporation of Yarmouth for having entered its discretion. Both in courts of common law and courts upon their books an order “ stating that the assembly were of equity many acts are punished as contempts which are sensible that Mr W. (against whom an action had been properly civil injuries, and the process of contempt enforced brought for malicious prosecution, and a verdict tor LdUUU against them is, as Blackstone points out, to be looked 1 returned, which the court refused to disturb) was actuated upon rather as a civil execution for the benefit of the motives of public justice, of preserving the rights of the injured party than as a criminal process for a contempt of by corporation to their admiralty jurisdiction, and of supportthe authority of the court. Among the offences enumerated in- the honour and credit of the chief magistrate, Mr in the text books as the most usual instances of contempt Justice Buffer said, “The judge and jury who tried the case are the following :—(1) Disobedience of inferior judges confirmed by the Court of Common Pleas, have said that and magistrates; (2) Wrongdoing by sheriffs, bailiffs, jailers, and other officers in executing the process ot instead of his having been actuated by motives of public the law; (3) Malpractice of attorneys and solicitors; (4) justice, or by any motives which should influence the Misbehaviour of jurymen in collateral matters relating to actions of an honest man, he had been actuated by malice the discharge of their duties; (5) Misbehaviour of witnesses; These opinions are not reconcilable; if the one be right (6) Disobedience of parties in a cause to an order of the other must be wrong. It is therefore a direct insinuation court, non-payment of costs, non-observance of awards; that the court had judged wrong in all they bavedone^ (7) Those committed by other persons. Among those general this case, and is therefore clearly a libel on the admin . contempts some, says Blackstone, “ may arise in the face tion of justice.” Many of the doctrines expressed m th of the court, as by rude and contumelious behaviour, by above extracts go beyond the practice, if not the Mr of later times. The 4.1m tendency has ^ been ^ to . restrict upd obstinacy, perverseness, or prevarication, by breach of the law ot the process of contempt to cases 111 which judges are msu ea peace, or any wilful disturbance whatever ; and others in the absence of the party, as by disobeying or treating with or defied in the discharge of their duties or m which d disrespect the king’s writ or the rules and process of the matters relating to a pending-cause are publicly Bribes or menaces offered to the judges have been punisnea of'private maffee^ dm.f^y sp^^ I of :red the court to be cleared on account 01 some u a placard proving ance, the high sheriff issued a placard protesting ^ 8 “this unlawful proceeding,” “and prohibiting his oftcers permission) of causes depending in judgment,’ &c. The practice of the courts in punishing the last class of from aiding and abetting any attempt to bar out the p 318

C 0 N- -CON

319

safely be intrusted with the power of keeping order in his court, but contempts committed elsewhere should be oroceeded against like other offences. A similar power of punishing for contempt is exercised by the two Houses of Parliament. The question was discussed in the case of Burdett v. Abbott, where Lord Ellenborough said, “ Can the High Court of Parliament, or either of the two Houses of which it consists, be deemed not to possess intrinsically that authority of punishing summarily for contempts which is acknowledged to belong, and is duly exercised as belonging, to every superior court of law of less dignity doubtless than itself1?” It was at one time held that the “privilege of committing for contempt is inherent in every deliberative body invested with authority by the constitution; ” and that accordingly it extended to colonial assemblies. This opinion has been overruled by subsequent decisions. Baron Parke, in the case of Kielley v. Carson, says that the power of punishment for contempt attaches to bodies having judicial functions, and is an incident of those functions, except only in the case of the House of Commons, whose authority in this respect rests upon ancient usage. The Legislative Assembly of Victoria is entitled by enactment to the privileges, immunities, and powers held, and enjoyed, and exercised by the English House of Commons. Where a legislative assembly has the power of committing for contempt, the punishment lasts only till the end of the current session. “ Though the party should deserve the severest censure,” says Lord Denman, “yet his offence being committed the day before a prorogation, if the House ordered his imprisonment but for a week, every court in Westminster Hall, and every judge in all the courts would be bound to discharge him by habeas corpus” See Privilege. (e. r.) CONTI, Prince of, the title assumed by a younger branch of the House of Conde. Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti (1629-1666), one of the princes of the blood who took part in the wars of the Fronde, was son of Henry, prince of Cond6, and brother of the Great Cond6. Originally destined for the church on account of the weakness of his health and the deformity of his person, he received several rich benefices, and studied at the Sorbonne, but did not enter into orders. Wanting in strength of character, he was throughout life the follower of his sister, the duchess of Longueville, whose influence over him was such as to give rise to scandal. He was induced by her to join the old Fronde, and was appointed commander-in-chief of its forces during the siege of Paris (1648); but he contented himself with riding every day at their head through the streets, never failing to leave them as they passed out of the gates. At the end of the contest the whole Cond6 family came into political agreement, and Conti shared his brother’s imprisonment (1650). After his release his engagement to be married to the profligate Mile, de Chevreuse was broken off by the prince of Cond4, who had been won over to the court party by extravagant promises. In Conde’s second rebellion Conti was concerned; but when the former fled to Spain, he made his peace with the court, married Mazarin’s niece, and obtained the government of Guienne, together with the command in Catalonia, in which latter capacity he was not distinguished. He followed his sister in her conversion, entering into all her enthusiastic views, and maintaining constant correspondence with her. He wrote Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province ; Lettres sur la grace ; and Traite de la comedie et des spectacles selon la tradition de VEglise. (See the numerous Memoires of the time and the Lettres de Mme. suc de Sevigne.) His second son, Francois Louis, prince of tfa lci06* oaSprejudice .as an k publications may really a y pending cause. • Aas judge may Conti (1664-1709), fought with much distinction in

from free access to the court.” The lord chief-justice of England, sitting in the other court, summoned the sheriff before him and fined him £500 for the contempt, and £500 more for persisting in addressing the grand jury in court, after he had been ordered to desist. The difference between pending and decided cases has been frequently recognized by the courts. What would be a fair comment in a decided case may tend to influence the mind of the judge or the jury in a case waiting to be heard, and will accordingly be punished as a contempt. This is distinctly laid down in the case of Tichborne v. Mostyn, where the publisher of a newspaper was held to have committed a contempt by printing in his paper extracts from affidavits in a pending suit, with comments upon them. In the case of the Queen v. Castro, it was held that after a true bill has been found, and the indictment removed into the Court of Queen’s Bench, and a day fixed for trial, the case is pending; and it is a contempt of court to address public meetings, alleging that the defendant is not guilty, that there is a conspiracy against the defendant, and that he cannot have a fair trial; and the court will order the parties to answer for their contempt, and fine or imprison them at discretion. In another case the publication of a winding-up petition, containing charges of fraud, before the hearing of the petition was held to be a contempt of court. The courts may, if they choose, prohibit any publication of their proceedings while the litigation is pending. It is now the invariable rule of the English press to refrain from expressing an opinion on matters relating to any pending suit. On the other hand, the discussion of decided cases shares in the licence now allowed tf> the expression of opinion on all public affairs in England. The Scotch and colonial courts exercise the same power of committing for contempt as the English. It has been held in a case arising under the County Court Act, that inferior courts of record have only power over contempts committed in facie curice. The county court judge has no power of proceeding against a person for a contempt committed out of court. The proper punishment of contempt is by fine or imprisonment at the discretion of the court. In a recent case it was held that no person can be punished for contempt, unless the specific offence charged against him is distinctly stated, and an opportunity given him of answering it. When a barrister had been suspended from practice by the supreme court of Nova Scotia for addressing a letter to the chief justice which was a contempt of court, the Privy Council on appeal discharged the order, as substituting a penalty and mode of punishment wdiich was not the appropriate and fitting punishment for the offence. The letter, was written by the defendant in his individual capacity of suitor, and had no connection with his professional status or character. Blackstone notices the exceptional character of the punishment provided for this offence. Tnrm on,t on ^ updropolitan in the cathedral St a certain day, or elsewhere, as shallchurch seem of most

329 expedient, to treat of, agree to, and conclude upon the premises and other things, which to them shall then at the same place be more clearly explained on our behalf.” In case the metropolitical see of Canterbury should be vaeant, the writ of the Crown is addressed to the dean and chapter of the metropolitical church of Canterbury in similar terms, as being the guardians of the spiritualities of the see during a vacancy. Thereupon the metropolitan, or as the case may be, the dean and chapter of the metropolitical church, issue a mandate to the bishop of London, as dean of the province, and if the bishopric of London should be vacant, then to the bishop of Winchester as subdean, which embodies the royal writ, and directs the bishop to cause all the bishops of the province to be cited, and through them the deans of the cathedral and collegiate churches, and the archdeacons and other dignitaries of churches, and each chapter by one, and the clergy of each diocese by two sufficient proctors, to appear before the metropolitan or his commissary, or, as the case may be, before the dean and chapter of the metropolitical church or their commissary, in the chapter-house of the cathedral church of St Paul, London, if that place be named in the mandate, or elsewhere, with continuation and prorogation of days next following, if that should be necessary, to treat upon arduous and weighty affairs, which shall concern the state and welfare, public good, and defence of this kingdom and the subjects thereof, to be then and there seriously laid before them, and to give their good counsel and assistance on the said affairs, and to consent to such things as shall happen to be wholesomely ordered and appointed by their common advisement, for the honour of God and the good of the church. ihe provincial dean, or the subdean, as the case may be, thereupon issues a citation to the several bishops of the province, which embodies the mandate of the metropolitan or of the dean and chapter of the metropolitical church, as the case may be, and admonishes them to appear, and to cite and admonish their clergy, as specified in the metropolitical mandate, to appear at the time and place mentioned in the mandate. The bishops thereupon either summon directly the clergy of their respective dioceses to appear before them or their commissaries to elect two proctors, or they send a citation to their archdeacons, according to the custom of the diocese, directing them to summon the clergy of their respective archdeaconries to elect a proctor. The practice of each diocese in this matter is the law of the Convocation, and the practice varies indefinitely as regards the election of proctors to represent the beneficed clergy. As regards the deans, the bishops -send special writs to them to appear in person, and to cause their chapters to appear severally by one proctor. Writs also go to every archdeacon, and on the day named in the royal writ, which is always the day next following that named in the writ to summon the Parliament, the Convocation assembles in the place named in the archbishop’s mandate. Thereupon, after the Litany has been sung or said, and a Latin sermon preached by a preacher appointed by the metropolitan, the clergy are prseconized or summoned by name to appear before the metropolitan or his commissary; after which the clergy of the Lower House are directed to withdraw and elect a prolocutor, to be presented to the metropolitan for his approbation. The Convocation thus constituted resolves itself at its next meeting into two Houses, and it is in a fit state to proceed to business. The regular forms of proceeding have been carefully kept up in the Convocation of the province of Canterbury, which consists of 20 bishops, exclusive of the metropolitan, 24 deans, 56 archdeacons, 23 proctors for the chapter clergy, and 42 proctors for the beneficed clergy. On the other hand, the proceedings of the Convocation of the province of York have been less regular, and no prolocutor of the Lowerqiou.se of the Convocation appears to have been appointed since 1661, until the recent resuscitation of the Convocation as a consultative body. Its constitution differs slightly from that of the Convocation of the province of Canterbury, as each archdeaconry is represented by two proctors, precisely as in Parliament formerly under the Prsemunientes clause. It consists of 6 bishops, including the bishop of Sodor and Man and exclusive of the metropolitan, 6 deans, 15 archdeacons, 6 proctors of the chapter clergy, and 30 proctors for the beneficed clergy. There are some anomalies in the diocesan returns of the two Convocations, but in all such matters the consuetudo of the diocese is the governing rule. Bibliography.—Wilkins, Concilia Magnx Britannia et Hibernice, 4 vols. folio, 1737; Gibson, Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani,2 vols. folio, 1713; Johnson, A Collection of all the Ecclesiastical Laws,\Canons, and Constitutions of the English Church, 2 vols. 8vo, 1720; Gibson, Synodus Anglicana, 8vo, 1702, re-edited by Dr Edward Cardwell, 8vo, 1854; Shower, A Letter to a Convocation Man concerning the Rights, Powers, and Privileges of that Body, 4to, 1697; Wake, The Authority of Christian Princes over their Ecclesiastical Synods asserted, occasioned by a late Pamphlet intituled A Letter to a Convocation Man, 8vo, 1697 ; Atterbury, The Rights, Powers, and Privileges of an English Convocation stated and vindicated in answer to a late book of Br Wake's, 8vo, 1700 ; Burnet, Reflections on a Book intituled The Rights, Powers, and Privileges of an English Convocation stated and vindicated, 4to, 1700; Kennet, Ecclesiastical Synods and Parliamentary Convocations of the Church of England historically stated and justly vindicated from the Misrepresentation of Mr Atterbury, 8vo, 1701; Atterbury, The Power of the Lower House of Convocation to adjourn itself, 4to, 1701; Gibson, The Right of the Archbishop to continue or prorogue the whole Convocation, itofllOl-, Kennet, The Case of the Prcemunientes, 4to, 1701; Hooper, The Narrative of the Lower House vindicated from the Exceptions of a Letter, intituled The Right of the YI. — 42

c O N—o o O 1787 was a grandson of Bishop Conybeare. He received ArMitiop » mam or J™>W« f his early education at Wrestminster School, and in 1805 Case of the Schedule stated, 4to, 1702 GiOson, « ^ Convocation, cleared g Right of the Archbishop to continue or P™o ue the m ^ Lomr Hovi^ and went to Christ Church College, Oxford, where in 1808 he from the Exception of a late Fmcftca which was stars, and the alternations of day and night. Philolaus century a new enemy was frustrated by Queen removed the earth from the centre of his system, and jealous of its rivalry, but the r made py successive kings to conceived it to have not only an axial rotation, but also an Philippa. Various attempts , t]ie most suitable for obtain the town from the see of ^ the transference independent annual revolution round the sun. . From the the Royal residence ; but it was ^ various ill-founded and unshapely theories of his predecesof tllc kingdom. was effected, and Copenhagen became the p t Freterick sors Copernicus obtained the material for erecting a Prom 1523 to 1524 it helda out for Christian in p i536 tQ I.; and it was only after y^it wfs unsuccessfully beleaguered solid and imposing structure—the system with which his Christian III. From 1658 to 16 following year it was name is connected. This was expounded in a treatise entitled De Orbium Coeleslium Revolutwnibus Libri VI, the preparation of which occupied its author from about Irlderick'm? 1 In 1700 it was .^^conkgmtion d£tro^ 1507 to 1530. This work Copernicus long delayed bringing before the world, being content to defer for a while the popular outcry against himself, which, as a setter-forth Christiansborg ; and a tmrd 1 igOl the Danish House In of truths hitherto unknown to science and as an impugner of the rights of time-honoured dogmatism, he must be prepared to endure. At length, however yielding to the importunities of his friends, he permitted the publication of the book, which he dedicated to Pope Paul III. , in lostI 4100 of its population from cholera. order, as he says, that he might not be accused of seeking rOPFRNICUS, or Koppernigk, Nicolaus (1473- to shun the judgment of enlightened men, and that the !5S was born on tbe 19th February 1473, at Thorn m authority of his Holiness, if he approved of it, might protect Prussia, where his father, a native of Cracow had settled him from the baleful tooth of calumny. as a wholesale "trader. His mother Barbel Watzclrode The work was printed at Nuremberg, under the superwas the daughter of a well-to-do merchant. The education intendence of Rheticus, one of the disciples of Copernicus. of Nicolaus, whose father died early, was undertaken by The impression had just been completed, when Copernicus, his uncle Lukas Watzelrode, subsequently (1489) bishop who had all his life enjoyed perfect health, was attacked of Ermeland. After a course of instruction at the school in with dysentery, followed almost immediately by a paralysis Thorn, he entered the university of Cracow in 1491, and of the right side, with loss of memory, and obscuration ol during four years studied mathematical science under Albert the understanding. For some time he lingered, and on Brudzewski, devoting his spare time to painting. At the the day of his death, only a few hours before he expired, a Qfre of twenty-three he repaired to Bologna, and attended copy of his work sent by Rheticus arrived, and was placed the lectures of Dominico Maria Novarra, professor o in his hands. He touched it, and seemed conscious what astronomy there. He next spent some years at Padua it was; but after regarding it for an instant, he relapsed into where, in addition to mathematics and astronomy, he applied a state of insensibility, which soon terminated in death. himself to medicine, in which, in 1499, he took the degree He died on the 24th May 1543, at the age of seventy. of doctor. In 1500 he was at Rome, enjoying the friend- His tomb, which is not distinguished from that of the ship of the astronomer Regiomontanus, and fulfilling wit i other canons of Frauenburg, was in 1581 adorned with a distinction the duties of a chair of mathematics. Copernicus Latin epitaph by the Polish Bishop Cromer In 1830 a had already been for some time a member of the chapter statue of Copernicus, by Thorwaidsen was pkced m t of Frauenburg, at which place he appears to have.taken up Casimir Palace at Warsaw; and m 1853 another menu his abode in 1503. His time was now engaged in clerical ment Cllb to VKJ him, XXiixij by ksj Tieck,j was erected at Thorn. , . work in giving gratuitous medical aid to the poor, and, The first formal exposition of the theories of Copernicus m though with but a slender stock of instruments in the tradistinction to the notions which had hitherto P^ai^> m prosecution of his favourite studies. The house which he letter published by Rheticus, and entitled Ad Clar. V. d. Mimit occupied at Allenstein is still to be seen, with the perfora- de Libris Revolutionum eruditiss. Vin et . tions which he made in the walls of his chamber m ordei Rev. Dodoris Nicolai Copernici Torunncei, C'anonia quemdam juvenem Mathematical p to observe the passage of the stars across the meridian; per Dantzic, 1540, 4to- reprinted, with a eulogmm a^el ^ also the remains of an hydraulic machine, similar to that at 8vo The works of Copernicus are—1. De Dacojutiomoi^ ^ oll0 Marly, which he constructed for the purpose of raising the Ccdestium Libri VI., Nuremberg, 1543, small ^] i]( ^ed the Basel in 1566, with the letter of Rheticus and also ^ water of a rivulet for the supply of Frauenburg. 1 mcl Astronomia Instaurata of Nicolas Mu , , j ]e’g 0f sines, By his bishop and fellow-canons Copernicus was employed 1640 4to ; 2. A treatise on trigonometry, with tables in defending their rights and privileges against the entitled De Lateribus et Angulis _ encroachments of the Teutonic knights ; and when sent as 1542, 4to ; 3. Theophylactici Scholastici Simocattcc 1 p i c icu8 ct amatorioe, cum versionc Latina. t" °- ’ * and a deputy to the diet of Grodno, he busied himself in con- rurales, presented to the states of Ms pro™ s hie ork on sidering the means of improving the corrupt coinage, and there are several manuscript treatises? of hisWm the nora y ^ wrote a paper on that subject, which was placed among t e bishopric of Warmia. , . „ . 0„H,ov3-_Gasarchives of the diet. Copernicus sought by a comparative study of the various astronomical systems of the ancients to evolve from them a single system, at. once simple and Vicende del Sistema Copermcano m Italia (Rome, 1876). +Iiepr0consistent. According to the hypothesis of the ancient COPIAPO, an inland town of Chili capital of the^, Egyptians, Mercury and Venus revolved round the sun, which itself, with Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, mGYcd, rounc vince of Atacama, is situated on a stream of th

COP — COP name about 35 miles from tbe sea, in 27° 36' S. lat., 70° 23' W. long. The streets of the town, which was founded in 1734 by Count Josd deManso, are straight and wide, with side pavements ; but the houses are low and of timber, excepting in the streets Chanarcillo and Atacama, where they are built with more elegance and of more solid material. The principal square is 403 feet on each side, with flowers and shrubs in the centre surrounded by rows of shady pepper trees ; while at the western end of the town is an avenue 52 feet broad and half a mile long with four rows of willow trees. Copiapo is connected by rail with the port of Caldera, 50 miles westward, and with the surrounding great mining districts, to which it owes its importance. From its situation in one of the driest regions of America, water is scarce, and the stream Copiapo is all utilized before it reaches the sea. Population, 12,000. COPLEY, John Singleton (1737-1815), historical painter, was born of Irish parents at Boston, Massachusetts. He was self-educated, and commenced his career as a portrait-painter in his native city. The germ of his reputation in England was a little picture of a boy and squirrel, exhibited at the Society of Arts in 1760. In 1774 he went to Home, and thence in 1775 came to England. In 1777 he was admitted Associate of the Koyal Academy; in 1783 he was made Academician on the exhibition of his most famous picture, the Death of Chatham, popularized immediately by Bartolozzi’s elaborate engraving; and in 1790 he was commissioned to paint a portrait picture of the defence of Gibraltar. The Death of Major Pierson, now in the national collection, also deserves mention. Copley’s numerous other works are little esteemed, being feeble and lifeless in drawing, and cold and dull in colour. His powers appears to greatest advantage in his portraits. He was the father of Lord Chancellor Lyndhurst. See Lyndhuest. COPPER is a metal which has been known to and used , by the human race from the most remote periods. Its alloy with tin (bronze) was the first metallic compound in common use by mankind, and so extensive and characteristic was its employment at an early stage in pre-historic times that the epoch is known in archaeological chronology as the Bronze Age. Metallic relics of that age in the form of arms, ornaments, and domestic implements are still very abundant. By the Greeks and Romans both the metal and its alloys were indifferently known as ^oAk-os and ces. As, according to Pliny, the Roman supply was chiefly drawn from Cyprus, it came to be termed ces cypriurn, which was gradually shortened to c.yprium, and corrupted into cuprum, whence comes our copper, the French cuivre, and the German kupfer. Copper (chemically, Cuprum, Cu) is a brilliant metal of a peculiar red colour, in which respect it differs from all others excepting, perhaps, titanium. The atomic weight of copper is 63-3, and its specific gravity varies between 8 91 and 8'95, according to the treatment to which it may have been subjected. It takes a brilliant polish, is in a igh degree malleable and ductile, and in tenacity it only alls short of iron, exceeding in that quality both silver and gold. By different authorities its melting point is stated a from 1000 C. to 1398° C. In electric conducm y it stands next to silver; the conducting power of si. ver being equal to 100, that of perfectly pure copper is given by Matthiessen as 96-4 at 13° C. On solidifying mo en ^ condition it but expands. Copper is not a ffec ed by exposure in dry air, in a moist atmosphere u becomes coated with green carbonate. When heated or u ea it emits a peculiar disagreeable odour,

in n°!)per’ ac?ording Walchner, is as widely distributed 6 lr0n an| occurs minLT ’ b soils,discovered and ferruginous a waters and ores. It in hasallbeen in sea-

347

weed ; in the blood of certain Cephalopoda and Ascidia, and of a species of Limulus; in straw, hay, eggs, cheese, meat, and other food-stuffs; in the liver and kidneys, and, in traces, in the blood of man and other animals ; it has also been shown by Church to exist to the extent of 5 ‘9 per cent, in turacin, the colouring-matter of the wing-feathers of the Turaco. The ores containing copper in sufficient proportion to render its extraction economically practicable are numerous. It occurs not unfrequently native, sometimes in very great masses, as on the south shores of Lake Superior, where pieces of 150 tons weight have sometimes been obtained. Native copper most frequently occurs in masses of irregular form in rocky fissures, and often crystallized. The principal ores of copper are Cuprite, Melaconite, Malachite, Chessylite, Atacamite, Chrysocolla, Chalcocite, Chalcopyrite, Erubescite, and Tetrahedrite. Cuprite, or red oxide of copper, Cu20, is a mineral which crystallizes in the cubic system, and contains 88'78 of metal. It occurs in most cupriferous mines, but never by itself in large quantities. Melaconite, or black oxide of copper, CuO, contains, when pure, 7 9'85 of the metal. It was formerly largely worked in the Lake Superior region, and is abundant in some of the mines of Tennessee and the Mississippi valley. Malachite, or green carbonate of copper, CuC03, Cu(HO)2, is a beautiful and valuable ore containing about 56 per cent, of the metal; it is obtained in very large quantities from South Australia, Siberia, and other localities. Frequently intermixed with the green carbonate is the blue carbonate of copper, chessylite or azurite, 2CuC03, Cu(HO)2, an ore containing when pure 55'16 per cent, of the metal. It was formerly characteristic of Chessy, near Lyons. Atacamite is a hydrated oxychloride of copper, occurring chiefly in Chili and Peru ; it crystallizes in the rhombic system. Chrysocolla is a hydrated silicate of copper, CuSi03, 2H20, containing in the pure state 30 per cent, of the metal; it is an abundant ore in Chili, Winsconsin, and Missouri. The sulphur compounds of copper are, however, the most valuable in an economical point of view. Chalcocite, redruthite, copper-glance, or vitreous copper, is a sulphide, Cu2S, containing very nearly 80 per cent, of copper. Copper pyrites, or chalcopyrite, a sulphide of copper and iron, CuFeS2, crystallizes in the pyramidal system and contains 34'6 per cent, of copper when pure; but many of the ores, such as those worked specially by wet processes on account of the presence of a large proportion of sulphide of iron, contain less than 5 per cent, of copper. Cornish ores are almost entirely pyritous; and indeed it is from such ores that by far the largest proportion of copper is extracted throughout the world. In Cornwall copper lodes usually run east and west. The} occur both in the killas or clay-slate, and in the growan oi granite. Erubescite, bornite, or horseflesh ore is a sulphide of copper and iron much richer in copper than the ordinary pyrites, and containing 56 or 57 or, according to the formula FeCu2S3, 62-5 per cent, of copper. Tetrahedrite, fahlerz, or grey copper, a sulphide crystallizing in the cubical system, contains from 30 to 48 per cent, of copper, with arsenic, antimony, iron, and sometimes zinc, silver, or mercury. The numerous other compounds of copper have more interest from a mineraloHcal than from a metallurgical point of view. Copper is obtained from its ores by two principal methods, which may be denominated—(1) the pyro-metallurgical or dry method, and (2) the hydro-metallurgical or wet method ; and a small proportion of metallic copper isprocured by (3) the electro-metallurgical method. The methods of working vary according to the nature of the ores treated and local circumstances. The dry method, or ordinary smelting, cannot be profitably practised with

348

COPPER

furnace, termed an ore-fusing furnace, fitted also with a hopper on the top for charging it. The charge consists of From 25 to 30 cwt. of calcined ore ; From 7 to 9 cwt. of sharp 1or metal slag from operation IY.; From 2 to 3 cwt. cobbing. When the charge islet down into the furnace it is spread equally over the bottom, the doors are all closed, every airhole is stopped with clay, and the heat of the furnace increased as rapidly as possible. After about five hours’ firing, when the furnace has reached a white heat, the door-plate is removed, and a long iron rake passed through the contents to make sure that the whole is perfectly fused. This being the case, the workman begins the operation of shimming, that is, drawing off the slag, which floats on the surface of the mat, and removing it at the front door. When the surface is skimmed, the common practice is to let down a second charge of ore, and to fuse and skim in the same manner, before tapping the furnace to let out the metal or mat, which is generally tapped into large pits of water, and so granulated. These pits are from 6 to 8 feet deep, and from 4 to 5 feet square, and into them a perforated box is easily without'the necessity of adding flux, givtng a clean and easily lowered which receives the charge of metal, and is raised by a crane or pulley. The metal is then removed to a £U S Thfmat or coarse metal obtained from fusion contains as yard for the next operation. This mat is termed granulated ’'T^TK^^Vo.sno't cSrires having impurities cab coarse metal. In many cases the coarse metal is first run into moulds and subsequently crushed for the next operation. culated to make the copper of too low a quality. The average composition of good coarse metal is given There is no definite or fixed rule to guide the smelter in by Le Play as J these classifications, except a practised eye in distinguishOQ.7 er ing the character of ores, and the report of the assayer. > c°pp 29-2 Sulphur ,,.1 I. Calcination of the 0m.—The mixture of ores being selected according to these rules, it is carried to hoppers on Foreign metals ~^ Slag, mechanically mixed I1 the top of a large reverberatory furnace, termed the calcining furnace, and is then let down into the hearth, 99where, after drying a little, it is spread equally over the That of the slag or scoriae is bottom, and covered to a depth of from 6 to 8 inches. The Silica, mixed and combined 60-5 quantity of ore put in varies, according to the size ot the Protoxide of iron - 28-50 furnace, from 3 tons to 4 tons. The fire of the furnace is Alumina, Lime, &c • ^ kept low at first; after two or three hours the ore on the surcre sec 100face becomes visibly red, and the heat is gradually m ^ J to a yellow red ; but this heat penetrates to the deptti ot III. Calcination of Coarse Metal—This operation is only about 2 inches, consequently the ore has to be stirred performed in the same manner as the calcination of the ore. and turned over by means of long iron paddles every hour, The charge of metal, which is about 4 tons, covers the so as to expose a new surface to the action of the air and bottom of the hearth to the depth of 4 inches or so It is fire The calcination lasts generally from twelve to twenty- put in through the hoppers fitted upon the top of the furfour hours, the length of time being dependent on the nace, as described for the ore. The coarse metal being proportions of silica and sulphide of iron in the charge. easily fused, great care is required not to raise the heat of Calcining furnaces are now very commonly provided with the furnace too high, otherwise the metal will cake, and by Siemens regenerators and heated with gas. The following adhering to the bricks will prove prejudicial both to the changes take place the sulphur is partly burned °ff, torm- calcination and to the furnace. When the. charge is let in o ina sulphurous and sulphuric acids, and partly volatilized the furnace, it is slowly brought to a visible red, ■vvfncli in°the free state; arsenic is volatilized and oxidized ; and during the next fourteen hours is gradually increased m a part of ,the copper and iron lose sulphur and combine wit i bright red heat. This temperature is continued until tae oxygen, forming oxides. charge has been altogether twenty-four hours in *the furnace, When the ore is sufficiently calcined, it is let down into when it is let down through the bottom into the cub , the cubs or vaults beneath, by openings in the floor. and water is thrown upon it. Water is added to the hot ore in the cubs to prevent dust The following analyses give an average result ot and assist further oxidation; the ore is then removed to a changes effected in this operation :— Metal after Calcination. yard, and there stored up, ready for the fusing furnace. Metal put into Calciner. 32 Copper The ’following analysis of ore, before and after calcining, Bon 38 Iron 39 will give an idea of the changes that have taken place :— Sulphur 1“ Sulphur 25 After Calcination. Before Calcination. Oxygen, &c I® Other matters and loss, 4 Copper 12 -2 Copper 12'3 Iron 22 7 100 Iron 32'7 100 Oxide of Iron 18-5 Sulphur 31'0 Sulphur 16-2 Silica 24-0 IV. Fusion of Calcined Coarse Metal- - In this operation Silica 30-4 the charge for an ordinary-sized furnace of 8 feet by i 100-0 feet is— 100-0 1 Cobbing is the name given to broken pieces of old bricks and boi II. Fusion of Calcined 0m—The next operation is the toms of furnaces that have absorbed copper. fusing of the calcined ore, which is done in a reverberatory

ores containing less tl.an 4 pel- tent, of copper, for which and for still poorer ores the wet process is preferred. Smelting.—In Great Britain ordinary copper smelting is almost entirely centred at Swansea in Wales, although it is also practised in Lancashire. The processes there employed for extracting copper are technica y the “ English method, ” in contradistinction to numerous other modified processes adopted at Continental and o foreign smelting centres. The following is an outline ot the English method as conducted at Swansea. The ores are divided by the smelter into ^ general classes—those containing sulphur, and those h ? or no sulphur. The former are subdivided according they contain much silica, iron pyrites, tin> arse? &C;} ^ a larger or smaller quantity of copper. The object ofjh^ classification of ores in the yard is o ena . . ^ smelter to make up a constant working mixtuie, havin0 tli, following characters :— 1. The copper present is not under 9 nor above ^ *

COPPER 25 cwfc. of calcined metal, 5 to 7 cwt. slags from the roaster and refinery furnaces; 2 to 3 cwt. of cobbing. In this mixture the oxide of iron is in excess in relation to the silica, and it is therefore much more easily fused than the ore; but the reactions which take place are similar : the silica and oxide of iron combine to form slag, which floats upon the surface of the mat and has to be skimmed off, after which the mat is tapped out into sand-moulds. Two charges are generally fused before the metal is tapped out. This mat is termed blue metal from its being of a slate-blue colour; the scoria is termed sharp slag, from its containing an excess of oxide of iron, and being consequently used as a flux for fusing the ore in operation II. The following is the composition of good blue metal and sharp slag :— Sharp Slag. Blue Metal. Oxide of iron 53 Copper 53'8 Oxide of copper 2 Sulphur 20 • 5 Silica, &c 45 Iron 12'6 Insoluble 4‘2 Oxygen cand loss 3 "9 100 100 as carbonates or oxides on Should there be no ores f hand to smelt, the blue metal, instead of being tapped into sand-beds as described, is run into pits of water in the same manner as coarse metal, and subjected to another calcination and fusion. When oxides and carbonates, such as the Australian ores, are on hand, they are generally fused with the calcined coarse metal, by which means a double advantage is obtained; the excess of oxide of iron in the calcined metal fluxes the silica of the ore which has little iron, and the copper in the ore is converted into cupric sulphide, a condition necessary for reduction by the present method of smelting. The produce of this fusion is a mat termed pimpled or white metal, from its having small rough granules on the surface of the ingots. The average composition of this metal is— Copper 78 Sulphur 18 Iron 2 Silica 2 100 The composition of the slag from this operation is very variable; it always contains copper, and has to be remelted. V. Roasting.—This operation has been often identified with calcining, from which, however, it is distinct. The roasting differs from the fusing furnace by having a large opening in the side for putting in the charge, and it is furnished with more air-holes in the bridge. The charge for an otdinary-sized furnace is 3 tons. When the metal is bought to fusion, the air-holes of the furnace are all opened, and a free current is allowed to pass over the surface of the used mass: the heat of the fire is then regulated so as to veep the charge in a sort of semi-fluid state. This is continued for about twenty-four hours, during which a great portion of the sulphur is driven off, and the iron, by uniting with silica and other matters, forms scoria, which is iom time to time skimmed off. When all the impurities are removed, and the mat or regulus acquires the composiion of sulphide of copper, Cu,S, then (except when the rcgu us has been very rich) begins another operation secon( ^ roasting, or roasting proper, requiring er twenty-four hours. In this last roasting, when the * ir o es are opened, a brisk effervescence ensues over the surface of the fluid mass. c era ca ^ ^ ^ reactions which give rise to this efferce a ' f? “ y be explained thus. The oxygen of the air ines in the first place with a portion of the sulphur.

349 forming sulphurous acid. A portion of the copper is also oxidized, to form the sub-oxide, and instantly reacts upon another portion of the sulphide, reducing the metal. The reactions are chemically represented thus :— 2Cu20 + Cu2S = 6Cu + S02. The process is a very beautiful one, and exhibits a nice adaptation of principles to practice. The sponge regulus has a specific gravity of 5, the reduced copper of about 8 ; so that the copper sinks to the bottom, where it is protected, and a new surface of regulus becomes exposed to the action of the air. If the ore be pure, or if no select copper be required, the operation of roasting , is continued until the whole of the copper is reduced ; when it is tapped out into sand-moulds, forming coarse copper, bed copper, pimpled copper, or blistered copper, according to quality. The term coarse copper is applied occasionally to all these kinds except the blistered. If the ingot sets with contraction and exhibits a smooth hollow surface, it is termed bed, and generally indicates the presence of other metals, as tin. When the surface of the ingot is covered with pimples, it is termed pimpled copper, and indicates the presence of sulphur. When covered with large scales of oxide of copper, it is termed blistered ; but this is only when the copper is good and ready for refining. The following analysis of blister copper is given by Le Play :— Copper 98-4 Iron -7 Nickel, Cobalt, and Manganese '3 Tin and Arsenic -4 Sulphur -2

100-0 To make select copper, the roasting is carried on until about one-fourth of the copper in the regulus is reduced; the furnace is then tapped, and the reduced metal is obtained at the bottom of the first and second ingots, or pigs, as copper bottoms, which contain most of the metallic impurities. The regulus is collected and again roasted, which produces the purest metal the ordinary process of smelting can give; it is termed best selected. VI. Refining.—In this operation, the remainder of the sulphur and foreign metals present in the copper is removed, and the metal is brought into a condition fit for the market. The refining furnace is similar in general form to a roasting furnace, except that the bottom inclines gradually down from all sides towards a deep part, or well, which is near the end door. It has also a large door on one side, but neither opening in the roof nor side tap-hole. Siemens’s regenerative furnace has been very generally introduced for refinery purposes. When the copper is to be finally ladled out of the furnace the deep part, or wTell, allows of the ladle being dipped into the metal till the last portions are quite baled out. From 6 to 8 tons of copper from the roasting furnace are put into the refining furnace, the doors and air-holes of which are closed, and the heat is raised until the metal is in fusion, when the air-holes are opened. A short roasting is generally required, which is done in the manner above described, and the scoria which collects is carefully skimmed off. The separation of impurities is facilitated by occasionally stirring the metal with a rake. Some refiners throw pieces of green wood upon the surface, under the impression that it assists the escape of sulphur. The roasting is continued until a ladleful of the metal taken out sets with contraction. If the metal be very coarse, it will set with a surface having a frothy appearance; if finer, it sets with expansion, first round the edge, then swelling towards the centre, forming a little mound or cone, and occasionally boiling over and throwing up jets of metal, forming a miniature volcano. When the setting of the

350

COPPER

which in Great Britain now. occupies a most important metal in tlie ladle is favourable, tire charge is ready ‘be position among metallurgical industries. operation of poling. A quantity ot charcoal or anthracite The ores treated by the Henderson process are remarkably coal is first thrown upon the metal to prevent oxidation y constant in character, and the following may be taken as the air, and then the end of a large pole of grew wood representing their average composition generally of birch or oak, is inserted into the me to Irmer and kept pressed down to the bottom of the metal, Xch’spurts aVboils violently This operaUon it will be at once apparent, consists in the reduction an ox do Arsenic J. or suboxide. Since oxide of copper dissolves ' Zinc... copper, as a salt dissolves in water, and mato it bnttle, to Lime, with traces of silver, gold, &c • ^ put pieces of wood or charcoal upon the surface would t 100-00 rpinove the oxygen : hence the necessity of poling, m oraer to bTng the Sonaceous matters into contact with the The pyrites is first employed by alkali manufacturers and dissolved oxide. As the poling Pro^f^fne': takes other consumers of sulphuric acid as a source of that substance, in burning for which the ore loses about 30 per from time to time small samples called assay , hammers and breaks for examination When the copper cent of its weight. It is this, burnt pyrites which forms reaches the proper “pitch” the assay bends without break the raw material of the process. The various stages it . , ino- and if cut and broken the fracture is fibrous, and pre- undergoes are briefly as under. I. Grinding.—burnt ore, as received from the acid sents a silky lustre. When this pitch is attained the pole is withdrawn, and a quantity of charcoal thrown upon the burners is first mixed with about 15 per cent, of common surface • and, if the copper is for rolling or hammering, a salt and ground to a fine powder by passing it between a little lead is added to the charges to insure tougdmess _ pair of heavy cast-iron rolls. As the amount of sulphur In making what is termed best selected copper, the refining left in the burnt ore is apt to vary, it is necessary is performed in the manner described, but no lead is added. to ascertain its proportion in each parcel of burnt pyrites. This quality of copper is used for the manufacture of fine When the sulphur falls short of the proportion necessary alloys such as the best brass, or Muntz’s yellow metal. for effecting the decomposition which follows, a sufficient Copper a little over-poled is.generally preferred for these quantity of°“ green ” or unburned pyrites is added to produce a proper balance. If, on the other hand, the sulphur 1 When the copper is brought to the proper pitch by the has been insufficiently extracted, “ dead roasted ore is refining operation it is ladled out into moulds. The followCalcination.—This' operation is accomplished m ing are the forms in which British smelted copper is usually cast: several kinds of furnaces, that used by Hie Tharsis Sulphur Cake, 19 x 12£ x If inches, weight 1 cwtlqr. and Copper Company being a large muffle or close ^ace. Tile, 19 x 121 x \ „ „ Iqn 3 By others a patent furnace with a revolvmg hearth and Ingot, 11 x SrfXlJ .. 14 to 16 lh. mechanical stirring arrangement has been adopted with During the ladling out the refiner takes an assay at short good results ; and some use open reverberatory furnaces intervals, as the metal is liable to get out of pitch, or be- heated by gas from Siemens’s generators. During the come dry, as under-poled copper is termed, in which case roasting the mixture is frequently stirred, and, m the case poling has to be resumed. So much depends upon refining, of hand-worked furnaces, turned with long rabbles and the that the best copper by a defect in this operation will be completion of the operation is ascertained by test assays. rendered unmarketable. . . . , When the copper has been brought into a soluble c';n^; A great variety of improvements m copper-smelting have the charge is raked out of the furnace and permitted to cool been proposed and patented, one or two of which have been under a screen at its mouth. By the calcmahon tk usefully applied. Several modifications of the various sulphur in the compound is first oxidized, sulphate processes are also adopted, to suit the quality of the ores sodium is formed, and at the same time the chlorine from and the kind of copper to be produced. . These are all the sodium chloride unites with the copper to for p suggested by the experience of the smelters in dealing with chloride. A small proportion of cuprous chloride m also P the materials at their disposal. formed, and special precautions have - di SS()lved Wet Processes.—Several methods of extracting copper the extensive formation of this compound, anci other by the wet way Lave been more or less in practice at only with difficulty. The hydrochloric acid and various periods ; but it is only of recent years that one of gaseous products evolved during the calcination are con these has been established on a scale of great commercial densed as “ tower liquor” in ordinary condensing tower, extent and importance. From a very early time it has been and the product ishtsed in the subsequent procea »f known that the water which drained from mines containing pyritous copper ores, and which from the oxidation of the The calcined ore is conveyed to tigiflysulphide of copper contained some proportion of cupric sul- caulked wooden tanks, in which it recns0'““e ie „ intleic re fcrr composition from other countries is that patented by Mr tanks consists of “ purple ore, an , ,l for William Henderson in 1859. Mr Henderson’s process is oxide largely used in “fettling blast furrf^ ’ r ri• p we in several essential particulars the same as one patented in smelting purposes; besides which it is available as jewe 1842 by Mr William Longmaid, which, however, was chiefly designed for the production of sulphate of soda, copper ^IV^Fncipita/ion.—The precipitation of being only a by-product. There can be no doubt that Mr Henderson is the practical originator of the wet process, from the solution of its chloride is accomplished m

C 0 P P E E tanks by means of metallic iron in tbe same way that cementation copper is obtained from solutions of the sulphate. The solution is run into the tanks, in which there are miscellaneous heaps of old malleable iron • the chlorine combined with the copper unites with the iron, and metallic copper in a state of fine division is thrown down. The completion of the precipitation is ascertained by dipping a bright steel knife into the solution in the tank, and when no°deposit of copper covers the steel the liquor is run off and a new charge conveyed into the tank. The tanks are drained periodically for removing the precipitate, which is first roughly separated from small pieces of iron, after which it is more thoroughly freed from iron, &c., by washing in water in a rocking sieve apparatus. The precipitate so obtained should contain 80 per cent, of metallic copper, which is either smelted directly for blister copper, or may be fused with the white metal of the ordinary smelting process, and subsequently roasted. It has been found possible to extract in this process with profit the small proportions of lead, silver, and gold which Spanish pyrites is known to contain. Two processes are in operation for this purposes—one devised by Mr F. Claudet and the other by Mr W. Henderson, the original patentee of the wet process. The liquors from the first three washings contain practically all these metals, and they alone are treated. Mr Claudet precipitates them from the solution by means of iodide of potassium. Mr Henderson dilutes his solutions to from 20° to 25° Twaddell, and adds a very weak solution of a lead salt, such as the acetate, by which he obtains a cream-coloured precipitate containing about 53 per cent, of lead, 5 or 6 per cent, of silver, and 3 oz. of gold to each ton of the precipitate. The importance of the wet process may be estimated from the fact that although it originated only in 1860, already 14,000 tons of copper are annually produced by it in Great Britain alone, out of an annual production for the whole world estimated at from 126,000 to 130,000 tons. Alloys of Copper.—Copper unites with facility with almost all other metals, and a large number of its compounds are of the highest importance in the arts. Indeed copper is much more important and valuable as a constituent element in numerous alloys than it is as pure metal. The principal alloys in which it forms a leading ingredient are—1st, brass; 2d, bronze ; and 3d, German or nickel silver; and under these several heads their respective applications and qualities will be found. These alloys are each much diversified as regards the relative proportions of the various metals which enter into their constitution, and these differences similarly modify the appearance and physical properties of the compounds. In this way for practical purposes they may be regarded as a great number of separate metals, each possessed of distinct qualities which fit it for special industrial uses. The following tables, compiled from various authorities, represent the analysis of typical examples of the several alloys: —

351 Table B.—Composition of Bronzes.

Roman Coin—Doniitian .... ,, Diocletian ... ,, Maxentius... ,, Justinian.... Ancient arrowhead Common bell metal Bronze statue, Thorwaldsen’s shepherd Bell of 12th century Chinese gong Japanese bell metal Locomotive bearings ,, piston Speculum

Copper. Tin. 98-92 1-08 95-84 2-23 88-72 584-53 670-30 24-53 7920-03 889-25 76-10 22-30 8019-50 60-50 18-15 73-60 9-50 892-40 65-15 32-78

Zinc. Lead. Iron. 1-93 5-43 8-65 5-20 1-28 0-71 1-60 trace 1-60 6-10 12 "20 3-05 9-00 7-00 0-42 9-00

Aluminium bronzes are composed of pure copper with from 2^ up to 10 per cent, of aluminium. Phosphor bronze, according to the purposes for which it is intended, contains from 3 to 15 per cent, of tin and from \ to 2| per cent, of phosphorus. Small proportions of other metals, among which are silver, nickel, cobalt, antimony, and bismuth, with sulphur, frequently enter into the composition of bronzes. Table C.—Composition of Nicltel Silver.

Chinese Packfong........... Parisian metal for ) spoons, forks, &c ( English nickel silver for [ plating | English nickel silver for ) plating (another kind) )

40-40 31-60 2-60 2569-80 19-80 5-50

4-7

63-34 19-17 trace 17-01 62-63 10-85 trace 26-

Salts op Copper.—Several salts of copper possess considerable industrial value, chiefly for the formation of blue and green pigments, in dyeing and calico-printing, and. for the deposition of metallic copper by electro-metallurgy, &c. The principal salts of copper are the acetate, the carbonate, and the sulphate. Acetate of Copper or Verdigris.—This salt is found in commerce in the two forms of basic and neutral acetate. The principal seat of the manufacture of the basic acetate is Montpellier in France, where the marc and other refuse of grapes, after the expression of the juice for wine-making, is employed as a source of'the acetic acid necessary. Sheets of copper are placed among this refuse, and these soon become coated with a deposit of verdigris, which has only to be scraped off, kneaded up with water, and pressed into cakes. The neutral salt is prepared from basic acetate by dissolving it in pyroligneous acid (wood vinegar) and evaporating the solution to the crystallizing point. It is also formed by the double decomposition of the acetates of Table A. Composition of Brass or Copper and Zinc Alloys. lead and calcium with sulphate of copper. Verdigris is much used as a pigment both in oil and water-colour paintCopper, Zinc. Iron. Lead. ing and in dyeing, and as a basis of compound pigments. Roman coin—Titus Carbonate of Copper in an impure condition forms a 96-06 2-71 0-85 Tombac or Tahni gold 86-40 12-20 1-10 0-30 valuable series of pigments called verditer, Bremen blue, or Statue of Minerva in Paris 83-00 14-00 2-00 1-00 Bremen green, possessing various shades of mingled green English brass 70-29 29-26 0-17 0-28 Aich metal and blue according to the nature of the compounds 'with 60-20 38-10 1-60 Rosthorn’s sterro-metal .... 54-00 40which the carbonate is mixed. The basis of these pigments 5-50 50 Ship-nails, bad 52-73 414-72 18 is prepared by an elaborate and tedious process from the »> good 62-62 24-64 2-64 8-69 oxychloride of copper. Sidphate of Copper, CuS04, 5H20, called also blue stone, Muntz s metal, or yellow sheathing, consists of 60 parts or Roman vitriol, is, on the large scale, prepared direct from an( ? ^ 40 zinc> but the copper may vary from 50 the cementation water from pyrites mines by evaporation to W per cent, and the zinc from 50 down to 37. to the crystallizing point. It is also prepared by the

C 0 P —c 0 P means of sodium thiosulphate, the sulphide obtained beiag oxidation of sulphide of copper in a furnace at a compara- decomposed by nitric acid, and the copper estimated by tively low heat, and by the direct action of sulphuric acid ammonia and potassium cyanide in the usual manner. on metallic copper, as well as by various other processes. Before analysis by the wet way it is often advisable to roast The sulphate of copper is very largely used as a basis tor the copper ore in order to expel sulphur. Steinbeck’s the preparation of other copper compounds, in electrome- process for determining the amount of copper in poor ores tallurgy, in calico-printing, and in the American amalgam - and schists consists in the treatment of the pulvemed rock tion method of extracting silver from its ores In medicine with hydrochloric acid, digestion in the cold, subsequent boilit is employed as an emetic. On its use in the manufacture ing with nitric acid, precipitation of the copper from the reof chlorine, see vol. v. pp. 491 and 679. , • sulting solution by zinc in presence of platinum, and finally Of pigments other than those above-mentioned havi Q • the titration of a solution of the precipitated copper. Dr copper basis, there may be enumerated the nativecarbonae Haen’s method of estimation is based upon the formation mountain or mineral green; Brunswick green an oxychlonde of free iodine when excess of potassium iodide is mixed obtained by moistening copper foil exposed to the atm^ with solution of a copper salt,—the sulphate, for example. sphere with hydrochloric acid or solution of ™0" . Copper is estimated gravimetrically in the metallic state, as chloride ; Scheele’s green (Cu2As205), an arsemte of copper in Luckow’s electrolytical process; as cuprous sulphide, and Schweinfurt green, an aceto-arsenite PP * Cu2S, which may be obtained by heating cupric sulphide, Casselmann’s green, a pigment discovered in l»b5 CuS/in a current of hydrogen, or a mixture of cuprous compound of cupric sulphate with potassium or sodium sulphocyanate, Cu2(CNS)2, with sulphur ; and as cupric acetate While it almost rivals Schweinfurt green m oxide, prepared by igniting the precipitate of hydrate, brilliancy, it possesses the advantage of being entirely free Cu(OH)2, formed when potash or soda is added to solufrom arsenic, which renders the latter pigment and Scheele s tions of cupric salts. Before the blowpipe, copper comgreen so virulently poisonous. At the same time it mus pounds give with microcosmic salt or borax a green bead, be remembered that all copper compounds are poisonous, which becomes blue on cooling ; when ignited on charcoal although the preparations that do not contain arsenic aie in the inner flame with sodium carbonate and cyanide, they not so deleterious in their manufacture and applications as afford scales of metallic copper; most of them, also, when are the others. . heated in the inner, impart to the outer flame a brilliant Copper Assaying.—In the Cornish method of assaying green coloration. there are five operations,—the fusion for regulus, Uie For further details as to the chemistry of copper see roasting of the regulus, fusion for coarse copper, refining, Chemistry, vol. v. pp. 528-30. and the cleaning of the slags. (1) The sample of ore is COPPERAS (French, couperose ; Latin, cupn rosa, the first inspected to ascertain its quality, and is then reduced flower of copper), melanterite, green-vitriol, orfcrrous sulto powder. If too much sulphur is present it may be phate, is a salt of iron of the composition FeS04, 7H20. Ithas expelled by roasting the ore, or by using nitre in the fusion ; a bluish-green colour and an astringent, inky, and somewhat in some cases it maybe requisite to add sulphur in order to sweetish taste. It crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms obtain a good regulus. A flux is employed consisting of the monoclinic system, but generally occurs reniform, usually of lime, borax, fluor-spar, and glass, which form a botryoidal, incrusting, stalactitic, pulverulent, or massive slag with the excess of iron in the ore. The button of in nature. It is readily dissolved by water, but is insoluble regulus obtained must be such that it separates easily from in alcohol. On exposure to the air it effloresces slightly, the slag without breaking. (2) The regulus ground to a and if moist becomes coated with a basic ferric sulphate fine powder is next roasted for from 20 to 30 minutes,_ the having, according to Berzelius, the formula 2Fe 0 , S0 , 3 3 heat applied being raised towards the end of the operation ; or Feo(S0 )3.5Fe 0 . If precipitated from its2 aqueous 4 2 s the sulphides of iron and copper are thus converted into solution by alcohol, copperas does not readily absorb oxides (3) In the fusion for coarse copper a flux ot oxygen. When heated to 114° C. it loses six molecules sodium bicarbonate with tartar or borax and nitre is of water, but the last molecule is not given up at a tememployed ; a button of metallic copper is obtained which perature of 280° C. Copperas is frequently found m breaks with a fine-grained and greyish or orange-coloured metalliferous mines, being produced by the oxidation ot fracture. (4) Refining consists first in the fusion of the marcasite and iron-pyrites, FeS , in a damp atmosphere. button of coarse copper and the oxidation by the air of The oxidation of the pyrites of2 coal to ferrous sulphate sulphur and foreign metals present in it; secondly, in the tends to promote the disintegration of the coal; occasionaddition of refining flux, with the production of dry copper, ally, in the presence of shale, it gives rise to the formation or copper at tough pitch. Commonly a flux of three parts of finely crystallized “feather-alum,” FeAl (S0 ) , 24ii u. 2 4 4 2 by measure of tartar, two of nitre, and a little salt is me te Copperas is manufactured, with alum, by the oxidation ot in the crucible employed for the previous operation, and the iron-pyrites contained in aluminous schists, sue into it the button of coarse copper is dropped ; the surface those of the Coal-measures of Renfrew and Lanark (see of the fused copper having become clear of oxides, a little Alum, vol. i. p. 646). It may also be prepared by bpence s refining flux is now added, and in about a couple of minutes method of heating ground puddling-furnace slag, tap-cinder, the contents of the crucible are transferred to the mould. or Cleveland or black-band ironstone with sulphuric acid, n (5) The slags from the two last operations are mixed with tartar or charcoal and fused; and the weight of the small factory for making copperas from the pyritous nodules ’ clay of the Island of Sheppey, is said to toe been prills or shots of copper obtained is ascertained. Assaying the established ot Queenborough by Matthias Falcone, by the wet way is usually conducted by treating a weighed Brabanter, in 1597. sample of the ore with nitric acid, neutralizing with ammonia, and adding standard solution of potassium cyanide Copperas is used in dyeing and tanning, in the manufacture off till the blue colour of the liquid is discharged, copper- ink, Prussian blue, and Nordhausen sulphuric acidorf niiiig a al ammonium-cyanide, free ammonium cyanide, ammonium vitriol, in medicine as an astringent and tonic, and in " > chemistry. In the 13th century it was in request for si ^ formate, and urea being produced. Silver, nickel, cobalt, dressing.7 When calcined it yields first a ^^^’Jownish-red and zinc may interefere with the estimation of the copper the ferri sulphas exsiccatci of pharmacy, and y . by this method ; the first may be removed by adding a £e,Tic oxide or colcothar of vitriol ollsh g l of 100 little hydrochloric acid; from the three other metals the tuum, or crocus Martis), employed as a paint and P copper can be freed by precipitating it as sulphide by Colcothar may also he prepared by calcining a mat 352

COPcarts by weight of copperas with 42 of common salt, and washing out the resulting sodium sulphate. Jeweller's rouge or platecovvder is the washed and calcined precipitate of ferric oxide obtained by adding solution of sodium carbonate to solution of copperas. COPROLITES (from Konpos, dung, akV, stone), the fossilized excrements of extinct animals. The discovery of their true nature was made by Dr William Buckland, who observed that certain convoluted bodies occurring in the Lias of Gloucestershire had the form which would have been produced by their passage in the soft state through the intestines of reptiles or fishes. These bodies had long been known as “fossil fir cones” and “bezoar stones.” Buckland’s conjecture that they were of faecal origin, and similar to the album grcecum or excrement of hyaenas, was confirmed by Dr Prout, who on analysis found they consisted essentially of calcium phosphate and carbonate, and not unfrequently contained fragments of unaltered bone. The name “coprolites” was accordingly given to them by Buckland, who subsequently expressed his belief that they might be found useful in agriculture on account of the calcium phosphate they contained. The Liassic coprolites are described by Auckland as resembling oblong pebbles, or kidney-potatoes; they are mostly 2 to 4 inches long, and from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, but those of the larger Ichthyosauri are of much greater dimensions. In colour they vary from ashgrey to black, and their fracture is conchoidal. Internally they are found to consist of a lamina twisted upon itself, and externally they generally exhibit a tortuous structure, produced, before the cloaca was reached, by the spiral valve of a compressed small intestine (as in skates, sharks, and dog-fishes); the surface shows also vascular impressions and corrugations due to the same cause. Often the bones, teeth, and scales of fishes are to be found dispersed through the coprolites, and sometimes the bones of small Ichthyosauri, which were apparently a prey to the larger marine saurians. Coprolites have been found at Lyme Regis, enclosed by the ribs of Ichthyosauri, and in the remains of several species of fish ; also in the abdominal cavities of a species of fossil fish, Macropoma Mantelli, from the chalk of Lewes. Professor Jager has described coprolites from the alum-slate of Gaildorf in Wiirtemberg, assigned by him to the Keuper formation ; and the fish-coprolites of Burdiehouse and of Newcastle-under-Lyme are of Carboniferous age. The so-called “beetle-stones ” of the coal-formation of Newhaven, near Leith, which have mostly a coprolitic nucleus, have been applied to various ornamental purposes by lapidaries. The name “cololites” (from kwAov, the large i intestine, Aiflos, stone) was given by Agassiz to fossil wormlike bodies, found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, which he determined to be either the petrified intestines or contents of the intestines of fishes. The bone-bed of Axmouth in Devonshire and Westbury and Aust in Gloucestershire, in the Penarth or Rhsetic series of strata, contains the scales, teeth, and bones of saurians and fishes, together with abundance of coprolites ; but neither there nor at Lyme Regis is there a sufficient quantity of phosphatic material to render the working of it for agricultural purposes remunerative. The term coprolites has been made to include all kinds o phosphatic nodules employed as manures, such, for example, as those obtained from the Coralline and the Red Crag of Suffolk. At the base of the Red rag in that county is a bed, 3 to 18 inches thick, containing rolled fossil bones, cetacean and fish teeth, and s e s of the Crag period, with nodules or pebbles of phosP a ic matter derived from the London Clay, and often investing fossils from that formation. These are distinguis a le from the grey Chalk coprolites by their brownish errugmous colour and smooth appearance. When ground

0

p

353 they give a yellowish-red powder. These nodules were at first taken by Professor Henslow for coprolites; they were afterwards termed by Buckland “ pseudo-coprolites ” “ The nodules, having been imbued with phosphatic matter from their matrix in the London Clay, were dislodged,” says Buckland, “ by the waters of the seas of the first period, and accumulated by myriads at the bottom of those shallow seas where is now the coast of Suffolk. Here they were long rolled together with the bones of large mammalia, fishes, and with the shells of molluscous creatures that lived in shells. From the bottom of this sea they have been raised to form the dry lands along the shores of Suffolk, whence they are now extracted as articles of commercial value, being ground to powder in the mills of Mr Lawes, at Deptford, to supply our farms with a valuable substitute for guano, under the accepted name of coprolite manure.” The phosphatic nodules occurring throughout the Red Crag of Suffolk are regarded by Mr Prestwich as derived from the Coralline Crag. The Suffolk beds have been worked since 1846; and immense quantities of coprolite have also been obtained from Essex, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire. The Cambridgeshire coprolites are believed to be derived from deposits of Gault age; they are obtained by washing from a stratum about a foot thick, resting on the Gault, at the base of the Chalk Marl, and probably homotaxeous with the Chloritic Marl. An acre yields on an average 300 tons of phosphatic nodules, value £750. About £140 per acre is paid for the lease of the land, which after two years is restored to its owners re-soiled and levelled. Plicatulae have been found attached to these coprolites, showing that they were already hard bodies when lying at the bottom of the Chalk ocean. The Cambridgeshire coprolites are either amorphous or finger-shaped; the coprolites from the Greensand are of a black or dark brown colour; while those from the Gault are greenish-white on the surface, brownish-black internally. Samples of Cambridgeshire and Suffolk coprolite have been found by Yoelcker to give on analysis phosphoric acid equivalent to about 55 and 52'5 per cent, of tribasic calcium phosphate respectively (Journ. R. Agric. Soc. Eng., vol. xxi. p. 358, 1860). The following analysis of a saurio-coprolite from Lyme Regis is given by Herapath (ibid. vol. xii. p. 91) :— Water S'QTS Organic matter 2 'OOl Calcium sulphate 2 •026 Calcium carbonate 28T21 Calcium fluoride not determined. Calcium and magnesium phosphate 53'996 Magnesium carbonate 0’423 Aluminic phosphate 1 '276 Ferric phosphate 6‘182 Silica 0733 98734 An ichthyo-coprolite from Tenby was found to contain 15‘4 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride. The pseudo-coprolites of the Suffolk Crag have been estimated by Herapath to be as rich in phosphates as the true ichthyo-coprolites and saurio-coprelites of other formations, the proportion of P205 contained varying between 12'5 and 37‘25 per cent., the average proportion, however, being 32 or 33 per cent. Coprolite is reduced to powder by powerful mills of peculiar construction, furnished with granite and buhrstones, before being treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. The acid renders it available as a manure by converting the calcium phosphate, Ca3P208, that it contains into the soluble monocalcic salt, CaH4P208, or “ superphosphate.” The phosphate thus produced forms an efficacious turnip manure, and is quite equal in value to that produced from any other source. The Chloritic Marl in the VI. - 45

354

C O P—0 0 P

monothelites, They have altogether about 130 clmrcliea Wealden district furnislies much pliosphatic material or convents, Their religious orders are a patriarch, a which has been extensively worked at Froyle. in tl3e metropolitan of the Abyssinians, bishops, arch-priests, vicinity of Farnham it contains a 15 bedfeet of 111 coprolites ot priests, deacons, and monks. The “ patriarch,” called “ of considerable extent, and 2 to ,wd bv Alexandria,” resides at Cairo, and is generally chosen by lot Specimens of these from the Dippen Hall analyzed by out of eight or nine monks of the convent of St Antony in Messrs Paine and Way, showed the presence of P^P^es the eastern desert designated as capable of filling the office, equivalent to 55-96 of bone-earth {Journ R. Agnc hoc but he may be appointed by his predecessor The metroEnc, vol ix. p. 56). Phosphatic nodules occur also m politan is appointed by the patriarch, and the twelve tbeCMoritic Marl of the Me of Wight and Doraetehve, bishops are selected by preference from the monks. They and at VVroughton, near Swindon. They are found i generally baptize their within .i 1 i.children * r\-p the a (TP year, • fill ft and VIf.Psome WQa Lower Greerisand, series in the Greensand, or Upper Heocomitan Neocomltan series, theni about eight years of age; this rite was Atherfield Clay at Stopham, near Pulborough , occasiona y ev . ancestors, as it is repreevidently handed dentl handed down down by by their their • j* SS/Hytte TTvrfl-ip Qnrl 060.8 ;, 8/110 np.rinrl In £. a Tunchon and Sandgate beda and m sented in Egyptian sculptures of the Pl-»orQnmp. Pharaonic period. In tbeFolkeston beda, at Favntam. At Woburn, Leighton their schools the Coptic language is taught imperfectly. In Ampthill, Sandy, Upware, Wicken, and Potton “ear ‘he their prayers appear to be many repetitions, and they pray base of Upper Neocomian iron-sands, there is a band in this manner riding or walking. Their churches are between 6inches and 2 feet in thickness containing divided into five compartments, the most important of “coprolites;” these consist of phosphatized wood, bon which is the chancel (heylcel). They observe many fasts and casts of shells, and shapeless lumps. The coprolitic festivals, and some perform pilgrimages to Jerusalem. stratum of the Speeton Clay, on the coast to the U. of They also abstain from parts of the flesh of the pig and Flamborough Head, is included by Prof. Judd with the camel and from that ot animals which have been strangled Portland beds of that formation. In 1864 two phos^ and from blood. They do not perform mUitory service. ohatic deposits, a limestone 3 feet thick, with beds of In their habits and customs they follow those of the other calcium phosphate, and a shale of half that thickness, were populations of Egypt; they rarely intermarry with any other discovered by Mr Hope Jones in the neighbourhood of sect • in their marriages they employ a go-between vakel, Cwmgynen, about sixteen miles from Oswestry. They are and two-thirds of the dowry is settled upon the wife during at a °depth of about 12 feet, in slaty shale containing her life. The marriages take place on Saturday night, and Llandeilo fossils and contemporaneous felspathic ash and the festivities sometimes are kept up for eight days. At scorise. A specimen of the phosphatic limestone analyzed these a singular custom prevails of attaching two cascahels bvVoeicker yielded 34-92 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate, to the wings of two pigeons, whereby the birds fly about ti a specimen of the shale 52-15 per cent. (Report of Brit. they are giddy, and then placing them in two hollow balls Assoc., 1865). of sugar, each set on a dish ; the balls are afterwards broken Herapath, Chcm. Gaz. 1849, p. 449 ; fuAduA Geology and Mine-' and the pigeons fly about the room. The preparations raloqy, 4th ed., 1869; Fisher, Quart. Journ. Gcal. .S'oc. 1873, p. 52, for the marriage consist of ablution, a procession of t e Teall On the Potion and Wicken Phosphatic Deposits (Sedgwick bride covered with a shawl, attended by musicians, to the Prize Essay for 1873), 1875 ; Bonney, Cambridgeshire Geology, house of the bridegroom, stepping over the blood of a 1875. slaughtered lamb at the door, the crowning of the bride COPTS the name given to the descendants of the native inhabitants of Egypt after the Mahometan conquest and bridegroom, and subsequent entertainments much or even omitted when a widow is married. Re supposed by some to be descended from the ancient abridged Pa7 JJt3Egyptians or else from the mixed race which inhabited the etiquette is not to leave the house for a year to art country under the Roman empire. They are Christians, and Divorces are only given for adultery on the P The Copts are exceedingly bigoted, prone to be con are said to comprise less than one fourteenth of the whole wife. verted to Islamism, sullen, as Ammianus Marcehnu population. Although numerous, their numbers continue to dwindle, and they are being gradually, by marriage or describes the Egyptians, false, faithless, and ^ceitW, bu conversion, absorbed in the Mussulman population of the extremely useful as secretaries and accountants and sk M In their funeral ceremonies they follow country. Their name Kubt, or Kubti, is supposed to be workmen. derived either from yEgyptos or Egypt, or else from the Mussulman customs, but pay special visits on two days town of Coptos, or even lakobitai. Although scarcely the year to the sepulchres, and give away a « augured distinguishable from the other inhabitants, they are said to bullock and other viands. Both m their physical type and have large and elongated black eyes, high cheek-bones, in some of their ceremonies they retain a resemblance to T,,g the lobe of the ear high, the nose straight and spread at their ancestors, the ancient Egyptians. Seventy years after their conquest by the Mahometans, the end, black and curly hair, thick and spread lips, and er L large chin. In height they are rather under the middle size ; 640, unsuccessful in revolt, they suffered the P ^ , , their masters. The monks were branded m the to, they have in general little embonpoint, slender limbs, and civilians oppressed with heavy taxation, chu pale or bronze complexion, and a sullen expression ; but they differ considerably, those who have embraced Roman lished, pictures and crosses destroyed, 7-R • Catholicism resembling more Greeks or Syrians, while the years later all Copts were so branded. Degrading ™der El others of the Said retain their primitive type. Their dress were imposed upon them, 849-50. Later,cros “ , is like that of the Mahometans, except that their turban 997, they were compelled to wear heavy — distinction. ”'“T ' i. j in 1301. turbans as an ignominious is of a black-greyish or light-brown colour, and they often turoans wear a black coat or gown over their other dress. In their destroyed, and many of the Copts converted n ^ general customs they follow the rules of the other inhabi- the blue turban was introduced but many Copt P ^ ^ tants ; the women veil their faces, both in public and at a change of religion to the adoption of thi home when male visitors are present. In religion they are In 1321 a dreadful religious strife, attended by t d putin followers of the Eutychian heresy or Jacobite sect, so called tion of churches and mosques from Jacobus Baradseus, a Syrian, who propagated the at Cairo between the Copts and the Mohametan , »^ doctrine; and in 1840 there were 150,000 of this sect, 1354-55 great numbers embraced Islamism, a . . 0f while 5000 were said to be Roman Catholics, and as many appear to have gradually declined. The language of the Copts, or so-called Coptic, of the Greek faith. The Jacobites are monophysites and

C 0 P- -OOP tlxo last stags of ancient Egyptian civilization, and that in at the time of the Romans. In the course of centuries the old Egyptian rapidly changed, especially at the time of fjja, 19th dynasty, when foreign conquests and high civilization had introduced into it a number of Semitic words, •incipally of the Aramaean family. This continued till the time of the 26th dynasty, or about the 7th century b.c., when the old forms had almost died out, and not only a (Treat number of new words but also a difference of structure appeared in the Egyptian, which approached more nearly to the modern Coptic. This continued till the Ptolemies, under whose government a fresh infusion of words (many of them Greek) considerably altered the language, as they displaced the ancient words, and some new grammatical forms appeared ; a considerable difference took place in the prefixes and affixes at that period. After the conversion of Egypt to Christianity the old demotic alphabet fell into disuse, and another was substituted—twenty-four letters of the Greek alphabet, to which were added seven others, supposed to be borrowed from the older demotic to represent sounds not found in the Greek. The language was written in this character from the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5 th century, in all works relating to Christianity, and in this condition has been handed down to the present day in three different dialects, called the Sahidic or that of Upper ji>ypt, the Memphitic or that spoken in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and the Bashmuric or dialect of the Lake Menzaleh and its environs. Great difference of opinion has prevailed as to the relative antiquity of these dialects, some considering the Memphitic and others the Sahidic to be the most ancient. The Sahidic is softer than the Memphitic, has none of the harder aspirations, and is more intermixed with Greek. It chiefly differs, however, in construction and the use of vowels. The Bashmuric is intermediate between the two, but is softer than the Memphitic, and one great peculiarity is the use of l for r, which last letter was not known to the ancient Egyptians. The Coptic or Egyptian was in use at the 9th century, but had ceased to be intelligible in Middle Egypt in the 12th. It survived, however, as a spoken dialect till the 17th, an old man who spoke it having died only in 1633. In the Coptic Church, however, it is still in use for the religious services, and is read, although not understood except by an Arabic interpretation or glossary. It is partly studied by the Copts, and an attempt to revive the ancient language was made by the missionary Lieder at Cairo, who founded schools within the last half century. The discovery of the mode of reading hieroglyphs has rehabilitated the Coptic language, and there is no doubt that it is essentially the same as the Egyptian of the time of the Pyramids, and has retained many words of that and succeeding epochs. Like the Egyptian it is intermediate between the Aryan and Semitic languages in its copia verborum, and partly resembles the Semitic in its construction, in which, however, it is more closely allied to the African languages than the older Egyptian, while it differs greatly in the copia verborum from them. The Psalms and some other portions of the Scriptures had been translated into Coptic as early as Pachomius, 303, and from that time a succession of works, chiefly religious, were compiled in it. The commencement of the knowledge of Coptic in modern Europe is due to Kircher, who published his Prodromus Coptus in 1636. He was followed by Blumberg, who compiled a grammar, called Fundamenta Linguae Copticoe, in 1716. A Copt, named Tuki, bishop of Arsinoe, gave out another, the Rudimenta Linguae Copticce, in 1778, in Arabic and Latin, out still in a very uncritical condition. Scholz’s grammar, e ited by Woide in the same year, was a remarkable work tor the time 3 in 1783 Calusius published another grammar ; use

355

but these chiefly related to the Memphitic dialect, the Sahidic being imperfectly known, and the Bashmuric quite unknown,—the first grammar of the three dialects being that of Tattam in 1830. Another more critical grammar1 prepared by Champollion, wras edited by Rosellini and Ungarelli, and another by Peyron in 1841, which was succeeded by the work of Schwartze in 1847. The literature chiefly consists of religious works,—the Pentateuch, Psalms, Kings, minor prophets, and book of Daniel, existing in Coptic, and few fragments in Sahidic of the book of Chronicles, and several unedited portions in that dialect. Besides these several of the apocryphal gospels and some Gnostic works, as the Pistis Sophia, are found in the same language; the Acts of the Apostles, sermons, homilies, mar tyro! ogies, and many liturgical compositions, and Acts of Councils occur. A great mine of this literature is found in the Catalogus Codicum Copticorum Manu&criptorum in Museo Borgiano, 4to, Romm, 1810, and other sources. A great number of fragmentary inscriptions on calcareous stone or pottery, chiefly found at Elephantine, exist in the different museums of Europe. Altogether the Coptic literature is not interesting to general students beyond the relation it bears to the ancient Egyptian and its connection with exegetical theology. Clot-Bey, Aperqu general sur VJEgypte (Paris, 1840, p. 158, 243); Lane, The Modern Egyptians (8vo, Lond. 1860, p. 529); Peyron, Grammatica linguae Copticce introductio, 1841; Quatremere, La langice et la [literature de VBgypte, 1808 ; Prichard, Physical History of Mankind, Lond. 1875, p. 202, foil. (S. B.) COPTOS, the modern Kobt or Koft, a town of Egypt, a short distance from the right bank of the Nile, about 25 miles north-east of Thebes. It is a place of great antiquity, as is proved by the name of Thothmes III. still extant on a granite pillar, but its ruins for the most part belong to a comparatively late period. After the foundation of the port of Berenice on the Red Sea in 266 B.c., its position on the caravan line raised it to great commercial prosperity; but in 292 a.d. its share in the rebellion against Diocletian led to an almost total devastation. It again appears, however, as a place of importance, and as the seat of a considerable Christian community, though the stream of traffic turned aside to the neighbouring Koos. During part of the 7th century it was called Justinianopolis in honour of the Emperor Justinian. COPYHOLD, in English law, is an ancient form of land tenure, legally defined as a “ holding at the will of the lord according to the custom of the manor.” Its origin is to be found in the occupation by villani, or non-freemen, of portions of land belonging to the manor of a feudal lord. In the time of the Domesday survey the manor was in part granted to free tenants, in part reserved by the lord himself for his own uses. The estate of the free tenants is the freehold estate of English law; as tenants of the same manor they assembled together in manorial court or court baron, of which they were the judges. The portion of the manor reserved for the lord (the demesne, or domain) was cultivated by labourers who were bound to the land (adscripti glebce). They could not leave the manor, and their service was obligatory. These villani, however, were allowed by the lord to cultivate portions of land for their own use. It was a mere occupation at the pleasure of the lord, but in course of time it grew into an occupation by right, recognized first of all by custom, and afterwards by law. This kind of tenure is called by the lawyers villenagium, and it probably marks a great advance in the general recognition of the right when the name is applied to lands held on the same conditions not by villeins but by free men. The tenants in villenage were not, like the freeholders, members of the court baron, but they appear to have attended in a humbler capacity, and to have solicited

356

C 0 P -- 0 0 P

A species of tenure resembling copyhold prevails in some the succession to the land occupied by a deceased father, parts of the country under the name of customary freehold. or the admission of a new tenant who had purchased the The land is held by copy of court-roll, but not by will 0f good-will, as it might be called, of the holding, paying for the lord. The question has been raised whether the freesuch favours certain customary fines or dues. In relation hold of such lands is in the lord of the manor or in the to the tenants in villenage, the court baron was called me tenant, and the courts of law have decided in favour of the customary court. The records of the court constituted e former. In some instances copyhold for lives alone is title of the villein tenant, held by copy of the court roll, recognized, and in such cases the lord of the manor may and the customs of the manor therein recorded formed the ultimately, when all the lives have dropped, get back the real property law applicable to his case. Each manor mig land into his own hands. have peculiar customs of its own, and as a matter of fact The feudal obligations attaching to copyhold tenure have there has been a great variety in the conditions under which been found to cause much inconvenience to the tenants, copyhold lands are held. , » while they are of no great value to the lord. One of the Copyhold had long been established in practice before it most vexatious of these is the heriot, under which name the was formally recognized by the law. At first it was in fac , lord is entitled to seize the tenant’s best beast or other chattel as it is now in the fictitious theory of the law, a tenancy at in the event of the tenant’s death. The custom dates from will, for which none of the legal remedies of a freeholder the time when all the copyholder’s property, including the were available. In the reign of Edward IV., however, it copyholder himself, belonged to the lord, and is supposed was held that a tenant in villenage had an action of trespass to have been fixed by way of analogy to the custom which against the lord. In this way a species of tenant-right, gave a military tenant’s habiliments to his lord in.order to depending on and strongly supported by popular opinion, equip his successor. Instances have occurred in quite was changed into a legal right. The nature of the change recent times of articles of great value being seized as heriots is vigorously described by Sir Edward Coke,. As I con- for the copyhold tenements of their owners. A race horse iecture ia Saxon’s, sure I am in the Norman’s time the copy- worth £2000 or £3000 was thus seized. The fine payable holders were so far subject to the lord’s will, that the lords on the admission of a new tenant, whether by alienation or upon the least occasion (sometimes without any colour of succession, is to a certain extent arbitrary, but the courts reason, only upon discontentment and malice, sometimes long ago laid down the rule that it must be reasonable, and again upon sudden fantastic humour, only to make evident anything beyond two years’ improved value of the lands to the world the height of their power and authority) would they disallowed. The inconvenience caused.by these feudal expel out of house and home their poor copyholders, leaving them helpless and remediless by any course of law, and incidents of the tenure has led to a series of statutes, driving them to one by way of petition ; but now copy- having for their object the conversion of copyhold into holders stand upon a sure ground; now they weigh not freehold. In 1841 an Act was passed for the commutation of their lord’s displeasure and shake at every blast of wind ; manorial rights in respect of lands of copyhold and custhey eat, drink, sleep securely; only having a special care tomary tenure, and in respect of other lands subject to of the main chance, to perform exactly what duties and such rights, and for facilitating the enfranchisement of services soever their term doth require: then let lord frown, land and the improvement of such tenure. the copyholder cares not, knowing himself safe and not such COPYRIGHT is the exclusive right of multiplying for within any danger.” sale copies of works of literature or art, allowed to the While copyhold was thus convertea into a legal estate of author thereof or his assignees. As a recognized form of the same security as any other, it retained and does still property it is, compared with others, of very recent origin, retain many incidents characteristic of its historical origin. The life of copyhold assurance, it is said, is custom. Copy- being in fact the result of the facility, for multiplying copies hold is necessarily parcel of a manor, and the freehold is created by the discovery of printing and kindred arts. said to be in the lord of the manor. The court roll of the Whether it was recognized at all by the common law of manor is the evidence of title and the record of the special England was long a legal question of the first magnitude,— laws as to fines, quit rents, heriots, &c., prevailing in the and the reasons for recognizing it, and the extent of the manor. When copyhold land is conveyed from one person right itself, are not quite clear from controversy even now. to another, it is surrendered by the owner to the lord, who The short paragraph in Blackstone may still be read with by his payment of the customary fine makes a new grant interest. He thinks that “ this species of property, being of it to the purchaser. The lord must admit the vendor s grounded on labour and invention, is more properly renominee, but the form of the conveyance is still that of ducible to the head of occupancy than any other, since the surrender and re-grant. The lord, as legal owner of the right of occupancy itself is supposed by Mr Locke and fee-simple of the lands, has a right to all the mines and many others to be founded on the personal labour of the minerals and to all the growing timber, although the tenant occupant.” But he speaks doubtfully of its existence, may have planted it himself. Hence it appears that the merely mentioning the opposing views, “ that on the one existence of copyhold tenures may be traced in some parts hand it hath been thought no other man can have a right of the country by the total absence of timber from such to exhibit the author’s work without his consent, and that lands, while on freehold lands it grows in abundance. it is urged on the other hand that the right is of too. subtle Hence also the popular saying that the “ oak grows not and unsubstantial a nature to become the subject , o except on free land.” The copyholder must not commit property at the common law, and only capable ot being waste either by cutting down timber, &c., or by neglecting to guarded by positive statutes and special provisions ottne repair buildings. In such respects the law treats him as a magistrate.” He notices that the Roman law adjudged mere lessee,—the real owner being supposed to be the lord. that if one man wrote anything on the paper or parchmen On the other hand, the lord may not enter the land to cut of another, the writing should belong to the owner ot his own timber or open his mines. The limitations of estates blank materials, but as to any other property in the wor usual in respect of other lands, as found in copypold, be- of the understanding the law is silent, and he adds come subject of course to the operations of its peculiar neither with us in England hath there been ( conditions as to the relation of lord and tenant. An estate lately) any final determination upon the rights ot autu , •*. for life, or pour autre vie (i.e., for another’s life), an estate at the common law. The nature of the right itself, and the reasons why entail, or in fee-simple, may be carved out of copyhold.

C 0 P Y R I"G H'T should be recognized in law, have from the beginning been the subject of bitter dispute. By some it has been described as a monopoly, by others as a kind of property. Each of these words covers certain assumptions from which the most opposite conclusions have been drawn. As a monopoly it is argued that copyright should be looked upon as a doubtful exception to the general law regulating trade, and should at all events be strictly limited in point of duration. As property, on the other hand, it is claimed that it should be perpetual There would appear to be no harm in describing copyright either as property or monopoly, if care be taken that the words are not used to cover suppressed arguments as to its proper extent and duration. Historically, and in legal definition, there would appear to be no doubt that copyright, as regulated by statute, is a monopoly. The Parliamentary protection of works of art for the period of fourteen years by the 8 Anne c. 19 and later statutes appears, as Blackstone points out, to have been suggested by the exception in the Statute of Monopolies, 21 James I. c. 3. The object of that statute was to suppress the royal grants of exclusive right to trade in certain articles, and to reassert in relation to all such monopolies the common law of the land. Certain exceptions were made on grounds of public policy, and among others it was allowed that a royal patent of privilege might be granted for fourteen years “ to any inventor of a new manufacture for the sole working or making of the same.” Copyright, like patent right, would be covered by the legal definition of a monopoly. It is a mere right to prevent other people from manufacturing certain articles. But objections to monopolies in general do not apply to this particular class of cases, in which the author of a new work in literature or art has the right of preventing others from manufacturing copies thereof and selling them to the public. The rights of persons licensed to sell spirits, to hold theatrical exhibitions, &c., are also of the nature of monopolies, and may be defended on special grounds of public policy. The monopoly of authors and inventors rests on the general sentiment underlying all civilized law, that a man should be protected in the enjoyment of the fruits of his own labour. The first Copyright Act in England is 8 Anne c. 19. The preamble states that printers, booksellers, and other persons were frequently in the habit of printing, reprinting, and publishing “books and other writings without the consent of the authors or proprietors of such books and writings, to their very great detriment, and too often to the ruin of them and their families.” “ For preventing, therefore, such practices for the future, and for the encouragement of learned men to compose and write useful books, it , is enacted that the author of any book or books already printed, who hath not transferred to any other the copy or copies of such book or books in order to print or reprint the same, shall have the sole right and liberty of printing such book or books for the term of one-and-twenty years, and that the author of any book or books already composed, and not printed and published, or that shall hereafter be composed,‘and his assignee, or assignees, shall have the sole liberty of printing and [reprinting such book or books for the term of fourteen years, to commence from the day of fiist publishing the same, and no longer.” The penalty for offences against the Act was declared to be the forfeiture of ie illicit copies to the true proprietor, and the fine of one penny per sheet, half to the Crown, and half to any person suing for the same. “ After the expiration of the said term o fourteen years the sole right of printing or disposing of copies shall return to the authors thereof, if they are then mng,^or their representatives, for another term of fourteen years. The last provision points to a particular view of e na :ure * of copyright, to which wo shall call attention

357

further on. To secure the benefit of the Act registration at Stationers’ Hall was necessary. In section 4 is contained the provision that if any person thought the price of a book “ too high and unreasonable,” he might complain to the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord chancellor, the bishop of London, the chiefs of the three courts at West minster, and the vice-chancellors of the two universities in England, and to the lord president, lord justice general, lord chief baron of the Exchequer, and the rector of the college of Edinburgh in Scotland, who may fix a reasonable price. Nine copies of each book were to bejprovided for the royal library, the libraries of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the four Scotch universities, Sion College, and the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh. The copyright of the universities was not to be prejudiced by the Act. It was believed for a long time that this statute had not interfered with the rights of authors at common law. Ownership of literary property at common law appears to have been recognized in some earlier statutes. The Licensing Act, 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 33, prohibited the printing of any work without the consent of the owner on pain of forfeiture, &c. This Act expired in 1679, and attempts to renew it were unsuccessful. The records of the Stationers’ Company show that the purchase and sale of copyrights had become an established usage, and the loss of the protection, incidentally afforded by the Licensing Act, was felt as a serious grievance, which ultimately led to the statute of Anne. That statute, as the judges in Millar v. Taylor pointed out, speaks of the ownership of literary property as a known thing. One of the petitions in support of the proposed legislation in 1709 states that by common law a bookseller can recover no more costs than he can prove damages. “ Besides,” it continues, “ the defendant is always a pauper, and so the plaintiff must lose his costs of suit. No man of substance has been known to offend in this particular; nor will any ever appear in it.” Therefore the confiscation of counterfeit properties is prayed for. And many cases are recorded in which the courts protected copyrights not falling within the periods laid down by the Act. Thus in 1735 the master of the Rolls restrained the printing of an edition of the Whole Duty of Man, published in 1657. In 1739 an injunction was granted by Lord Hardwicke against the publication of Paradise Lost, at the instance of persons claiming under an assignment from Milton in 1667. The question, however, was raised in the case of Millar v. Taylor (4 Burrow, 2303) in 1769, in which the plaintiff, who had purchased the copyright of Thomson’s Seasons in 1729, claimed damages for an unlicensed publication thereof by the defendant in 1763. The jury found that before the statute it was usual to purchase from authors the perpetual copyright of their works. Three judges, among whom was Lord Mansfield, decided in favour of the common law right; one was of the contrary opinion. The majority thought that the Act of Anne was not intended to destroy copyright at common law, but merely to protect it more efficiently during the limited periods. Millar v. Taylor, however, was speedily overruled by the case of Donaldson v. Beckett in the House of Lords in 1774. The judges were called upon to state their opinions. A majority (seven to four) were of opinion that the author and his assigns had at common law the sole right of publication in perpetuity. A majority (six to five) were of opinion that this common law right had been taken away by the statute of Anne, and a term of years substituted for the perpetuity. Lord Mansfield did not deliver an opinion, as it was unusual for a peer to support his own judgment on an appeal to the Lords. Lord Camden argued against tho existence of a common law right, and on his motion, seconded by the lord chancellor, the decree of the court below was reversed. The

358

COPYRIGHT

reprinted elsewhere. Another change was made by the decision appears to have taken the trade by surprise. Many Act 54 Geo. III. c. 156, which in substitution for the two booksellers bad purchased copyrights, not protected by tire periods of fourteen years gave to the author and his statute, and they now petitioned Parliament to be relieved assignees copyright for the full term of twenty-eight years from the consequences of the decision in Donaldson v. from the date of the first publication, and also, if the Beckett. A bill for this purpose actually passed the House author be living at the end of that period, for the residue of Commons, but Lord Camden’s influence succeeded in of his natural life. defeating it in the House of Lords. The university copyThe Copyright Act now in force is the 5 and 6 Viet. c. Existi,: rights were, however, protected in perpetuity by an Act 45, which repealed the previous Acts on the same subject, law of: passed in 1775. The arguments m the cases above The principal clause is the following (§ 3) -.—That the copy-C0Pyrig. mentioned raise the fundamental question whether the e right in every book which shall after the passing of this Act can be any property in literary works, and are really arg - be published in the lifetime of its author shall endure for ments for and against the desirability of recognizing the natural life of such author, and for the further term rights on general principles. Lord Camden was the uc great of seven years, commencing at the time of his death, and opponent of copyright, both as a legislator an ^ J ^ ' shall be the property of such author and his assignees; His sentiments may be judged by his answer to the pie provided always that if the said term of seven years shall that copyright was a reward to men of genius . y expire before the end of forty-two years from the first the reward of science, and those who deserve it scorn all publication of such book the copyright shall in that case meaner views. I speak not of the scribblers for bread endure for such period of forty-two years ; and that the who teaze the press with their wretched productions. copyright of every book which shall be published after the Fourteen years are too long a privilege for their penshable death of its author shall endure for the term of forty-two trash. It was not for gain that Bacon, ^ton Milton years from the first publication thereof, and shall be the and Locke instructed and delighted the world. When the property of the proprietor of the author’s manuscript from bookseller offered Milton five pounds for his Paradise Lost, which such book shall be first published and his assigns. he did not reject it and commit his poem to the flames, nor The benefit of the enlarged period is extended to subdid he accept the miserable pittance as the reward of his sisting copyrights, unless they are the property, of an labour ; he knew that the real price of his work was im- assignee who has acquired them by purchase, in which case mortality, and that posterity would pay it.” the period of copyright will be extended only if the The battle of copyright at this time appears to have been author or his personal representative agree with the profought mainly in the interests of the booksellers, and more prietor to accept the benefit of the Act. . By section 5 the particularly of the London booksellers. One member judicial committee of the Privy Council may license the presented petitions from the country , booksellers, another republication of books which the proprietor of the copyright from the booksellers of Glasgow against the Booksellers thereof refuses to publish after the death of the author. Copyright Bill. Burke supported the bill, and Fox opposed The sixth section provides for the delivery within certain it In both Houses the opponents of the bill denounced times of copies of all books published after the passing of the booksellers vehemently. Speaking of the Stationers the Act, and of all subsequent editions thereof, at the Company, Lord Camden said, “ In 1681 we find a by-law British Museum. And a copy of every book and its sub for the protection of their own company and their copy- sequent editions must be sent on demand to the following rights, which then consisted of all the literature. of the libraries -.—The Bodleian at Oxford, the public library at kingdom ; for they had contrived to get all the copies into Cambridge, the Library of the Faculty of. Advocates in their own hands.” Again, owner was the term applied to Edinburgh, and that of Trinity College, Dublin. The other every holder of copies, and the word author does not occur libraries entitled to this privilege under the old Acts had once in all their entries. “ All our learning will be locked been deprived thereof by an Act passed in 1836, and grants up in the hands of the Tonsons and Lintons of the age, from the treasury, calculated on the annual average value who will set that price upon it their avarice chooses to of the books they had received, were ordered to be paid to demand, till the public become their slaves as much as their them as compensation. A book of registry is ordered to hackney compilers now are. Instead of salesmen the be kept at Stationers’ Hall for the registration of copyrights booksellers of late years have forestalled the market, and be open to inspection on payment of one shilling toi become engrossers.” In the discussions which preceded the to every entry which shall be searched for or inspected. And last Copyright Act, the interests of the authors are more the officer of Stationers’ Hall shall give a certified copy o prominent, but there are still curious traces of ths ancient any entry when required, on payment of five shillings.; an hostility to booksellers. The proceedings both in Donaldson certified copies shall be received in evidence in tte v. Beckett and in the Booksellers’ Copyright. Bill are such courts as prima facie proof of proprietorship or assignment recorded at considerable length in the Parliamentary of copyright or licence as therein expressed, and, in m History, vol. xvii. re es By the 41 Geo. III. c. 107 the penalty for infringement, ot case of dramatic or musical pieces, of the right o U ed®a ation or performance. False entries shall be P™ copyright was increased to threepence per sheet, in addition misdemeanours. The entry is to record the i e , to the forfeiture of the book. The proprietor was to have an action on the case against any person in the United book, the time of its publication, and the name and place of copy rig ^ Kingdom, or British dominions in Europe, who should of abode of the publisher and proprietor ca b g ig print, reprint, or import without the consent of the Without making such entry no proprietor £ ® ? proprietor, first had in writing, signed in the presence of action for infringement of Ms copyright, but ^ „ two or more credible witnesses, any book or books, or who not otherwise to affect the copyright itse . knowing them to be printed, &c., without the proprietor’s deeming himself aggrieved by an entry m the reg stiy^ 7 consent should sell, publish, or expose them for sale ; the complain to one of the superior courts, which wdl proprietor to have his damages as assessed by the jury, and to be expunged or varied if necessary. A proper double costs of suit. A second period of fourteen years bring an action on the case for infringement of his c0 was confirmed to the author, should he. still be alive at.the right, and the defendant in such an action must give n t end of the first. Further, it was forbidden to import, into of the objections to the plaintiff’s title on which te m the United Kingdom for sale books first composed, written, to rely. Ho person except the proprietor of ths copyr g or printed and published within the United Kingdom, and is allowed to import into the British dominions for ^

COPYRIGHT hire any book first composed or written or printed and published in the United Kingdom, and reprinted elsewhere under penalty of forfeiture and a fine of £10. The proprietor of any encyclopaedia, review, magazine, periodical work or work published in a series of books or parts, who shall have employed any person to compose the same, or any volumes, parts, essays, articles, or portions thereof, for publication on the terms that the copyright therein shall belong to such proprietor, shall enjoy the term of copyright granted by the Act.1 But the proprietor may not publish separately any article or review without the author’s consent nor may the author unless he has reserved the right of separate publication. Where neither party has reserved the right they may publish by agreement, but the author at the end of twenty-eight years may publish separately. Proprietors of periodical works shall be entitled to all the benefits of registration under the Act, on entering in the registry the title, the date of first publication of the first volume or part, and the names of proprietor and publisher. The interpretation clause of the Act defines a book to be every volume, part, or division of a volume, pamphlet sheet of letter-press, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan separately published. The Act is not to prejudice the rights of the universities and the colleges of Eton, Westminster, and Winchester. The Copyright Act was the result of a Parliamentary movement conducted by Mr Sergeant Talfourd and afterwards by Lord Mahon. Talfourd’s bill of 1841 proposed to extend copyright to a period of sixty years after the author’s death. The proposer based his claim on the same grounds as other property rights,—which would of course, as Macaulay pointed out, go to justify a perpetual copyright. He refused to accept any shorter term than sixty years. He was answered by Macaulay in a speech full of brilliant illustration and superficial argument. If copyright is to be regarded, as Macaulay regarded it, as a mere bounty to authors,—a tax imposed upon the public for the encouragement of people to write books,—his opposition to an extended term is not only justified, but capable of being applied to the existence of the right for any period whatever. The system of bounty, or of taxation for the special benefit of any class of citizen, is condemned by the principles of political economy and the practice of modern legislation. But if copyright is defended on the same principles which protect the acquisitions of the individual in other lines of activity, the reasoning of Macaulay and the opponents of I perpetuity is altogether wide of the mark. The use of the A ; phrase perpetual copyright has caused much confusion. ! perpetual copyright is precisely the same sort of right, in respect of duration, as a fee-simple in land, or an investment in consolidated bank annuities. When Macaulay therefore says, “Even if I believed in a natural right of property independent of utility and anterior to legislation, I should still deny that this right could survive the original proprietors,” his argument applies equally to property in land and in bank annuities. The original purchaser of a bank annuity acquires a right to the receipt of a certain sum every year for ever, and such right he may assign or bequeath to any body he chooses. The writer of a book, if the law recognized a perpetual copyright, would acquire an exclusive light to the profits of its publication for ever, and might assign or bequeath that right as he chose. In both cases e right survives the owner—if indeed such a phrase can properly be used at all. Again, Macaulay points out that a copyright fifty years after one’s death is at the present moment comparatively worthless :—“An advantage to be enjoyed half a century after we are dead, by somebody, we pr»P*tor"n£Sd‘ca“'itor’i“orller

t0 V,!S

’ “p-vrlgl"

m ,he

359

know not whom, perhaps by somebody unborn, by somebody utterly unconnected with us, is really no motive at all to action.” No doubt there is a point in the future at which a right coming into existence would for us now living be virtually worth nothing. But this is true of all rights, and not merely of the rights called copyright; and this reasoning would justify the cutting off at some point in the future of all individual rights of property whatever. The present value of a right to rent, a right to annuities, and a copyright—to arise a hundred years hence—is probably next to nothing. There may be good reasons for saying now that no such perpetuity of right ought to be recognized, that the state ought to pass a law to take for itself all profits arising out of land, and all annuities from the public funds, from and after the year 1977. The injury done to the present owners would be precisely of the same sort and extent as in the case of a copyright being cut short a hundred years hence. Macaulay asks, “Would a copyright for sixty years have roused Dr Johnson to any vigorous effort, or sustained his spirits under depressing circumstances 1 ” A sixty years’ copyright, or a perpetual copyright, would have been to Dr Johnson in his last days of the same value as a sixty years’ lease or a fee-simple respectively of property yielding the same amount of income. Again, says Macaulay, the property would be certain to leave the author’s family; the monopoly would fall into the hands of a bookseller. The same thing may be said of all property that is assignable ; and if there is any good reason for preventing the assignment of property in certain circumstances, whether by a law of entail or otherwise, that reason may be urged in the case of copyright with the same force, and only with the same force, as in the case of land. The old animus against the bookseller is still apparent in such objections as the last. A. former Copyright Act, as we have already noticed, gave the author two periods of fourteen years, the second to be conditional on his surviving the first. The object of this enactment is evidently to prevent the copyright from falling into the hands of a bookseller. The legislature appears to have deemed authors incapable of managing their own affairs. To prevent them from being made the victims of unscrupulous publishers they put it out of their power to assign the entire copyright, by making the second period a mere contingency. It was forgotten that future profits have a present money value, and that if an author sells his copyright for its fair market value, as he surely may be left to do, he reaps the advantage of the entire period of copyright as completely as if he remained the owner to the end. From this point of view the condition attached to the second period was a positive hardship to the author, inasmuch as it gave him an uncertain instead of a certain interest. It is the difference between an assignable annuity for a certain period of twenty-eight years, and two assignable annuities for fourteen years—the second only to come into existence if the original annuitant survives the first period. The same fallacy lurks under Talfourd’s complaint that as copyright is usually drawing towards an end at the close of the author’s life, it is taken away at the very time when it might be useful to him in providing for his family. But if the period fixed is otherwise a fair period, the future of the author’s family is an irrelevant consideration. He has, by supposition, the full property rights to which he is entitled, and he may sell them or otherwise deal with them as he pleases, and he will make provision for his family as other men do for theirs. Nothing short of a strict Entail Act can keep copyright, any more than other property, in his or his family’s possession. The attempt to do this by making the latter portion of the period conditional has disappeared from legislation, but the same fallacy remains in the objections urged against long terms of copyright.

+

360

COPYRIGHT

increased period of copyright fixed by that Act is extended What would be a fair term may depend on a variety of to the right of representing dramatic pieces and musical considerations, but the chance or certainty of copyrights compositions—the first public representation or performbecoming publishers’ property is certainly riot one of them. ance being the equivalent of the first publication of a book. Macaulay’s speech convinced the House of Commons, In such cases the right of representation is not conveyed by and Talfourd’s bill was defeated. Lord Mahons bill m the assignment of the copyright only. a 1842 reduced the proposed period to twentytwenty-five ^ years ^mber after Lithographs, hitherto a doubtful subject, were brought Litio. death; Macaulay proposed forty-two as ^ . c * itbin the provisions relating to prints and engravings by graph w within graph; m all ca-,03. It was at Macaulay’s suggestion that the a clause of the 15 and 16 Viet. c. 12. th clause against the possible suppression » ^ °r Lastly, in 1862, an Act was passed, 25 and 26 Viet. c. Copies owners of copyright was introduced. Under a long 68, by which the author of every original painting, drawing, period of copyright the danger apprehended might possibly and photograph, and his assigns, obtained the exclusive recome a real ole ; at present we are -are o^ an right of copying, engraving, reproducing, and multiplying complaint having been made to the judicial comm it, and the design thereof, for the term of the natural life under this section. i in tbp of the author and seven years after his death. The Acts The preceding narrative records the changes m the relating to copyright of designs will be noticed below. Art copylaw of copyright in books only. In the meantime the right. We may now notice a few of the more important prinprinciple had been extended to other forms of men a ciples developed and applied by courts of justice in admiP work The 8 Geo. II. c. 13 is an Act “ for the encourage- nistering the law of copyright. One of them is that there ment of the arts of designing, engraving and etching can be no copyright in any but innocent publications. historical and other prints by vesting the propert Books of an immoral or irreligious tendency have beenlmrac thereof in the inventors and engravers during t repeatedly decided to be incapable of being made theP1® therein mentioned.” It gave to every person111who should subject of copyright. In a case (Lawrence Smith) before11* “ invent and design, engrave, etch, or work mezzotinto Lord Eldon, an injunction had been obtained against a or chiaro-oscuro, or from his own works and inve^tlon pirated publication of the plaintiff’s Lectures on Physiology, should cause to be designed and engraved, etched or Zoology, and the Natural History of Man, which the judge worked in mezzotinto or chiaro-oscuro, any historical or refused to continue, “ recollecting that the immortality of other print or prints, which shall be truly engraved with the soul is one of the doctrines of the Scriptures, and conthe name of the proprietor on each plate and printed on sidering that the law does not give protection to those who every such print or prints,” a copyright for fourteen years— contradict the Scriptures.” The same judge refused in the period fixed by the statute of Anne,—and inflicts a 1822 to restrain a piracy of Lord Byron’s Gain, and Don penalty on those who engrave, &c, as aforesaid, without Juan was refused protection in 1823. It would appear the consent of the proprietor. The 7 Geo. III. c. 38 from a recent case, arising out of a different subject extended the protection to those who should engrave, &c., matter,1 that the courts are still disposed to enforce these any print taken from any picture, drawing, model, or principles. To refuse copyright in such cases is futile as sculpture, either ancient or modern, in like manner as if a mode of punishment or repression, inasmuch as it directly such print had been graved or drawn from the original opens up a wider circulation to the objectionable works. design of such graver, etcher, or draughtsman; and in both, When the authorship of a book is misrepresented with cases the period is fixed at twenty-eight instead of fourteen intent to deceive the public, copyright will not be recogyears Ten years later a further remedy was provided by nized. giving a special action on the case against persons infringing The writer . of • private sent to another person may I’m • letters T4tTToa nrnrprl in RnTBP, the copyright. By the 38 Geo. HI. c. 71 the sole right o in general, restrain their publication. It was urged in some 1 making models and casts was vested in the original of the cases that the sender had abandoned his property m proprietor for the period of fourteen years the letter by the act of sending ; but this was denied by Stage right. Sta^e right was first protected by the 3 and 4 Mill. IV. Lord Hardwicke, who held that at most the receiver on y c 15 which provided that the author (or his assignee) of might take some kind of joint property in the letter along any tragedy, comedy, play, opera, farce, or other dramatic with the author. Judge Story, in the American case o piece or entertainment composed, or which should thereafter Folsom v. Marsh, states the law as follows The autli be composed, and not printed or published by the author of any letter or letters, and his representatives, whether should have as his own property the sole liberty of they are literary letters or letters of business, possess the representing or causing to be represented at any place ot sole and exclusive copyright therein ; and no person, neithe dramatic entertainment in the British dominions any such those to whom they are addressed, nor other Person®» ha production, and should be deemed the proprietor thereof ; any right or authority to publish the same upon their ow and that the author of any such production printed and accouift or for their okn benefit.” . Bnt there maybe special published within the ten years preceding the passing of the occasions justifying such publication. r.rpatpd bv UnAct, or which should thereafter be so published, should have A kind of property in unpublished works, not created by ^ sole liberty of representation for twenty-eight years from the copyright Acts, has been recognized by the court^^ the passing of the Act, or the first publication respectively, and further during the natural life of the author if he The leading case on the subject is Prince Albert De U-ex Gex ana and ornate SmaUss jxtjjuno]. Reports) Cepres »f etehmp (2 JJe , aViVdy for survived that period. The publication of lectures'' lectures’ without consent of the I Queen and Prince Albert, \vhich tbe defendant, a Lectures ""’The authors or their assignees is prohibited by 5 and 6 Will, private circulation, fell p^mbit them and issued and sermons. IV c 65. This Act excepts from its provisions-(l) London publisher who propos^ lectures of which notice has not been given two days before a catalogue entitled A ^ ^ Etchings. The Court of 9 their delivery to two justices of the peace living within five Victoria and Albert catalogue, { tl miles of the place of delivery, and (2) lectures delivered Chancery ^ in universities and other public institutions. Sermons by holding that propel ty m meeflamea j — clergy of the Established Church arc believed to fall ~ i Cowan v. ‘Milbourn, Law Reports 2 Exchequer 230,1^0^ by ^ within this exception. held that a contract to let a room for lectures mi0h ^ ligious Musical compositions are protected by a section ot the lessor on finding that the proposed lectures were of an me g Music. Copyright Act 5 and 6 Viet. c. 45 above mentioned. Tin? blasphemous, and illegal character,

li

r

COPYRIGHT does certainly subsist, and is invaded, before publication, not only by copying but by description or catalogue. The question what is a piracy against copyright has been os the subject of much discussion in the courts. It was pirac)’ decided under the statute of Anne that a repetition from memory was not a publication so as to be an infringement of copyright. In the recent case of Reade v. Comquest the same view was taken. The defendant had “ dramatized ” the plaintiff’s novel, and the piece was performed at his theatre. This was held to be no breach of copyright; but the circulation of copies of a drama, so taken from a copyright novel, whether gratuitously or for sale, is not allowed. Then again it is often a difficult question to decide whether the alleged piratical copyright does more than make that fair use of the original author’s materials which the law permits. It is not every act of borrowing literary matter from another which is piracy, and the difficulty is to draw the line between what is fair and what is unfair. Lord Eldon put the question thus,—whether the second publication is a legitimate use of the other in the fair exercise of a mental operation deserving the character of an original work. Another test proposed is “ whether you find on the part of the defendant an animus furandi—an intention to tike for the purpose of saving himself labour.” bTo one, it has been said, has a right to take, whether with or without acknowledgment, a material and substantial portion of another’s work, his arguments, his illustrations, his authorities, for the purpose of making or improving a rival publication. When the materials are open to all, an author may acquire copyright in his selection or arrangement of them. Several cases have arisen on this point between the publishers of rival directories. Here it has been held that the subsequent compiler is bound to do for himself what the original compiler had done. When the materials are thus in medio, as the phrase is, it is considered a fair test of piracy to examine whether the mistakes of both works are the same. If they are, piracy will be inferred. Translations stand to each other in the same relation as books constructed of materials in common. The animus furandi, mentioned above as a test of piracy, does not imply deliberate intention to steal ; it may be quite compatible with ignorance even of the copyright work. This is shown by the case of Reade v. Lacy. The plaintiff wrote a drama called Gold, and founded on it a novel called ■ Never too Late to Mend. The defendant dramatized the novel,—his play reproducing scenes and incidents which appeared in the original play. The vice-chancellor, presuming that the defendant had a right to dramatize the novel, found that the second play was an infringement of the copyright in the first. Abridgments of original works appear to be favoured by the courts—when the act of abridgment is itself an act of the understanding, “ employed in carrying a large work into a smaller compass, and rendering it less expensive. ” Lord Hatherly, however, in linsley v. Lacy, incidentally expressed his disapproval of this feeling,—-holding that the courts had gone far enough in this direction, and that it was difficult to acquiesce in the reason sometimes given that the compiler of an abridgj ment is a benefactor to mankind by assisting in the difusion of knowledge. A mere selection or compilation, so as 0 bring the materials into smaller space, will not be a onafide abridgment; “there must be real substantial conaensation, and intellectual labour, and judgment bestowed b .'^us^ce Story.) A publication professing to 7" ‘.y. nstmas Ghost Story, Reoriginated from the Original Difkens, Esq., and Analytically Condensed exmsy for this Work, was found to be an invasion of Mr rn!iC.-lceT1fScomC0Pyright in the original. In the case of a 1 * ^. position Lord Lyndhurst held that it is piracy ^ i ie appropriated music, though adapted to a different

36i purpose, may still be recognized by the ear. The quasicopyright in names of books, periodicals, &c., is founded on the desirability of preventing one person from putting off on the public his own productions as those of another. The name of a journal is a species of trade-mark on which the law recognizes what it calls a “ species of property.” The Wonderful Magazine is invaded by a publication calling itself the Wonderful Magazine, New Series Improved. Bell's Life in London is pirated by a paper calling itself the Penny Bell's Life. So the proprietors of the London Journal got an injunction against the Daily London Journal, which was projected by the person from whom they had bought their own paper, and who had covenanted with them not to publish any weekly journal of a similar nature. A song published under the title of Minnie, sung by Madame Anna Thillon and Miss Dolby at Monsieur Jullien’s concerts, was invaded by a song to the same air published as Minnie Dale, Sung at Jidlien's Concerts by Madame Anna Thillon. Dramatic and musical compositions, it should be observed, Relation of stand on this peculiar footing, that they may be the subject copyright of two entirely distinct rights. As writings they come a.ncl staSe* within the general Copyright Act, and the unauthorized multiplication of copies is a piracy of the usual sort. This was decided to be so even in the case of musical compositions under the Act of Anne. The Copyright Act now includes a “ sheet of music” in its definition of a book. Separate from the copyright thus existing in dramatic or musical compositions is the right of representing them on the stage; this was the right created by 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 15, above mentioned in the case of dramatic pieces. The Copyright Act, 5 and 6 Viet. c. 45, extended this right to musical compositions, and made the period in both cases the same as that fixed for copyright. And the Act expressly provides (meeting a contrary decision in the courts), that the assignment of copyright of dramatic and musical pieces shall not include the right of representation unless that is expressly mentioned. The 3 and 4 Will. TV. c. 15, prohibited representation “ at any place of public entertainment,” a phrase which has been omitted in the later Act, and it may perhaps be inferred that the restriction is now more general and would extend to any unauthorized representation anywhere. A question has also been raised whether, to obtain the benefit of the Act, a musical piece must be of a dramatic character. The dramatization of a novel, i.e., the acting of a drama constructed out of materials derived from a novel, is not an infringement of the copyright in the novel, but to publish a drama so constructed has been held to be a breach of copyright (Tinsley v. Lacy, where defendant had published two plays founded on two of Miss Braddon’s novels, and reproducing the incidents and in many cases the language of the original). Where two persons dramatize the same novel, what, it may be asked, are their respective rights 1 In Toole v. Young (9 Q. B., 523) this point actually arose. A, the author of a published novel, dramatized it and assigned the drama to the plaintiff, but it was never printed, published, or represented upon the stage. B, ignorant of A’s drama, also dramatized the novel and assigned his drama to the defendant, who represented it on the stage. It was held that any one might dramatize A’s published novel, and that the representation of B’s drama was not a representation of A’s drama. This case may be compared with Reade v. Lacy mentioned above. For preventing the importation of pirated copies of books, impm-tathe commissioners of customs are required to make out a tion of list of books on which copyright subsists, and of which they P‘rate The members of this order are Actinozoa in which the cylindrical thecae, usually growing regularly side by side, bu polypes possess eight tentacles, which are fringed on their a little distance from one another, and united at intervals ) sides with lateral pinnae, or papillae. As in the Zoaniharia, horizontal epithecal expansions, which represent external tab • the mouth opens into a tubular stomach, which in turn There are no septa, nor internal tabulre ; and Dr Perceval vy g shown that* the tubes are really composed of fused spi ■ communicates freely with the body-cavity, and the stomach has The polypes are green, with eight pinnate tentacles st . , is connected with the body-wall by means of a series with lenticular spicules. The polypes when alarmed i ^ fo vertical membranous laminae or mesenteries. The themselves within their tubes, the upper portion ot the tud«)

.

C 0 II A L S shown by Dr Wright, being Composed of fusiform warty spicules which are loose, and thus allow this part to he pulled into the lower dense portion of the theca. The mouth is placed betwee

Fid. 12.—Tubiporidse. A, Portion of the corallum of Tubipora musica, of the natural size, showing the tubular corallites and the cxothecal tabula;. B, Polype of the same, greatly enlarged, showing the mouth and tentacles. bases of the tentacles, with a slightly elevated lip, and leads into a small stomach-sac. There are eight mesenteries, within which the reproductive organs are contained. The exothecal expansions, by which the tubes are united, appear to he produced periodically as horizontal extensions from the mouths of the tubes. Fam. III. Pennatulid*.—The “Sea-pens” and “Sea-rods’ are compound Mcyonaria, but instead of being rooted to some foreign object, they possess a fleshy, usually columnar or rod-like base, which is non-polypiferous, and is plunged in the sand and mud of the sea-bottom. The upper portion of the colony carries the polypes, and varies much in shape. Sometimes the polypes are borne on long lateral pinnae, which give the upper portion of the actinosoma a feather-like appearance (PennatulaJ ; whilst at other times there are similar but much shorter pinnae (Virgularia). In Vcretillum the upper portion ot the colony is short and clubshaped, and carries the polypes all around its circumference, and the same is the case in Cophobelcmnon. In Pavonaria the polypes are non-retractile, and are disposed on one side of the slender actinosoma; whilst in Renilla the polypes are also unilateral, but the polypiferous surface is thin and reniform. In Umbcllularia, the polypes are carried in a cluster at the top of the actinosoma. The corallum in the Pennatulidoe is usually two-fold, consisting on the one hand of a slender, styliform, horny, or calcareous axis (sclerohasis) concealed within the ccenosarc, which it serves to support, and, on the other hand, of small calcareous spicules scattered amongst the soft tissues. In some cases the sclerobasis is rudimentary. The Pennatulidoe often Fro. 13.—Pennatulidee. possess the power of phosphores- Colony Veretillum cynomorium. Linn of 41,0 cence in a hi oh degree and thor p0,yp08 -t of rotru(ied natural size, with the possess the same system of ccenoP sarcal canals as is characteristic of the Alcyonaria generally. The po ypes have eight pinnately-fringed tentacles, and eight mesenteric Zcli, nAany ?ses’ as originaDy shown by Kolliker, the colony mat,,, i ^wo olfsos of zooids, the one composed of sexually nnhnJi 1?° yP6.3’ rije other, more numerous, composed of sexless 1* JP ’ wh>Gb Hie tentacles are not developed, or u (u0RG0NirM5'—T}10 “Sea-shrubs” possess a more forpitri, coenosarc, which is permanently rooted to some BoWnlwcia^VvZWIs1C1 - ljrovi ^ufc owing to the number of its tributaries, a iiis no mean proportions before it reaches the eastern f? » 5' N. Jat. and 130" 38' 51’ E. long. At its it is about half a mile wide, and at Plung-ckung 300

391 yards, with a depth of about 20 feet in the middle. Its current is about 1| knots an hour. Of the numerous streams that find their way to the Sea of Japan none require special mention till we come to the Nak-tong-kang, which rises in the eastern slopes of the main chain, and after flowing almost directly south, reaches the Strait of Corea in 34° 50' N". lat. Among those of the western coast three at least are of considerable magnitude—the Keumkang, the Hang-kang, on which Seoul, the capital of the kingdom, is situated, and the Tai-tang-kang, which flows past the city of Pieng-lang. Climate and Agriculture.—The temperature of Corea, though much more equable than that of the neighbouringcontinent, is higher in winter and lower in summer than under the same latitudes in Europe. Such advantages as it actually has over the climate of Northern China arc mainly due to the effects of the south-west monsoon. In the north the rivers remain frozen for several months in the year, and even in the furthest south the snow lies for a considerable period. In latitude 35° the lowest reading of the thermometer observed by the French missionaries was 5° Fahr.; in 37° or 38° they often found it 13° below zero. The principal articles of cultivation are rice, wheat, millet, rye, tobacco, cotton, hemp, and genseng; and of these several afford a good return. The potato, which was recently introduced, is under a Government interdict, and is only to be found in outlying districts; though its general use might do much to prevent the recurrence of the famines with which the country is ever and anon visited. Almost all the fruits of central Europe are to be obtained ; but their quality is greatly deteriorated by the humidity of the climate. Water-melons and the fruit of the Diospyros Lotus (called kam by the natives) are mentioned as the best. Minerals.—Corea has the reputation of being richly furnished with mineral resources ; gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal are all said to be common. Gold-mining, however, is strictly prohibited; the permission at one time granted to work the silver ore at Sioun-heng-fu was shortly afterwards withdrawn ; the copper mines are neglected, and Japanese copper imported; and the general use of coal is confined to certain districts. Animals.—Of the wild animals the most remarkable are a small species of tiger, the bear, and the wild boar; and of the domestic kinds the principal are cattle, horses of diminutive proportions but considerable strength, swine, and dogs. The last are a favourite article of food. The king alone has the right of rearing sheep and goats, which are kept for the purpose of being sacrificed in religious ceremonials. Political Divisions and Towns.—The kingdom of Corea is divided into eight provinces, of which three, Hamkieng, Kang-wen, and Kieng-sang lie along the eastern side of the peninsula, while the others, Pieng-an, Hoang-hai, Kieng-kei, Tsiong-tsieng, and Tsien-la face the Yellow Sea. Ham-kieng and Pieng-an are the two that border on Manchuria. The former contains fourteen walled towns, among which may be mentioned Ham-heng, the provincial capital, Kieng-wen, and Mou-san; and the latter, with its centre at Pieng-iang, possesses an equal number. The chief town of Kang-wen is Wen-tsiou, situated in the heart of the country to the east of the River Hang-kang; that of Kieng-sang is Tai-kou, near a tributary of the Nak-tongkang; of Hoang-hai, Hai-tsiou on the western coast. Haniang, Seoul, or Seyool, the chief town of Kieng-kei, is also the capital of the kingdom and the permanent residence of the court; it is situated on the Hang-kang, and surrounded with high and thick walls, 9975 paces in circuit. The chief towns of the two remaining provinces are respectively Kong-tsiou near the River Keum-kang, and Tien-tsiou, at

392

COREA

are despatched by the king, armed with absolute power, to visit the provinces at irregular intervals and secretly observe 1 The king of Corea, though a vassal of the Chinese the condition of affairs. Corruption, however, universally and openly prevails, and the supervision even of these empire, is within his own country an absolute monarch, irresponsible emissaries affords little protection against inwith power of life and death over the noblest in the land. justice. The mandarin is for ordinary civil cases the He is the object of almost divine honours ; it is sacrilege absolute judge within his district ; but if the matter is very t ) utter the name which he receives from his suzerain, an important it may be referred to the provincial governor, or that by which he is known in history is only bestowed upon even ultimately to the king himself. Criminal cases are him after his death by his successor. To touch his person decided by the military mandarin, and the final appeal is with a weapon of iron is high treason ; and so ngidly is to the great court of the capital, which consists of two this rule enforced that Tieng-tsong-tai-oang suffered an parts—the po-tseng which collects the evidence, and the abscess to put an end to his life in 1800, rather than sub- ieng-tso which passes the sentence. Public functionaries mit to the contact of the lancet. Every horseman must and culprits accused of treason or rebellion are tried by a dismount as he passes the palace, and w^oever ente,rS the special court called the keum-pou, the members of which presence-chamber must fall prostrate before the throne are named directly by the king. In a case of high Should the ignoble body of a subject be touched by t ie treason the whole family of the guilty person is involved in royal hands, the honour thus conferred must be ever after his fate. A large portion of the real administrative power commemorated by a badge. In consequence of such lies in the hands of the subaltern officials of the civil and punctilious etiquette, personal access to the king is exceed- military mandarins, who are distinguished by M. Ballet as ingly difficult: but, as according to theory, his ear ought “pretorians” and “satellites.” The former compose a always to be open to the complaints of his people, an formidable hereditary class, which rarely intermarries with appeal to his authority is nominally permitted. He is ex- the rest of the community; the latter are recruited from pected to provide for the poor of his realm, and there are the lower ranks of society. Torture is freely employed in always a large number of pensioners on the royal bounty. judicial proceedings; and the unhappy victim may either The princes of the blood are most jealously excluded from have the bones of his legs dislocated or bent, his calves power and their interference in the slightest degree in a reduced to rags by blows from a heavy plank, the flesh of matter of politics is regarded as treason. The nobles, how- his thighs cut through by the continuous friction of a ever, have within the present century extended their rough cord, or his whole body agonized by a prolonged influence, and infringed on the royal prerogatives. The suspension by the arms. Decapitation is the usual form palaces are poor buildings, but an extensive harem and a of execution both in civil and military cases. lar^e body of eunuchs are maintained. The language of Corea belongs to the Turanian family, The government is practically in the hands ot the three agrees with the other Turanian tongues in all the main principal ministers of the king, who are called respectively and grammatical features. It is written alphabetically, by seug-ei-tsieng or admirable councillor, tsoa-ei-tsieng or means of fourteen consonants corresponding to the Eurocouncillor of the left, and ou-ei-tsieng or councillor of the pean k, l, n, r, t, m (or 6), p (or 6), s, vg or nasal «, ts, tsh, i-icht. They are nominally assisted by six pan-tso or judges, th, ph lie., p aspirated, not /) and h, and eleven each of whom has his own tsam-pan or substitute and tsam- kh, vowels, which go to the composition of thirteen diphthongs. ei or adviser. The ni-tso, the first of these judges’ depart- The letters appear either in an ordinary or a cursive form. ments, has charge of the public offices and employments ; Every line is written from the top to the bottom of the the ho-tso takes the census, apportions the taxes, and looks page, syllable by syllable. The vocabulary is greatly after the mints ; the niei-tso supervises religious and mingled with Chinese words; but these undergo the official ceremonial; the pie.ng-tso is the department of war; regular Corean declension. The noun has nine cases, the hieng-tso administers the criminal courts ; and the Tcong- including the nominative. Adjectives proper there are tso has the oversight of public works, commerce, &c. In none, the nouns and verbs supplying their place. For the palace there are three sug-tsi, or functionaries charged to the names of the numerals above 90, such as 100, 1000, put on record day by day all the royal words and actions. &c., recourse is had to the Chinese. Ihe verb possesses, The eight provinces of the kingdom are each administered besides the simple affirmative, a conditional, au interroby a governor, dependent on the ministerial council , and gative, an honorific, a causative, and. several other forms; each of the 332 districts into which the provinces are but it has no distinctive inflections for number or sub-divided is under a separate mandarin. Military commanders have the chief authority in the four fortified person. The honorific form is employed in speaking of dignitaries; and indeed the verb must slightly vary accordtowns of Kang-hoa, Sou-wen, Koang-tsiou, and Siong-to or Kai-seng. Theoretically every one of these posts is open ing to the status of the person addressed. The study of their native language is greatly neglec eel to any Corean who has acquired the necessary degree in the public examinations ; but actually they are almost, all by the Coreans, and the educated classes regularly employ appropriated by the nobles. A postal system is maintained Chinese both in literature and social intercourse, ine along the principal highways,—the horses being kept by annals of the kingdom, the laws, scientific treatises, public the Government, and the grooms and riders holding almost inscriptions, and even shop-signs are all written in the foreign the position of royal serfs. The army nominally includes language ; at the same time the Corean pronunciation ism every individual capable of bearing arms, who does not peculiar as to be unintelligible in the ears of the inhabitan so belong to the nobility; but only a small proportion of the the empire. That at one time there was an extensive name men are brought under discipline. The military mandarins, literature there seems no doubt; but it is now represen a though chosen from the nobles, are in far less estimation only by a few poetic collections, popular romances, nu , than0the civil functionaries of corresponding rank. The nursery tales,—to which, indeed, must be added a of works composed by the missionaries, who have encourag salaries of the governors and other high officials are large, but as the term is only two years, and the custom of the the preservation and cultivation of the national languag • country is for a person in office to support all his rela- There is an official translation of the sacred books ot tives, it is seldom that the position proves genuinely fucianism, in which it is criminal to change a single . > lucrative. In addition to the various regular officials already without the order of the Government; and a sibylline prohibited by the authorities, circulates secretly amon 0 mentioned there are a number of e-set, or anaik-sa, who the foot of the range of mountains that traverses the

COREA

ays people. On the capture of Kang-hoa in 1866, Admiral the most sacred of all. Among the educated classes the Roze found a library of 3000 or 4000 books finely covered only form of religion in real force is the worship of their with green and crimson silk, and arranged and preserved with ancestors, and consequently the greatest importance is great care. One volume particularly attracted M. Ridel’s attached to all the ceremonial details of funerals, mournattention; it consisted of a number of marble tablets, united ing, and tombs. In every district there is a temple of by gilt copper hinges ; each tablet was protected by a Confucius called kiang-kio, with an extensive domain cushion of scarlet silk, and the letters were in gold attached ; and if the revenue is not sufficient to maintain incrusted on the marble. the necessary expenses, the treasury of the district must Education.—As in China, so in Corea, learning supply the deficit. There still exist several of the large ostensibly in high estimation, and all public officials must pagodas erected during the period of the official status of pass certain examinations. The student is left perfectly Buddhism ; they are built in the Chinese style, and are free to follow any system and receive instruction from any frequently remarkable for the beauty of their situation. teacher whatever,—the examiners, who are appointed by Except in the province of Kieng-sang the Buddhist the Government, taking account of nothing but results. monks, or bonzes, retain no influence; they have but The most important examinations are held once a year in little learning, and their numbers are diminishing. The the capital, and candidates flock thither from all the belief in evil spirits is common among the Coreans ; their provinces. After the examination is over, those who have action is frequently controlled by the propitious or passed put on the robes of their new title, and proceed unpropitious character of times and seasons, and almost on horseback wdth sound of music to visit the chief every event is the sign of fortune or mishap. The dignitaries of the state, the examiners, &c. Then follows a serpent is the object of superstitious respect; and, instead burlesque initiation winch, though not enforced by law, is of killing it, the Corean feeds it as regularly as his rendered imperative by custom. The novice has his face domestic animals. Of first importance for the happiness stained with ink and besprinkled with flour, and is other of a family is the preservation of the ancestral fire, and wise subjected to whimsical insults. There are three every housewife has all the anxiety and responsibility of a separata degrees, that of the tcho-si, that of the tsin-sa, and Vestal Virgin. The number of astrologers and fortunethat of the keup-tchiei,—the last or highest being obtainable tellers throughout the country is extraordinary. The at once without the previous possession of the others. The blind are reputed to be endowed with special prophetic tsin-sa are destined to fill administrative posts in the aptitude, and, as a natural consequence, a large proportion province, the kcup-tchiei the higher positions about the of those who are deprived of sight make gain of their affliccapital and the palace. The military degree, which is also tion. In the capital these blind seers are formed into a known as the keup-tchiei, involves but little literary culture regular corporation legally recognized, and their services and is sought only by the poorer nobles. The whole system are in great request for the discovery of secrets, the foreis in a state of great decay, and the purchasing of degrees telling of the future, and the exorcizing of devils. In this or of doctoral theses is far from uncommon. Besides the latter operation they trust principally to noise as a means possessors of the above-mentioned degrees there is a special of frightening the spirits, whom they ultimately catch in class of scholars, known as the middle class, who devote a bottle and carry off in triumph. themselves from father to son to the study of various Manners and Customs.—Women hold a very low posispecial branches necessary in public employ :—the inter tion in Corean estimation, and count for little in the sight ! preters, who are trained either in Chinese, Manchu (Hon- of the law. Not only are they destitute of all political iak), or Mongolian; the koang-sang-kam, or school of and social influence, but they are not held personally iciences, devoted to astronomy, geoscopy, and auspication ; responsible for their actions, and live in a state of he ei-sa, or school of medicine, including a branch, for the lifelong pupilage. At the same time they enjoy a conoyal service and another for the public ; the sa-tsa-koan, >r school of recorders, employed in the preservation of the siderable amount of freedom, and it is only among the upper classes that they are kept in seclusion. Marriage is .rclnves and the drawing up of official reports for Pekin ; altogether an affair of etiquette ; the terms are settled by he to-hoa-si, intrusted with the preparation of maps, and the heads of the families, and the bride and bridegroom he execution of the portrait of the king, which after his have no opportunity of seeing each other till they meet on to t ie ro a ii . ^ y l gallery ; the nioul-hak, or chool of law, which deals mainly with the penal code; the marriage platform, and bow to each other as man and wife. After marriage there is little social intercourse from which clerks are obtained for the financial between the pair, both men and women keeping company nd public works department; and the hem-nou-koan, which ' 3 intrusted with the management of the Government with their own sex. Among the lower classes second marriages are equally permissible to both sexes; but among ydrauhc clock. the nobles the second marriage of a widow is considered so Iteligion. —-Buddhism, according to native tradition, was reprehensible that the offspring of such a union is branded 1 i° the dynasty^orea 1Q theit 4th century of our religion, era, and as illegitimate. Polygamy is not permitted, but concubinnaer of Korio became the official age is a recognized institution. Strong affection for their n the establishment, however, of the Tsi-tsien in the 14th m ury it gave place to the doctrine of Confucius, which children is one of the better characteristics of the Coreans, and infanticide and exposure are almost unknown. Adopmtmues to the present day as the established creed. In tion is a common expedient to prevent the extinction of a 03 l:-- ^or the Confucianism of Corea is identical family, and the choice of the child is regulated by a rigid . e Chinese system; but it is accompanied and t tranngied with various popular superstitions. Worship etiquette. Filial piety is in the highest estimation, and the conduct of a son towards his father is guided by innumerim ^U *. ^ 0n^ ^ie Sia~tsik, or patron of the king- able rules. If he meets him on the way, he must do him .DP r’erne divinity, to the whom with somethe regard and Siang-tiei, others identify sky. asToa humblest obeisance ; if he writes to him, he must employ the most respectful forms in the language ; if the father is ,atq er hubhc sacrifices, consisting of pigs, sheep, and sick, the son must attend him ; if the father is in prison, in rpm ° •0re^ °r PurP°se of preventing or obtaining the son must be at hand without ; if the father is exiled, itb tlm 0Tla^ eP1(^emic diseases, or otherwise interfering the son must accompany him on his journey. On the death of his father the eldest son becomes the head of the lown .natura; ^ but ^ents. Sia-tsik hardly e provinces in theThe capital his is temple is family, responsibly for all the duties of a father towards VI. — 50

394

C O R —C O R

destroyed, in spite of the fact that two Chinese kings appeared to assist Ills brothers and sisters, who receive no share in the patri- the Coreans with a force of 100,000 horsemen. I he death of mony, but merely dowries and donations on marriage, &c. Taiko-sama in 1598 led the Japanese to abandon their conquest; Between the various members of a family, even after they and in 1615 peace was definitively signed, but only on conditions of great hardship for the Coreans. A tribute was exacted and the have separated from the domestic hearth, there remains fort of Fusan-kai was retained; and the Corean king tiff 1790 had to the greatest intimacy and affection; and the slightest cen- send an embassy to Japan to announce his accession. When the Manchu dynasty ascended the throne of China, the Coreans defended nection of blood is recognized as a bond of attachment Mings ; but being defeated by the new power, they had in 1637 Industry and Trade.—The industrial _ arts are but the formally to recognize the Manchu sovereignty, and to pay henceforslightly developed, the peasant himself in most cases ward a heavy annual tribute. Since 1636 there has been no war with supplying by his own labour the greater part of his needs. China or with Japan ; and the Coreans have maintained in regard to The one manufacture in which the Corean ranks really every other nation the most absolute isolation. The ambassadors sent to Peking have been the means of conveying some little high is that of paper, a material employed as in Japan in annually knowledge of Western nations to their countrymen ; but the result a great variety of ways. Trade is mainly carried on by has rather been to make them more exclusive. It is recorded in a means of markets or fairs, but transactions are hampered Corean work that Tsiang-tou-wen-i saw a European named Jean by the deficiency of the currency. Only one kind of com, Kiouk in the Chinese capital, and obtained from him hooks, pistols, and other curiosities ; and Ricci’s Ticn-tsou-sir-ei, or Trite a small piece of copper known as a “sapeke, is recognized, telescopes, about God, are mentioned by Ni-siou-sipong, a Corean and even this is not in use in the northern provinces, where principles author In 1784 Ni-tek-tso having had his attention aroused by barter alone is in vogue. The roads of the country offer some Chinese work on the Christian religion thus introduced, but few facilities for traffic; wheeled vehicles are requested his friend Seng-houng-i, soon after sent with the embassy, unknown, and much of the transport of goods is effected by to make inquiry about the subject. The result was the formation a Christian sect, which speedily attracted the attention of the porterage. Except at the capital there is hardly, over any of Roman Catholic mission, whose agents succeeded, in spite of the of the numerous streams, a structure worthy to be called a ■jealous watch, of the Core&n authorities, in making their \\ciy into bridge. Foreign commerce there is none, unless the fair the country Persecution soon broke out, and has continued at interwhich is held annually for several days at Pien-men on the vals ever since. In 1831 a vicar apostolic was appointed by the and repeated efforts were made to effect a firm footing; but in occasion of the passage of the ambassadors, or that which Pope ISbd'the last Europeans were expelled. To avenge the murder U the takes place every two years at Hung-chung, is to be counted French missionaries, Admiral Roze undertook an expedition in the an exception. The Chinese or Japanese ships are allowed end of that year. He destroyed the city of Kang-hoa, with its to fish for trepang along the coast of Pieng-an and for her- important military establishments, but obtained no concessions ring on that of Hoang-hai; but they are prohibited, not only from the Government. Several American vessels having been burned the Coreans, the United States in 1867 despatched Commander from landing, but from holding any communication with bv Schufeldt to remonstrate with the native authorities, but he returned the Coreans at sea. as he went. Nothing further was done tiff 1870, when a force under Dwellings and Dress.—The houses of the Coreans are Admiral Rodgers proceeded up the river towards the capital, vith the of one story, flimsily constructed of wood, clay, and rice- intention of communicating directly with the Government. It was bv a determined resistance on the part of the Coreans, and straw, usually covered with thatch and badly provided met though the American vessels were secure against the native artillery, with windows. Lamentable accounts are given of the and American guns soon silenced the forts, the admiral was congeneral poverty of the common people. Their houses are strained by political difficulties to bring his expedition to a close. only about ten or twelve feet square; the floor is the bare In 1875 a convention was arranged by the Coreans with Monyama, Japanese ambassador ; but its terms were soon infringed and an earth, covered in rare instances with mats of poor quality ; the attack1 was made on the gun-boat “ Unyokam The Japanese no chairs are in use, people squatting on the floor; and Government accordingly despatched Karoda as high commissioner, there is nothing worthy of the name of a bed. The who succeeded in concluding a treaty with important concessions to ordinary shoe or sandal is formed of straw, and leaves the Japan. The Japanese are now entitled to send a permanent resident to great toe exposed; but stockings are worn by all. . Wide the capital; three ports are opened to Japanese trade ; Corean ports be entered by Japanese vessels m distress; and Japanese pantaloons and a long vest are the principal articles of may mariners are free to survey the Corean coast. i t Literature.—^ European literature about Corea is comparatively attire,—the well-to-do wearing also a large overcoat, which the peasant uses on gala occasions only. The national hat scanty of aff the works that have yet been _ published, tkt gives the completest account is M. Ballets L fighse deki is composed of a framework of bamboos covered with an which Core'e (1874) based mainly on the reports of the members of t ie open kind of haircloth; it protects neither from rain, cold, Roman Catholic mission. The earliest source nor sun, and is altogether very inconvenient. The priucipal narrative of H. Hamel, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on t spent thirteen yeais in material of the wearing apparel is cotton cloth, rough in coast of the Island of Quelpart in 1654, • it is contained in the collections of Astley, Pinkerton, «c. texture, and of its natural colour ; but a rude kind of silk captivity ffTief notices will be found in B. Hall’s He W of a fabric is not uncommon among the wealthier classes. Vc* Coast of Corea, History.—Corea, or Chosen, as it is called by the natives, appears 181?Ja A. Villi— I»iy, a. Young torfsA corem 1865 Review. 1875. Professor for the first time in Chinese history in 1122 B.C., as affording an to North China, 1870 ; and Fortnightly Review, 1875 asylum to the refugee viscount of Ke ; and since that penod it has Pfizmaier of Vienna, the Japanese scholar, has Published a G been claimed as an integral part of the Chinese empire, h) either at that time, nor for centuries afterwards, does it seem to have formed a political unity,—various states, as Hwuy, Shm-han, Pih-tse, and Sin-lo being mentioned in the Chinese records. In the first century of our era three of these states stand out as important: Kao-li in the north and north-east, Pih-tse in the west, and Sin-lo if TaiSZTa C=r *Translation UJ U , c a „ramma in the south. Out of the civil wars which fill the next ten hundred AJapanese, by W. H. Medhurst, Batavia, f Legation at years Sin-lo emerges predominant ; but in the 11th century vocabulary by W. F. Meyers, secretary of ^f^ries are to the king of Kao-li, known as Wang-kian, or Wang the founder, Pekin, and a dictionary compiled by the French ^^ united the whole peninsula under his sway, and established the be published. dynasty which has given its name to the country. The fall of the Mongolian dynasty in China brought about a similar revolution in CORELLI, Arcangelo (1653-1713), a cekkratcd viohn Corea • and in 1392 Tai-tso or Li-tan became the founder of the present dynasty of Tsi-tsien, and the author of the system of admini- player and composer for that instrument, was Don stration stiff in force. The Chinese at that time imposed on the Eusignano near Imola. Of Ms life little ts known^. ^ Coreans the use of their chronology and calendar. Under Siong-siong, who held the throne from 1506 to 1544, the master on tire violin was Bassam. Matteo Si n ^ ^ Coreans carried on a war with Japan, but in 1597 the great Japanese well-known singer of the Popes chapel, tang monarch Taiko-sama retaliated by a remarkable invasion. According position. His talent as a player on the viohn s ^ to the journal of O-o-gawutsi, a Japanese general who took part have been acknowledged at an early Pf^i^Lteen. in the expedition, the force consisted of 163,000 horsemen ; three- decided success he gained in Pans at the ago ol fourths of the country was occupied and several of the oldest cities

c o R —C 0 R To this success he owed his European reputation. From Paris Corelli went to Germany and settled at Munich, where he remained for nearly nine years, much admired at court and in the city. In 1681 he returned to Rome, and contracted a close friendship with Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him the conductor of his private chapel. With the exception of a visit to Naples by invitation of the king, Corelli remained in Rome till his death in 1713. His life was quiet and wholly devoted to his art. The style of execution introduced by him and preserved by his pupils, such as Geminiani, Locatelli, and many otheis, has been of vital importance for the development of violin-playing. In the same sense it may be said that his compositions for the instrument mark an epoch in the history of chamber music; for his influence was not confined to his own country. Even the great Sebastian Bach submitted to it. Musical society in Rome owed much to Corelli. He was received in the highest circles of the aristocracy, and arranged and for a long time presided at the celebrated Monday concerts in the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni. Corelli died possessed of a considerable sum of money and a valuable collection of pictures, the only luxury he had indulged in. Both he left to his benefactor and friend, who, however, generously made over the first part of the legacy to Corelli’s relations. The composer’s bust, placed on his grave at the expense of the Count Palatine Philip William, and under the supervision of Cardinal Ottoboni, is at present in the Museo Capitolino. Corelli’s compositions are distinguished by a beautiful flow of melody and by a masterly treatment of the accompanying parts, which he is justly said to have liberated from the strict rules of counterpoint. Six collections of concerti, sonatas, and minor pieces for violin, with accompaniment of other instruments, besides several concerted pieces for strings, are authentically ascribed to this composer. The most important of these is the XII. Suonatia Violino e Violone o Cimbalo (Rome, 1700). CORENZIO, Belisario (c. 1558-1643), a Greek, studied at Venice under Tintoretto, and then settled at Naples, where he became famous for unscrupulous conduct as a man and rapid execution as an artist. Though careless in composition and a mannerist in style, he possessed an acknowledged fertility of invention and readiness of hand; and these qualities, allied to a certain breadth of conception, seem in the eyes of his contemporaries to have atoned for many defects, When Guido Reni came in 1621 to Naples to paint in the chapel of St Januarius, Corenzio suborned an assassin to take his life. The hired bravo killed Guido’s assistant, and effectually frightened Reni, who prudently withdrew to Rome. Corenzio, however, only suffered temporary imprisonment, and lived long enough to supplant lubera in the good graces of Don Pedro di Toledo, viceroy of Naples, who made him his court painter. Corenzio ■vainly endeavoured to fill Guido’s place in the chapel of St Januarius, His work was adjudged to have been under tie mark and inferior to that of Fabrizio Santafede and Uirracciolo. Yet the numerous frescoes which he left in . eaP°litan churches and palaces, and the large wall paintings which still cover the cupola of the church of MonteUsino. are evidence of uncommon facility, and show that orenzio was not greatly inferior to the/a prestos of his !meflorid style, indeed, seems well in keeping with 10 over laden architecture and full-blown decorative ornamen peculiar to the Jesuit builders of the 17th century. orenzio died, it is said, at the age of eighty-five by a fall from a scaffolding. anc en

^ f Corcyra.) an island of Greece, in the coast Albania or Epirus, from 1 8 se arate( I P i hy a strait varying in breadth from a!1 pi ,1 .t^bont fifteen miles. In shape it is not unie sickle or drepane, to which it was compared by the wbT t*

1

395 ancients,—the hollow side, with the town and harbour of Corfu in the centre, being turned towards the Albanian coast. Its extreme length is about forty miles and its greatest breadth about twenty. The area is estimated at 227 square miles, and the population is about 72,500. Twm high and well-defined ranges divide the island into three districts, of which the northern is mountainous, the central undulating, and the southern low-lying. The most important of the two ranges is that of San Salvador, probably the ancient Istone, which stretches east and west from Cape St Angelo to Cape St Stefano, and attains its greatest elevation of 3300 feet in the summit from which it takes its name. The second culminates in the mountain of Santi Deca, or Santa Decca, as it is called by misinterpretation of the Greek designation ol "Ayioi Ae/ca, or the Ten Saints. The whole island, composed as it is of various limestone formations, presents great diversity of surface, and the prospects from the more elevated spots are magnificent. Vegetation and Agriculture.'—Travellers generally agree that, with the exception, perhaps, of Crete, Corfu is the most beautiful of all the Greek isles, but resident foreigners complain of the monotonous colour of the olive, whose grayishgreen is little relieved by the cypress and pine, or the mulberry and jujubier. This lack of variety, which is the more to be regretted as the island is adapted for the oak, the plane, the Spanish chestnut, and the walnut, is mainly due to the fact that the government of Venice at one time gave premiums for planting olive-trees, partly to encourage the produce of oil, and partly to discourage the raising of wheat. Once planted, the olive has suited the people. Single trees of first quality yield sometimes as much as 2 gallons of oil, and this with little trouble or expense beyond the collecting and pressing of the fallen fruit. As the trees are allowed to grow unrestrained, they are generally much larger and more wide-spreading than those in Provence or Tuscany, and some are not less than three centuries old. It is worthy of remark that Homer names, as adorning the garden of Alcinous, seven plants only—the wild olive, the oil olive, the pear, pomegranate, apple, fig, and vine. Of these the apple and pear are now very inferior in Corfu; the others thrive well, and are accompanied by all the fruit-trees known in Southern Europe, with addition of the Japanese medlar (or loquat) and, in some spots, of the banana. When undisturbed by cultivation, the myrtle, arbutus, bay, and ilex form a rich brushwood and the minor Jfora of the island is extensive. Corfiot proprietors in general display little taste for the country, and their absenteeism is probably increased by the il colonia perpetua,” by which the landlord grants a lease to the tenant and his heirs for ever, in return for a rent,'payable in kind, and fixed at a certain proportion of the produce. Of old, a tenant thus obtaining half the produce to himself was held to be co-owner of the soil to the extent of one-fourth; and if he had three-fourths of the crop, his ownership came to one-half. Such a tenant could not be expelled but for non-payment, bad culture, or the transfer of his lease without the landlord’s consent. Attempts have been made to prohibit so embarrassing a system; but as it is preferred by the agriculturists, the existing laws permit it. The portion of the olive crop due to the landlord, whether by colonia or ordinary lease, is paid, not according to the actual harvest, but in keeping with the estimates of valuators mutually appointed, who, just before the fruit is ripe, calculate how much each tree will probably yield. The large old fiefs (baronie) in Corfu, as in the other islands, have left their traces in the form of quit-rents (known in Scotland by the name of feuduties), generally equal to one-tenth of the produce. But they have been much subdivided, and the vassals may by law redeem them.

C 0 E —0 O E Coefu, tlie capital of the above island, stands on the broad The Corfiot peasantry are reputed the idlest of all the part of a peninsula, whose termination in the citadel is cut lonians. The olive receives little or no culture from from it by an artificial fosse formed in a natural gulley, them, and the vineries alone are laboured by the broad with a salt-water ditch at the bottom. Seen from the heart-shaped hoe. The vintage, which begins on the water, or from a height, it is picturesque in masses, but in festival of Santa Croce, or the 26th of September (O.fe.), detail it is not to be praised for either beauty or comfort. is neither a pretty nor a lively scene, and little care is Having grown up within fortifications, where every foot of taken in the various operations. None of the Corfu wines ground was precious, there is nothing spacious about it except the handsome esplanade between the town and flic Cottagers cultivate no gardens for themselves.; they citadel. Indeed, it is still, in spite of recent improvements, purchase their vegetables in the Corfu market, and a con- a perfect labyrinth of narrow, tortuous, up-and-down streets, siderable sum goes annually to buy m Apulia the gar ic accommodating themselves to the irregularities of tlie and onions so largely used by the people. ground, few of them fit for wheel carriages. The palace, The capital (noticed below) is the only city or town ot built by Sir Thomas Maitland, is a large structure of much extent in the island; but there are a number of white Maltese stone, but the exterior has no architectural villages, such as Benizze, Gastun, Ipso, Glypho, with merits, although internally its apartments are very stately. populations varying from 300 to 1000. In several parts of the town may be found houses of tlie . Corfu containsveryfewand unimportant rcmainsof antiquity. The Venetian time, with some traces of past splendour, but tliey siteof the ancient city of Kerkyrarawellascertamed about 14 miles to are few, and are giving place to structures in the modern and the south-east of Corfu, upon the narrow piece of ground between more convenient French style. Of the thirty-seven Greek the sea-lake of Calichiopulo and the Bay of Castrades, in each o which it had a port. Under the hill of Ascension are the remains churches the most important are the cathedral, dedicated to ofa temple, popularly called of Neptune, avery simple Doric structure, Our Lady of the Cave (17 Havayta ~Xirr]XiwTLcraa); St Spiriwhich still in its mutilated state presents some peculiarities of dion’s, with the tomb of the patron saint of the island; and architecture. Of Cassiope, the only other city of ancient importance, the suburban church of St Jason and St Sosipater, reputed the name is still preserved by the village of Cassopo, and tberearc some rude remains of building on the site ; but the temple of Zeus the oldest in the island. The city is the seat of a Greek Cassius for which it was celebrated has totally disappeared. and a Roman Catholic bishop; and it possesses a gymnasium, Throughout the island there are numerous monasteries and other a theatre, an agricultural and industrial society, and a buildings of Venetian erection, of which the best known are library and museum preserved in the buildings formerly Paleocastrizza, San Salvador, and Pelleka. The ancient Corcyreans delighted to identify their island with devoted to the university, which was founded by Lord the Homeric Scheria—the kingdom of Alcinous and his Phseacian Guildford in 1823, but disestablished on the cessation of subiects ; but the first authentic event in the history of Corcyra is the English protectorate. There are three suburbs of some its colonization in 734 B.c. by the Corinthians, and the expulsion importance—Castrades, Mauduchio, and ban liocco. The of the previous Cretan and Liburnian settlers. So prosperous was the new community that in a short time it rivalled the mother old fortifications of the town, being so extensive as to country, and in 695 b.c., in a sea-fight which is remarkable as the require a force of from 10,000 to 20,000 troops to man first on record, destroyed the fleet which had been sent to compel them, were in great part thrown down by the English, and its allegiance. Not long afterwards, however, it was forced to a simpler plan adopted, limiting the defences to the island recognize Corinthian supremacy by the tyrant Penander, the son ol Cypselus. At a subsequent period its dissensions with the parent of Vido and the old citadel. Population about 25,000. CORIANDER, the fruit, improperly called seed, of an state brought on the Peloponnesian war, during which it repelled several attempts of the Lacedaemonians. After various vicissitudes Umbelliferous plant (Coriandrum sativum), a native of the it fell into the hands of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and on his death south of Europe and Asia Minor, but naturalized and it was seized by the Illyrian pirates. Under the Komans, who obtained possession in 229 B.C., it became an important naval cultivated in the south of England. The plant produces a station, and so continued till the fall of the Eastern Empire. In 1081 stem rising about a foot in height, with bipinnate leaves Robert Guiscard, the Norman, captured Corfu, and in 1085 he died at and flowers in pink or whitish umbels. The. fruit is Cassopo. It was again conquered by his nephew Roger of Sicily in globular and externally smooth, having five indistinct 1146 • but it was recovered by Manuel Comnenus m 1152. In 1192 Richard I. of England landed at Corfu on his voyage from ridges, and the mericarps, or half-fruits, do not readily Palestine ; and the forces of the fifth crusade were welcomed to separate from each other. It is used in medicine as an the island after the capture of Zara. The Genoese corsair, Leon aromatic and carminative, and on account of. its pleasant Vetrano, who had made himself master of what was then regarded and pungent flavour it is a favourite ingredient in het as a Venetian possession, was defeated and executed, and the Venetian senate in 1206 sent a colony of ten noble families to curries and sauces. The fruit is also used in confectionery, secure its occupancy. Through the rest of the 13th and most of and as a flavouring ingredient in various liqueurs, lie the 14th century, Corfu and the other Ionian Islands were a prey essential oil on which its aroma depends is obtained from by turns to corsairs, and to Greek and Neapolitan claimants ; and it by distillation. The tender leaves and shoots ot tlie it was not till 1386 that the Corfiots voluntarily placed them_ . selves under’, Venice, which in 1401, on the payment of 30,000 ducats, young plant are used in soups and salads. CORIGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the province ct had its right to the island recognized by Ladislas, king, of Naples. Barbarossa ravaged Corfu in 1537, and Selim II. did much the Calabria Citeriorc and the district of Rossano, situated on same in 1570. In 1571 the great fleet which was about to become illustrious through the battle of Lepanto, was reviewed at Corfu by a river of the same name, about four miles from, the coast, the generalissimo, Don John of Austria. The last and greatest on a steep hill, which is surmounted by an ancient cas e struggle for the possession of the city and island was in 1716, when and fringed at the foot by orange and lemon plantations, the forces of Achmet III. were defeated by the Venetians under is supplied with water by an extensive aqueduct ana Count Schulenburg, already famous for his crossing of the Oder carries on the manufacture of liquorice and a trade and his share in the battle of Malplaquet. The peace of Campo . . ic Pormio gave the Ionian Islands to the French, but in 1799 they timber. Population about 10,000. were forced to capitulate to a Russo-Turkish fleet. By the treaty of CORINGA, a seaport town of British India, m Paris, 1815, the republic of the Ionian Islands was revived, and collectorate of Godavery and presidency of Madras, placed under the protectorate of Great Britain, Corfu being' the situated in 82° 19' E. long, and 16“ .49 N. lat, on chief island of the group. In 1864 that protectorate was resigned in favour of the kingdom of Greece, and Corfu now forms one of the estuary of a branch of the Godavery River. The nomarchies of that country, along with the neighbouring islands of is protected from the swell of the sea by the sa'P Merlera, Fano, Salmastraki, Paxo, Antipaxo, and Leukadia projection of Point Godavery, and affords a she r Literature .-—Baron Theotoky, Details sur Corf on; Mustoxidi, No tine per ser- vessels during the south-west monsoon. Across its eu vire alia storia Corcirese, 1804; J. P. Bellarc, 1‘recis dees operations generates de la division francaise du Levant, 1805; Jervis, History of Corfu, 1852; Alb is a bar, which shows a depth of about 15 feet ? Mousson, Ein Besuch auf Korfu im Sept. 1858, Zurich, 1859; Ansted's The Ionian tides. The repairing and building of small coasting r Islands, \8QZ-, Tuckermann’s Creeks of To-day, 1874.

396

COR- -COR is a staple industry of Coringa.. The chief exports are teak, salt, and piece-goods; the imports are silk, paper, and 'copper. In 1787 a gale from the north-east occasioned an inundation which swept away the greater part of the town with its inhabitants ; and in 1832 another storm desolated the place, carrying vessels into the fields and leaving them aground. Of Europeans the French, who still hold the neighbouring settlement of Yanaon, were the first to establish themselves at Coringa. In 1759 the English took possession of the town, and erected a factory five miles to the south of it. CORINNA, a Greek poetess, born at Tanagra in Boeotia, of interest for the influence which she exerted on Pindar. The fragmentary traditions which have been preserved represent her now as the poet’s friend and instructress, and By her he is said to aaain as his rival and competitor. have been advised to adorn his poems with the Greek myths, and then when he employed them too lavishly, to have been warned that they ought to “be sown by the hand and not poured forth from the sack.” She also blamed him for having used an Attic idiom in one of his lyrics. The victory which she gained in the poetic contest with her friend in the public games at Thebes is ascribed by Pausanius to her beauty and the free use she made of the local Boeotian dialect; and the story goes that Pindar gave expression to the same opinion by calling her in the heat of his chagrin a “ Boeotian swine,” with allusion to a common Greek proverb. By the Greeks she was esteemed as the first of the nine lyrical muses. The fragments of her poetry have been collected by Ursinus, Wolf, Schneider, and Bergk. See Leopold Schmidt, Pindar's Leben und Dichlungen, 1862. CORINTH (now corrupted into Gortho) was originally called Ephyre, but the name Kdptv^os is as old as Homer. This most populous and thriving of Greek cities was situated at the southern end of the isthmus which connects Peloponnesus with the mainland of Hellas. The citadel, Acrocorinthus, occupied the summit of a precipitous rock, 1886 feet in height, which is in fact an offshoot from the Oneion, a mountain range skirting the northern shore of Achaia, but which appears, especially when viewed from the north, to be detached. From this height the view includes the Geraneian range at the opposite end of the isthmus, and the higher mountains of Northern Greece behind it, while in the foreground lies to the left the Corinthian Gulf stretching westward, and the Saronic Gulf to the east, together with the strip of flat land which divides the one of these from the other. Another narrow plain stretches along the southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf in the direction of Sicyon, and was proverbial in ancient times for the value of its agricultural produce. The city of Corinth lay not at the foot of the hill on which the citadel stood, but on a ledge or shelf of that hill at a height of about j200 English feet. A lofty wall—according to Strabo, 85 stadia (about ten miles) in length—inclosed both city and citadel, and two walls, each 12 stadia in length, inclosed the road to the harbour of Lechreum on the Corinthian Gulf;. Schcenus and Cenchrese, the two harbours belonging to the city on the Saronic Gulf, lay at a greater distance. Prom its position Corinth enjoyed in prehistoric times two advantages especially important in the infancy of navigation. On the long gulf v/hich stretched from Corinth westwards, called in early times after Crissa, the port of clphi, and later after Corinth itself, vessels could sail for a ove JOO miles without losing sight of land and between 1 reS secondl 1 Ui lri ‘ '^'n^vessels y> all thekinds natives of Corinth were stuf 1 • ° dragging of across from sea to ^ea, thus saving them the dangers of the perilous voyage roun thfj Peloponnesus. That the Phoenicians did not over oo c these advantages we know from the many traces of

397

Phoenician occupation remaining in later times, especially the worship of the Phoenician Athene, Aphrodite Urania(tke Sidonian Astarte), and Melicertes (the Tyrian Melkarth). The important cultus, at the isthmus, of Poseidon, the great divinity of the lonians, proves the earliest Greek inhabitants of Corinth to have been Ionian, but Thucydides states that it was under TEolian princes. The earliest of these of whom we hear is Sisyphus, according to one legend lover of Medea, according to another grandfather of Bellerophon, the great local hero who tamed the winged horse Pegasus, and slew the monstrous Chimrera. The character of mingled greed and cunning, ascribed to Sisyphus, is doubtless intended to embody the qualities which distinguished the people of the commercial city from their rural neighbours. This was in the age preceding the Trojan War. On the return of the Heraclidae the Dorian invaders, after subduing the rest of Peloponnesus, attacked Corinth, and having mastered it proceeded against Megara and Athens. Corinth fell into the hands of a descendant of Hercules, named Aletes (the wanderer), and was reconstituted on Dorian principles, but not, it would appear, with the same rigidity as Argos, Sicyon, and other cities, for we find eight tribes instead of the usual three, and it is certain that the aristocracy of the city did not disdain to lead in trade, and resembled rather the nobility of Venice than the pure-blooded warrior-caste of other Dorian cities. The most wealthy family was that of the Bacchiadae, the descendants of Aletes, who furnished first a succession of kings, and afterwards yearly prytaneis who ruled with kingly power. It was about 657 B.c. that Cypselus, a Bacchiad on his mother’s side, succeeded inAoverthrowing this oligarchy and, by the aid of the commons)’establishing his power at Corinth so firmly that he could even forego the foreign body-guard and the external supports of the Greek tyrant. His son and successor, Periander was sometimes reckoned among the v/ise men of Greece, and probably did more than any other man to shape the colonial and mercantile policy of the city. Under him Corinth reached the summit of prosperity, but Periander’s family was destroyed by internal dissensions, and his nephew Psammetichus was after a brief reign put down by the Spartans about 584 b.c. It was in the period between Aletes and Psammetichus that lay the golden days of Corinth. Then were made a series of splendid discoveries and inventions, which increased the trade and multiplied the resources of the city, and enabled it to found the numerous colonies which were the basis at once of its wealth, its power, and its policy. To begin with the loftier arts. Arion graced the court of Periander, and secured for Corinth the honour of the invention of the dithyramb ; Eumelus and Eumolpus, both Corinthians, were among the earliest and the most celebrated of the cyclic poets. Corinthian architecture was renowned until the later time when a light and ornate style of building took its origin and its name from the city. Corinthian pottery was early celebrated, and it is said that the art of ornamenting earthenware was improved at Corinth by Butades, Eucheir, and Eugrammus. Even painting was either introduced into Greece, or was much improved, by the Corinthians Aridices, Ecphantus, and Cleanthes. Still it was in the useful rather than the ornamental and imaginative arts that Corinth most excelled. There the trireme was invented, and the machinery for the transport of ships carried to the highest perfection, while Corinthian bronzes, tables, coffers, and objects of luxury were renowned on all shores of the Aegean and Adriatic. One of the most remarkable of these pieces of handiwork was the wellknown chest of Cypselus, still preserved at Olympia in the time of Pausanias, made of cedar and inlaid with a multitude of figures in gold and ivory, a miracle of archaic art.

398

CORINTH

The wealth and prosperity of the city caused its rulers to plan early a scheme of colonization. Professor Ernst Curtius has given reasons for supposing that at the time of the Lclantian war, of which Thucydides speaks, between Chalcis and Eretria in Eubcea, Corinth was, together v> ith Samos, a firm ally of the former city, and that it was in company with the Chalcidians that the Corinthians made their first attempts at colonization, dhat these attempts were, through a series of years, made almost constant!) in a western rather than an eastern direction was duo to the position of iEgina, which island lay right in the track of travellers from Corinth to Asia Minor or the Euxine, the yEginetans having maintained a constant hostility to the Corinthians from the earliest times, until their island was finally conquered by the Athenians, who had received for the war a detachment of ships sent from Corinth. It was in the 8th century that the two greatest colonies, Coreyra and Syracuse, were founded. Syracuse remained, even in the time of her greatest prosperity, a grateful and dutiful daughter, but Corcyra very soon after its foundation was engaged in hostilities with the mother-city, and, though reduced to obedience in the time of Periander, finally ousted Corinthian commerce from the northern part of the Adriatic, ami maintained undivided supremacy over the cities of Dyrrhachium and Apollonio. But south of the straits of Sybota, which divided the southern point of Corcyra from the mainland, Corinth was supreme. To her the towns of Achaia, Phocis, and Locri, on both sides of the Corinthian Gulf, looked as their head; she ruled all the rich country watered by the Achelous, which region, indeed, became in time almost more Corinthian than the isthmus itself, while all the Dorian cities of Sicily and Soutnern Italy looked to the navy of Corinth to keep up their connection with the mother country. It is said that Corinth adhered in a special manner to the customs of Phoenicia as regards colonies, at any rate the city was in this respect successful beyond the rest of Greece. Expeditions were directed to some promising point on the Illyrian or Acarnanian coast, the approval of the Delphic oracle was secured, and volunteers were invited from all parts of Greece. At the head of the colony was placed some cadet of the Bacchiadse, or another great family, and some of the mercantile nobility accompanied it, retaining in the new home much of the oligarchical predominance which they had enjoyed at home. It was probably the preservation of this aristocratic tinge which made the union closer between colony and mother-city, so that the Corinthian envoys could boast (Thucydides, i. 38) that Corinth was of all cities the most popular with her colonies ; and, with the exception of Corcyra, few of the new settlements gave the mother-city any trouble. Alone among cities Corinth imposed on all her colonies a uniform coinage, the different issues of which arc so similar in appearance that it has been doubted if Corinth did not keep in her own hands all minting of silver. After Psammetichus had been put down, a timocracy was instituted, with hierarchy of grades. Corinth set an early example in that system of political classification according to revenue which was afterwards adopted in Borne and other cities. At the same time, it is clear that in so commercial a city an organization of this kind would not produce an exclusive land-owning aristocracy. It was about the middle of the 5th century b.c. that Corinth started upon a more restless and aggressive career. At that time her very existence was threatened by the growing greatness of Athens, which city had gained the mastery of Megara and predominant power among the cities of Achaia. Soon after the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, an Athenian fleet under Tolmides appeared in the Corinthian Gulf, and seizing upon Naupactus, and expelling

thence the Locrian colonists whom Corinth had stationed there to defend her interests, established in that city a colony of Messanian fugitives, in order to cut the communications of Corinth close to their base. Hence the bitter and vindictive animosity felt by the Corinthians towards Athens, which caused them, after that city had surrendered to Lysander, to urge upon the Spartans its total destruction. No sooner, however, was the Spartan supremacy undisputed, than a party among the Corinthians, whether seduced by Persian gold, or following notions of supposed expediency, began to cabal with Athens and Argos against the Lacedaemonians, with whom the aristocracy of the city still sided. Hence bitter dissensions and many calamities to the Corinthians, whoso city was more than once the battle-field of parties, as well as of the Argive and Lacedaemonian troops. The events of the war hence arising, and called Corinthian, belong to the history of Greece. The city, weakened by sedition, fell easily into the hands of Philip II. of Macedon, whose successor, the fifth Philip, called it, in virtue of its splendid position, one of the three fetters of Greece. As the chief city of the Achman League during the latter part of its existence, Corinth claimed a share in the 2d century in the latest glories of Greece. There Flamininus proclaimed the liberties of Greece; and as the ally of Borne, Corinth reached a high point of wealth and splendour. But that alliance was broken off, and the result was the total destruction of tho city by Mummius in 146 B.C., and the sale of its inhabitants into slavery. The richness of the city at this period in all the accumulated results of Greek science and art was immense, as we know from the statements of Polybius, an eye-witness. The Romans secured a vast spoil of statues, pictures, and furniture, of which a part was purchased by Attains of Pergamus, a part sent in many ships to Borne, and much also destroyed in mere wantouness. Notwithstanding, the place remained a quarry whence in after ages were dug innumerable treasures of art. The Corinthian territory was given to Sicyon, and the site lay waste until the time of Julius Caesar. The great dictator settled there a colony of needy Greeks and Roman freedmen, which he called after himself Laus Julia, and made the seat of government of Achaia. Between the new Corinth and tho old the site was the only bond of connection, yet the historic splendours of the place seem to have mastered the minds of the new inhabitants, who before long began to resume all the local cvlts, and to claim the past glory of the city as their own. Latin, howrever, as we know from coins, remained tho official language, and the duumviri were usually the freedmen of the emperors or of Roman nobles. Tho new city, from its position, soon acquired a great trade with Ephesus, Thessalonica, and other cities. For this reason it attracted St Paul, who visited it more than once, and spent many months there in converse with Aquila and Priscilla, and in preaching in the synagogue. Hence were written the two Epistles to the Thessalonians, and hero was founded a church w hich claimed for a long period the deepest anxieties of the apostle and after his death of Clement,—tho temptations to sensual indulgence and autinomian heresies being here stronger than in most of tho Greek cities. Unfortunately, it is only of this, second Corinth that wo possess detailed descriptions. It was visited both by Strabo and Pausanias. From tho former wo learn that the summit of the Acrocorinthus bore a little temple of Aphrodite, and that just below tho summit gushed out tho fountain Peireno, which once more rose to tho surface down in the lower city. Just below this fountain were tho remains of a marblo building, supposed to have been the remains of the palace of tho monarch Sisyphus. From the account of Pausanias (ii. ch. 1-4) wo may gain a clear notion of the

COR- -COR topography of the city and the isthmus. In the midst of the city was the market-place, commanded by a lofty statue of Pallas made of bronze, and surrounded by many temples, among others those of the Ephesian Artemis and of Fortune, and by statues standing in the open air. Hence three principal roads led in various directions. The first passed westwards towards Sicyon, leading by a temple of Apollo, the Odeum, and the tomb of the children of Medea, Mermerus and Pheres, whom a local legend asserted to have perished at the hands of the Corinthians, after they had brought their poisoned gifts to Glauce. A little further on was the temple of Athene Chalinitis (the bridler), so called because she bridled for Belleropkon the unruly Pegasus; the statue of the goddess was of wood and doubtless ancient, a fact which proves that the sack by Mummius cannot have been so complete as might have been imagined. Near this temple was a theatre, probably a work of Roman times, and a temple of the Roman Jupiter Capitolinus. The second road led north towards the harbour of Lechaeum and the Corinthian Gulf. It first passed Propylaea, surmounted by two gilt quadrigae driven by Phaethon and Helios, and next the grotto w'hero issued afresh the same fountain Peirene which rises near the summit of the Acrocorinthus, and filled a large basin with sweet water, used by the inhabitants for drinking, and as a bath in wrhich to dip the vessels of Corinthian bronze while still red-hot, a process which was supposed to make their fineness unapproachable. The wrater-supply of the city was unrivalled, yet the emperor Hadrian constructed an aqueduct all the wray from the Stymphalian Lake, a work, if wo may believe Pausanias, of vain ostentation. The third road led eastwards, first to the fashionable suburb of the city, a cypress-grove called Craneion. This quarter is well described in Becker’s Charxcles. It abounded with the life which distinguished Corinth from other cities, crowds of travellers, seeking both gain and pleasure, with the lively .booths which offered the former, and the crowds of female slaves who ministered to the latter. Here was the tomb of Lais, to whom her fellowcitizens paid almost divine honours, and here, strangely, the monument of the great cynic, Diogenes of Sinope, who had passed his life in the midst of this gay and dissolute company. On the Craueion the road divided into two branches. Of these the more southerly ran to the harbour of Cenchreae, a roadstead fenced on both sides by promontories stretching out to sea, but not much assisted by art; while the more important Lechaeum, on the other side of the isthmus, was almost entirely artificial. The more northerly branch of the road led to the little harbour of Schoenus, and the world-renowned spot where were celebrated every second year the Isthmian Games. These games were held in honour in early times of Melicertes, in later times of Poseidon, and close by were temples of both deities. That of Poseidon was not largo; it contained statues of Poseidon, Amphitrite, and Thalassa, and in front was a crowd of statues of the victors in the games. The shrine of Melicertes stood under a pine; it was circular, and contained, as wo know from coins, a statue of the divinity reclining on the back of a dolphin. Melicertes (also called Pakemon) had also a subterranean chapel where the most solemn oaths were administered, and it was said that perjurers seldom left the spot unpunished. Close to the temples was the stadium of the games made of white marble, and not far from it the road on which triremes were transported from sea to sea. There were also traces of a canal which, projected by Alexander the Great, resolved on by Julius Caesar, commenced by Nero, was never dug more than a few hundred yards inland from the Corinthian Gulf.

399

In the Middle Ages Corinth suffered many disasters. It was sacked by Alaric, and at a later period was most bitterly contended for by the Turks and the Venetians. During the Middle Ages the city occupied the hill of Acrocorinthus itself, not the ledge at its base, but it has now resumed its earlier position. The modern town is small and wretched, and retains few remains of antiquity. The most remarkable among these are seven columns of an exceedingly ancient temple of the Doric order, and some traces of the Roman amphitheatre. The best authorities on the subject arc—Ernst Curtins, Pcloponncsos, vol. ii. p. 514, and a dissertation in the Hermes, vol. x.; Barth, Corinthiomm Commercii et Mercaturce Llistorice Particula, Berlin, 1843 ; Dr Win. Smith’s article in his Dictionary of Ancient Geography. The autonomous coins afford valuable data for the history of the Corinthian league, and the coins of Roman times offer representations of many of the most interesting objects of the later city. (P. G.) CORINTHIANS, Epistles to the. These two letters of St Paul occupy a unique position among the Paulino epistles. They are remarkable as being in their primary aspect historical rather than doctrinal, while, at the same time, all the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, as connected with the miraculous facts on which they rest, are suggestively implied. These epistles, too, together with those to the Galatians and to the Romans, have been admitted as genuine writings of St Paul, even by the most audacious critical assailants of the New Testament canon. The external testimony to them is early and complete, and the internal evidence of authorship and age makes it impossible to doubt the genuineness and authenticity of these remarkable documents. There are, perhaps, no other epistles in the New Testament in which there is so much of “ local colouring,” or so many temporal and local allusions. These letters throw great light both upon the early circumstances of the Christian church and upon the character of the great missionary to the Gentiles; and whilst they are very full of what was due to the special occasions on which they were written, the universal applicability of the Christian principles laid down in them must be patent to every thoughtful student. Stier speaks of the Epistles to the Corinthians as being “ a pathology and materia medica for all that are designed to be physicians of the church in a larger or lesser circle ; ” and Bleek remarks on the first epistle, that it “ serves as a type and pattern in dealing with the multifarious tendencies, relations, and disorders of the Christian church, almost all of which have their counterpart in the Corinthian Church, and are continually repeated with various modifications at various times.” The history of the two epistles seems to be this. Paul’s first visit to Corinth and his long and eventful sojourn there are mentioned in Acts xviii. 1-18. After his departure from the rich and luxurious capital of Achaia, evils which, we can perceive, were very likely to spring up in such a place began to appear in the Christian community. The Hellenic tendency to philosophical speculation and to factious partisanship, and the sensuality and licentiousness which had made the word corinthianize a synonym for selfindulgence and wantonness, became roots of bitterness, strife, and immorality. The presence of Apollos (Acts xviii. 27, 28) was doubtless advantageous, and St Paul evidently alludes to a successful prosecution of evangelistic work by the learned Alexandrian, when he says “ I planted, Apollos watered” (1 Cor. iii. 6). ^et it would seem that invidious comparisons had been made between the simpler preaching of the Apostle Paul and the probably more philosophical and refined style of Apollos, so that some of the Corinthian Christians began to regard Apollos as their leader, rather than Paul, who had first preached the gospel unto them. The reluctance of Apollos to return to Corinth,

400

CORIN';

H I A N S

at the time wlien Paul wrote what we know as the first Christians should partake of the Lord’s Supper (x., xl.) epistle (1 Cor. xvi. 12), can best be accounted for by a One doctrinal subject is treated of directly in the epistle. consciousness on his part of the rivalry which had arisen Some among the Corinthians had denied the resurrection between the two factions; and the manner in which Paul of the dead. The apostle shows that the fact of the urged, and Apollos declined, the mission of the latter to resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead is the basis of Corinth may be viewed as equally creditable to the mag- Christian teaching and the spring of Christian hope (xv.) nanimity of the older teacher and to the modesty and He then makes reference to the collection which he was prudence of the younger. But a far more dangerous making for the brethren at Jerusalem, speaks of his own division of the church existed than that between those plans, sends greetings from the churches of Asia, and conwho favoured Paul and those who preferred Apollos. In cludes with solemnity and tenderness (xvi.) The subscribed note to this epistle, which asserts that it the Epistles to the Corinthians we have indications of the antagonism and envy of a Judaizing section, who may have was written from Philippi, is a palpable error, possibly been encouraged by emissaries from Palestine, like those grounded upon a misapprehension of xvi. 5. The letter complained of in Galat. ii. 4 (comp. Acts xv. 1, 24). was evidently written from Ephesus, some time before These Judaizers would make much of the fact that Paul Pentecost, and after winter (xvi. 6, 8), and, not improbably, was not one of the original twelve apostles ; and they seem near the season of the Jewish feast of the Passover (v. .7, to have endeavoured to undermine his authority, by depre- 8), in the year 57 a.d. Whether Timothy was the bearer ciating his position as a teacher, and by deriding his of the letter or not seems doubtful (xvi. 10); and it is personal qualifications. Nor were dissensions and tenden- more probable that the three messengers from Corinth, cies to split up into parties the only evils that infested the already mentioned as having brought a letter for St Paul, Corinthian Churches. Paul, when at Ephesus on his thiid returned with his reply. But Timothy and Erastus were missionary journey, heard of these “ contentions ” from the sent together into Macedonia, and Erastus (comp. Rom. members of a Christian household, who were either xvi. 23 and 2 Tim. iv. 20) may have been returning to his resident at Corinth or connected with the place (1 Cor. i. home in Corinth. Then occurred the notable disturbance 11); but he heard of something worse still, and more at Ephesus recorded in Acts xix. 23, &c. Paul left Asia glaringly inconsistent with the Christian profession. for Macedonia (Acts xx. 1), and our second epistle to the Licentiousness was common among them, and a griev- Corinthians may have been written either at Philippi or at ous case of incest had taken place (1 Cor. v. 1, &c.), Thessalonica, at a time when Timothy had rejoined him'(2 which called for the severest censure and punishment. Cor. i. 1). It has been a frequent remark of commentators that That the apostle had been awake to the peculiar dangers there is no letter among those written by St Paul so full of the Corinthian Christians in respect of the licentiousness and luxury for which Corinth was noted, appears from the of personal feeling as the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. fact that he had previously written a letter which has not The “tumultuous conflict of feeling,” “the labyrinth of come down to us (1 Cor. v. 9), exhorting the Christians to conflicting emotions,” by which the writer was agitated, is avoid intercourse with fornicators. Alford conjectures that reflected in the rapid transitions and confused eagerness, as this letter may have also contained some instructions as to we may term it, of his style. We can trace a twofold the collection (1 Cor. xvi. 1), and an announcement of an current of emotion,—one, of relief and gratitude because he intended plan of visiting them, which he afterwards had heard from Titus (2 Cor. vii. 7) better tidings than he abandoned, perhaps on purpose to see what effect would be had expected of the effect produced by his former letter, produced by the letter known to us as the first epistle, and the other, of righteous indignation against those persons at Corinth, who were trying to undermine his which was in reality a second one. A good opportunity was presented for communicating influence and misrepresent his work. We may also perceive with the Corinthians by the arrival of Stephanas, Fortunatus, indications of mental dejection, and references to bodily and Achaicus (1 Cor. xvi. 17), who probably brought a suffering which add much to the personal interest of the letter from Corinth (1 Cor. vii. 1, &c.), requesting instruc- letter. It has been conjectured that, besides “ the trouble in tions on divers points to which St Paul replies in the first Asia ” (i. 8) and his daily anxieties about “ all the churches ’ of our two epistles. This letter from Corinth (as Paley for which he felt himself responsible (xi. 28), the apostle points out) seems to have made little or no mention of the was suffering about this time from an attack of that painful disorders and divisions which the apostle rebukes. These and chronic malady which he calls “ a stake in the flesh came to the apostle’s ears by private report and not in an (xii. 7). Titus had been sent to Corinth as a special official communication. We have here a satisfactory messenger some time after the despatch of the letter from explanation of the varied contents of our first epistle. Ephesus, find was expected by Paul at Troas, but did not After an introduction which is graceful, conciliatory, and rejoin him until he had come into Macedonia. The nevs affectionate (1 Cor. i. 1-9), the writer alludes to the that the greater part of the Corinthian Church was loyal to indications of party spirit and dissension which had been their old teacher, and had attended to his injunctions in reported to him, and, while he very earnestly vindicates the the matter of the offender mentioned in 1 Cor. v., and had claim of the gospel to be a revelation of divine wisdom, “ sorrowed unto repentance ” (2 Cor. vii. 10,11), was very deprecates the tendency to overrate human eloquence and consolatory to him ; but it is plain that Titus must have intellect (i. 10-iv. 16.) He tells them that he is sending also informed Paul of very distinct and virulent opposition Timotheus to remind them of his teaching, and that he to him on the part of certain teachers and a faction ol the intends himself to come soon (iv. 17-21). He then Corinthians attached to them. Hence the indignant strain rebukes their licentiousness and their litigiousness (v., vi.), which especially appears in the latter part of the epis e, and afterwards proceeds to answer the several inquiries where irony and remonstrance and pathos are so won erwhich had been put before him by the Corinthian letter, fully blended, and where the desire to vindicate hi viz., questions concerning marriage, questions concerning authority, to substantiate his personal claims to the respec meat offered to idols, and questions concerning spiritual and affection of the church, and to expose the nnschi gifts (vii.-xiv.). With his replies to particular points he which was being done by the false teachers, causes him 1C blends a spirited defence of his own authority and conduct review his own toils and infirmities in the touching P , (ix.), and serious exhortations as to the behaviour of women of his work which we have in xi. 21-xii. 21. The epi in the Christian assemblies, and the manner in which (so far as it admits of analysis) may be roughly div

c o R —C 0 R into three portions, viz. (1) a very earnest description of his own interest in and relation to the Corinthian churches, and of the impression produced on his mind by what Titus reported (i.'-vii.); (2) some exhortations to liberality in respect of the collection which was going on in Macedonia and Achaia for the brethren at Jerusalem (viii., ix.); (3) a vindication of his apostolic authority against the calumnies and misrepresentations of those who were endeavouring to subvert it (x.-xiii.) The epistle was taken to Corinth by Titus, who was quite ready to undertake a second journey (viii. 17), and with him went two other brethren (ib. 18, 22), who were selected “ messengers of the churches,” ir charge of the contributions to the collection already men tioned. It has been noticed that this letter was “ addressed not to Corinth only but to all the churches in the whole province of Achaia, including Athens and Cenchrese, and perhaps also Sicyon, Argos, Megara, Patroe, and other neighbouring towns, all of which probably shared more or less in the agitation which affected the Christian community at Corinth ” (Howson). We may here mention the conjecture of Bleek that between our 1 Corinthians and 2 Corinthians another letter intervened, which Titus took with him on his first mission, and that this is the letter which is referred to in 2 Cor. ii. 3, vii. 8 as one of unusual severity. If this conjecture, which is a plausible one, be admitted, there must have been four letters from the Apostle Paul to the Corinthians, two of which have not been preserved. At any rate our 2d epistle is one in which all the affection and eagerness of the apostle culminate, and it gives to us, more than any other of his letters which have come down to us, an idea of the intensity of the zeal and sympathy with which he laboured in the cause of the gospel. “ What an admirable epistle,” wrote George Herbert, “ is the second to the Corinthians ! how full of affections; he joys, he sorrows, he grieves, and he glories ; never was there such care of a flock expressed save in the great Shepherd of the fold, who first shed tears over Jerusalem, and then blood.’h There are three special points in connection with the Epistles to the Corinthians on which a few further remarks must be made. One is the question whether a visit to Corinth, which is not mentioned in the Acts, yet seems alluded to in several passages of the epistles (2 Cor. xii. 14, xiii. 1, 2, and comp. ii. 1, xii. 21), took place. The opponents of this view rely principally on the argumentum a silentio (which in this case, however, is a very weak one, when we consider the evidently compendious nature of St Luke’s narrative in the Acts), and on the expression “ a second benefit,” in 2 Cor. i. 15, 16. But this expression seems to refer to St Paul’s intention to pay a double visit to Corinth, one in going to, and a second in returning from, Macedonia. The advocates of the unrecorded visit urge, fiist, that the language about the “ third ” visit cannot reasonably be explained by saying that it was the third time St Paul intended to come ; and, secondly, that it is "very natural to suppose that the apostle would have found some,opportunity for at least a short visit during his three years residence at Ephesus. This visit appears to have ecu a very painful one, during which St Paul must have ia sad forebodings of the evils which he rebukes in our irs epistle ; but it must have been a brief one, and the anguage of 1 Cor. xvi. 7 might possibly allude to the urned nature of a former visit. Another disputed point, and one which it is perhaps imi< p8,1 .e. determine, is, What was the nature of the f ris lI,le party at Corinth 1 Were they a separate An1011 ^ so> were they a Judaizing faction or a 80 1 ln ohliD' U3 ^ f ? °.ne^ . '~’ome h°ld that 1 Cor. i. 12 does not finiTm S 111 - ^ believe in the existence of distinct parties or b® church, but only of certain tendencies. The

401 indications throughout the epistles are, at any rate, sufficient to show that a strong antagonism existed between a Judaizing faction and a more liberal, less formal, and less scrupulous body of professed Christians, some of whom adhered to Paul as their recognized leader, while others preferred Apollos. We can quite understand how the Judaizing party would seize on the name and position of Peter, or Cephas (and it is noticeable that the Hebrew designation is preferred), as a rallying point, where they could oppose the claims of Paul and Apollos. But v.'ho were those who boasted that they were peculiarly Christ’s ? Some (as Howson, Alford, Stanley) think it probable they were an extreme section of the Judaizers. Others (as Neander and Olshausen) consider that they may have been “ philosophical ” Greeks who, “ with arrogant self-will,” professed to belong to no party, and renounced all “ apostolic ” intervention, perhaps modelling for themselves a peculiar form of Christian doctrine by means of some collection of memorable sayings and actions of Christ. A third point which calls for brief notice is the “ gift of tongues,” of which so much is said in the first of our two epistles. It is quite what wre should expect that a gift which ministered rather to individual notoriety than to general edification should have been abused and overrated in a Greek community like that at Corinth. It does not seem probable, nor is there evidence forthcoming to showr, that the “ gift of tongues ” was used for purposes of instruction. It wras a mystical condition rather than a linguistic faculty,—an ecstatic utterance connected with a peculiar state of religious emotion. Stanley compares Montanist utterances, the prophets of Cevennes, Wesleyan paroxysms, and Irvingite manifestations as phenomena which, “ however inferior to the manifestations of Apostolic times, have their origin in the same mysterious phase of human life and human nature.” The evidential value of the epistles to the Corinthians is very great. For we have in them indisputable historical and biographical data wdiich in various ways imply and establish all the fundamental facts which concern the origin of the Christian church, and indicate the process, of which we have a more direct narrative in the Acts, whereby Christianity was extended beyond the range of Jewish influences and prejudices, and its principles brought into contact with “ the culture and vices of the ancient classical world.” There are not many special writers on these epistles. Among the Germans may be mentioned Osiauder, Heydenreich, Billroth. But the book in which English readers will find the most complete and specific treatment of the subject is that by Dean Stanley. He divides the epistles into sections, and appends paraphrases of their contents. There are important notes on the allusions to the Eucharist in 1 Cor., on the miracles and organization of the apostolic age, and on the gifts of tongues and of prophecy. He adds a short dissertation on the relation of the epistles to the gospel history. In Conybeare and Howson’s Life and Epistles of St Paul there is a very instructive review of the condition of the primitive church, with special reference to spiritual gifts, ordinances, divisions, &c. (ch. xiii.), and the whole history of the period during which the Epistles to the Corinthians were written is admirably treated. The Armenian epistles from the Corinthians to St Paul, and from St Paul to the Corinthians, are apocryphal. They may be seen in Stanley’s book. Paley’s Horce Paulina: and Birks’s llorcn Apostolicce contain interesting examples of undesigned coincidences between the epistles and the narrative in the Acts. Birks thinks that the Sosthenes mentioned in 1 Cor. i. 1, whose name never occurs in the other epistles, may be identified with the ruler of the synagogue mentioned in Acts xviii. 17. A full discussion on “the thorn in the flesh ” will be found in an interesting note of Professor Lightfoot on Gal. iv. 13. (W. S. S.) CORIOLANUS, Caius (or Cneius) Maecius, a Roman patrician, said in the legend to have belonged to the 5 th century b.c., and to have been a descendant of King Ancus Marcius. Brought up by his proud but patriotic mother Yetuvia (or, as Plutarch calls her, Volumnia), Coriolanns VI. — 51

402

C O R —c 0 R

developed into the foremost warrior of his time, and it was from his prowess at the siege of Corioli, when he took the town single-handed, that he received his cognomen. But his hatred of the plebs lost him the consulship, and when he ventured to advise that the people, who were sullenng from a dearth of corn, should not be relieved fiom t ie supplies obtained from Sicily unless they would consent to the abolition of their tribunes, he was condemned to banishment. Obtaining the command of the Volscian army, he advanced against his native city. In vain the first men of Rome prayed for moderate terms. He would agree to nothing less than the restoration to the A olscians of all their land, and their admission among the Roman citizens. At last his mother, his wife, Volumnia, and bis children, accompanied by a company of Roman matrons of the highest birth, came to the Volscian camp, and by their tears and entreaties prevailed. He led back the Volscian army, and, according to one account, paid with his lilo the penalty of his tenderness. Niebuhr has shown that several important parts of the legend are probably historical. CORIOLI, an ancient Latin city, celebrated as giving a surname to C. Marcius Coriolanus. It is first mentioned in Roman story as falling into the hands of the Volsci, and being retaken from them by the Romans, 493 b.c. It was never a large or important place, and seems to have dropped out of existence before the close of the 5th century b.c. The site of] Corioli is now unknown. Nibbey and Gell have quite conjecturally assigned it to the hill called Monte Giove, about nineteen miles from Rome on the way to Antium, while others, with as little ground, have suggested a hill four miles nearer Antium. CORK (perhaps from cortex, bark) is the outer layer of the bark of an evergreen species of oak (Quercus Suber). The tree reaches the height of about 30 feet, growing in the south of Europe and on the North African coasts generally ; but it is principally cultivated in Spain and Portugal. The outer layer of bark in the cork oak by annual additions from within gradually becomes a thick soft homogeneous mass, possessing those compressible and elastic properties upon which the economic value of the material chiefly depends. The first stripping of cork from young trees takes place when they are from fifteen to twenty years of age. The yield, which is rough, unequal, and woody in texture is called virgin cork, and is useful only as a tanning substance, or for forming rustic work in ferneries, conservatories, , the quarter (or eight bushels) is 448 lb. The following are the average annual quantities of corn and flour imported into the United Kingdom in the five years 1871-75 :— Wheat Meal and Wheat. Flour. Cwts. Cwts. Russia 11,755,591 Denmark 304,838 851,475 Germany (Prussia included).. 3,552,059 1,091,924 France 1,149,119 Austrian Territories 68,997 Turkey and Roumania 918,452 Egypt 1,373,947 1,936,599 United States 17,653,329 387,228 Canada 3,235,551 Chili 1,273,399 1,105,425 Other Countries .. . 2,397,787 Average annual import 43,683,069 5,372,651 Average annual re-export 490,658 106,579 Other Grain from all Countries. Indian Corn Barley. Oats. Pease. Beans. or Maize. 19,653,493 Cwts....11,067,067 11,667,679 1,387,021 2,943,249 The import of foreign wheat and flour into the United Kingdom has increased more than sevenfold, and of all foreign grain nearly ten-fold, in the thirty years of free trade. The United States, from a small and unsteady commerce in grain, have risen to the first place, not only in wheat and flour, but in Indian corn, of which they contribute two-thirds of the supply. Russia stands second on the list, the great bulk of her export of wheat being now received from the southern ports of the empire. Canada, while scarcely sustaining its former supply of flour, has increased its average annual export of wheat to the United Kingdom from 110,000 cwts. to 3,230,000 cwts. The trade in corn has not only been extended oyer vast territories in various quarters of the world which thirty years ago were comparatively uncultivated or absolute deserts, but no former exporting country appears to have lost ground. All have shared more or less in the general progress, though a decline in wheat is perceptible fiom Denmark and other countries on the northern verge of the wheat region, which now require more for home consumption. The increased import of barley, which is _ not so great as that of wheat, but still remarkable, comes chiefly from Northern Europe and France. It will be observed, from the figures denoting the ratio in which foreign supplies were taken up in the home consumption and the overplus sent to other markets in the two quinquennial periods above compared, that the re-export of foreign grain and flour from the United Kingdom has not increased with the magnitude of the supplies, but on the contrary has much diminished. This result can only be attributed to the organization of the trade, and the intelligence with which this vast movement of grain is directed. Effect of Foreign Competition on British Agriculture and Corn-Production. —The acreage of the various crops, and the numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom, are now given with all desirable accuracy in the annual agricultural returns, for which the country is indebted to a motion in the House of Commons in 1&G2 by Mr Cairo.

The most cursory observation of these figures will disclose results surprising to the present generation. It is to be remarked, for example, that down to 1846 Prussia and other countries of Germany supplied more than onehalf the whole import of wheat into the United [Kingdom that the little country of Denmark had greatly more traffic in export of grain to British ports than the whole Russian empire, and that the transatlantic trade in wheat and flour or other corn with the United Kingdom, apart from Canada had barely begun to exist. Nor can it fail to be noticed how wide-spread the commerce in com had become even in these circumstances, and that it was usual to send cargoes of wheat and flour to England from places so distant as Chili and La Plata, and Australia and the East Indies. The statistics of the corn trade have become much more voluminous since 1846, and it is necessary to give some 1 distinction to wheat and wheat flour, and the sources of Mr Caird, afterwards M.P. for Stirling, a landowner and practheir supply. It has also followed from the great trade in tical agriculturist, travelled through Ireland on a tour of inquiry in foreign grain that the measure should be weight, and not the year immediately subsequent to the great failure of the potato crops, and in 1850-51 visited nearly every county in England as the commissioner of the Times. He has since pursued the same course 1 Compiled from the parliamentary returns of “ Revenue, Popula- of investigation with practised powers of judgment, which have been well verified in the actual results cf the com trade in the United tion, and Commerce,” Sessions 1843-47.

CORN TRADE 415 Previous to the adoption of free trade in corn, this in- unlimited competition with foreign corn is so small as, formation was a subject, not of official inquiry from when closely examined, to become almost imperceptible! farm to farm, but of general estimate, which could not For it must be borne in mind that the extension of large but err considerably. There is thus a difficulty in tracing towns in these thirty years has occupied in building area the exact effect of a free and increasing import of foreign alone what would form a considerable county, and has been grain on the domestic tillage ; but the difficulty is not spreading market gardens over always increasing spaces of so great as might be supposed, nor is it of much impor- what was formerly agricultural land. What has happened tance in view of the authentic data available during the is that the poorer class of lands, from which crops of wheat greater part of the period in question. M‘Culloch, in his and other corn were systematically taken, have been turned article on the Corn Trade, in the eighth edition of this partially into pasture, and in still larger proportion into a work, estimated the acreage under wheat in England in more various and profitable culture both of white and green 1852—53 at 3,000,000 acres, in Scotland 350,000, and in crops, barley in some instances having the preference over Ireland 400,000 acres—or 3,750,000 acres for the three wheat, and bare fallow in others being economized in kingdoms. The agricultural returns for 1867 gave favour of the general productive interests of the farms. 3,640,000 as the total wheat acreage of the United King- Nor have the British farmers hesitated to extend greatly dom. MUulloch’s estimate of the extent under barley in their wheat area from time to time, when the state of supply England, viz., 1,000,000 acres, was probably wider of the and the rate of prices gave a necessary stimulus. After mark than his estimate of the area of wheat crops. The deficient harvests and higher prices, the acreage under agricultural returns for 1867 at least gave 2,000,000 acres wheat was increased from 3,640,000 in 1867 to 3,951,000 of barley in England ; it must be remembered, however, in 1868, the harvest of which latter year was so bountiful that in the intervening years British barley had been in that, what with the increased acreage, the larger average increasing demand for malting, and had been commanding crop, and the greater weight per bushel of the finer grain, higher prices relatively to the prices of wheat. There is a the total produce of wheat was 16,436,000 quarters of 488 medium authority, between M‘Culloch’s estimate and the Bi as compared with 9,380,000 quarters in 1867. The undisputed agricultural returns, in the estimates of Mr increase of one harvest, indeed, was equal to one-third of Caird, who had peculiar advantages of ascertaining the the total annual consumption of home and foreign wheat. acreage under every condition of crop in England as°early The average price, which in May of that year, when it as 1850. The result of his estimate of the agricultural reached its maximum, was 73s. 8d., had fallen in December arrangement in England and the ascertained facts in the to 50s. Id. The acres under wheat in Great Britain have returns of 1867 was that, in the interval, there had been fallen from 3,630,300 in 1874 to 2,994,958 in 1876, but a diminution in wheat of 280,000 acres, in oats 450,000, the acres under barley have increased in the same period in beans and pease 320,000, and in bare fallow 247,000 from 2,287,987 to 2,533,106, and under oats from in all, under these heads, a diminution of 1,297,000 acres; 2,596,384 to 2,789,583. but, on the other hand, an increase of barley 500,000 If the price of corn under free trade be considered, it acres, of root crops 300,000, and of clover 20,000—in will be seen, indeed, how little reason there could be for all an increase of 820,000 acres, leaving a net diminution any material displacement of the domestic production ; for under tillage of 477,000 acres, which may be supposed to though there has been a small decline of the price of wheat, have gone into permanent pasture. In Scotland and Ireland it has been more than met by the increase of the price of the effects on the area of tillage were more marked than in barley and oats, to the surprise of those alarmists who England. The production of wheat fell off in these forget that corn can nowhere be produced without much countries about one-half. The loss in production of wheat cost, that nowhere is the average produce per acre so great in Scotland appears to have been recovered by a nearly as in England and Scotland, and that to its cost of producequal increase in barley and oats ; but in Ireland, besides tion in the most fertile or distant regions there have to be the decrease in wheat, there was a decline of about one- added freight and other charges, besides the ordinary rate sixth both in barley and oats. The returns conducted by of mercantile profit. This is clearly shown by a comthe registrar-general of Ireland since 1848 show that the parison of the septennial average prices of grains, returned estimated yield of corn of all kinds fell from 11,500,000 in the Gazette by the tithe commissioners. In the seven quarters in 1857 to 8,800,000 quarters in 1866, and of years ending Christmas 1846, the prices per imperial potatoes from 3,500,000 to 3,000,000 tons in these ten bushel were— years. But in the same period there was a great increase Wheat. Barley. Oats. of live stock—120,000 head of cattle, 1,000,000 of sheep, . 7s. 0|d. 4s. 2s. 8|d. ... 13s. 9d. •and 278,000 swine. The growth of flax and of various The average Gazette prices per imperial bushel in the green crops had also been extended ; and the number of population depending upon agriculture had been diminished seven years ending 1875 were— Wheat. Barley. Oats. by a constant emigration to England and Scotland and 6s. 6|d. 4s. lOd. 3s. 2£d. ... 14s. 7jd. abroad. There can be no doubt that the greatest change under free trade in corn fell upon the agriculture of Ireland; W hen the various elements of agricultural improvement but there is no reason to believe that the total value of the are taken into account—amelioration of the soil by drainage produce of the soil in Ireland lost ground, while it is cer- and manure, better methods, improved implements, and not tain that in the later development it has greatly increased. least (since this has involved but little capital outlay) the The annual produce of land is shown in one of Mr Caird’s greater economy, speed, and safety with which harvests are tables to be £52, 17s. in Ireland, £60, 12s. in England, gathered, as well as sent to market—the production of and £66, 15s. in Scotland, per head of all persons owning, wheat in England must be held to be as profitable now as farming, or assisting in the cultivation of farms. it ever was, though the greater consumption and the rise The diminution of tillage in the United Kingdom under in the price of barley have made that grain a more reKingdom. Mr Caird, at the request of the Statistical Society of munerative crop than wheat on soils suited to the producLondon, prepared a paper on “ Our Daily Food,” -which was published; tion of fine quality. This would not in itself account, however, for what all and he contributed a second paper on the same subject, which appeared m the Journal of the Statistical Society, March 1869. Both of these are cognizant of, viz., a great increase of agricultural prospapers contain valuable information. perity since 1846 ; and the truth is that the free trade

416

CORN

T E A D E

policy, and the general movement with which it was asso- England as to what port in Western Europe they shall disciated, opened an extraordinary demand for other farm charge at. It is necessary to read the markets to the latest produce than corn, of which our agriculturists were not slow points of time; and imports are made into the United to avail themselves. The estimate of live stock in the Kingdom for re-export as well as home consumption. The United Kingdom, antecedent to 1846, did not approach the great markets for import of corn in Western Europe accuracy to which M'Culloch, by his careful analysis, had exhibit little variation owing to the convenience with which reduced the estimate of acreage under corn and its produce. supplies may be sent from one port to another) but even in Conjectural enumerations of the various kinds of live stock this limited though densely peopled sphere, there are were current which, on the first agricultural census, were elements of disturbance in supply and demand which have found to have been almost double what could possibly to be taken into account. France, for example, has prohave existed. The agricultural returns will reduce all bably the largest wheat area, in proportion to population, uncertainty of this kind to a minimum in future. But of any European country ; and yet the average produce of there has been no uncertainty as to the increasing value of wheat per acre in France is so low—15)r bushels—that a live stock and its produce on farms, or as to the remarkable bad harvest makes France a large importer, and an degree in which this appreciation has tended to modify and abundant harvest a large exporter, of wheat and flour. An enrich the agricultural system of the kingdom, during the increase of 1 bushel per acre in France is equal to 2,000,000 whole period of free trade. The price of meat, of dairy quarters. Were the average produce of wheat, by any produce, and of wool, as well as other minor articles in the better system of culture, to be increased in France from 15 same category, has increased at least 50 pGr. cent, j nor to 18 bushels—a not immoderate attainment—she would has there been any sign of abatement in this rise of value, be able alone to supply all the requirements, so1 far as they notwithstanding increasing imports of foreign live animals, have been developed, of the United Kingdom. This surand of preserved and more or less manufactured produce of prising effect of the difference of a bushel or two per acre in foreign live stock. Mr Caird in 1868 estimated the annual the average yield of any harvest applies equally to all the value of home produce of corn consumed at £84,700,000; large exporting countries, such as Russia or the United of the foreign supply of corn consumed at £25,000,000; States. The latter country was even an importer of wheat of home beef and mutton, £47,200,000 ; of foreign supply, from England so late as 1859, but the great extension of £6,500,000 ; of home butter and cheese, £30,100,000 ; of agriculture in the Western States and in California, and the foreign supply, £8,400,000. And this does not include extending practice in the Southern States of raising corn as wool0 (£8,000,000), green crop not used on farms, and well as cotton, may be believed to have placed a similar various other considerable articles of domestic farm produce, abnormal occurrence at a great distance. The question naturally arises how, from such widespread which have, and always must have, a great superiority in sources and under such immense effects of good or bad English markets. Relation of Home and Foreign Supply.—Since the harvests in increasing or diminishing supply, the trade is home produce of corn stands in the general proportion so adjusted as to produce any equable degree of value and to foreign supply of 84 to 25, the yield of the domestic steady production of grain! Of this apparent difficulty harvests continues mainly to regulate price, and in conse- there are two explanations—first, the regions favourable to quence also the amount of import for home consumption. the culture of wheat in both hemispheres are so extensive One or two successive inferior harvests in the United that it seldom or rather never occurs that there is a Kingdom are accompanied with a rise of price, amounting in general abundance or general failure of harvests. Nature extreme cases to 20s. or 25s. per quarter of wheat. These distributes this inequality so variously that the more the higher prices bring out more extensively the surplus pro- commerce in corn is extended, the less is abundance or duce of other countries than lower prices would do; but scarcity of harvest felt in any one part of the world. And with fairly abundant domestic harvests, and the resulting secondly, the large corn-exporting countries, though they lower range of prices, the import from abroad does not may have no market so extensive as the United Kingdom abruptly cease, but continues fully equal to the supply of for their surplus produce, have many other markets, not the domestic consumption, on an equilibrium of value, which only in Western Europe, but within their own more imappears to have satisfied on the whole both domestic and mediate spheres—the ports of the Black Sea, for example, foreign producers. According to all the authorities on the having the countries of the Mediterranean to supply, and subject, the consumption of bread in the United Kingdom the United States not only the inequalities of production does not vary much from one year to another, and certainly within its own vast area, but parts of Canada, the West does not vary in the ratio of the price of bread. The Indies, Mexico, and South America. Cost of Transport.—Harbour dues, freight, and insurance difference, however, between a 6d. and 9d. quartern loaf is so considerable that it must have some effect in the house- form an important element in the transport of grain. Their hold economy. In 1868, when the price of bread was at amount affects directly the price accruing to the producers, the highest, the average annual consumption of 20,800,000 while at the same time they require careful calculation quarters of wheat in the previous six years fell to 19,780,000 on the part of the merchants or shippers. Where large quarters, which is about equal to a fall of 1 per cent, of crops have to be moved many vessels have to be chartered consumption for 10 per cent, rise in price. It is difficult to 1 M. de Lavergne, whose valuable work on the Rural Economy of give any mercantile problems of such magnitude a definite Great Britain and Ireland is well known, has given the following solution, but the necessary consumption of corn in the explanation, in a letter to Mr Caird, of the state of wheat culture m United Kingdom, under all variations of price, rests on a France: —“ The official returns give a mean yield of 14| hectolitres per solid basis; and given the number of acres under crop, and hectare, the actual yield being more above than below the estimate. departments— Le Nord, Oise, , are number most materially. For many centuries a tax on the found near the shores, and among other fish taken should tin, after smelting, was paid to the earls and dukes of be mentioned mullet and John Dory. Recently a brisk Cornwall. The smelted blocks were carried to certain trade in “ sardines ” has been established—young pilchards towns to be coined,—that is, stamped with the duchy seal taking the place of the real Mediterranean fish. History.— Although there can be no doubt that Cornwall before they could be sold. By an Act of 1838 the dues payable on the coinage of tin were abolished, and a com- and Devonshire are referred to under the general name of Cassiterides, or the “ Tin Islands,” it cannot be said that we pensation was awarded to the duchy instead of them. Stannary Courts.—By ancient charters, the tinners of have any authentic historical knowledge of either county Cornwall were exempt from all other jurisdiction than that until after the Roman conquest of Britain. It remains unwhether Phoenician or Carthaginian traders actually of the stannary courts, except in cases affecting land, life, certain and limb. The earliest charter is that of Edmund earl visited Cornwall, or whether they obtained their supplies of of Cornwall, but the freedom then assured was rather tin through Gaul. But we know that the tin of the district confirmed than given for the first time j and it is probable was largely exported from a very early period, and that that the customs of the stannary courts are of high the mines were still worked under the Romans. Cornwall antiquity. Twenty-four stannators were returned for the formed part of the British kingdom of Damnonia, which whole of Cornwall. Their meeting was termed a parlia- long resisted the advance of the Saxons westward, and ment, and when they assembled they chose a speaker. In remained almost unbroken in pov/er until the reign of earlier times, the combined tinners of Devon and Cornwall Ine of Wessex (688-726). From that time the borders assembled on Kingston Down, a tract of highland on the of the British Kingdom gradually narrowed, until, about Cornish side of the Tamar. After the charter of Earl the year 926, Athelstane drove the Britons from Exeter, Edmund, the Cornish stannators met (apparently) at Truro ; and fixed the Tamar as the limit between them and the those of Devonshire at Crockern Tor on Dartmoor. An Saxons of Devon. At this period, and perhaps for some officer was appointed by the duke of Cornwall or the time after, the Britons of West Wales (the name given by Crown, who was Lord Warden of the Stannaries, and the the Saxons to the old Damnonian kingdom) retained their parliaments were assembled by him from time to time, in line of chiefs, though under some kind of subjection to the order to revise old or to enact new laws. The last Cornish kings of Wessex. The British bishop, Conan, submitted stannary parliament was held at Truro in 1/52. For a to archbishop Wulfhelm of Canterbury after Athelstane’s long series of years little or no business was transacted in conquest, and was reappointed by him in 936. The Cornish the stannary courts; but the necessity for a court of see was afterwards merged in that of Crediton, and in 1050 peculiar jurisdiction, embracing mines and mining transac the place of the united sees was transferred to Exeter, tions of every description within the county of Cornwall where it remained till 1876. But Cornwall, although the having become more and more apparent, a committee was mass of the people remained Celtic, speedily received Saxon appointed to report on the subject, and an Act of Parliament masters, and in the Domesday Survey the recorded names

CORN of the owners of land in the days of the Confessor are all Saxon. The conqueror bestowed nearly the whole county on his half brother, Robert of Mortain, and thus arose what Mr Freeman styles “ that great earldom and duchy of Cornwall which was deemed too powerful to be trusted in the hands of any but men closely akin to the royal house, and the remains of which have for ages formed the apanage of the heir-apparent to the crown.” Of the earls, the most important were the brother of Henry III., Richard, king of the Romans, and his son Edmund. In 1336 the ’earldom was raised to a duchy by Edward III. in favour of his son, the Elack Prince, and of his heirs, eldest sons of the kings of England. Since that time the Prince of Wales has always been duke of Cornwall. When there is no Prince of Wales the revenues of the duchy are appropriated by the Crown. When the duchy was first created by Edward III., the lands belonging to and dependent on it included, not only the great open moors of Cornwall, and Dartmoor forest in Devonshire, but 9 parks, 53 manors, 10 castles, 13 boroughs and towns, and 9 hundreds. Considerable changes and reductions have, however, been since made, and the income of the duchy is at present derived from lands in Somerset and Devon as well as in Cornwall itself. The history of the duchy is virtually that of Cornwall. There has been little to connect it with the general history of the country except during the Civil War, when Cornwall was for the most part royalist, and some sharp fighting took place within its bounds. Besides much skirmishing, there were two important battles, that of Braddock Down (Jan. 19, 1642-3), and that of Stratton, (May 15, 1643), both gained for the king. Antiquities.—No part of England is so rich as Cornwall in antiquities of the primaeval period. These chiefly abound in the district between Penzance and the Land’s End, but they occur in all the wilder parts of the county. They may be classed as follows. (1.) Cromlechs. These in the west of Cornwall are called “quoits,” with a reference to their broad and flat covering stones. The largest and most important are those known as Lanyon, Caerwynen, Mulfra, Chun, and Zennor quoits, all in the Land’s End district. Of these Chfin is the only one which has not been thrown down. Zennor is said to be the largest in the British Isles, while Lanyon, when perfect, was of sufficient height for a man on horseback to ride under. Of those in the eastern part of Cornwall, Trethevy near Liskeard and Pawton in the parish of St Breock are the finest, and have remained intact. (2.) Rude uninscribed monoliths are common to all parts of Cornwall. Those at Boleit, in the parish of Buryan, are the most important. (3.) Circles, none of which are of great dimensions. The principal are the Hurlers, near Liskeard ; the Boskednan, Boscawen-un, and Tregeseal circles j and that called the Dawns-un, or Merry Maidens. All of these, except the Hurlers, are in the Land’s End district. The other circles that may be mentioned are the “Trippet Stones,” in the parish of Blisland, and one at Duloe. (4.) Long alignments or avenues of stones, resembling those on Dartmoor, but not so perfect, are to be found on the moors near Roughtor and Brown Willy. A very remarkable monument of this kind exists in the neighbourhood of St Columb, called the “ Nine Maidens.” It consists of nine rude pillars placed in a line, while near them is a single stone known as the “ Old Man.” (5.) Hut dwellings. Of these there are at least two kinds, those in the eastern part of the county resembling the beehive structures and enclosures of Dartmoor, and those in the west, comprising “hut-clusters,” having a central court, and a surrounding wall often of considerable height and thickness. The beehive masonry is also found in connection with these latter, as are also (6.) Caves, or subterraneous structures, resembling those of

W ALL

427

Scotland and Ireland. (7.) Cliff castles are a characteristic feature of the Cornish coast, the chief being the “ Little Dinas’’near Falmouth, Trevelgue near St Columb, and Treryn, Men, Kenedjack, Bosigran, and others in the west. These are all fortified against the land side. (8.) Hill castles, or camps, are very numerous. Castel-anDinas, near St Columb, is the best example of the earthwork camp, and Chfln Castle near Penzance, of the stone. Of early and mediaeval antiquities the most noticeable are crosses, scattered all over the county, and of various dates, from the 6th to the 16th century, many resembling the early crosses of Wales; inscribed sepulchral stones of the 7th and 8th centuries, of which the “men scryffa” in Madron is a good example; and oratories of the early Irish type. St Pirans is the most important of these. The Cornish churches, for the most part, belong to the Perpendicular style of architecture, and are generally low in the body, but with high and plain granite towers. The rich tower of Probus, however, is an exception, as well as the church of St Mary Magdalene at Launceston, the exterior of which is covered with sculpture. Within, the chief feature is the absence of a chancel arch. The castles of Launceston, Trematon, and Restormel seem to be of the time of Henry III., but the mounds which occur in the first two are no doubt much earlier,—possibly marking British strongholds. Tintagel has but a few shapeless walls. Of later castles there is Pendennis (built temp. Henry VIII.); St Michael s Mount, although castellated at an early period, has nothing more ancient than the 15 th century. Language.—The old Cornish language survives in a few words still in use in the fishing and mining communities, as well as in the names of persons and places, but the last persons who spoke it died toward the end of the 18th century. It belonged to the Cymric division of Celtic, in which Welsh and Armorican are also included. The most important relics of the language known to exist are three dramas or miracle plays, edited and translated by Edwin Norris, Oxford, 1859. A sketch of Cornish grammar is added, and a Cornish vocabulary from a MS. of the 13th century (Cotton MSS. Vespasian A. 14, p. 7a). The best dictionary of the language (indeed the only one) is Williams’s Lexicon Cornu-Britannicum, London, 1865. Some valuable remarks on this ancient language will be found in Max Muller’s Chips, vol. iii. See also Celtic Literature, vol. v. pp. 298, 323. Parliamentary Representation.—The duchy returns 13 members to Parliament, 4 for the county (2 from the east division and 2 from the west division) and 9 from the following boroughsTruro, 2 (pop. 11,049); Penryn (pop. 3679) and Falmouth (pop. 5294), 2; St Ives, 1 (pop. 6965); Liskeard, 1 (pop. 4700); Bodmin, the assize town, 1 (pop. 4672); Helston, 1 (pop. 3797); and Launceston, 1 (pop. 2935). The only unrepresented town of importance is Penzance, which has a population of 10,414. Gentleman's Seals.—The principal houses to be noticed in Cornwall are—Mount Edgecumbe (earl of Mount Edgecumbe), originally Tudor of Queen Mary’s time, but much altered; the grounds and gardens are, however, more important than the house; Cotele, on the Tamar (dowager countess of Mount Edgecumbe),—a most striking place, the house Tudor, temp. Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, and little changed; it contains the ancient furniture ; Antony, the seat of the Carews; Pentillie (A. Cory ton, Esq.); Port Eliot (earl of St Germans); Trelawne (Sir John Trelawny); Menabilly (Jonathan Rashleigh, Esq.); Boconnoc (Hon. G. M. Fortescue), where are the finest woods in the county; Lanhydrock (Lord Robartes), built between 1636-1651, and containing a very picturesque gallery, with richly moulded roof; Glynn (Lord Vivian);

COR — COR Revenue under his administration, see Bengal, vol. iii. Pencarrow (dowager lady Moles worth); Heligan (John p. 570. He returned to England in 1793, received a Tremayne, Esq.); Carclew (Col. Treroayne), where the marquisate and a seat in the Privy Council, and was made gardens are fine and interesting; Tregothnan 0^co* master-general of tlie ordnance with, a place in the Cabinet. Falmouth); Clowance (Rev. A. H. M. St Auhyn), Five years afterwards (21st June 1798) he was appointed St Michael’s Mount (Sir John St Aubyn), from As site to the viceroyalty of Ireland, and the zeal with which he one of the most remarkable places m Great Britain. strove to pacify the country gained him the respect and Bibliography.—Besidesaiethe ^ornlbiensis, good-will of both Roman Catholics and Orangemen. On li )01 1 mentioned, the following ni ' ^ printed, of Cornishmen, 17th July a general amnesty was proclaimed, and a few a catalogue of the writings both MfS; bv G. C. Boase and of works relating to the 1874 conn y ? B Qornish Names, weeks afterwards the French army under Humbert was surrounded and forced to surrender. In 1801 Cornwallis and W.P. Courtney, London, the Geology of was replaced by Lord Hardwicke, and soon after he was appointed plenipotentiary to negotiate the treaty of Amiens (1802). In 1805 he was again sent to India as governorscattered through the of Cornwall, estab- general. He was in ill-health when he arrived at Calcutta, and while hastening up the country to assume comIteffin 1818)^ stJbookd the Mineralogy of GornwaU and mand of the troops, he died at Ghazepore, in the province Devon, by J. H. Collins, Truro 1871 ; Cornis ^na,^ ^ , of Benares, October 5, 1805. _ . CORO, or Santa-Ana de Coro, a maritime town ot Venezuela, South America, and capital of the province of Falcon, is situated in a sandy plain at the inner angle of a JUsl. cohV i “bXrf and peninsula, dividing the Gulf of Venezuela from _ the Caribbean Sea, 155 miles W.N.W. of Valencia. It is ill a 5L % mSoryof the Deanery of Trigg Minor by Sir John Maclean built, the streets are unpaved, and there are no public London 1873, &c. (published in parts) is exhaustive for that d rio The folk lore of Cornwall is well illustrated m Popular buildings of consequence except two churches. The Vmnances and Drolls of the West of England, by R. Hunt, London , climate is hot but not unhealthy. The_ water-supply is 1865 ; and in Traditions and Hearthside Stories nf West Cornwall, brought by mules from springs at some distance from the by AY. Bottrell, Penzance, 1870-3. Murray s Handbook for Coi n- town About seven miles to the north-east is the poit, wall and Devon, 8th ed., 1872, is also a work well worth consulta- near 'the mouth of the little Rio Coro. The export trade tion. On the antiquities of the county the following authorities are important :-Dr \V. Borlase’s Antiquities of Cornwall, 1754 and with the West Indies, in mules, goats, hides, cheese, 1769 : AY. C. Borlase’s Narnia Cornubice, 1872, and a paper by the pottery-ware, indigo, and cochineal, is considerably less same author in the Archceol. Journ., vol. xxx., on Vestiges o than formerly. Coro is one of the oldest settlements ot Early Institutions in Cornwall; ” Blight s Ancient Crosses qf Corn- the Spaniards on the north coast of S. America. • It was wall, 1858 ; Hadda and Stubbs’ Councils, vol. i.; Blight s Churches founded on the 26th July 1527 (St Ann’s day), by Juan of West Cornwall, 1865. ^-0 de Ampues, who named it Santa Ana de Coriana after the CORNWALL, Barky. See Procter. CORNWALLIS, Charles, Second Earl and First Indian tribe inhabiting the spot. It came also to be Marquis (1738-1805), was the eldest sou of Charles, the known as Venezuela (or Little Venice), which was the given originally to an Indian village founded on first earl Cornwallis. Having been educated at Eton name piles in water on the east side of the lake of Maracaibo. and St John’s College, Cambridge, he entered the army In 1578the Gardens was made the seat of the government of For some time he was member of Parliament for Eye ; m 1761 served a campaign in Germany, and was gazetted the country instead of Coro, and in 1583 the bishopric of founded in 1536, was transferred thither In 1815 to a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 12th Foot. In Ii62 he Coro, succeeded to the earldom and estates of his father ; in Coro was made the chief town of a province. It suflerect 1765 he was made aide-de-camp to the king and gentleman greatly in the Venezuelan war of independence. Populaabout 7000. of the bedchamber; in 1766 he obtained a colonelcy in tionCOROMANDEL COAST, the eastern seaboard ot the 33d Foot; and in 1770 he was appointed governor of India between Cape Calimere, in 10° 17' N. lat. and 79° the Tower. In public life, he was distinguished by independence of character and inflexible integrity; he voted 56' E. long., and the mouths of the Kistnah or Krishnah. without regard to party, and opposed the ministerial action The shore, which is shallow, is without a single good harbour, and is at all times beaten by a heavy sea. against Wilkes and in the case of the American colonies. natural Communication with ships can be effected only by cataBut when the AVar of Independence broke out, he accommarans and flat-bottomed surf-boats. The north-east monpanied his regiment across the Atlantic, and served not without success as major-general. In 1780 he was soon, which lasts from October till April, is exceedingly appointed to command the British forces in South Carolina, violent for three months after its commencement. From and in the same year he routed Gates at Camden. In 1781 April till October hot southerly winds blow by day; at night he defeated Greene at Guilford, and made a destructive the heat is tempered by sea-breezes. _ The principal places raid into Virginia ; and in 1782 he was besieged at York frequented by shipping are Pulicat, Madras, Sadras, Town by French and American armies and a French fleet, Pondicherri, Cuddalor, Tranquebar, Nagore, and Nagaand was forced to capitulate. With him fell the English patnam. The name Coromandel is said to be derived from cause in the United States. He not only escaped censure, Cholamandal, the mandal or region of the ancient dynasty . . however, but in 1786 received a vacant garter, and was of the Chola. CORONA, in astronomy, the name given to _ tiio appointed governor-general of India and commander-in-chief in Bengal. As an administrator he projected many phenomenon seen round the sun during a total eclipse. reforms, but he was interrupted in his work by the advance This phenomenon is doubtless a complex one, and comof Tippoo Sahib. In 1791 he assumed in person the con- prises effects due (1) to the sun’s surroundings or the duct of the war and captured Bangalore; and in 1792 he various layers of its atmosphere, (2) to the sunlight falling laid siege to Seringapatam, and concluded a tieaty with on something between us and the sun, and (3) to certain Tippoo Sahib, which stripped the latter of half his realm, physiological effects in the eye. These effects will be is and placed his two sons as hostages in the hands of the cussed under the heading Sun. In the meantime it may be English. For the Permanent Settlement of the Land stated that the solar part of the phenomenon comprises the

428

C O R 0 N A T I O N chromosphere, the layer of brightly incandescent hydrogen, with other included metallic vapours, which lies immediately over that interior part of the sun which we ordinarily see; the prominences or red flames, which are local uprisings of the chromosphere and outside all, the coronal atmosphere, which consists, so far as is yet known, of hydrogen less brightly incandescent than that in the chromosphere, and of an unknown substance, the vapour density of which appears to be less than that of hydrogen. CORONATION’, literally a crowning, a placing of a crown on the head. The word is restricted, in use, to the ceremony or solemnity of placing a crown on the head of an actual or future king or emperor to signify his accession or his formal recognition as actual or future sovereign. The custom of marking the commencement of a king’s reign by some special rite is a very ancient one. The Jewish kings, like the Jewish high priests, were anointed; but, as the crown was among the insignia of their new royalty, it is probable that they were also crowned, and in some cases certain that they were. We read, for example, of the crowning as well as of the anointing of King Joash (2 Kings xi. 12), and when David,, or rather Joab, had subdued Rabbah, the crown which the king of Rabbah had worn was taken from him, and placed upon David’s head. We find among the nations of modern Europe a tolerably exact counterpart of all these observances. After the destruction of the western Roman empire, the tribal chiefs or kings among whom the Roman territory was divided appear generally to have been crowned on their accession or election to office. This was customary, we knowT, among the Franks, the Lombards, and the Burgundians, as it was also among our own Saxon ancestors. The revival of the empire by Charlemagne was marked by his solemn coronation at Rome by the Roman Pontiff. His successors in the empire for more than three hundred years were, without exception, inaugurated in the same way. The rule was followed, though not invariably, for some time afterwards, most of the emperors up to the time of Frederick III. (1440) beingcrowned, as Charlemagne had been, at Rome. On the day before the coronation, the Roman elders met the emperorelect at the gate of their city, had their charters confirmed by him, and received an oath from him that he would preserve their good customs. On the next day the emperor went to Saint Peter’s, and was there met by the Pope and his clergy, and was solemnly blessed and crowned. From Frederick III. downwards, this custom, alwrays distasteful to the Roman people, wholly ceased to be observed. Charles V. received the imperial crown at the Pope’s hands, not at Rome but at Bologna, and at the same time with the Lombard or Italian crown. There were, besides the imperial crown, three other distinct crowns, some or all of which were assumed by each emperor according to his respective rights. The German crown, which by the time of Charles V. had become the most important of the four, wras taken at Aix-la-Chapelle ; the Lombard or Italian crown generally at Milan; and the Burgundian crown, of less importance than the other two, at Arles. Charlemagne, uniting in his own person what were always distinguishable and what became afterwards distinct sovereignties, took them all four. Charles V. took first the German crown at Aix-la-Chapelle. It was not until 1530 that he took his other two crowns at Bologna. From the time of Charles V., down to the close of the empire in 1806, every emperor bound himself at his accession that he would proceed to Rome, and receive the imperial crown from the Pope, but as a matter of fact no one of them complied with the obligation. We have clear traces of the coronation of the English kings before the Conquest, though, as in the case of the J ewish kings, we read of their being anointed more frequently

429

than we read of their being crowned. Bath, Winchester, or Kingston-upon-Thames was the place commonly chosen for the rite. After the foundation of Westminster Abbey by Edward the Confessor, Westminster succeeded to the privilege to the exclusion of the others. Harold, we read, was made king at Westminster, and so was William I. Of the actual crowning of the kings before William there are sometimes precise notices by the chroniclers, and the ceremony itself is sometimes to be found represented on medals. That the king was hallowed or anointed is, however, the phrase generally employed; but that crowning also was an essential part of the rite we may infer from the case of William, L, of whom we are told that Archbishop Aldred hallowed him to king at Westminster, and also swore him, ere that he would set the crown on his head, that he would as well govern the nation as any king before him best did. For some time the archbishops of Canterbury claimed the sole right of crowning, personally or by deputy. Becket made it a cause of complaint against Henry II. that he had not been called in to crown Henry’s son, and he even procured the excommunication of the archbishop of York and the bishop of Durham for having acted in the matter without his licence. It was usual with the early Norman kings to be crowned more than once, and also, as we have seen in Henry II.'s case, to have their sons crowned, and oaths of allegiance taken to them during their own lifetime. The reader will be reminded here of the case of David and Solomon, though he may refer the resemblance to nothing more than an accidental choice of the same obvious means to secure a disputable succession. He will find, however, in some parts of the English coronation rite traces of its Jewish original not so easily to be explained away. The coronation of Richard I. is the earliest of which we have a circumstantial account. The archbishop of Canterbury officiated at it, and with him were the archbishops of Rouen, of Treves, and of Dublin, and all the bishops of the kingdom. The king was accompanied to the abbey by a grand procession of nobles, and among them came the earl of Chester bearing the royal crown. When the crown had been laid on the altar, and the coronation oath had been taken by Richard, next came the actual ceremony of coronation, or rather the long series of ceremonies of which the placing of the crown on Richard’s head formed a part. After Richard had drawn near to the altar, his head was first covered with a sacred linen cap. He was then anointed in several places. The great crown was then brought to him, and was by him handed to the archbishop, who placed it on the king’s head. After various further rites and prayers, the king left the altar and went back to his former seat, and there exchanged the great crown for a lesser crown, which he continued to wear when he left the abbey. The doubtful title of Henry IV. was confirmed by a double ceremony. The already crowned king, Richard II., was brought to the Tower of London in his coronation robes, holding in his hands his crown and other royal insignia. These he resigned into the hands of Henry, then duke of Lancaster. The public assumption of them by Henry was made afterwards with great splendour. On the day appointed, after having confessed and heard three several masses, he went to Westminster Abbey with a vast procession of nobles and clergy. A high scaffolding was erected in the abbey, and on this Henry was displayed to the people, seated, and with his head bare. The archbishop of Canterbury then demanded of the assembly whether he should crown Henry, and was answered by general shouts of yes, yes. Henry then drew near to the altar, and was first anointed by the archbishop in six places. The crown of Edward the Confessor was then brought forward, blessed by the archbishop, and placed by him upon Henry’s head. Mass was then again said, and the king ^nd his attendants

COR- -0 O E left the abbey. Henry VI. was twice crowned while he does not and cannot bind him to refuse his assent to all was still a child, first at the abbey at Westminster, after- subsequent changes of the law in ecclesiastical any more wards at Saint Denis near Paris. Representations of the than in civil matters. The point, obvious enough in itself, two ceremonies are to be found in Strutt’s Manners and deserves notice chiefly because the opposite view was taken Customs. The coronation of Richard III. has also been by George III., fatally for Pitt’s project of Catholic emanvery fully recorded. It does not differ materially fi om the cipation, a measure of relief to which it is difficult to see instances already given. The directions followed, both in how the coronation oath, whatever force is given to it, could these cases and subsequently, are taken from the Liber with any reason be thought opposed. In connection with subject of coronation, see also Crown. (s. h. r.) Regalis, in the archives of Westminster Abbey; noi, theCORONELLI, Yincenzio (1650-1718), an Italian indeed, from the nature of the case is there much room for was born at Yenice. Having by his skill in variety in essentials. The anointing and crowning may e geographer, accompanied by circumstances of more or less magnificence, mathematics become known to the Count d’Estrdes, but the acts themselves are likely to be done in much the Coronelli was employed by the count to make globes for Louis XIV. In 1685 he was appointed cosmographer to same way at one time and at another. Coronation The imposition of some form of coro- the republic of Yenice, and four years afterwards public nation oath appears to be as old as the ceremony of coron- professor of geography. He founded an academy of ation. It is natural enough that, at the commencement of cosmography at Venice, and died in that city in 1718. He each new reign, the king and people should mutually give published about 400 geographical charts, an abridgement and receive pledges from each other, the people promising of cosmography, several books on geography, and other obedience to lawful commands, the king binding himself works. See Tiraboschi, Litteratura Italiana. COROXER, an ancient officer of the common law, so to act with justice and to observe the established laws. called, according to Coke, because he had principally to do There are informal traces of this to be found in abundance in the histories of the Jewish kings. It was still more with pleas of the Crown. The lord chief justice of the regularly the case among the tribal chiefs who broke up Queen’s Bench is said to be the principal coroner of the the western Roman empire, and established themselves upon kingdom, and may in any place exercise the jurisdiction of its ruins. Hereditary title was far from absolutely recog the coroner. The duties of the office are now practically nized, and the will of the people had a most potent influence confined to holding inquests in case of violent or sudden in determining the succession. There was thus room for death. The office is and always has been elective, the appointment something like an express bargain, the new chief or king receiving his dignity on conditions which his people imposed being made by the freeholders of the county assembled in upon him. The custom thus established continued after county court. By the Statute of Westminster the First it was the rules of succession had become settled. The election ordered that none but lawful and discreet knights should be to the imperial office was marked in the same way. Before chosen as coroners, and in one instance a person was actually the time of Charles Y. a verbal promise had been thought removed from office for insufficiency of estate. Lands to sufficient, but on Charles’s election a formal “ capitulation ” the value of £20 per annum (the qualification for knightof rights and liberties was drawn up in writing by the hood) were afterwards deemed sufficient to satisfy the German electors, signed by the new emperor’s ambassadors, requirements as to estate which ought to be insisted on and solemnly confirmed by himself on his coronation at in the case of a coroner. The complaint of Blackstone Aix-la-Chapelle. From that time forward the same condi- shows the transition of the office from its original dignified tions were observed at each election, the attacks by Charles and honorary character to a paid appointment in the public Y. upon the rights of his German subjects not having con- service. “ Now, indeed, through the culpable neglect of vinced them of the intrinsic worthlessness of agreements of gentlemen of property, this office has been suffered to fall the kind. We have seen already the form of coronation into disrepute, and get into low and indigent hands; so oath prescribed to William I. of England, and we know, that, although formerly no coroners would condescend to be too, the amount of regard he paid to it. Richard I. was paid for serving their country, and they were by the aforesworn to keep the holy ordinances of God, to exercise said Statute of Westminster expressly forbidden to take a justice, to abolish grievous laws, and to put in practice all reward, under pain of a great forfeiture to the king ; yet laws that were good. The Liber Regalis prescribes a series for many years past they have only desired to be chosen of similar oaths. The king is to grant and to confirm the for their perquisites ; being allowed fees for their attendance laws and customs of his predecessors, and especially those by the statute 3 Henry VII. c. 1, which Sir Edward Coke of the glorious king Saint Edward. He promises peace complains of heavily ; though since his time those fees have and agreement to God, the holy church, and the people, been much enlarged.” The mercenary character of the and swears further, with a vast amount of verbiage, to office, thus deprecated by Coke and Blackstone, is now maintain law and justice, to uphold customs, and to perform firmly established, without, however (it need hardly be rightly all the other duties of his office. The modern form said), affording the slightest ground for such reflections as of the coronation oath dates from the coronation of William the above. The coroner is in fact a public officer, and like and Mary in 1689, with some slight necessary alterations other public officers receives payment for his services. The and additions made afterwards at the Unions with person appointed is almost invariably a qualified legal or Scotland and with Ireland. The oath, in 1689, was medical practitioner, the duties of the office being supposed made at every point more precise and explicit than before; to require some acquaintance with the learning of both of and, in particular, there was added an express engagement these professions. The property qualification appears to be on the part of the sovereign to maintain “ the laws of God, virtually dispensed with, the county being liable for any the true profession of the Gospel, and the Protestant penalties that may be incurred by the coroner. The reformed religion as it is established by law.” It pro- appointment is held for life, but is vacated by the holder vided, further, that the king should preserve to the being made sheriff. He may also be removed by the writ bishops and clergy, and the churches committed to their de coronatore exonerando, for sufficient cause assigned, as, charge, all their actual and future legal rights and privileges. for instance, that he is engaged in other business, or inIts intention, as the debates at the time prove, is to restrain capacitated by old age or sickness, &c. By 23 and 24 the king in his administrative, not in his legislative, Yict.(( c. 116, the lord chancellor may remove any coroner capacity. It binds him to observe the established law. It for inability or misbehaviour in his office.” 430

C 0 K — COR The coroner is primarily an officer of the county, elected by the freeholders. In certain liberties and franchises, the appointment is made by the Crown, or lords holding a charter from the Crown. By the Municipal Corporations Act, in any borough having a separate quarter-sessions the council may appoint a coroner; in other boroughs the coroner for the county has jurisdiction. The remuneration of the county coroner is now regulated by the Act 23 and 24 Yict. c. 116 above mentioned. The system of payment by fees, established by an earlier Act of the same reign, is abolished, and payment is to be made by salary calculated on the average amount of the fees, mileage, and allowances usually received by the coroner for a period of five years, and the calculation is to be revised every five years. The home secretary is to decide between the coroner and the justices when they cannot agree. Borough coroners under the Municipal Corporations°Act are to be paid by fees. The duties of the office are ascertained by the 4 Edward I. st. 2 :—“ A coroner of our lord the king ought to inquire of these things, first, when coroners are commanded by the king’s bailiffs or by the honest men of the county, they shall go to the places where any be slain, or suddenly dead or wounded, or where houses are broken, or where treasure is said to be found, and shall forthwith command four of the next towns, or five, or six, to appear before him in such a place ; and when they are come thither, the coroner upon the oath of them shall inquire in this manner, that is, to wit, if it concerns a man slain, if they know when the person was slain, whether it were in any house, field, bed, tavern, or company, and if any, and who, wrere there, &c. It shall also be inquired if the dead person were known, or else a stranger, and where he lay the night before. And if any person is said to be guilty of the murder, the coroner shall go to their house and inquire what goods they have, &c.” Similar directions are given for cases of persons found drowned or suddenly dead, for attachment of criminals in cases of violence, &c. It is the duty of the township to give notice of violent or sudden death to the coroner; and the inquisition is held before him and a jury of not less than twelve persons, constituting a court of record. Their charge is to inquire how the party came by his death. The inquisition must be super visum corporis ; if the body be not recovered, the coroner can only sit in virtue of a special commission. By 6 and 7 Yict. c. 12, it was provided (in remedy of the inconveniences of the common law) that the coroner only within whose jurisdiction the body shall be lying dead, shall hold the inquest, although the cause of death may have'happened somewhere out of his jurisdiction. And in the case of any body found dead in the sea, &c., the inquest, in the absence of a deputy coroner for the admiralty, shall be held by the coroner of the place where the body is first brought to land. At the inquest the evidence is taken on oath, and the Crown or any party suspected may tender evidence. The medical man attending the deceased, if any, may be ordered to attend, and the coroner may order a post mortem examination. If the jury are not satisfied they may name any properly-qualified practitioner, who shall be required to attend and give evidence, or make a post mortem examination. The verdict must be that of twelve at least of the jury. If any person is found guilty of murder or other homicide the coroner shall commit him to prison for trial; he shall also certify the material evidence to the court, and bind over the proper persons to prosecute or to give evidence at the trial. He may in his discretion accept bail for a person found guilty of manslaughter. Since the abolition of public executions, the coroner is required to hold an inquest on the body of any criminal, on whom sentence of death has been carried into effect. The ques-

431

tion of reopening the coroner’s inquests after verdict given was discussed in a recent case. The Queen’s Bench, on a suggestion on the part of the Crown that there was a probability of fixing the suspected crime by further inquisition, ordered the verdict to be quashed and a new inquest to be held. There has been of late years much discussion on the subject of the coroner’s office, andlegislation at no distant timemay be expected. The points on which reform is generally asked for may be briefly indicated. It is desirable that the qualification for the office should be fixed, and that it should be a legal and not a medical qualification. The dirties of the office are mainly judicial; such medical information as may be necessary can be had from experts ; while of course a knowledge of the technical rules of evidence is essential to the efficient discharge of the coroner’s duties. Again, that the election to a judicial office, wholly unpolitical in character, should be by vote of the freeholders of the county is generally felt to be an anomaly. A county coroner recently declared that the expense of contesting the county amounted, in his own case, to several thousand pounds. Payment, depending directly or indirectly on fees, also produces unfortunate results. It leads occasionally to disputes between the coroners and the justices, and exposes the former to the suspicion of holding unnecessary inquests for the sake of increasing their income. In any circumstances the propriety ofholding an inquest may be a question of great delicacy, and a slight mistake on either side may subject the officer to unmerited obloquy. In some cases the present state of the law involves the great evil of too much inquiry. Besides the coroner’s inquest there are, in cases of a criminal character, the public examination before a magistrate, and the private examination by the grand jury. But it may also happen that not merely one but two or more inquests may be held in the same matter. In the case of a railway accident or a collision at sea, the victims may die in different jurisdictions, and if there is a suspicion of criminal negligence, the accused party must practically stand his trial several times over. He may even be acquitted by one jury and condemned by another. There is no corresponding office in Scotland. (E. B,.) COROT, Jean Baptiste Camille (1796-1875), French landscape painter, was born at Paris in July 1796. He received an ordinary school education at Rouen, and was then apprenticed to a Paris draper. From childhood it was evident that he was a born artist; but prudential motives induced his father sternly to repress the strivings and utterances of his genius. He continued therefore to drudge at the draper’s counter till his twenty-sixth year. He then finally escaped from the grip of trade, and his genius had its own way in the world. He entered the atelier of Michallon ; and on the death of his master the same year (1822) he passed to that of Victor Bertin. But he did not get on happily with, or learn much from either of these teachers. At length he made his escape from the town and the school with their oppressive conventionalities, and took refuge with nature in the fields of Italy. Here he studied, dreamed, and painted for several years. In 1827 he began to exhibit at the Salon, his first works being Vue prise h Harni and La Campagne de Rome. The public passed them by without much notice, but artists saw in them decisive proof that a new poet-painter was among them. From this time he worked on vigorously for nearly fifty years, seldom failing to make his appearance at the Salon. Public recognition and “ golden joys ” were very slow to come; nor was it till he was nearly seventy that he became a wealthy man. He had obtained a medal of the second class in 1833, and medals of the first class in 1848 and 1855. He received the cross of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and was promoted officer in 1867. Corot was one of the most original of painters. He was almost exclusively a landscape painter ; for although in a very few cases his pictures bear historical titles, landscape is even in these the predominant element. And with him it was always the poetry of landscape, never the topography. He stood in nature’s presence, reverent, loving, enthusiastic, watching for the most delicate effects and changes of light, especially at early dawn and at dewy eve and in still moonlight, on cloud and sky, on tree and stream,—seeing thus what, but

C O R — C OR collegia of priests and Vestal Virgins ; (3) official societies, few eyes do see, and ever striving to reproduce in Ins works e.q., the scribce, employed in the administration of the state ; Iris own impression of magical dreamy beauty. His works, (4) trade societies, e.g.,fabri, piclores, navicularii, Ac. This like those of Millet, are mostly touched with sadness; but class shades down into the societates not incorporated, just while Millet is stern and almost savage, Corot is always as our own trading corporations partake largely of the tender and delicate. In his chosen field he stands almost character of ordinary partnerships. In the later Roman a IC alone and unrivalled. Among his works are law the distinction of corporations into civil and ecclesias(1834): Souvenir des environs de Florence (183J) ; i,a tical, into lay and eleemosynary, is recognized. The latter Danse des Nymphes ; Soleil couchant dans le Tyrol (1 b5U), could not alienate without just cause, nor take land without Effet de Matin; Dante et Virgile; Macbeth; Agar an a licence—a restriction which may be compared with our D6sert; Soleil levant; Souvenir d’ltahe; Le statutes of mortmain. All these privileged societies are Solitude (1866); Un Matin h Vdle d Avray (1868) , Unc what we should call corporations aggregate. The corporaDanse Antique; and Le Bilcheron. The two last mont.onod tion sole (i.e., consisting of only a single person) is a refinewere exhibited, after his death, at the Salon of 18/o. I ment of our own, for although Roman law held that the the social circle Corot was one of the frankest and most corporation subsisted in full force, notwithstanding that nenial of men. His favourite relaxation after a long day s only one member survived, it did not impute to the succeswork was the theatre, where to the last he is sard to have sive holders of a public office the character of a corporation. followed the performance with the fresh delight of a child. When a public officer in our law is said to be a corporation Naturally of a generous disposition, he gave away with a sole, the meaning is that the rights acquired by him in that large hand the wealth which flowed in on him m his later capacity descend to his successor in office, and not (as the years; and many a touching tale is told of distress relieved case is where a public officer is not a corporation) to Ins and sad hearts comforted by his ministrations. i ho affec- ordinary legal representative. The best known instances tionate regard generally felt towards him is shown in the of corporation sole are the king and the parson of a parish. designation “ le Pere Corot” by which he was commonly The conception of the king as a corporation is the key to known. In 1874 he lost a beloved sister; and after this many of his paradoxical attributes in constitutional theory-— sharp blow he never recovered his former gaiety of heart. his invisibility, immortality, &c. One of his last acts was the gift of a pension to the widow The Roman conception of a corporation was kept alive of his brother artist Millet, who had died not long before. by ecclesiastical and municipal bodies. When English In December 1874 a gold medal designed for the occasion lawyers came to deal with such societies, the corporation was presented to him by many French artists in token o honour and esteem. Corot died at Paris, after a long period law of Rome admitted of easy application. Accordingly, in no department of our law have we borrowed so copiously of failing health, February 22, 1875. _ . . CORPORATION. A corporation is an association oi and so directly from the civil law. The corporations known to the earlier English law weremainly the municipal, persons which the law treats in many respects as if it were the ecclesiastical, and the educational and eleemosynary. itself a person. It has rights and duties of its own which To all of these the same principles, borrowed from Roman are not the rights and duties of the individual members jurisprudence, were applied. The different purposes, of thereof. Thus a corporation may own land, but. the institutions brought about in course of time individual members of the corporation have no rights these differences in the rules of the law applicable to each. In therein. A corporation may owe money, but the corpora- particular, the great development of trading companies tors as individuals are under no obligation to pay the debt. under special statutes has produced a new class of corporaThe rights and duties descend to the successive members tions, differing widely from those formerly known to the of the Corporation. This capacity of perpetual succession law. The reform of municipal corporations effected by is regarded as the distinguishing feature of corporations as the’Act of 1837 has also restricted the operation, of the compared with other societies. One of the phrases most of the older corporation law. These principles, commonly met with in law-books describes a corporation principles however, still apply when special statutes have not interas a society with perpetual succession and a common seal. vened. But the extent and importance of Parliamentary The latter point, however, is not conclusive of the corporate legislation on corporations have withdrawn, the attention of character. The legal attributes of a corporation have been worked writers from corporation law pure and simple, and theie been no book on that subject since Mr Grant’s, pubout with great fulness and ingenuity in English law, but has lished in 1850. Two earlier treatises by Mr Kyd and Mr the conception has been taken full-grown from the law of Willcocks may be mentioned. American lawyers have Rome. The technical term in Roman law corresponding to our corporation is collegium; a more general term is dealt more satisfactorily with corporations, and special universitas. A collegium or corpus must have consisted of reference may be made to Abbott’s Digest of Corporation at least three persons, who were said to be corporati habere The legal origin of corporation is ascribed by Grant to corpus. They could hold property in common and had a common chest. They might sue and be sued by their agent five sources, viz., common law, prescription, Act of Parlia(syndicus or actor). There was a complete separation in ment, charter, and implication. Prescription in legal theory law between the rights of the collegium as a body and those implies a grant, so that corporations by prescription would of its individual members. The collegium remained in ex- be reducible to the class of chartered or statutory, corporaistence although all its original members were changed. It tions. A corporation is said to exist by implication when was governed by its own by-laws, provided these were not the purposes of a legally constituted society cannot be contrary to the common law. The power of forming collegia carried out without corporate powers. . Corporations arc was restrained, and societies pretending to act as corpora- thus ultimately traceable to the authority, of charters and tions were often suppressed. In all these points the collegia Acts of Parliament, The power of creating corporations of Roman closely resemble the corporations of English law. by charter is an important prerogative of the Crown, but in There is a similar parallel between the purposes for which the present state of the constitution, when all the powers ot the formation of such societies is authorized in English and the Crown are practically exercised by Parliament, there is in Roman law. Thus among the Roman collegia, the following no room for any jealousy as to the manner in which it may classes are distinguished :—(1) Public governing bodies, oi be exercised. The power of chartering corporations municipalities, cimitates; (2) religious societies, such as the belonged also to subjects who had jura regalia, e.g., tho

432

CORPORATION 433 bishops of iDurham granted a charter of incorporation to property of the corporation will go to the heir of the the city of Durham in 1565, 1602, and 1780, and the last founder, and the personal property as bona vacantia to the was the charter in operation up to the passing of the Crown. Corporations created by statute cannot surrender Municipal Corporations Act. The charter of a corporation nor will they be suffered to avoid elections so as to become is regarded as being of the nature of a contract between extinct for want of members. the king and the corporation. It will be construed more The power of the majority to bind the society is one of favourably for the Crown, and more strictly as against the the first principles of corporation law, even in cases where grantee. It cannot alter the law of the land, and it may the corporation has a head. It is even said that only by be surrendered, so that, if the surrender is accepted by the an Act of Parliament can this rule be avoided. The binding Crown and enrolled in Chancery, the corporation is thereby majority is that of the number present at a corporate meetdissolved. The use made of this power of the Crown in ing duly summoned. Yotes given for an illegal purpose or a the reigns of Charles II. and James II. will be familiar to disqualified person are considered as thrown away, and in most readers. Chartered corporations were originally held an election votes must be given for some particular to be ex necessitate immortal; only a statute could give a candidate, if they are merely against a candidate, they society corporate privileges to ensue for a limited time. are void. But now, by 1 Viet. c. 77 § 29, the Crown may incorporate In corporations which have a head (as colleges), for any period. although the head cannot veto the resolution of the • Every corporation, it is said, must have a name, and it majority, he is still considered an integral part of the may have more names than one, but two corporations society, and his death suspends its existence, so that a cannot have the same name. And corporations cannot head cannot devise or bequeath to the corporation, nor can change their name save by charter or some equivalent a grant be made to a corporation during vacancy of the authority. headship. The possession of a common seal, though, as already A corporation has power to make such regulations (bystated, not conclusive of the corporate character, has been laws) as are necessary.for carrying out its purposes, and held to be an incident of every corporation aggregate. The these are binding on its members and on persons within its inns of courts have common seals, but they are only local jurisdiction if it has any. Such by-laws must not be voluntary societies, not corporations. Generally speaking, at variance with the law of the land, nor retrospective in all corporate acts affecting strangers must be performed their operation, nor unreasonable. They must further be under the common seal; acts of internal administration in harmony with the objects of the society, and must not affecting only the corporators, need not be under seal. The infringe or limit the powers and duties of its officers. A byrule has been defended by high judicial authority as law to compel the giving of a dinner was held to be invalid following necessarily from the impersonal character of a unless it could be shown that the interest of the corporacorporation; either a seal or something equivalent must be tion was to be promoted thereby. fixed upon so that the act of the corporation may be The power to acquire and hold land was incident to a recognized by all. In the matter of contracts, however, corporation at common law, but its restriction by the the strict rule of law has been found untenable. A large statutes of mortmain dates from a very early period. The exception has long been recognized by the courts. In cases English law against mortmain was dictated by the jealousy of “ convenience almost amounting to necessity,” the use of the feudal lords, who lost the services they would otherof the seal will not be necessary in order to bind a corpora- wise have been entitled to, when their land passed into the tion. Examples given in the old cases of such convenience hands of a perpetual corporation. The vast increase in the are the retainer of an inferior servant, authority to make a estates of ecclesiastical corporations constituted by itself a distress, or drive away cattle damage feasant, &c. This danger which, might well justify the operation of the exception has been extended in different degrees in different restricting statutes. Accordingly, in Magna Charta (9 Hen. classes of corporations. In trading corporations it has III. c. 36) there is a clause against the granting of land been lately held that it will include all contracts entered to religious houses. The statute 7 Edward I. st. 2, c. 1 into for the purposes for which the society was incorporated, (De Religiosis), and the Statute of Westminster the Second and will not be limited to matters of constant occurrence extended by 15 Richard II. c. 5, prohibited corporations from or small importance. In other corporations the same buying land in mortmain under penalty of forfeiture. The latitude does not appear to be encouraged by the decisions. next lord might enter within a year, and each succeeding Goods of a kind which must have been necessary from time lord had half a year, and for default of intermediate lord to time, and actually supplied to a corporation under a the king should have the lands for ever. If the king and contract not sealed, may be sued upon. But an engagement the lords waived their rights, the corporation could hold as clerk to a workhouse was held not binding on a board the land without question. Hence a practice grew up for of guardians because not under their seal. And where a the king to grant to a corporation a licence to hold the municipal corporation caused some tolls to be let by auction, lands given to it; and this, although, strictly speaking, a they were not allowed to recover on the contract because it waiving of the king’s rights, was in course of time held was not under their seal. And work done for local im- sufficient to bar the mesne lord’s right also. Its power to provements, under an unsealed contract, was held to give do so was expressly confirmed by 7 and 8 Will. III. c. 37, no claim against a corporation. In such cases the fact of —not that there was any doubt about it in practice, but the contract being executed makes no difference as against to avoid the hateful example of anything like a power in the corporation, but where the corporation has executed an the Crown to suspend the laws. A licensed corporation unsealed contract, it may recover thereon. can hold lands to the extent of its licence. The somewhat unsatisfactory principles as to the dissoluThe Mortmain Acts applied only to cases of alienation tion of corporations are not now of much practical import- inter vivos. There was no power to devise lands by will ance. A corporation may of course be abolished by until 32 Henry VIII. c. 1 (explained by 34 and 35 Henry statute, but not by the mere authority of the Crown. It VIII. c. 5), and when the power was granted corporations is held that a corporation may become extinct by the dis- were expressly excluded from its benefits. No devise to a appearance of all its members or of any integral part, or by corporation, whether for its own use or in trust, was allowed surrender of charter if it is. a chartered society, or by to be good; land so devised went to the heir, either process of law for abuse of powers. In such cases, the real absolutely or charged with the trusts imposed upon it iu VI--55

434

CORPORATION

The 13 Elizabeth c. 10 extends this principle to other the abortive devise. A modification, however, was gradually ecclesiastical persons and to colleges. The alienation of wrought by the judicial interpretations of the Charitable college and church property is now permitted by modern Trusts Act 43 Elizabeth c. 4, and it was held that a devise statutes, under the’supervision of commissioners. The to a corporation for a charitable purpose might be a good Municipal Corporations Act, 1835, deals with the alienation devise, and would stand unless voided by the Mortmain of municipal property in a similar spirit. Acts :—so that no corporation could take land, without a As already indicated, the more important classes of corlicence, for any purpose or in any way ; and n° licensed porations are now governed by special statutes which excorporation could take lands by devise, save for charitable clude or modify the operation of the common law principles. purposes. Then came the 9 George II. c. 36 commonly The most considerable class of societies still unaffected by 8 e but improperly called the Mortmain Ac . such special legislation are the Livery Companies; for an generally to make it impossible for land to be left by wi 1 account of which see Companies. Under the same headfor charitable 1uses, whether through a corporation or a ing will be found an account of the important enactments natural person. The new Wills Act does not renew the old regulating joint-stock companies. provision against devises to corporations, which therefore The question to what extent the common law incidents fall under the general law of mortmain. The result is of a corporation have been interfered with by special legissimply that corporations cannot take land for any purpose lation has become one of much importance, especially without a licence, and that neither corporations nor natura under the Acts relating to joint-stock companies. The persons can take land by devise for charitable uses (see most important case on this subject is that of Richer. The Charities). The policy of the law of mortmain may be Ashbury Railway Carriage Company before mentioned, in compared with the rule against perpetuities—a rule which which, the judges of the Exchequer Chamber being equally forbids the operation of settlements purporting to regulate divided, the decision of the court below was affirmed, The the devolution of land for ever. The longest period for view taken by the affirming judges, viz., that the common which the law will allow the future disposition of land to law incidents of a corporation adhere unless expressly rebe tied up is a life or lives in being, and twenty-one moved by the legislature, may be illustrated by a short exyears thereafter. The power of corporations at common law to alienate tract from the judgment of Mr Justice Blackburn :— “ If I thought it was at common law an incident to a corporation their property is a question of much greater difficulty, and its capacity should be limited by the instrument creating it, 1 no satisfactory solution of it is to be found in the cases or that should agree that the capacity of a company incorporated under text-books. Coke is understood to say in his report of the Act of 1862 was limited to the object in the memorandum of Sutton’s Hospital case that they have the power to alienate, association. But if I am right in the opinion which I have already that the general power of contracting is an incident to a but later authorities are sometimes quoted on the other side expressed, corporation it requires an indication of _ intention in the “ All civil corporations, ” says Kyd, “ such as the corpora- legislature towhich take away, I see no- such indication here. If the tions of mayor and commonalty, bailiffs and burgesses of a question was whether the legislature had conferred on a corporatown, or the corporate companies of trades in cities and tion, created under this Act, capacity to enter into contracts beyond towns, &c., have and always have had an unlimited control the provisions of the deed, there could he only one answer. The did not confer such capacity. But if the question be, over their respective properties, and may alienate in fee, or legislature as I apprehend it is, whether the legislature have indicated an make what estates they please for years, for life, or in tail, intention to take away the power of contracting which at common as fully as any individual may do in respect of his own law would he incident to a body corporate, and not merely to limit property.” And he makes the same assertion as to the the authority of the managing body and the majority of the shareto hind the minority, but also to prohibit and make illegal common law right of colleges and ecclesiastical corporations. holders contracts made by the body corporate, in such a manner that they Grant, however, argues that no civil corporation can be would be binding on the body \if incorporated at common law I supposed to hold land otherwise than as a clothed with a think the answer should be the other way.” public purpose, ” and that, therefore, there is no right of On tbe other hand, the House of Lords, agreeing with alienation. Recent judicial decisions, however, seem to the three dissentient judges in the Exchequer Chamber, favour it. In a case before the late master of the rolls pronounced the effect of the Companies Act to be the (Evan v. Corporation of Avon, 29 Beavan 144), it was opposite of that indicated by Mr Justice Blackburn. “ It held that a municipal corporation, apart from the Municipal was the intention of the legislature, not implied but actually Corporations Act, has full power to dispose of all its expressed, that the corporations should not enter, having property like a private individual, and in the more recent regard to this memorandum of association, into a contract case of Riche v. Ashbury Company (Latv Reports,. 9 of this description. The contract in my judgment could Exchequer, 224) Mr Justice Blackburn, quoting the opinion not have been ratified by the unanimous assent of _ the of Coke in Sutton’s Hospital case, lays it down that at com- whole corporation.” In such companies, therefore, objects mon law a corporation might bind itself to anything to beyond the scope of the memorandum of association are which a natural person could bind himself, and deal with ultra vires of the corporation. Tho doctrine of ultra vires, its property as a natural person might, and that an attempt as it is called, is almost wholly of modern and judicial to forbid this by the king, even by express negative words, creation. Its first emphatic recognition of it appears to does not bind the law. When land is held by a corpora- have been in the case of companies created for special pur' tion for charitable or other fiduciary purposes the Court of poses with extraordinary powers, by Act of Parliament, Chancery will interfere to prevent any improper alienation. and, more particularly, railway companies.. The funds of In the case of ecclesiastical and college property, the such companies, it was held, must be applied to the purdangers incident to unlimited power of alienation produced poses for which they were created and to no other. what are known as the restraining statutes in the reign of Whether this doctrine is applicable to the older or, as they Elizabeth. The first of these, 1 Elizabeth c. 19, applies are sometimes called, ordinary corporations, ^appears to only to bishops, and forbids alienations whereby an estate be doubtful. A recent author (Brice on Ultra Vires) should pass other than for the term of twenty-one years or writes:— three lives, with accustomed yearly rent or more reserved. “ Take, as a strong instance, ft university or a London guild. i Devises to colleges are excepted from the operation of the Act, but Either can undoubtedly manage, invest, transform, and expend tho corporate property in almost any way it pleases, but ii_ tnej such devises must be for purposes identical with or closely resembling tbe original purposes of the college; and the exception from this Act proposed to exhaust the same on the private pleasures of existm* members, or to abandon the promotion, the one of education, th.3 does not supersede the necessity for a licence in mortmain.

COR- -COR 435 other of their art and mystery, it is very probable, if not absolutely by any name or title of incorporation. It has been held certain, that the Court of Chancery would restrain the same, as that this Act does not create new corporations, although it being ultra vires." alters the name, title, and constitution of the governing Municipal Corporations.—The introduction of corpora- body. All corporate funds, after payment of debts tions into cities and towns does not appear to date farther salaries, &c., as specified in the Act, are expressly approback than the reign of Henry VI., although they had long priated to public purposes. Advowsons in the possession possessed what may be called a quasi-corporate character. of the body corporate are to be sold under the direction of By that time the corporate character of ecclesiastical and the ecclesiastical commissioners, and the proceeds invested educational societies and even of guilds had been recog- in securities for the use of the corporation. The general nized, and the great convenience of corporate powers was, regulations of municipalities under this and subsequent no doubt, the reason why they were demanded by the com- Acts not affecting them in their, character as corporations monalties of towns. The inhabitants of Plymouth appear belong to the subject of Municipal Government. to have petitioned for a corporation in 13 Henry iY., and This beneficial Act was unfortunately limited in its the charter of Kingston-on-Hull in 18 Henry VI. is said to operation. London and all its corporations were left out be the first charter of municipal incorporation in England. and the municipal government of the metropolis is at this The ultimate effect of these charters was in general to re- moment a medley of independent jurisdictions in striking duce the boroughs into close corporations, the members of contrast with the orderly corporations of other large towns. which engrossed the municipal and political powers to the And on the other hand, many small boroughs were omitted exclusion of the general body of the inhabitants. The legal in the original Act, which still exhibit in the mismanagedependence of such corporations on the charter of the ment of their property and powers the abuses against which king suggested the measures above referred to by which that Act was directed. In 1875 and 1876 resolutions on the Crown attempted to get the control of the corpora- the subject were laid before the Parliament, and from a tions. The reversal of the judgments obtained in the pro- return procured by Government, it appeared that the ceedings against corporations formed one of the first acts number of unreformed corporations was 102. Many of of the people after the Revolution of 1688, and thereafter these were places of some importance, and in possession of corporations shared with private persons the advantages of considerable property. Government yielded to the general freedom from arbitrary interference on the part of the feeling that inquiry was desirable, and a royal commission Crown. Freedom from state control, however, means in was appointed to consider the subject. (e. r.) the case of corporations the growth of abuses. The CorCORPULENCE, or Obesity, is a condition of the body porations Act of the reign of Charles II., one of the characterized by the over-accumulation of fat under the measures forced on the king by the jealousy of his Parlia- skin and around certain of the internal organs. In all ment for the rights of the church, provided that no person healthy persons a greater or less amount of fat is present should be elected to office in any corporate town, who in these parts, and serves important physiological ends, should not within one year previously have taken the besides contributing to the proper configuration of the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper according to the rites of body. Even a considerable measure of corpulence, howthe church, and this enactment, although after a time sus- ever inconvenient, is not inconsistent with a high degree pended by temporary statutes, was not finally abolished till of health and activity, and it is only when in great excess 9 Geo. IV. c. 17, which substituted for the test a declara- or rapidly increasing that it can be regarded as a morbid tion not to injure or weaken the Church of England, The state. The extent to which obesity may proceed is important powers, municipal, political, and judicial, illustrated by numerous well-authenticated examples possessed by town corporations, the large ascertained recorded in medical works, of which only a few can be here amount of property in their hands, their exclusiveness, mentioned. Thus Bright, a grocer of Maldon, in Essex, secrecy, and almost total freedom from responsibility,—all who died in 1750, in his twenty-ninth year, weighed 616 these abuses were acquiesced in till the reform of the House lb. Dr F. Dancel records the case of a young man of of Commons in 1832 enabled Parliament to turn its atten- twenty-two, who died from excessive obesity, weighing 643 tion to the reform of other public institutions. The royal lb. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1813 a case is commissioners appointed in 1834 reported that “ there recorded of a girl of four years of age who weighed 256 ft). prevails among the inhabitants of a great majority of the But the most celebrated case is that of Daniel Lambert of incorporated towns a general and in our opinion a just dis- Leicester, who died in 1809 in his fortieth year. He is satisfaction with the municipal institutions—a distrust of said to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, his the self-elected municipal councils, whose powers are subject weight being 739 lb (52 st. 11 ft)). Lambert had publicly to no popular control, and whose acts and proceedings, being exhibited himself for some years prior to his death, which secret, are not checked by the influence of public opinion ; occurred suddenly at Stamford. At the inn where he died a distrust of the municipal magistracy, tainting with sus- two suits of his clothes were preserved, from which some picion the local administration of justice; a discontent under idea of his enormous dimensions may be obtained, when it the burthen of local taxation, while revenues are diverted is stated that his waistcoat could easily inclose seven from their legitimate use.” The publication of this report persons of ordinary size. Lambert ate moderately, drank was followed by the Municipal Corporations Act, 5 and 6 only water, and slept less than most persons. He is said Will. IV. c. 26, by which, in all the boroughs named in the to have had an excellent tenor voice. schedules to the Act, the laws, customs, charters, theretoHealth cannot be long maintained under excessive fore in force, are repealed where inconsistent with the pro- obesity, for the increase in bulk of the body, rendering visions of the Act. Section 2 reserves all rights of property exercise more difficult, leads to relaxation and defective and beneficial exemptions to freemen, their wives and nutrition of muscle, while the accumulations of fat in the children; but freedom is not in future to be acquired by chest and abdomen occasion serious embarrassment to the gift or purchase. The body corporate in such borough functions of the various organs in those cavities. In shall be called the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of such general the mental activity of the highly corpulent becomes borough, and by that name shall have perpetual succession, impaired, although there have always been many notable and shall be capable in law by the council hereinafter exceptions to this rule. mentioned to-do and suffer all things which now lawfully Various causes are assigned for the production of corputhey and their successors respectively may do and suffer lence, but it must be admitted that in many cases it cannot

436

0 0 R —0 0 R

be accounted for. In some families there exists an space of time by the adoption of a particular kind of diet. hereditary predisposition to an obese habit of body, the Mr Banting describes the condition of obesity in which he manifestation of which no precautions as to living appear was in August 1862, and which, although certainly less capable of averting. But beyond this it is unquestionable than those examples above mentioned, appears to have been that certain habits favour the occurrence of corpulence. A sufficient to prove a source of much discomfort and even of luxurious, inactive, or sedentary life, with over-indulgence actual suffering. After trying almost every known remedy effect, he was induced, on the suggestion of Mr in sleep and absence of mental occupation^ aie well without Harvey, a London aurist, to place himself upon an entirely recognized predisposing causes. The more immediate new form of diet, which consisted chiefly in the removal, exciting causes are over-feeding and the large use of fluids far as possible, of all saccharine, starchy, and fat food, of any kind, but especially alcoholic liquors. 1 at persons as reduction of liquids, and the substitution of meat or are not always great eaters, though many, of them are, the while again, leanness and inordinate appetite are not in- fish and fruit in moderate quantity at each meal, together frequently associated. Still, it may be stated generally with the daily use of an antacid draught. Under this that indulgence in food, beyond what is requisite to repair regimen his weight was reduced 46 R) in the course of a daily waste, goes towards the increase of flesh, particulaily few weeks, while his health underwent a marked improveof fat. This is more especially the case when the non- ment. Mr Banting’s recorded experience, as might have nitrogenous (the fatty, saccharine, and. starchy) elements of been expected, induced many to follow his example, and in the food are in excess. Although it is still undetermined numerous instances the effects were all that could be whether the fat of the body is derived alone from these, desired. But in many cases the diminution in weight was or also from the nitrogenous (albuminous) elements of the found to be attended with such a serious impairment of food, it seems certain that while an excess of the latter health as to render the carrying out of this system imposconstituents accelerates the oxidation and metamorphoses sible. It is probable that in some at least of these cases of the fatty tissues, an excess of the non-nitrogenous the unfavourable effects might have been avoided had the retards these changes, and thus tends directly to the pro- change in diet been more gradually brought about. There duction of obesity (Parkes). The want of adequate bodily seems little reason to doubt that this method, founded as exercise will in a similar manner produce a like effect, and it is on well-recognized principles of physiological chemistry, it is probable that many jcases of corpulence are to be is that which is most likely to yield the best results in the ascribed to this cause alone, from the well-known facts treatment of corpulence. It evidently cannot, however, be that many persons of sedentary occupation become stout, safely adopted in all cases, and ought not to be attempted although of most abstemious habits, and that obesity to be carried out except under medical advice and observafrequently comes on in the middle-aged and old, who take tion; for however desirable it be to get rid of superabundant relatively less exercise than the young, in whom it is com- fat, it would be manifestly no gain were this to be achieved paratively rare. Women are more prone to become corpu- by the sacrifice of the general health. An important elelent than men, and appear to take on this condition more ment in the treatment of obesity is the due regulation of readily after the cessation of the function of menstruation. the amount of bodily exercise, and this, too, ought to be For the prevention of corpulence and the reduction of made the subject of the physician’s careful attention. Remarks on Corpulence, or Obesity considered as a Disease, superfluous fat many expedients have been resorted to, and byCursory William Wadd, 3d ed., London, 1816 ; Corpulence or Excess of Fat numerous remedies recommended. It is unnecessary to in the Human Body, by Dr. T. King Chambers, London, 1850 ; allude to these in detail, further than to state that they TraiU theorique et pratique de I’obesite, by Dr F. Dancel, Paris, 1863, embrace such regimen as bleeding, blistering, purging, Letter on Corpulence, addressed to the Public by William Banting, 3d London, 1864; The Practice of Medicine, by Dr Tanner, London, starving, the use of different kinds of baths, and of di ugs ed., 6th ed., London, 1869. U- O- A.) innumerable, most of which means have been found utteily CORPUS CHRISTI, a festival of the Church of Rome to fail in accomplishing the desired object. The drinking observed on the first Thursday after Trinity Sunday, in of vinegar was long popularly supposed to be a remedy for honour of the doctrine of the Eucharist. It was instituted obesity. It is related of the marquis of Cortona, a noted general of the duke of Alba, that by drinking vinegar he by Pope Urban IV., in 1264, and is still celebrated as of the greatest feasts of the church. so reduced his body from a condition of enormous obesity oneCORREA DA SERRA, Jose Francisco (1750-1823), that he could fold his skin about him like a garment. a Portuguese politician and man of science, was born at Such a remarkable result was only a proof of the injury done to his health by the excessive use of vinegar. There Serpa, in Alemtejo, in 1750. Having been educated at is no evidence, whatever, that this liquid has any power to Rome, he took orders under the protection of the duke of remove fat, while its pernicious effects upon the health, Alafoes, uncle of Mary I. of Portugal. In 1777 he returned when taken in large quantity, are well known to medical to Lisbon, where be resided with his patron, with whost men. Another medicinal agent, which has been proposed assistance he founded the Portuguese Academy of Sciences. on the high authority of Dr T. King Chambers, is the Of this institution he was named perpetual secretary, and liquor potassce. This medicine, which is recommended on he received the privilege of publishing its transactions the ground of the chemical affinity of the alkalis for fats, is without reference to any censor whatever. His use of this directed to be taken in teaspoonful doses in milk twice or right brought him into conflict with the Holy Office; and thrice daily, at the same time that a restricted diet and consequently in 1786 he fled to France, and remained there abundant exercise is enjoined. But even this plan, till the death of Pedro III., when he again took up his although occasionally yielding good results, cannot be said residence with Alafoes. But having given a lodging in the to have been widely successful. The more rational and palace to a French Girondist, he was forced to flee to Enghopeful system of treatment appears to be that which is land, where he found a protector in Sir Joseph Banks, and directed towards regulating the quality as well as the became a member of the Royal Society. In 1797 he was quantity of nutriment ingested. This method has of late appointed secretary to the Portuguese legation, but a quarrel years received much attention, chiefly in consequence of the with the ambassador drove him once more to Paris (1802), publication, in 1863, of a pamphlet entitled Letter on and in that city he resided till 1813, when he crossed over Corpulence, Addressed to the Public by William Banting, in to New York. In 1816 he was made Portuguese ministerwhich was narrated the remarkable experience of the writer plenipotentiary at Washington, and in 1820 he was in accomplishing the reduction of his own weight in a short recalled home, appointed a member of the Financial

C OK R E G GI 0 Council, and .elected to a seat in the Cortes. Three years after, and in the same year with the fall of the constitutional Government, he died. Correa da Serra ranks high as a botanist, though he published no great special work. His principal claim to renown is the Colecarticularly, in his elaborate volume on the Creeds (1875), has century. Then in distinct quarters there come before us exhausted all the historical evidence on the subject, and, the two parts of the creed now in use. The first part, while not venturing to assign the creed to a definite author, down to the end of the 26th clause, which specially has proved in the most conclusive manner that the existence deals with the doctrine of the Trinity, seems then to have of the creed cannct be traced before the age of Charlemagne, existed by itself under the general title of “ Fides San eke and that its origin is almost certainly to be ascribed to the Trinitatis,” and “ Fides Catholica Sanctm Trinitatis.” The demand then existing for a more detailed exposition of second part, which treats of the incarnation of our Lord, the faith than was to be found in the Apostles’ Creed. is in a similar manner found by itself in a MS. known as Nor does he hesitate to ascribe its origin to a deliberate the Colbertine MS., which cannot be placed earlier than purpose of imposture similar to that which led in the same 730. But the two parts are not as yet found in combinaage to the forgery of the famous “ false Decretals,” and the tion, nor as claiming any distinctive symbolic authority. equally famous “ Donation of Constantine. ” He expresses They seem rather put forward as expositions or explanahimself as follows :—“ We have four or five independent tions of the original Nicene doctrine than as new creeds lines of witnesses agreeing in bringing forward the having any authority by themselves. The two documents Quicunque into notice within five and twenty years before not only exist apart, but they are evidently regarded by or after the death of Charlemagne:—i. the testimony of those who use them as separately independent and com. t quotation; ii. testimony of canons; iii. testimony of plete. That there was no authoritative a Athanasian Creed, literary collections of creeds or rules of faith ; iv. testimony of psalters; v. testimony of versions .... That the such as we now have, even at the end of the 8th century, production of this work under the name of Athanasius was is held to be clearly proved by what occurred at the several an intentional and deliberate attempt to deceive, no councils of the church, which were held both in the East reasonable person can question. It was analogous to the and the West at this time. In 787 there was held once production of the forged Decretals. And it is doubtless to more at Nicsea what is reckoned by the Church of Rome the skill with which the imposture was wrought out that the seventh oecumenical council. At this council there we owe the difficulty that has been felt in discovering the were recited three several confessions amplifying in several author” (Swainson, pp. 380-381). Other writers, such as details what is known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan the Rev. E. S. Ffoulkes (On the Athanasian Creed), and Mr Creed. These amplified confessions, attributed to different Lumby, whose compact and interesting volume on The bishops, all indicate the prevailing need that was felt for History of the Creeds has been already quoted, come virtually some more detailed exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity; to the same conclusion as to the date of the Athanasian but the fact, not only that the “ Athanasian ” symbol does symbol. Mr Ffoulkes has formed, indeed, a peculiar theory not make its appearance amongst them, but that, when the as to its authorship by Paulinus, bishop of Aquileia, in the synod at last comes to recite its own belief, it does so in a end of the 8th century,—a conclusion which is repudiated form quite distinct from the 11 Athanasian, and finally by Dr Swainson. They agree, however, that there is falls back upon the old Creed of Constantinople, to which no evidence of its existence before this time. It may be it refuses to make any addition, plainly serve to show that useful to give a brief summary of the reasons for this con- this symbol or exposition could not even have been known clusion. to the Eastern Church at this time, and still less have And first a distinction must be made. What these acquired any authority. writers, of course, mean is that there is no satisfactory But the Councils of Frankfort (794) and of Friuli.(/ 96) evidence of the existence of the Athanasian symbol as are still more decisive. For here in the West and in the

IY. The history of the “ Athanasian ” Creed, or the « Symbolum Quicunque,” as it is often called, opens up a more doubtful inquiry than that of either of the preceding creeds. The evidence before us is of an entirely different character. “ Here,” as it is said by a recent writer on toe subiect (Lumby, in his Hist, of the Creeds, p. lb ), neither the synodical authority of the former, nor the gradual growth of the latter; but when the composition appears for the first time as a document of authority it is cited in its completeness, and as the work of the father whose name it has since for the most part borne, although it was not brought to light for many centuries after his

CREEDS

563

Can it be believed, that if it had been known to Paulinus and the centres of ecclesiastical activity winch marked the age of fathers there assembled, they would not have welcomed it as a Charlemagne, the Quicunque, if known anywhere, may be most excellent comment on the Trinity and the Incarnation, and supposed to have been known and recognized. All the as the most opportune solution of all their difficulties ? ” prominent characters of Western Christendom the The address or exposition with which Paulinus followed Emperor Charles himself, and his two chief counsellors up his announcement is then given. It is too long to Alcuin and Paulinus of Aquileia—took part more or less insert here, but it lays down the lines on which the in these councils. Paulinus was “the episcopal soul of Quicunque may be said to have been fashioned. “ Many the Council of Frankfort, and president as well as soul of attributes and qualities are predicated of the Father, then a that of Friuli. No movement could have taken place in repetition of the same, and their predication of the Son Italy, France, or Germany in matters ecclesiastic, nor any and of the Holy Ghost,—not indeed in the detached way document have been set forth of such importance as the in which each separate predication is dealt with in the Quicunque, that could have escaped the knowledge of Quicunque, but yet evidently a step in the direction of Paulinus and Alcuin.” In these circumstances the absence that greater elaboration and distinctness.” of all allusion to the Quicunque in the records of these The results, therefore, of the most recent investigacouncils is fatal to the idea of its authoritative acceptance tions into the subject may be stated as follows. In as a creed at that time. Not only so, but a form of faith the very end of tbe 8th century the Quicunque is which is found in the records of the Council of Frankfort, unknown as a creed-document. It is nowhere menand which is supposed to have been composed either by tioned at synods whose special business was to discuss Paulinus himself or under his guidance, shows by its the subject matter which it afterwards sets forth with language that he could not have been familiar with any such elaborate and authoritative detail. But during this such document as the Quicunque, for the obvious reason century there are found in separate forms two documents that it would have served his purpose better than the which, when combined, constitute the framework of form which he uses. In this document “ he deals both with our present creed. The discussions of the time had a the doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation, and puts tendency to bring forward all contributions towards the his expressions on one occasion into the exact language explanation or fuller settlement of the doctrines of the used in the Athanasian Creed, which language was, no Trinity and the Incarnation. Addresses like those of doubt, current in a separate form long before; but he Paulinus, and the correspondence betwixt him and Alcuin never attains to anything like the precision which is and Charlemagne himself, all point to the necessity of exhibited in the creed, and which, had it been known to some authoritative exposition of the old and simpler creed. him, must have commended that work to his use. And The demand seems to have created the supply;, and there is not to be found the slightest notice of Athanasius accordingly, before the end of the following century, in its in the whole proceedings of the council.” From a further third quarter there is evidence of the existence of the document of the same council, a synodical letter which the Athanasian symbol in the very words as nearly as possible bishops of Gaul and Germany addressed to those of Spain, which are now used. This evidence is found in a prayerit is also evident that they were equally with Paulinus book of Charles the Bald, written about 870. “The ignorant of any such authoritative exposition of the Quicunque then had not only been compiled, but had by Catholic faith as the Quicunque. And to complete the this time made itself reputation enough to be included in evidence on the subject there is a letter of Charlemagne the service-book. If twenty years be allowed for the himself to the bishops of Spain, which indicates with gaining of acceptance, the date is carried back to the middle equal clearness that, while his mind was full of many of the century, or 850 a.d.” But there are two earlier expressions similar to those in the creed, he yet had MSS., showing more variations from the present form than no knowledge of such an authoritative document to which is presented by the copy in the prayer-book of Charles the he could appeal in advising them as to the details of the Bald. These point to an earlier stage of growth in the Trinitarian doctrine. document, and the limits of the period during which the In summing up the subject we cannot do better than two parts of the Quicunque, previously, as we have seen, quote the words of Mr Lumby, whom we have already so in separate existence, were probably combined and moulded far quoted :— into a creed claiming general acceptance, may be therefore t( The evidence which presents itself two years later seems to carried back to the first quarter of the century, 800-825. make it more clear that the Quicunque was unknown to the great The creed, in short, appears to have been the response of minds of the West. The Council of Friuli met 796 A.p., and, as we have before said, its assembly was for the discussion of the the Christian consciousness of the age immediately followdoc rines of the Trinity and the Incarnation. The president and ing that of Charlemagne to the necessity for such an summoner of the council was Paulinus, and it is with his speech authoritative exposition of the faith to which this age that we are concerned. After some preamble, m which he observes everywhere testifies. So far, of course, there is no question that his first idea is to set forth ‘ the very text of the creed as a law of imposture in its origin. Imposture is not the name to and rule for the direction of their proceedings, he goes on to consider whatthe next step is to be. And he would first clear away some objec- give to such a natural and inevitable result of the working tions. ‘ For I believe,’ says he, ‘ that in the records of some synods of the mind of the Western Church towards a more it is laid down . . . that no one may lawfully teach or frame elaborate and detailed confession of its Trinitarian faith. another symbol of our faith. Far be it from us, as far be it irom everv faithful heart, to frame or teach another symbol or faith, or m The imposture consists not in the rise of the creed, nor another manner than they (the holy fathers ot Niceea) appointed. yet in the acceptance of its ambitious formulae, but in the But according to their meaning we have decreed to deliver in exposi- ascription of it, probably not without the concurrence of tion these matters which haply on account of the brief statement ot the heads of the church, to a name with which it must the truth are less understood by the simple and unlearned than have been known to have nothing to do. This was done, Here ^then is the definite confession of a want which the no doubt, with the view of securing to it credit and Quicunque would have supplied. The symbol by itself is too com- authority, and was supposed to be justified by its special pendious—it needs exposition—the unlearned and simple do not doctrinal import, but it was none the less an assumption, sufficiently understand it; and for their sakes a longer and. more explanatory treatise is to be prepared, adhering to the meaning of the fictitious character of which could hardly have been the fathers, who put forth the full creed. In half a century or unknown to those who first used the creed and gave it little more after these words were uttered, it can be shown that our currency in the church. ferrm of the Athanasian Creed was known and used and looked upon With the adoption of the “ Athanasian” symbol the creedas a most satisfactory exposition of the doctrines in debate at Friuli.

CEE EDS formations of the early and mediaeval church terminate. which Lutheranism had corrected, or, as they are called, Nor is it to be forgotten of the three so-called “ Catholic ” Abusus mutatos, viz., (1) De Utraque Specie; (2) De Concreeds, that only one of them is in the broadest sense jugio Sacerdotum; (3) De Missa; (4) De Confessione; (5) “Catholic” or “(Ecumenical.” Neither the “ Apostles’” De Discrimine Ciborum; (6) De Yotis Monachorum ; and nor the “ Athanasian ” Creed is known to the Greek or (7) De Potestate Ecclesiastica. Secondly, immediately Oriental Church, which remained faithful to the faith following the Confession of Augsburg appeared the Apologia “ settled by the Holy Fathers ” at Nicaea, or at least to the Confessionis Augustance, also prepared by Melanchthon, in faith as subsequently enlarged to its present form (with the reply to a professed confutation of the original document by exception of the “filioque” clause). No doubt, in the certain Roman Catholic divines. The Apology follows the East as well there were in circulation many expositions of order of the confession, but sometimes several articles are the Nicene doctrine, called forth by the same doctrinal grouped together when referring to one main topic ; and the necessities as prevailed in the West. The proceedings of Apology is thus divided into only sixteen sections, although the Second Council of Nicaea (787), to which we have greatly more extended, nearly five times larger, in fact, than already adverted, sufficiently show this. But none of these the Confession itself. To these two primary documents were expositions attained to any general acceptance, or rose as afterwards added, thirdly, the Articles of Smalkald— in the West to the same authoritative level as the ancient Articuli Smalcaldici—prepared by Luther himself in creed. It remained alone in its eminence, protected by the 1536, and signed at Smalkald by an assembly of evandenunications which the third council, which assembled at gelical theologians, and, fourthly, the Formula Concordice, Ephesus in 431, directed against clergymen or laymen composed in 1576 after considerable doctrinal divisions had “ who shall dare to compose any other creed.” Of all broken out in Lutheranism. This latter document was not Christian creeds, therefore, the Nicene or Niceno-Constan- so universally accepted as the others by the Lutheran tinopolitan is the only really “ Catholic ” or oecumenical churches, but it has always been reckoned along with them creed, deliberately discussed and adopted by the represen- as of confessional authority. To these remain to be added tatives of the universal church. The two others associated Luther’s two catechisms, which have also a confessional with it irl the services of the Western Church have not position among the Lutherans. The Catechismus Major only never had acceptance beyond the range of that church, and the Catechismus Minor were both issued in 1529, and but are very gradual growths within it, without any definite take their place in the list of symbolic books betwixt the parentage or deliberate and consultative authority. They Smalkald Articles and the Formula Concordite. The emerge gradually during many centuries from the confusions collective documents are issued as a Concordia, or Liber and variations of Christian opinion, slowly crystallizing into Concordice, printed with the three older creeds in advance, definite shape; and such authority as belongs to them is and together they sum up the confessional theology of neither primitive nor patristic. It is the reflected assent Lutheranism. 2. The course of the Reformation, as is well known, of the later church in the West, and the.uncritical patronage of a comparatively ignorant age, which have alone elevated evoked not only the ecclesiastical but the dogmatic them to the same position as the faith defined at Nicsea, activity of the Roman Catholic Church,^and the Council which is the only truly Catholic or universal symbol of the of Trent, reckoned by that church as the eighteenth oecumenical council, was summoned in the end of 1545, in universal church. Y. After the Reformation a new era of creed-formations, order to formulate more distinctly the doctrinal position of or confessions of faith, set in. The process of exposition out Roman Catholicism in opposition to Protestantism. This of which we have seen the “ Athanasian ” symbol to have council sat at intervals for eighteen years, from the 13 th gradually risen, became once more urgent, not only in the December 1545 to the 4th December 1563, sometimes at disrupted branches of the church, which were called into Bologna, but chiefly at Trent. Its results are arranged in existence by the activity of the several Reformers, but also the forms of twenty-five sessions, each session generally in the Roman Church, from which the churches of the Re- dealing with an important head of doctrine in the shape of formation were broken off. As we said at the outset, we a “decretum,” followed, but not always, by a series of cannot do more here than present a summary of the many “ canons,” “ ut omnes sciant, non solum quid tenere et confessions which then sprung up. And here, as in the sequi, sed etiam quid vitare et fugere debeant.” Hence previous part of this article, the best principle of arrange- the title under which the results of the synod are known— ment will be the chronological, not merely because this “ Canones et Decreta Sacrosancti (Ecumenici Concilii order is most suitable to our plan, but because it really Tridentini.” The Professio Fidei Tridentince, which was sheds most light on the formation of the several documents, drawn up under Pius IY. (1564), and the Catechismus and alone brings them into rightly intelligent relation to Romanus, published under the authority of his successor one another. We will hardly be able to do more than Pius V. (1566), are considered ^by the Roman Catholic enumerate the titles and the dates of the multiplied confes- Church as symbolical writings of the second rank. sions of the Reformed churches. But even this will be 3. Passing to the confessions of the Reformed more than the English reader can readily find elsewhere in churches, we encounter more symbolic documents than there a complete form. are churches. Nimeyer’s Collectio Confessionumin Ecdesiis 1. The confessions of the Lutheran Church claim the first Reformatis Publicatarum contains twenty-eight confesattention in chronological order. The first of these is the sions, the most important of which may be classified as Confessio Augustwnci) or Confession of Augsburg, compiled follows :—(a) Pre-Calvinian : the Confe&sio Tetrapolitana, by Melanchthon, and presented in German and Latin to or the confession of the four cities,—Strasburg, Constance, the Emperor Charles V., in 1530, in the name of the Meiningen, and Landau,—composed by Martin Bucer in evangelical states of Germany. It consists of twenty-one twenty-three articles, and presented to the Emperor Charles articles, beginning (1) De 'Deo; (2) De Peccato Originis; V. in 1530, the same year as the Augsburg Confession (3) De Filio Dei; (4) De Justificatione, &c. ; and ending was presented; the Confessio Basiliensis, supposed to be (21) De Cultu Sanctorum. The articles are terse and sig- drawn up by Myconius at Basel in 1534; and the Connificant, and express with clearness and brevity the doctrinal fessio Helvetica, prepared in the same city by a company position of the Lutheran Church. In addition to the of theologians, amongst whom were Bullinger and Mytwenty-one more positive articles, there are seven of a more conius, and presented to the Lutheran divines assembled controversial character, treating of the ecclesiastical abuses at Smalkald in 1537; and (6) Post-Calvinian; the 564

5(55 ORE- -ORE Consensus Tigurinus, and the Confesmnes Gallicana, Presbyterianism, but for the large Presbyterian churches in Belgian, and Helvetica II. The Confessio Tigurinus, or America and Australia which have sprung from it or own “ Consensio mutua” in re sacramentaria ministrorum connection with it. The Confession of Faith extends to Tigurinee Ecclesiae et D. J. Calvini” was intended, thirty-three chapters, ranging over the most abstruse topics as its title bears, to mediate betwixt the Zwinglian of theology; and along with it are generally printed the and the Genevese or Calvinian doctrine of _ the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, which have also been Sacraments. It was drawn up in 1549, and consisted approved by the General Assembly of the Church of of twenty-six articles. The Confessio Gallicana has Scotland, but which do not possess the legal or statutory been attributed, although doubtfully, to Calvin himself. authority of the Confession. The study of creeds and confessions in their theological It was accepted by a Reformed synod in France in 1559, and presented in the following year to. Francis import is known as the study of symbolical theology, a II. It vas confirmed at a synod in Rochelle in 1571, name familiar to all students of German theological literaand remained up to modern times the confession of ture. Winer’s Confessions of Christendom (translated in the French Reformed Church. The Confessio Belgica Clark’s Foreign Theological Library, 1873) and Mather's is said to have been composed originally as a Comparative Symbolih (Leipsic, 1853) are specimens of private document by Guido of Bres in 1562. First this branch of theological study. For the literature of the printed in French, it soon appeared in Dutch, and creeds with which the article has chiefly dealt, the student gradually gained such general acceptance among the con- may be recommended to Lumby’s History, more than once gregations in the Netherlands that it was confirmed at the quoted, but above all to Dr Swainson’s elaborate volume, Synod of Dort, 1618, as the confession of the Dutch to which we have also referred. A forthcoming work by Reformed Church. The Confessio Helvetica II. was drawn Dr Schaff, in three volumes, entitled The Creeds of up by Bullinger in 1564, and held in great esteem not only Christendom, with a History and Critical Notes, will by the Swiss churches but by the Reformed congregations of probably contain the most exhaustive discussion of the (J. t.) Poland, Hungary, and Scotland. The well-known Decrees subject in English literature. CREEK INDIANS. See Indians. of the Synod of Dort, printed in 1619, also claim to be CREFELD, or Krefeld, a town of Germany, capital added to the series, and a host of Catechisms, which also possessed more or less confessional authority—the famous of a circle of the same name, in the province of Diisseldorf, Heidelberg Catechism and the Genevese Catechism, amongst twelve miles north-west of the town of that name, 125 feet others. The Arminians had their Confessio or Declaratio, above the sea. This town is one of the finest in Rhenish composed by Simon Episcopius about 1622, and the Prussia, being well and regularly built, while the surroundSocinians their Racovian Catechism, adopted, as the name ing fertile district is almost entirely laid out in gardens. It is the most important seat of the silk and velvet manubears, at Racow in Poland in 1605. 4. To this long series of Protestant confessions there factures in Germany, and in this industry the greater part remain to be added the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of the population of town and neighbourhood is employed. of England, and the Westminster Confession of Faith, which There are upwards of 200 silk factories, and large quantities is the doctrinal standard, not only of the Church of Scotland, of silk goods are exported, chiefly to the United States. but of the chief Presbyterian churches both in Britain and The other industries of the town, especially cotton and in America. The former were gradually prepared, chiefly woollen weaving, are very considerable, and about 2000 it is said by Cranmer, and passed through various phases, gardens in the neighbourhood give employment to a large beginning with the ten articles of 1536, and attaining the number of workers. The manufactures to which Crefeld number of forty-two in 1552, till they were finally settled owes its prosperity were introduced by religious refugees as thirty-nine (1562-1571). To this series of confessional from the neighbouring duchy of Juliers about the close of documents also belong what are known as the Lambeth the 17th century. Population (1875), 62,905. CREMA, an ancient town of Lombardy, in the province Articles, composed by Archbishop Whitgift in 15/5, but of Cremona, on the right bank of the Serio and on the railwhich were never accepted as authoritative, and the Irish Articles, supposed to have been chiefly composed by way from Bergamo to Cremona, twenty-five miles E.S.E. of Milan. Population (1871), 8154. It is well built in the Archbishop XJssher in 1615. The Irish Articles form an appropriate transition to the midst of a rich agricultural district, is inclosed by a ditch Westminster Confession of Faith, which is said to have and old fortifications and has a castle, a cathedral (of date borrowed from the former some of its special phraseology. about 1400) and numerous other churches, and several The Westminster document was the outcome of the great palaces. It has manufactures of lace, hats, thread, and Puritan agitation of the 17 th century, and as it is the last, so silk ; and the vicinity produces excellent flax. CREMATION, or the burning of human corpses, may it is one of the most elaborate and finished of the long series be said to have been the general practice of the ancient of Protestant confessions. The Westminster Assembly met in the autumn of 1643, and sat for upwards of five years. world, with the important exceptions of Egypt, where bodies The Confession of Faith was completed in the third year of were embalmed, Judaea, where they were buried in sepulits existence in 1646, and laid before the English Parlia- chres, and China, where they were buried in the earth. In ment in the same year. It never attained to any Greece, for instance, so well ascertained was the law that position of legal authority in England. But in Scotland it only suicides, unteethed children, and persons struck by was accepted in the year following its composition by the lightning were denied the right to be burned. At Rome, General Assembly of the Kirk, as “ agreeable to the Word one of the XII. Tables said, “ Hominem mortuum in urbe of God, and in nothing contrary to the received doctrine, ne sepelito, neve urito •” and in fact, from the close of the burning worship, discipline, and government of this Kirk,” and two republic to the end of the 4th Christian century, 1 years afterwards, on the 7th February 1649, it was ratified on the pyre or rogus was the general rule. Whether, in and approved by the Estates of the Scottish Parliament. any of these cases, cremation was adopted or rejected for The Westminster Confession thus took the place in Scotland sanitary or for superstitious reasons, it is difficult to say. of the old Scoticana Confessio Fidei of John Knox. It Embalming would probably not succeed in climates less retained this position of authority in 1690, when Presby1 terianism was finally established in Scotland, and possesses, Macrobius says it was disused in the reign of the younger Theodosius. as we have said, symbolical authority, not only for Scottish (Gibbon, v. 411.)

566

CREMATION

and thus reach houses, or will percolate so as to contaminate water which is afterwards used. The great Paris cemeteries inflict headache, diarrhoea, and ulcerated sore throat on their immediate neighbours ; and a great mass of similar well-authenticated facts may be brought against even recent cemeteries in various countries. A dense clay, the best soil for preventing the levitation of gas, is the worst for the process of decomposition. The danger is strikingly illustrated in the careful planting of trees and shrubs to absorb the carbonic acid. Vault-burial in metallic coffins, even when sawdust charcoal is used, is still more dangerous than ordinary burial. It must also be remembered that the cemetery system can only be temporary. The soil is gradually filled with bones ; houses crowd round ; the law itself permits the re-opening of graves at the expiry of fourteen years. "We shall not, indeed, as Browne says, “be kuaved out of our graves to have our skulls made drinking bowls and our bones turned into pipes !” But on this ground of sentiment cremation would certainly prevent any interruption of that “ sweet sleep and calm rest ” which the old prayer that the earth might lie lightly has associated with the grave. And in the meantime we should escape the horror of putrefaction and of the “ small cold worm that fretteth the enshrouded form.” For the last ten years many distinguished physicians and chemists in Italy have warmly advocated the general adoption of cremation, and in 1874, a congress called to consider the'matter at Milan resolved to petition the Chamber of Deputies for a clause in the new sanitary code, permitting cremation under the supervision of the syndics of the commune. In Switzerland Dr Vegmann Ercolani is the champion of the cause (see his Cremation the most Rational Method of Disposing of the Dead, 4th ed., Zurich, 1874), and there are two associations for its support. So long ago as 1797 cremation was seriously discussed by the French Assembly,under the Directory, and the events of the FrancoPrussian war have again brought the subject under the notice of the medical press and the sanitary authorities. The military experiments at S

t S t 3, 6, B raarks a run of four for his last card played, A a run of five. But suppose the cards played thus, 4 2' *5 3 5^ 6* B takes a run of four for the fourth card played, but there is no run for any one else, as the second five (which forms no part of the sequence) intervenes. Again, if the cards at six-card cribbage are thus played, ^ 3> ace 5> ^ ^ ^ A takes a run-of three, B a run of four, A a run of five. B then playing the deuce has no run, as the deuce he previously played intervenes. A then makes a run of five, and lastly B has no run, the ace previously played blocking the three. The go, end hole, or last card is scored by the player who approaches most nearly to thirty-one during the play, and entitles to a score of one. If thirty-one is reached exactly, it is a go of two instead of one. Compound Scores.—If often happens that more than one of the above scores are made at the same time, when the player reckons both. Thus a player pairing with the last card that will come in scores both pair and go. Similarly a pair and a fifteen, or a sequence and a fifteen, can be reckoned together.

When the play is over, the hands are shown and counted aloud. The non-dealer has first show, and scores first ; the dealer afterwards counts and scores what he has in hand and then what he has in crib. In counting the hands and crib, the start is made use of by both players to assist in forming combinations. The combinations in hand or crib which entitle to a score are fifteens, pairs or pairs royal, sequences, flushes, and his nob. Fifteens.—All the different cards that, taken together, make fifteen exactly, without counting all the same cards twice over in one fifteen, entitle the holder to a score of two. Tenth cards count ten towards a fifteen. For example a tenth card and a five reckon two, or fifteen-two as it is often called. Another five in the hand or turned up, would again combine with the tenth card, and entitle to another fifteen, or fifteen -four, if the other cards were a two and a three, two other fifteens would be counted,—one for the combination of the three and two with the tenth card, and one for the combination of the two fives with the three and two. Sirnila; ly, two tenth cards and two fives reckon fifteen-eight ; a nine and three threes give three different combinations, and reckon fifteensix ; and so on for other cards. Pairs.—Pairs are reckoned as in play. Sequences. —Three or more cards in sequence count, as in play one for each card. If one sequence card can be substituted for another of the same denominaiion, the sequence reckons again. For example 3, 4, 5, and a 3 turned up, reckon two sequences of three. At the six-card game or in crib, with another 3 there would be three sequences of three, and so on for all cards that can make a fresh combination. Flushes.—If all the cards in hand are of the same suit, one is reckoned for each card. If the start is also of the same suit, one is reckoned for that also. In crib, no flush is reckoned, unless the start is of the same suit as the cards in crib. His nob.—If a player holds the knave of the suit turned up he counts one for his nob. A couple of examples will render the counting clear. Say the crib consists of 6, 7, 7, 8, 8. The score would be four fifteens (eight), two pairs (four), four sequences of three (twelve) ; total twenty-four. Again, a hand of 4, 5, 6 (same suit) and a 5 turned up counts two fifteens (four), a pair (two), two sequences *of three (six), and a flush (three) ; total fifteen. The points accrue in the following order:—two for his heels; points made in play as soon as declared; nondealer’s show ; dealer’s show (hand and crib). After the points in hand and crib are reckoned, the cards are put together and shuffled, and the opponent of the last dealer deals, and so on alternately until the game is won. Hints to Playtes.^—In laying cut, the nondealer should discard such cards as are not likely to score in crib; the dealer should put out good cards for his own crib. It is so important to baulk the crib that the non-dealer should often sacrifice scores in his own hand. Thus with queen, knave, ten, four, ace, the dealer should put out the four and the ace; the non-dealer the queen and ten. But towards the end of the game, if the non-dealer has cards that will probably take him out, the consideration of baulking the crib need not influence him. The best baulks are a king or an ace, as those cards only reckon one waj ii sequences. King with ten, nine (best baulk), eight, seven, six, or ace, are good baulks ; so is queen, with any of these cards except the ten. Next to these wide even cards are good baulks (even cards being less likely to score in fifteens than odd ones); and lastly cards that are not in sequence. Two cards of the some suit should not be put out by the non-dealer if there is as good a discard of cards of different suits. The best cards for the dealer to put out (and therefore those to be avoided by the non-dealer), are fives, five and six, five and a tenth card, three and two, seven and eight, four and one, nine and six, pairs (especially low pairs), and close cards. It is generally right to keep a sequence in hand, as if the start is of the same denomination as one of those kept, the dealer reckons eight at least. A pair royal is a good hand to keep. In playing, the best card to begin with is ace, two, three, or four, as the only chance of an adverse score is by pairing,

577 C RI —C R I again. Card that will not come in shown in play, no penalty. and pairing is always dangerous on account of the possibility up 15. If two cards are played together the one counted is deemed to of its being capped by a pair royal. Pairing is often be played. 16. If a player at six-card cribbage or at three or four declined, as it is common to open the play with a card of handed cribbage neglects to play a card that will come in, adverwhich a duplicate is held (except with two fives). When sary may require it to be played, or may mark two holes. 17. during play no penalty. Showing and scoring.— leading from a sequence, the middle card should not be Miscounting 18. When reckoning, cards must remain exposed until adversary led. If a close card is played to the one led it often is satisfied. If a player mixes his cards with the pack, or hand and happens that the adversary wishes a run of three to be crib together, before adversary is satisfied, he forfeits score. 19. If made against him, he holding a card that will complete a a player scores more than he is entitled to, adversary may correct score, and add points overscored to his own. This law applies run of four. Having the choice of pairing or of making his also to placing peg in game hole in error. Scoring two few, fifteen, prefer the latter; but if a seven or eight is led, and no penalty. Player is not entitled to any assistance in reckoning. a fifteen is made, the adversary has the chance of a run of 20. If a player touches his opponent’s pegs except to correct an three. During the play, a four should not be added to a overscore, or touches his own pegs when he has no score to make, adversary marks two holes. 21. If a player displaces his forecall of seven (making eleven), as if paired the opponent his peg he must put it behind the other. If he displaces both, scores four. All similar combinations should be avoided, most adversary may place hindmost peg where he believes it to have as twelve made with a three, twenty-seven with a four, been, and the other peg behind it. (H. J.) twenty-eight with a three, and twenty-one with any card, CRICHTON, James (1560-1582), commonly called as then a tenth card (of which there are sixteen) comes in “ the Admirable Crichton,” was the son of Robert Crichton, for two. It is very desirable to win the go, as this makes lord-advocate of Scotland in the reign of James VI, and a difference of at least two to the score in each deal. The best chance of winning the go with two low cards and a was born at Eliock, in Dumfriesshire. He was sent when high one is to begin with a low card, with two high cai’ds ten years old to Saint Salvator’s College, St Andrews, where and a low one to begin with a high one. The dealer has he took his master’s degree at fifteen. In 1577 he was still living in Scotland; some time after that date, however, the best chance of making the go, The most important guide to the play is the score. The a quarrel with his father, who had become a Protestant, player who is ahead in the game should endeavour to keep drove him to France. In Paris his dialectics and his so by playing wide cards, declining pairs, and declining to sword-play are said to have gained him equal admiration; make fifteen with close cards. This is called 'playing off. and, according to Urquhart’s very doubtful story, a contest The one who is behind in the game should play on, i.e., in twelve languages resulted in an easy victory over the score whenever he can, running the risk of a larger score whole staff of the Sorbonne. His Parisian triumphs were being made against him. To calculate whether to play on followed by a couple of years of obscure campaigning in or play off, the average points scored should be kept in the French army, but in 1580 he appeared at Venice. A mind. Each player ought to reckon slightly over six in Latin poem addressed to Aldus Manutius laid the foundahand and play and five in crib, or seventeen and a half in tion of a lasting friendship with the great printer, who two deals to be at home. A player who scores more than dedicated his edition of Cicero’s Paradoxa to Crichton, and, the average and leaves his adversary six or seven points in according to some, conferred on him still more substantial arrear is safe at home. When at home it is best to play off; favours j he also became intimate with Sperone Speroni, and with Lorenzo Massa and Giovanni Donati. His first when the adversary is safe at home it is best to play on. Near the end of the game and wanting points in play to public display was the delivery of an address to the doge play out, it is advisable to keep two low cards and one high and senate, whom he astonished with his eloquence^ and oratorical grace ", and he followed this up with a series of v/IlC* At six-card cribbage it is not so important to baulk the disputations on mathematical, theological,.and philosophical crib as at five-card. The average scores are twelve for the subjects, which so extended his fame that it was reckoned non-dealer, seventeen for the dealer. At the end of the the highest honour to Mazzoni, a famous dialectician, thrice second deal a player is at home at twenty-nine holes. In to have met and vanquished him in argument. But these the first deal it is an advantage to exceed the average, con- exertions produced an illness which held him prostrate for sequently both players with fair hands should play on ; four months. At Padua, the scene of his next exhibition, he astonished the assembled professors by extemporizing in but with poor hands they should play off. succession a Latin poem, a daring onslaught on certain Laws.—Cutting.—1. There must be a fresh cut for deal after Aristotelian errors, and an impassioned oration in praise every game, unless rubbers are played. 2. If in cutting for deal of ignorance. His return to Venice was signalized by the or start more than one card is exposed, adversary may choose which card he pleases. 3. Errors in cutting to the dealer neces- publication of the challenge preserved by Aldus Manutius, aitate a fresh cut. Dealing.—Cards must be dealt by one at a in which he undertook not only to refute innumerable time. If two are dealt together, error may be rectified, if it can errors in Aristotelians, mathematicians, and schoolmen, but be done by moving one card only; otherwise non-dealer marks to meet his opponents on any ground, and to conduct the two holes, and there must be a fresh deal. 5. If dealer exposes his own cards, no penalty. 6. Faced card in pack necessitates dispute either logically, or according to the secret doctrine a fresh deal. 7. Player dealing out of turn, error can be recti- of numbers, or in a hundred sorts of verse j and in the fied prior to start being turned up ; otherwise not. 8. IN on- church of San Paolo and San Giovanni the young Scotsman dealer marks two holes, and has the option of a fresh deal—(a) ii held his own for three days against all comers. He then dealer exposes any of non-dealer’s cards, and (b) if dealer gives too many or too few cards to either player. In b cases non-dealer may seems to have quitted the republic for Mantua, where he look at his hand before electing ; if he elects to stand the deal had been appointed tutor to Vincenzo Gonzaga, heir to the when he has a surplus card he returns a card unshown to the pack ; dukedom. There he distinguished himself, according to if when the dealer has a surplus card, he draws one and looks Urquhart, by killing a professional duellist, who had at it: if when either has too few cards, imperfect hand is completed from pack. Laying out.—9. If either player lays out when challenged and vanquished many of the best swordsmen of he holds too many cards, adversary marks two holes, and has Italy, and by playing before the court some fifteen characters option of a fresh deal. If he stands the deal he draws surplus card in succession, keeping the stage for five hours. His from offender’s hand and looks at it. 10 If either player lays out brilliance made men envious, and he is said to have supwith too few cards he must play with his hand short. 11. It a planted the prince in the affections of his mistress. One plaver takes back a card laid out, adversary marks two holes, and has notion of fresh deal. 12. Crib must not be touched before hand is July evening in 1582 he was attacked by three masquers plaved Playing.—13. Player playing with too many cards, in the streets of Mantua. But he fought so well that their same penalty as in law 9. Playing with too few cards, no leader to save his life was forced to discover himself. It penalty. 14. Card once played that will come in cannot be taken VI. - 73

578

C R I- -C R I

was Vincenzo Gonzaga himself. The tutor fell on his knee, and presenting his sword, asked pardon; but the prince basely run him through the body. The standard biography is that of Patrick Fraser Tytler,— Life of James Crichton of Cluny, 1819. See also David Irving’s notice in earlier editions of the present work, and ‘ ‘ The Discovery of a Most Exquisite Jewel,” in the Works of Sir Thomas Urquhart of Cromarty (Maitland Club), Edinburgh, 1834. CRICKET (Achetidoe), a family of saltatory Orthopterous Insects, characterized by the great length and slenderness of the antennae, and by the horizontal position of the wings and wing-covers when at rest. The wings when folded form long slender filaments, which often reach beyond the extremity of the body, and give the appearance of a bifid tail, while in the male they are provided with a stridulating apparatus by which the well-known chirping sound, to which the insect owes its name, is produced. The abdomen of the female ends in a long slender ovipositor, which, however, is not exserted in the Mole Cricket. The House Cricket (Acheta domestica) is of a greyish-yellow colour marked with brown. It frequents houses, especially in rural districts, where its lively, if somewhat monotonous, chirp may be heard nightly in the neighbourhood of the fireplace. It is particularly fond of warmth, and is thus frequently found in bakeries, where its burrows are often sunk to within a few inches of the oven. In the hot summer it goes out of doors, and frequents the walls of gardens, but returns again to its place by the hearth on the first approach of cold, where, should the heat of the fire be withdrawn, it becomes dormant. It is nocturnal, coming forth at the evening twilight in search of food, which consists of bread crumbs and other refuse of the kitchen. The Field Cricket (Acheta campestris) is a larger insect than the former, and of a darker colour. It burrows in the ground to a depth of from 6 to 12 inches, and in the evening the male may be observed sitting at the mouth of its hole noisily stridulating until a female approaches, “ when,” says Bates, “ the louder notes are succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician caresses with his antennae the mate he has won.” The musical apparatus in this species consists of upwards of 130 transverse ridges on the under side of one of the nervures of the wing cover, which are rapidly scraped over a smooth, projecting nervure on the opposite wing. The female deposits her eggs— about 200 in number—on the ground, and when hatched the larvae, which resemble the perfect insect except in the absence of wings, form burrows for themselves in which they pass the winter. The Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) owes its name to the striking analogy in its habits and structure to those of the common mole. Its body is thick and cylindrical in shape, and it burrows by means of its front legs, which are short and greatly flattened out and thickened, with the outer edge partly notched so as somewhat to resemble a hand. It prefers loose and sandy ground in which to dig, its burrow consisting of a vertical shaft from which long horizontal galleries are given off ; and in making those excavations it does immense injury to gardens and vineyards by destroying the tender roots of plants, which form its principal food. It also feeds upon other insects, and even upon the weak of its own species in the absence of other food. It is exceedingly fierce and voracious, and is usually caught by inserting a stem of grass into its hole, which being seized, is retained till the insect is brought to the surface. The female deposits her eggs in a neatly constructed subterranean chamber, about the size of a hen’s egg, and sufficiently near the surface to allow of the eggs being hatched by the heat of the sun. CRICKET is the national game of Englishmen. The prevalent love of the pastime may perhaps be cited as an instance of the development of the national character,

requiring, as it does, such a combination of intellectual and physical qualities—broad and open shoulders, stout arms and quick legs, with patience, calculation, and promptness of execution. In the infancy of the game stumps did not exist. A circular hole in the turf supplied their place, and it is surmised that the batsman was put out either by being caught, or, when running, by the outside returning the ball into the cavity ere the striker placed the base of his bat therein. This led to unseemly tussles between the batsman and fielders, often to the detriment of the latter’s hands. It is surmised from the old records of the Hambledon Club that the first description of wicket comprised one stump only, 18 inches high, which was displaced with the ball, in lieu of “ holing ” the same, in order to put the runner out, but absolute proof on this point is wanting. The date of a second stump being added is buried in obscurity. It is only known that they were placed 2 feet apart, with a connecting cross-bar on the top, the height being 1 foot; and a large hole for putting the ball into was excavated between the stumps. The dimensions of 22 inches by 6 inches were adopted in 1702, and thus, as far as is known, matters remained till, in 1775, at a Hambledon Club match, the ball was observed to pass thrice between the two stumps without dislodging the cross-bar. To obviate this a third stump was added in the middle, and the modern bails were substituted for the cross-bar. The next alteration was to 24 inches by 7 inches in 1798, and in 1817 another inch was added to the height; at which dimensions, viz., 27 inches by 8 inches, the wicket remains in 1877. It is possible that there were other intermediate alterations from time to time; but, as each year’s laws have not been preserved, this is uncertain. From the earliest days, however, the wickets, have always been placed one chain or 22 yards apart. Cricket bats were at first made with a sweeping curve at the base, which made them available for hitting only. They were broader, and far more cumbersome than the lithe spring-handled implements of the present day,—the shape now in use appearing to have become prevalent about 1825, when round arm bowling came permanently into vogue. A sketch of the various shapes in use from early times downwards, will be found in the frontispiece of Mr Frederick Gale’s Echoes from the old Cricket Fields. No evidence exists as to the size and weight of the first balls used. At the end of the 18th century they were much of the same dimensions as now, but both materials and workmanship have vastly improved even since the first “ treble sewn ” was manufactured. Cricket is divided into single and double wicket, and it is a moot point which of the two was the parent game. Judging, however, from the earliest evidence extant, it seems probable that single wicket was the first instituted, as it is less complicated and requires fewer players. In their pavilion at the Kennington Oval the Surrey County Cricket Club possesses the earliest known picture of the game in anything like its present form. The date is 1743, and the stumps are aptly described by Mr Frederick Gale as “ a skeleton hurdle of about 2 feet wide and 1 foot high.” The bat is of the old-fashioned curved shape, and the score was kept by notching each individual run on a stick. With the exception that all play was evidently forward of the wicket (the same is the case now in single wicket matches with less than five a side), the leading features of the game are identical with those of the present day. Single wicket, however, was never much practised after a knowledge of the game became thoroughly diffused, except by great players for a large stake or a championship. It is with the double wicket game that we

CRICKET are more immediately concerned, that being the now universally accepted form. The most radical change that has ever taken place in the development of the game is the introduction of round or straight arm bowling in lieu of the underhand. That the new style was first discovered (about 1785) by Tom Walker, a professional of the old Hambledon Club, is now generally admitted; but the dogged conservatism of the day pronounced it to be unfair, and successfully repressed the innovation. About 1805 the style was revived by Mr John Willes, a great Kentish amateur. It was not, however, until 1825, when Mr Gr. T. Knight of Alton strenuously took up the cudgels on behalf of the so-called “ throwing bowling,” that it became a permanent institution, and then only after many bickerings and much controversy. The new style created a great revolution in cricket, as it afforded the bowlers much greater command over their delivery both in strength and in direction. From time to time various other new points have arisen requiring special legislation, and changes have taken place in the mode of conducting the game. Much labour and careful attention are required in laying out a good cricket ground and maintaining the same in proper order. As a general rule the shorter and more level the turf can be got the better. Double wicket requires two sides of eleven players each, the choice of first innings being decided by lot. Two strikers go in, one at .3. .6. .4.

.2.

.5. a-

'-—a o 2 cn a n

.12.

a

a

*8.

Ir^b U. .9.

.10.

Diagram of Cricket-field. 6. Long Slip. S, S, Batsmen. 7. Cover Point. U, U, Umpires. 8. Mid On (sometimes placed at 12 a, a, Popping Creases. and termed Mid Off)6 6, Bowling Creases. 9. Long Field Off. 1. Bowler. 10. Long Field On. 2. Wicket Keeper. 11. Leg. 3. Long Stop. 12. See 8. 4. Slip. 5. Point. each wicket, and the object of the fielders is to dislodge them according to the rules of the game. The other strikers go in by rotation as arranged by their captain. When a ball is hit the striker may, if possible, score a run by reaching the opposite hopping crease ere the wicket is put down, each time he successfully traverses the distance between the two popping creases counting as one run. When sufficient time is available each side has two innings, and that scoring the largest number of runs is the winner. Otherwise both sides may agree to decide the issue on the result of one innings apiece, and it is sometimes arranged to allow six balls in each over, instead of four. A t the end of

'

579

each over, the whole of the outside change their positions ; another bowler delivers an over from the opposite wicket, and so on alternately. A general idea of the position of the players may be formed from the accompanying diagram, but variations take place according to the description of bowling in use. A captain is chosen on each side, who has the entire management of his eleven. In conjunction with the opposing captain he makes the necessary arrangements for the match. He should be a thorough judge of all points of the game, and able to place the field to the best advantage according to the description of the bowling and peculiarities of the striker. Constant practice is necessary to become a good bowler, and obtain such a thorough command of the ball as to vary the pace and pitch as well as to impart twist. The two chief varieties of balls are “ lengths ” and “ not lengths,” according as their pitch deceives the striker’s eye as much as possible or not. A batsman’s first rule is to play with a straight bat, as he thereby gains most protection for his stumps ; and he should make the most of his stature. Batting is divided into “ forward ” and “ back play,” according as the batsman stretches forward to meet the ball, or keeps the body perpendicular or slightly inclined backwards. The fielders should ever be on the alert, their business being to stop or catch the ball, and return it to one of the wickets with all possible haste. For further details of each player’s duties and full instructions how to play the game correctly, we must refer our readers to the Rev. James Pycroft’s excellent work, The Cricket Field. Single wicket is sufficiently explained by the laws, the only material difference being that the batsman has to reach the bowling stump and return to the popping crease— a distance of 44 yards in place of 22 yards—for every run he scores. The laws of the game as now constituted by the Marylebone Cricket Club are as follows :— 1. The hall must weigh not less than 5| nor more than 5| ounces. It must measure not less than 9 nor more than 9$ inches in circumference. At the beginning of each innings, either party may call for a new ball. 2. The bat must not exceed 4J inches in the widest part; it must not be more than 38 inches in length. 3. The stumps must be 3 in number, 27 inches out of the ground ; the bails 8 inches in length ; the stumps of equal and of sufficient thickness to prevent the ball from passing through. 4. The bowling crease must be in a line with the stumps, and 6 feet 8 inches in length, the stumps in the centre,—with a return crease at each end towards the bowler at right angles. 5. The popping crease must be 4 feet from the wicket, and parallel to it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling crease. 6. The wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires, at the distance of 22 yards. 7. It shall not be lawful for either party during the match, without the consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering, covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each innings, when the ground shall be swept and rolled unless the next side going in object to it. This rule is not meant to prevent the striker from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands during the innings, nor to prevent the bowler from filling up holes with saw-dust, &c., when the ground shall be wet. 8. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of both parties. 9. The bowler shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground behind the bowling-crease, and within the return crease, and shall bowl one over before he change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do twice in the same innings, and no bowler shall bowl more than two overs in succession. 10. The ball must be bowled. If thrown or jerked the umpire shall call “ no ball.” 11. The bowler may require the striker at the wicket from which he is bowling to stand on that side of it which he may direct. 12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker’s head, or bowl it so wide that, in the opinion of the umpire, it shall not be fairly within the reach of the batsman, he shall adjudge one run to the party receiving the innings, either with or without an appeal, which shall be put down to the score of wide balls ; such ball shall not be reckoned as one of the four balls ; but if the batsman shall

580

CRICKET

by any means bring himself within reach of the ball, the run shall not be adjudged. 13. If the bowler shall deliver a “no ball,’ or a ‘wide ball, the striker shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be put out except by running out. In the event of no run being obtained by any other means, then one run shall be added to score of “no balls” or “wide balls” as the case may be. All runs obtained for “wide balls” to be scored to “wide balls.” The names 01 the bowlers who bowl “wide balls,” or “no balls,” in future to be placed on the score, to show the parties by whom euher score is made. If the ball shall first touch any part of the striker s drees or person (except his hands), the umpire shall call leg bye. ^ 14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shaU call play; from that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to any bowler. „ in i, v. i «■ 15. The striker is out if either of the bails be bowled off, or if a stump be bowled out of the ground > , , , . 16 Or if the ball from the stroke of the bat or hand, but not the wrist, be held before it touch the ground, although it be hugged to the body of the catcher ; 17. Or if in striking, or at any other time while the bail shall be in play, both his feet shall be over the popping crease, and his wicket put down, except his bat be grounded within it; 18. Or if in striking at the ball he hit down his_ wicket; 19! Or if, under pretence of running or otherwise, either of the strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball is 20. Or if the ball be struck and he wilfully strike it again ; 21. Or if in running the wicket be struck down by a throw, or by the hand or arm (with the ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or some part of his person be grounded over the popping crease; but if both bails be off, a stump must be struck out of the &

22. o'r if any part of the striker’s dress knock down the wicket; 23. Or if the striker touch or take up the ball while in play, unless at the request of the opposite party ; . 24. Or if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which m the opinion of the umpire at the bowler’s wicket, shall have been pitched in a straight line from it to the striker’s wicket and would have hit it. 25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs tor tfie wicket which is put down is out. 26. A ball being caught, no run shall be reckoned. 27. The striker being run out, the run which he and his partner were attempting shall not be reckoned. 28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs, but if more than six shall have been run before lost ball shall have been called, then the striker shall have all that have been run. 29. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the wicketkeeper’s or bowler’s hand, it shall be considered dead ; but when the bowler is about to deliver a ball, if the striker at his wicket go outside the popping crease before such actual delivery, the said bowler may put him out, unless (with reference _ to the 21st law) his bat in hand, or some part of his person, be within the popping crease. 30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket and return to it to complete his innings after another has been in, without the consent of the opposite party. 31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out or run between the wickets for another person without the consent of the opposite party ; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for another, the striker shall be out if either he or his substitute be off the ground in manner mentioned in laws 17 and 21, while the ball is in play. 32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the consent of the opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act as substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take. 33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his hat, the ball shall be considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five to their score. If any be run they shall have five in all. 34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket with his bat, or with any part of his body except his hands, that the 23rd law may not be disobeyed. 35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for stumping until it have passed the wicket; he shall not move until the ball be out of the bowler’s hand ; he shall not by any noise incommode the striker ; and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket, although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out. 36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair and unfair play ; and all disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket; but in case of a catch which the umpire at the wicket bowled from {cannot see sufficiently to decide upon, he may apply to the other umpire, whose opinion shall be conclusive. 37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets -, and the parties shall toss up for choice of innings. The umpires shall change wickets after each party has had one innings. 38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in and

ten minutes between each innings. When the umpire shall call “ play” the party refusing to play shall lose the match. 39. They are not to order a striker out unless applied to by the adversaries. 40. But if one of the bowler’s feet be not on the ground behind the bowling crease and within the return crease when he shall deliver the ball, the umpire at his wicket, unasked, must call “nr ball.” 41. If either of the strikers run a short run the umpire shall call “ one short.” 42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet. 43. No umpire is to be changed during the match, unless with the consent of both parties, except in case of violation of 42d law; then either party may dismiss the transgressor. 44. After the delivery of four balls the umpire must call “over,” but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket-keeper’s or bowler’s hand; the ball shall then be considered dead ; nevertheless, if any idea be entertained that either of the strikers is out, a question may be put previously to, but not after, the delivery of the next ball. 45. The umpire must take especial care to call “no ball” instantly upon delivery, “wide ball” as soon as it shall pass the striker. 46. The players who go in second shall follow their innings if they have obtained eighty runs less than their antagonists,.except in all matches limited to one day’s play, when the number shall be limited to sixty instead of eighty. 47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of the bat shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in. jVWe.—The committee of the Marylebone Club think it desirable that previously to the commencement of a match, one of each side should be declared the manager of it; and that the new laws with respect to suhstitutes may he carried out in a spirit of fairness aiwi mutual concession, it is their wish that such. substitutes be allowed in all reasonable cases, and that the umpire should inquire if it is done with consent of the manager of the opposite side. Complaints having been made that it is the practice of some players when at the wicket to make holes in the ground;for a footing, the committee are of opinion that umpires should be empowered to prevent it. Single Wicket. 1. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds shall be placed twenty-two yards each in a line from the off and leg stump. 2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to a run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling stump or crease in a line with it with his bat, or some part of his person, or go beyond them, returning to the popping crease as a double wicket, according to the 21st law. 3. When the striker shall hit the ball one of his feet must be on the ground and behind the popping crease, otherwise the umpire shall call “no hit.” 4. When there shall be less than five players on a side neither byes nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught out behind the wicket, nor stumped out. 5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play between the wicket and the bowling stump, or between the bowling stump and the bounds ; the striker may run till the ball be so returned. 6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he start again he must touch the bowling stump, and turn before the ball cross the play to entitle him to another. 7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the same number for ball stopped with hat, with reference to the 28th and 33d laws of double wicket. 8. When there shall be more than four players on a side there shall be no bounds. All hits, byes, and overthrow's shall then be allowed. , .. j 9. The bowder is subject to the same laws as at double wicket. 10. No more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball. 1. No bet upon any match is payable unless played out or given UP

2. If the runs of one player be betted against those offi another, the bet depends on the first innings unless otherwise specified. 3. If the bet be made on both innings, and one party beat the other in one innings, the runs of the first innings shall determine it. , 4. If the other party go in a second time, then the bet must be determined by the number on the score. County Cricket. The following laws of county qualification were established at a meeting held in the Surrey County Pavilion, Kennington Oval, on June 9, 1873 :—

CRICKET 1. That no cricketer, whether amateur or professional, shall play for more than one county during the same season. 2. Every cricketer born in one county and residing in another shall be free to choose at the commencement of each season for which of those counties he will play, and shall, during that season, play for that county only. 3. A cricketer shall be qualified to play for any county in which he is .residing and has resided for the previous two years ; or a cricketer may elect to play for the county in which his family home is, so long as it remains open to him as an occasional residence. 4. That, should any question arise as to the residental qualification, the same should be left to the decision of the committee of the Marylebone Club. History. —The name cricket is cognate to the Saxon cric or cryc, a crooked stick. This germ of the modern bat is seen in the earliest representation of the pastime about the middle of the 13th century. In a MSS. in the King’s Library, 14 Bv, entitled Chronique d’Angleterre, depuis Ethelberd jusqio'a Hen. III., there is found a grotesque delineation of two male figures playing a game with a bat and ball. This is undoubtedly the first known drawing of what was destined to develop into the scientific cricket of modern times. The left hand figure is that of the batsman, who holds his weapon perpendicularly in the right hand with the handle downwards. The right hand figure shows the catcher, whose duty is at once apparent by the extension of his hands. In another portion of the same MSS., however, there is a ijiale figure pointing a bat, with the base curved like a leopard’s head, towards a female figure in the attitude of catching, but the ball is absent. On p. 126 of King Edward I.’s wardrobe account for the year 1300, there occurs the following entry, viz., “Domino Johanni de Leek capellano Domini Edwardi fil’ Regis, pro den’ per ipsum liberat’ eidem Domino suo ad ludendum ad creag\ et alios ludos per vices, per manus proprias apud Westm’, 10 die March, 100s. Et per manus Hugonis camerarii sui apud Newenton mense Marcii, 20s—summa, £6.” Here is found the earliest allusion to the game as designated by a term analogous to the modern word “ cricket,” as well as indisputable proof that even in these early times the game was followed by the first personages in the realm, who of course spoke French. In a Bodleian Library MSS., No 264, dated 18th April 1344, and entitled Romance of the Good King A lexander, fielders for the first time appear in addition to the batsman and bowler. All the players are monks with their cowls up and down alternately, the former having been erroneously taken for female figures by Strutt in his Sports and Pastimes. On the extreme left of the picture, the bowler, with his cowl up, poises the ball in the right hand with the arm nearly horizontal. The batsman comes next with his cowl down, a little way only to the right, standing sideways to'the bowler with a long roughly-hewn and slightlycurved bat, held vertically, handle downwards in the left hand. On the extreme right come four figures—with cowls alternately down and up, and all having their hands raised in an attitude to catch the ball should it be missed by the batsman, or be tipped in their direction. Judging, however, from the positions of bowler and batter, the out players are not placed so as to field a direct but a side hit. But the want of perspective in the composition renders any estimate of their object uncertain. It is evident, however, that the bat was always held in the left hand at this date, since on the opposite page of the same MSS. a solitary monk is figured with his cowl down, and so holding a somewhat elongated oval-shaped implement. The close roll of 39 Edw. III. (1365), Men. 23, disparages certain games on account of their interfering with the practice of archery, where the game of cricket is probably included among the pastimes denounced as “ludos inhonestos, et minus utiles aut valentes.” In this instance, cricket was clearly considered fit for the lower orders only. Judging from the drawings, it can only be conjectured that the game consisted of bowling, batting, and fielding, though it is known that there was an inside and an outside, for sometime during the 15th century the game was called “ Hondyn or Hondoute,” or “ Hand in and Hand out.” Under this title it was interdicted by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1477-78), as one of those iTegal games which still continued to be so detrimental to the practice of archery. By this statute, any one allowing the game to be played on his premises was liable to three years’ imprisonment and £20 fine, any player to two years’ imprisonment and £10 fine, and the implements to be burnt. The inference that hand in and hand out was analogous to cricket is made from a passage in the Hon. Daines Barrington’s Observations on the more Ancient Statutes from Magna Charta to 21 James I. cap. 27." Writing in 1766, he comments thus on the above statute, viz : “ This is, perhaps, the most severe law ever made against gaming, and some of these forbidden sports seem to have been manly exercises, particularly the handyn and handoute which I should suppose to be a kind of cricket, as the term hands is still retained in that game.” The word “cricket” first occurs about the year 1550. In Russell’s History of Guildford (p. 203), it appears there was a piece of waste land in the parish of Holy Trinity in that city, which was

581

enclosed by one John Parish, an innholder, some five years before Queen Elizabeth came to the throne. In 35 Elizabeth (1593), evidence was taken before a jury and a verdict returned, ordering the garden to be laid waste again and disinclosed. Amongst other witnesses John Derrick, gent., and one of H. M.’s coroners for Surrey, cetat. fifty-nine, deposed he had known the ground for fifty years or more, and “when he was a scholler in the free school of Guildford, he and several of his f ellowes did runne and play there at crickett and other plaies.” In the original edition of Stow’s Survey of London (1598), the word does not occur, though he says, “ The ball is used by noblemen and gentlemen in tennis courts, and by people of the meaner sort in the open fields and streets.” It might justly be surmised that such a national game as cricket would soon be introduced at public schools. Accordingly, the first trace of it is found at Winchester CoUege inl650, since Lisle Bowles, writing of the good Bishop Ken, who was admitted to Winchester, 13th January 1650-51, says, “ On the fifth or sixth day our junior .... is found for the first time attempting to wield a cricket bat.” In 1688 we find a “ram and bat” charged in an Etonian’s school bill. Two other noteworthy references to the game are found during the last quarter of the 17th century. The first is in a somewhat ribald poem (1658), entitled The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence, or the Arts of Wooing and Complimenting, by Edward Philips, John Milton’s nephew, who, in a dialogue between a country bumpkin and his mistress going to a fair, makes the latter say, “Would my eyes had been beat out of my head with a cricket ball.” The second occurs in the diary of the Rev. Henry Teonge, a naval chaplain to H. M. ship “Assistance,” and states that during a visit to Antioch on 6th May 1676, several of the ship’s company, accompanied by the consul, rode out of the city early, and amongst other pastimes indulged in “krickett.” During the first half of the 18th century the game became popular, and is repeatedly noticed by writers of the time, such as Swift, D’Urfey, Pope, Soame Jenyns, and Strype in his edition of Stow’s Survey of London. In 1748 it was decided that cricket was not an illegal game under the well-known statute 9 Anne cap. 19, the Court of King’s Bench holding “ that it was a very manly game, not bad in itself, but only in the ill use made of it by betting more than ten pounds on it ; but that was bad and against the law.” In these early times even, the pastime was followed by all classes, and Frederick, prince of Wales, died in 1751 from internal injuries caused by a blow from a cricket ball whilst playing at Cliefden House. Nevertheless, this commingling of aristocrats and plebeians on the cricket sward was viewed with apprehension, and repeatedly discountenanced by writers of the day. Games were played for large stakes. Ground proprietors and tavern keepers farmed and advertised matches, the results whereof were not always above suspicion. The old artillery ground at Finsbury appears to have been the earliest scene of action of this class of matches. But the true birthplace of the game in its developed state was no cockney inclosure, but the broad open downs of the southern counties of England, and more especially in the great hop-growing districts. The large hop fairs, notably that of Weyhill, were the rendezvous for all comers from the southern counties, and it is probable that the great county matches were arranged on these occasions. The first record preserved of a match is between Kent and All England, which, judging from an advertisement in the General Advertiser of the day, was played on August 4, 1746, at the Artillery Ground, the score being kept in the modem fashion. The old Hambledon Club was the first founded in England, and lasted from 1750 to 1791. Its playing fields were Broad Half Penny and Windmill Downs. When at its zenith the club frequently contended with success against All England. Their great players were more or less retained by noblemen and wealthy patrons of the game, and this club remained invincible for some forty years. Though a cricket club existed at Hambledon down to 1825, the original society was broken up in 1791, owing to the distance from the metropolis. A dispersion of its famous players through neighbouring counties took place, and was naturally accompanied with a diffusion of the precepts of the game, which gradually extended northward and westward, till, at the end of the 18th century, cricket had become established as the national game of England. The famous Marylebone Cricket Club now justly ranks as the leading club of the world, frames the laws governing the game, and arbitrates on all disputes connected therewith. This society sprang out of the old Artillery Ground Club, which played at Finsbury till about 1750, when they moved to White Conduit Fields, and became the White Conduit Cricket Club. In 1787 they were remodelled under their present title, and moved to Old Lords’ Ground, on the site of Dorset square, thence in 1824 to Middle Lords’ Ground at South Bank on the site of the Regent’s Canal, and finally in 1827 to the present Lords’ Ground, which in 1864 became their freehold property. The Surrey County Club, with the Kennington Oval as their headquarters, was formed in 1845. In the same year the famous I Zingari Club, confined exclusively to amateurs—first saw light, and commenced its Bohemian wanderings throughout Great Britain, and often into foreign

582

C R I —C R T

countries. In 1846 an “All England Eleven,” under the captaincy of Clarke, ‘ ‘ The Nottingham Bowler, ’ ’ commenced playing matches against odds in various parts of the country. Since then several professional elevens annually play what may he termed exhibition matches, in all parts of Great Britain. _ Such contests are often detrimental to the professionals engaged in them, but on the othei hand they have done much to diffuse a zeal for cricket, and at the present time there is not a county, large city, umversity, or public school, town or village, ;in England, which does not possess its cricket club, without mentioning the British colonies, and wherever Englishmen assemble abroad in sufficient numbers. The chief works on cricket are—H. Bentley’s Scores from 1786 to 1822, published in 1823; John Nyren’s Young Cricketer's Tutor, 1833; N. Wanostrocht s Felix on the Bat, various editions, 1845-1855; Cricket Notes, by W. Bolland (Hon. S Pnnsonbvl 1851 • F. Lillywhite's English Cricketers Trip to Canada and the United Slates, 1860; F. Lillywhite’s Cricket Scores and Biographies, to 1840, 1862- Rev J Pycroft’s Cricket Tutor, 1862; Rev. J. Pycrofts Cricket Field, various editions, 1862-1873; Rev. J. Pycroft's Cricketana,V&Z5 -, Jerks in from Short Lea bv Quid (R. A. Fitzgerald), 1866; G. H. Selkirk’s Cuiete to the Cricket Ground, 1867; C. Box’s Theory and Practice of Cricket, F. Gale’s Echoes from Old Cricket Fields, 1871; Cricketers m Council, by Phomsonby (H. P Thomas) 1871; R. A. Fitzgerald’s Wickets in the West, 1873; Marylebone Cricket Club Scores and Biographies, 1876, a continuation of Lillywhite’s Scores and Biographies- and C. Box’s English Game of Cricket, 1877. (H. F. W.) CRICKLADE, a town and parliamentary borough of England on the northern borders of the county of Wilts, situated in a flat stretch of country on the right bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames and Severn Canal. The town consists of one rather mean-looking street ; and its principal buildings are St Sampson’s Church restored in 1864, St Mary’s with a fine Gothic cross in the churchyard, and public chambers built in 1861. The trade is purely agricultural and local. The position of the town at | the passage of the Thames gave it some little importance in the Saxon period, and it sent representatives to Parliament as early as the reign of Edward I. The present parliamentary borough, which extends partly into Gloucestershire, and includes no fewer than fifty-two parishes or parts of parishes, with an area of 26,694 acres, had in 1871 a population of 43,622, of whom less than 2000 were in the town. CRIEFF, a town in Perthshire, Scotland, on the north bank of the Earn, seventeen miles west of Perth by rail. It is situated on a declivity rising from the river, which is here crossed by a bridge. It consists of a main street with narrower streets branching off at right angles, and contains several churches, an endowed academy for boys, an industrial institution, and a mechanics’ institute. The town is comparatively modern, but an ancient sculptured stone still stands in the High Street and also the old town cross. Crieff owes its growth mainly to the central position it occupies in the district of upper Strathearn, which is noted for its beauty and salubrity. Strathearn House, a large hydropathic establishment on the slope of a hill above the town, attracts many visitors. Population in 1871, 4027. CRIME is a word which, in every-day speech, is sometimes made to include more and sometimes less than the subject of the present article. On the one hand, the breach of a moral principle, with which the law has never concerned itself, is sometimes loosely described as criminal; on the other hand, a distinction is sometimes drawn between crimes and minor offences, [though the law prescribes a punishment for minor offences as well as for crimes. But if moral theories and slender shades of difference in guilt are disregarded, crime is simply conduct (either in commission or in omission) of which the state disapproves, and for which it demands a penalty. Though, however, it is possible to give a definition of crime which may hold good for all times and for all countries, it by no means follows that crime ist always and everywhere the same. On the contrary, the growth and the changes of criminal laws are among the most curious monuments of revolutions in public opinion as displayed by legislation. Nor can the study of morals be altogether dissociated from the study of crime, because the moralist may and frequently does influence the legislator, and that

which is but a moral lapse in one generation may become a criminal offence in another. So also deeds which have been considered praiseworthy at one period, may at another be punishable; and new conditions of society may cause penalties to be exacted for action or for negligence which would be altogether inconceivable to the savage.. It is obvious that no moral philosopher or legislator, no one even uniting in himself the functions of both, would be able to devise a penal code which would be all-sufficient, and which would be applicable to every possible detail in the development of an ever-expanding civilization. . New circumstances demand new laws j and the adaptation of new laws to new circumstances is not the least interesting feature in the history of any country. Religious beliefs, religious and other theories of ethics, the attacks of foreign enemies, the growth of commerce, the progress of science, everything which affects the condition of the community, may affect its criminal legislation. In very primitive tribes murder, robbery, and rape are not crimes—not, at least, in the modern sense. For one tribe to attack another by surprise, to slaughter its men, to appropriate its land, and to ravish or enslave its women was, and in some places still is, very meritorious conduct. The first approach towards the reprobation of murder is to be found in the ancient blood-feud which, however, resembles quite as much the ferocity of the wild beast deprived of its young as the indignation of the civilized human being at an attack upon the general security of life. The family of the slain assumed the right to exact vengeance of the slayer and his kin if members of the same tribe as themselves ; and the earliest form of vengeance was bloodshed. This was not modified until men had arrived at the notion of property distinguishable from that which was held in common by the tribe—a very important stage in the progress of human affairs. It is well established that the tenure of land in severalty is of later date than tenure by the tribe or community at large ; and as soon as the claim of any individual to any particular piece of land was recognized, in any form,. the right of property in movables must have been recognized also, if indeed the latter did not precede the former. Sooner or later the ownership of certain families was admitted in the case of plots of ground and flocks and herds, the ownership of particular persons in the case of arms and armour and the implements of agriculture. Hence arose the practice of compounding with the avengers of blood. The relatives of the slain agreed to accept cattle, or any movable goods of which they might stand in need, as an equivalent for the life of the kinsman whom they had lost. But Governments which had advanced very little on the path of civilization perceived that the loss of a tribesman was a loss to the community, because—if for no other reason—it represented a diminution of force in a conflict with a rival tribe. When a fine was paid for murder, therefore, a portion of it only was allotted to the kin of the person murdered, and the remainder to the king or other governing power. As soon as the state had thus claimed a share of the blood-fine, wer, or ttouo), the foundation of the criminal law had been laid—a distinction had been drawn between injuries affecting the individual alone and injuries affecting the community also. It was perhaps only natural that, when movables were accepted as compensation for a life held to be forfeited for murder, the wrongful appropriation of movables should be punishable by death a not uncommon penalty in many primitive laws. Extreme severity of punishment for all offences (except homicide) committed within the boundaries of the tribe is indeed the characteristic of all the earliest attempts to deal with crime. The idea of the uncivilized man is that the most

583 C R I M E ferocious chastisement is the most certain deterrent; and “common recovery” he would have been unable to carry as he has won most of that which he possesses by taking it on the ordinary routine of his business; and the basis of forcibly from others, he is not disposed to attribute to his that fictitious action at law was that one person had fellow tribesmen any very high respect for property in the wrongfully disseised another of his land. The much abused Court of Star-Chamber owed its abstract. Nevertheless, with the tenure of land in severalty, and definite constitution under the Tudors to a very laudable the acquisition of some personalty, was necessarily desire for the repression of forcible entries and certain developed, in one form or other, the idea of protection for other kindred offences. Nor was it altogether unsuccessful life and property in general. But small tribes continued in attaining the object for which it was established. Those to be engaged in frequent conflicts with their neighbours ; private feuds in which the nobles, like the heads of tribes, and the principles of right and wrong which were applied had previously delighted, began to die out when private to the various individuals composing any one tribe were in armies could no longer be kept on foot under the name of practice, if not in theory, long disregarded in dealings with retainers, or supplied with uniforms under the name of the stranger. Outside a certain circle of no very great liveries and tokens. Yet the fact that the Star-Chamber extent killing was still no murder, taking no theft or did not entirely put an end to forcible entries is a proof robbery, capture or violation of a woman no rape, in the that even the most vigorous legislation is not all-powerful modern sense. When tribes became united into nations, against the human nature and the surrounding circumthe rivalry of clan against clan was not immediately extin- stances with which it may have to deal. Those circumguished ; and the sentiments of the robber chieftain co- stances, and even that nature, may to some extent be existed with governments which sanctioned laws for the changed, for were it otherwise the British empire and repression of robbers and their deeds of violence. National British civilization could now have no existence. But growth out of these discordant elements is to be traced, there is a reciprocal action and reaction of laws upon with the greatest clearness, in the marvellously complete society and of society upon laws. No edict or statute ever series of records preserved in the English Public Record made a sudden and complete alteration in the manners of Office, and not least in those which concern the Scottish a whole nation, though the growing wisdom of a nation may frequently have suggested a law, and though a welland Welsh borders. The law of development is not restricted to one island, devised law may have gradually fostered the growth of or to races speaking one particular language. Its range national wisdom. If it is true that nemo repente fuit appears to be as wide as history, and is sometimes to be turpissimus it is no less true that nemo repente fuit detected even where history can hardly be said to exist. honestissimus. The modern security of life and property of every If, for instance, we compare the Latin word virtue, the Greek word dvSpeta, and the Cymric word gwroldeb, with description represents the triumph of new ideas over old. the English word virtue, we find a curious light thrown There is or was a popular delusion that the savage was upon the progress of human opinion. The first three all noble, that while his manners were simple his nature was had originally the same meaning—“virilityand all three honest, and that he abhorred all such mean arts as those acquired precisely the same secondary signification— commonly attributed to the huckster and the trader. The “ courage.” The reason, of course, was that in the most truth is that his misdeeds were limited to his own partiprimitive times courage was the one great quality which cular sphere of action, which was excessively small, and above all others commanded approbation. The want of a that if he did not commit some of the offences known in moral attribute so universally approved was in those days our own time it was because he had not the opportunity. a crime, and the imbelles, or cowards, were, if Tacitus is to Fraud has never increased in equal proportion with the be believed, subjected by the Germans to a punishment increase of trade and civilization. It infected commerce at sufficiently horrible. They were thrown under a hurdle the very beginning, and existed during the darkness of the and smothered in filth. But now the word virtue, which Middle Ages in every form then possible. It may and it once had the special meaning of strength of muscle and sometimes does assume new shapes as society groups itself nerve in the man, has (if any special meaning at all) that anew, as occupations and the relations of man to man are changed. But force is its near relative and ally, and it of chastity in the woman. Brave law-breakers, in past times, have not only believed flourishes in times of violence and anarchy. It made itself themselves to be good men and true, but have also had the conspicuous throughout the age of chivalry, though poets sympathy of great numbers of their fellow-countrymen. and romance writers have attempted to hide it away. Indeed, if we regard the history of criminal legislation and With infinite difficulty has civilized mankind so far gained of crime in England, we find the ideas of the primitive the victory over its own primitive nature as to concur, with tribesman steadily resisting the advance of civilization, some approach to unanimity, in reprobation of the forgerretreating very slowly from position to position, and rarely monk, the brigand-knight, and the man who regarded a yielding one without a long and desperate struggle. A woman as a chattel and a tempting object for appropriamost prominent example of this tenacity was in the crime tion. It is most necessary to bear in mind the contrast between of forcible entry, which hardly ceased to be common before the 18th century. When valour was the greatest or only the habits or ideas of one period and of another, if we wish virtue, one clan took land by force from another, and to estimate correctly the position of the criminal in modern clansman differed from clansman only in the greater or less society, or the alleged uniformity of human actions to be vigour and courage shown in making the appropriation. discovered in statistics. There is, no doubt, some truth in Long after this half-savage condition of society, it remained the statement that in a modern civilized country—Great a maxim of the English law that there was no legal Britain, for example—the statistics of one year bear a very possession of land without actual seisin. The law, indeed, strong resemblance to the statistics of another in many would not allow its right hand to know that which was particulars. But a little reflection leads to the conclusion done by its left. It forbade forcible entries in the reign of that there is nothing at all marvellous in such coincidences, Richard II., while forcible entries were an essential part of and that they do not prove human nature to be unalterable, its theory. As late even as the reign of William IV. the or circumstances to be unchangeable. They only show fiction of a forcible entry continued to be one of the chief what might have been predicted beforehand, that human implements of the conveyancer’s art. Without the beings of the same race, remaining in circumstances

584

C E I M E

approximately the same, continue to act upon nearly the some apparently well-conceived law to effect the purpose for which it was devised. The disposition inherited from same motives and to display nearly the same weaknesses. ages can (in some fields of action and in some The statistics of a quarter of a century, of half a century, past individuals at least) as little be changed by the fiat of a even of a whole century (if we had them complete for so Government, as the ebb and flow of the sea can be conlong a period), could tell us but little of those subt e trolled by the word of a king. But, nevertheless, there is changes in human organization which have come to pass in good reason to believe that judicious lawgivers may graduthe lapse of ages, and the sum of which has _ rendered life ally effect a salutary change in the manners of a people. in Britain in the 10 th century so different as it is from life One of the most remarkable illustrations of uniformity in the 6th. Some of the earliest statisticians, indeed (and in the phenomena of crime is one which may be regarded their science is of very recent origin), did an injustice both also as an illustration of the influence of past conditions of to themselves and to their favourite study through their society upon the present. As the human embryo passes own enthusiasm. They were eager to claim for numbers all and more tlian all that had been claimed by the Pytha- through sundry stages of an inferior state of existence, so, goreans of old. Not content with praising the virtues of after birth, the human being is before the age of thirty numbers in general, they appeared to believe that the par- more apt to fall into courses which we now regard as ticular numbers of a particular period would suffice for the criminal (but which the savage considered laudable) than discovery of social and political principles of universal the human being of more advanced years. This, like the application. They found certain uniformities in an area so rule of the sexes in suicide, is a rule having no exception bounded, and a time so short, as to bear to the previous at any time or in any country concerning which it is possible existence of the whole earth and its inhabitants about the to obtain information. But even here the proportions are same proportion that a drop of water bears to the ocean ; not absolutely invariable, though the general law holds and they assumed that they had found a law or laws of a universally good. From various causes, of which one is range co-extensive with human existence. But this exag- the abolition of transportation, another the establishment geration does not impair the real value of the statistical of reformatories, the criminal age has perceptibly risen in method or of some of the facts which it has brought to England since the year 1851. So also, although the light. It has supplied us with some generalizations which general law that men are more prone to commit suicide are demonstrably true within certain limits, and which con- than women is altogether beyond dispute, the proportions stitute useful elements of comparison with others discover- of the sexes vary considerably in suicide and in various able elsewhere. It has not established that human conduct, crimes in different countries, and apparently also at different regarded as a great whole, is absolutely invariable, but it times in the same country. Hence we may infer that has supplied a powerful instrument for an inquiry into the there is hardly any social change of which the human species need absolutely despair, though some changes may conditions by which variation may be determined. If, for instance, we look at the statistics of homicide and be far more easily brought about, and may more reasonably suicide in England during any ten recent years we perceive be the subject of legislation, than others. But all legislathat the figures of any one year very little exceed or fall tion should be adapted to the possibilities of the existing below the general average. Yet no inference could be more generation. A very curious feature of crimes in the modern sense, erroneous than that homicide has always borne the same though one susceptible of very easy explanation, is the . proportion to population in England as at present, for in the reign of Edward III. there were in proportion to popu- effect upon them of the seasons. Those which are lation at least sixteen cases of homicide to every one which prompted by the animal passions are most common in the occurs in our own time. On the other hand, according to summer months; larceny, and offences wholly or partly modern statistics, the number of male suicides is far greater prompted by want, in the winter months. As might also have than the number of female ; and the inference that the been predicted a priori, theft increases in times of adversity, number of male suicides always has been greater is at least and various minor offences, such as drunkenness, in times supported by records as early as the middle of the 17th of prosperity. The metropolitan police returns, indeed, century. Again, the homicides in one country may show a very complete descending scale of drunkenness, be and are far more numerous than in another, among beginning with a maximum on that day of the week on equal populations; but nowhere does there exist any which wages are paid, and ending with a minimum six _ < exception to the rule that there are more male suicides days afterwards. Insanity, in its relation to crime, is a subject, which than female. Thus it is clear that any suggestion of uniformity offered by statistics requires the most careful might appropriately be considered in connection with the verification before being accepted as even approximately tendencies inherited by each human being at birth, but true; but it is also clear that the suggestion may be of the cannot be adequately discussed here. Suffice it to say that highest value in leading us to distinguish those cases in as youth, when the instincts and passions are at their which uniformity really exists from those in which uni- strongest, is the period at wffiich the human being is most inclined to commit crimes in general (as now understood), formity is only apparent. The criminal statistics of any one country and period so old age, when both the bodily powers and the intellect should be carefully examined by the light of history, and are decaying, is the period at which one particular class of of any relevant details which can be procured from other sexual offences is most frequently committed ; and there is parts of the world. Only by the aid of the adequate good reason to suppose that persons committing them in Kleptomania and information thus to be acquired can criminal legislation earlier years are weak-minded also. ever be wise and effective, no matter what definition of homicidal monomania are asserted by medical theorists to crime may be accepted by the legislators. A knowledge be forms of mental aberration. This doctrine, however, of human nature in the widest sense, not excepting, indeed, though perhaps sufficiently well-founded, can hardly be some of the principles of physiology, may give some power established upon the basis of a very wide induction, but of discriminating between the mutable and the immutable, only by a subtle reasoning from particular instances upon the possible and the impossible, in human affairs. Without which it is now impossible to enter. With regard to the very complex subjects of the prevenit, well-meaning efforts to improve the condition of society may be not only unsuccessful but even mischievous. W ith- tion and punishment of crime, it may be suggested that the out it, disappointment is apt to follow upon the failure of broader the view taken by legislators the more likely is

C R Itlieir legislation to be successful. Crime, as defined at any period, may be considered a recognized disease of the body social. But as well might the physician concentrate his whole attention upon each individual pustule of an eruptive fever, one after the other, as the criminal legislator upon actual criminals alone. The symptoms of a malady are of course not to be neglected, and it is necessary to be careful in the treatment of persons who have already fallen into crime. Prison management and every form of punishment are important subjects ; but the preservation from guilt of the great majority who are as yet guiltless is of an importance infinitely higher. There is one golden rule taught by history with respect to punishments—let them not afford an evil example of cruelty to the spectators. There is one great preventive of crime, one great antidote to instincts inherited from the past, and that is education. But the education which is effectual is not simply that of the schoolroom; it is the sum of the external circumstances which can in any way affect the character of any individual in the state. So far, therefore, as legislation has the power of diminishing crime, it can exercise its power by indirect means quite as much as by direct—indeed far more. If the crimes of the English in the 19th century are different both in quantity and in kind from those of the 14th, the difference, we may be quite sure, is not wholly nor even principally caused by changes in the criminal law. See various passages in the hooks of Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua, in Homer’s Iliad (especially book xviii.), in Caesar De Hello Gallico, in the Germania of Tacitus, in the Codex Theodosianus (especially lib. ix.), in the Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, and the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales, (both published by the Record Commission), in the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Ireland, Senchus Mor (published by commissioners), in Maine’s Ancient Law and Village Communities, in M’Lennan’s Primitive Marriage, in Savigny’s Geschichte des romischen Rechts in Mittelalter, and (so far as natural or inherited tendencies are concerned) in Darwin’s Descent of Man and Herbert Spencer’s Principles of Psychology. See also the Rotuli Curies Regis (published in part by Palgrave), the Records of the Court of Queen's Bench and of the Star Chamber, the State Papers relating to the Scottish Border, the Criminal Papers, and various other Records and State Papers preserved in the Public Record Office in London, the Records of the various circuits, the Statutes relating to criminal affairs, the Year Books and other legal Reports, various collections of Criminal Trials, the Criminal Tables (England and Wales, 1810—1855), the Judicial Statistics of England and Wales, of Scotland, and of Ireland, the Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons for England and Wales, for Scotland, and for Ireland, the Reports of the Directors of Convict Prisons, the Compte general de Vadministration de la justice criminelle en France (published annually), the Statistik der preussischen Schwurgerichte, Quetelet Sur VHomme, Guerry’s Statistique morale dela France and Statistique morale de VAngleterre comparee avec la statistique morale de la France, various papers in the Journal of the Statistical Society, and in the Transactions of the Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Beccaria’s Dei Delitti e delle Pene, Bentham’s works, Livingstone Systeme de legislation criminelle, the Indian Penal Code, Taylor’s Medical Jurisprudence, Chevers’s Indian Medical Jurisprudence, Maudsley’s Responsibility in Mental Disease, and other sources indicated in Pike’s History of Crime in England. (L. 0. P.) CRIMEA, the ancient Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym, or Crim, a peninsula in the Black Sea forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perecop, about six miles wide. It is situated between 44° 22' and 46° 10' N. lat. and 32° 30' and 36° 40' E. long.; is rhomboid in form, the angles being directed to the cardinal points ; measures 125 miles from N. to S. and 200 miles from W. to the E. extremity of the peninsula of Kertch, at the east angle of the quadrilateral ; and contains an area of between 9000 and 10,000 English square miles. Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except to the north-east, where is the Sivash, “ Putrid Sea,” a shallow lagoon connected with the Sea of Azoff by a very narrow opening, and separated from it by a low sandy tongue of land called the Tonga or Arabat Spit. Physical Three parts of the Crimea are a continuation of the features, steppe of South Russia, the remainder on the south and south-east coast consisting of hills and mountains of calcareous rocks that have been disturbed by volcanic agency, and exhibit in various parts diorite, melaphyre, aphrite, diabase, amygdaloid, and diorite porphyry. The volcanic eruptions are more manifest near Cape St George, and at Cape Laspy, Kastropolo, Aloupka, Yalta, and Byouk Lambat, and have formed the eminences at Ayou-dagh, Kastel, Ouragou, and

C R I

585

Kara-dagh, and to the south of Sympheropol and Kara-soubazar. The mountains rise almost abruptly from the sea to an altitude in some parts of fully 4000 feet, the highest, called by the ancients Trapezus, “ the Table Mountain ” from the flatness of its summit, and now called by the Tatars Tchadyr-dagh, “ Tent Mountain,” being 4800 feet above the level of the sea. Stalactite and stalagmite caverns are numerous, two of the most remarkable being on the Tchadyr-dagh. Criumetopon, the “ ram’s head ” of Strabo, was at the south part of the range, and may have been Cape Aia to the east of Balaclava, or the range of cliffs that extends from that promontory to Aitodor. The coast of the mountainous region is exceedingly picturesque, and numerous vineyards have been formed along its sunny slopes; the soil consists of decomposed rock, the chief component part being slate clay. The mud baths on the sea shore at Saky are celebrated for the relief they afford in cases of rheumatism, paralysis, skin diseases, &c.; there is a hospital for naval and military patients, and a private bathing establishment. In the peninsula of Kertch are clusters of mud volcanoes near the town of Kertch and village of Yeny-Kaleh, where the mud, quite cold and black, bubbles actively but silently out of the earth ; it is not utilized. The principal rivers are the Salghyr, its tributary the Kara-sou, the Belbeck, Katcha, Alma, and Boulganack. They all rise on the northern slopes of the mountain range ; their beds are almost dry in autumn, but they become rapid and dangerous torrents in spring. The general climate from the end of March to December Climate, is most salubrious and delightful, the heat being moderate and the nights cool and serene ; but the summers are irregular, the thermometer sometimes rising to 90° and 100° Fahr. in the shade—the mean annual temperature at Sympheropol being 50°, at Sevastopol 55°, and at Yalta 58°. The weather in the steppe and mountainous parts differ, the former being subject to high winds, hailstorms (sometimes destructive), snowstorms, and frost. In summer long droughts prevail, completely parching up the verdure, which in July and August is quite burnt up. In some winters the mountain tops are covered with snow, which continues on the higher summits until May, yet their temperature is moderate. Ice is rarely seen on the south slopes, and snow seldom falls, the winters throughout being mild, though rains are heavy and winds variable. The greater heats, which last from May to September, are endurable owing to sea and land breezes, the prevalent winds being S.E and E., W’hen the weather is clear and dry; S. and S. W. winds are invariably accompanied with rain. The autumn, particularly in August and September, is unhealthy on the sea-shore of the south coast, fever and ague being prevalent but not dangerous ; an altitude, however, of 40 feet or 50 feet is security against attack. Dense fogs occur in March, April, and May, sometimes lasting many hours, but they seldom overspread the land. In ancient times the Crimea, the Tauric Chersonese, Vegetable produced a great quantity of corn, which was exported to products, various parts of Greece; we read that 2,100,000 medimni (a medimnus = 12 gallons) were sent in one year from Theodosia to Athens by Leucon, king of the Bosphorus (393-353 b.c.). The population is now in some measure supplied with corn from Russia, the drought that has prevailed for many years preventing the district from being a grain-producing country; but where the land is capable of irrigation it is grown, and there is rich pasturage; much good land, however, remains uncultivated from a dearth of manual labour. The grains sown are wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, millet, and peas; flax and tobacco are also planted. The vine overspreads the declivities of the south coast, from the valley of the Boulganack to Aloushta, and again at VI. - 74

V'

586

CRIMEA

taken a few months after the promulgation of the ouJcaz on Soudak and Theodosia, 13,500 acres yielding annually about the new system of general conscription, in which the Tatars 3 050,000 gallons of wine, sold new at 4s. lOd. to os. ba. were included. There are also Bussians, Armenians, Gypsies, the vedro (2-86 gallons). A_small proportion is exported. Greeks, Jews, and some Germans. The Nogai of the steppe Orchards are interspersed with the vineyards, but t e es have long since disappeared as natives, and are replaced by apples are the produce of the valleys of the Alma, Lelbeck, Tatars of almost pure Turkish descent, and speaking Kateha, and Salghyr, the estimated value of the supply a language closely assimilating the Turkish. The Tatars sent yearly into Kussia being £150,000. ihe more on the south coast are a mixed race, largely alloyed with common indigenous trees and shrubs are the Taunc pine, Greek, Italian, and Ottoman blood, and greatly despised iuniper, yew, oalc, beech, which is abundant and attains a by the former; but all are Mahometans, and strict observers large size, elm, wych elm, maple, ash, poplar, and fir; the last of the Koran. The Tatars are extremely indolent, and crows well on the highlands and on the south slopes, where never think of learning a trade ; they busy themselves it reaches a great height; the Babylonian willow and about their fields and gardens from the end of May to tamarind grow thickly by the side of streams; there is also about the third week in August, but remain quite idle the hide sumach (Rhus coriaria), hawthorn, honey-suckle, throughout the rest of the year. They are most hospitable barbariss, and the dog-rose, which becomes quite a tree, bearing white, pink, and yellow blossoms. The wild fruit- to strangers, every Tatar of means keeping an 6da, or house bearing tr66S are the mountain ash, Tcyzyl^ a small red plum, of call for travellers, the first duty of a Tatar being the exercise of hospitality, on which he prides himself. Their the apple, pear, and vine; it is said that the wild olive cottages are constructed, when possible, on the slopes of is occasionally to be found. In the gardens of the south rising ground, the rock forming the back of the habitation, coast large numbers of plants have been acclimatized, and is usually whitewashed and kept scrupulously clean, trees of all kinds grow to perfection, especially the cypress which ensconced fruit trees and verdure. The Tatars are very and magnolia. Wild flowers, such as the white and violet abstemious,bydrinking milk and bouza, a fermented liquor crocus and sweet-scented violet, appear as early as February, lilies of the valley and white and sweet peas being plentiful made of millet; houmyss, “ mare’s milk,” is much employed iu May, and in summer the woods are filled with peonies, by them medicinally. The men wear baggy trowsers, a Asphodelus taurica, veronica, geranium, and orchids. In short embroidered jacket, and a cap of lamb skin; the women the highlands the vegetation is always vigorous. In July colour their nails, eyebrows, and frequently their . hair, they are covered with Thymus, Sideritis, Galium, Myosotis, made up into numerous thin plaits, with Tcna, a mineral and Odontarrhena, Gentiana cruciata, and Symphytum dye, and wear loose trowsers tightened at the ancles, a loose tauricum. In the gardens are cultivated the following coat, and a red cap ornamented with numerous coins; they fruits :—melons, karpouz, “ water-melon,” large, of excellent tie a kerchief round the waist, the opposite corners hanging flavour, and greatly consumed ; strawberries, gooseberries, down behind. The females, more especially on the south raspberries, and currants ; pomegranates, pears, figs, plums, coast, have quite given up wearing the yashmak, “ veil,” peaches, apricots, cherries, mulberries, quinces, walnuts, since the occupation of the country by the allies in almonds, hazel-nuts, and chesnuts; also many sorts of 1854-56. The mourzas, “nobles,” live in retirement, shunning intercourse with Christians, but their women are vegetables. Animals. Wolves, foxes, weazels, and hares are about, the steppe not kept in seclusion , every village has its molla, who is and in the mountains, where are also the Persian and. roe also the “ elder,” and responsible to the authorities. The deer ; while the steppe is infested with the souslyk (Sper- Armenians and Greeks hold the trade, as do also the Jews mophilus). The forests of Tchadyr-dagh are preserved for who are Karaims, “ readers ” of the Holy Scriptures, the crown, but permission to shoot, from June 29 (July adhering strictly to the text of the Old Testament, and 11), may be obtained. Domesticated animals include rejecting all oral traditions and rabbinical writings, keeping double-humped camels, buffaloes, beeves, and several kinds themselves quite apart from the Talmudists, to whom they of sheep, one sort being distinguished by short curly hair of are most odious. There are about 5000 Karaims in the a bluish-grey colour ; the merino sheep was introduced in peninsula. Russians and Germans are chiefly engaged in 1804, and the breed is well maintained. The horses are agriculture, while the gypsies are the artificers.. The small, hardy, and intelligent, but uncouth in appearance. Russian language is very general throughout the peninsula. Sympheropol, the chief town and seat of government Towns, The birds consist of eagles, vultures, hawks, ospreys, storks, herons, and some other birds of prey; partridges, which on (population, 17,000), is situated on the Salghyr, where the steppe are strong on the wing by the end of July; the was Ak-mesjyd, the second capital of the khanate. Like ordinary, double, and jack snipe, quails, pigeons, bustards, all Russian towns, it has fine broad streets at right angles swans, geese, bitterns, and wildfowl of every description, to each other, and the usual whitewashed churches with especially on the Sivash and north-west coast ; also crows, green domes. Baghtchasarai and Kara-sou-bazar. were owls, thrushes, blackbirds, king-fishers, &c. Serpents that given up by Catherine II. to the exclusive occupation of are harmless, lizards, and frogs are abundant. The the Tatars, and have remained purely Oriental towns. scorpion, mentioned by Pallas, is now very rare, but Baghtchasarai, “garden palace,” was the capital of the tarantula spiders and scolopendra, both noxious, frequently khans after the destruction of Solkhat, now Esky-Crim; make their appearance in dwellings. Caterpillars and the their palace is preserved to this day. Kertch, at the east mole cricket (Gryllo Valpa vulgaris) are very destructive end of the peninsula, is a fairly thriving port of transit for in gardens. Bees are abundant, and produce excellent produce from ports in the Sea of Azoff, and imports into honey and a great deal of wax. In the rivers are taken Russia of cattle and horses from the plains of the Kouban trout, roach, dace, and cray-fish, and at their estuaries the and of Circassia. It is a military station of some imporsturgeon is sometimes found, and the salmon is speared. tance, the entrance to the straits of Kertch, or Yeny-Kaleh, A great variety of fish haunt the coast, such as red and the ancient Cimmerian Bosphorus, being protected by the grey mullet, herring, mackerel, turbot, soles (at Eupatoria), formidable Pavlovsky fortress, a combination of masked plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, pilchard, soudaic (the pike batteries and covered ways over an extent of two miles. perch), whitebait, eels, and a variety of shell-fish, crabs, complex and the simplex. There is thus a complete division in a complex curve the number is four, or none,—- our i into the five kinds, the complex, simplex, crunodal, acnodal, the point is on the odd circuit, none if it is on the even and cuspidal. Each singular kind presents itself as a limit circuit. It at once appears from inspection of the gur separating two kinds of inferior singularity ; the cuspidal of a non-singular cubic curve, which is the odd an w c separates the crunodal and the acuodal, and these last the even circuit. The singular kinds arise as e ore; the crunodal and the cuspidal kinds the whole curve is separate from each other the complex and the simplex. The whole question is discussed very fully and ably by odd circuit, but in the acnodal kind the acnode mus . . /• M obi us in the memoir “Ueber die Gruudformeu der Liuien regarded as an even circuit. The analogous question of the classification of quartic ( dritter Ordnung” (Abh. der K. Sachs. Ges. zu Leipzig, t. i., . 1852). The author considers not only plane curves, but particular non-singular quartics and nodal considered in Zeuthen’s memoir “ Sir also cones, or, what is almost the same thing, the spherical curves which are their sections by a concentric sphere. formes des courbes planes du quatrifeme ou ie y A non-singular ““ Stated in regard to the cone, we have there the fundamental An*., t. ™, 1874). r theorem that there are two different kinds of sheets : viz., only even circuits ; it has at most °^ t ,i in the single sheet, not separated into two parts by the vertex external to each other, or two circuits one 111 tin V ‘ (an instance is afforded by the plane considered as a cone the other, and in this last case the ^ of the first order generated by the motion of a line about has no double tangents or inflexions. A very r _ a point), and the double or twin-pair sheet, separated into theorem is established as to the double tangeu s ^ two parts by the vertex (as in the cone of the second order.) quartic:—distinguishing as a double tangen o And it then appears that there are two kinds of non-singular kind a real double tangent which either twice touche

C U 11 V E the same circuit, or else touches the curve in two imaginary points, the number of the double tangents of the first kind of a non-singular quartic is = 4 ; it follows that the quartic has at most 8 real inflexions. The forms of the nonsingular quartics are very numerous, but it is not necessary to go further into the question. We may consider in relation to a curve, not only the line infinity, but also the circular points at infinity; assuming the curve to be real, these present themselves always conjointly ; thus a circle is a conic passing through the two circular points, and is thereby distinguished from other conics. Similarly a cubic through the two circular points is termed a circular cubic; a quartic through the two points is termed a circular quartic, and if it passes twice through each of them, that is, has each of them for a node, it is termed a bicircular quartic. Such a quartic is of course binodal (m = 4, 8 = 2, k = 0) ; it has not in general, but it may have, a third node, or a cusp. Or again, we may have a quartic curve having a cusp at each of the circular points : such a curve is a “ Cartesian,” it being a complete definition of the Cartesian to say that it is a bicuspidal quartic curve (»i = 4, 8 = 0, k = 2), having a cusp at each of the circular points. The circular cubic and the bicircular quartic, together with the Cartesian (being in one point of view a particular case thereof), are interesting curves which have been much studied, generally, and in reference to their/oca/ properties. The points called foci presented themselves in the theory of the conic, and were well known to the Greek geometers, but the general notion of a focus was first established by Pliicker (in the memoir “ Ueber solche Puncte die bei Curven einer hbheren Ordnuug den Brenupuucteu der Kegelschnitte entsprechen ” (Crelle, t. x., 1833). We may from each of the circular points draw tangents to a given curve; the intersection of two such tangents (belonging of course to the two circular points respectively) is a focus. There will be from each circular point X tangents (X, a number depending on the class of the curve and its relation to the line infinity and the circular points, = 2 for the general conic, 1 for the parabola, 2 for a circular cubic, or bicircular quartic, oint (x'.y'.z') on the curve u'=0 will be points having a (1,1) correspondence. To show how this is, observe that to a given jK)int (x,y,z) on the curve m = 0 there corresponds a single point (x',/,z/) determined by the equations x': y1 iz' — X :Y : Z ; from these equations and the equation u=0 eliminating x,y,z, we obtain the equation u'=0 of the transformed curve. To a given point (x', y'yZ') not on the curve u'=0 there corresponds, not a single point, but the system of points (x,y,z) given by the equations x :z'= X : Y : Z, viz., regarding x',/,s' as constants (and to fix the ideas, assuming that the curves X = 0,Y = 0,Z = 0 have no common intersections), these are the points of intersection of the curves X : Y : Z =x'but no one of these points is situate on the curve u = 0. If, however, the point (x',/,z') is situate on the curve u'=0, then one point of the system of points in question is situate on the curve 14 — 0, that is, to a given point of the curve u'=0 there corresponds a single j>oiut of the curve 14 = 0 ; and hence also this point1 must be given by a system of equations such as x :y :z = X' :Y': Z . It is an old and easily proved theorem that, for a curve of the order in, the number 8 + k of nodes and cusps is at most = £(m - l)(w - 2); for a given curve the deficiency of the actual number of nodes and cusps below this maximum number, viz., -8-k, is the “ Geschlecht,” or “ deficiency,” of the curve, say this is = D. When D = 0, the curve is said to be uuicursal, wrhen = 1, bicursal, and so on. The general theorem is that two curves corresponding rationally to each other have the same deficiency. [In 1 (articular a curve and its reciprocal have this rational or (1, 1) correspondence, and it has been already seen that a curve and its reciprocal have the same deficiency.] A curve of a given order can in general be rationally transformed into a curve of a lower order; thus a curve of any order for which D = 0, that is, a unicursal curve, can be transformed into a line; a curve of any order having the deficiency 1 or 2 can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 2, deficiency D ; and a curve of any order deficience = or >3 can be rationally transformed into a curve of the order D + 3, deficiency D. Taking x',/,*' as coordinates of a point of the transformed curve,

72(5

CURVE

must be joined the condition and in its equation writing n! :i/ :*' = ! : 0 : we have a certain but to this ai + 3(4-l-6a3... + i(n- l)(n- 2) a„-i^in{n + Z)-2, irrational function of 0, and the theorem is that the coordinates x,y,z of any point of the given curve can be expressed as proportional to (without which the transformation would be illusory); and the rational and integral functions of 0, ) of the conics which pass through 4/> that the positions of the summits depend on the penultimate curve points are (5/>), (4jt>, \l), the number of the conics which 1Z the values coefficients in the terms multiplied pass through 5 points, and which pass through 4 points and uy 0J ' ’ ; °°they are thusof the inct some measure arbitrary points as touch 1 line : and so in other cases. Similarly as regards regards the ultimate curve P1 iP2“2. . = o. It may be added that we have summits only on the component cubics, or curves of any other order : a cubic depends on 9 curves P1 = 0, of a multiplicity2 «! >1 ; 2the number of summits on constants, and the elementary problems are to find the such a curve is m general = ( - a,) m, . Thus assuming that the number of the cubics (9p), (8jo, \l), &c., wffiich pass through penultimate curve is2 withoutai nodes or cusps,2 the number of the 9 points, pass through 8 points and touch 1 line, &c. ; but tangents to it is = m - m, = {a^ + a2m2 +. . ) - (cqmj + a2m2 +. .). it is in the investigation convenient to seek for the charac- taking Pi-0 to have nodes and kx cusps, and therefore its class to be—To! - TOj - 28J - 3 : the right hand corner was rounded for convenience of writing. The Greek symbol, again, is borrowed from the ancient Phoenician character, called in Hebrew Daleth. D is found in English (according to Grimm’s law) where 6 will be found in Greek, and / in Latin : thus our deer is the Greek 6rjp, and Latin fera. In Old High German the corresponding word was rightly spelt with a t (tior); but this is now spelt thier, though the sound is the same. By the same law d appears in Greek and Latin where we find t in English and z in High German : thus we have Suo, duo, two, zwei. D sometimes became l in Latin; thus Ulysses represented ’OSvo-crevs; sometimes it became r, as in arbiter for ad-biter. In praenomens D stood for Decimus, and in the titles of emperors for Divus. It is also a numeral letter, representing five hundred. This may arise from the circumstance that the letter D is analogous in form to 10, the half of CIO, which is the Roman numeral expression for a thousand. With a dash placed on the top thus, D, its value is increased tenfold, or, in other words, it stands for Jive thousand. Used as an abbreviation, D has various significations, for which see the article Abbreviations. DACCA [Dhaka], the principal district in the division of the same name,1 in Bengal, British India, situated between 24° 20' 12" and 23° 6' 30" N. lat., and between 89° 47' 50" and 91° 1' 10" E. long. It is bounded on the N. by Maimansinh, on the E. by Tipperah, and on the S. and W. by B&karganj and Jarldpur. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided into two sections by the Dhaleswarl river. The northern part, again intersected by the Lakshmu! river, contains the city of Dacca, and as a rule lies well above flood-level. The soil is composed of red ferruginous kanhar, with a stratum of clay in the more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of vegetable mould, or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the Lakshmid is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 miles north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur jungle, stretching into Maimansinh district. These hills, however, are mere mounds of from 20 to 40 feet high, composed of red soil containing a considerable quantity of iron ore; and the whole tract is for the most part unproductive. Towards the city, the red soil is intersected by creeks and morasses, whose margins yield crops of rice, mustard, and til seed; while to the eastward of the town, a broad, alluvial, well-cultivated plain reaches as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari and Lakshmia rivers. The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswarl is the most fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich 1 The Division or Commissionership of Dacca is under the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, and comprises the districts of Dacca, Maimansinh, Bakarganj, Faridpur, and Tipperah (transferred from the Chittagong to the Dacca Division in 1875). It is hounded on the N. by the Garo Hills, on the E. by Silhet and the state of Hill Tipperah, on the S. by the Bay of Bengal, and on the W. by Jessor, Pabna, Bogra, and Rangpur. The Division contains a total area of 18,276 square miles, with a population of 9,126,863 souls.

alluvial soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 feet of water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so as to raise them above the floodlevel. Rivers.—Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of which are navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats of four tons burthen. (1) The MeghnA forms the eastern boundary of the district, separating it from Tipperah. (2) The Ganges, or Padma river, marks the western and south-western boundary, separating the district from Faridpur and Bakarganj. This river, here from three to four miles in width, is liable to frequent and extensive changes in its course; the old channel is now almost dry in the hot months. (3) The Lakshmid, a branch of the Brahmaputra, flows through the north of the district and empties itself into the Dhaleswarl. (4) The Jamund, or main stream of the Brahmaputra, only touches on the north-western corner of the district, where it joins the Ganges. (5) The Mendi-Khall, a large branch of the Meghnd, communicates with the old Brahmaputra. (6) The Dhaleswarl, an offshoot of the Jamund, intersects the district from west to east, and falls into the Meghnd at Munshiganj. It has two large navigable branches, both of which reunite with the parentstream, viz., (7) the Ghdzl-khdll and (8) the Burlgangd. The wild animals comprise a few tigers, leopards, and wild elephants, deer, wild hog, porcupines, jackals, foxes, hares, otters, &c. The green monkey is very common ; porpoises abound in the large rivers. Among birds are vultures, crows, several varieties of eagles, fish eagles, kites, falcons, owls, swallows, kingfishers, woodpeckers, sydmas, green paroquets, spoonbills, sdras, mdnikjors, herons, pelicans, shill ibis, adjutants, bulbuls, gulls, cormorants, coots, plovers, snipe, pigeons, doves, partridges, wild geese and ducks, Ac. A trade is carried on in bird feathers, principally in those of the kingfisher tribe. The common fishes are the shark, ray, saw-fish, anwdri or mullet, tapsi mdchh or mango fish, hilsd, chitdl, katld, rui, mirgal, kai, khalisd, crabs, cray-fish, prawns, &c. Crocodiles are found in most of the. large rivers. Among snakes are the cobra, sando,, girgit, bamdni, gosdmp, python, Ac., and several varieties of tree and water snakes. Agriculture.—Rice forms the staple product of the district. It is divided into three great classes :—boro, or spring rice, sown from December to February, and! reaped in April and May; dus, or autumn rice, sown from March to May, and reaped from July to September; and dman, or winter rice (the great crop of the year), sown from March to May, and reaped in November and December. Wheat and barley are cultivated to a small extent; pulses are largely grown; also oilseeds, such as mustard, til, and linseed. Cotton was formerly a staple product, but since the decline of the fine Dacca muslins, due to the introduction of Manchester goods, its cultivation has almost entirely ceased. Jute.cultivation has enormously extended of late years. The other crops raised are indigo, sugar-cane, pan or betel leaf, cocoa-nut, turmeric, ginger, tobacco, and safflower. Of the area of the district in 1870 (viz., 3217 square miles) 2245 are returned as cultivated, 24 as fallow land, 672 as cultivable waste land, and 276 as uncultivable. No statistics exist showing the cultivation of each kind of crop. But roughly speaking, it may be said that in the rains three-fifths of the cultivated area is under rice, one-fifth is fallow or uncultivated, and one-fifth under jute; and that in the dry season, two-fifths is under oil seeds

DACCA 757 and pulses, two-fifths fallow or uncultivated, and one-fifth situated on the left or north bank of the Burfgangd river under other crops. in 23° 43' 20" N. lat. and 90° 26' 10" E. long. The city The manufactures consist of weaving, embroidery, gold is bounded on the E. by a low alluvial plain stretching to and silver work, shell carving, and pottery. The weaving the Lakshmid river, and on the H. and N.W. by a tract of industry and the manufacture of fine Dacca muslins have jungle interspersed with Muhammadan cemeteries, deserted greatly fallen off, owing to the competition of European gardens, mosques, and ruined houses. The streets, bazars, piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were formerly and lanes extend four miles along the bank of the manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during Burfgangd, the breadth of the town being about 1^ miles. many years was made from English twist, country thread The chauk, or market-place, lies at the west end, near the being used only for the finest muslins. Those of the most river bank. It is a square of considerable dimensions, delicate texture were known by the name of db-rawdn, or surrounded by mosques and shops. The numerous streets a running water,” and shabnam, or “evening dew.” It is which intersect the town are extremely crooked ; and only said that, in the time of the Emperor Jah&ngfr, a piece of a few are wide enough for wheeled conveyances. In parts ab-rawdn muslin, 15 feet by 3, could be manufactured, of the city, inhabited by particular castes, such as the weighing only 5 sikkds, or 900 grains, its value being weavers’ and shellcutters’ bazars, where building ground £4:0. In 1840, the finest cloth that could be made of the lets at a high rent, many four-storied houses have a frontage above dimensions weighed about 9 sikMs, or 1600 grains, of only 8 or 10 feet, while the side walls run back to a and was worth facing the cardinal points. best in the East. They are narrow covered lanes, with . ong the north side is an open court surrounded by ranges of open stalls on each side. Each department cloisters, resting on pillars of granite, marble, and limeot trade has its own quarter or section, where may be seen stone. The mosque itself extends along the whole southern Manchester prints, Persian and Turkish carpets, French side, and its interior dimensions are 431 feet by 125 feet. silks, Sheffield cutlery, amber mouth-pieces for pipes, antique It is divided into three aisles of equal breadth, by two1 China, Cashmere shawls, Mocha coffee, Dutch su ' hiP122; Nicoll, Biblioth. Bodlei. MSS. Orient. Cat. ; Fluegel’s Arabische Hdss. der K. K.iBibliothek Zu IVien; Wuestenfelds Arabische Aerzte und Naturforscher, &e. express his admiration of their fidelity, released both the friends, and begged to be admitted to their friendship. DAMIRON, Jean Philibert (1794-1862), a French DAMPLER, William (c. 1652-c. 1712), an English writer on philosophy, was born at Belleville in 1794. At navigator, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, about nineteen he entered the normal school, where he studied 1652. Having early become an orphan, he was removed Under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. After teaching from the Latin school, and placed with the master of for several years in provincial towns, he came to Paris, a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a voyage to Newwhere he lectured on philosophy in various institutions, foundland. On his return he engaged himself as a common and finally became professor in the normal school, and sailor in a voyage to the East Indies. He served in 1673 titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part in the Dutch war under Sir Edward Sprague, and was with Dubois and Jouffroy in the establishment of the present at two engagements; but the declining state of his Globe ; and he was also a member of the committee of the health induced him to come on shore, and remove to the society which took for its motto Aide-toi, le del V aider a. country, where he remained some time. In the year followIn 1833 he was appointed chevalier of the Legion of ing he became an under-manager of a Jamaica estate, but Honour, and in 1836 member of the Academy of Moral continued only a short time in this situation. He afterSciences. Damiron died at Paris on the 11th January wards engaged in the coasting trade, and thus acquired an 1862. ^ accurate knowdedge of all the ports and bays of the island. The chief works of Damiron, of which the best are his accounts He made two voyages to the Bay of Campeachy, and of French philosophers, are the followingAn edition of the remained for some time with the logwood-cutters, as a com-

796

DAN- -DAN

mon workman. Of this residence he published an interesting account in the work noted below. Satisfied with the knowledge which he had obtained of the nature of the trade and country, he returned to Jamaica, and thence proceeded to England, where he arrived in 1678. About the beginning of the year following he went out to Jamaica as a passenger, with the intention of revisiting the Bay of Campeachy ; but he was persuaded to join a party of buccaneers, with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, pent the year 1680 on the Peruvian coast, and was occasionally successful in plundering the towns. After serving with another privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, he engaged with a captain named Cook for a privateering voyage against the Spaniards in the South Seas. They sailed in the month of August 1683, touched at the coast of Guinea, and then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. Having fallen in with a ship from London, which had sailed on a similar expedition, they joined company ; and, touching at the island of Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South America, cruising along Chili and Peru. They took some prizes ; and with these they proceeded to the Mexican coast, which they fell in with near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook died, and the command devolved on Captain Davis. Having separated from the London ship, they were joined by another commanded by Captain Swan. An attempt to plunder the town of Guayaquil was unsuccessful, but at the mouth of the river they took some vessels which had about 1000 slaves on board. They next attacked a Spanish fleet which was laden with the treasure of the Peruvian mines, but were unsuccesful, being ill supported by some French ships which had joined them. The English ships, afterwards cruising along the coast of Mexico, landed, took the town of Puebla Nova, and burnt two others. Dampier, leaving Davis, went on board Swan’s ship, and proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico, as far as the southern part of California. During this expedition they frequently landed for the purpose of plunder ; but the loss. of fifty of the party during one of these incursions so discouraged them that they relinquished all further attempts on these coasts. Swan then proposed to run across the Pacific Ocean, and return by the East Indies ; and, in hopes of a successful cruise off the Manillas, the crew were persuaded, with a very slender stock of provisions, to risk this long passage. They started on the 31st March 1686. On reaching Mindanao the majority mutinied, and Dampier, joining them, sailed with the ship, leaving Swan and some others on the island. After cruising some time off Manilla, and having careened their vessel at Pulo Condore, in 1687, they were driven to the Chinese coast, made the circuit of Luzon and Mindanao, passed through the group of Spice Islands, and reached the coast of Australia in the beginning of 1688. In March they cruised along the west coast of Sumatra, and touched at the Nicobar Islands, where Dampier, at his own request, and two other Englishmen, a Portuguese, and some Malays, were set on shore. Dampier’s object was to establish a trade in ambergris. He and his companions contrived to navigate a canoe from Achin to Sumatra; but the fatigues and distress of the voyage proved fatal to several of them, who were carried off by fever, while Dampier himself had scarcely recovered at the end of a twelvemonth. After making several voyages to different places of the East Indies, he acted for some time as gunner to the English fort of Bencoolen. In 1691, wishing to revisit his native country, he embarked on board a ship bound for England, where he arrived in September. It appears that afterwards Dampier wras engaged in the king’s service. He had the command of the “ Roebuck,” a sloop of 12 guns and 50 men. This vessel was believed

to have been fitted out for some voyage of discovery, for she had twenty months’ provisions on board. He sailed from Britain in 1699, touched at the coast of Brazil, and then ran across to the coast of Australia, arriving there on 1st August, somewhere about 26° lat. Proceeding northwards along the coast, he explored the country in different places where he landed. To procure provisions he found it necessary to direct his course towards Timor ; and thence he sailed to the coast of New Guinea, where he arrived December 3. By sailing along to its easternmost extremity he discovered that it was terminated by an island, which he circumnavigated, and named New Britain. Here it would appear from his own journal that he wras prevented from prosecuting his discoveries by the small number of his men, and their eager desire to return home. In May he was again at Timor, and thence he proceeded homeward by Batavia and the Cape of Good Hope. In February 1701 he arrived off the island of Ascension, when the vessel sprung a leak and foundered; and it was with much difficulty that the crew reached the island. They remained at Ascension till they were taken away by an East Indiaman, and conveyed to England. This closes the account of Dampier’s life and adventures as it is detailed by himself. It appears, however, from the preface to the third volume, that he was preparing in 1703 for another voyage. It is mentioned also in Woodes Rogers’s Voyage Round the World, that Dampier had the command of a ship in the South Seas about the year 1705, along with Captain Stradling, whose vessel foundered at sea. E ampler accompanied Woodes Rogers in his voyage round the world in the years 1708-11 in the capacity of pilot. During this expedition Guayaquil was taken, and Dampier had the command of the artillery. The place and time of his death are unknown. The works of Dampier are well known, and have been often reprinted. They consist of—A Voyage round the World, 3 vols. 8vo (1847); A Supplement to it, describing the countries of Tonquin, Malacca, Ac. ; Two Voyages to Campeachy ; A Discourse of Tradewinds, Seasons, Tides, Ac., in the Torrid Zone (1707); and a Voyage to New Holland (1709). His observations are curious and important, and are conveyed in a plain manly style. His nautical remarks show a great deal of professional knowledge. His knowledge of natural history, though not scientific, appears to be accurate and worthy of trust as a record of facts. DAN, a town of ancient Judea, near the head-waters of the Jordan, inhabited at the time of the Israelitish conquest by a peaceful and commercial population whose name for their city was Laish, or Leshem. It appears to have been even at this early period a sacred city, and hence it was naturally chosen long after by Jeroboam as the seat of one of his golden calves. The Jewish name, which it derived from the tribe to whose lot it fell, became proverbial in the expression “ from Dan to Beersheba.” The town was plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that time to have gradually declined. Its site is probably marked by the mound called Tell-el-Kady, “ the hill of the judge,” or “ the hill of Dan.” DANA, the name of an American family of which several members have attained eminence. Richard Dana (1699-1772) was a leading barrister of Boston, and a prominent opponent of the Stamp Act. His son, Francis Dana, born in Charlestown in 1743, also began life as a barrister. In 1774 he was chosen to represent Cambridge in the first provincial congress of Massachusetts ; and in the following year he visited England, bearing letters to Dr Franklin from several of the patriot leaders. From 1776 to 1780 he was a member of the Massachusetts council; and in 1777 and 1778 he represented Massachusetts in the National Congress. He was also one of the committee appointed to administer military affairs. In 1779 he

D A N- -DAK 797 was appointed secretary of legation to John Adams, the DANBURY, a town of the United States, in Fairfield ambassador to England; and for two years (1781-83) he county, Connecticut, situated on the Still river, a tributary was envoy to St Petersburg. He took an active part in of the Housatonic, about 53 miles N.N.E. of New York, politics till 1791, when, being appointed chief-justice of with which it is connected by rail. Besides the county Massachusetts, he devoted himself to his judicial duties. buildings, it has two national banks, nine churches, a He died at Cambridge, April 25,1811. Francis Dana was public library, and a high school capable of accommodating the father of Kichard Henry Dana, born in 1787, the 600 pupils. There is a monument, erected in 1854 to the author of The Buccaneev and othev Poems, and a number of memory of General Wooster, who was mortally wounded essays, many of which first appeared in the North American in 1777, when the town was burned by the English under Review, of which Dana was one of the founders. His son, General Tryon, and another, of more recent date, to also named Richard Henry Dana, is an authority on maritime commemorate the other citizens who perished on the same law, and the author of the popular novel Two Years before occasion. The principal industry is the manufacture of the Mast, which is founded on persona] experience, and of hats, which was introduced in 1780, and is carried on by The Seaman’s Friend, or The Seaman’s Manual. ten separate companies; shirts are also largely produced, DANAE, in Greek legend, is known only in connection and sewing machines are constructed. The town, which with her son Perseus (Iliad, xiv. 319), and in particular was incorporated in 1696, had in 1870 a population of from the circumstances of his birth. Her father Acrisius, 8753. Its Indian name was Pahquioque. king of Argos, having been warned by an oracle that his DANBY, Francis (1793-1861), a painter of poetical daughter would bear a son who would put him to death landscape, who possesses some significance and importance and rule in Ids stead, sought to prevent this by confining in the English school, was born in the south of Ireland, Danae in an underground chamber lined with bronze like November 16, 1793. His father farmed a small property the underground treasuries still visible at Mycenae. But he owned near Wexford, and Francis began life in the Zeus descended to her in a shower of gold, and she gave country, but the death of his father caused the family to birth to Perseus, upon which Acrisius placed her and her remove to Dublin, while he was still a schoolboy, and infant in a wooden box and consigned them to the sea. there his bias to art very quickly developed itself, and After long floating about they were picked up by Dictys,' superseded any other education. He began to practise a fisherman who lived with his brother Polydectes on the drawing at the Royal Dublin Society’s schools ; and under small island of Seriphus. There she remained till her son a Mr O’Connor, an erratic youth of his own age with had grown up and returned from his expedition of cutting national peculiarities, he began painting landscape. The off Medusa’s head, when, finding his mother persecuted by capital of Ireland has never shown very much interest in Polydectes, Perseus first turned her tormentor and those with the arts, but there was a youth then rising who afterwards him into stone by exhibiting Medusa’s head, and then set out made his mark in archieology, if not in his profession of with her for Argos. From this point she has no more part landscape painting, George Petrie, with whom Danby in the Greek legend. In Latin legend she goes to Italy formed an acquaintance; and all three left for London and marries Pilumnus or Picumnus, It has been pointed together in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very out that Perseus was a solar hero, and his birth in the dark inadequate funds, and no aid, quickly came to an end, and chamber has been compared with the birth of Apollo from they had to get home again by walking all the way. At Leto, a goddess of the darkness of night. The wooden Bristol they made a pause, and Danby finding he could box in which mother and son floated safely is also com- get trifling sums for water-colour drawings, remained there pared with the boat of Helios, and the golden rain of Zeus working diligently and sending to the London exhibitions may be the beams of sunlight. pictures of importance. There his large pictures in oil DANAUS, in Greek legend, was the founder of Argos quickly attracted attention. They were very powerful in and of the race of Danai, by which name the Argives are effect and imaginative in invention; and, had his Upas designated in Homer. A local feature of Argos was the Tree and the Delivery of the Israelites from Egypt been drought which in summer sealed its numerous small springs, produced before a greater man, John Martin, had shown and with this feature Danaus was identified as having made the way to express multitude, vastness, and fabulous the first well, while his fifty daughters (Danaides), seem to wonders in architecture, Danby would be properly conrepresent the many springs of the district. In the lower sidered one of the great men in modern painting. The world they had to carry water in broken vases. It was in Upas Tree (1820), his most independent and original searching for water that his daughter Amymone was pursued picture, is, however, a very noble work, not only in by a satyr and rescued by Poseidon, the god of that invention but in execution ; the poison tree, surrounded by element, who struck out a spring for her with his trident. the remains of slaves who have been sent to gather its But while the legend of Danaus thus seems to have been gum, grows alone in a valley of rocks lit by a ghastly of native Argive origin, he was, in accordance with the moonlight, which is itself a triumph of art. The Delivery tendency at one time of tracing genealogies to Egypt, of the Israelites (1825) is much more strictly a derivation described as a son of Belus, king of Egypt, and Anchirrhoe, from Martin. The Royal Academy, however, elected him a daughter of the Nile, having a brother 2Egyptus. This into their body on the strength of it, thinking by his means brother had fifty sons, wdiile Danaus had fifty daughters, to checkmate that master, who did not aspire to Academic and because the latter would not marry their cousins, they honours. He now left Bristol for London, and in 1828 were obliged to escape from Egypt with their father exhibited his Opening of the Sixth Seal at the British Danaus. The sons of iEgyptus pursued them to Argos Institution, receiving from that body an honorary premium and besieged them there, till it was agreed by Danaus that of 200 guineas; and this picture, which was admirably they should marry his daughters. But to each of his painted, was followed by two others from the Apocalypse, daughters he gave a knife with injunctions to slay her both productions of surprising Jpower, though certainly husband on the marriage night. Except Hypermnestra indebted to the works of a similar species of invem they all obeyed, and it was for this that they had to carry tion appearing a few years earlier. These were the last water in the lower world. Afterwards he gave them in of his important and large pictures. He suddenly left marriage to the noblest youths of the district wrho could London, declaring that he would never live there again, and prove their claims by the greatest speed in the race that the Academy, instead of aiding him, had, somehow course. or other, used him badly. Some insurmountable domestic

798

1) A X- -DAN

difficulty overtook him also, and for eleven or twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a Bohemian with boat-building fancies, painting only now and then. He returned to England in 1841, when his sons James and Thomas, who have both followed the art with considerable advantage, were growing up. The only additional pictures it is necessary to mention are the Golden Age, and the Evening Gun, the first begun before he left England, the second painted after his return, when he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died February 9, 1861, in his sixtyeighth year. His Upas Tree is now i n the South Kensington National Collection by the Townshend bequest, and is held in general respect, but such of his other works as have been lately seen have not maintained his reputation. They have the hot tone and opacity of bronze, and reveal the secret that they have been produced in a darkened studio, and irrespective of the facts and even of the sentiment of living nature. Notwithstanding these drawbacks they must be always interesting from their imaginative motives, and undoubtedly play a noticeable part in the history of English landscape art. DANCE. The term dancing in its widest sense includes three things :—(1) the spontaneous activity of the muscles under the influence of some strong emotion, such as social joy or religious exultation; (2) definite combinations of graceful movements performed for the sake of the pleasure which the exercise affords to the dancer or to the spectator; (3) carefully trained movements which are meant by the dancer vividly to represent the actions and passions of other people. In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Pantomime in the emphatic form of dancing scarcely exists in this century, but it has had an important history. Regarded as the outlet or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require much discussion, for the . general rule applies that such demonstrations for a time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow of feeling. The voice and the facial muscles and many of the organs are affected at the same time, and the result is a high state of vitality which among the spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic worship of Bacchus and Cybele amounted to something like madness. Even here there is traceable an undulatory movement which, as Mr Spencer says, is “ habitually generated by feeling in its bodily discharge.” But it is only in the advanced or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the essential feature of measure, which has been said to consist in “ the alternation of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones,” an alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children, “ is compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of muscular excitement.” In analyzing the state of mind which this measured dancing produces, we must first of all allow for the pleasant glow of excitement caused by the excess of blood sent to the brain. But apart from this, there is an agreeable sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular efforts, and in the spaces described, and also in the period of their recurrence. If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not precisely equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually increasing intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly rises in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, “ When you do dance, I wish you a wave of the sea ” (Winter’s Tale, iv. 3). The mind feels the beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular motion, just as much as in musical notes. Then, the figure of the dance is frequently a circle or some more graceful curve or series of curves,—a fact which satisfies the dancer as well as the eye of the spectator. But all such effects are intensified by the use of music, which not only brings a perfectly distinct set of pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but

by the control of dancing produces an inexpressibly sveet harmony of sound and motion. This harmony is further eniiched if there be two dancing together on one plan, or a large company of dancers executing certain evolutions, the success of which depends on the separate harmonies of all the couples. The fundamental condition is that throughout the dance all the dancers keep within their bases&of gravity. This is not only required for the dancers’ own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury on tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator. The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves attractive in the modern posturing ballet. But tl U is merely one condition of graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object, the dancer sinks into the acrobat. These psychological principles have still to be applied to the phenomena presented by the dances of different nations. (See Read’s Characteristic National Dances, 1853). We shall first consider the varieties of dance which without any apparent mimetic object seem to be suggested by the mere pleasure of movement felt by the performer or by the spectator. In Tigre the Abyssinians dance the chassee step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging their shoulders and working their elbows backwards and forwards. At intervals the dancers squat on the ground, still moving the arms and shoulders in the same way. The Bushmen dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting themselves by sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a wild irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks. The Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs, with a shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to the body, and the elbows at an angle with the closed hand. Advancing to a point, the dancer suddenly erects his head, and wheels round to the starting point. The women of the Pultooah tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and forwards in a bent posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and graceful in dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire, moving at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to complete the circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only the rudest possible step, an awkward hop with the knees very much bent. The national dance of the Kamchadale is one of the most violent known, every muscle apparently quivering at every moment. But there, and in some other cases where men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual passion, It has been said that some of the Tasmanian corrobories have a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of naual may also be mentioned. The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the arms violently backwards and forwards. The Yeddahs jump with both feet together, patting their bodies, or clapping their hands, and make a point of bringing their long hair down in front of; the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a series of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side to side with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the Samoan dance is one of time—a crescendo movement, which is well-known in the modern ball-room. The Javans are perhaps unique in their distinct and graceful gestures of the hand and fingers. At a Mexican feast called Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen and women danced tied together at the hands, and embracing one another, the arms being thrown over the neck. This resembles the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or Brawl, "Op/xo?, or Bearsfeet; but all of them 1 probably are to a certain extent symbolical of the relations between 1 Compare the Chica of South America, the Fandango of Spain, and the Angrismene or la Fachee of modern Greece. See alscr Bomaunt dc la Rose, v. 776.

dance 799 the sexes. Actual contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as matter of pure dancing - for aiart lians and Tasmanians in their dances called corrobories imia together from the pleasure of the embrace,"the harmony tate the frog and the kangaroo (both leaping animals). The of the double rotation adds very much to the enjoyment Hint of the emu is also performed, a number of men passing n a very old Peruvian dance of ceremony before the Inca s ovy y round the fire and throwing their arrows about so as several hundreds of men formed a chainf each taking hold to imitate the movements of the animal’s head while The Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt } 0 man bey nd his wn lOfnbody i moving °forwards^mediate neighbour and the whole and backwards three one man with skin and horns taking the part of the animal! steps at a time as they approached the throne. In this Closely allied to these are the mimic fights, almost universal as in the national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal there among tribes to which war is one of the great interests of was perhaps a suggestion of “bunion fait iy force.” In 1:e;, Th® Bravery Dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of the Bhil tribe in the Vindhya Hills are illustrations. Yucatan stdts were occasionally used for dancing. ie latter seems to have been reduced to an amusement It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accompaniment, either by the dancer or by others. This is conducted by professionals who go from village to village, not merely because the feelings which find relief in dancing the battle being engaged in-by women with long poles on express themselves at the same time in other forms • in the one side, and men with short cudgels on the other. some cases indeed, the vocal and instrumental elements ,Vher®.!? ^ element of comedy, which also appears in 7 predominate, and form the ground-work of the the Fiji club-dance. This, although no doubt originally whoie emotional demonstration. Whether they do so or suggested by war, is enlivened by the presence of a clown not will of course depend on the intellectual advancement covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The monotonous of the nation or tribe, and upon the particular development song accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary of their sesthetical sensibility. A striking instance occurs or explanation. _ So also, in Guatemala there is a public among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the aile or dance, in which all the performers, wearing the accompaniment to the colloquial war and hunting songs in skins and heads of beasts, go through a mock battle, which which the women put questions which are answered by the always ends in the victory of those wearing the deer’s men. So also in Tahiti there is a set of national ballads Head At the end the victors trace in the sand with a and songs referring to many events in the past and present pole the figure of some animal; and this exhibition is lives of the people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the supposed to have some historical reference. But nearlv canoe-builder, has each his trade song, which on public all savage tribes have a regular war-dance, in which they occasions. at least is illustrated by dancing. But the appear in fighting costume, handle their weapons, and go irough the movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or accompaniment is often consciously intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the excitement of the defeat. The women generally supply the stimulus of muscles. And a close relation will be found always to music. I here is one very picturesque dance of the Natal exist between the excellence of a nation’s dancing and the Kaffirs, which probably refers to the departure of the excellence or complexity of its music and poetry. In some warriors for the battle. The women appeal plaintively to cases the performer himself sings or marks time by the tlie men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the ground clanking of ornaments on his person. In others the "tmg tlleir sllort sPears or assegais towards the sky. accompaniment consists sometimes of a rude chant impro- In Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women vised by those standing round, or of music from instru- dance for a great part of the day, believing that this ments, or of mere clapping of the hands, or of striking one inspires their husbands with courage. In this, however, stick agamst another or on the ground, or of “marking there may be some religious significance. These wartime in the technical sense. The Tasmanians beat on a dances are totally distinct from the institution of military social life has rolled up kangaroo-skin. The Kamchadales make a noise drill, which belongs to a later period, when 1 like a continuous hiccough all through the dance. The become less impulsive and more reflective. There can be Andamans use a large hollow dancing-board, on which one little doubt that some of the characteristic movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances survive in the man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes it is the privilege smooth and. ceremonious dances of the present day. But ot the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while his people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and the. early. mimetic dance was not confined to these two subjects; it embraced the'other great events of savage life strike upon the hip. The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of the drama of courtship and marriage, the funeral dance, of labour, the celebration of harvest or extreme interest. In the same way, the dances of the the consecration 2 vintage, sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of dramatic Ostyak tribes (Northern Asiatic) imitate the habitual sports ot the chase and the gambols of the wolf and the bear and interest, while other dances degenerated into games. For other wild beasts, the dancing consisting mainly of sudden instance, in Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude leaps and violent turns which exhaust the muscular powers i ound a circle, while another followed, hurling at him ol the whole body. The Kamchadales, too, in dancing, bohordos or canes, which were adroitly caught on a small stick.. Again, in Tasmania, the dances of the women imitate bears, dogs, and birds. The Kru dances of the describe their “ clamber for the opossum, diving for shellCoast Negroes represent hunting scenes ; and on the Congo, fish, digging for roots, nursing children, and quarrelling® °Tre lthe hunters start, they go through a dance imitating with husbands.” Another dance, in which a woman by e habits of the gorilla and its movements when attacked. Ihe Damara dance is a mimic representation of the move- gesture taunts a chieftain with cowardice, gives him an opportunity of coming forward and recounting his courments of oxen and sheep, four men.stooping with their ageous deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas heads in contact, and uttering harsh cries. The canter of (another Indian .hill tribe), consists in walking backwards the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The and forwards, without variation, to a howling tune of “ ha ! Bushmen dance in long irregular jumps, which they com- hoo ! ” The meaning of this is obscure, but it can pare to the leaping of a herd of calves, and the Hottentots 1 not? .only go on all-fours to counterfeit the baboon, but The Greek Kapirda represented the surprize by robbers of a warrior they have a dance in which the buzzing of a swarm of ploughing a field. The gymnopsedic dances imitated the sterner sports r bees is represented. The Kennowits in Borneo introduce oi the palaestra. The Greek Lenaia and Dionysia had a distinct reference to the the mias and the deer for the same purpose. The Austraseasons.

800

DANCE

scarcely be solely an outburst of grief. In Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves, and bards, with their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic dance. We may add here a form of dance which is almost precisely equivalent to the spoken incantation. It is used by the professional devil-dancer of the wild Yeddahs for the cure of diseases. An offering of eatables is put on a tripod of sticks, and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes into a paroxysm of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the required information. This, however, rather belongs to the subject of religious dances. It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the forms of the sacred dances which formed so prominent a part of the worship of antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in-them a resemblance to the courses of the stars. This Pythagorean idea was expanded by Sir John Davies, in his epic poem Orchestra, published in 1596. They were probably adapted to many purposes,—to thanksgiving, praise, supplication, and humiliation. It is only one striking illustration of this wide-spread practice, that there was at Rome a very ancient order of priests especially named Salii, who struck their shields and sang assamenta as they danced. The practice re-appeared in the early church, special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger, who astonished Charles Y. by his dancing powers, says the bishops were called Prcesules, because they led the dance on feast days. According to some of the fathers, the angels are always dancing, and the glorious company of apostles is really a chorus of dancers. Dancing, however, fell into discredit with the feast of the Agapce. St Augustine says, “ Melius est fodere quam saltare;” and the practice was generally prohibited for some time. No church or sect has raged so fiercely against the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of Languedoc and the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil’s procession. After the middle of the 18th century, there were still traces of religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal, and Roussillon,—-especially in the Mussarabian Mass of Toledo. An account of the numerous secular dances, public and private, of Greece and Rome will be found in the classical histories, and in Mr Weaver’s Essay towards a History of Dancing, London, 1712, which, however, must be revised by more recent authorities. The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all its local varieties, the Bacchanalia, and the Hymensea were among the more important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which formed interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was the Delian dance of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and called Pepavos, from its resemblance to the flight of cranes, and one of the most powerful was the dance of the Eumenides. A farther development of the art took place at Rome, under Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought serious and comic pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen were such as the labour of Hercules, and the surprise of Yenus and Mars by Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown in Lucian’s amusing dialogue De Saltatione. Before this Rome had only very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties, and whose art traditions belonged not to Greece, ‘ but to Etruria.1 Apparently, however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony and of the theatre, were by temperament not great dancers in private. Cicero says, “ Nemo fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit.” But the Italic. Dance of the imperial theatre, supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a time the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to cultivate other than political interests for the people; and he passed laws for the protection and 1 The Pantomimus was an outgrowth from the canticum, or choral singing of the older comedies and fabulce Atellance.

privilege of the pantomimists. They were freed from the jus virgarum, and they used their freedom against the peace of the city. Tiberius and Domitian oppressed and banished them; Trajan and Aurelius gave them such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but the pantomime stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the empire. The modern ballet seems to have been first produced on a considerable scale in 1480, at Tortona, before Duke Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement on great occasions at the European courts. The ordinary length was five acts, each containing several entrees, and each entree containing several quadrilles. The accessories of painting, sculpture, and movable scenery were employed, and the representation often took place at night, The allegorical, moral, and ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by Baif in the time of Catherine de’ Medici. Balthasar of Beaujeu appears also as a director of court ballets, in which amusement the royal families of France continued for long to take an active part. The complex nature of these exhibitions may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in 1634—La verita nemica della apparenza, sollevata dal tempo. Of the ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of La verita raminga. Now and then, however, a high political aim may be discovered, as in the “ Prosperity of the Arms of France,” danced before Richelieu in 1641, or “ Religion uniting Great Britain to the rest of the World,” danced at London on the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the Elector Frederick. Outside the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory ballet which was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this time also the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of courante, minuet, and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of the church assembled at Trent gave a ball in which they took a part. Masked balls, too, resembling in some respects the Roman Saturnalia, became common towards the end of the 17th century. In France a ball was sometimes diversified by a masquerade, carried on by a limited number of persons in character-costume. Two of the most famous were named “4au Sauvage” and “ des Sorciers.” In 1715 the regent of France started a system of public balls in the operahouse, which did not succeed. Dancing, also, formed a leading element in the Opera Franqais introduced by Quinault. His subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from the classical mythologies ; and the choral dancing was not merely divertissement, but was intended to assist and enrich the dramatic action of the whole piece. The ideas of military evolution and of magic incantation reappear. Although Lully wrote the music, and the representation was supported by splendid decoration and mechanical effects, the success of this new “ tragedy ” was short-lived, and since then the modern ballet has never been more than a lyrical interlude. In this humbler function, however, it was greatly improved by La Motte, whose piece HEurope Galante (1697) is a sparkling and elegant production. The lyrical ballet draws much from Fairyland and Arcadia. The possibility of theatrical dance has been strenuously maintained by M. de Cahusac in his La Danse, Ancienne et Moderns, 3 vols., 1754; by M. de Noyerre in his Lettres sur les Arts Imitateurs ; and by Diderot in the Encyclopedic Methodique, 1786. It was illustrated by the performance of Pygmalion by Mdlle. Salle in London (1 /32j.2 Among the antiquities of this subject chorography, or orchesography, the art of dancing notation, deserves a place. The idea is as old as 1598 ; but about 1700 M. Feuillet published a complicated system, which was twice translated s Among the last demi-caracttrc. ballets may be mentioned the Fills mat gardee of Dauberval; among the anacreontic, the Dansomanie ol Gardel.

DANCE 801 into English at the beginning of the 18th century by Mr DANCE, the name of a family group important in Weaver and Mr Essex. A separate sign was used for each Ringiish art, at least in architecture, during the latter position, bend, rising, step, leap, cabriole, falling, slide, halt of the last century. turn, and cadence ; and the track of the dance was repreGeoege Dance, senioe, the father of the two others sented by curved lines. These were sometimes printed along with the music. Such diagrams as still exist are was born early in the century, at a time when neither interesting enough as visible history of extinct dances : but Dothic nor classic architecture was properly studied in Engas a practical aid in teaching or composing dances iand, the former being looked upon simply as a barbarism and the latter known only through the Italian. On his chorography was entirely thrown aside as too cumbrous return from the continent, after a short period of study he by Noverre, and by Sir John Gallini, the proprietor of the ancient concert rooms in Hanover Square, who wrote on obtained the appointment of architect to the city of London this subject in 1726. The difficulty of the process may be and immediately had a chance of distinction by building seen by applying it to so comparatively simple a dance as the Mansion-house. This was in 1739, and his plans gave tne Scotch reel, which contains no less than 10 single great satisfaction. It was followed by the churches of St Botolph, Aldgate, and St Leonard, Shoreditch, and by other steps—the ceum-siubhaile (forward step), the ceum-coisiche city works of some importance. He continued to practise (tooting step), the leum-trasd (cross-spring,—French till his death, January 11, 1768, at which time the former sissonne), the siabadh-trasd (chasing step), the aiseag-trasd excise offices, Broad Street, were approaching completion (cross-passes), the fosgladh (open step), the cuartag (turn- and his son George was installed in his place, both his sons ing step), and others. As may be seen from the technical being already m considerable repute. Of these the eldest language of dancing (assemblee, jetee, chassee, glissade, was contre-danse, contre-temps, coupe, entrechat, bourree Dance, born in 1734, who left h is father’s office gaillarde, fleuret, &c.) it has undoubtedly been brought to andNathaniel was placed under Hayman, the genre-historical painter. greatest perfection in France. But space does not permit Here he showed great quickness, but principally in portraits us to explain the steps or to describe the picturesque forms and after a few years he left that painter and went abroad! of dance which are still practised in town and country. Piis residence in Italy, wffiich was prolonged for many years One sentence in conclusion upon dancing or musical brought him in contact with Angelica Kauffmann, among gymnastics as an important branch of physical education. whose devoted admirers he long remained, at first following Long ago Locke pointed out {Education, secs. 67,196) that her about in all her changes of abode, travelling as she did the effects of dancing are not confined to the body ; it gives under the protection of her loving old father. From Italy to children, he says, hot mere outward gracefulness of he sent home historical pictures occasionally, of the quasimotion, but manly thoughts and a becoming confidence. classic sort,—Dido and Aeneas in 1763, for example. These Only lately, however, has the advantage been recognized of he continued to produce all through his career,—Paris and making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what 1 eus )’ °Uj lamenting Eurydice (1774), Death Homer calls “ the swTeetest and most perfect of human en- of Mark/T Antony (1176),—all of which have long ago utterly joyments.” The practical principle against heavy weights disappeared. He was settled in London in 1768 as his and intense monotonous exertion of particular muscles is name appears among the founders of the Royal Academy thus stated by Mr Smiles (Physical Education, p. 148) : and must have been in the country some time, as he The greatest benefit is derived from that exercise which exhibits two full-length portraits of George HI. and the calls into action the greatest number of muscles, and in queen in the first exhibition of that body. These are now which the action of these is intermitted at the shortest in- existing at Up Park, Sussex ; and in the Greenwich tervals.” It required only one further step to see how, if Hospital picture gallery is a portrait of Captain Cook by light and changing movements were desirable, music would him. Many of his pictures are known in family collections prove a powerful stimulus to gymnastics. It touches the throughout the country, and some of his works, now lost play-impulse, and substitutes a spontaneous flow of energy sight of, are known by engravings. At the age of fifty-six, for the mechanical effort of the will. The force of imitation when he had himself made a large fortune, he married a or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in education, widow possessing a jointure of £15,000 a year, entirely is also much increased by the state of exhilaration into dropt his profession, and became a member of Parliament, which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied representing East Grinstead. He even changed his by Froebel in his Kindergarten plan, and has been name, and when made a baronet in 1800 he appeared developed by Jahn and Schreber in Germany, by Dio as Sir N. D. Holland. He now lived at Carnborough Lewds in the United States, and by Ling (the author of the House, near Winchester, his only practice in art being Swedish Cure Movement) in Sweden. It is of course not occasional landscapes in the manner of the day; and at merely on aesthetic grounds (though these are sufficient) that place he died suddenly on the 15th October 1811, that musical gymnastics, as distinguished from the process leaving a private fortune of £200,000. His brother, of manufacturing a shell of muscle, are invaluable, They Geoege Dance, juniob, by far the ablest of the ’three, are, according to the testimony of all competent persons, was born in 1740, and remained his father’s pupil, succeedindispensable to complete development and general health. ing him as city surveyor and architect in 1768. At that F°r the old division of the Ars Gymnastica intopalcestrica and sal- time the office, then as now somewhat lucrative, was tatorm, and of the latter into cubistica, sphceristica, and orchestica, see purchasable, and it was in that way he acquired the appointthe learned work of Hieronymus Mercurialis, De arte Gymnastica, ment. He was then only twenty-eight, and had spent several Amsterdam, 1572. ^ Cubistic was the art of throwing somersaults, years abroad, most of the time with his brother in Italy, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in his Trots Dialogues, Paris, yet he had already distinguished himself by designs for 1599. Sphseristic included several complex games at ball and public works, particularly that for Blackfriars Bridge. He tilting—-the Greek KwpvKos, and the Roman trigonalis and paganica. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into latio, figura, and indicatio, was was associated with his brother in the foundation of the really imitative dancing, the “ silent poetry ” of Simonides. The Royal Academy, and, living till 1825, he was for a importance of the xeiP01,oy.'ia or hand-movement is indicated by number of years the last survivor of the original members. Ovid :—‘‘ Si vox est, canta ; si mollia brachia, salta.” Por further information as to modern dancing, see Rameau’s Ze Mattre d Knowing every one connected with art in London for a Danser, 1726, and Querlon’s Le Triomphe des Graces, 1774. In long period, he must have outlived a great many changes the earlier part of this article considerable use has been made of the in taste, and seen many novelties pass away in all the “Esthetic Products” of Mr Herbert Spencer’s Sociological Tables. divisions of art. In his own sphere the revolution from YI. — ioi

802

DAN- -DAN

hisfather’s style tothe study of Gothic by the elder Pugin and others, following the period of Stuart and Revett, showed a wonderful development, especially in the precise knowledge of ornamental details. In sculpture, the passage from Carlini to Flaxman was even more rapid, and in painting he must have known all the important professors from Hogarth to Wilkie. That he was much interested in all these changes is proved by the series of portraits of his friends, principally artists, he drew from the life, which are now preserved in the library of the Academy. Seventytwo of these, engraved in imitation of chalk, were published in 1808-14, and form a very interesting collection. In his own profession his time was mainly occupied by his duties as city architect, and his principal works are such as came to him in that way. Of these, the prison of Newgate, rebuilt in 1770, a building unique in design, is the most conspicuous and able. The front of Guildhall is also his. He died January 14, 1825, and was buried in St Paul’s. DANCOUFiT, Florent Carton (1661-1725), French dramatist and actor, was born at Fontainebleau on the 1st November 1661. He belonged to a family of rank, and his parents intrusted his education to Father De la Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest but fruitless efforts to induce him to join the order. Preserving his freedom he studied law, became an advocate, and engaged for a short time in the practice of his profession. His marriage to the daughter of the celebrated comedian La Thorillifere led him to adopt the career of an actor, and in 1685, in spite of the strong opposition of his family, he appeared on the stage of the Theatre Frangais. His power of facial expression, vivacity of manner, and fluency of utterance gave him immediate and marked success, both with the public and with his fellow actors. The latter chose him for their spokesman on occasions of state, and in this capacity he frequently appeared before Louis XIV., who treated him with great favour. As a dramatic author Dancourt was exceedingly prolific, and as an almost necessary consequence somewhat unequal. His first play, Le Notaire obligeant, produced in 1685, was so well received as to lead its author speedily to repeat the experiment. La Desolation des Jouenses (1686) was still more successful; and Le Chevalier & la Mode (1687) is generally regarded as his best work, though his claim to original authorship in this and some other cases has been disputed. These were followed by others in constant succession till 1718, when he terminated his career both as an actor and as- an author. Retiring to a chateau at Courcelles le Roi, in Berry, he employed himself in making a poetical translation of the psalms and in writing a sacred tragedy. He died on the 6th December 1725, and was buried in a tomb he had caused to be constructed during his lifetime in the chapel of his chateau. The plays of Dancourt are true in the main to nature. The characters have a vraisemblance that has led to his being styled the Teniers of comedy. He is most successful in his delineation of low life, and especially of the peasantry. The dialogue is sparkling, witty, and natural. Many of the incidents of his plots were derived from actual occurrences in the “ fast ” and scandalous life of the period, and several of his characters were drawn from well-known personages of the day. Most of the plays incline to the type of farce rather than of pure comedy. The complete works of Dancourt were published in 1760 (12 vols. 12mo), An edition of his (Euvres Choisies in 5 vols. appeared in 1810. DANDELION {Taraxacum Dens Leonis), a perennial herb belonging to the sub-order Cichoracece, of the natural order Composita?.. The plant has a wide range, being found in Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the Arctic regions. The leaves are smooth, of a bright shining green,

sessile, and tapering downwards. The name dandelion is derived from the French dent-de-lion, an appellation given on account of the tooth-like lobes of the leaves. The long tap-root has a simple or many-headed rhizome ; it is black externally, and is very difficult of extirpation. The flower-stalks are smooth, brittle, leafless, hollow, and very numerous. The flowers bloom from April till August, and remain open from 5 or 6 in the morning to 8 or 9 at night. The flower-heads are of a golden yellow, and 1J inches in width; the florets are strap-shaped, and longer than the phyllaries. The achenes are olive or dull yellow in colour, and are each surmounted by a long beak ; on this rests a pappus of white and delicate hairs, which occasions the ready dispersal of the seed by the wind. The globes formed by the plumed seeds are nearly 2 inches in diameter. The involucre consists of an outer spreading (or reflexed) and an inner and erect row of bracts. In all parts of the plant a milky juice is contained, the principle of which, taraxacin, has diuretic properties. On exposure to the air the juice coagulates, deposits caoutchouc, and turns of a violet-brown colour. The leaves are bitter, but when blanched are sometimes eaten as a salad; they serve as food for silkworms when mulberry leaves are not to be had. The root is roasted as a substitute for coffee, and its infusion, decoction, and extract are employed medicinally as a tonic and aperient, especially in disorders of the digestive organs and liver. Several varieties of the dandelion are recognized by botanists, in the commonest of which the leaves are broad and runcinate, and the outer bracts of the involucre have a downward flexure. The variety T. palustre, which affects boggy situations, and flowers in late summer and autumn, has nearly entire leaves, and the outer bracts of its involucre are erect. DANDOLO is the name of one of the most illustrious patrician families of Venice. But fche first doge of the name, Enrico Dandolo, who ruled the republic from 1192 to 1205, occupies the largest space in history of any of the name. He is the “ blind old Dandolo ” of Byron, whose passing mention of the well-nigh forgotten hero, in Childe Harold, has rendered the old name familiar to a larger number of ears than it ever was, even in the day when the prowess of the octogenarian doge changed the face of Europe. Enrico Dandolo was born of a family already illustrious, which had ruled in Gallipoli, Andros, Riva, and other places in Greece; and his uncle was patriarch of Grado. The story goes that he lost his sight from having been subjected by Manuel, the emperor of Constantinople, to whom he had been sent by Venice as ambassador, to the ancient punishment of “ abbasination,”'—to adopt a foreign word for a thing which, happily, is nameless in our language. This torture consisted in compelling the victim to gaze into a polished metal basin, which concentrated the rays of the sun till the excess of light destroyed the eye. Some of the Venetian historians, however, deny this story, and represent his blindness as having resulted from a wound received in fight. When he-was elected doge, at the age of seventy-two, Venice was involved in a war with Pisa, which he brought in two naval battles to a successful conclusion. But the events which have made his name a marked one in history occurred yet nearer to the end of his long career. In 1201 the chivalry of Christendom was about to embark in the 4th crusade,—by some historians reckoned the 5th,—and a request was made to Venice to give the crusaders passage, and furnish them with vessels for transport. Dandolo received the messengers who came with those demands favourably. There is reason to think that the Venetian was not moved by any great degree of crusading enthusiasm ; but Zara had thrown off the yoke of Venice ; and, as Venetian writers add, the old doge had not forgiven the infamous treatment he had received at the

D A N— D A N 803 hands of the Greeks. There does not, however, seem to DANDOLO, Vincenzo, Count om 22° 60 difficulty, and having been embalmed was buried with ins non square miles, long.,_ thus including roughly an area estimated of about iUo,U00 with a population imposing ceremony at the public expense on the 7th June. a our millions. On the W. it would be conterminous with It is a noteworthy fact that Darboy was the third archVVadai were it not for a strip of independent territory; on bishop of Paris who perished by violence in the period the N. it passes off into the desert of Sahara ; on the E. it between 1848 and 1871. Darboy was the author of is separated from Kordofan by a barren steppe; and on a number of works, of which the most important are a Vie de St Thomas Becket (1859), a translation of the the S. it is bounded by Darfertit and several petty states. .The centre of the country is occupied by the Marra Mounworks of St Denis the Areopagite, and a translation of the tains, which lift their granite peaks to a height of 3500 Imitation of Christ. or 4000 feet, and extend about 180 miles from north to DARDANELLES, the ancient Hellespont, and in south, with an average breadth of 70 miles. The northern Turkish Bahr-Sefed Boghasi, the strait uniting the Sea of portion of the range is also known as the Kerakeri MounMarmora with the iEgean, so called from the two castles tains, on account of the huge boulders with which their by which the narrowest part is protected, and which pre- flanks are strewn; the southern portion turns to the west serve the name of the city of Dardanus in the Troad, and takes the name of Jebel Zerlai. On all sides this famous for the treaty between Sulla and Mithridates in mountain-mass is channelled by numerous wadis, which 84 b.c. Its shores are formed by the peninsula of Gallipoli for the most part dry up in the hot season, but in many on the N.W. and by the mainland of Asia Minor on the cases measure from 200 to 300 paces in breadth. Of these S.E. y and it extends for a distance of about 47 miles with the most important (as the Sunot, and the Azum, with an average breadth of 3 or 4 miles. At the ^Egean ex- their numerous affluents) have a south-west direction, and tremity stand the castles of Sedil Bahr and Kum Kaleh, the ultimately contribute their waters to the Bahar-es-Salamat, former in Europe and the latter in Asia; and near the which passes westward through Wadai. Some of those Marmora extremity are situated the important town of that rise in the eastern slopes seem to find their way to the Gallipoli (Kallipolis) on the northern side, and the less im- Bahr-el-Arab; but the greater number are absorbed or portant though equally famous Lamsaki, or Lampsacus, on stop short in their course. the southern. The two castles of the Dardanelles par exThe climate, except in the south, where the rains are cellence are Chanak-Kalesi, Sultanieh-Kalesi, or the Old unusually heavy and the soil is a damp clay, is regarded Castle of Anatolia, and Kilid-Bahr, or the Old Castle of as healthy. The rainy season lasts for three months, from Rumelia, which were long but erroneously identified with the middle of June to the middle of September. In the Sestos and Abydos, now located farther to the north. The neighbourhood of the wadis the vegetation is fairly rich, strait of the Dardanelles is famous in history for the pas- but elsewhere it is rather scant and steppe-like. The sage of Xerxes by means of a bridge of boats, and for the prevailing trees are the acacias—more particularly the similar exploit on the part of Alexander. Nor is its hazara and the Acacia nilotica—the hachub, the sayal, the name less widely known from the story of Hero and kittir, the hommed, the jakjak, and the makhit; while the Leander, and from Lord Byron’s successful attempt to rival sycamore, the ochar, the hadjlidj, and, in the Marra the ancient swimmer. The passage of the strait is easily Mountains, the Euphorbia candelabrum are also to be defended, but in 1807 the English Admiral Duckworth found. In the highlands the culture of wheat, elsewhere made his way past all the fortresses into the Sea of Marmora. so rare in Central Africa, is pretty extensive; but doukhn

824

D A R- -DAR

(Penicillaria) and durra are the usual cereals. In the south and west onions, pepper, bananas, citrons, and various fruits are grown freely ; and in several places an indigenous kind of tobacco of great strength is cultivated. The deleb palm is abundant in the south, and on the eastern frontiers the monkey-bread or baobab compensates for the deficiency of water. Copper is obtained in sufficient quantity to make it a matter of export; antimony was worked in the time of Mohammed-el-Fadhl; lead occurs in Gebel Kuttum in the Dar el Gharb; iron is wrought in the south-west province; and deposits of rock-salt are met with in various places. Cattle, sheep, and camels are both numerous and of excellent breeds. Horses are comparatively rare; and, with the exception of those imported from Dongola, they belong to a small but sturdy native race. The elephant has been exterminated; but the ostrich is common in the east in the country of the Hamr Arabs. The population of Darfur is of very varied origin. The Fur occupy the central highlands and part of the Dar Dima and Dar Uma districts, speak a special language, and are subdivided into numerous tribes, of which the most influential are the Dugunga, the Kanjara, and the Kera. They are of middle height, have rather irregular features, and display a disagreeable character. Dr Nachtigal found them proud, treacherous, and very ill-disposed to strangers; but it must be remembered that he had to encounter not only the religious antipathy of Mahometan bigotry against a Christian, but also the political antipathy of irritated national feeling against a supposed Egyptian. The Massabdt are a tribe which, breaking off from the Fur some centuries back, are now largely mingled with Arab blood, and use the Arabic language; while, on the contrary, the Tunjur are an Arab tribe which must have arrived in the Soudan at a very early date, as it has incorporated a large Furian element, and no longer professes Mahometanism. The Dadjo formerly inhabited Mount Marra, but they have been driven to the south and west, where they maintain a certain independence in Dar Sula, but are treated as inferiors by the Fur. The Zoghawa, who inhabit the northern borders, are on the contrary regarded by the Fur as their equals, and have all the prestige of a race that at one time made its influence felt as far as Bornu. As holding a less important place in the population may be mentioned the Berti, the Birgirid, the Beraunas, the Fellatas, the Jellabas, and immigrants from Wadai, Baghirmi, &c. Genuine Arab tribes are numerous, and they are partly nomadic and partly fixed. The country was divided under the “ Sultan ” into the five provinces of Dar Tokonavi or the northern province, Dar Dali or the eastern, Dar Uma or the southern, Dar Dima or the south-western, and Dar el Gharb or the western, each governed by a separate chief with the exception of the last, which stood directly under the authority of the king. Each province was subdivided into so many departments, and each department was under the control of a shertaya (plural, sherati). The central district of the Marra Mountains, called Dar Torra, was under a special shertaya, dependent on the king; and the western slopes, which form the most fertile tract in the whole country, belonged to the king and the members of the royal family. The most important towns are Kobe and Kabkabia, on the caravan-route across the north of the country. History.—Of the Dadjo dynasty, which appears to have been dominant in the Marra mountains, no history has been left except a list of royal names. Next succeeded the Tunjur dynasty—■ Ahmed-el-Magur, Saref, Kuni, Bate, Bufa’a, and Shaou. From the marriage of Bufa’a with the daughter of the chief of the Kera tribe sprang Dali or Dalil, who founded the Furian kingdom, divided the country into provinces, and established'a penal code, which, under the title of Kitab Dali or Dali’s Book, is still preserved, and shows

principles essentially different from those of the Koran. His grandson Soleiman (usually distinguished by the Furian epithet Solon, the Arab or the Bed) reigned from 1596 to 1637, and was a great warrior and a devoted Mussulman. Soleiman’s grandson Ahmed Bokr (1682-1722) made Islam the religion of the state, and increased the prosperity of the country by encouraging immigration from Bomu and Baghirmi. His’ rule extended as far east as the Nile, or even to the banks of the Atbara. The next occupant of the throne, Daura or Darut, is infamous for his cruelty; and the capture of his successor Omer Lele during a war with Wadai saved the country from an equally detestable tyrant. Abu-el-Ghassem, the next monarch, was lost in a battle against the same enemy, and when after a time he reappeared amongst his people, he was put to death by Mohammed Tirab, who had meanwhile ascended the throne. Abd-er-Bahman, surnamed el-Baschid or the Just, a poor priest of great learning and piety, was chosen king instead of Tirab’s son Ishaga, and though revengeful and fond of intrigue, he proved himself on the whole not unworthy of the choice. It was during his reign that Napoleon was campaigning in Egypt; and the European potentate responded in 1799 to the congratulatory address of his barbarian ally by an order for the despatch of 2000 black slaves upwards of 16 years old, strong and vigorous. To Abd-er-Bahman likewise is due the present situation of the Fasher, or royal township, near the Bahat (or Lake) Tendelti. Mahommed-el-Fadhl, his son, was for some time under the control of an energetic eunuch, Mahommed Kurra ; but he ultimately made himself independent, and his reign lasted till 1839, when he died of leprosy, leaving behind him the fame of a violent and blood-thirsty tyrant, who had been disgraced by the loss of the important province of Kordofan. Of his 40 sons the third, Mahommed Hassin, was appointed his successor. He is described as a religious but avaricious man. The chief events of his reign were his fourteen expeditions against the Bazagat Arabs, the whole result of which was that the last years of his life were spent in fairly peaceful terms with that restless tribe. He died in 1873, blind and advanced in years, and the succession passed to his youngest son Brahim, who soon found himself engaged in a conflict with Egypt, which resulted in the destraction of the kingdom. He was slain in the battle of Menovatchi, in the autumn of 1874, and his uncle Hassab Alla, who sought to maintain himself, was captured in 1875 byjdie troops of the Khedive, and removed to Cairo with his family. Exploration.—The first European traveller who visited Darfur was James Browne, who spent two years at Kobeyh or Cobbe, at that time the capital. The next addition to our knowledge was due to the Sheikh Mahommed-el-Tounsy, who travelled in 1803 through the north of Africa in search of Omar, his father, and afterwards gave to the world an account of his wanderings,twhich was translated into French in 1845 by M. Perron. Dr NachtigaHn 1873 spent some months at Tendelti; and since the incorporation with Egypt, the country has been reconnoitred by Purdy and other Egyptian generals. See Count D’Escayrac de Lauture, Notice sur le Darfur, 1859; Nachtigal’s communications to the Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic, March 1846, and to Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 1875; Behm’s Geographisches Jahrbuch, 1876. DARIEN, a district of South America, of special interest in the history of geographical discovery, which gives its name to the great inlet of the Colombian coast otherwise known as the Gulf of Uraba, and to the great neck of land more familiarly designated the Isthmus of Panama. It was first reconnoitred in the first year of the 16th century by Rodrigo Bastidas of Seville; and the first settlement was Santa Maria del Antigua, situated on the small Darien river, north-west of the mouth of the Atrato. In 1513 Vasco Nunez Balboa stood “ silent upon a peak in Darien, ” and saw tbe Pacific at his feet stretching inland in the Gulf of San Miguel ; and ever since that date this narrow stretch of terra-firma has alternately seemed to proffer and refuse a means of transit between the two oceans. The first serious attempt to turn the isthmus to permanent account as a trade-route dates from the beginning of the 18th century, and forms an interesting chapter in Scottish history. In 1695 an Act was passed by the Scottish Parliament for a company trading to Africa and the Indies ; and this company, under the advice of one of the most remarkable economists of the period,—William Paterson, a Scotchman, and the founder of the Bank of England,determined to establish a colony on the Isthmus of Darien as a general emporium for the commerce of all the nations of the world. The project was taken up in Scotland with the enthusiasm of national rivalry towards England, and

D A R—D A R 825 the “ subscriptions sucked up all the money in the country.” Turanian (as opposed to the Aryan) Medes, was solemnly On the 26th of July 1698 the pioneers set sail from Leith restored. Darius, now twenty-eight years old, was proamid the cheers of an almost envious multitude; and on claimed king. ° ^ j r the 4th of November, with the loss of only fifteen out of The first six years of his reign were occupied in sup12,000 men, they arrived at Darien, and took up their pressing the revolts which broke out throughout the empire, quarters in a well-defended spot, with a good harbour and occasioned partly, perhaps, by the zeal with which the new excellent outlook. The country they named New Cale- monarch maintained the Zoroastrian faith, and which led donia, and two sites selected for future cities were desig- him to look with special favour on the monotheistic Jews. nated respectively New Edinburgh and New St Andrews. 1 retender after pretender appeared—Atrines and afterAt first all seemed to go well; but by and by lack of wards Martes, in Susiania; Nidintabel, who called himself provisions, sickness, and anarchy reduced the settlers to ^ ebuchadrezzar son of Nabonidus, in Babylonia; Phraortes the most miserable plight; and in June 1699 they re- who claimed to be Xathrites son of Cyaxares, in Media embarked in three vessels, a weak and hopeless company, and Parthia; Tritantachmes, in Sagartia; Phraates, in to sail whithersoever Providence might direct. Mean- Margiana; (Eosdates, a second pseudo-Smerdis, in Persia while a supplementary expedition had been prepared in itself; and an Armenian, Aracus, in Babylon; but they Scotland; two vessels were dispatched in May, and four were all successively crushed by Darius or his generals. others followed in August. But this venture proved even The most serious of these revolts were those in Media and more unfortunate than the former. The colonists arrived Babylonia, and it was probably during the first Babylonian broken in health; their spirits were crushed by the fate revolt that the long siege of Babylon mentioned by of their predecessors, and embittered by the harsh fanati- Herodotus took place, resulting in the attempted plunder cism of the four ministers whom the General Assembly of of the image of Bel (518 b.c.) This siege may have the Church of Scotland had sent out to establish a regular introduced the otherwise unknown “Darius the Mede” presbyterial organization. The last addition to the settle- into the book of Daniel (see article on Daniel). The ment was the company of Captain Campbell of Finab, Median Phraortes, who probably belonged to the Turanian who arrived only to learn that a Spanish force of 1500 or part of the population, proved more than a match for three 1600 men lay encamped at Tubacanti, on the Kiver Santa generals of Darius, and the king had to leave Babylon, Maria, waiting for the appearance of a Spanish squadron which he had just succeeded in capturing, and take the in order to make a combined attack on the fort. Captain field in person, before the war was finished by the seizure Campbell, on the second day after his arrival, marched and crucifixion of Phraortes at Ecbatana. The second with 200 men across the isthmus to Tubacanti, stormed capture of Babylon was followed by the execution of the the camp in the night-time, and dispersed the Spanish Behistun inscription, 515 b.c., in which Darius declares force. On his return to the fort on the fifth day he found that he had translated “the Ancient Book,” “the Text of it besieged by the Spaniards from the men-of-war; and, the Divine Law (Avesta) and a Commentary of the Divine after a vain attempt to maintain its defence, he succeeded Law and the Prayer {Zend) ” from Bactrian into the old with a few companions in making his escape in a small Persian, and had restored it to the nations of the empire vessel. A capitulation followed, and the Darien colony was (see Oppert’s translation of the Median version of the no more. Of those who had taken part in the enterprize Behistun inscription in Records of the Past, vol. vii.) It only a miserable handful ever reached their native land. must have been for the sake of this translation that the See J. H. Burton, The, Darien Papers (Bannatyne Club, 1849), Assyrian cuneiform syllabary was simplified into an alphabet and History of Scotland, vol. viii., also the article “Canal,” vol of forty characters. A revolt of Iskunka, a chief of the iv. pp. 793-4. Sacse, was suppressed shortly after the inscription was DARIUS I., the son of Hystaspes, was the true consoli- engraved. Before this, Oroetes, governor of Sardis, who dator of the Persian empire. His administrative ability had murdered Polycrates of Samos, and aimed at making founded a new type of government, and organized the crude himself independent, had been put to death, as well as mass of conquered states bequeathed him by his predeces- Aryandes, satrap of Egypt, who had issued a silver coinage sors. His military talents, though considerable, have been of his own. thrown into the shade by his legislative and financial ones. Darius now set about consolidating and organizing his The originator of imperial centralization and unity, the empire. An elaborate bureaucratic system was instituted, inventor of a well-regulated system of taxation, and the and the empire divided into a varying number of provinces^ introducer of an alphabetic system of writing, he found a each under a governor or satrap (khshatrapdva), appointed half-dissolved amalgamation of discordant populations on his by the king for an indefinite time, and responsible for a accession, and left a firmly-welded empire at his death. fixed tribute. The power of the satrap wns checked by In the great inscription on the rock of Behistun, where he “ royal clerks,” who sent annual reports of the satrap and has recorded his struggles and victories, Darius traces his his actions to the king, by retaining the old chiefs or kings descent from Achaemenes, through four ancestors all kings of the province by the side of the satrap wherever possible, like himself. He seems to have stood next to the line of and by sending members of the royal family to the Cyrus in succession to the throne; and Cyrus, when setting satrapies. Except in the border satrapies, the military out on his campaign against the Massagetse, already power was intrusted to a separate officer, and it was only suspected him of aiming at the crown. He accompanied in the border provinces, accordingly, that a revolt was to Cambyses to Egypt, but was recalled by his father to the be feared^. It is said that the chief fortresses had each an capital at the time the conspiracy was being formed independent comimander, while in Persia proper “ royal against the Magian usurper Gomates, who professed to be judges ” went on circuit. The satrap represented the king, Bardes (Smerdis in Herodotus), the brother of Cambyses. and had the power of life and death. The money tribute, With six other Persian nobles Darius succeeded in over- raised probably by a land-tax, amounted, according to throwing the Magian usurpation, and pursued the pseudo- Mr Grote’s calculation, to £4,254,000,—7740 talents Smerdis to Sikhyuvatis, a fortress in Niseea, where he was (£2,964,000) being paid in silver, and the rest in The Indian satrapy contributed by far the put to death, April 2, 521 b.c. The friends of Gomates gold. were massacred, the yearly festival of the Magophonia most, and Persia proper paid nothing. Part of the instituted, and the religion of Zoroaster, which had been tribute was paid in kind, Babylonia and Assyria fursuppressed in favour of the idolatrous worship of the nishing one-third. There were, besides, water-rates, and YI. — 104

D A R I u s taxes for the use of such crown property as fisheries and the bore sway. His name D&ryavush is rendered like, but the amount to be paid to the imperial treasury “ worker ” or “ organizer,” by Herodotus ; but the true was in all cases fixed. It was otherwise, however, with the meaning of the word is rather “ the maintainer,” from (a. h. s.) exactions the satraps were allowed to make on their own darj (Sanskrit, dhri, “ conservare ”). DARIUS II., called Ochus before his accession, and account, and which must have pressed heavily on the people. The tribute enabled Darius to issue a coinage of Nothos after it (on account of his being one of the 17 extreme purity, and his gold darics were worth about 22s. bastard sons of Artaxerxes Longimanus), was ninth king of of our money. An incised bar was the imperial stamp. the Persian empire. He was made satrap of Hyrcania, and The satrapies were connected with one another by high- married to Parysatis, the daughter of Xerxes I., by whom roads and posting-stations, at which relays of horses were he had several children, amongst them two daughters, Amestris and Artosta, as well as Arsaces or Arsicas, who kept for the royal messengers. After building a palace at Susa, the new capital of the succeeded him under the name of Artaxerxes (Mnemon), empire, and founding the Chehl Minar at Persepolis, and Cyrus the younger. Sogdianus or Secydianus, the Darius overran the Punjaub, and had the Indus navigated murderer of Xerxes II., was defeated in battle by Darius, by a naval expedition under Scylax of Caryanda. Under through the desertion of the two satraps of Egypt and the guidance of Democedes, a physician of Crotona, the Armenia, and afterwards put to death, Darius assuming Greek seas were also explored as far as Magna Gracia, and the diadem (424 b.c.). Darius was completely under the the northern frontier was strengthened by a campaign power of three eunuchs and his wife Parysatis, and his against the Scythians. Ariamnes of Cappadocia first reign of 19 years was characterized by little except insurexamined the northern shores of the Black Sea, after which rections and revolts. The first of these was raised by his Darius, with 600 ships and the aid of the Asiatic Greeks, brother Arsites and Artyphius the son of Megabyzus, with crossed the Bosphorus by a bridge constructed by the Greek the help of Greek mercenaries, and was only put down by Mandrocles, conquered the Getae, and threw a bridge of a liberal employment of gold, the leaders of the insurrection boats across the Danube. Leaving the defence of the being betrayed by their followers and burned alive. The bridge to the Greeks, he pursued the Scythians as far as next was raised by Pissuthnes, sartap of Lydia (414 b.c.), the 50th parallel, burning Gelonus (perhaps the modern but was also crushed by the bribes offered to his Athenian Yoronej), and recrossed the bridge in safety, thanks to the mercenaries by his antagonist Tissaphernes. Amorges, the fidelity of Histiaeus of Miletus. Megabazus, or Megabyzus, son of Pissuthnes, however, continued to maintain himself next reduced Thrace and made Amyntas of Macedon as a kind of independent monarch in Caria for many years tributary (506). In the following year Otanes subjugated afterwards. Another plot was formed by the chief eunuch, Artoxares, but quickly suppressed. In 411 b.c. Egypt Byzantium, Chalcedon, Antandros, Lemnos, and Imbros. In 500 b.c. the Ionic revolt broke out. The allies of the rebelled under Amyrtseus, and Darius was compelled to lonians from Athens and Eretria landed in Asia Minor and recognize Pausiris the son of the latter as his successor in burnt Sardis, an event which led the Greeks of the Helles- 401 b.c. Media, which revolted about the same time, pont, as well as the Carians and the Cyprians, to join the according to Xenophon, was not so fortunate as Egypt in insurrection. The revolt was crushed in 495 B.c. by the recovering its independence. With the revolt of Media battle of Lade and the sack of Miletus ; and a terrible may be connected the rebellion of Terituchmes, a son-inpunishment was taken upon the Greek cities on the coasts law of the king. The latter part of the reign of Darius and islands of the Aegean. Miltiades, the tyrant of the was occupied in supporting Sparta against Athens by Chersonese, escaped with difficulty to Athens, while Darius means of Persian gold. DARIUS III., surnamed Codomannus, the last of the prepared to avenge the burning of Sardis. His son-in-law, Mardonius, was accordingly sent against Athens and Eretria Persian monarchs, succeeded Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) 336 with a powerful force. But after establishing democracies b.c., after a short interval during which Arses was in the place of tyrants in various Greek cities, and captur- nominally king. He was the son of Arsames, a nephew of ing Thasos and its gold mines, Mardonius lost 300 ships and Artaxerxes II. according to one account, and his wife more than 20,000 men in a storm off Mount Athos, and, Sisygambis was a daughter of the same monarch. His being further surprized by the Thracian Bryges, returned to powers in the war against the Cadisii had been rewarded Asia Minor. Two years afterwards (490 B.c.) Darius sent by Artaxerxes III. with the satrapy of Armenia. The another expedition under Datis, which destroyed Eretria, eunuch Bagoas had poisoned Artaxerxes, and placed his but was ingloriously defeated at Marathon by the Athenians creature Arses on the throne, in order that he might rule under Miltiades. Darius now made preparations for an in his name, but after two years he deposed him and put attack upon a scale which the Greeks would have found it Darius in his place. Darius, however, soon got rid of hardly possible to withstand while an able prince like Bagoas, whom he suspected of conspiracy, by making him Darius was at the head of the empire ; but in the fourth drink poison. The character of Darius was mild and year of the preparations (487 b.c.), just before everything amiable, and he was famed for his personal beauty, but he was ready, Egypt broke out into revolt. Before the revolt did not possess the qualities necessary for the struggle with could be put down Darius died, 486 b.c., in the sixty-third Alexander of Macedon which commenced shortly after his year of his age according to Herodotus, or the seventy- accession. In 343 b.c. Alexander crossed the Hellespont, second according to Ctesias, who, however, curtails his and defeated the Persians, first at the river Granicus (now reign by three years. Darius had already nominated Ustvola), and then at Issus in Cilicia, where the mother Xerxes, his son by Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, as his and family of Darius fell into his hands. The death of successor,—his eldest son, Artobazanes, whose mother wras the Rhodian Memnon, the best of the Persian generals, a daughter of Gobryas, being set aside as born before his the conquest of Phoenicia, and the dissipation of the Persian father was king. fleet sealed the fate of Darius. He engaged in person, Long before his death Darius had excavated a richly- however, in the battle at Gangamela (or Arbela), October ornamented tomb with four pillars and other sculptures 331 b.c., but was defeated with immense slaughter, and out of the rocks of Naksh-i-Rustam, about four miles from fled to Ecbatana, while Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis Persepolis. In an inscription on the fagade of the tomb he opened their gates to the conqueror. In the following year enumerates 28 different countries or satrapies, including Alexander marched into Media, where Darius had collected India and “ the Scythians beyond the sea,” over which he a new force. He fled towards Bactria, however, at the

826

D A R—D A R

827 approach of the Macedonians, and was being pursued impunity, and cultivate cotton, rice, and other ordinary through the deserts of Parthia when he was murdered by crops, by the jum process described above. Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, and his associates, in the 50th The agricultural products consist of rice, cotton, pulses, year of his age. His body was sent to Persepolis by oil seeds, and jute, principally grown in the tardi, and Alexander, to be buried with the other monarchs of Indian corn, mdrmq and rice in the hills. Tea cultivation Persia, while Bessus, who had assumed the royal title, was is the great industrial feature of Darjiling district,—contaken prisoner, and barbarously put to death. ducted almost entirely by means of English capital, and DARJILING, or Darjeeling, a district of British under European supervision. This industry dates from India, in the R&jshAhi Kuch-Behar commissionership, about 1856. The first planters did not meet with under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, is situated between success; but the past ten years have been a period 26° 30' 50" and 27° 13' 5" N. lat., and 88° 2' 45" and 88° of steadily increasing prosperity. In 1866 there were 56' SS" E. long. It is bounded on the IST. by independent 39 tea gardens in Ddrjlling, with a total cultivated Sikkim, on the E. and S. by Jalp&igurf district, and on area of 10,392 acres, and an out-turn of 433,715 lb the VY. by Nep&l, and has an area of 1234 square miles. of tea. In 1874 the gardens had increased to 113, the Ddrjiling consists of two well-defined tracts,—viz., the lower area under cultivation to 18,888 acres, and the out-turn Himalayas to the south of Sikkim, and the tardi, or of tea to 3,92/,911 lb. The cultivation of cinchona was plains, which extend from the south of these ranges as far introduced by Government about 1862, and the underas the northern borders of Purniah district. The plains taking has now attained a point which promises success. from which the hills take their rise are only 300 feet above The Government reserved forest extends to 44,800 acres, sea level; the mountains ascend abruptly in spurs of from scattered over an area of about 700 square miles. India6000 to 10,000 feet in height. The scenery throughout rubber of excellent quality is obtained from these forests. the hills is picturesque, and in many parts magnificent. Coal of good quality seems to exist, but the The two highest mountains in the world, Kdnchanjangd in supply has not hitherto been utilized. A little iron is Sikkim, and Everest in Nep&l, are visible from the town of manufactured, and copper mining is carried on to a someDarjiling. The principal peaks within the district are— what greater extent; but the methods adopted by the PhaUlum (12,042 feet), Subargum (10,430), Tanglu natives are of a very primitive kind. Lime is obtained in (10,084), Situng, and Sinch&l PahAr (8607). The chief large quantities, building stone is abundant, and slate is rivers are the Tistd, Great and Little Ranjit, Ramman, found. The principal line of communication is the imperial Mahdnandd, BaUsan, and JaldhakA Hone of them are cart road to Ddrjiling, which has a course of 48 miles navigable in the mountain valleys; but the Tistd, after it through the district. The Northern Bengal State Railway, debouches on the plains, can be navigated by cargo boats of now (1877) in course of construction, will bring the disconsiderable burthen. Bears, leopards, and musk deer are trict) in closer connection with Calcutta, and materially found on the higher mountains, deer on the lower ranges, and promote the development of its resources. a few elephants and tigers on the slopes nearest to the plains. In 1870-71 the Government revenue of the district In the lowlands, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer, and wild hogs are amounted to £18,797, and the civil expenditure to £23,869. abundant. A few wolves are also found. Of small game, Three magisterial and three civil and revenue courts are at hares, jungle fowl, peacocks, partridges, snipe, woodcock, work in the district; the strength of the police force in wild ducks and geese, and green pigeons are numerous in 1872 was 213 men. The principal educational institution the tarai, and jungle fowl and pheasants in the hills. is St Paul’s school, intended to provide good education at The mahsir fish is found in the Tistd. a moderate cost for the sons of Europeans and East Indians. Population.—The Bengal census of 1872 returned the The higher elevations of the district may be pronounced population of the district at 94,712 persons (males, 53,057 ; free from endemic disease of every kind except goitre, and females, 41,655), thus classified:—Hindus, 69,831; this is by no means widely spread. In the tardi, however, Mahometans, 6248; Buddhists, 1368; Christians, 556; and in the lower valleys, malarious fevers, often of a severe others, 16,709. The inhabitants of the hilly tract consist and fatal type, prevail. to a large extent of Nepdll immigrants and of aboriginal The British connection with Ddrpling dates from 1816, highland races ; in the tardi the people are chiefly Hindus when, at the close of our war with Nepdl, we made over to and Mahometans. The Lepchds are considered to be the the Sikkim rdjd the tardi tract, which had been wrested aboriginal inhabitants of the hilly portion of the district. from him and annexed by Nepal. In 1835 the nucleus of They are a fine, frank race, naturally open-hearted and the present district of British Sikkim or D/irjiling was free-handed, fond of change and given to an out-door life; created by a cession of a portion of the hills by the r/ijd of but they do not seem to improve on being brought into con- Sikkim to the British as a sanatorium. A military expeditact with civilization. It is thought that they are now tion against Sikkim, rendered necessary in 1850 by the being gradually driven out of the district, owing to the imprisonment of Dr Campbell, the superintendent of Ddrincrease of regular cultivation, and to the Government con- jiling, and Dr Hooker, resulted in the stoppage of the allowservation of the forests. They have no word for plough in ance granted to the rdjd for the cession of the hill station their language, and they still follow the nomadic form of of Darjiling, and in the annexation of the Sikkim tardi at tillage known &sjum cultivation. This consists in selecting the foot of the hills and of a portion of the hills beyond. a spot of virgin soil, clearing it of forest and jungle by In August 1866 the hill territory east of the Tistd, acquired burning, and scraping the surface with the rudest agricul- as the result of the Bhutdn campaign of 1864, was added tural implements. The productive powers of the land to the jurisdiction of Ddrjiling. Di-RJiLiNG Town, the well-known sanatory station, is become exhausted in a few years, when the clearing is abandoned, a new site is chosen, and the same operations situated in 27° 2' 48" N. lat. and 88° 18' 36" E. long., near are carried on de novo. The Lepch&s are also the ordinary the northern boundary of the district, and is 7167 feet out-door labourers on the hills. They have no caste dis- above the sea-level. It contains an ordinary population of tinctions, but speak of themselves as belonging to one of about 4000 souls, but being a great summer resort from nine septs or clans, who all eat together and intermarry the heat of the plains, the number fluctuates according to with each other. In the upper or northern tardi, along the the season of the year. The mean temperature of the place base of the hills, the Mechs form the principal ethnical is about 24° below that of Calcutta, and only 2° above that (w. w. h.) feature. This tribe inhabit the deadly jungle with of London.

828

D A R- -DAE,

DARLINGTON", a parliamentary and municipal borough, parish, and township of England, in the southern division of the county of Durham, is situated on the main line of the North-Eastern Railway, 39 miles south of Newcastle and 235 miles north of London. The town extends east and west to a considerable distance from the River Skerne, a small tributary of the Tees, which traverses it from north to south. The traditional history of Darlington commences about 1000 years ago, when, as is asserted, the monks who fled with the body of St Cuthbert from the invading Danes rested for a short time on the site of the present town. This circumstance led Styr the son of Ulphus, prince of Deira, to bestow upon St Cuthbert, early in the 11th century, “ Dearnington with its appendages.” At this early date Darlington passed into the hands of the church, and from that time till the middle of the 19th century its history and its government were closely connected with the see of Durham. The bishop appointed a borough bailiff to manage the affairs of the town until 1867, when the office was abolished by the Act of Incorporation. Towards the close of the 11th century a collegiate church was established in Darlington by Bishop Carilepho, and nearly 100 years later Bishop Pudsey built St Cuthbert’s Collegiate Church, which is still deservedly esteemed the most notable ecclesiastical edifice in the county after the cathedral at Durham. The bishop of the diocese had a manor house at Darlington, and a deanery was established in connection with the church by Bishop Neville. So closely identified was the town with the church that it is not surprizing that its inhabitants looked with a scant sympathy upon the Reformation. In both the illfated attempts to restore the ancient rites, which filled the north with bloodshed, Darlington sided with the rebels. Apart from ecclesiastical affairs there is little of general interest in the early history of the town. Its later history is closely associated with that of the small but enthusiastic sect, in whose eyes all war is criminal. Under the later Stuarts, the Society of Friends, which had effected a settlement here, was subjected to an intermittent persecution; but after the Revolution the Friends laid the foundations of that prosperity which has enabled them for more than a century to occupy the most prominent position in Darlington. To them, and especially to Edward Pease, Darlington owes the distinction of having been the birthplace of the modern railway. The Stockton and Darlington Railway, a short line of twenty-seven miles in length, seven of which were worked by stationary engines on the summit of inclines, and the other twenty by locomotives and by horses, was primarily constructed to cheapen the cost of carrying coal from the Auckland pits to Stockton and Darlington. This railway, of which George Stephenson was the engineer, was projected in 1818, and opened on the 27th of September 1825. The latter date marks the new birth of Darlington. Prior to 1825 it was a small market town, chiefly remarkable for the manufacture of linen, worsted, and flax. After that date it rapidly increased in population and importance, and became the centre of the industrial district of south Durham, which it did much to develop. At the census of 1821, when the construction of the railway was commenced, the population of Darlington, including some outlying villages, was returned as 6551. Twenty-five years thereafter the population had nearly doubled, the return being 12,452. At the census of 1871 the population was 27,730, and when the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of the railway was celebrated in 1875, it was estimated that the population had increased to 34,000. The rateable value of property showed an even greater proportionate increase, having risen from £26,137 in 1829 to £125,017 in 1875. The government of Darlington—after having been vested in

the hands of a borough bailiff, appointed by the bishop, a board of commissioners, and a local board of health—was in 1867 transferred by the Charter of Incorporation to a town council composed of 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. The streets of the borough are wide and well laid out. The gas and water supply are both in the hands of the corporation. The covered market, with the town hall and clock tower, occupies part of the spacious market place, where markets are held every Monday for the sale of agricultural produce, live stock, &c., and on Friday afternoon for butter. There are two spacious and tastefully laid-out cemeteries and a public park in the possession of the municipality, which also owns the public baths and the fever hospital. The union workhouse is situated in Darlington. Among the educational establishments may be mentioned a new grammar school, erected at a cost of £10,000 on a foundation which dates from the reign of Elizabeth, and the British and Foreign School Society’s training college for female teachers. A mechanics’ institute, a small theatre, a subscription library, and reading rooms are among the other local institutions. Including St Cuthbert’s Collegiate Church already mentioned, the Church of England has five places of worship in the town, and there are numerous chapels belonging to the nonconformist denominations. Petty sessions are held here weekly, and the county courts monthly. In antiquities the town is not rich. Excepting the collegiate church, which dates from the beginning of the 13th century, almost the only relic of the past is the engine “ Locomotive No. 1,” the first that ever ran on a public railway, which stands on a pedestal of stone at the North Road station. There is a monument in the town erected to Joseph Pease, “the first Quaker member of Parliament.” Before 1825 the Pease family were wealthy mill-owners, and they still own mills containing 270 looms and employing 700 hands; but their mining undertakings, which were not commenced until after that date, throw the mills completely into the shade. They employ 6500 workmen, and raise more than 3,000,000 tons of minerals per annum. The Darlington Iron Company, with a nominal capital of £350,000, employs 2000 hands, and turns out 90,000 tons of iron rails per annum. The Skerne Iron Company manufactures iron plates for shipbuilding, boilermaking, bridge construction, and other purposes. The South Durham Iron Works, with a capital of £130,000, are exclusively smelting works, producing from their three furnaces about 40,000 tons of pig-iron per annum, Among other industries of the town may be mentioned waggon-building, malting, and tanning. DARMSTADT, the capital of the grand duchy of HesseDarmstadt, in the province of Starkenburg, is situated on the River Darm, fifteen miles south of Frankfort-on-theMaine. It is the residence of the grand duke, and the seat of the Government of the province and of the grand duchy. In 1875 there was a population of 37,253 ; including the neighbouring village of Bessungen,it was 44,088. Darmstadt consists of an old and a new town, the streets of the former being narrow and gloomy. The latter, which includes the greater part of the city, contains broad streets and several fine squares, in one of which is a column surmounted by the statue of the grand duke Louis I., the founder of the new town. There are four churches, the Roman Catholic church being the most imposing, and a synagogue, recently built. Of the remaining buildings the most noteworthy are the two grand ducal palaces, the arsenal, and the theatre. The Grand Ducal Museum includes a library of nearly 500,000 volumes, with. 4000 MSS., a gallery of 700 pictures, a valuable natural history collection, besides coins, drawings, engravings, &c. In the Cabinet Museum there is a library of 60,000 volumes. The town possesses a gymnasium, two Real schools, and a technical school j

D A K —D A R

829 and there are various societies, such as the Agricultural prosperity of the town depends on the important public Society, the Historical Society, the Middle Rhine Geological wor 8 111 Rs immediate vicinity, including powder works, Society, and the Society of Architects. Among the chief paper mills, and engineering works. One of the first manufactures are carpets, hats, jewellery, and tobacco ; and attempts at the manufacture of paper in England was there is a considerable trade in seeds of different kinds, ^,de, Jfre by Spilman, who was jeweller to Queen Elizabeth, and that industry has been identified with the SP* place ever since. Dartford was the scene, in 1235 of the marriage celebrated by proxy, between Isabella, sister of Plenty III., and the Emperor Frederick II.; and in 1331 a famous tournament was held in the place by Edward III.

Plan of Darmstadt. 1. Infantry Barracks. 9. Standehaus. 2. Theatre. 10. Town Hall. 3. Armoury. 11. Town Church. 4. Grand Duke’s Stables. 12. Gymnasium. 5. Chancery. 13. Polytechnium. 6. Prince Alexander’s Palace. 14. Palace of Prince Louis. 7. Statue of Grand Duke Louis I. 15. Catholic Church. 8. Grand Ducal Palace, Museum, and 16. Palace of Prince Charles. Library. 17. Cavalry Barracks. and in wine. There are many pleasant walks in the neighbourhood, which is well wooded, and several of the palace gardens are open to the public. Darmstadt is mentioned in the 11th century, but in the 14th century it was still a village, held by the Counts of Katzenellnbogen. It came by marriage into the possession of the house of Hesse in 1479, the male line of the house of Katzenellnbogen having in that year become extinct. The imperial army took it in the Schmalkaldic war, and destroyed the old castle. In 1567, after the death of Philip the Magnanimous, his youngest son George received Darmstadt and chose it as his residence. He was the founder of the line of Hesse-Darmstadt. DARNI^TAL, a town of France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure, and 2|- miles east of Rouen, on two small streams called the Aubette and the Robec. It has a fine Gothic church, and manufactures woollens, flannels, cottons, and paper. Population in 1871, 5636. HARTFORD, an English market-town, parish, and local board district of West Kent, 16 miles east of London, on the Darent, which enters the Thames about 2J miles north of the town. The town lies low, flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West Hills, and consists of one main street, crossed by two or three smaller streets. It possesses a town hall, a grammar school, and a county court-house. The most noteworthy building, however, is the parish church, repaired and restored, which contains a curious old fresco and several interesting brasses. The

r abli s ed T?n m0I ^r eSt ' .h however, an Augustinian on Westf Hill in fo 1355, of, which, almost nunnery no remains now exist. It was here also that Wat Tyler’s outbreak occurred in 1377, and the house he resided in is pointed out by the townspeople. The area of the parish is 4251 acres ; the population (1871), 8298. DARTMOOR FOREST. See Devonshire. DARTMOUTH, an ancient municipal borough and seaport town of England, in South Devon, 31 miles south of Exeter and 229 miles south-west of London by rail is situated nearly opposite the town of Kingswear, at the mouth of the Dart, which here forms a secure harbour in the English Channel. The town stretches along the shore of the haibour, overhung by steep acclivities, and presents a picturesque appearance. Many of the houses belong to the. Elizabethan period. Its principal building is St Saviour Church, a cruciform edifice of ancient date, containing a graceful rood-screen, a stone pulpit, and some interesting monuments. Dartmouth castle stands at the entrance of the harbour. As a seaport Dartmouth is now little used, but it occupied an important place in the early history of England. It was the rendezvous of the crusaders’ fleet in 1190 ; and in 1346-47 it contributed 31 ships to the siege of Calais under Edward III. In later times several expeditions left its harbour for the exploration of the New World; and during the civil wars of the 17th century its occupation was hotly contested. The borough is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. It contains an area of 1847 acres (including part of the parish of Stokefleming), and in 1871 had a population of 5338 persons. Formerly it returned a member to Parliament, but it was disfranchised in 1868. DARU, Pierre-Antoine, Comte he (1767-1829), a distinguished author and statesman of France, was born at Montpellier, where his father held the office of secretary to the intendancy of Languedoc. From the Oratorians of the military school at Tournon he imbibed an enthusiasm for study, and an admiration of the master-pieces of ancient literature, which remained with him for life. At the age of sixteen he entered the army; and in the following year, though under the legal age, he obtained the rank of commissary. In 1791, in spite of his attachment to the principles of the Revolution, he was accused before the “ Club ” of treasonable relations with the marquis of Bouzol; but the eloquence of his defence secured his acquittal. In the following year, however, while he was serving in Brittany, the senseless suspicion of the times was such that his use of the ironical expression nos amis les Anglais caused him to be thrown into prison. The eighteen months of durance spent at Rennes and Orleans were mainly devoted to the study and translation of Horace, in. imitation of whose style he also produced an fipitre a mon Sans-Culotte, as he designates the keeper to whom he was intrusted. After his release he served under P6tiet and Massena in several important situations in the commissariat and in the office of the ministry of war. His generous love of justice was strikingly displayed by the appeal which he made in favour of Ferrand, whom he believed to have been wrongfully removed from a post to which he himself was appointed.

830

DAE- -DAS

The first consul made him secretary to the ministry at war; and, the day after the battle of Marengo, nominated him one of the commissioners for the execution of the convention concluded between General Berth ier and General Melas. In 1805 he was made a counsellor of state and intendant-general of the emperor’s military household. In the following year he received the appointment of intendantgeneral of the Brunswick territory, and subsequently of commissioner for the execution of the treaties of Tilsit and Vienna, as well as minister plenipotentiary at Berlin. In 1806 he was elected a member of the Institute, and in 1808 an honorary member of the Berlin Academy. In 1811 he was appointed minister secretary of state ; and shortly afterwards he received the portfolio of the war department. He accompanied Napoleon in his Russian campaign. When the retreat from Moscow had commenced, he had to assume the functions of intendant-general of the army ; and his iron constitution, and capacity for labour, enabled him to fulfil, with apparent ease, duties which might have killed several men of ordinary strength. C'est un lion pour le travail, said Napoleon himself. After the restoration of the Bourbons he was made intendant-general to the king, an appointment which he received in December 1814. But on the return of Napoleon from Elba he joined the standard of his old master, subscribed a considerable sum for the purpose of arming the Parisian fu-r • aPPearsan have been careful not to irritate the Philistines ^ y premature national movement. As he retained Ziklag we must suppose that he had some agreement with his former suzerain Achish. Abner gradually consolidated the authority of Ishbaal in the north, and at length his forces met those of David at Gibeon. A sham contest was changed into a fatal fray by the treachery of Ishbaal s men ; and in the battle which ensued Abner was not only defeated, but, by slaying Asahel, drew upon himself a blood feud with Joab. The war continued. Ishbaal’s party waxed weaker and weaker; and at length Abner quarrelled with his nominal master and offered the kingdom to David. The base murder of Abner by Joab did not long defer the inevitable issue of events. Ishbaal was assassinated by two of his own followers, and all Israel sought David as king. The Biblical narrative is not so constructed as to enable us to describe in chronological order the thirty-three years of David’s reign over all Israel. Let us look at (1) his internal policy, (2) his relations to foreign nations, (3) other events. 1. Under the judges all authority was at bottom local or tribal, and the wider influence wielded by the more famous of these rulers took the form of a temporary preeminence or hegemony of the judge’s own tribe. The kingdom of Saul was not radically different in character. There was no national centre. Saul ruled as a Benjamite from his paternal city of Gibeah (c/. 1 Sam. xxii. 7). At the risk of alienating the men of Judah, who in fact appear as the chief malcontents in subsequent civil disturbances, David resolved to break through these precedents, and to form a truly national kingdom independent of tribal feeling. The success of so bold a conception was facilitated by the circumstance that, unlike previous kings, he was surrounded by a small but thoroughly disciplined standing army, having gradually shaped his troop of freebooters into an organized force of 600 “ mighty men” (Gibborim), always under arms, and absolutely attached to his person. The king began the execution of his plan by a stroke which at once provided a centre for future action, and gave the necessary prestige to his new kingdom. He stormed the Jebusite fortress of Jerusalem, which its inhabitants deemed impregnable, and here, in the centre of the country, on the frontier between Judah and Benjamin, he fortified the “ city of David,” the stronghold of Zion, and garrisoned it with his Gibborim. His next aim was to make Jerusalem the religious as well as the political centre of the kingdom. The ark of Jehovah, the only sanctuary of national significance, had remained in obscurity since its return from the Philistines in the early youth of Samuel. David brought it up from Kirjath-Jearim with great pomp, and pitched a tent for it in Zion, amidst national rejoicings. No action of David’s life displayed truer political insight than this. (See Ark.) But the whole narrative (2 Sam. vi.) shows that the insight was that of a loyal and God-fearing heart, which knew that the true principle of Israel’s unity and strength lay in national adherence to Jehovah (comp. Pss. xv. and xxiv., one or both of which may refer to this

840

DAVID

occasion). It was probably at a later period, when his kingdom was firmly established, that David proposed to erect a permanent temple to Jehovah. The prophet Nathan commanded the execution of this plan to be delayed for a generation: but David received at the same time a prophetic assurance that his house and kingdom should be established for ever before Jehovah. In civil and military affairs David was careful to combine necessary innovations with a due regard ior the old habits and feelings of the people, which he thoroughly understood and turned to good account. The 600 Gibborim, and a small body-guard of foreign troops from Philistia (the Cherethites and Pelethites), formed a central military organization, not large enough to excite popular jealousy, but sufficient to provide officers and furnish an example of discipline and endurance to the old national militia, exclusively composed of foot-soldiers.1 In civil matters the king looked keedfully to the execution of justice (2 Sam. viii. 15), and was always accessible to the people (2 Sam. xiv. 4). But he does not appear to have made any change in the old local administration of justice, or to have appointed a central tribunal (2 Sam. xv. 2, where, however, Absalom’s complaint that the king was inaccessible is merely factious). A few great officers of state were appointed at the court of Jerusalem (2 Sam. viii.), which was not without a splendour hitherto unknown in Israel. The palace was built by Tyrian artists. Royal pensioners, of whom Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth was one, were gathered round a princely table. The art of music was not neglected (2 Sam. xix. 35). A more dangerous piece of magnificence was the harem, which, though always deemed an indispensable part of Eastern state, did not befit a servant of Jehovah, and gave rise to public scandal as well as to fatal disorders in the king’s household. Except in this particular, David seems to have ventured on only one dangerous innovation, which was undertaken amidst universal remonstrances, and was checked by the rebukes of the prophet Gad and the visitation of a pestilence. To us the proposal to number the people seems innocent or laudable. But David’s conscience accepted the prophetic rebuke, and he tacitly admitted that the people were not wrong in condemning his design as an attempt upon their liberties, and an act of presumptuous self-confidence (2 Sam. xxiv.). 2. David’s wars were always successful, and, so far as we can judge from the brief record, were never provoked by himself. His first enemies were the Philistines, who rose in arms as soon as he became king of all Israel. We read of two great battles in the valley of Rephaim, west ward from Jerusalem (2 Sam. v.) ; and a record of individual exploits and of personal dangers run by David is preserved in 2 Sam. xxi. and xxiii. At length the Philistines were entirely humbled, and the “ bridle ” of sovereignty was wrested from their hands (chap. viii. 1, Heb.) But the long weakness of Israel had exposed the nation to wrongs from their neighbours on every side ; and the Tyrians, whose commerce was benefitted by a stable government in Canaan, were the only permanent allies of David. Moab, an ancient and bitter foe, was chastised by David with a severity for which no cause is assigned, but which may pass for a gentle reprisal if the Moabites of that day were not more humane than their descendants in the days of King Mesha2. A deadly conflict with the Ammonites was provoked by a gross insult to friendly ambassadors of Israel; and this war, of which we have pretty full details in 2 Sam. x. 1-xi. 1, xii. 26-31,

assumed dimensions of unusual magnitude when the Ammonites procured the aid of their Aramean neighbours, and especially of Hadadezer, whose kingdom of Zoba seems to have held at that time a pre-eminence in Syria at least equal to that which was afterwards gained by Damascus. The defeat of Hadadezer in two great campaigns brought in the voluntary or forced submission of all the lesser kingdoms of Syria as far as the Orontes and the Euphrates.3 The glory of this victory was increased by the simultaneous subjugation of Edom in a war conducted by Joab with characteristic severity. After a great battle on the shores of the Dead Sea the struggle was continued for six months. The Edomites contested every inch of ground, and all who bore arms perished (2 Sam. viii. 13; 1 Kings xi. 15-17; Ps. lx., title). The war with Ammon was not ended till the following year, when the fall of Rabbah crowned David’s warlike exploits. But the true culminating point of his glory was his return from the great Syrian campaign, laden with treasures to enrich the sanctuary ; and it is at this time that we may suppose him to have sung the great song of triumph preserved in 2 Sam. xxii. (Ps. xviii.). Before the fall of Rabbah this glory was clouded with the shame of Bathsheba, and the blood of Uriah. 3. As the birth of Solomon cannot have been earlier than the capture of Rabbah, it appears that David’s wars were ended within the first half of his reign at Jerusalem, and the tributary nations do not seem to have attempted any revolt while he and Joab lived (comp. 1 Kings xi. 14-25). But when the nation was no longer knit together by the fear of danger from without, the internal difficulties of the new kingdom became more manifest. The inveterate jealousies of Judah and Israel reappeared; and, as has been already mentioned, the men of Judah were the chief malcontents. In this respect, and presumably not in this alone, David suffered for the very excellence of his impartial rule. In truth all innovations are dangerous to an Eastern sovereign, and all Eastern revolutions are conservative. On the other hand David continued to tolerate some ancient usages inconsistent with the interests of internal harmony. The practice of blood-revenge was not put down, and by allowing the Gibeonites to enforce it against the house of Saul, the king involved himself in a feud with the Benjamites (comp. 2 Sam. xxi. with chap. xvi. 8, which refers to a later date). Yet he might have braved all these dangers, but for the disorders of his own family, and his deep fall in the matter of Bathsheba, from which the prophet Nathan rightly foresaw fatal consequences, not to be averted even when divine forgiveness accepted the sincere contrition of the king. That the nation at large was not very sensitive to the moral enormities which flow from the system of the harem is clear from 2 Sam. xvi. 21. But the kingdom of David was strong by rising above the level of ordinary Oriental monarchy, and expressing the ideal of a rule after Jehovah’s own heart (1 Sam. xiii. 14), and in the spirit of the highest teaching of the prophets. This ideal, shattered by a single grievous fall, could be restored by no repentance. Within the royal family the continued influence of Bathsheba added a new element to the jealousies of the harem. David’s sons were estranged from one another, and acquired all the vices of Oriental princes. The severe impartiality of the sacred historian has concealed no feature in this dark picture,—the brutal passion of Amnon, the shameless council of the wily Jonadab, the black scowl that rested on the face of Absalom through two long years of meditated revenge,4 the panic of the court w7hen the

3 1 Hadadezer is also mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. in the general sumFor the manner in which this national force was called out compare 1 Chron. xxvii. mary of David’s wars, but we can hardly suppose that a different 2 David destroyed two-thirds of the Moabites—presumably of their Syrian war is here meant. 4 fighting men (2 Sam. viii. 2). Mesha destroys every inhabitant of We owe this graphic touch to Ewald’s brilliant interpretation ot cities captured in honour of his god Chemosh. an obscure word in 2 Sam. xiii. 32.

DAVID 841 blow was struck and Atnnon was assassinated in the midst That he was not able to reform at a stroke all ancient of his brethren. Three years of exile and two of further disgrace estranged the heart of Absalom from his father. abuses appears particularly in relation to the practice of His personal advantages and the princely lineage of his blood revenge ; but even in this matter it is clear from 2 X1V mother gave him a pre-eminence among the king’s sons, to i11;, ^ - 1-10, that his sympathies were which he added emphasis by the splendour of his retinue, against the barbarous usage. Nor is it just to accuse him of cruelty in his treatment of enemies. Every nation has while he studiously courted personal popularity by a prea right to secure its frontiers from hostile raids: and as it tended interest in the administration of kingly justice. Thus ingratiated with the mass he raised the standard of Wd lmPTrb e t0 establlsh a military cordon along the ders of Canaan, it was necessary absolutely to cripple revolt in Hebron, with the malcontent Judeans as his first S be8 tlle luSt of supporters, and the crafty Ahithophel, a man of southern ownasake l7n 'fappears - rr0m David to have been wholly free. ** to Judah, as his chief adviser. Arrangements had been made e generous elevation of David’s character is seen most for the simultaneous proclamation of Absalom in all parts of the land. The surprise was complete, and David was won!1/ hn ^ PartS °f his life vvhere an mimior nature at fault b compelled to evacuate Jerusalem, where he might have been feaul Sanl n the blameless meQ T08* reputation -m is conduct towards of himself and his band crushed before he had time to rally his faithful subjects. of Judah in Ahithophel knew better than any one how artificial and under tfm ' K l ’ his repentance t unsubstantial was the enthusiasm for Absalom. He hoped tW D ofrfCbAbsalom, Aikei°f Nathan > anr (Flow Be&tl&.J

Meloe prosrarabceus. (OH- Beetle^ (Cliurt'fyard Beetle.) ' Ji/ups n/orlBapa

Inf/iri/iiis ht/jnwfri.iLophotwcerus barbioomis.

Cetonia Baxii Orches tes aim

Vapra q/anea.

/iradius pin (Pea Weevils)

IsOmia aurocuicla Lur/mus cuuuimomejjs

Goliatfuis pi/j/is/ l/us. ((to Hath Beetle^)

('urcuUo lit/itstiei

/•.ndompr/ms cvcdneu.'

Brent us andiomqo. Bumor/thns- X/i/n/itirnsts >a t'abriai

Lytta rest eaten a (BlisterB eetle.)

Ckn/somela humeralis.

/,/. cas pomp let liens

ENCYCLOP/tOIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION.

(‘neemeUa uceUula (EyedLadv bird.)

Cassida lonpicornis. (XonphomecLTortmse BeetleJ

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANN1CA, NINTH EDITION.

VO L VI.

C It A B S.

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION.

PLATE X

CUMBERLAND Falstone. Stcv CJiristuui^Ji

L o chmab erb.

Thurible Sill

rUnochi

1'addabu.rril

mmfries

Sxnkrjvill; \()rcetibliui

1040 'TheBi 1016 "

rirdebridm Ruthwi

Gitsland\

fcdfirkfiritf.igj*

ornock.

F&Htlinto

antiteoeiT rh .*T

y

^

Den tori Fell i Fealht

ort Carlisle frurgi

halt}

‘i'rn.vhv xSaytd

,|,V|

\boillhh>(i p.c' ' Im, ,m /ihAElilsJ * VSOr,o,y

SHlotR Blitterlee}-'' J*

pMFeMj ^2039 Vh ' ' Ha UatUqvt,.

JScofby

A spa tr Oughtersl

hUchfike A( ^057 CorrodeFe Comb 2174 ahl 'Calv,2058 iowscale Fell \J r %Gre ystot^^ thwhite ^OprisiLiie ^/'FTei \0jfeysouzhjm\&. ► a ddlebaol Penrjtihioch- !' 5058 , 2847V ^■Lords 1811Seat&\ ton bfi)l heck yntdrHthyvai& ^ Wat tikio fT.tvhnriuiw Mall'j ' y\GtDdddi2804 f Dock, impWatery high *dvh' u riiw.hoddj , \ '27sey . C Glenriddi SoaiyPbroe/ '\r^£N xTalterddu / Jlawes Starling Dadd. V v , 2085 Sigh Stz Walerfl. SeatoU brothers) Hi able wry \ Pillar 2927 Sn vcock ^

Flimbjr/ WORKIN&TOJ Sarriruftotv^ HstirytonS Fart/)

,

(Clifto} wther ct ]^a7n/>r/7nl

APPLET

Crosby G

ScaJF^U Grasmere 3208 / \ 2960 Zalcel Bow FellrUn >e£li»d,b~% £terTCI Amble soife A 2304 VJ> Mallistanto^

'Boot

Wetherla/n 2502 Conistou

ScuvkShe/id 'Fsth1 waited wr\

VyWinderineK

TJlphd

KENDAL

ledberj lOatenhobne

TTewbyBrrid/ Note East Division West Division Scale of 3files

. JTirkby Ire ‘L A !\ Kirkby L oripettil Z ongitude West 5* thorn, Green wich ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, NINTH EDITION.

TCenthead'

Garriy ill) ,Ottn}Mt.iby/a5’ /V„ T'jf ielnie-rlv FelFi^

' 0*811 ^ y L AH

FTewlcuu

1166 lentirp// dn’aldrt) ?i*went

Ttigi SktygjrraQ&k Will' yshciw leze^j

L&oti Scalehtouseey Bhu^FdU 2179 y l SarteideMeitjhl yyo46—■>

Westward Allonbi

Whitfield

^Sjlewbigrjin

WIGJP4

Oldptawbro)

-

uh rad