Encyclopaedia Britannica [6, 6 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
CHI
CHI
CHI
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHR
CHU
CIP
CLA
CLO
COA
COC
COL
COL
COM
COM
COM
COM
COM
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
CON
COO
COO
COR
COR
COU
CRA
CRE
CRI
CRU
CRY

Citation preview

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.

4 ♦

(Cncpclopaetita Brttanmca OR, A

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. THE SIXTH EDITION.

BUustrateti fcmti) ncarlp dip JunUreti (Cngrabtugs*

VOL. VI.

INDOCTI DISCANT ; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.

EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY; AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, LONDON.

1823.

90,

CHEAPSIDE,

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.

China.

CHI CHINA, a country of Asia, situated on the most easterly part of that continent. It is bounded

on the north by Tartary j from which it is divided, by a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length, and partly by high, craggy, and inaccessible mountains. On the east, it is bounded by the ocean j on the west, by the extensive country known by the name of Thibet, which separates China from Hindostan j on the south, it is bounded partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and Cochin-China, and partly by the southern or Indian sea, which flows between it and the Philippine islands. Its length is about 1400 miles, and its breadth about 1150. These are the bounds of China proper •, but the Chinese empire extends over a vast region lying to the west and north, including Thibet, and great part of the country known by the name s of Tartary.{ China proper contains 15 provinces, excluDivision sive of that of Lyau-tong, which is situated without the into progreat wall, though under the same dominion. Their vinces. names are, 1. Shensi, 2. Shansi, 3. Pecheli, which are situated on the north side, along the wall j 5. Shanton g> 5* Kyan-nang, 6. Che-kyang, 7. Fo-kyer, which are situated along the eastern ocean j 8. Quangtong, 9. Quang-si, 10. Yu-nan, 11. Se-chuen, which stretch themselves towards the south and south-west; and, 12. Honan, 13. Hu-quand, 14. Quey-chew, 15. Kyang-si; which take up the middle part. For a particular description of all these, see their proper articles. , 3 Chinese The origin of all nations is involved in obscurity pretensions and fable, but that of the Chinese much more so than to antiqui- any other. Every nation is inclined to assume too tyhigh an antiquity to itself; but the Chinese carry theirs beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on earth are more exact in keeping records of every memorable transaction, yet such is the genius of the Chinese for superstition and fable, that the first part of their history is deservedly contemned by every rational 4 Why their person. What contributes more to the uncertainty of history is. the Chinese history is, that neither we, nor they themso uncer- selves, have any thing but fragments of their ancient tain. historical books ; for, about 213 years before Christ, the reigning emperor Si-whang-ti caused all the books in the empire to be burned, except those written bv lawyers and physicians. Nay, the more effectually to destroy the memory of every thing contained in them, he commanded a great number of learned men to be VOL. VI. Part I. ^ Boundaries, extent, See. partly

CHI buried alive, lest, from their memories, they should China. commit to writing something of the true memoirs of the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chinese annals is complained of even by their most respected author Confucius himself; who also affirms, that before his time many of the oldest materials for writing such annals had been destroyed. ^ According to the Chinese histories, the first mo- Fabulous narch of the whole universe (that is, of China), was*“story °f called Puon-ku, or Puen-cu. This, according to some, was the first man ; but according to Bayer and Menzelius, twm of the greatest critics in Chinese literature that have hitherto appeared, the word signifies the highest antiquity. Puon-ku was succeeded by Tienehoang, which signifies the emperor of heaven. They call him also the intelligent heaven, the supreme king of the middle heaven, &c. According to some of their historians, he was the inventor of letters, and of the cyclic characters by which they determine the place of the year, &c. Tiene-hoang was succeeded by Ti-hoang (the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and night, appointing 30 days to make one moon, and fixed the winter solstice to the nth moon. Ti-hoang was succeeded by Gine-hoang (sovereign of men), who with his nine brothers shared the government among them. They built cities, and surrounded them with wralls ; made a distinction between the sovereign and subjects ; instituted marriage, &c. The reigns of these four emperors make up one of what the Chinese called Aa*, “ ages,” or “ periods,” of which there were nine before Fo-hi, whom their most sensible people acknowledge as the founder of their empire. The history of the second A:z* contradicts almost every thing said of the first; for though we have but just now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built cities surrounded with walls; yet, in the succeeding age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees as it were in nests. Of the third AA" we hear nothing ; and in the fourth, it seems matters had been still worse, as we are told that men were then only taught to retire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and sixth we have no accounts. These six periods, according to some writers, contained 90,000 years; according to others, 1,100,750. Jn the seventh and eighth kiy they tell us over again what they had said of the first ; namely, that men be* A gan

CHI

[

2

China. San ^eave their caves and dwell in houses, and were v-~-—' taught to prepare clothes, &c. Tchine-fang, the first monarch of the eighth ki, taught his subjects to take oft' the hair from skins with rollers of wood, and cover themselves with the skins so prepared. He taught them also to make a kind of web of their hair, to serve as a covering to their heads against rain. They 6beyed his orders with joy, and he called his subjects people clothed with skins. His reign lasted 350 years •, that of one of his successors, also, named Yeou-tsao-chi, lasted more than 300 ; and his family continued for 12 or 18,000 years. But what is very surprising, all these thousands and millions of years had elapsed without mankind’s having any knowledge of fire. This was not discovered till towards the close of this period, by one Souigine. After so useful a discovery, he taught the people to dress their victuals 3 whereas before they had devoured the flesh of animals quite raw. drunk their blood, and swallowed even their hair and feathers. He is also said to have been the inventor of fishing, letters, &c. In the ninth period, we find the invention, or at least the origin of letters, attributed to one Tsang-hie, who received them from a divine tortoise that carried them on his shell, and delivered them into the hands of Tsang-hie. During this period also, music, money, carriages, merchandise, commerce, &c. were invented. There are various calculations of the length of these or periods. Some make the time from Puan-ku to Confucius, who flourished about 479 years before Christ, to contain 279,000 years; others, 2,276,000; some, 2,759,860 years ; others, 3,276,000 ; and some 6 no less than 96,961,740 years. Fabulous These extravagant accounts are by some thought history exconta;n obscure and imperfect hints concerning the

ki

p

*

cosmogony and creation of the world, &c. Puon-ku, the first emperor, they think, represents eternity preceding the duration of the world. The succeeding ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they imagine, signify the creation of the heavens and earth, and the formation of man. The ten ki or ages, nine of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations preceding Noah. This may very possibly be the case ; for about 500 years before Christ, some Jews travelled into China, who might have made the Mosaic writings known there. What we have now related, contains the substance of that part of the Chinese history which is entirely fabulous. After the nine or “ ages” already taken notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi; and the history, though still very dark, obscure and fabulous, begins to grow somewhat more consistent and intel-

ki

Reign

Fo-hi.

of

1‘8‘ble.

Fo hi was born in the province of Shensi. mot her walking upon the bank of a lake in that province, saw a very large print of a man’s foot in the sand there ; and, being surrounded with an iris or rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his countrymen elected king, on account of his superior merit, and styled Tyen-tse, that is, “ the son of heaven.” He invented the eight qua, or symbols, consisting of three lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 characters that were made use of to express every thing. To give these the greater credit, he pretended that

]

CHI

he had seen them inscribed on the back of a dragon- China, horse (an animal shaped like a horse, with the wings ^ and scales of a dragon), which arose from the bottom of a lake. Having gained great reputation among his countrymen by this prodigy, be is said to have created mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons. Hence we may assign a reason why the emperors of China always carry a dragon in their banners. He also instituted marriage, invented music, &c. Having established a prime minister, he divided the government of his dominions among four mandarins, and died after a reign of 115 years. g After Fo-hi followed a succession of emperors, ofMiracalou& whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that insolstice* the reign of Yau, the seventh after Fohi, the sun did not set for ten days, so that the Chinese were afraid of a general conflagration. This event the compilers of ^ the Universal History take to be the same with that Hypothesis mentioned in the book of Joshua, when the sun and concerning, moon stood still for about the space of a day. Fo-hit5li® ^ls^e they will have to be the same with Noah. They ima-an ‘ gine, that after the deluge this patriarch remained some time with his descendants; but on their wicked combination to build the tower of Babel, he separated himself from them with as many as he could persuade to go along with him ; and that, still travelling eastward, he at last entered the fertile country of China, and laid the foundation of that vast empire.—But, leaving these fabulous and conjectural times, we shall proceed to give some account of that part of the Chinese history which may be more certainly depended on. As the Chinese, contrary to the practice of almost all nations, have never sought to conquer other countries, but rather to improve and content themselves with their own, their history for many ages furnishes nothing remarkable. The whole of their emperors, abstracting from those who are said to have reigned in the fabulous times, are comprehended in 22 dynasties, mentioned in the following table. Emperors.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Hya, containing Shang, or Ing, Chew, Tsin, Han,

6

Hew-han, Tsin, Song, Tsi, Lyang, Chin, Swi, Twang, Hew-lyang, Hew-tang, Heiu-tsin, Hew-han, Hew-chew, Song, Iwen, Ming, Tsing,

. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Before Christ.

2207 1766

35 4

25

i58 5 4 4 3

1122

248 206 After Christ. 220

465

220

479 502

557

20

618

3

9°7 923 936 947 951

18

9 16

960 1280 1368 I645

This

CHI

[

3

]

CHI

This table is formed according to the accounts of of emperor ; founded the 16th dynasty j and changed c »the Jesuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be his name to that of Kaut-su. But the Kitan general '■ the most authentic} but according to the above-men- refusing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to portioned hypothesis of the compilers of the Universal chase a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities History, who make Yau cotemporary with Joshua, the in the province of Pecheli, besides a yearly present of dynasty of Hya did not commence till the year before 300,000 pieces of silk. Christ 1357 i accommodate tne history to their This submission served onlv to inflame the avarice hypothesis, great alterations must be made in the dura- and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the 10 tion of the dynasties. . treaty when least expected, and invaded the empire Incursions I he most interesting particulars of the Chinese hi- afresh. Tsi-vang, the emperor at that time, opposed of the Tar- story relate only to the incursions of the Tartars, who them with a formidable army ; but through the treachtars. at last conquered the whole empire, and who still con- ery of his general Lyew-chi-ywen, the Tartars were tinue to hold the sovereignty \ though by transferring allowed to take him prisoner. " On this, Tsi-vang was the seat of the empire to Peking, and adopting the glad to recover his liberty, by accepting of a small Chinese language, manners, &c. Tartary would seem principality j while the traitor became emperor of all rather to have been conquered by China, than China China, and, changing his name to Kaut-sv, founded by Tartary. These incursions are said to have begun the 17th dynasty. The Tartars, in the mean time, very early $ even in the time, of the emperor Shun, ravaged all the northern provinces without opposition, successor to Yau above mentioned, in whose reign the and then marched into the southern. But being here miraculous solstice happened. At this time, the Tar- stopped by some bodies of Chinese troops, the genetars were repulsed, and obliged to retire into their own ral thought proper to retire with his booty into Tarterritories. From time to time, however, they conti- tary. In 962, Kaut-su-dying, was succeeded by his nued to threaten the empire with invasions, and the son In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportunorthern provinces were often actually ravaged by the nity to the eunuchs to raise commotions ; especially Tartars in the neighbourhood. About the year before as the army was employed at a distance in repelling Christ 213, Shi-whang-ti, having fully subdued all the the invasions of the Tartars. This army was comprinces, or kings as they were called, of the different manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in seveprovinces, became emperor of China with unlimited ral battles, and thus restored peace to the northern power. He divided the whole empire into 36 pro- provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was slain by his vinces ; and finding the northern part of his domi- eunuchs, and the empress placed his brother on the nions much incommoded by the invasions of the neigh- throne : but Ko-ghey returning in triumph, was sabouring barbarians, he sent a formidable army against luted emperor by his victorious army ; and the em11 them, which drove them far beyond the boundaries of press being unable to support the rights of her son, Great wall China To prevent their return, he built the famous was obliged to submit, while Ko-ghey, assuming the built. wall already mentioned, which separates China from name of Tay-tsu, founded the 18th dynasty. Nine Tartary. Alter this, being elated with his own ex- years after this, however, the grandees of the empire, ploits, he formed a design of making posterity believe setting aside Kong-ti, the third in succession from Taytop.i. he himself had been the first Chinese emperor tsu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guartnat ever sat on the throne, ror this purpose, he or- dian, named Chau-quang-yut emperor j who assuming uered all the historical writings to be burnt, and caused the name of Kau-tsu, founded the 19th dynasty, called many of the learned to be put to death, as already men- SoJig or Tsong. 12 tionqd. Under this monarch the empire began to recover Kitan Tar- »vhat eflect the great wall for some time had in Itself j but the Katan still continued their incursions, tars settle preventing the invasions of the Tartars, we are not The successors of Kau-tsu opposed them with various rntmua. told ; but in the tenth century of the Christian era, success j but at last, in 978, the barbarians became so those of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. rlhe strong as to lay siege to a considerable city. TayKitan were a people of eastern Tartary, who dwelt to tsong, successor to Kau-tsu, detached 300 soldiers, each the north and north-east of the province of Pecheli in carrying a light in his hand, against them in the nightChina, particularly in that of Lyau-tong, lying with- time, with orders to approach as near as possible to the out the great wall.^ These people having subdued the Tartar camp. The barbarians imagining, by the numcountry between Korea and Kashgar, became much ber of lights, that the whole Chinese army was at hand, more troublesome to the Chinese than all the other immediately fled, and, falling into the ambuscades laid Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year for them by the Chinese general, were almost all cut 916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, second em- to pieces. peror of the 14th Chinese dynasty called Hew-Lyang. This check, however, did not long put a stop to In 946, Mingt-song, second emperor of’ the 15th dy- the ravages of the Kitan. In the year 999, they laid nasty, being dead, Sheking-tang bis son-in-law rebelled siege to a city in the province of Pecheli $ but Cbingagainst Mingt-song, his son and successor, whom he tsong, successor to Tay-tsong, came upon them with deprived of his crown and life. This he accomplished his army so suddenly, that they betook themselves to y means of an army of 50,000 men furnished by the flight. The emperor was advised to take advantage Kitan. Ii-ti, the son of Mingt-song, being unable to of their consternation, and recover the country which resist the usurper, fled to the city Ghey-cjiew ; where had been yielded to them j but instead of pursuing his s mtting unise f up with his family and all his valuable victory, he bought a peace by consenting to pay aneltects, lie set fare to the palace, and was burnt to nually 100,000 tael (about 34,000!.), and 200,000 asiies. Un his death, bheking-tang assumed the title pieces of silk. The youth and pacific disposition of A2 Jin-tsong, China.

China.

CHI

Kitan dri▼an out by the eastern Tartars;

who assume the name of Kin, and invade China..

They take the emperor prisoner. J

\6 Imperial city and another emperor taken.

[

4

JIn-tsong, successor to Ching-tsong, revived the courage of the Kitan j and, in 1035, war would have been renewed, had not the emperor condescended to as shameful a treaty as that concluded by his father. Two years after, the Tartars demanded restitution of ten cities in the province of Pecheli, which had been taken by Ko-ghey founder of the 18th dynasty : upon which Jin-tsong engaged to pay them an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver, and 300,000 pieces of silk, in lieu of these cities. From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable possession of their Chinese dominions till the year 1117. Whey-tsong, at that time emperor, being able neither to bear their ravages, nor by himself to put a stop to them, resolved upon a remedy which at last proved worse than the disease. This was to call in the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eastern Tartars, to destroy the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was dissuaded by the king of Korea, and most of his own ministers ; but, disregarding their salutary advice, he joined his forces to those of the Nu-che. The Kitan were then everywhere defeated j and at last reduced to such extremity, that those who remained were forced to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the west. Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally destroyed, but nothing to the advantage of the Chinese $ for the Tartar general, elated with his conquest, gave the name of Kin to his new dominion, assumed the title of emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing himself, and enlarging his empire. For this purpose, he immediately broke the treaties concluded with the Chinese emperor j and, invading the provinces of Pecheli and Shensi, made himself master of the greater part of them. Whey-tsong, finding himself in danger of losing his dominions, made several advantageous proposals to the Tartar ; who, seeming to comply with them, invited him to come and settle matters by a personal conference. The Chinese monarch complied: but, on his return, the terms agreed on seemed intolerable to his ministers ; so that they told him the treaty could not subsist, and that the most cruel war was preferable to such an ignominious peace. The Kin monarch, being informed of all that passed, had recourse to arms, and took several cities. Wheytsong was weak enough to go in person to hold a second conference j but, on his arrival, was immediately seized by the Tartar. He was kept prisoner under a strong guard during the remaining part of his lifej and ended his days in 1126, in the desert of Shamo, having nominated his eldest son Kin-tsong to succeed him. Kin-tsong began his reign with putting to death six ministers of state, who had betrayed his father into the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in the meantime pursued their conquests without opposition. They crossed the Whang-ho, or Yellow river, which a handful of troops might have prevented •, and marching directly towards the imperial city, took and plundered it. Then seizing the emperor and his consort, they carried them away captives: but many of the principal lords, and several of the ministers, preferring death to such an ignominious bondage, killed themselves. The Kin being informed by the empress

]

CHI

Meng that she had been divorced, they left her behind. Chin*. This proved the means of saving the empire } for by —-y——J her wisdom and prudence she got the crown placed on the head of Kau-tsong, ninth son of the emperor Wheytsong by his divorced empress. Kau-tsong fixed his court at Nanking the capital of Kyang-nan j but soon after was obliged to remove it to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made several efforts to recover some of bis provinces from the Kin, but without effect. Ili-tsong the Kin monarch, in the mean time, endeavoured to gain the esteem of his Chinese subjects by paying a regard to their learning and learned men, and honouring the memory of Confucius. Some time after he advanced to Nanking, from whence Kau-tsong had retired, and took it :Vtbut, receiving advice that Yo-si, general of the Song, or southern Chinese, was advancing by long marches to the relief of that city, they set fire to the palace, and 17 retired northward. However, Yo-si arrived time Progress of enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which suffered very much $ and from this time the Kin never daredc ec to cross the river Kyang. In a few years afterwards the Chinese emperor submitted to become tributary to the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very dishonourable terms. This submission, however, was of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the peace, and, invading the southern province with a formidable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The king, having approached the river Kyang, near its mouth, where it is widest as well as most rapid, commanded his troops to cross it, threatening with his drawn sword to kill those who refused. On receiving such an unreasonable command, the whole army mutinied $ and the king being killed in the beginning of the tumult, the army immediately retired. lg From this time to the year 1210, nothing remark-They are able occurs in the Chinese history; but this year, attacked by Jenghiz-khan, chief of the western Tartars, Moguls, or Mungls, quarrelled with Yong-tsi emperor of 'yn™* Kin ; and at the same time the king of Hya, disgusted of Hjra5 at being refused assistance against Jenghiz-khan, threatened him with an invasion on the west side. Yong-tsi prepared for his defence ; but in 1211, receiving news that Jenghiz-khan was advancing southward with his whole army, he was seized with fear, and made proposals of peace, which were rejected. In 1212, the Great* wall ^ Mogul generals forced the great wall; or, according forced by to some writers, had one of the gates treacherously Jenghiaopened to them, to the north of Shansi ; and made in-k^ai1, cursions as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin empire. At the same time the province of Lyau-tong was almost totally reduced by several Kitan lords who had joined Jenghiz-khan ; several strong places were taken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the Moguls. In autumn they laid siege to the city of Tay-tong-fu ; where, although the governor Hujaku fled, yet Jenghiz-khan met with considerable resistance. Having lost a vast number of men, and being himself wounded by an arrow, he was obliged to raise the siege and retire into Tartary; after which the Kin retook several cities. The next year, however, Jenghiz-khan re-entered China; retook the cities which the Kin had reduced the year before ; and overthrew their

CHI k

China,

-—■\r—'

[

their armies in two bloody battles, in one of which the ground was strewed with dead bodie's for upwards of four leagues.

The same year Yong-tsi was slain by his general Hujaku j and Sun, a prince of the blood, advanced in his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the empire with four armies at once, laid waste the provinces of Shansi, Honan, Pecheli, and Shan-tong. In 1214 Jertghiz-khan sat down before Peking ; but instead of assaulting the city, offered terms of peace, which were accepted, and the Moguls retired into Tartary. Af1 ter their departure, the emperor, leaving his son at to Peking, removed his court to Pyen-lyang near KayPekingla- fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz khan ken being offended, immediately sent troops to besiege Peking/ The city held out to the fifth month of the year 1215, and then surrendered. At the same time the Moguls finished the conquest of Lyau-tong j and the Song refused to pay the usual tribute to the Kin. *i Southern In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to pursue his conChinese these barbarians were opposed by a general called Meng-kong, with great success j who, this and the following year, gained great honour by his exploits. While he lived, the Moguls were never China,

7

]

CHI

able to make any considerable progress; but his death, China, in 1246, proved of the greatest detriment to the Chi-' ""-v * nese affairs : and soon after, the Tartars renewed the war with more vigour and success than ever. In 1255, they re-entered the province of Se-chwenj but still met with vigorous opposition in this quarter, because the Chinese took care to have Se-chwen furnished with good troops and generals. Though they were always beaten, being greatly inferior in number to their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities the Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly obliged to withdraw for want of provisions and forage. In 1259 they undertook the siege of Ho-chew, siege of a strong city to the west of Peking, defended by Vang-Ho-chew. kyen, a very able officer, who commanded a numerous garrison. The siege continued from the month of February till August j during which time the Moguls lost an immense number of men. On the 10th of August they made a general assault in the night. They mounted the walls before the governor had intelligence $ but were soon attacked by him with the utmost fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, himself came to the scalade j but his presence was not sufficient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At the j\f0gUjg same time the scaling-ladders of the Moguls were feated, and blown down by a storm j upon which a terrible slaugh-their empeter ensued, and amongst the rest fell the emperor him- ror hilled, self. Upon this disaster the Mogul generals agreed to raise the siege, and retired towards Shen-si. On the death of Meng ko, Hupilay, or Kublav Khan, who succeeded him, laid siege to Vu-chapg-fu, a city not far distant from the capital of the Song empire. At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, distributed immense sums among his troops j and, having raised a formidable army, marched to the relief of Vuchang-fu. Unfoi’tunately the command of this army was committed to the care of Kya-tse-tau, a man without either courage or experience in war. He was besides very vain and vindictive in his temper; often using the best officers ill, and entirely overlooking their merit, which caused many of them to go over to the Moguls. The siege of Vu-chang-fu was commenced, and had continued a considerable time, when Ky a-tse tau, afraid of its being lost, and at the same time not daring to take any effectual step for its relief, made proposals of peace. A treaty was accordingly concluded, by which Kya-tse-tau engaged to pay an annual tribute of about 50,000!. in silver and as much in silk; acknowledging likewise the sovereignty of the Moguls over the Song empire. In consequence of this treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries of the two empires had been fixed, and repassed the Kyang ; but 170 of them having staid on the other side of the river, were put to death by Kya-tse-tau. 39 This wicked minister totally concealed from theofa Treachery emperor his having made such a shameful treaty with mi! the Moguls ; and the 170 soldiers massacred by his “” order, gave occasion to a report that the enemy had been defeated ; so that the Song court believed that they had been compelled to retreat by the superior valour and wisdom of Kya-tse-tau. This proved the ruin of the empire ; for, in 1260, the Mogul emperor sent Hauking to the Chinese court to execute the treaty according to the terms agreed on with Kya-tse-tau. The

CHI

China.

40

Desperate conflict.

. 41 Chinese empress submits.

[

8

]

CHI

The minister, dreading the arrival of this envoy, im- press was constrained to put herself, with her son, then China, prisoned him near Nanking; and took all possible care an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen, who immediately —y— that neither Hupilay, nor Li-tsong the Chinese empe- sent them to Hupilay. The submission of the empress did not yet put an ror, should ever hear any thing of him. end to the war. Many of the chief officers swore to It was impossible such unparalleled conduct could fail to produce a new war. Hupilay,s courtiers in- do their utmost to rescue her from the hands of her cessantly pressed him to revenge himself on the Song enemies. In consequence of this resolution they disfor their treacherous behaviour j and he soon publish- tributed their money among the soldiers, and soon ed a manifesto against them, which was followed by got together an army of 40,000 men. This army ata renewal of hostilities in 1268. The Mogul army tacked the city where the young emperor Kongamounted to 300,000 men $ but notwithstanding their tsong was lodged, but without success $ after which, numbers, little progress was made till the year 1271. and several other vain attempts, they raised one .of Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in the province of his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him Se-chew, had been besieged for a long time ineffec- the name of Twon-tsong. He was but nine years of tually *, but this year an Igur lord advised Hupilay to age when he was raised to the imperial dignity, and send for several of those engineers out of the west, who enjoyed it but a very short time. In 1277 he was in knew how to cast stones of 150 pounds weight out of great danger of perishing, by reason of the ship on their engines, which made holes of seven or eight feet board which he then was being cast away. The poor wide in the strongest walls. Two of these engineers prince fell into the water, and was taken up half dead were accordingly sent for j and after giving a speci- with the fright. A great part of his troops perished men of their art before Hupilay, were sent to the ar- at that time, and he soon after made offers of submismy in 1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted sion to Hupilay. These, however, were not accepttheir engines against the city of Fan-ching, and pre- ed j for, in 1278, the unhappy Twon-tsong was oblisently made a breach in the walls. After a bloody ged to retire into a little desert island on the coast of conflict the suburbs were taken ; and soon after the Quang-tong, where he died in the nth year of his Moguls made themselves masters of the walls and gates age Notwithstanding the progress of the Moguls, vast f);Sg0lntioii of the city. Nevertheless, a Chinese officer, with only 100 soldiers, resolved to fight from street to street. territories still remained to be subdued before they of the Song This he did for a long time with the greatest obstina- could become masters of all the Chinese empire. On empire, cy, killing vast numbers of the Moguls j and both the death of Twon-tsong, therefore, the mandarins parties are said to have been so much overcome with raised to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at thirst, that they drank human blood to quench it. that time but eight years of age. His army consisted The Chinese set fire to the houses, that the great of no fewer than 200,000 men $ but being utterly void beams, falling down, might embarrass the way of their of discipline, and entii’ely ignorant of the art of war, pursuers $ but at last, being quite wearied out, and fill- they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor ed with despair, they put an end to their own lives. was the fleet more successful 5 for being put in confuAfter the taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which sion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in danhad served at the siege were transported to Seyen- ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers tayang. The two engineers posted themselves against a king him on his shoulders, jumped with him into the wooden retrenchment raised on the ramparts. This sea, where they were both drowned. Most of the they quickly demolished j and the besieged were so in- mandarins followed this example, as did also the emtimidated by the noise and havock made by the stones press and minister, all the ladies and maids of honour, cast from these terrible engines, that they immediately and multitudes of others, insomuch that 100,000 people are thought to have perished on that day. Thus surrendered. In 1274, Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en- ended the Chinese race of emperors ; and the Mogul ^ dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted dynasty, known by the name of Ywent commenced. Though no race of men that ever existed were Rcjgn of to the command of the Mogul army. His first exploits were the taking of two strong cities j after more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the Hupilay. which he passed the great river Ky-ang, defeated the Moguls ; yet it doth not appear that the emperors of Song army, and laid siege to Vu-chang-fu. This city the Ywen dynasty were in any respect worse than was soon intimidated into a surrender 5 and Pe-yen, their predecessors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the by restraining the barbarity of his soldiers, whom he Chinese called S/ii-tsu, found the way of reconciling would not allow to hurt any body, soon gained the the people to his government, and even of endearing heai'ts of the Chinese so much, that several cities sur- himself to them so much, that the reign of his family rendered to him on the first summons. In the mean is to this day stiled by the Chinese the wise governtime the treacherous Kya-tse-tau, who was sent to op- ment. This he accomplished by keeping as close as pose Pe-yen, was not ashamed to propose peace on the possible to their ancient laws and customs, by his mild terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay •, but and just government, and by his regard for their these being rejected, he was obliged at length to come learned men. He was indeed ashamed of the ignoto an engagement. In this he was defeated, and Pe- rance and barbarity of his Mogul subjects, when comyen continued his conquests with great rapidity. Ha- pared with the Chinese. The whole knowledge of the ving taken the city of Nanking, and some others, he former was summed up in their skill in managing their marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capital of the arms and horses, being perfectly destitute of every art Song empire. Peace was now again proposed, but or science, or even of the knowledge of letters. In rejected by the Mogul general j and at last the em- 1269, he had caused the Mogul characters to be contrived 3

C

H

I

[ 9 ]

trived. In 1280, he caused some mathematicians search v -1 tor the source of the river Whang-ho, which at that time was unknown to the Chinese themselves. In four months time they arrived in the country where it rises, and made a map of it, which they presented to his majesty. The same year a treatise on astronomy was published by his order; and, in 1282, he ordered the learned men to repair from all parts of the empire, to examine the state of literature, and take measures for its advancement. At his first accession to the crown he fixed his residence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shensi; but thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking. Here, being informed that the barks which brought to court the tribute of the southern provinces, or carried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come by sea, and often suffered shipwreck, he caused that celebrated canal to be made, which is at present one of the wonders of the Chinese empire, being 300 leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial barks transport with ease, and at small expence, the tribute of grain, rice, silk, &c. which is annually paid to the court. In the third year of his reign, Shi-tsu formed a design of reducing the islands of Japan, and the kingdoms of Tonquin and Cochin-china. Both these enterprises ended unfortunately, but the first remarkably so ; for of 100,000 persons employed in it, only four or five escaped with the melancholy news of the destruction of the rest, who all perished by shipwreck. Shi-tsu reigned 15 years, died in the 80th year of his age, and was succeeded by his grandson. The throne continued in the Ywen family to the year 1367, when Shun-ti, the last of that dynasty, was driven out 44 Moguls dri-by a Chinese named Chu. During this period the ven out. Tartars had become enervated by long prosperity; and the Chinese had been roused into valour by their subjection. Shun-ti, the reigning prince, was quite sunk in sloth and debauchery ; and the empire, besides, 4was oppressed by a wicked minister named Ama. In Exploits of June 1355, Chu, a Chinese of mean extraction, and ^u’ head of a small party, set out from How-chew, passed the Kyang, and took Tayping. He then associated himself with some other malcontents, at the head of whom he reduced the town of Tu-chew, in Kyangnan. Soon after he made himself master of Nanking, having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In December 1356, he was able to raise 100,000 men, at the head of whom he took the city of U-chew, in the east borders of Quang-si; and here, assembling his generals, it was resolved neither to commit slaughter nor to plunder. The most formidable enemy he had to deal with was (Jlien-ijeiv-hjang, styled, “ emperor of the Han.” This man being grieved at the progress made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raised a formidable army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city of ot Kyang-si, which his antagonist had made himself master of. The governor, however, found means to inform Chu of his danger ; upon which that chief caused a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which he embarked 200,000 soldiers. As soon as Chen-yewlyang was informed of his enemy’s approach, he raised the siege ol Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for attacking Chu’s naval force. An engagement ensued between a part of the fleets, in which Chu proved victorious; and next day, all the squadrons having VOL. VI. Part I. f China,

CHI

joined in order to come to a general engagement, cj,;na Chu gained a second victory, and burnt ico of the —y— enemy’s vessels. A third and fourth engagement happened, in both which Chu gained the victory; and in the last, Chen-yevv-lyang himself was killed, his son taken prisoner, and his generals obliged to surrender themselves, with all their forces and vessels. In January 1364, Chu’s generals proposed to pro-He is proclaim him emperor ; but this he declined, and at first claimed contented himself with the title of king of U. Inking of U. February he made himself master of Vu-chang-fu, capital of Hu-quang: where, with his usual humanity, he relieved those in distress, encouraged the literati, and would allow his troops neither to plunder nor destroy. This wise conduct procured him an easy conquest both cf Kyang-si and Hu-quang. The Chinese submitted to him in crowds, and professed the greatest veneration and respect for his person and go* vernment. All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negligence, never thought of exerting himself against Clio, but continued to employ his forces against the rebels who had taken up arms in various parts of the empire ; so that Chu found himself in a condition to assume the 47 title of emperor. This he chose to do at Nanking on Becomes the first day of the year 1368. After this his troops cll emperor of entered the province of Honan, which they presently *na* reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now taken the title of Hong-vu or Tay-tsu, reduced the fortress of Tong-quan ; after which his troops entered Pecheli from Honan on the one side, and Shang-tong on the other. Here his generals defeated and killed one of Shun-ti’s officers ; after which they took the city of Tong-chew, and then prepared to attack the capital, from which they were now but 12 miles distant. On their approach the emperor fled with all his family beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy- 4g nasty of Ywen. In 1370 he died, and was succeeded Moguls by his son, whom the successor of Hong-vu drove be-driven bel ie yond the Kobi or Great Desert, which separates Chi-y011 ^ * na from Tartary. They continued their incursions, ^tsert* however, for many years ; nor did they cease their attempts till 1583, when vast numbers of them were cut in pieces by the Chinese troops. ^ The 2ist dynasty of Chinese emperors, founded in China aain con 1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when thfcy£ * were again expelled by the Tartars. The last Chinese emperor was named Whay-tsong, and ascended the lal, throne in 1628. He was a great lover of the sciences, and a favourer of the Christians ; though much addicted to the superstitions of the Bonzes. He found himself engaged in a war with the Tartars, and a number ot rebels in different provinces. That he might more effectually suppress the latter, he resolved to make peace with the former; and for that end sent one ot his generals, named Ywen, into Tartary, at the head of an army, with full power to negotiate a peace; but that traitor made one upon such shameful terms, that the emperor refused to ratify it. Ywen, in order to oblige bis master to comply with the terms made by himself, poisoned his best and most faithful general, named Mau-ven-long: and then desired the Tartars to march directly to Peking, by a road different from that which he took with his army. This they accordingly did, and laid siege to the capital. B Yweu

CHI

[i >

Ywen was ordered to come to its relief j but, on his ' arrival, was put to the torture and strangled ; of which the Tartars were no sooner informed, than they raised the siege, and returned to their own country. In 1636, the rebels above mentioned composed four great armies, commanded by as many generals j which, however, were soon reduced to two, commanded by Li and Chang. These agreed to divide the empire between them j Chang taking the western provinces, and Li the eastern ones. The latter seized on part of Shen-si, and then on Honan, whose capital, named Kay-fong-fu, he laid siege to, but was repulsed with loss. He renewed it six months after, but without success j the besieged choosing rather to feed on human flesh than surrender. The imperial forces coming soon after to its assistance, the general made no doubt of being able to destroy the rebels at once, by breaking down the banks of the Yellow river*, but unfortunately the rebels escaped to the mountains, while the city was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the inhabitants perished. After this disaster, Li marched into the provinces of Shen-si and Honan ; where he put to death all the mandarins, exacted great sums from the officers in place, and showed no favour to any but the populace, whom he freed from all taxes : by this means he drew so many to his interest, that he thought himself strong enough to assume the title of emperor. He next advanced towards the capital, which, though well garrisoned, was divided into factions. Li had taken care to introduce beforehand a number of his men in dis_0 guise : and by these the gates were opened to him the Unhappy third day after his arrival. He entered the city in fate of the triumph at the head of 300,000 men, Whilst the em™ emperor^ peror kept himself shut up in his palace, busied only su ers ir'ily ^ l" vv^ P titions. It was not long, however, before he found himself betrayed *, and, under the greatest consternation, made an effort to escape out of the palace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was still more surprised to see himself treacherously abandoned by them, and deprived of all hopes of escaping the insults of his subjects. Upon this, preferring death to the disgrace of falling alive into their hands, he immediately retired with his empress, whom he tenderly loved, and the princess her daughter, into a private part of the garden. His grief was so great that he was not able to utter a word ; but she soon understood his meaning, and, after a few silent embraces, hanged herself on a tree in a silken string. Her husband staid only to write these words on the border of his vest: “ I have been basely deserted by my subjects 5 do what you will with me, but spare my people.” He then cut off the young princess’s head with one stroke of his scymitar, and hanged himself on another tree, in the 17th year of his reign, and 36th of his age. His prime minister, queens, and eunuchs, followed his example*, and thus ended the Chinese monarchy, to give place to that of the Tartars, which hath continued ' ever since. It was some time before the body of the unfortunate monarch was found. At last it was brought before the rebel Li, and by him used with the utmost indignity ; after which he caused two of Whay-tsong’s sons, and all his ministers, to be beheaded 5 but his eldest son happily escaped by flight. The whole em'

China.

2

]

CHI

pire submitted peaceably to the usurper, except Prince 1 China. U-san-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the — province of Lyau-tong. This brave prince, finding himself unable to cope with the usurper, invited the Tartars to his assistance ; and Tsong-te their king immediately joined him with an army of 80,000 men. Upon this the usurper marched directly to Peking $ but not thinking himself safe there, plundered and burnt the palace, and then fled with the immense treasure he had got. What became of him afterwards we are not told ; but the young Tartar monarch rvas immediately declared emperor of China, his father Tsongte having died almost as soon as he set his foot on that empire. The new emperor, named S/iun-chi, or Xun-chi, began his reign with rewarding U-san-ghey, by conferring upon him the title of king ; and assigned him the city of Si-gnan-fu, capital of Shen-si, for his residence. This, however, did not hinder U-san-ghey from repenting of his error in calling in the Tartars, or, as he himself used to phrase it, “ in sending for lions to drive away dogs.” In 1674, he formed a very strong alliance against them, and had probably prevailed if his allies had been faithful; but they ti'eacherously deserted him one after another : which so affected him, that he died soon after. In 1681 Hong-vvha, son to U-sanghey, who continued his efforts against the Tartars, was reduced to such straits that he put an end to his own life. During this time, some resistance h&d been made to the Tartars in many of the provinces. Two princes of Chinese extraction had at different times been proclaimed emperors j but both of them were overcome c;r and put to death. In 1682, the whole 15 provinces Empire towere so effectually subdued, that the emperor Kang-hi, ce tally redusuccessor to Shun-chi, determined to visit his native ^* dominions of Tartary. He was accompanied by an army of 70,000 men, and continued for some months taking the diversion of hunting. For several years he repeated his visits annually ; and in his journeys took Father Verbiest along with him $ by which means we have a better description of these countries than could have been otherwise obtained. This prince was a great ciiristianiencourager of learning and of the Christian religion ; ty first enand in favour of the latter he published a decree, dated couraged in 1692. Eut in 1716, he revived some obsolete laws ancl llien against the Christians j nor could the Jesuits with a|l Persecuteik their art preserve the footing they had got in China. The causes of this alteration in his resolution are, by the missionaries, said to have been the slanders of the mandarins *, but, from the known character of the Jesuits, it will be readily believed, that there was something more at bottom. This emperor died in 1722, and was succeeded by his son Yon-chingj who not only gave no encouragement to the missionaries, but persecuted all Christians of whatever denomination, not excepting even those of that imperial race. At the beginning of his reign he banished all the Jesuits into the city of Canton, and in 1732 they were banished from thence into Ma-kau, a little island inhabited by the Portuguese, hut subject to China. He died in 1736: but though the Jesuits entertained great hopes from bis successor, we have not heard that they have yet met with any success. Thus we have given an account of the most memorable

CHI

[

rable transactions recorded in the Chinese history. We —* now proceed to describe the present state of the empire and its inhabitants, according to the best and latest accounts. S3 Climate, The climate as well as the soil of this extensive emsoil, and pire is very different in different parts ; severe cold produce. being often felt in the northern provinces, while the inhabitants of the southern ones are scarcely able to bear the heat. In general, however, the air is accounted wholesome, and the inhabitants live to a great age.— The northern and western provinces have many mountains, which in the latter are cultivated, but in the north are barren, rocky, and incapable of improvement. On the mountains of Chensi, Honan, Canton, and Fokien, are many forests, abounding with tall straight trees, of different kinds, fit for building, and particularly adapted for masts and ship timber. These are used by the emperor in his private buildings j and from these forests enormous trunks are sometimes transported to the distance of more than 300 leagues. Other mountains contain quicksilver, iron, tin, copper, gold, and silver. Formerly these last were not allowed to be opened, lest the people should thereby be induced to neglect the natural richness of the soil: and it is certain, that, in the 15th century, the emperor caused a mine of precious stones to be shut, which had been opened by a private person. Of late, however, the Chinese are less scrupulous, and a great tx-ade in gold is carried on by them. Many extravagant fables are told by the Chinese ot their mountains, particularly of one in Chensi which throws out flames, and produces violent tempests, whenever any one beats a drum or plays on a musical instrument near it. In the province of Fokien is a mountain, the whole of which is an idol or statue of the god Fo. This natural colossus, for it appears not to have been the work of art, is of such an enormous size, that each of its eyes is several miles in circumference, and its nose extends some leagues. 54 Lakes and China has several large lakes ; the principal one is that named Poyang-hou, in the province of Kiang-si. It is formed by the confluence of four large rivers; extends near 100 leagues in length ; and, like the sea, its waters are raised into tempestuous waves. The empire is watered by an immense number of rivers of different sizes, of which two are particularly celebrated, viz. the Yang-tse-kiang, or son of the sea, and Hoangho, or the yellow river. The former rises in the province of Yunan, and passing through Houquang and Kiang-nan, falls into the eastern ocean, after a course of 1200 miles, opposite to the island of Tson-ming, which is formed by the sand accumulated at its mouth. This river is of immense size, being half a league broad at Nanking, which is near 100 miles from its mouth. The navigation is dangerous, so that great numbers of vessels are lost on it. It runs with a rapid current, forming several islands in its course, which are again carried off, and new ones formed in different places, when the river is swelled by the torrents from the mountains. These islands, while they remain, are very useful ; producing great quantities of reeds ten or twelve feet high, which are used in all the neighbouring countries for fuel. The Hoang-ho, or Yellow-river, has its name from the yellow colour given it by the clay and sand washed down in the time China,

n

]

CHI

of rain. It ilses in the mountains which border the province of Te-tchuen on the west, and after a course China. of near 600 leagues, discharges itself into the eastern sea, not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It is very broad and x'apid, but so shallow that it is scarcely navigable. It is very liable to inundations, often overflowing its banks, and destroying whole villages. For this reason it has been found necessary to confine it in several places by long and strong dikes, which yet do not entirely answer the purpose. The people of Honan, therefore, whose land is exceedingly low, have surrounded most of their cities with strong ramparts of earth, faced with turf, at the distance of three furlongs. The Chinese have been at great pains to turn their Canals! lakes and rivers to the advantage of commerce, by promoting an inland navigation. One of their principal works for this purpose is the celebrated canal reaching from Canton to Peking, and forming a communication between the southern and northern provinces. I his canal extends through no less a space than 600 leagues ; but its navigation is interrupted in one place by a mountain, where passengers are obliged to travel IO or 12 leagues over land. A number of other canals are met with in this and other provinces; most of which have been executed by the industry of the inhabitants of different cities and towns, in order to promote their communication with the various parts of the empire. M. Grosier remarks, that, in these works, the Chinese have “ surmounted obstacles that perhaps would have discouraged any other people: such, for example, is part of1 a canal which conducts from Chaoking to Ning-po:' Near these cities there are two canals, the waters of which do not communicate, and which differ ten or twelve feet in their level. To render this place passable foi’ boats, the Chinese have constructed a double glacis, of large stones, or rather two inclined planes, which unite as an acute angle at their up{jer extremity, and extend on each side to the surface of the water. If the bark is in the lower canal, they push it up the plane of the first glacis by means of several capstans until it is raised to the angle, when by its own weight it glides down the second glacis, and precipitates itself into the water of the higher canal with the velocity of an arrow. It is astonishing that these barks, which are generally very long and heavily loaden, never burst asunder when they are balanced on this acute angle ; however, we never hear of any accident of this kind happening in the passage. It is true they take the precaution of using for their keels a kind of wood which is exceedingly hard, and proper for resisting the violence of such an effort. The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinese Remarkrivei’ is related by lather le Couteux, a French mis-aWe river sionary. “Some leagues above the village Che-pai, . Part * un (says he), the river becomes considerably smaller, al-ly sinks " though none of its waters flow into any other channel; gro,uuI* and eight or nine leagues below, it resumes its former breadth, without I’eceiving any additional supply, excepting what it gets from a few small rivulets, which are almost dry during the greater part of the year. Opposite to Che-pai it is so much diminished, that, excepting one channel, which is not very broad, I have passed and repassed it several times by the help of a comB 2 mon whi cl1

CHI

[i ;

mon pole. I was always surprised to find this river so —v-—> narrow and shallow in that place: but I never thought of inquiring into the cause of it, until the loss of a bark belonging to a Christian family afforded me an opportunity. In that place where the river diminishes almost of a sudden, it flows with great impetuosity ; and where it resumes its former breadth it is equally rapid. At the sixth moon, when the water was high and the wind strong, the bark I have mentioned arriving above Che-pai, was driven on a sand-bank ; for between these twm places the river is full of moveable sands, which are continually shifting their situation. The master of the boat dropped his anchor until the wind should abate, and permit him to continue his voyage $ but a violent vortex of moveable sand, which was cast up from the bottom of the river, laid the bark on its side ; a second vortex succeeded j then a third 5 and afterwards a fourth, which shattered the bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this bark had been lost, the weather was mild anti serene; I perceived eddies in the current everywhere around, which absorbed, and carried to the bottom of the river, whatever floated on the surface ; and I observed, at the same time, that the sand was thrown violently up with a vortical motion. Above these eddies the water was rapid, hut without any fall ; and in the place below, where the river resumes its usual course, no eddies are to be seen, but the sand is thrown up in the same violent manner ; and in some places there are water-falls and a kind of small islands scattered at some distance from one another. These islands which appear above the surface of the wrater, are not solid earth, but consist of branches of trees, roots, and herbs collected together. I was told that these boughs rose up from the water, and that no one knew the place from whence they came. I was informed that these masses, which w'ere 40 or 50 feet in extent on that side on which we passed, were immoveable and fixed in the bottom of the river ; that it wras dangerous to approach them, because the water formed whirlpools everywhere around them ; that, however, when the river was very low, the fishermen sometimes ventured to collect the bushes that floated on its surface, and which they used for fuel. I am of opinion, that, at the place of the river which is above Che-pai, the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces up the sand with that vortical motion ; and that it flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs, weeds, and roots, which it washes down in its course, and thus forms those islands which appear above its surface. We know there are some rivers that lose themselves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the earth, and which afterwards arise in some other place ; but I believe there never was one known to lose part of its water below its own channel, and again to re57 cover it at the distance of some leagues.” Why China It has already been said, that China is, in general, subject a fevtile country; and indeed all travellers agree in this notwithrespect, and make encomiums on the extent and beauty standing its of its plains. So careful are the husbandmen of this fertility. empire to lose none of their ground, that neither inclosure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, scarce a single tree, are ever to be met with. In several places the land yields two crops a-year; and even in the interval beChina,

IS

]

CHI

tween the harvests the people sow several kinds of pulse and small grain. The plains of the northern provinces yield wheat; those of the southern, rice, because the country is low and covered with water. Notwithstanding all this fertility, however, the inhabitants are much more frequently afflicted with famine than those of the European nations, though the countries of Europe produce much less than China. For this two causes are assigned. 1. The destruction of the rising crops by drought, hail, inundations, locusts, &c. in which case China cannot like the European countries be supplied by importation. This is evident by considering how it is situated with regard to other nations. On the north are the Mogul Tartars, a lazy and indolent race, who subsist principally on the flesh of their flocks ; sowing only a little millet for their own use. The province of Leatong, which lies to the north-east, is indeed extremely fertile, but too far distant from the capital and centre of the empire to supply it with provisions ; and besides, all carriage is impracticable but in the winter, when great quantities of game and fish, preserved in ice, are sent thither. No corn is brought from Corea to China ; and though the Japan islands are only three or four days sailing from the Chinese provinces of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was ever made to obtain provisions from thence ; whether it be that the Japanese have nothing to spare, or oti account of the insults offered by those islanders to foreign merchants. Formosa lies opposite to the province of Fo-kien ; hut so far is that island from being able to supply any thing, that in a time of scarcity it requires a supply from China itself. The province of Canton is also bounded by the sea, and has nothing on the south but islands and remote countries. One year, when rice was exceedingly scarce there, the emperor sent for F. Parranin, a Jesuit missionary, and asked him if the city of Macao could not furnish Canton with rice until the supply he had ordered from other provinces should arrive : but was informed that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nor flocks, and that it generally got from China what was necessary for its subsistence.—The only method, therefore, the Chinese can take to guard against famines arising from these causes, is to erect granaries and public magazines in every province and most of the principal cities of the empire. This has at all times been a principal object of care to the public ministers ; but though this mode of relief still takes place in theory, so many ceremonies are to be gone through before any supply can be drawn from those public repositories, that it seldom arrives seasonably at the places where it is wanted : and thus numbers of unhappy wretches perish for want. 2. Another cause of the scarcity of grain in this empire, is the prodigious consumption of it in the composition of wines, and a spirituous liquor called rack. But though government is well apprised that this is ong of the principal sources of famine throughout the empire, it never employed means sufficient to prevent it. Proclamations indeed have frequently been issued, prohibiting the distillation of rack ; and the appointed officers will visit the still-houses and destroy the'furnaces if nothing is given them ; hut on slipping some money into their hands, they shut their eyes, and go somewhere

C China, 1

v

8

H

I

r

where else to receive another bribe. When the mandarin himself goes about, however, these distillers do not escape quite so easily, the workmen being whipped and imprisoned, after which they are obliged to carry a kind of collar called the Cangite; the masters are likewise obliged to change their habitations and conceal themselves for a short time, after which they generally resume their operations. It is impossible, however, that any method of this kind can prove effectual in suppressing these manufactories, while the liquors themselves are allowed to be sold publicly j and against this there is no law throughout the empire. Our author, however, justly observes, that in case of a prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be obliged to deny themselves the use of these luxuries, which would be too great a sacrifice for the good of the emre

5 P‘ The ; population of China, is so great, in compariImmense population. son w'ith that of the European countries, that the accounts of it have generally been treated as fabulous by the western nations. From an accurate investigation of some Chinese records concerning the number of persons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M. Grosier concluded that it cannot be less than 200 millions. For this extraordinary population he assigns the following causes, i. The strict observance of filial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives of fraternity, which make a son the most valuable property of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the memory of those who die without children. 3. The universal custom by which the marriage of children becomes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The honours bestowed by the state on those widows who do not marry a second time. 5. Frequent adoptions, which prevent families from becoming extinct. 6. The return of wealth to its original stock by the disinheriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives, which renders them more complaisant to their husbands, saves them from a number of accidents when big with child, and constrains them to employ themselves in the care of their children. 8. The marriage of soldiers. 9. The fixed state of taxes ; which being always laid upon lands, never fall but indirectly on the trader and mechanic. 10. The small number of sailors and travellers. 11. To these may be added the great number of people who reside in China only by intervals; the profound peace which the empire enjoys ; the frugal and laborious manner in which the great live ; the little attention that is paid to the vain and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below one’s rank ; the ancient policy of giving distinction to men and not to families, by attaching nobility only to employments and talents, without suffering it to become hereditary. And, 12. lastly, A decency of public manners, and a total ignorance of scandalous intrigues and gallantry. Extravagant, however, and almost incredible as this account of the population of China may appear to some, we have very respectable authority for believing that it is much below the truth. Whether the causes of this phenomenon, as above enumerated by M. Grosier, be the only ones assignable, it is certain that the population of this country was estimated at 333,000,000 J n 1793 at the time when Sir George Staunton* visited it in

3

3

CHI

the capacity of secretary to the British plenipotentiary, as appears from the following estimate of the population of each province, made by Chovv-ta-zhin, and taken from his official documents. Provinces.

Pe-che-lee, Kiang-nan, two provinces, Kiang-see, Tche-kiang, Fo-chen, Flo-nan, Shan-tung, Shan-see, Shen-see, Kan-sou, Se chuen, Canton, Quang-see, Yu-nan, Koei-cheou,

Population.

38,000,000 32,000,000 19,000,000

China.

59 Pcpulation of the difterent provinces.

21,000,000

15,000,000 f 14,000,000 \ 13,000,000 25,000,000 24,000,000 27,000,000 18,000,000 I 2,000,000

27,000,000 21,000,000 10,000,000

8,000,000 9,000^000 333>000>°°o

The accounts, however, on which these statements rest, are found, when investigated, to abound in inconsistencies which destroy their credit. Mr Barrow, after balancing and comparing a variety of authorities, concludes, that the actual amount of the population of China is about 146,000,000. See CHINA,SDFPLEMENT, p. 102. (l2 Ihe government of China, according to the Abbe Unlimited Grosier, is purely patriarchal. The emperor is more authority e,,1 unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on of61thc ‘ 01 earth ; no sentence of death, pronounced by any off ' ’* the tribunals, can be executed without his consent, and every verdict in civil affairs is subject to be revised by him; nor can any determination be of force until it has been confirmed by the emperor p and, on the contrary, whatever sentence he passes is executed without delay ; his edicts are respected throughout the empire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the disposal of all offices, nor is there any such thing as the purchase of places in China ; merit, real or supposed, raises to an office, and rank is attached to it on-, ly. Even the succession to the throne is not altogether hereditary. The emperor of China has a power of choosing his own successor, without consulting any of his nobility ; and can select one not only from among his own children, but even from the body of his people ; and there have been several instances of his making use of this right : and he has even a power of altering the succession after it has once been fixed, in case the person pitched upon does not behave towards him with proper respect. The emperor can also prevent the princes of the blood from exercising the title, with which, according to the constitution of the empire, they are invested. They may, indeed, notwithstanding this, possess their hereditary dignity ; in which case they are allowed a revenue proportioned to their high birth, as *Yell as a palace, officers, and

C

H

I

[

14

China, a court; but they have neither influence nor power, ^ —-vand their authority is lower than that ot the meanest mandarin. 6l Mandarins The mandarins are of two classes, viz. those of letof different rters, and the inferior sort styled mandarins ol arms, classes. j[ie latter by no means enjoy the same consideration with the former sort; indeed in China the literati are highly honoured, and to their influence M. Grosier supposes that we may in a great measure ascribe the mildness and equity of the government j though he thinks that the balance may incline rather too much in their favour. Several degrees, answering to those of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor, must be passed through before one can attain to the dignity of a mandarin of letters ; though sometimes, by the favour of the emperor, it is conferred on those who have attained only the two first degrees: but even the persons who have gone through all the three, enjoy at first only the government of a city of the second or third class. When several vacancies happen in the government of cities, the emperor invites to court a corresponding number of the literati, whose names are written down in a list. The names of the vacant governments are then put into a box, raised so high that the candidates are able only to reach it with their hands 5 after which they draw in their turns, and each is appointed governor of the city whose name he has drawn. There are eight orders of these mandarins in China. I. The calao, from whom are chosen the ministers of state, the presidents of the supreme courts, and all the superior officers among the militia. The chief of this order presides also in the emperor’s council, and enjoys a great share of his confidence. 2. The te-hiose, or man of acknowledged ability, is a title bestowed upon every mandarin of the second rank j and from these are selected the viceroys and presidents of the supreme council in the difl’erent provinces. 3. The tchong-tchneo, or school of mandarins, act as secretaries to the emperor. 4. Y tchuen-tao. These keep in repair the harbours, royal lodging houses, and harks which belong to the emperor, unless particularly engaged in some other office by his order. 5. The tingpi-tao have the inspection of the troops. 6. The tuntien-hao have the care of the highways. 7. The hotao superintend the rivers. 8. The hai-tao inspect the sea-coasts. Thus the whole administration of the Chinese empire is intrusted to the mandarins of letters $ and the homage paid by the common people to every mandarin in office almost equals that paid to the emperor himself. Th is indeed flows from the nature of their government. In China it is a received opinion that the emperor is the father of the whole empire ; that the governor of a province is the father of that province $ and that the mandarin who is governor of a city is also the father of that city. This idea is productive of the highest respect and submission, which is not at all lessened by their great number j for though the mandarins of letters amount to more than 14,000, the same respect is paid to every one of them. The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any share in the government of the state $ however, to attain the dignity, it is also necessary to pass through the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor of arms.

]

C

H I

The accomplishments necessary for a mandarin of arms China, are, strength of body, with agility and readiness in per- '■ •—-v—..J forming the various military exercises, and comprehending the orders requisite for the profession of arms j an examination on these subjects must be undergone before the candidate can attain the wished-for dignity. _ . 6* The mandarins of arms have tribunals, the members Tribunal of 6m of which are selected from among their chiefs j andnnso th smdaamong these they reckon princes, counts, and dukes } *aims" for all these dignities, or something equivalent to them, are met with in China. The principal of these tribunals is held at Peking, and consists of five classes : 1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou-fou. 2. Of the left wing, or tsa-fou. 3. Of the right wing, or yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or tehong-fou. 5. Of the advanced guard, or tsien-fou. These five tribunals are subordinate to one named iong-tchingfou ; the president of which is one of the great lords of the empire, whose authority extends over all the military men of the empire. By his high dignity he could render himself formidable even to the emperor j but to prevent this inconvenience, he has for his assessor a mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercises the function of superintendant of arms. He must also take the advice of two inspectors who are named by the emperor $ and when these four have agreed upon any measure, their resolution must still be submitted to the revisal of a higher court named ping-pouy which is entirely of a civil nature. The chief of these mandarins is a general of course, whose powers are equivalent to those of our commanders in-chief j and below him are other mandarins who act as subordinate officers. These two classes of mandarins compose what is called the nobility of China : but as we have already hinted, their office is not hereditary j the emperor alone continues or confers it. They have the privilege of remonstrating to the emperor, either as individuals or in a body, upon any part of his conduct which appears contrary to the interest of the empire. These remonstrances are seldom ill received, though the sovereign complies with them only when he himself thinks proper. The number of literary mandarins in China is computed at upwards of 14,000 ; and those of arms at 18,000 ; the former, however, are considered as the principal body in the empire ; and this preference is thought to damp the military ardour of the nation in general, and to be one cause of that weakness in war for which the Chinese are remarkable. The armies of this empire are proportioned to its Military vast extent and population j being computed in time force, of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts to about two-pence halfpenny and a measure of rice per day, though some of them have double pay, and the pay of a horseman is double that of a foot soldier j the emperor furnishes a horse, and the horseman receives two measures of small beans for his daily subsistence j the arrears of the army being punctually paid up every three months. The arms of a horseman are, a helmet, cuirass, lance, and sabre j those of a foot soldier are a pike and sabre j some have fusees, and others bows and arrows. All these are carefully inspected at every review j and if any of them are found in the least rusted, or otherwise in

CHI

[

15

1

CHI

in bad condition, the possessor is instantly punished ; to the mountains near the city of Kin on the Yellow China, if a Chinese, with 30 or 40 blows of a stick ; or if a river ; between which places it meets with no inter- *"11 64 Tartar, with as many lashes. ruption, except to the north of the city of Suen in Use of fireThough the use of gun-powder is certainly very the province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a arms lost and revi- ancient in China, it appears to have been afterwards ridge of hideous and inaccessible mountains, to which ved. totally lost, at least fire-arms seem to have been al- it is closely united. It is likewise interrupted by the most entirely unknown some centuries ago. Three or river Hoang-ho ; but for others of an inferior size, four cannon were to be seen at that time about the arches have been constructed, through which the wagates of Nanking; but not a single person in China ter passes freely. Mr Bell informs us, that it is carknew how to make use of them ; so that, in 1621, ried across rivers, and over the tops of the highest hills, when the city of Macao made a present of three pieces without the least interruption, keeping nearly along of artillery to the emperor, it was found necessary also that circular range of barren rocks which incloses the to send three men to load them. The utility of these country; and, after running about 1200 miles, ends weapons was quickly perceived by the execution which in impassable mountains and sandy deserts. The founthe three cannon did against the Tartars, at that dation consists of large blocks of stone laid in mortar ; time advanced as far as the great wall. When the but all the rest is of brick. The whole is so strong invaders threatened to return, the mandarins of arms and well built, that it scarcely needs any repairs ; and, gave it as their opinion, that cannons were the best in the dry climate in which it stands, may remain in arms they could make use of against them. They the same condition for many ages. When carried were then taught the art of casting cannon by F. over steep rocks, where no horse can pass, it is about Adam Schaal and Verbiest, two Jesuit missionaries, 15 or 20 feet high, but when running through a valand their artillery was increased to the number of 320 ley, or crossing a river, it is about 30 feet high, with pieces 5 at the same time that they were instructed square towers and embrasures at equal distances. The in the method of fortifying towns, and constructing top is flat and paved with cut stone ; and where it fortresses and other buildings according to the rules of rises over a rock or eminence, there is an ascent made modern architecture. by an easy stone stair. “ This wall (our author adds) The best soldiers in China are procured from the was begun and completely finished in the short space three northern provinces, the others being seldom call- of five years ; and it is reported, that the labourers ed forth, but allowed to remain at peace with their stood so close for many miles, that they could hand families 5 indeed there is not often occasion for exert- the materials from one to another. This seems the ing their military talents, unless it be in the quelling more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it of an insurrection, when a mandarin or governor usual- is built must have prevented all use of carriages ; and ly accompanies them. They march in a very tumul- neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind of cetuous manner, but Avant neither skill nor agility in ment are to be found among them.1’ performing their different evolutions. They, in geTo this account of the most astonishing production neral, handle a sabre well, and shoot very dexterously of human labour and industry to be met with on the with bows and arrows. There are in China more face of the earth, we may add, that if to its prodigious than 2000 places of arms; and through the different length of 1500 miles, we assume as true, the probable provinces there are dispersed about 3000 towers or conjecture that its dimensions throughout are nearly the castles, all of them defended by garrisons. Soldiers same as where it was crossed by the British embassy, it continually mount guard there ; and on the first ap- contains materials more than sufficient to erect all the pearance of tumult, the nearest sentinel makes a sig- dwelling houses in England and Scotland, even admitnal from the top of the tower, by hoisting a flag in the ting their number to be 1,800,000, and each to conday-time, or lighting a torch in the night; when the tain 2000 cubic feet of masonry. In this calculation neighbouring garrisons immediately repair to the place the huge projecting masses of stone called towers, are where their presence is necessary. not included, which of themselves would erect a city S Account of The principal defence of the empire against a fo- as large as London. To assist the conceptions of our the great reign enemy is the great wall which separates China readers still farther respecting this singular and stupenwall. from Tartary, extending more than IJCO miles in dous fabric, we shall only observe, that were its matelength, and of such a thickness that six horsemen may rials converted into a wall 12 feet high and four feet easily ride abreast upon it. It is flanked with towers thick, it would possess sufficient length to surround the two bow-shots distant from one another; and it is said globe, at its equatorial circumference. that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire Ihe whole civil government of China is managed Courts byle were employed in constructing it. The workmen by the following courts. 1. The emperor’s grand ^ were ordered, under pain of death, to place the ma- council, composed of all the ministers of state, i»resi-C^V^ terials so closely, that not the least entrance might be dents and assessors or the six sovereign courts, and ofis manaafforded for any instrument of iron ; and thus the three others, to be afterwards mentioned. This isged. work was constructed with such solidity, that it is still never assembled but on affairs of the greatest imporalmost entire, though 2000 years have elapsed since it tance ; the emperor’s private council being substituted was constructed. This extraordinary work is carried to it in all cases of smaller moment. 2. The chief of on not only through the low lands and valleys, but the other courts furnishes mandarins for the differover hills and mountains ; the height of one of which ent provinces, watches over their conduct, keeps a was computed by F. Verbiest at 1236 feet above the journal of their transactions, and informs the emperor level of the spot where he stood. According to F. of them, who rewards or punishes according to the reMartini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches port he gets. This China.

6

C

H

I

[

16 ]

CHI

China. This second tribunal, which may be called a kind has absolute authority even in its own jurisdiction ; China, , i/ nor can its decisions be carried into execution without v— —v " " of civil inquisition, is subdivided into four others ; the first entrusted with the care of selecting those who, on the concurrence of another tribunal, and sometimes of account of their learning or other good properties, are several others. The fourth tribunal, for instance, has capable of filling the offices of government j the second indeed under its jurisdiction the whole troops of the appointed to take care of the conduct of the mandarins j empire; but the payment of them is entrusted with the third affixing the seals to the different public acts, the second ; while the sixth has the care of the arms, giving the seals to mandarins, and examining those ot tents, chariots, barks, and stores necessary for military the different dispatches; while the fourth inquires in- operations ; so that nothing relative to these can be to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not except- put in execution without the concurrence of all the gg ing the princes of the imperial blood themselves. The three tribunals. To prevent any unlawful combination among the Censors, principal sovereign court to which these four last are tribunals, each has its censor appointed. This is an subordinate is called Li-pou. 2. Hou-pou, or the grand treasurer, superintends all officer whose duty is merely to watch over the prothe finances of the state ; is the guardian and protec- ceedings of the court, without deciding upon any tor of the treasures and dominions of the emperor, thing himself. He assists therefore at all assemblies, keeping an account of his revenues, 8ic. superintend- revises all their acts, and without acquainting the court ing the management and coining of money, the pub- in the least with either his sentiments or intentions, lic magazines, customhouses ; and, lastly, keeping an immediately informs the emperor of what he judges exact register of all the families in the empire. To to be amiss. He likewise gives information of the assist this court, 14 others are appointed throughout behaviour of the mandarins, either in the public adthe different provinces of the empire. ministration of affairs, or in their private conduct ; 3. Li-pou, or the court of ceremonies. “ It is an nay, sometimes he will not scruple to reprimand the undoubted fact (says M. Grosier), that ceremonies emperor for what he supposes to be erroneous in his form, in part, the base of the Chinese government. conduct. Th is tribunal therefore takes care to support them, These censors are never removed from their places and enforce their observance; it inspects also the arts but in order to be promoted ; and thus, holding their and sciences. It is consulted by the emperor when he offices for life, they have the greater courage to speak designs to confer particular honours; takes care of out when they observe any impropriety or abuse. the annual sacrifices offered up by him, and even re- Their accusation is sufficient to set on foot an inquiry, gulates the entertainments which he gives either to which generally leads to a proof; in which case the strangers or to his own subjects. It also receives and accused is discharged from his office, and never held in entertains foreign ambassadors, and preserves tranquil- any estimation afterwards. The complaints of the cenlity among the different religious sects in the empire. sors, however, are referred to the very tribunal against It is assisted by four inferior tribunals. whose members they complain; though, being afraid of 4. Ping-Pou, or the tribunal of arms, comprehends an accusation themselves, they very seldom pass senin its jurisdiction the whole militia of the empire ; in- tence against the accusers. specting also the fortresses, magazines, arsenals, and Besides all this, the censors also form a tribunal of store-houses of every kind, as well as the manufacto- their own, named tou-tche-yven. Its members have a ries of arms both offensive and defensive; examining right of remonstrating with the emperor, whenever his and appointing officers of every rank. It is com- own interest or that of the public renders it necessary. posed entirely of mandarins of letters; and the They inspect all lawyers and military men in public four tribunals depending upon it consist also of li- employments. “ In short (says M. Grosier), they terati.” are, morally speaking, placed between the prince and 5. The hong-pou, Is a criminal bench for the whole the mandarins ; between the mandarins and the peoempire, and is assisted by 14 subordinate tribunals. ple ; between the people and families ; between fami6. The cong-pou, or tribunal of public works, sur- lies and individuals; and they generally unite to the veys and keeps in repair the emperor’s palaces, as well importance of their office incorruptible probity and inas those of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings vincible courage. The sovereign may, if he proceeds where the tribunals are held, with the temples, tombs to rigour, take away their lives ; but many of them of the sovereigns, and all public monuments. It has have patiently suffered death, rather than betray the besides the superintendance of the streets, public high- cause of truth or wink at abuses. It is not sufficient ways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing relating therefore to have got rid of one, they must all be treateither to internal or foreign navigation. Four inferior ed in the same manner; the last that might be spared tribunals assist in the discharge of these duties ; the would tread in the same steps with no less resolution first drawing the plans of public works ; the second than those who went before him. In the annals of no directing the work-shops in the different cities of the nation do we find an example of such a tribunal, yet empire ; the third surveying the causeways, roads, it appears to be necessary in all without exception. bridges, canals, &c. ; and the fourth taking care of We must not, however, imagine, that the privileges of the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re- a censor give him a right to forget his duty tu his ceiving their produce. sovereign, or to communicate to the public those rePartiality All the tribunals are composed, one half of Chi- marks which he takes the liberty of making to him : of govern- nese, and the other of Tartars ; and one of the prewere he only to give the least hint of them to his colt0 u ents ea |*6 s'orn ^ °f ne ch superior tribunal is always a Tartar leagues, he would be punished with death ; and he Chinese' ^ * N° ot the courts above described, however, would share the same fate did he, in any of his representations,

CHI

[

17

China, sentatxons, suffer a single word, inconsistent with mode-v—J ration or respect, to escape him.” 69 There are still two other courts in China, both of ^culiarto* t^em Pecu^ar to the empire, which deserve to be menChina^ ° tioned. The first is that of princes j and which, in conformity with its title, is composed of princes only. In the registers of this tribunal are inscribed the names of all the children of the imperial family as soon as they are born : and to these are also consigned the dignities and titles which the emperor confers upon them. This is the only tribunal where the princes can be tried j and here they are absolved or punished according to the pleasure of the judges. The other tribunal is that of history, called by the Chinese han-lin-yvan. It is composed of the greatest geniuses of the empire, and of men of the most profound erudition. These are entrusted with the education of the heir apparent to the throne, and the compilation and arrangement of the general history of the empire $ which last part of their office renders them formidable even to the emperor himself. From this body the mandarins of the first class, and the presidents 70 of the supreme class, are generally chosen. Filial piety The basis of all the civil laws of the Chinese is fiafalrtheir P‘ety* Every mandarin, who is a governor either laws. °f a province or city, must instruct the people assembled round him twice a-montb, and recommend to them the observance of certain salutary rules, which are summed up in a few short sentences, and such as no person can ever be supposed capable of forget7*. ting. Of their The Chinese are allowed only to have one wife, marriages. wij0Se an^ a e must jje nearly equal to that of their husbands 5 but they are allowed to have several concubines, whom they may admit into their houses without any formality, after paying the parents a sum of money, and entering into a written engagement to use their daughters well. These concubines, however, are all in subjection to the lawful wife $ their children are considered as hers ; they address her as mother, and can give this title to her only. A person that has once been married, whether man or woman, may lawfully marry again, but it is then no longer necessary to study equality of age or condition. A man may choose his second wife from among his concubines ; and, in all cases, this new marriage requires very few formalities. A widow is absolute mistress of herself, and can neither be compelled by her parents to marry again, nor continue in a state of widowhood, contrary to her own inclination. Those of moderate rank, however, who have no children, do not enjoy the same privilege; as the parents of the former husband can dispose of her in marriage, not only without her consent, but without her knowledge. The law authorizes the disposal of them in this manner, in order to indemnify the relations of the deceased husband for the money they may have cost him. If the wife is left big with child, this cannot take place, until she is delivered ; nor can it be done at all if she brings forth a son. There are likewise two exceptions ; 1. when the parents of the widow assign her a proper maintenance ; and, 2. if 72 the widow embraces a religious life, and becomes a Divorce*, bonzesse.

g

I

maniacs ageS

&r

Divorces are allowed in China in cases of adultery, ’ mutual dislike, incompatibility of tempers, jealousy, VOL, VI. Part I. f

]

CHI

&c. No husband, however, can put away or sell his wife until a divorce is legally obtained ; and if this regulation be not strictly observed, the buyer and seller become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married, privately withdraws herself from her husband, he may immediately commence an action at law; by the sentence of which she becomes his slave, and he is at liberty to sell her to whom he pleases. On the other hand, if a husband leaves his wife for three years, she is at liberty, after laying her case before the mandarins, to take another husband ; but if she w'ere to anticipate their consent, she would be liable to a severe punishment. Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the following cases. 1. If the young woman has been betrothed to a young man, and presents have been given and received by the parents of the intended husband and wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young woman another be substituted of a disagreeable figure ; or if the daughter of a free man marry his slave ; or if any one give his slave to a free woman, pretending to her parents that he is his son or relation. In all these cases the marriage is null and void ; and all those who have had any share in making up the match are severely punished. 3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an alliance with any family residing in the province or city of which he is governor. 4. No Chinese youth can enter into a state of marriage during the time of mourning for his father or mother ; and if promises have been made before, they cease immediately on that event taking place. After the usual time of mourning is expired, however, the parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to those of the young man, putting him in mind of his engagement. 5. Marriage is also suspended when a family experiences any severe misfortune, and even if a near relation were thrown into prison; though this may be set aside, provided the unfortunate person gives his consent. 6. Two brothers cannot marry two sisters; nor is a widower at liberty to marry his son to the daughter of a widow whom he chooses for his own wife. A man is also forbidden to marry any of his own relations, however distant the degree of consanguinity between them. In China, every father of a family is responsible for the conduct of his children, and even of his domestics ; all those faults being imputed to him which it was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the power of selling his son, “ provided (says the law) the son has a right of selling himself.” This custom, however, is barely tolerated among the middling and inferior ranks; and all are forbidden to sell them to comedians, or people of infamous character or very mean stations. In China a son remains a minor during the whole lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contracted by his father, those from gaming only excepted. Adoption is authorized by law, and the adopted child immediately enters into all the rights of a lawful son ; only the law gives a right to the father of making a few dispositions in favour of his real children. The children, however, whether adopted or not, cannot sucC ceed

China,

CHI

[

18

ceed to the dignity or titles of their father, though they —y—~' may to his estate. The emperor alone can confer honours $ and even then they must be resigned when the person attains the age of 70 $ though this resignation is considered as an advice rather than a law. The will of a father cannot be set aside in China on account of any informality j nor can any mother in this empire make a will. Though the Chinese laws authorize slavery, yet the power of the master extends only to those matters which concern his own service j and he would be punished with death for taking advantage of his power to debauch the wife of his slave. By the laws of China husbandmen are exempt from the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the earth to the beginning of harvest. Criminal It appears, from recent information respecting many code. interesting particulars relating to China, that the utmost attention seems to have been paid to the different degrees of enormity attached to those actions of men which are denominated criminal. The code of laws is pronounced the reverse of sanguinary, and it is affirmed by competent judges, that if the practice in all respects coincided with the theory, few nations could boast of a milder or more effectual administration of justice. But while they do not consider the crime of pilfering a few small pieces of money as of equal enormity with the shedding of human blood, yet they pay too little attention to the three different circumstances under which that action may exist j either as accidental, unintentional as to the extent of taking away life, or maliciously premeditated. Even foreigners who have the misfortune to kill a Chinese, however casually it may be done, have been punished in the very same manner as a traitor or deliberate assassin. As foreigners intending to reside in China may be at a loss to determine how, when, and by what various means their lives may be endangered, the.following abstract of the criminal code of that country may perhaps be beneficial to some of our readers. , 1. A man who kills another on the supposition of theft, shall be strangled, according to the law of homicide committed in an affray. 2. A man who fires at another with a musket, and kills him, shall be beheaded, as in cases of wilful murder. If the sufferer be wounded, but not mortally, the offender shall be sent into exile. 3. A man who puts to death a criminal who had been apprehended, and made no resistance, shall be strangled, according to the law against homicide committed in an affray. 4. A man who falsely accuses an innocent person of theft (in cases of greatest criminality) is guilty of a capital offence j in all other cases the offenders, whether principals or accessaries, shall be sent into exile. 5. A man who wounds another unintentionally, shall be tried according to the law respecting blows given in an affray, and the punishment rendered more or less severe, according to the degree of injury sus1 tained. 6. A man, who, intoxicated with liquor, commits outrages against the laws, shall be exiled to a desert country, there to remain in a state of servitude. For this abstract we are indebted to the humane inChina,

]

CHI

terference of the supercargoes of the East India Company, on account of the disagreeable disputes which frequently took place with the Chinese government, owing to accidents of the most trivial nature, which the people sometimes met with from the British in the port of Canton*. The blood of a traitor is supposed to be contaminated in this country to the 10th generation, although the law in general is conceived to be. satisfied with implicating the nearest male relatives in the guilt of the actual perpetrator of the crime, but with commutation of punishment from death to exile. It appears to us, that nothing can be conceived more tyrannical than a law which pretends to inflict punishment on an innocent person, since no man can be a traitor, merely from the circumstance of his being the relation of one, and the absurdity of supposing that a non-existence is capable of committing a crime, must be obvious to every man. The fifth law in the forementioned extract is peculiarly cruel and unjust, since it subjects a man to different degrees of punishment, according to the different effects which those actions may produce. It is with a degree of national pride that we turn from this cruel, absurd specimen of Chinese legislation, this strange judicial thermometer, if we may be allowed the expression, to the nice discriminations which are made by the laws of our own country respecting the shedding of blood, the gradations of guilt attending which we have already mentioned, and which are distinguished by the appropriate names of manslaughter, culpable homi~ cide, and wilful murder. 1 he denunciations of Moses, it may be said, have some resemblance to this Gothic code of the Chinese, especially when he declares that the deity would visit the iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generation. It is not our province, in this account of China, to write an apology for Moses in this particular instance, although it must be granted that he had a most obstinate and refractory race of beings to govern, and to preserve a becoming degree of order and subordination among them. He might therefore have nothing more in view than political expedience; an opinion which we are the more encouraged to entertain, when we find the prophet Ezekiel reprobating the idea of making the innocent suffer for the guilty, in the following beautiful passage. “ What mean ye that ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel, saying, the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge ? As I live, saith the Lord, ye shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb in Israel. Behold all souls are mine j as the soul of the father, so also the soul of the son, is mine. The soul that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father, neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son : the righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him.'1'* In criminal matters every person accused must be examined before five or six tribunals; and whose inquiries are directed not only against him, but against his accuser, and the witnesses that appear in the cause. He is, however, obliged to remain in prison during the process: “ but (says M. Crosier) the Chinese prisons are not horrible dungeons like those of so many other nations j they are spacious, and have even a

degree

china, v—

CHI

[

] [9

]

CHI

degree of convenience. One of the mandarins is ob- ly manner to amend ; and after giving him 20 sound China, v'*-""' liged to inspect them frequently 5 and this he does blows discharges him. ».1— v-— with the greater punctuality, as he must answer for Banishment is inflicted for crimes of a nature infe*£ those who are sick. lie is obliged to see them pro- rior to homicide, and the duration is often for life, ifment 5^, perly treated, to send for physicians, and to supply the criminals be sent into Tartary. Some culprits them with medicines at the emperor’s expence. If are condemned to drag the royal barks for three years, any of them dies, he must inform the emperor, who or to be branded in the cheeks with a hot iron, indiperhaps will order some of the higher mandarins to ex- cating the nature of their transgressions. Bobbery beamine whether the former has discharged his duty faith- tween relations is more severely punished than any 0fully or not. therj and that is accounted the most atrocious where Method of The slightest punishment in China is the bastinado 5 younger brothers or nephews appropriate to theminflicting ancl the number of blows is to be determined by the selves beforehand any part of the succession in which they have a right to share with their elder brothers or iiado3381** degree of the offender’s guilt. Twenty is the lowest number : and in this case the punishment is consider- nephews. 77 ed as having nothing infamous in it, but being only a Information against a father or mother, grandfather I*un*shsimple paternal correction. In this way the emperor or grandmother, uncle or eldest brother, even though sometimes orders it to be inflicted on his courtiers j the accusation be just, is punished with 100 blows ofarrainst pawhich does not prevent them from being afterwards the pan-tsee and three years banishment. If the accu-rents, &c. received into favour, and as much respected as before. sation be false, it is punished with death. Deficiency »■ Every mandarin may inflict the bastinado when any in proper filial respect to a father, mother, grandfather, one forgets to salute him, or when he sits in judgment or grandmother, is punished with 100 blows of the panin public. The instrument of correction is called pan- tsee j abusive language to these relations is death by tsee, and is a piece of bamboo a little flatted, broad strangling j to strike them is punished by beheading j at the bottom, and polished at the upper extremity, and if any one presumes to hurt or maim them, his flesh in order to manage it more easily with the hand. is torn from his bones with red-hot pincers, and he is When the punishment is to be inflicted, the magis- cut into a thousand pieces. Abusing an elder brother trate sits gravely behind a table, having on it a bag is punished with 100 blows of the pan-tsee $ striking filled with small sticks, while a number of petty offi- him, with the punishment of exile. 78 cers stand around him, each furnished with these pan~ Homicide, even though accidental, is punished with Capital putsees, and waiting only for his signal to make use of death in China. A rope about six or seven feet in them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little length, with a running noose, is thrown over the cri-e(^ sticks contained in the bag, and throws it into the hall minal’s head ; and a couple of domestics belonging to of audience. On this the culprit is seized and stretch- the tribunal pull it strongly in different directions. ed out with his belly towards the ground 5 his breeches They then suddenly quit it, and in a few moments are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic domes- give a second pull j a third is seldom necessary to fitic applies five smart blows with his pan-tsee. If the nish the business. Beheading is accounted in China judge draws another small stick from the bag, ano- the most dishonourable of all punishments, and is rether officer succeeds, and bestows five more blows j served only for desperate assassins, or those who comand so on until the judge makes no more signals. When mit some crime equally atrocious with murder. To be the punishment is over, the criminal must throw him- cut in a thousand pieces is a punishment inflicted only self on his knees, incline his body three times to the upon state criminals or rebellious subjects. It is perearth, and thank the judge for the care he takes of his lormed by tying the criminal to a post, scalping the 75 education. skin from the head and pulling it over the eyes. The The For faults of a higher nature, the carrying of a executioner then tears the flesh from different parts of cangue, or wooden collar, called by the Portuguese the cangue, is unhappy wretch’s body ; and never quits this horrible colk*a inflicted. This out machine of two when piecesput of employment till mere fatigue obliges him to give over: wood hollowed in theis composed middle, which, the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous together, leave sufficient room for the neck. These spectators, who finish what he has begun. Though are laid upon the shoulders of the criminal, and join- this punishment, however, has been inflicted by some ed together in such a manner, that he can neither see emperors with all the dreadful circumstances just menhis feet nor put his hands to his mouth j so that he is tioned, the law orders only the criminal’s belly to be incapable of eating without the assistance of another. opened, his body to be cut into several pieces, and This disagreeable burden he is obliged to carry day then thrown into a ditch or river. and night j its weight is from 50 to 200 pounds, acThe torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is cording to the enormity of fhe crime, to which the used in China. The former is applied to the hands time of carrying it is also proportioned. For rob- or feet: for the hands, small pieces of wood are apbery, breaking the peace, or disturbing a family, or plied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal ; being a notorious gambler, it is generally carried three his fingers are then tied close with cords, and he is mouths. During all this time the criminal is not al- left for some time in that painful situation. The torlowed to take shelter in his own house, but is stationed ture for the feet is still worse. An instrument, confor a certain space of time, either in some public sisting of three cross pieces of wood, is provided, that square, the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The of the tribunal where he was condemned. On the feet of the criminal are then put into this machine, expiration of his term of punishment, he is again which squeezes them so close that the ankle bones brought before the judge, who exhorts him in a friend- become flat. The extraordinary torture consists in C2 making Chinft-

CHI

[

20

making small gashes in the body, and then tearing ofl: the skin like thongs. It is never applied but for some great crime, such as treason, or where the criminal’s guilt has been clearly proved, and it is necessary to make him discover his accomplices. M GroNotwithstanding these dreadful punishments, M. sier’s gene-QrosJer Js at great pains to prove that the laws of the V f tlf rr'Unese ° Chinese, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme]y mild. “ One law (says he) will no doubt appear Saws. exceedingly severe and rigorous; it inflicts the punishment of death on those who use pearls. Those who read the history of China will be apt to fall into certain mistakes respecting the penal laws of that nation. Some of its sovereigns have indulged themselves in gratifying sanguinary caprices which were not authorized by the laws, and which have often been confounded with them j but these princes are even yet . ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names are still abhorred and detested throughout the whole empire. The Chinese, in their criminal procedure, have a great advantage over all other nations: it is almost impossible that an innocent man should ever become a victim to a false accusation : in such cases the accuser and witnesses are exposed to too much danger. The slowness of the process, and the numberless revisions it undergoes, are another safeguard for the accused. In short, no sentence of death is ever carried into execution until it has been approved and confirmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole process is laid before him j a number of other copies are also made out, both in the Chinese and Tartar languages, which the emperor submits to the examination of a like number of doctors, either Tartars or Chinese. When the crime is of great enormity, and clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand at the bottom of the sentence, “ When you receive this order, let it be executed without delay.” In cases where the crime, though punishable by death according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary class, the emperor writes at the bottom of the sentence, “ Let the criminal be detained in prison, and executed in autumn j” that being the season in which they are generally executed, and all on the same day. So Cases ia The emperor of China never signs an order for the ■which eXe U a cr*rn*na^ till he has prepared himself by crimes may st^In ^°n L!ke be pardon. . . S- other monarchs he has the power of ed. giving pardons j but in this respect is much more limited than any other. The only cases in which the Chinese monarch can remit the punishment inflicted by law are, I. To the son of a widow who has not married again j 2. To the heir of an ancient family ; 3. The descendants of great men or citizens who have deserved well of their country j and, 4. lastly, The sons or grandsons of a mandarin, who has become illustrious, and distinguished himself by faithfully discharging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tribunal. The son of a very aged father and. mother is pardoned, if private property or the public peace be not hurt by giving him a pardon 5 and if the sons of such a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices in the same crime, the youngest is pardoned in order to comfort his parents. In China the accused are always treated with tenChina.

]

CHI

derness and lenity, being accounted innocent until china, their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty '——y-— excepted, they are scarce allowed to want for any thing. A jailor is punished who behaves rigorously towards his prisoners ; and the judges must likewise answer at their peril for any additions to the severity of the law ; deposition being the slightest punishment inflicted upon them. Substitution is sometimes allowed by the laws of China j so that the near relation of a guilty person may put himself in the criminal’s place, provided however, that the chastisement be slight, and the accused his ancient friend. The sons, grandsons, wife, and brothers of a banished Chinese, are allowed to follow him into exile 5 and the relations of all persons are permitted to visit them in prisons, and to give them every assistance in their power j to do which good offices they are even encouraged, instead of being prevented. gt Every city in China is divided into different quar-Of the citers, each of which is subjected to the inspection of1*68.*111^ a certain officer, who is answerable for whatever passes in the places under his jurisdiction. Fathers of families, as we have already observed, are answerable for the conduct of their children and domestics. Neighbours are even obliged to answer for one another, and are bound to give every help and assistance in cases of robbery, fire, or any accident, especially in the night-time. All the cities are furnished with gates, which are barricaded on the commencement of night. Centinels are also posted at e.ertain distances throughout the streets, who stop all who walk in the night, and a number of horsemen go round the ramparts for the same purpose j so that it is almost impossible to elude their vigilance by favour of the darkness. A strict watch is also kept during the day-time 5 and all those who give any suspicion by their looks, accent, or behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin, and sometimes even detained until the pleasure of the governor be known. Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and it is rare that they are attended with a fatal issue. The champions sometimes decide the quarrel with their fists, but most frequently refer the case to a mandarin, who very often orders them both a sound drubbing. None but military people are permitted to wear arms in public ; and this privilege is extended even to them only during the time of war, or when they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend a review. Prostitutes are not allowed to remain within the walls of a city, or to keep a house of their own even in the suburbs. They may, however, lodge in the house of another 5 but that other is accountable for every disturbance which may happen on their account. In all the Chinese cities, and even in some of their gorrowjjjg ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be of money, borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the country 5 which, however, is no less than 30 per cent. Every pledge is marked with a number when left at the office, and must be produced when demanded $ but it becomes the property of the office if left there a single day longer than the term agreed upon for the payment of the money. The whole transaction remains an inviolable secret j not even the name of

CHI [ 2i ] CHI China, of the person who leaves the pledge being inquired very large bells of cast iron. According to law these China. towers should be only five /y.9, about half a French This mode of procuring a supply of money for the league, distant from one another. g. exigencies of the moment, has been long known in There is no public post-office in China, though se- Method of Britain, and the people who thus lend money on pledges veral private ones have been established ; but the cou-conveyunder the sanction of government, have a most exor- riers and officers charged with dispatches for the ern-ance* bitant interest, as well as in China, but we are sorry pire have only a right to make use of them. This into add, that it is by no means conducted with such convenience, however, excepted, travellers find conprofound secrecy. The person’s name and surname veyance very easy from one part of China to anowho offers a pledge must be inserted in the pawn-bro- ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every ker’s books, who is thus enabled to make the trans- city, all of whom are associated under the conduct of action as public as he pleases. Institutions of this na- a chief, who regulates all their engagements, fixes the ture are no doubt of considerable utility to the modest pr ice of their labour, receives their hire, and is responpoor during a period of embarrassment; but the mon- sible for every thing they carry. When porters are strous evils to which they have given rise are more wanted, he furnishes as many as may be necessary, and than sufficient to counterbalance their advantages. We gives the same number of tickets to the traveller; who should deem an open avowal of poverty and want to returns one to each porter when they have conveyed be infinitely preferable to an application to such a sink their loads to an appointed place. These tickets are of corruption and extortion, assured that genuine dis- carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them tress will never want a friend among the sons of bone- from the money he received in advance. On all the s' volence or philanthropy. great roads in China there are several offices of this Of the Cbi- Great attention is paid by the administration of kind, which have a settled correspondence with others; uese roads. China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of are generally very broad, all of them paved in the these offices a list of such things as they wish to have southern provinces, and some in the northern ; but transported : this is immediately written down in a neither horses nor carriages are allowed to pass along book ; and though there should be occasion for two, these. In many places valleys have been filled up, and three, or four hundred porters, they are instantly furrocks and mountains cut through, for the purpose of nished. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of making commodious highways, and to preserve them their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred as nearly as possible on a level. They are generally weight for one day’s carriage. An exact register of bordered with very lofty trees, and in some places every thing is kept at the office ; the traveller pays with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers the money in advance, after which he has no occasion from going into the fields ; but openings are left in to give himself any farther trouble ; on his arrival at proper places, which give a passage into cross roads the city he designs, his baggage is found at the corthat lead to different villages. Covered seats are responding office, and every thing is delivered to him erected on all the great roads, where travellers may with the most scrupulous exactness. s shelter themselves from the inclemency of the weather; The customhouses are here regulated by the gene5 temples and pagods are also frequent, into which tra- ral police of the country ; and according to M. Gro-Pustoni* ou,e vellers are admitted without scruple in the day-time, sier’s account, these customhouse officers are the most ‘ '‘ but often meet with a refusal in the night. In these civil in the world. They have no concern with any the mandarins only have a right to rest themselves as class of people but the merchants, whom they take long as they think proper. There is, however, no care not to distress by any rigorous exactions ; neiwant of inns on the great roads, or even the cross ones ther, though they have authority to do so, do they in China ; but they are ill supplied with provisions ; stop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do and those who frequent them are even obliged to car- they ever require the smallest fee from them. Duties ry beds along with them to sleep on, or else take up are paid either by the piece or by the load ; and in the with a plain mat. former case credit is given to the merchant’s book Towers are erected on all the roads of this great without asking any questions. A mandarin is appointempire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-staffs, ed by the viceroy of each province to inspect the cusfor the convenience of signals in case of any alarm. tomhouses of the whole district ; and the mandarins These towers are square, and generally constructed of have also the care of the post-offices. brick, but seldom exceed twelve feet in height. They In former times the only money used in China was Money of are built, however, in sight of one another, and are made of small shells, but now both silver and copper the empireguarded by soldiers, who run with great speed from coin are met with. The latter consists * of ror.nd one to another, carrying letters which concern the pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (a) in diameter, emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is also with a small square hole in the middle, inscribed with conveyed by signals ; and thus the court is informed two Chinese words on one side, and two Tartar ones with surprising quickness of any important matter. on the other. The silver pieces are valued only by Those which are built on any of the roads conducting their weight. For the convenience of commerce the to court, are furnished with battlements, and have also metal is therefore cast into plates of different sizes : and (a) The Chinese foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into ten parts.

CHI [ 2 Chin*, and for want of small coin, a Chinese always carries V-i'i* about him his scales, weights, and a pair of scissai’s to cut the metal. This operation is performed by putting the silver between the scissars, and then knocking them against a stone till the pieces drop ofi. In giving of change, however, people have no right to value silver by the numerical value of copper, this bein" entirely regulated by the intrinsic value of the metafs. Thus, an ounce of silver will sometimes be worth IOOO copper pieces, and sometimes only 800 ; and thus the copper money of China may frequently be sold for more than it would pass for in commerce. The emperor would lose much by this recoinage, were he not the sole proprietor of all the copper mines in China. It is, however, expressly forbidden to employ copper coin in any manufacture where it might be employed as plain copper, and it is also forbidden to be sold for the purpose of melting : but if the price of the metal has not fallen, the infraction of this law is not very severely punished. On the other hand, if the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the coin, a quantity of the latter is issued out to restore the equilibrium. To keep up a constant circulation of all the coin in the empire, the Chinese government are attentive to preserve an equilibrium between the proportional value of the copper and silver ; that is, to regulate the intrinsic value of each in such a manner that the possessor of silver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper, nor the possessor of copper for silver. The method used for this purpose is, when silver becomes scarce, to make all the payments for some time in silver; but if copper, to make them all for some time in that metal 8 7 . only. Of the Chi- rpjie commerce of China is under the inspection of nieree0m"

t....

tribunal of finances ; but on this subject the Chinese entertain an opinion quite different from that of the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is only useful as far as it eases the people of their superfluities, and procures them necessaries. For this reason they consider even that which is carried on at Canton as prejudicial to the interest of the empire. “ They take from us (say the Chinese) our silks, teas, and porcelain : the price of these articles is raised throughout the provinces : such a trade therefore cannot be beneficial. The money brought us by Europeans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it, are mere superfluities to such a state as ours. We have no occasion for more bullion than what may be necessary to answer the exigencies of government, and to supply the relative wants of individuals. It was said by Kouan-tse, two thousand years ago, That the money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any otaer way than as it is intianluced by commerce. No commerce can be advantageous long, but that which consists in a mutual exchange of things necessary or useful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or money, which has for its object the importing of articles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury, or curiosity, always supposes the existence of luxury : but luxury, which is an abundance of superfluities among certain classes of people, supposes the want of necessaries among a great many others. The more horses the rich put to their carriages, the greater will be the number of those who are obliged to walk on 2

!

] CHI foot; the larger and more magnificent their houses are, China, so much the more confined and wretched must those of the poor be ; and the more their tables are covered with a variety of dishes, the more must the number of those increase who are reduced to the necessity of feeding upon plain rice. Men, united by society in a large and populous kingdom, can employ their industry, talents, and economy, to. no better purpose than to provide necessaries for all, and procure convenience for some.” 8S The only commerce considered by the Chinese as History of advantageous to their empire, is that with Russia and^®^1^® Tartary; by which they are supplied with those furssia> so necessary in the northern provinces. The disputes concerning the limits of the respective empires of Russia and China seem to have paved the way to this commerce. These disputes were settled by treaty on the 27th of August 1689, under the reign of Ivan and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief of the embassy on the part of Russia was Golovin governor of Siberia; and two Jesuits were deputed on the part of the emperor of China ; and the conferences were held in Latin, with a German in the Russian ambassador’s train, who was acquainted with that language. By this treaty the Russians obtained a regular and permanent trade with China, which they had long desired ; but in return they yielded up a large territory, besides the navigation of the river Amour. The first intercourse had taken place in the beginning of the 17th century ; at which time a small quantity of Chinese merchandise was procured by some Russian merchants from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable sale of these commodities encouraged certain Siberian •wayvodes to attempt a direct and open communication with China. For this purpose several deputations were sent to the emperor ; and though they failed of obtaining the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts were attended with some consequences of importance. Thus the Russian merchants were tempted to send traders occasionally to Peking; by which means a faint connexion was preserved with that metropolis. This commerce, however, was at last interrupted by the commencement of hostilities on the river Amour 3 but after the conclusion of the treaty in 1689, was resumed with uncommon alacrity on the part of the Russians : and the advantages thence arising were found to be so considerable, that a design of enlarging it was formed by Peter the Gi’eat. Isbrand Ides, a native of the duchy of Holstein, then in the Russian service, was therefore despatched to Peking in 1692; by whose means the liberty of trade, before confined to individuals, was now extended to caravans. In the mean time, private merchants continued to trade as before, not only with the Chinese, but also at the head quarters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of these roving Tartars, which was generally stationed near the confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the southern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul desert, thus became the seat of an annual fair. Complaints, however, were soon made of the disorderly behaviour of the Russians ; on which the Chinese monarch threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely, and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinese nor Moguls. This produced another embassy to Peking in 1719, when matters were again adjusted to the

CHI [ 23 ] CHI China. the satisfaction of both parties. The reconciliation army of 1,800,000 men. Yet upon tire supposition China. was of no long duration j for the Russians having soon that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous renewed their disorderly behaviour, an order for their sum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually, expulsion was issued in 1722, and all intercourse be- while the same analogy applied to Britain will make tween the two nations forbiddfen. The differences an individual share amount to 3I. There is reason, were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan al- however, to conclude, that the Chinese, in the above lowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided estimate of their standing army, have been rather hyit consisted of no more than a hundred persons j and perbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information that during their stay their expences should not, as for- communicated by \ an-ta-zin, makes the whole of the merly, be defrayed by the emperor of China. The expences of government to leave a surplus for the use Russians at the same time obtained permission to build of the emperor of 14,043,734!. sterling, which we a church within the precincts of the caravansary ; and presume would be impossible, were their standing army four priests were allowed to reside at Peking for as enormous as some of the Chinese pretend. the celebration of divine service j the same indulgence being granted to some Russian scholars, for the°purSum total of the revenue, L. 66,000,000 pose of learning the Chinese language, and qualifying Civil establishment, L. 1»973»333 themselves for being interpreters between the two naMilitary ditto, 49,982,933 tions. This intercourse continued till the year 1755 j -51,956,266 since which time no more caravans have been sent to China. It was first interrupted by a misunderstanding Surplus for the emperor, L. 14,043,734* * Rarrow’e betwixt the two courts j and though that difference Travels, was afterwards made up, no caravans have been sent The annual expences of government are indeed im-^’^°^* ever since. The empress of Russia, sensible that the mense, but they are regulated in such a manner as monopoly of the fur trade (which was entirely confin- never to be augmented but in cases of the utmost need to the caravans belonging to the crown, and pro- cessity. It even happens very often that administration hibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce, makes greater savings every year. When this happens gave it up in favour of her subjects in 1762 j and the to be the case, the surplus serves to increase the genecentre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at ral treasure of the empire, and prevents the necessity Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by bar- of new impositions in time of war, or other public cater. I he Russians are prohibited from exporting their lamities. rlhe greater part of the taxes are paid in own coin j finding it more advantageous to take goods kind ; those, for instance, who breed silk worms, pay in exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinese their taxes in silk, the husbandmen in grain, the garstandard. The principal exports from Russia are furs deners in fruits, &c. This method, at the same time of different kinds; the most valuable of which are that it is exceedingly convenient for the subject, is no those of sea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martens, way detrimental to the public interest. There are sables, and ermines ; the greater part of which are numbers of people everywhere in the service of governbrought from Siberia and the newly discovered islands ; ment, who are thus furnished with food and clothing ; but as they cannot supply the demand, there is a ne- so that the commodities collected as taxes are almost cessity for importing foreign furs to Petersburg, which consumed in the provinces where they are levied; are aftervyards sent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth what remains is sold for the behoof of the emperor, are likewise sent to China, as well as hardware, and and the money deposited in the imperial treasury. live cattle, such as horses, camels, &c. The exports The taxes paid in money arise principally from the cufrom China are raw and manufactured silk, cotton, stoms and sale of salt (which belongs entirely to the porcelain, rhubarb, musk, &c. The government of emperor), from the duties paid by vessels entering any Russia likewise reserves to itself the exclusive privilege port, and from other imposts on various branches of of purchasing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by manufactures. Excepting these, the trader scarcely some Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a contributes any thing to the exigencies of the state, contract to supply the crown with it in exchange for and the mechanic nothing at all; the whole burden of furs: the exportation of the best rhubarb is forbidden taxation thus falling upon the husbandman. This burunder severe penalties, but yet is procured in sufficient den is regulated in proportion to the extent and fertiquantities, sometimes by clandestinely mixing it with lity of his lands ; and the greatest care has been taken inferior roots, and sometimes by smuggling it directly. to manage matters so, that he may neither be overGreat part of Europe is supplied with rhubarb from charged in the imposition nor harassed in the levying Russia. of the duties. “ The registering of lands (says M. I he revenue of the emperor of China amounts to Grosier), so often and to no purpose projected in X. 89 .Lmperor’s revenue. juore than 41 millions sterling ; and might easily be I ranee, has been long practised in this empire, notincreased, did the sovereign incline to burden his sub- withstanding its prodigious extent.” jects with new impositions. When Lord Macartney The levying of taxes in China is as simple as the Of the; visited this vast empire in the capacity of his Britan- nature of the thing will admit of. The duties levied tax,es nic majesty’s ambassador, the revenue of the Chinese from towns and villages are carried to cities of the G'ina. emperor was not less than 66 millions sterling ; but it third class; then they are conducted to those of the cannot be supposed that a very large share of this enor- second ; then to those of the first; and at last to the mous sum is actually expended by the emperor, after capital. The levying and imposition of taxes is subeducting the almost incalculable number of salaries mitted to the tribunal of finances ; and matters are so which it is destined to pay, together with a standing managed, that besides the consumption in each district for

C K I [ 24 ] CHI China, for discharging the ordinary expences of government, power to carry Ins produce to a free and open market, i china. v Part of the crop is allowed to be used in distillation ; ' —v— ~ something is left by way of reserve for answering accidental demands, and to be ready in cases of necessity. but if the harvest happens to be bad, this operation is 93 This sum becomes gradually less from the capital to prohibited. In China, the tillage of the earth is not^jj”®^ cities of the first, second, and third class. A proper only encouraged by law, but also by the example of peror till-' statement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is the emperor, who annually tills the earth with his owning eartthew reserved in the different cities, or contained in the dif- hands. The beginning of spring in China is always b 11hh ferent treasuries of the empire, is subjected to the reckoned to be in the month of February; but it be-Jj^^ examination of the grand tribunal of finances. This longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the revises the whole, and keeps an exact account of precise day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it what is consumed, and of whatever surplus may be to the emperor by a memorial; in which every thing left requisite to be done by him is mentioned with the most Of lendin * 1 S exactness. The sovereign then names 12 money, Lending money2000uponyears. interest has often been been in useabo-in scrupulous of the most illustrious persons in his court to accompaand defi- China for about It has oiencies in Kshed, and as often established. The interest, as has ny him, and to hold the plough after he has performa rea< ed his part of the ceremony. Among these there are terestg ^theeenyear ^ is ^yonlyhinted, less than 30 this per interest cent, andis always three princes of the blood, and nine presidents lunar.is no A tenth part of paid monthly : and concerning neglects of payment, of supreme courts ; and if any of them are too old and the following laws have been enacted. “ However infirm to undergo the fatigue, the substitutes must be much the debt may have accumulated by months or authorized by the emperor. The festival is preceded years, the principal and interest shall remain always by a sacrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti the same. Whoever infringes this law shall receive 40 (the supreme God) ; after which he and his attendblows of a pan-tsee; or an hundred, if he uses any ar- ants prepare themselves by three days fasting and contifice to add the principal and interest together.” This tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the law is explained by the following. “ Whoever shall evening before the ceremony, to go and prostrate be convicted before a mandarin of not having paid a themselves at the sepulchre of his ancestors, and to acmonth’s interest, shall receive ten blows; twenty for quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends two months, and thirty for three j and in this manner to celebrate a grand sacrifice. This is ofl’ered upon a as far as sixty; that is to say, to the sixth month. The small mount a few furlongs distant from the city, debtor is then obliged to pay principal and interest j but which, by the indispensable rules of the ceremony, those who obtain payment by using violence and force must be 50 feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked are condemned to receive 24 blows. by the emperor, who sacrifices under the title of soveAgricul- Many Chinese writers have endeavoured unsuccess- reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harvest in fatare great- fully to show why government should allow such ex- vour of his people. He then descends, accompanied by the three princes and nine presidents who are to lage ra endCOU octant interest to be taken for seems money toj but ‘ * satisfactory and rational account be, the thatmost the put their hands to the plough along with him ; the great interest of money prevents the rich from pur- field set apart for this purpose being at a small distance chasing much land j as landed estates would only em- from the mount. Forty labourers are selected to yoke barrass and impoverish them, their produce being so the oxen, and to prepare the seed which the emperor much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a is to sow; and which are of five different kinds, viz. family in China is seldom divided $ and it never hap- wheat, rice, two kinds of millet, and beans. They pens there, as in almost every other country, that are brought to the spot in magnificent boxes, carried wealth and riches are engrossed by one part of the na- by persons of the most distinguished rank. The empetion, while the other possesses nothing. ror then lays hold of the plough, and turns up several Agriculture is by the Chinese considered as the first furrows; the princes of the blood do the same, and and most honourable of all professions ; so that in this then the presidents ; after which the emperor throws empire the husbandman enjoys many and great privi- into the furrows the five kinds of seeds already menleges, while the merchant and mechanic are much less tioned lastly, four pieces of cotton-cloth, proper for esteemed. He is considered as next in dignity to offi- making: dresses, distributed to each of the labourcers of state, from whom indeed they very frequently ers, who assist inareyoking the oxen and preparing the originate. The soldier in China cultivates the ground, seeds; and the same presents made to forty other and even the priests are employed in agriculture, when persons who have only been are spectators of the ceretheir convents happen to be endowed with land. From mony. _ _ 94 the principle that the emperor is absolute proprietor of “ We must not (says M. Grosier) judge of the Chi-Of the peasants the soil, one would imagine that the tenant must hold nese peasants from those of Europe, especially in what * his share of it by a very precarious tenure; yet it is to the lights acquired by education. Free certain that when any man is dispossessed, his own cul- relates are very numerous in every province of China, pable conduct is the cause. The Chinese are so habi- schools and even some of the villages are not destitute of this tuated to consider a piece of land as their own, while advantage. The sons of the poor are there received they continue to be punctual in the payment of their readily as those of the rich ; their duties and their rent, that a Portuguese resident in Macao who at- asstudies are the the attention of the masters is tempted to raise the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard equally divided same; between ; and from this obscure of losing his life. There are no prodigiously over- source talents often spring,themwhich afterwards make a grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no conspicuous figure on the grand stage wholesale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his thing is more common in China than toofseelife.the Noson 3 of

CHI [ : China, of a peasant governor of that province in which his —v——' father had long toiled in cultivating only a few acres. The father himself, if taken from his plough, and elevated to a superior sphere, might, by reviving the instruction he received in his youth, and especially if he be endowed with genius, find himself fully competent for his new employment. Grosier’s The Chinese have been greatly reproached with the defence of inhuman practice of murdering their children j but

5 ] CHI regard to his public decisions or private conduct, and China, sometimes even with regard to both. Nothing, how- v ■— v '■ ever, is contained in this gazette that has not immediately come from the emperor, or been submitted to his inspection j and immediate death would be the consequence of inserting a falsehood in this ministerial paper. ^ No law or sentence, as has already been said, is of Seals of any force, until the emperor’s seal has been affixed to the empeit. This is about eight inches square, and is made of‘lOIVTml,* auns cc ’^ * fronfthe636 though our author cannot deny that they are guilty fine jasper, a kind of precious stone much esteemed in China ; of which only the emperor is allowed to charge of °f practice, he excuses them by saying, that “ the murdering crime when committed in China is commonly owing have a seal. Those given to princes as marks of hoand expo- to the fanaticism of idolatry ; a fanaticism which pre- nour are composed of gold } the seals of the viceroys Va S n ie and great mandarins, of silver ; while those of inferior cliiklren r in ^obedience ° ^ amon ^ieoracle l°westof°fa ^bonze, people. It is either to £the to deliver them- mandarins and magistrates are made only of lead or selves from the power of magic spells, or to discharge copper. The size of these seals is greater or smaller a vow, that these infatuated wretches precipitate their according to the rank their possessors hold in the trichildren into the river : they imagine that, by so doing, bunals or as mandarins ; and when any of them hapthey make an expiatory sacrifice to the spirit of the pens to he worn out, intimation must be sent to the river. All nations of antiquity almost have disgraced next superior tribunal j on which a new one is sent, themselves by the like horrid practices ; but the Chi- and the old one must then he delivered up. The comnese are far from countenancing this barbarity on that mission of evei-y inspector sent into the provinces must account. Besides, these criminal sacrifices are never also be confirmed by the emperor’s seal. The duty practised but in certain cantons of China, where the of these officers is to examine into the conduct of gopeople, blinded by idolatry, are the dupes of prejudice, vernors, magistrates, and private individuals ; and infanaticism, and superstition.—It often happens also, stances are recorded of emperors themselves assuming that the bodies of those children which are seen floating the office of inspectors in some of the provinces. These on the water have not been thrown into it till after officers are not only superior to all the magistrates, their death j and this is likewise the case with those but even to the viceroys of the provinces themselves. which are found in the streets, or lying near the public When a superior magistrate behaves ill to an inferior roads. The poverty of the parents suggests this dismal one, the former instantly becomes the prisoner of the resource, because their children are then buried at the inspector, and is suspended from his office until he has expence of the public. Exposing of children in public cleared himself from every imputation laid to his places is a custom tolerated in China j and government charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy his employs as much vigilance to have them carried away office until the report of the inspector has been transin the morning, as it bestows care on their education. mitted to the emperor. This is certainly giving people intimation to expose These viceroys are distinguished by the title of Tsovg- Powe» of their children in the night-time, and no doubt encou- tou, and are always mandarins of the first class, posses-the vicerages the practice $ but the dictates of humanity are sing an almost unlimited power within their districts. r?ys of Pro* here united to those of sound policy. No law in China They march abroad with all the pomp of royal mag-vmces‘ authorizes mutilation: there are indeed eunuchs in the nificence, never quitting their palaces, on the most empire, but their number is much less than what it is trifling occasion, without a guard of 100 men. A generally supposed to be by Europeans. The greater viceroy is the receiver-general of all the taxes collectpart of the eunuchs belonging to the emperor and em- ed in the province, transmitting them to the capital, presses have no higher employment than that of svveep- after having reserved what he judges necessary for the ing the courts of justice.” demands of his district. All law-suits must be brought Gazette of Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe- before his tribunal and he has the power of passintr Pekiug. king, the metropolis of the Chinese empire, is furnish- sentence of death, hut it cannot be put in execution ed with a gazette, which circulates into the remotest without being first carried to the emperor. Every three provinces, and which is even considered by admini- years he sends to court a report of the conduct of the stration as an essential part of the political constitu- mandarins subordinate to him ; and according to the tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an contents, they are either continued or disgraced. Those account of all those objects to which the attention of of whom he makes an unfavourable report are punished administration is directed. In this gazette may be in proportion to their delinquency ; while, on the other seen the names of all those mandarins who are stripped hand, those who have the good fortune to be well reof their employments, and the causes of their disgrace ; ported are rewarded in a similar proportion. it mentions also the names of all those delinquents who _ The principal mandarins are sometimes broken and jDe mdaare punished with death ; of the officers appointed to dismissed from all their employments, while others aretionS of fill the places of the disgraced mandarins j the cala- only removed some degrees lower. Those who have mandarins, mities which have afflicted any of the provinces ; the been degraded ten steps run a great risk of never berelief given by government ; and the expences incur- ing employed again. These degraded mandarins are red by administration for the subsistence of the troops, kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, bv supplying the wants of the people, repairing or erect- being obliged to mention it in every public order thev ing public works ; and, lastly, the remonstrances made issue forth in their inferior station ; thus : “ I such a, to the sovereign by the superior tribunal, either with mandarin, degraded one, two, three, &c. steps, comVOL. VI. Part I. + mand

CHI CHI [26 ] tyrants who in other countries prey upon and devour Chri-a.inand and order,” &c. Over these inferior mandarins the inspector of the province has a very unlimited, them. Everv superior mandarin is obliged to inform —v~—^ authority, and can, by his own power, deprive them ot himself of the faults of his inferiors, and expose them j 100 their employments for a great offence } nor does he nay, he would he punished for them himself if he did not. Very little regard, as we have already had occasion Privileges consult the court excepting where the immediate puprinces,, nishment of the criminal is not necessary. Every one to observe, is paid to hereditary rights in China. Even of &c m of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination, the princes of the blood enjoy no other privilege by is obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an birth hut that of wearing a yellow girdle ; and the exact account of the faults he has committed in the names of their children, with the exact time of their execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belonging birth, are inscribed in a yellow book appropriated to to any of the four first classes, this confession is exami- that purpose. Collateral princes are distinguished by ned at court ; but if it is made by any of the infe- an orange girdle, and their children are marked in a rior ones, it must be laid before the provincial tribunal book of a red colour. The surnames of the princes of the governor. Government, however, is not sa- of the reigning family are determined by the empetisfied even with this confession ; inquiry is made into ror alone ; the rest not being allowed to assume any the truth of it, and the conduct of the mandarin is scru- name that too much resembles those of the Moguls or tinized with the utmost severity, the informations be- Chinese. The rank even of the emperor’s sons dimiing subjected to the tribunal of mandarins j where they nishes one degree every generation j so that, at the are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of seventh, only the eldest branch has a title to wear the those subjected to this political inquisition carefully yellow girdle, the rest being sunk into the rank of balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three plain citizens. An hereditary sovereignty, however, classes. The first consists of those for whom rewards passes from one eldest son to another ; and this title and preferment are intended : the second, for whom cannot he forfeited, unless the possessor he guilty of gentle reproof and admonition are thought necessary ; some crime. In this case the emperor appoints to the and the third, of those who are to he suspended for succession either one of his younger brothers or a cousome time, or removed altogether, from their offices. sin ; hut these must be always chosen from the same Of these last some are allowed to continue } but they branch, as the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its receive no salary, and are not only deprived of all right without the condemnation of all W'ho compose it. their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they The only hereditary authority of the other princes exhave been guilty of any action tending to oppress the ists among these troops called the Tartar bands. There people, or to occasion a famine or scarcity among the they enjoy, without opposition, that rank which they lower ranks, their punishment is not confined to dis- derive from their birth, but in every thing else are on mission from their offices, hut they are also criminally a level with others. They are subjected to a military impeached. The family burying-place of every Chi- examination at stated periods, and are always promonese is accounted sacred ; none dares cut down the ted or degraded according to the degree of skill they trees with which it is overshadowed until they become exhibit. The same trial is undergone by the heir apdecayed with age 5 and even then, not until their con- parent and his sons *, the only indulgence shewn them dition has been attested by a mandarin : but for cer- being, that schools are appointed for their particular tain crimes against government or the people, the bu- use. The princes are likewise indulged with a triburying-place of a mandarin is rased to the foundation. nal appropriated on purpose for them, and before No kind of punishment, however, inflicted on a fa- which alone they can be tried. An insult offered to a ther, is supposed in the least to affect the character of prince decorated with the yellow girdle is punished his son j and therefore, when the latter is asked by with death ; hut if he has omitted to put it on, the the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps aggressor escapes with a bastinading. A prince may coolly answer, “ My father was disgraced for such a be put to death with the emperor’s consent j but he ecrime, my grandfather was beheaded for such ano- scapes every slighter corporeal punishment by paying a ther,” without the acknowledgement being in the least fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges superior detrimental. On the contrary, by great and import- to those of common citizens ; and are generally very ant services, it is possible for him to wdpe out these poor, unless possessed of some lucrative office. Thus stains from the memory of his ancestors. they are sometimes reduced to the necessity of acceptThough the empire of China is governed by Tartar ing the highest pay of a common soldier in the Tartar princes, the latter seem to bestow much more care hands. When they, or any of their children, howand attention on the Chinese than their own natural ever, enter into the marriage-state, the emperor ususubjects. Should any dispute arise between a Chinese ally makes them a present of 100 ounces of silver. He and Tartar, the former must have greatly deviated will also relieve them on other occasions, assist their from the rules of justice, if he is not acquitted even widows and orphans, &e. but in all this never departs by those tribunals which are composed of half Chinese from the most exact rules of economy ; so that the and half Tartars. The slightest fault committed by a mandarins in this respect are much better than the reTartar mandarin is always severely punished ; but the lations of the sovereign himself. roi punishment of the Chinese is often mitigated if the deWith regard to the ancient religion of China, F. F. Amioi’s linquent be a Chinese ; and the same severity is exer- Amiot informs us, that after making every possible ^count of cised towards those of the military department. Those research, comparing and reasoning upon his observafaults, however, are punished with the greatest severi- tions, he at last concluded, that “ The Chinese are a^y^ ty which hurt the interests of the people *, for which distinct people, who,have still preserved the characterisreason they seldom fall a sacrifice to that class of petty tic marks of their first origin 5 a people whose primi2 tive

I CHI [ 27 J CHI China, tive doctrine will be found, by those who take the trou- is the union of the three tsai (powers, principles, or china, '' ' ble of investigating it thoroughly, to agree in its es- intelligences) ; for, united, they direct, create, and y-—» sential parts with the doctrine of the chosen people, before Moses, by the command, of God himself, had nourish together. The image-7-(three united in one consigned the explanation of it to the sacred records; figure) is not so obscure in itself; however, it is diffia people, in a word, whose traditional knowledge, cult to reason upon it without being deceived: on this when freed from whatever the ignorance or supersti- subject it is difficult to speak.” tion of later ages has added to it, may be traced back, “ Father Amiot, spite of all the objections which from age to age, and from epocha to epocha, with- the critics of Europe may make, seems to conjecture, out interruption, for the space of 4000 years, even to that the character A might have been, among the anthe renewal of the human race by the grandson of cient Chinese, the symbol of the. most holy -Trinity ; Noah.” The king, or canonical books of the Chinese, ‘ and the more so (he adds), as the ancient books everywhere inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being, furnish a number of texts, which give us reason to the author and preserver of all things. Under him suppose them to have been possessed of some knowthey mention the names of Tien, or heaven ; Chang- ledge of this sublime mystery/ The book See-ki says, tien, or Supreme heaven j Chang-ti, or Supreme Lord j ‘ The emperor formerly offered up a solemn sacrifice and of Hoang-chan-ti, Sovereign and Supreme Lord: every three years to the Spirit, Trinity and Unity, “ Names (says M. Grosier) corresponding to those Chin-san-ye.'’ The following celebrated text of Laowhich we use when rve speak of God, the Lord, the tse has long been known in Europe. ‘ Tao is one by Almighty, the Most High.” nature : the first begot the second ; two produced the According to the Chinese books, the Supreme Be- third ; the three created all things.’ ing is the principle of every thing that exists, and the “ F. Amiot quotes another passage, which appears father of all living ; he is eternal, immoveable, and to be no less singular. ‘ He who is, as it were, viindependent ; his power knows no bounds ; his sight sible, and cannot be seen, is named Khi; he who may * equally comprehends the past, present, and the future, be heard, yet speaketh not to the ears, is called Hi; penetrating even into the inmost recesses of the heart. he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is Heaven and earth are under his government 5 all named Ouei. In vain do we interrogate our senses reevents, all revolutions, are the consequences of his will j specting these three ; our reason, which alone can give he is pure, holy, and impartial; wickedness offends his us any satisfaction, will tell us that they make only sight ; but he beholds with an eye of complacency the one. Above there is no light; below there is no darkvirtuous actions of men. Severe, yet just, he punishes ness. He is eternal ; there is no name which can be vice in a striking manner even on the throne, and of- given him. He resembles nothing that exists ; he is ten precipitates from thence the guilty, to place upon it an image without figure ; a figure without matter : the man who walks after his own heart, whom he hath his light is surrounded by darkness. If we look up to raised from obscurity. Good, merciful, and full of him above, we behold no beginning; if we follow him, pity, he relents on the repentance of the wicked : pub- we discover no end. From what the Tao hath been lic calamities, and the irregularities of the seasons, are at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eteronly salutary warnings, which his fatherly goodness nal : he is the beginning of wisdom.’ The commengives to men to induce them to reform and amend. taries which explain this passage speak in such strong The performance of religious worship at the pro- and precise terms, that F. Amiot forbears to quote per and appointed times, has given occasion to the great them, lest he might incur the censure of loo many inexactness with respect to the kalendar, which is re- credulous readers (a).” markable throughout the empire of China; and all The sacrifices of the Chinese were first offered up in Sacrifices, the celebrated emperors have begun their reigns with the open fields, or on some mountain, upon what they a reformation of it. Our historians, however, not call the Tan, which siguifies a quantity of stones contented with discovering in the Chinese religion the thrown together in a round form, or simply a round fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli- heap of earth. A double fence called Kiao, compogion, have also found in it evident symptoms of a sed of turf and branches of trees, was raised around knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Christi- this ; and, in the space left between the two fences, ans. “ Among the ancient Chinese characters (says two lesser altars were erected on the right and left; M. Grosier), which have escaped the ravages of time, upon which, immediately after the sacrifice offered up we find the following a. According to the dictionary to the Tien, they sacrificed also to the Cheng, or good of Kang-hi, this signifies union ; according to the spirits of every rank, and to their virtuous ancestors. Choue-ouen (that book so highly esteemed in China) a The sovereign alone had a right of sacrificing upon is three united in one; it derives it from the charac- this Tan; and the custom of sacrificing to inferior ters jom (to enter or penetrate), and one; whence spirits, according to the Chinese commentators, may it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated, be traced even to the days of To-hi himself. The same or incorporated into one. According to another book, writers add, that, in addressing themselves to the accounted a learned and accurate explanation of the Chang-ti, they considered him as the sovereign lord of ancient characters, ‘ A signifies strict union, harmony, the universe, clothed with all that power which was the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it necessary to satisfy them with regard to the different I) 2 objects (a) t is a singular circumstance that I. Amiot should have passed over in silence such unintelligible mummery, without a single animadversion. Reason humbly confesses every word of it to be absolutely incomprehen81 e ? anu *aith itself has almost as hard a struggle in believing it as the never-to-be-fathomed creed of Athanasius.

CHI f 28 ] CHI themselves by retirement, fasting, and continence ; no China, Cliiua. objects of their requests; but that, in offering up their audience is given by the emperor, and the tribunals v*1" ——v—- ' prayers to the inferior objects ot worship, they only imare entirely shut; marriages, J'unerals, rejoicings, and plored their protection and mediation with the Chang-ti. While the empire was confined within narrow entertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At bounds, one mountain was sufficient for the sacrifices j last, on the day appointed, the emperor appears, atbut in process of time it became necessary to consecrate tended by an innumerable multitude, and his person four others. These were situated at the extremities of surrounded by a vast number of princes, lords, and ofthe empire, and were supposed to correspond with the ficers, while every part of the temple seems to correfour quarters of the world ; and the prince went suc- spond with the magnificence of the sovereign ; all the cessively every year to one of these mountains to offer vases and utensils employed in the sacrifices are of up sacrifices •, taking occasion at the same time to gold, and cannot be applied to any other purpose; show himself to his people, and to inform himself of even the instruments of music are of enormous magtheir wants. This custom subsisted for a long time; nitude, and never used anywhere else. All this granbut at length it was found convenient to add a fifth deur, however, serves only to display in a more emimountain in the centre of the empire ; and ever since nent manner the humility and abasement of the mothese have been called the five Yo, or the five moun- narch during his devotion; at which time he rolls in tains of sacrifice. This method of subjecting .the em- the dust, and speaks of himself before the Chang-ti in i0^ peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at- terms of the most abject submission and humiliation. The purity of the ancient Chinese religion has,Sect of tended with many inconveniences. It was found necessary on this account to consecrate some spot in the however, been long contaminated by many idolatrous Tao-sse. neighbourhood of his palace, which might be substi- and fanatical sects. Among these, one named Tao-sse tuted for the To upon all occasions when the emperor was founded by a philosopher called Lao-kiun or Laocould not repair to them. An edifice was therefore tse, who was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced erected, which at once represented the Kioo, Tan, and age, leaving to his disciples a book entitled Tao-te, bethe Hall of ancestors. This last was a necessary part ing a collection of 5000 sentences. His morality has of the edifice ; because it wTas incumbent on those who a great resemblance to that of Epicurus. It consists offered up sacrifices, first to repair to this hall, and ac- principally in banishing all vehement desires and pasquaint their ancestors with what they were about to sions capable of disturbing the peace and tranquillity perform; and thither also they returned after sacrifi- of the soul. According to him, the care of every wise cing, to thank the same ancestors for the protection man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from they had received from the Chang-ti; after which they grief and pain, and to glide gently down the stream offered up a sacrifice of thanksgiving in honour of them, of life, devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this and performed certain other ceremonies to show their happy state he advises his follow^ers to banish all thoughts respect. The building contained five separate halls, of the past, and to abstain from every vain and useless appropriated to different purposes; originally it had inquiry concerning futurity, as v'ell as all tormenting neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and a thoughts of ambition, avarice, &c. It was found by staircase of nine steps conducted to the principal en- the disciples of this philosopher, however, that all their trance. Afterwards, however, it was much more rich- endeavours to obtain a perfect tranquillity of mind ly ornamented, each of the five halls being decorated w-ere vain, as long as the thoughts of death intervened; with columns, over which others were placed that sup- they therefore declared it possible to discover a compoported a second roof. In succeeding times it was strip- sition from which drink might be made that would renped of all its ornaments, with a view to bring back re- der mankind immortal. Hence they were led to the ligion to its primitive simplicity. Its four gates w'ere study of chemistry ; and, like the w'estern alchemists, covered w'ith fine moss, representing the branches of wearied themselves in search of the philosopher’s stone, which the double fence of the ancient Kiao were form- until at last they gave themselves up to all the extraed. The ridge of the roof was covered with the same, vagancies of magic. and the whole was encompassed by a canal filled with The desire of avoiding death, together with the crewater at the time of offering up the sacrifices. To dulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly produthis a second building was added, which they called ced a number of converts to the sect of 2cro sse. Mathe temple of neatness, and which was used only for pu- gical practices, the invocation of spirits, and the art , rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely of foretelling events by divination, quickly diffused consecrated to the worship of the Chang-ti. themselves over the empire, and the imbecility of the At present there are only two temples in Peking, emperors contributed to propagate the deception. named the Tian-tan and the Ti-tan ; in the construc- Temples consecrated to spirits quickly reared thei tion of which all the elegance of Chinese architecture is heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of the displayed. These are both dedicated to the Chang-ti. most celebrated of the sect were authorized to mainbut under different titles ; in the one he is adored as tain public worship there after the form which had the eternal spirit; in the other, as the creator and pre- been prescribed by their master. At the same time server of the world. The ceremonies of the modern they distributed, and sold at a dear rate, images of the sacrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex- imaginary spirits with which they had peopled the heaceed the splendour and magnificence with which these vens -and the earth. These were, by their command, solemnities are performed. Sometimes before the day worshipped as so many deities independent of the Suappointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the preme Being : and in like manner, several of the angrandees of the court, and all those whom their em- cient emperors were invoked as gods. ployments qualify to assist at the solemnity, prepare Being patronized by th'e emperors of several dynasties, 3

CHI [ 29 ] CHI China, nasties, this sect became more ami more powerful, short, that all things had proceeded from a vacuum l China, —v—^ At last they had the impudence to affix, during the and nothing, and to that they must return. This doc- ~—y-—'■> night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city, trine produced a corresponding mode of action, or raa book filled with mystic characters and magical fi- ther of inaction, in those who believed it : for thus the gures. At break of day they informed the emperor great happiness of man was made to consist in absolute of the sudden appearance of this book, and publicly annihilation : and therefore the nearer he could bring declared that it was fallen from heaven. This trick himself to this state during life, the happier he was easily imposed upon the weak prince. He immediate- supposed to be. ly repaired, with a numerous train, to the spot where The common doctrine, however, which admits of a the sacred volume appeared j and having taken it into distinction between good and evil, finds more prosehis hands in a respectful manner, carried it in triumph lytes among the vulgar, whose situation in life will not to his palace, where he shut it up in a golden box. allow them to spend their time in perpetual idleness. Another emperor carried his reverence for the sect to According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and such a height of impiety and extravagance, as to or- the wicked punished after death. They say also, that der a celebrated Tao-sse to be publicly worshipped un- the god Fo came to save mankind, and to expiate their der the name of Chang-ti. The sect thus patronized sins ; and that be aloue can procure them a happy reby the princes, and accommodated to the credulity of generation in the life to come. Five precepts are the vulgar, continued to gain ground in spite of every likewise inculcated on those who adopt this doctrine : opposition from the wiser part of the people, and is I. Not to kill any living creature j 2. Not to take still very powerful in China. At present they offer away the goods of another j 3. Not to pollute themup three different victims, a hog, a fowl, and a fish, to selves by uncleanness j 4. Not to lie j and, 5. Not to a spirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, such drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to as howling, drawing fantastical figures upon paper, ma- perform acts of mercy, to treat their bonzes well, build king a hideous noise with kettles and drums, are used temples, &c. in their incantations j and though it may readily be The doctrine of metempsychosis has introduced into believed that they are for the most part unsuccessful, China an infinite number of idols, who are all worshipyet their credit is still kept up by those cases in which ped on the supposition that the spirit of Fo has transthey succeed by accident. migrated into the animals they represent. These idols, The chief of the 1 'ao-sse is invested by government however, seem not to be worshipped with great sinwith the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed cerity ; but, like the images of saints in the more suby his successors : he resides in a sumptuous palace in perstitious countries of Europe, are beaten and thrown a town of Kiang-si j and the superstitious confidence in the dirt when their votaries happen not to obtain of the people attracts an immense number thither from their desires, which they impute to the obstinacy or all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be weakness of the idol. Nay, M. Grosier gives an accured of diseases, others to get an insight into futurity. count of one man, who having ineffectually paid a sum The impostor distributes to them small bits of paper fill- of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the cure of ed with magical characters j and the ignorant wretches his daughter, brought a formal accusation against the depart well satisfied, without grudging the expence of idol himself j and in spite of all that the bonzes could their journey, though ever so long. l04 say in its behalf, got its worship suppressed throughout Of the wor-. A still more pernicious and more widely diffused sect the province. 10^ r shippers of is that of the idol Fo, which came originally from InI he bonzes of China are represented as a most ava- Bad chadia. The Tao-sse had promised to the brother of one ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to practise racter of of the emperors of China to introduce him to a com- every kind of villany, and even to subject themselves ^ ^enzes* munication with spirits. The credulous prince having to the most intolerable tortures, in order to obtain moheard of a great spirit named Fo, who resided in India, ney from the compassion of the public when they canprevailed on his brother to send an embassy thither. not get it in any other way ; and an edict of one of On the arrival of the ambassadors, however, they could the emperors is cited by M. Grosier, by which great find only two worshippers of this deity, both of whom numbers of their religious houses were suppressed. In they brought to China. Several images of Fo were order to perpetuate their sect, they purchase young also collected at the same time : and these, together children, whom they take care to instruct in all the with some canonical books of the Indians, were placed mysteries and tricks of their profession ; hut excepton a white horse, and carried in procession to the im- ing this, they are in general very ignorant, and few perial city. of them would he able to give any tolerable account This superstition wras introduced into China about of the tenets of their own sect, They are not subject the 65111 year of the Christian aera, and soon made to a regular hierarchy, but acknowledge. superiors vast progress. One of its principal doctrines is that among them whom they call grand bonzes, who have of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, of the first place in all religious assemblies at which they which M. Grosier thinks he was the inventor, and that happen to he present: and great profit is derived from Pythagoras, who travelled in^o several parts of India, certain religious clubs, both of men and women, at had borrowed the doctrine from him. The account which the bonzes are always called to assist. Their given of him by the bonzes is, that finding himself, wealth is likewise augmented by pilgrimages to certain at the age of 70, oppressed with infirmities, he called places where there are temples more or less reverenced, his disciples together, and told them he was unwilling and where a multitude of absurd ceremonies is perto leave the world without communicating the secret formed. . These bonzes, as may he easily imagined, are and hidden mysteries of his doctiinej which were, ia inveterate enemies to the progress of Christianity, te!ling

CHI [ 30 ] CHI ing the most absurd stories concerning the missionaries j have formed different establishments. At first their China, as that they pluck out the eyes of their converts to number was augmented only by marriages *, but for construct telescopes with, &c. The literati, however, some time past they have been more particularly atand the more sensible part of the nation, hold them in tentive to the extending of their sect and propagating their doctrine. The principal means employed for the greatest contempt. I0(y Ridiculous We shall conclude this detail of the Chinese reli- this purpose are, to purchase a great number of chilsuperstition gion with giving an account of one other superstition dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents °f the/ott?-which seems peculiar to the nation. It is named fong- are glad to part with ; and these they circumcise, and choui, which signifies wind and water. By this they afterwards instruct in the principles of their religion. mean the lucky or unlucky situation of a house, bury- During the time of a famine which desolated the proing-place, &c. If any imprudent person has built a vince of Chang-tong, they purchased more than 10,000 house close to that of a Chinese, in such a manner of these children \ for whom, when grown up, they that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or procured wives, built houses, and even formed whole roof of the former house, the proprietor ever after villages ot them. They are now become so numerous, lives in terror of utter ruin and destruction from the that in the places where they reside they entirely exmalignant influence of that angle. An implacable clude every inhabitant who does not believe in their hatred instantly commences betwixt the two families, prophet, and frequent a mosque. IoS With regard to the manners of the Chinese, they Ceremonies and often gives rise to a law-suit, which furnishes matman a c 'i g » ter of discussion for some of the superior tribunals. bear no resemblance to those of any other nation j and,°f If no redress can be had at law, however, the Chinese if we may believe their historians, they are the sam.o is then reduced to the necessity of erecting, on the top at this day that they were 4000 years ago. The woof his house, an enormous image of a dragon, or some men are condemned almost to perpetual imprisonment other monster, with its mouth gaping towards the angle, within the precincts of their own houses, and are neand, as it were, threatening to swallow it up ; after ver seen even by their intended husbands before marwhich the apprehensions of the proprietor begin to riage. He knows nothing of her looks or person, but subside, and tranquillity is restored to the family. In from the account of some female relation or confidant, this manner the governor of Kien-tchang secured him- who in such cases acts the part of match-maker \ though self from the influence of the church of the Jesuits, if imposed upon either with regard to her age or fiwhich, being built on an eminence, overlooked his pa- gure, he can have recourse to a divorce. The same lace. Not depending, however, entirely on the good matrons who negotiate the marriage, also determine the offices ol his tutelary dragon, he also took the wise sum which the intended husband must pay to the paprecaution of altering his principal apartments, and rents of the bride: for in China a father does not give raising, at the distance of 200 paces from the church, a dowry to his daughter ; it is the husband who gives a kind of large facade three stories high. But un- a dowry to the wife. When the day appointed for luckily the death of his successor was attributed to the marriage is arrived, the bride is placed in a chair this facade $ for the mandarin being attacked with a or close palanquin, the key of which is committed to disorder in the breast, which made him spit up a white the care of a trusty domestic, who must deliver it to phlegm, this symptom was thought to be owing to the none but the husband. The latter, richly dressed, waits walls ot the facade, which were very white, and which at his gate for the arrival of the procession. As soon were forthwith painted black. The salutary precau- as it approaches, the key is put into his hands j he tion, however, happened to be taken too late } for the eagerly opens the chair, and for the first time perceives governor died notwithstanding the black colour of the Ills good or bad fortune. If he is contented with his . walls. new spouse, the bride descends and enters the house, “ We should never have done (says M. Grosier), where the marriage is concluded by feasting and merwere we to relate all the superstitious ideas of the Chi- riment as in other countries $ but if the bridegroom is nese, respecting the lucky and unlucky situation of very much disappointed, he suddenly shuts the chair, houses, the quarter which doors ought to front, and and sends the bride home to her relations. To get rid the plan and day proper for constructing the stoves in of her in this manner, however, costs a sum equal to which they cook their rice.” But the object on which what he originally gave in dowry to obtain her. they employ their greatest care is the choice of the The Chinese women, even of the first rank, seldom ground and situation for a burying-ground. Some quacks quit their apartment, which is situated in the most refollow no other profession than that of pointing out tired part of the house, and in which they are secluhills and mountains which have an aspect favourable ded from all society but that of their domestics. The for w 0! K.s of that kind. When a Chinese is persuaded book of ceremonies requires that there should be two 01 the truth ol such information, there is no sum which apartments in every house ; the exterior one for the he would not give to be in possession of the fortunate husband, the interior for the wife. They must even spot. I he greater part of the Chinese are of opinion be separated by a wail or wooden partition, the door that all the happiness and misfortunes of life depend of which is carefully guarded ; nor is the husband at upon the fang-choui. i liberty to enter the wife’s apartment, or she to quit it, Jews and c0!011) Jews was established in China about without sufficient reason. According to the same book, Mahome- the year 206 B. C. j but they are now reduced to a the prattling and loquacity of a woman are reckoned tans in small number of families at Cai-fong, the capital of sufficient grounds for a divorce. If this be founded • the province of Honan. The Mahometans have mul- in fact, the women of China are either unexampled for tiplied much more than the Jews. It is about 600 taciturnity, or else multitudes of divorces must be daily years since they first entered the empire, where they occurrences. A woman, however, cannot he divorced ois China,

C H I C H I [ 31 ] rated from his sisters, and no longer allowed to eat China, on any account, if she loses her parents after marriage, 1111 v or if she has worn three years mourning for the loss of with them, nor to sit down in their presence ; at eight, her husband, father, or mother. ue is instructed in the rules of good breeding and poA widow of any rank above the common, who has liteness ; at nine, he studies the kalendar; at ten, he is children, seldom enters a second time into the mar- sent to a public school, where he learns to read, write, riage state, though those of the ordinary rank ge- and cast accounts ; from 13 to 15 he is taught music, nerally do. The poorer sort are not at liberty to fol- and every thing that he sings consists of moral precepts. low their own inclination, but are sold for the behoof It was formerly the custom, that all the lessons designof the parents of the deceased. As soon as the bar- ed for the Chinese youth were in verse; and it is to gain is concluded, a couple of porters bring a chair, this day lamented, that the same custom is not followwhich is guarded by a number of trusty people. In ed, as their education has since been rendered much this the widow is shut up, and thus conducted to her more difficult and laborious. new husband. At the age of 13, the Chinese boys are taught to “Masters (says M. Grosier), for the most part, are handle the bow and arrow, and to mount on horseback j very desirous of promoting marriage among their slaves, at 20 they receive the first cap, if they are thought to whatever Mr Paw may say ; who, without any founda- deserve it, and are permitted to wear silk dresses ornation, has ventured boldly to assert the contrary. They mented with furs ; but before that period they are not have even very strong motives to induce them to en- allowed to wear any other thing than cotton. courage these marriagesj the children produced by them Another method of initiating children into the are still their slaves ; and besides their becoming new principles of knowledge in this empire is, by selecting property to them, the fathers and mothers are thus more a number of characters expressive of the most common strongly attached to their service.” objects, engraving or printing them separately on some ConcubfConcubinage is tolerated in China, though not au- kind of substance, and, under the thing represented, nage tole- thorized by any law. This privilege is granted only to putting the name, which points out to them the meanrated. the emperor, the princes of the blood, and mandarins ; ing of the word. and none but the emperor is permitted to have more As the Chinese have no proper alphabet, they rethan one. The common people generally avail them- present almost every thing by different characters. selves of the toleration granted them in this respect, The labour of their youth, therefore, is intolerable ; and will have two or three concubines if they can af- being obliged to study many thousand characters, each ford it. They are, however, careful to excuse them- of which has a distinct and appropriate signification. selves as well as they can to their wives in this respect, Some idea of their difficulties may be obtained from pretending only a desire to have many children, and what we are told by F. Martini, who assures us, that a number of women to attend their wives. Others, he was under the necessity of learning 60,000 different desirous of having a male child, while perhaps their characters before he could read the Chinese authors lawful wife cannot have any, take a concubine for this with tolerable ease. reason only, and dismiss her as soon as their wishes If he book first put into the hands of the Chinese are accomplished j they then permit her to marry whom children is an abridgement, which points out what a se pleases, and frequently even provide a husband for child ought to learn, and the manner in which he her themselves. These concubines are almost all pro- should be taught. This volume is a collection of short cured from two cities named Yang-tcheou and Sou-tc/ieou, sentences, consisting of three or four verses each, all where they are educated, and taught singing, dancing, of which rhyme; and they are obliged to give an acmusic, and every accomplishment suitable to women of count in the evening of what they have learned in the quality, or which can render them agreeable and plea- day. After this elementary treatise, they put into their sing. The greatest part of them are purchased in other hands the four books which contain the doctrines of places, to be again disposed of; and this is the principal Confucius and Mencius. The sense and meaning of branch of trade carried on by these two cities. Unlaw- the work is never explained to them until they have ful intrigues are seldom heard of in China. Whoever got by heart all the characters, that is to say, the words seduces the wife of another is punished with death ; and in the book ; a method no doubt inconceivably disgustthe same punishment is generally inllicted on the per- ing, and calculated utterly to destroy the genius of a son who debauches a young woman. boy, if he has any. While they are getting these charom 16 racters by heart, indeed, they are likewise employed in Education ^ t* accounts we have of the education of chilof children. ^ren ‘n China, one might be. apt to conclude, that, in- learning to form them with a pencil. For this purstead of being the ignorant superstitious race already pose they are furnished with large leaves of paper, on described, they ought to be the most intelligent people which are written or printed with red ink very big in the world. The book of ceremonies directs the edu- characters ; and all they are required to do is to cover cation of a child to commence as soon as it is born, those red characters with black ink, and to follow exand describes exactly the qualities which its nurse actly their shape and figure; which insensibly accusought to have. She must speak little, adhere strictly toms them to form the different strokes. After this to truth, have a mild temper, behave with affability they are made to trace other characters, placed under to her equals, and with respect to her superiors. The the paper on which they write. These are black, and child is taught to use the right hand as soon as it can much smaller than the other. It is a great advantage put its hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At to the Chinese literati to be able to paint characters six years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers well ; and on this account they bestow great pains in most in use, and made acquainted with the names of forming the hands of young people. This is of the the principal parts of the world; at seven, he is sepa- utmost consequence to literary students in the exami* nations

CHI CHI . [_ 32 ] tons, placed at a little distance from one another. The < China. China, 1 nations which they are obliged to undergo before they sleeves are wide towards the shoulder, growing narrow" can be admitted to the first degree. Du Halde gives v a remarkable instance, viz. that “ a candidate for de- er as they approach the wrist, where they terminate in grees having, contrary to order, made use of an ab- the form of a horse shoe, covering the hands entirely, breviation in writing the character ma, which signifies and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be a horse, had the mortification of seeing his composi- seen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle tion, though in other respects excellent, rejected mere- of silk, the ends of which hang down to their knees. ly on that account j besides being severely rallied by From this girdle is suspended a sheath containing a the mandarin, who told him a horse could not walk un- knife and two of those small sticks which they use as forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers, less he had all his legs.” After the scholar has made himself master of the in summer made of linen, and in winter of satin lined characters, he is then allowed to compose ^ but the with fur, sometimes of cotton, and in some of the subject of his composition is pointed out to him only northern provinces of skins. These are sometimes coby one word. Competitions are likewise established vered with another pair of white taffety. Their shirts in China, but most of them are of a private nature. are always very short and wide, of diftereat kinds of Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the same cloth, according to the season. Under these they wear name, and who consequently have only one hall for a silk net to prevent it from adhering to the skin. In the names of their ancestors, agree among themselves warm weather they have their necks always bare to send their children twice a month to this hall in. or- when it is cold, they wear a collar made of silk and der to compose. Each head of a family in turn gives sable, or fox’s skin, joined to their robe, which in winthe subject of this literary contest, and adjudges the ter is trimmed with sheep skin, or quilted with silk and prize $ but this costs him a dinner, which he must cause cotton. That of people of quality is entirely lined to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about with beautiful sable skins brought from Tartary, or tenpence is imposed on the parent of each scholar who with the finest fox’s skin, trimmed with sable; and in the spring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe absents himself from this exercise. Besides these private competitions, every student is they wear also a kind of surtout with wide sleeves, but obliged to compete at least twice a-year under the in- very short, which is lined in the same manner. The spection of an inferior mandarin of letters styled Hio- emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to kouan. It frequently happens also, that the mandarins wear yellow ; certain mandarins have liberty to wear of letters order these students to be brought before satin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony : them, to examine the progress they have made in their in general they are clothed in black, blue, or violet. studies, to excite a spirit of emulation among them, and The common people are allowed to wear no other comake them give such application as may qualify them lours but blue or black ; and their dress is always comuj for any employment in the state. Even the governors posed of plain cotton cloth. Formerly the Chinese were at great pains to pre-Chine*e of cities do not think it below their dignity to take obliged by this care upon themselves ; ordering all those students serve their hair $ but the Tartars, who subdued them, to e a rs who reside near them to appear before their tribunal compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and ^ c^ ^ once a month : the author of the best competition is alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fashion. tjieir ^air. honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the This revolution in dress was not effected without bloodcandidates on the day of competition at his own ex- shed, though the conquerors at the same time adopted pence. In every city, town, and village in China, in other respects the laws, manners, and customs of the there are schoolmasters who teach such sciences as are conquered people. Thus the Chinese are painted as known in that country. Parents possessed of a certain if bald, but they are not so naturally 5 that small porfortune provide masters for their children, to attend tion of hair which they preserve behind, or on the and instruct them, to form their minds to virtue, and tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them. to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. In accustomed ceremonies, as well as to make them ac- summer they wear a kind of cap shaped like an invertquainted with the laws and history, if their age will ed cone, lined with satin, and covered with ratan or admit. These masters have, for the most part attain- cane very prettily wrought. The top terminates in a ed to one or two degrees among the literati, and not un- point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, which frequently arrive at the first employments of the state. spreads over it, and covers it to the brim. This hair The education of the Chinese women is confined to grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is cagiving them a taste for solitude, and accustoming them pable of taking any colour, especially a deep red. This to modesty and silence •, and if their parents are rich, ornament is much used, and any person who chooses they are likewise instructed in such accomplishments as may wear it. The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the same in may render them agreeable to the other sex. Dress. There is little distinction in China between the or- form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red satin, dinary dress of men and women. Rank and dignity and covered on the outside with white. A large tuft are distinguished by certain accessary ornaments ; and of the finest red silk is fixed over it, which is sufl'ered the person would be severely chastised who should pre- to hang down or wave with the wind. People of disume to assume them without being properly authori- stinction generally use the common cap when they zed. The dress in general consists of a long vest which mount on horseback or during bad weather j being reaches to the ground. One part of this vest, viz. better calculated to keep off rain, and shelter those that on the left side, folds over the other, and is fasten- who wear it from the rays of the sun. For winter ed to the right by four or five small gold or silver but- they have another cap bordered with sable, ermine, or fox’s

CHI [3.3] CHI |[ox’s skIn> ail and behind other is called the feast of lanthorns. During the these are some with the hooked weapons already decelebration of the former, all business, whether pri- scribed. vate or public, is suspended, the tribunals are shut, the Behind these come soldiers armed with triple-pointposts stopped, presents are given and received, and vi- ed spears, arrows, or battle-axes 5 having in front two sits paid. All the family assemble in the evening, and men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy’s partake of a feast to which no stranger is admitted 5 seal. I hen come two other drummers to give notice though they become a little more sociable on the fol- of his approach. Two officers follow, having on their lowing day. heads felt hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and The feast of lanthorns ought to take place on the each armed with a cane to recommend regularity and 15th day of the first month, but usually commences on good order to the surrounding multitude. Two others the evening of the 13th, and does not end till that of bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. These again the 16th. At that time every city and village, the are followed by a number of magistrates and officers shores of the sea, and the banks of all the rivers, are of justice : some of whom carry whips or flat sticks, hung with lanthorns of various shapes and sizes j some while others have chains, hangers, and silk scarfs. of them being seen in the courts and windows of the ’I wo standard-bearers and a captain command this poorest houses. No expence is spared on this occasion j company, which immediately precede the governor. and some of the rich people will lay out eight or nine His chair is surrounded by pages and footmen, and an pounds sterling on one lanthorn. Some of these are officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of very large, composed of six wooden frames either a screen $ he is followed by several guards differentlyneatly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine armed, together with ensigns and other officers, who transparent silk, upon which are painted flowers, ani- are also followed by a great number of domestics all mals, and human figures; others are blue, and made on horseback, carrying various necessaries for the use of a transparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time, great number of wax candles, are placed in the inside: instead of flambeaux, as is customary in Europe, large to the corners of each are fixed streamers of silk and lanthorns, exceedingly pretty, are carried before him j satin of different colours, with a curious piece of car- on the transparent part of which are written, in very ved work on the top. They are likewise acquainted conspicuous characters, his quality, titles, and rank, with our magic lanthorn, which they sometimes in- as mandarin. These are also intended to give notice troduce into, this festival. Besides this, they have the to the passengers to stop, and to those who are sitting art of.forming a snake 60 cr 80 feet in length, filled to rise up with respect $ for whoever neglects either with lights from one end to the other j which they the one or the other is sure to receive a severe basticause twist itself into different forms, and move about nading. E2 The

C H I C H I [ 36 J that the deception cannot be discovered till the moment Chinn, Cfaina. 1 The emperor marches with still more magnificence, , '~v—■" in proportion to his superior quality. T-he trumpets you begin to eat it. The counterfeit hams of China used in this procession are about three feet long, eight have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over much resembling a bell in shape : their sound is pecu- with a certain kind of earth which is covered with hog’s , liarly adapted to that of the drums. His cavalcade is skin. The whole is so curiously painted and prepared, closed by 2000 mandarins of letters, and as many of that a knife is necessary to detect the fraud. Mr Osarms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the beck relates, that having one day observed a blind man emperor, travel in barks : their attendance is then carrying about for sale some of those trees called by somewhat different, but the magnificence almost the the Chinese, Fokei, he purchased one, which to appearsame. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed ance had fine double red and white flowers } but on a province with equity are exceedingly great on his closer examination, he found that the flowers were taken departure from it. He has scarcely left the capital of from another tree, and that one calyx was so neatly fitthe province when he finds on the highway, lor the ted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that he space of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certain should scarcely have discovered the deceit had not the distances, each of which is surrounded with a long flowers begun to wither. The tree itsell had buds, but piece of silk that hangs down to the earth. On these not one open flower. “ The robbers in China signalize themselves also by wax candles are placed even in the open day: perfumes are burnt upon them •, and they are loaded w-th a pro- the dexterity and ingenuity which they display in fusion of victuals, and various kinds of fruit, while tea their profession. They seldom have recourse to acts of and wine are prepared for him on others. The peo- violence, but introduce themselves into a house either ple throw themselves on their knees as he passes, and privately or by forming some connection with the fabow their heads even to the earth 5 some shed tears, or mily. It is as difficult in China to avoid robbery as it pretend to do so j some present him with wine and sweet- is to apprehend the criminal in the fact. If we are meats j others frequently pull off his boots and give desirous of finding among the Chinese openness of temhim new ones. These boots, which he has perhaps per, benevolence, friendship, and, lastly, virtue, we must used only for a moment, are considered as a valuable not seek for it in cities, but in the bosom of the counmonument; those first taken off are preserved in a try, among that class of men who have devoted themcage over the gate of the city $ the rest are carefully selves to labour and agriculture. A Chinese rustic often discovers moral qualities which would add a kept by his friends. Il8 Kflavi).!i Hitherto our author, M. Grosier, has seemed in- lustre to the character of men of the most exalted disposition dined to give a favourable idea of the Chinese, and to rank. It appears that rural life naturally inspires senof the Chi- cause us l0ok upon them as many degrees superior to timents of benevolence $ by continually receiving the ourselves in the practice of virtue and morality $ but gifts of nature, the mind is enlarged, and men are when he comes to give an account of their dealings in insensibly accustomed to diffuse them to those around trade, he is then obliged to confess that they are as dis- them.’ The internal commerce of China is much greater honest and knavish a race as any that exist. “ The most frequented fairs of Europe (says he) afford but a faint than that of all Europe ; but its foreign trade is by idea of that immense number of buyers and sellers with no means equal to that of any of the grand European which the large cities of China are continually crowd- powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated ed. We may almost say, that the one half are em- by the vast number of canals and rivers with which ployed in over-reaching the other. It is, above all, the country is intersected. The Chinese, however, against strangers that the Chinese merchants exercise, are not at all fitted for maritime commerce : Few without any sense of shame, their insatiable rapacity. of their vessels go beyond the straits of Sunda; their Of this F. du Halde gives a striking example, which longest voyages to Malacca extended only as far as might be Supported by many others : ‘ The captain of Acheen, towards the straits of Batavia, and northan English vessel bargained with a Chinese merchant wards to Japan. at Canton for several bales of silk, which the latter Their commerce with the last mentioned island, conwas to provide against a certain time. When they sidering the article of exchange, which they procure at were ready, the captain went with his interpreter to the Camboya or Siam, produces them cent, per cent. Their house of the Chinese merchant to examine whether trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent* they were sound and in good condition. On opening Their profit is more considerable about Batavia ; and the first bale, he found it according to his wish, but all the Dutch spare no pains to invite them to traffic at the rest were damaged and good for nothing. The cap- their settlements. The Chinese traders go also, though tain on this fell into a great passion, and reproached not very frequently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patan, the merchant in the severest terms for his dishonesty. and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china j from The Chinese, after having heard him for some time, whence they bring gold and tin, together with some with great coolness, replied, ‘ Blame, Sir, your knave objects of luxury for the table. A great obstacle to of an interpreter: he assured me that you would not the foreign commerce of the Chinese is their indiffeinspect the bales.* rence about maritime affairs, and the bad construction “ The lower class of people are, above all, very dex- of their vessels. This they themselves acknowledge } terous in counterfeiting and adulterating every thing but say, that any attempt to remove it would be derothey sell. Sometimes you think you have bought a gating from the laws, and subverting the constitution Ir capon, and you receive nothing but skin $ all the rest has of the empire. . Etiryingbeen scooped out, and the place so ingeniously filled, The burying-pi aces in China are always situated at places dea scribed.

China,

CHI [ 37 3 CHI a small distance from a city or town, and generally up- nese as the most important of any. A few moments China, 1 ' on some eminence, having pines or cypresses usually after a person has expired, he is dressed out in his rich- ‘ ' v™ planted around them. The form of the tombs is v?t- est attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity; pnn”°j rious according to the dift’erent provinces, and the situ- after which he is placed in the coffin. The prePara-cerem0. ation of those for whom they are intended. Th« coffins tion of a coffin, in which his body may be inclosed af-nies. of the poor are placed under a shed covered with thatch, ter death, is one of the chief objects of attention to a or inclosed in a small building of brick in the form of Chinese during his life, and great expence is often a tomb. The tombs of the rich are shaped like a thrown out upon it ; insomuch that the poor will give horse-shoe, well whitened, and finished with great all they are worth, and the rich expend a thousand taste j but those of the mandarins and people of qua- crowns, nay, a son will sell himself for a slave in order lity are much more sumptuous and elegant. A vault to purchase a coffin for his father. Sometimes the cofis first constructed, in which the coffin is shut up j fin, when purchased with all this labour and expence, over this vault is raised a pyramid of earth well beat will remain twenty years useless in the family, and is together, about 12 feet in height and to in diameter. considered as the most valuable piece of furniture in bis A layer of lime and sand laid over this earth makes a possession. kind of plaster, which renders the whole very durable The manner of interment is as follows : First they and solid ; various kinds of trees being planted around sprinkle some lime in the bottom of the coffin ; theiv it in regular order. Before it is placed a large and they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head long table of white marble, on the middle of which is on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it set a censer, accompanied with two vases, and the same may remain more steady, and be prevented from shanumber of candlesticks of exquisite workmanship. Be- king. In this manner the body remains exposed seven sides this a great number of figures, representing offi- days ; but the time may be reduced to three, if any cers, eunuchs, soldiers, saddled horses, camels, lions, weighty reason makes it necessary; and, during this tortoises, &c. are ranged round the tombs in different interval, all the relations and friends, who are purposerows ; which F. du Halde assures us, produces a very ly invited, come and pay their respects to the deceastriking effect. sed, the nearest relations even remaining in the house. When a Chinese dies in a province in which he was The coffin is exposed in the hall of ceremony, which not born, his children have a right, nay it is their in- is then hung with white, but some pieces of black or dispensable duty, to transport the body to the burying- violet-coloured silk are here and there interspersed, place of their ancestors. A son, who should be wanting as well as some other ornaments of mourning. Bein this respect, would be disgraced, and his name never fore the coffin is placed a table, on which stands the placed in the hall of his ancestors. This is a vast build- image of the deceased, or a carved ornament inscriing, considered as common to all the branches of the bed with his name ; and these are always accomsame family, and to which they all repair at a certain panied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax canseason of the year. Sometimes they amount to seven dles. or eight thousand persons, whose fortune, dignity, and In the mean time those who enter the hall are acrank in society, are all very different; but there no customed to salute the deceased as if he were still in distinction of rank is known ; age only gives prece- life. They prostrate themselves before the table, and dence, and the oldest always takes place of all the rest, knock their foreheads several times against the earth ; though he should be the poorest in the company. after which they place on the table some perfumes and The distinguishing ornament of this hall is a long wax candles provided for the purpose. The salutatable set against the wall, upon which is generally seen tion which they have made to the deceased is returnthe image of one of their ancestors, who has filled ed by the eldest son accompanied by his brothers. some office of distinction in the empire with honour The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which to himself, or who has been rendered illustrious by his hangs on one side of the coffin, creeping along the talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the ground until they reach the spot where those stand names of men, women, and children belonging to the whom they are going to salute ; after which, without family, inscribed upon tablets, together with their age, rising up, they return to the place from whence they the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed came. The women are also concealed behind the at that time. These tablets are ranged in two rows same curtain, from whence they every now and then upon steps, and are only about a foot high each. In the send forth dismal cries. spring, and sometimes in the autumn, the relations of After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the the deceased repair to this hall, where the onlv privi- funeral procession at last commences. A troop of men lege enjoyed by the richest is that of preparing an en- march in a file, carrying different figures made of tertainment, and treating the whole family at their pasteboard, and representing slaves, lions, tigers, horown expence •, but they never allow themselves to taste ses, &c. Others follow, marching in two files ; some a bit of any thing until an offering has been first made of which carry standards, some flags or censers filled to their ancestors. This does not, however, excuse with perfumes; while melancholy and plaintive airs them from visiting the real tomb of their ancestors once are played by others on different musical instruments. or twice a-year, generally in the month of April. At These musicians immediately precede the coffin, which this time they pluck the weeds and bushes from around is covered with a canopy in form of a dome, of violetthe tomb, renew their expressions of grief, and conclude coloured silk ; its four corners are ornamented with by placing upon it wine and provisions, which serve to tufts of white silk very neatly embroidered, and codine their assistants. vered at the top with net-work. The coffin is placed The funeral ceremonies are considered by the Chi- on the bottom of this machine, and is carried by 64 men..

CHI [ 38 1 CHI China, men. The eldest son, clothed in a frock of canvas, afterwards to the boat, and carrying a large one by the 1 china. 1 .1 liav|ng body bent and leaning on a staff, follows middle in their bill. The small ones are prevented v- of an Arch, is a right line joining the exordained priest in the Indies by the apostolical vicar. tremes of that arch. He wrote a great number of works, in a polite, florid, Chord, in M.usic, the union of two or more sounds and easy style ; the principal of which are, 1. Four uttered at the same time, and forming together an enDialogues on the Immortality of the Soul, &c. 2. Ac- tire harmony. count of a voyage to Siam. 3. An Ecclesiastical HiThe natural harmony produced by the resonance of story, in 11 vols. 4to. 4. Life of David, with an In- a sounding body, is composed of three different sounds, terpretation of the Psalms. 5. Life of Solomon, &c. without reckoning their octaves $ which form among He died at Paris in 1724. themselves the most agreeable and perfect chord that CHOLEDOCHUS, in Anatomy, a term applied to can possibly be heard: for which reason they are called, a canal or duct, called also ductus communis; formed on account of their excellence, perfect chords. Hence, of the union of the porus biliarus and ductus cysticus. in order to render that harmony complete, it is neThe word comes from choler: and I re- cessary that each chord should at least consist of three ceive, or contain. sounds. The trio is likewise found by musicians to The choledochus ductus, passing obliquely to the include the perfection of harmony; whether because lower end of the duodenum, serves to convey the bile in this all the chords, and each in its full perfection, from the liver to the intestines. See Anatomy In- are used ; or, because upon such occasions as render dex. it improper to use them all, and each in its integriCHOLER; See Bile. ty, arts have been successfully practised to deceive CHOLERA morbus, a sudden eruption or over- the ear, and to give it contrary persuasion, by deflowing of the bile or bilious matters both upwards and luding it with the principal sounds of each chord, in downwards. See Medicine Index. such a manner as to render it forgetful of the other CHOMER, or Omer. See Corus. sounds necessary to their completion. Yet the octave CHONDRILLA. See Botany Index. of the principal sound produces new relations, and CHONDROPTERYGII, in Ichthyology, a term new consonances, by the completion of the intervals : formerly applied to the order of fishes now called a?n- they commonly add this octave, to have the assemphibia nantes by Linnaeus. See Amphibia. blage of all the consonances in one and the same CHOP-church, or Church-chopper, a name, or chord; (see Consonance). Moreover, the addition rather a nick-name, given to parsons who make a prac- of the dissonance (see Discord), producing a fourth tice of exchanging benefices. See Permutation. sound superadded to the perfect chord, it becomes inChop-church occurs in an ancient statute as a lawful dispensably necessary, if we would render the chord trade or occupation ; and some of the judges say it was full, that we should include a fourth part to express a good addition. Brook holds, that it was no occupa- this dissonance. Thus, the series of chords can neition, but a thing permissible by law. ther be complete nor connected but by means of four CHOPIN, or Chopine, a liquid measure used both parts. m Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint. Chords are divided into perfect and imperfect. The See Pint and Measure. perfect chord is that which we have lately described 5 CHOPINE, Rene, a famous civilian born at Bail- which is composed of the fundamental sound below, leul in Anjou in 1537. He was advocate in the parlia- of its third, its fifth, and its octave: they are likewise ment of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with subdivided into major and minor, according as the great reputation. He at last shut himself up in his thirds which enter into their composition are flat or closet, and composed many works, which have been sharp : (See Interval). Some authors likewise give 2 the

C H O [ 56 1 C H O the nanje of perfect to all chords, even to dissonances, this order, the harmony will be ruined, even though the Chords U whose fundamental sounds are below. Imperfect chords same chords are preserved. 3. In a word, the chords are rendered still more Choriamare those in which the sixth, instead of the fifth, prebus. vails, and in general all those whose lowest are not harmonious by being approximated and only divided their fundamental sounds. These denominations, which by the smallest practicable intervals, which are more had been given before the fundamental bass was known, suitable to the capacity of the ear than such as are reare now most unhappily applied : those of chords di- mote. This is what we call contracting the harmony; rect and reversed are much more suitable in the same an art which few composers have skill and abilities enough to put in practice. The limits in the natural sense. Chords are once more divided into consonances and compass of voices, afford an additional reason for lesdissonances. The chords denominated consonances, are sening the distance of the intervals, which compose the perfect chord, and its derivatives j every other the harmony of the chorus, as much as possible. We may affirm, that a chorus is improperly composed, chord is a dissonance. A table of both, according to the system of M. Ra- when the distance between the chords increases ; when meau, may be seen in Rousseau’s Musical Dictionary, those who perform the different parts are obliged to scream when the voices rise above their natural extent, vol. i. p. 27. After the table to which our readers have been re- and are so remotely distant one from the other, that mitted, Rousseau adds the following observations, which the perception of harmonical relations between them is are at the same time so just and so important, that we lost. should be very sorry if they escape the reader’s attenWe say likewise, that an instrument is in concord tion. when the intervals between its fixed sounds are what At the words harmony, fundamental bass, composi- they ought to be } we say in this sense, that the chords tion, &c. he promises to treat concerning the man- of an instrument are true or false, that it preserves or ner of using all the chords to form regular harmo- does not preserve its chords. The same form of speakny j and only adds, in this place, the subsequent reflec- ing is used for two voices which sing together, or for tions. two sounds which are heard at the same time, whether 1. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods in unison or in parts. of inverting the same chord are in all cases equalChords, or Cords of Musical Instruments, are ly eligible for the harmony and for the expression. strings, by the vibration of which the sensation of There is not one of these different arrangements but sound is excited, and by the divisions of which the sehad its proper character. Every one feels the con- veral degrees of tone are determined. trast between the softness of the false fifth, and the CHORDEE, in Medicine and Surgery, a symptom grating sound of the tritone, though the one of these attending a gonorrhoea, consisting in a violent pain intervals is produced by a method of inverting the under the frenum, and along the duct of the urethra, other. With the seventh diminished, and the second during the erection of the penis, which is incurvated redundant, the case is the same with the interval of the downwards. These erections are frequent and invosecond in general use, and the seventh. Who does luntary. not feel how much more vocal and sonorous the fifth CHOREA Sancti Viti. See Vitus's Dance, appears when compared with the fourth ? The chord Medicine Index. ol the great sixth, and that of the lesser sixth minor, CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient are two forms of the same fundamental chord: but church, about whose function the learned are much dihow much less is the one harmonious than the other ? vided. The word comes from a region, or little On the contrary, the chord of the lesser sixth major is country, and e^crxr’raj, a bishop or overseer. rhuch more pleasing and cheerful than that of the The Chorepiscopi were suffragan or local bishops, false fifth. And only to mention the most simple of holding a middle rank between bishops and presbyall chords, reflect on the majesty of the perfect chord, ters, and delegated to exercise episcopal jurisdiction the sweetness of that which is called the chord of the within certain districts, when the boundaries of partisixth, and the insipidity of that which is composed of cular churches, over which separate bishops presided, a sixth and a fourth : all of them, however, compo- were considerably enlarged. It is not certain when sed of the same sounds. In general, the redundant this office was first introduced $ some trace it to the intervals, the sharps on the higher part, are proper by close of the first century : others tell us, that choretheir severity to express violent emotions of mind, piscopi were not known in the east till the beginning such as anger and the rougher passions. On the con- of the fourth century •, and in the west about the year trary, flats in the higher parts, and diminished inter- 439. They ceased both in the east and west in the vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart. tenth century. There are a multitude of similar observations, of Chorepiscopus is also the name of a dignity still which, when a musician knows how to avail himself, subsisting in some cathedrals, particularly in Gerhe may command at will the affections of those who many j signifying the same with chori episcopus, or hear him. “ bishop of the choir.” The word, in this sense, does 2. The choice of simple intervals is scarcely of less not come from place, but choir, &c. In importance than that of the chords, with regard to the church of Cologne, &c. the first chanter is called the stations in which they ought to be placed. It is chorepiscopus. for instance, in the lower parts that the fifth and ocCHOREUS, Xo^tag, a foot in the ancient poetry, tave should be used in preference } in the upper parts, more commonly called trochceus. See Trochee. the third and sixth are more proper. If you transpose CHORIAM BUS, in ancient poetry, a foot con3 sisting

c H O [ 57 ] C H O Choriam- sisting of four syllables, ■whereof the first and last are tain any thing but what was suited to the subject, and Chorus bus long, and the two middle ones are short j or, which had a natural connection with it; so that the chorus || H is the same thing, it is made up of a trochaeus and concurred with the actors for advancing the action. Chous. lorus ^ ‘ , iambus j such is the word nobilitas. In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid aside, and ^ CHORION, in Anatomy, the exterior membrane the fiddles supply its place. M. Hacier looks on this which invests the foetus in the uterus. See Foetus. retrenchment as of ill consequence, and thinks it robs CHOROBATA, or Chorobates, a kind of water- tragedy of a great deal of its lustre ; he therefore judges level among the ancients, of the figure of the letter it necessary to re-establish it, not only on account of the T, according to Vitruvius’s description. regularity of the piece, but also to correct, by prudent CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of and virtuous reflections, any extravagancies that might any country or province. fall from the mouths of the actors when under any vioChorography differs from geography, as the de- lent passion. scription of a particular country differs from that of M. Hacier observed also, that there was a chorus, the whole earth j and from topography, as the de- or grex, in the ancient comedy : but this is suppressed scription of a country is different from that of a town in the new comedy, because it was used to reprove or district. See the articles Geography, Topogra- vices by attacking particular persons; as the chorus phy, and Map. of the tragedy was laid aside to give the greater CHOROIDES, or Choroeides, in Anatomy, a probability to those kinds of intrigue which require term applied to several parts of the body, bearing secrecy. some resemblance to the chorion. The word is formChorus, in Music, is when, at certain periods of a ed from wgitv, chorion, and likeness. song, the whole company are to join the singer in reChoroides is particularly used for the inner mem- peating certain couplets or verses. brane which immediately invests the brain ; so called CHOSE (FV.), “ a thing used in the common as being intermingled with a great number of blood- law with divers epithets j as chose local, chose transivessels, like the chorion : but more usually denominated tory, and chose in action. Chose local is such a thing the pia mater or meninx tenuis. as is annexed to a place, as a mill and the like j chose Plexus or Lacis Chorotdes, is a knot of veins and transitory is that thing which is moveable, and may be arteries in the anterior ventricle of the brain, woven taken away, or carried from place to place j and chose out of the branches of the carotid. in action is a thing incorporeal, and only a right, as an Choroides is also applied to the inner and poste- obligation for debt, annuity, &c. And generally all rior tunic of the eye, immediately under the scleroti- causes of suit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be ca. It is soft, thin, and black : and its inner or con- accounted choses in action : and it seems, chose in accave surface is very smooth and polished. It has its tion may be also called chose in suspense ; because it hath name from its being interspersed with vessels. no real existence or being, nor can properly be said to CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more per- be in our possession. sons present on the stage during the representation, CHOSROES I. the Great, king of Persia after and supposed to be by-standers without any share in his father Cabades, A. D. 532. He made peace with the action. the Romans j but broke it the third year, and forced Tragedy in its origin was no more than a single Justinian to a disadvantageous peace. Afterwards, he chorus, who trode the stage alone, and without any was so swelled with his victories, as to bid the empeactors, singing dithyrambics or hymns in honour of ror’s ambassador follow him for audience to Csesarea j Bacchus. Thespis, to relieve the chorus, added an but Tiberius sent an army under Justinian, who made actor, who rehearsed the adventures of some of their himself master of the country, and put Chosroes to heroes; and iEschylus, finding a single person too dry death in 586. an entertainment, added a second, at the same time Chosroes II. His subjects put his father Hormisreducing the singing of the chorus, to make more das in prison, and the son upon the throne of Persia. room for the recitation. But when once tragedy be- He used his father tenderly at first j but afterwards gan to be formed, the recitative, which at first was in- caused him to be put to death. This, together with tended only as an accessary part to give the chorus a his killing some of the nobility, obliged him to fly : he breathing time, became a principal part of the trage- gave his horse the bridle, which carried him into a dy. At length, however, the chorus became inserted town of the Romans, where Mauricius the emperor and incorporated into the action : sometimes it was received him kindly, and sent an army under Narses to speak \ and then their chief, whom they called co- which set him again upon the throne. He took Jerurypheeus, spoke in behalf of the rest : the singing was salem ; after this he made himself master of Libya and performed by the whole company j so that when the Egypt, and carried Carthage. Heraclius sued for coryphaeus struck into a song, the chorus immediately peace ; which wTas offered him on condition, That he joined him. and his subjects should deny Jesus Christ: Hereupon The chorus sometimes also joined the actors, in the Heraclius attacked him with success, and put him to course of the representation, with their plaints and la- flight. His own son pursued him, and he was starved mentations on account of any unhappy accidents that in prison in 627. befel them ; but the proper function, and that for which CHOUGH, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a it seemed chiefly retained, was to show the intervals of species of Coryus. See Ornithology Index. the acts: while the actors were behind the scenes, the CHOUS, in the eastern military orders, the title chorus engaged the spectators j their songs usually of the messengers of the divan Janisaries. There turned on what was exhibited, and were not to con- are several degrees of honour in this post. "When a Vol. VI. Part I. + H person

C H R [ 58 ] C H R bishop, and used in the Romish and Greek churches, Chrism j Chou* person is first advanced to it, he is called a kuchuk, or the in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordina- S (I \hl\e c/wus; after this he is advanced to be the Chrism, chous, that is, the messenger of ceremonies ; and from tion, and extreme unction, which is prepared on holy , Christ. v ’ " v " IL' this, having passed through the office of petelma^ or Thursday with much ceremony. In Spain it was anthe custom for the bishop to take one-third of procurator of the effects of the body, he is advanced to ciently a sol for the chrism distributed to each church, on acbe the has chous. CHOWDER-BEER, a provincial phrase of Devon- count of the balsam that entered its composition. shire, denoting a cheap and easily prepared drink, Du Cange observes, that there are two kinds of highly commended for preventing the scurvy in long chrism j the one prepared of oil and balsam, used in voyages, or for the cure of it where it may have been baptism, confirmation, and ordination j the other of contracted. It is prepared in the following manner : oil alone, consecrated by the bishop, usvd anciently for Take twelve gallons of water, in which put three the catechumens, and still in extreme unction. The pounds and a half of black spruce : boil it for three Maronites, before their reconciliation with Rome, behours, and having taken out the fir or spruce, mix sides oil and balsam, used musk, saffron, cinnamon, with the liquor seven pounds of melasses, and just boil roses, white frankincense, and several other drugs menit up j strain it through a sieve, and when milk-warm tioned by Rynaldus, m 1541, with the doses of each. put to it about four spoonfuls of yeast to work it. In The Jesuit Dandini, who went to Mount Libanus in two or three days stop the bung of the cask : and in quality of the pope’s nuncio, ordained, in a synod held five or six days, when fine, bottle it for drinking. Two there in 1596, that chrism for the future should be gallons of melasses are sufficient for a hogshead of li- made only of two ingredients, oil and balsam the quor ; but if melasses cannot be procured, treacle or one representing the human nature of Jesus Christ, the other his divine nature. The action of imposing the coarse sugar will answer the purpose. CHREMNITZ, the principal of the mine towns in chrism is called chrismation : this the generality of tire Romish divines hold to be the next matter of the sacraUpper Hungary, situated about 68 miles north-east of Presburg, and subject to the house of Austria. E. Long. ment of confirmation. The chrismation in baptism is performed by the 19. N. Lat. 48. 45. CHRENECRUDA, a term occurring in writers priest j that in confirmation by the bishop j that in orof the middle ages, and expressing a custom of those dination, &c. is fnore usually styled unction. times ; but its signification is doubtful. It is men- Chrism Pence, Chrismatis Denarii, or Christioned in Lege Saliva, tit. 61. which says, he who kills males Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to the bishop a man, and hath not wherewithal to satisfy the law or by the parish clergy, for their chrism, consecrated at pay the fine, makes oath that he hath delivered up every Easter for the ensuing year : this was afterwards conthing he was possessed of; the truth of which must be demned as simoniacal. confirmed by the oaths of 12 other persons. Then he CHRISOM, a white garment put upon a child by invites his next relations by the father’s side to pay the priest immediately after baptism, accompanied with off the remainder of the fine, having first made over this devout prayer j “ Take this white vesture as a token to them all his effects by the following ceremony. He of the innocency which, by God’s grace in this holy goes into his house, and taking in his hand a small sacrament of baptism is given unto thee, and for a sign quantity of dust from each of the four corners, he re- whereby thou art admonished, so long as thou livest, to turns to the door, and with his face inwards throws give thyself to innocence of living, that after'this tranthe dust with his left hand over his shoulders upon his sitory life thou mayest be partaker of life everlasting. nearest of kin. Which done, he strips to his shirt j Amen.” and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over From this circumstance the white garment got the the hedge. His relations, whether one or several, are name of chrisom, which, after being worn a few days, upon this obliged to pay off the composition for the was delivered to the priest as a sacred deposit, to be murder. And if these (or any one of them) are not able produced in future as an evidence against the person, to pay iterum super ilium chrenecruda, qui pauperior should he be so impious as to renounce his baptismal est,jactat, et ille totam legem componat. Whence it ap- engagements. This ceremony continued in use for a pears, that chrenecruda jactare, is the same with throw- considerable time after the reformation in the church of ing the dust gathered from the four corners of the England, which required the mother of the child, when house. Goldastus and Spelman translate it viridem churched, to offer the chrisom and other customary herbam, “ green grass,” from the German kraut, oblations. On pronouncing the above mentioned prayor from the Dutch gro£», “ green,” zn^grliid, “grass.” er, the priest anointed the head of the infant, saying, Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that “ Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ, by this word denotari purificationis approbationem, from who hath regenerated thee by water and the Holy chrein, “ pure, chaste, clean j” and keuren, “ to prove j” Ghost, and hath given unto thee the remission of all so that it must refer to the oaths of the twelve jurors. thy sins, vouchsafe to anoint thee with the unction of Be this as it will, King Childebert reformed this law his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of by a decree, chap. 15. both because it savoured of everlasting life. Amen.” Pagan ceremonies, and because several persons were CHRIST, an appellation synonymous with Messiah, thereby obliged to make over all their effects : De usually added to Jesus: and, together therewith, decht'enecruda lex quam paganorum tempore observabant, nominating the Saviour of the world. See Christideinceps nunquam valeat, quia per ipsam cecidet multo- anity and Messiah. rum potestas. The word ^{irrof signifies anointed, from inungo, CHRISM (from xyv, I anoint), oil consecrated by “ I anoint.” Sometimes the word Christ is used sin2 g1y»

C H It [ 59 1 C H R or reduced. Other formularies, or confessions of faith, CliristiaChrist g]y, by way of antonomasis, to denote a person sent may, according to the Christian, deserve more or less mty. from God, as an anointed prophet, king, or priest. II v ChristiaOrder of Christ, a military order, founded by Dio- attention, as they are more or less immediately connity. nysius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles a- tained or implied in the scriptures. But whatever is gainst the Moors. The arms of this order are gules, not actually expressed in, or reduced by fair and nepatriarchal cross charged with another cross argent: cessary consequence from, these writings, must be rethey had their residence at first at Castromarin $ after- garded as merely human ; and can have no other title wards they removed to the city of Thomar, as being to our assent and observation than what they derive from their conformity with the scriptures, with the dicnearer to the Moors of Andalusia and Estremadura. Christ is also the name of a military order in Li- tates and feelings of a reformed and cultivated mind, vonia, instituted in 1205 by Albert bishop of Riga. or with those measures which are found expedient and The end of this institution was to defend the new useful in human life. But as those books, from whence Christians who were converted every day in Livonia, the Christian investigates his principles of belief and but were persecuted by the heathens. They wore on rules of conduct, have been variously interpreted by their cloaks a sword with a cross over it, whence they different professors and commentators, these diversities have given birth to a multiplicity of different sects. were also denominated brothers of the sword. CHRIST-Burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake It cannot, therefore, be expected, that any one who Drausen, and about three Polish miles from Marien- undertakes to give an account of Christianity, should comprehend all the writings and opinions which have burgh. CHRiST-Church, a borough town of Hampshire, 30 been propagated and exhibited by historical, systemamiles south-west of Winchester, near the sea-coast. W. tical, or polemical authors. These, if at all contained Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 40. It sends two members to in such a work as this, should be ranged under their proper articles, whether scientifical, controversial, or parliament. CHRisT-Thorn. See Rhamnus, Botany Index. biographical. It is our present business, if possible, to CHRISTIAN. See Christianity and Chris- confine ourselves to a detail of such facts and doctrines as, in the strict and primitive sense of the word, are catians. Most Christian King, one of the titles of the for- iholic, or, in other expressions, to such as uniformly have been, and still are, recognized and admitted by mer kings of France. 4 The French antiquarians trace the origin of this the whole body of Christians. We have already said that these, or at least theAccouatof appellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a letter to Charles Martel, occasionally gave him that greatest number of them, appeal to the scriptures 0f Uhristiamtitle, which his successors retained. the Old and New Testament as the ultimate standard, [jedueibl^ Christian Religion, that instituted by Jesus Christ. the only infallible rule of faith and manners. If you ask them, by what authority these books claim an abSee Christianity. CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Christians. solute right to determine the consciences and underOrigin of the word. The word is analogically derived, as other abstracts standings of men with regard to what they should befrom their concretes, from the adjective Christian. lieve and what they should do P They will answer you, This again is derived from the name Xg tion, must human intercourse have gained before the cies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though they formation and establishment even of the most simple, may prefigure subordinate events, yet if the grand ocimperfect, and barbarous language ! Why is a period currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone so vast obliterated so entirely as to escape the retrospect fulfil them in their various circumstances, and in their of history, or tradition, and even of fable itself? Why utmost extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom was the acquisition and improvement of other arts so they were revealed must have been actually prescient infinitely distant from that of language, that the era of of those events, and must have had them in view when the latter is entirely lost, whilst we can trace the foiv the predictions were uttered. For this see a learned and

C H R [ 61 ] C H R Christia- anl tial utility in the ordinary intercourse of society ; than observe them doing good to those who hated them, of those which are indispensably necessary to the exist- blessing those who cursed them, and praying for those can we deny ence of social order, and contribute to the ease and con- by whom they were despitefully used venience of life. Such virtues were well calculated to their virtues to have been of the most generous and disengage the imitation of those who had failed egregious- interested kind. We allow then that the virtues of the first Chrily in the practice of the more social virtues. Thus they practised extraordinary, but useless and stians must have contributed to the propagation of their unsocial virtues* upon no very generous motives ; those religion : but it is with pain that we observe this revirtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, and in- spectable writer studiously labouring to misrepresent the principles from which those virtues arose j and not only duced numbers to embrace their faith. 27 the principles from which they arose, but also their imWe must, however unwillingly, declare that this is Observa2S tionj in an-plainly an uncandid account of the virtues of the pri- portance in society. The fifth cause was the mode of church government Cause V, mitive Christians, and the motives from which they 0obserriginated. The social virtues are strongly recommend- adopted by the first Christians, by which they were with vatl0I1K ed through the gospel. No degree of mortification or knit together in one society; who preferred the church self-denial, or seclusion from the ordinary business and and its interests to their country and civil concerns. amusements of social life, was recjuired of the early We wish not to deny, that the mutual attachment of converts to Christianity ; save what was indispensably the primitive Christians contributed to spread the innecessary to wean them from the irregular habits in fluence of their religion ; and the order which they which they had before indulged, and which had ren- maintained, in consequence of being animated with this dered them nuisances in society, and to form them to spirit of brotherly love, and with such ardent zeal for new habits equally necessary to their happiness and the glory of God, must no doubt have produced na their usefulness in life. We allow that they practised less happy effects among them than order and regulavirtues which in other circumstances would, however rity produce on every other occasion on which they splendid, have been unnecessary. But in the difficult are strictly observed. But whether the form of churchcircumstances in which the first Christians were placed, government, which was gradually established in the the virtues which they practised were in the highest Christian church, was actually the happiest that could degree social. The most prominent feature in their possibly have been adopted j or whether, by establishcharacter was, “ their continuing to entertain senti- ing a distinct society, with separate interests, within ments of generous benevolence, and to discharge scru- the Roman empire, it contributed to the dissolution of pulously alt the social duties,” towards those who ex- that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire. ercised neither charity nor humanity, and frequently not These are subjects of discussion, with respect to which even bare integrity and justice, in their conduct towards we may with more propriety endeavour to satisfy our readers elsewhere. them. From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon General It cannot be said with truth, that such a proportion of the primitive Christians were people whose charac- has so speciously advanced concerning the influence of conclusion, ters had been infamous and their circumstances despe- these five secondary causes in the propagation of the rate, as that the character of the religion which they gospel, we think ourselves warranted to conclude, flugllce of embraced can suffer from this circumstance. Nor were That the zeal of the first Christians was not, as he re- the five they only the weak and illiterate whom the apostles and presents it, intolerant r That the doctrine of the im-causes, their immediate successors converted by their preach- mortality of the human soul was somewhat better uning. The criminal, to be sure, rejoiced to hear that derstood in the Heathen world, particularly among the he might obtain absolution of his crimes ; the mourner Greeks and Romans, and the Jews, than he represents was willing to receive comfort; minds of refined and it to have been j and had an influence someryhat hapgenerous feelings were deeply affected with that good- pier than what he ascribes to it: That the additional ness which had induced the Son of God to submit to circumstances by which, he tells us, the first preachers the punishment due to sinners : but the simplicity, the of Christianity improved the effects of this doctrine, rationality, and the beauty of the Christian system, like- were far from being calculated to allure converts : wise prevailed in numerous instances over the pride and That the heathens, therefore, were not quite so well prejudices of the great and the wise : in so many in- prepared for an eager reception of this doctrine as he stances, as are sufficient to vindicate the Christian church would persuade us they were; and, of consequence, from the aspersions by which it has been represented as could not be influenced by it in so considerable a debeing in the first period ol its existence merely a body gree in their conversion : That real, unquestionable miracles, performed by our Saviour, by his apostles, and of criminals and idiots. b 7

C H It [ 69 ] C H R renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that, even in the Christians, Christfa- by tbelr successors, did contribute signally to the pronity, pagation of Christianity ; but are not to be ranked third century, they endeavoured to get into their v——v— Christians, among the secondary causes: That weakness and blind hands Christian women, in order to scourge and stone ' v ' zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians same purpose not altogether ineffectually : That though solemnly three times a-day in their synagogues, and these despicable and wicked means might be in some their rabbins would not suffer them to converse with instances successful 5 yet they were, upon the whole, Christians upon any occasion. Nor were they contentmuch more injurious than beneficial : That the virtues ed to hate and detest them ; but they despatched emisof the primitive Christians arose from the most gene- saries all over the world to defame the Christians, and rous and noble motives, and were in their nature and spread all sorts of calumnies against them. They actendency highly favourable to social order, and to the cused them, among other things, of worshipping the comfort of mankind in the social state : And, lastly, sun and the head of an ass. They reproached them That the order and regularity of church-government, with idleness, and being an useless race of people. which were gradually established among the first Chri- They charged them with treason, and endeavouring stians, contributed greatly to maintain the dignity and to erect a new monarchy against that of the Romans. spread the influence of their religion j but do not ap- They affirmed, that, in celebrating their mysteries, pear to have disjoined them from their fellow-subjects, they used to kill a child and eat its flesh. They acor to have rendered them inimical to the welfare of the cused them of the most shocking incests, and of intemstate of which they were members. perance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and Upon the whole, then, we do not see that these se- behaviour of the first Christians were sufficient to recondary causes were equal to the effects that have lute all that was said against them, and evidently debeen ascribed to then); and it seems undeniable, that monstrated that these accusations were mere calumny others of a superior kind co-operated with them. We and the effect of inveterate malice. earnestly recommend to the perusal of the reader a Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus valuable performance of Lord Hailes’s, in which he and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a inquires into Mr Gibbon’s assertions and reasonings, very particular account of the Christians in that proconcerning the influence of these five causes, with the vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Trautmost accuracy of information, strength, and clearness jan, of which the following is an extract: “ I take of reasoning, and elegant simplicity of style, and with- “ the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every out virulence or passion. “ difficulty which arises to me. 1 have never been CHRISTIANS, those who pro fess the -religion of “ present at the examination of the Christians ; for Christ: See Christianity and Messiah.—The name “ which reason I know not what questions have been Christian was first given at Antioch, in the year 42, to “ put to them, nor in what manner they have been such as believed in Christ, as we read in the Acts: till “ punished. My behaviour towards those who have that time they were called disciples. “ been accused to me has been this : I have interroThe first Christians distinguished themselves in the “ gated them, in order to know whether they were most remarkable manner by their conduct and their “ really Christians. When they have confessed it, I virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe- “ have repeated the same question two or three times, ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor- “ threatening them with death if they did not retations of the Apostles, who failed not carefully to in- “ nounce this religion. Those who have persisted struct them, as persons who were entering upon an “ in their confession, have been, by my order, led to entirely new life. They went every day to the temple “ punishment. I have even met with some Roman with one heart and one mind, and continued in pray- “ citizens guilty of this phrensy, whom, in regard to ers $ doing nothing different from the other Jews, be- “ their quality, I have set apart from the rest, in orcause it was yet not time to separate from them. But “ der to send them to Rome. These persons dethey made a still greater progress in virtue j for they “ blare, that their whole crime, if they are guilty, sold all that they possessed, and distributed their goods “ consists in this j that, on certain days, they assemin proportion to the wants of their brethren. They “ ble before sunrise, to sing alternately the praises ate their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, “ of Christ, as of a god, and to oblige themselves, praising God, and having favour with all the people. “ by the performance of their religious rites, not to St Chrysostom, examining from what source the emi- “ be guilty of theft, or adultery, to observe inviolably nent virtue of the first Christians flowed, ascribes it “ their word, and to be true to their trust. This principally to their divesting themselves of their pos- “ deposition has obliged me to endeavour to inform sessions : “ For (says the father) persons from whom “ my.'df still farther of this matter, by putting to the all that they have is taken away, are not subject to “ torture two of their women-servants, whom they “ sin : whereas, whoever has large possessions, wants “ call deaconnesses; but I could learn nothing more “ not a devil or a tempter to draw him into hell by a “ from them than that the superstition of these peo“ thousand ways.” “ pie is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is astoThe Jews were the first and the most inveterate “ nishing.” enemies the Christians had. They put them to death There is extant a justification, or rather panegyric, as often as they had it in their power : and when of the Christians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pathey revolted against the Romans in the time of the gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus, emperor Adrian, Barcochebas, the head of that re- written in the year 152, in answer to the States of volt, employed against the Christians the most rigo- Asia, who had accused the Christians of being the rous punishments to compel them to blaspheme and cause of some earthquakes which had happened in that

C H R C H R [ 7< , ] whence it often happens, that those who are dispos- Christians, Christians, that part of the world. The emperor advises them sessed of evil spirits embrace the faith and are received v~~-' “ take care, lest, in torturing and punishing those ■whom they accused of Atheism (meaning the Chri- into the church. Others know what is to come, see stians), they should render them more obstinate, in- visions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal stead of prevailing upon them to change their opinion 5 the sick by laying their hands on them, and restore since their religion taught them to suffer with plea- them to perfect health : and we find some who even sure for the sake of God.” As to the earthquakes raise the dead.—It is impossible to reckon up the gifts which had happened, he put them in mind, “ that and graces which the church has received from God—— they themselves are always discouraged, and sink un- what they have freely received they as freely bestow. der such misfortunes 5 whereas the Christians never They obtain these gifts by prayer alone, and invocadiscovered more cheerfulness and confluence in God tion of the name of Jesus Christ, without any mixture than upon such occasion.” He tells them, that of enchantment or superstition.” We shall here subjoin the remarkable story, attested “ they pay no regard to religion, and neglect the by Pagan authors themselves, concerning the Christian worship of the Eternal j and, because the Christians honour and adore Him, therefore they are jealous ol Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius. them, and persecute them even to death.” He con- That prince having led his forces against the Quadi, cludes : “ Many of the governors of provinces have a people on the other side of the Danube, was surformerly written to my father concerning them ; and rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a disadvanhis answer always was, that they should not be molest- tageous place, and where they could find no water. ed or disturbed, provided they quietly submitted to the The Romans were greatly embarrassed, and, being authority of the government. Many persons have like- pressed by the enemy, were obliged to continue unwise consulted me upon this affair, and I have returned der arms, exposed to the violent heat of the sun, and the same answer to them all j namely, that if any one almost dead with thirst j when, on a sudden, the clouds accuses a Christian merely on account of his religion, gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The the accused person shall be acquitted, and the accuser soldiers received the water in their bucklers and helhimself punished.” This ordinance, according to Eu- mets, and satisfied both their own thirst and that of sebius, was publicly fixed up at Ephesus in an .assembly their horses. The enemy, presently after, attacked them 5 and so great was the advantage they had over of the states. It is no difficult matter to discover the causes of the them, that the Romans must have been overthrown, many persecutions to which the Christians were ex- had not Heaven again interposed by a violent storm of posed during the three first centuries. The purity of hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy, the Christian morality, directly opposite to tire cor- and abliged them to retreat. It was found afterruption of the Pagans, was doubtless one of the most wards, that one of the legions, which consisted of powerful motives of the public aversion. To this may Christians, had by their prayers, which they ofl’ered be added, the many calumnies unjustly spread about upon their knees before the battle, obtained this faconcerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews. vour from heaven : and from this event that legion And this occasioned so strong a prejudice against them, was surnamed The Thundering Legion. See, however, that, the Pagans condemned them without inquiring in- the criticism of Mr Moyle on this story in his Works, to their doctrine, or permitting them to defend them- vol. ii. p. 81—390. See also Mosheim's Church Histoselves. Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God, ry, vol. i. p. 124. Such were the primitive Christians, whose religion was contrary to one of the most ancient laws ot the Roman empire, which expressly forbade the acknow- has by degrees spread itself over all parts of the world, ledging of any God which had not been approved by though not with equal purity in all. And though, by the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters the senate. But notwithstanding the violent opposition made to have been suffered to possess themselves of those places the establishment of the Christian religion, it gained in Greece, Asia, and Africa, where the Christian reground daily, and very soon made a surpi'ising pro- ligion formerly most flourished; yet there are still such gress in the Koman empire. In the third century, remains of the Christian religion among them as to there were Christians in the camp, in the senate, in the give them opportunity sufficient to be converted. palace: in short everywhere, but in the temples and For, in the dominions of the Turk in Europe,, the the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the Christians make two third parts at least of the inhaislands. Men and women of all ages and conditions, bitants $ and in Constantinople itself there are above and even those of the first dignities, embraced the faith j twenty Christian churches, and above thirty in Thesinsomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve- salonica. Philadelphia, now called Ala-shahir, has no nues of their temples were ruined. They were in such fewer than twelve Christian churches. The whole great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian ex- island of Chio is governed by Christians $ and some presses it) were they to have retired into another coun- islands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Christians try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful only. In Africa, besides the Christians living in Egypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the solitude. The primitive Christians were not only remarkable islands upon the western coasts are inhabited by Chrifor the practice of every virtue j they were also very stians j and the vast kingdom of Abyssinia, supposed eminently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts to'be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, and graces bestowed by God upon them. “ Some put together, is possessed by Christians. In Asia, most of the Christians (says Irenseus) drive out devils, not part of the empire of Russia, the countries of Circassia in appearance only, but so as that they never return : and Mingrelia, Georgia, and Mount Libanus, are. inhabited

C H R [ Christians habited only by Christians. In America, it is notoriti ons that the Christians are very numerous, and spread Christina. ^ over most parts of that vast continent. v Christians of St John, a sect of Christians very numerous in Balfara and the neighbouring towns : they formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St John baptized, and it was from thence they had their name. They hold an anniversary feast of five days j during which they all go to the bishop, who baptizes them with the baptism of St John. Their baptism is also performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays : they have no notion of the third person in the Trinity; nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full of charms, &c. Their bishoprics descend by inheritance, as our estates do, though they have the ceremony of an election. Christians of St Thomas, a sort of Christians in a peninsula of India on this side of the gulf: they inhabit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring country: these admit of no images j and receive only the cross, to which they pay a great veneration : they affirm, that the souls of the saints do not see God till after the day of judgment: they acknowledge but three sacraments, viz. baptism, orders, and the eucharist ; they make no use of holy oils in the administration of baptism; but, after the ceremony, anoint the infant with an unction composed of oil and walnuts, without any benediction. In the eucharist, they consecrate with little cakes made of oil and salt, and instead of wine make use of water in which raisins have been infused. CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the province of Aggerhuys, situated in a bay of the sea. E. Long. 10. 20. N. Lat. 59. 50. CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, situated on the Baltic sea, in the territory of Bleckingen, and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 47. N. Lat. 570. CHRISTIANSTADT, a strong fortified towrn of Sweden ; situated in the territory of Bleckingen and province of South Gothland. It was built in 1614 by Christian IV. king of Denmark, when this province belonged to the Danes ; and finally ceded to the Swedes by the peace of Roskild in 1658. The town is small but neatly built, and is esteemed the strongest fortress in Sweden. The houses are all of brick, and mostly stuccoed white. It stands in a marshv plain, close to the river Helgeia, which flows into the Baltic at Alius, about the distance of 20 miles, and is navigable only lor small craft of seven tons burden. English vessels annually resort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. The inhabitants have manufactures of cloth and silken stuffs, and carry on a small degree of commerce. E. Long. 14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 10. CHRISTINA, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden, was born in 1626 ; and succeeded to the. crown in 1633, when only seven years of age. This princess discovered, even in her infancy, what she afterwards expressed in her memoirs, an invincible antipathy for the employments and conversation of women j and she had the natural awkwardness of a man with respect to all the little works which generally fall to their share. She was, on the contrary, fond of violent exercises, and such amusements as consist in feats of strength and activity. She had also both ability and 2

i ] C H R taste for abstracted speculations j and amused herself Christina, with language and the sciences, particularly that of legislation and government. She derived her knowledge of ancient history from its source j and Polybius and Thucydides were her favourite authors. As she was the sovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not strange that almost all the princes in Europe aspired to her bed. Among others, were the prince of Denmark, the elector Palatine, the elector of Brandenburg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans, Don John of Austria, Sigismund of Rockocci, count and general of Cassovia $ Stanislaus king of Poland 5 John Cassimir his brother ; and Charles Gustavus duke of Deux Ponts, of the Bavarian Palatinate family, son of her father the great Gustavus’s sister, and consequently her first cousin. To this nobleman, as well as to all his competitors, she constantly refused her hand ; but she caused him to be appointed her successor by the states. Political interests, differences of religion, and contrariety of manners, furnished Christina with pretences for rejecting all her suitors j but her true motives were the love of independence, and a strong aversion she had conceived, even in her infancy, from the marriage yoke. “ Do not force me to marry (said she to the states) j for if I should have a son, it is not more probable that he should be an Augustus than a Nero.” An accident happened in the beginning of her reign, which gave her a remarkable opportunity of displaying the strength and equanimity of her mind. As she was at the chapel of the castle of Stockholm, assisting at divine service with the principal lords of her court, a poor wretch, who was disordered in his mind, came to the place with a design to assassinate her. This man, who was preceptor of the college, and in the full vigour of his age, chose, for the execution of his design, the moment in which the assembly was performing what in the Swedish church is called an act of recollection ; a silent and separate act of devotion, performed by each individual kneeling and hiding the face with the hand. Taking this opportunity, he rushed through the crowd, and mounted a ballustrade within which the queen was upon her knees. The Baron Braki, chief justice of Sweden, was alarmed, and cried out; and the guards crossed their partisans, to prevent his coming further : but he struck them furiously on one side ; leaped over the barrier 5 and, being then close to the queen, made a blow at her with a knife which he had concealed without a sheath in his sleeve. The queen avoided the blow, and pushed the captain of her guards, who instantly threw himself upon the assassin, and seized him by the hair. All this happened in less than a moment of time. The man was known to be mad, and therefore nobody supposed, he had any accomplices : they therefore contented themselves with locking him up; and the queen returned to her devotion without the least emotion that could be perceived by the people, who were much more frightened than herself. One of the great affairs that employed Christina while she wras upon the throne, was the peace of Westphalia, in which many clashing interests were to be reconciled, and many claims to he ascertained. It was concluded in the month of October 1648. The success of the Swedish arms rendered Christina the arbitress

] C H R C H R [ 7: a narrow plank, with Admiral Fleming, his foot slip*. Christina. Christina, bitress of this treaty ; at least as to the affairs of Svve1 v"—J ■ '-v den, to which this peace confirmed the. possession of ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the sea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. Anmany important countries. No public event of importance took, place during the rest of Christina’s thony Steinberg, the queen’s first equerry, instantly reign ; for there were neither wars abroad, nor trou- threw himself into the water, laid hold of her robe, bles at home. This quiet might be the effect ot and, with such assistance as was given him, got the chance j but it might also be the effect of a good ad- queen ashore : during this accident, her recollection ministration, and the great reputation of the queen ; was such, that the moment her lips were above water, and the love her people had for her ought to lead us she cried out, “ Take care of the admiral.” When to this determination. Her reign was that of learn- she was got out of the water, she discovered no emoing and genius. She drew about her, wherever she tion either by her gesture or countenance ; and she was, all the distinguished characters of her time : Gro- dined the same day in public, where she gave a hutius, Paschal, Bochart, Hescartes, Gassendi, Saumaise, morous account of her adventure. But though at first she was fond of the power and Naude, Vossius, Heinsius, Meibom, Scudery, Menage, Lucas, Holstentius, Lambecius, Bayle, Madame splendour of royalty, yet she began at length to feel that Hacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts never it embarrassed her j and the same love of indepenfail to immortalize the prince who protects them *, and dency and liberty which had determined her against almost all these illustrious persons have celebrated Chris- marriage, at last made her weary of the crown. As, tina, either in poems, letters, or literary productions after her first disgust, it grew more and more irksome of some other kind, the greater part of which are now to her, she resolved to abdicate j and, in 1652, comforgotten. They form, however, a general cry of municated her resolution to the senate. The senate praise, and a mass of testimonials which may be consi- zealously remonstrated against it ; and was joined by dered as a solid basis of reputation. Christina, how- the people 5 and even by Charles Gustavus himself, ever, may be justly reproached with want of taste, in who was to succeed her: she yielded to their importunot properly assigning the rank of all these persons, nities, and continued to sacrifice her own pleasure to whose merits, though acknowledged, were yet une- the will of the public till the year 1654, and then she qual ; particularly for not having been sufficiently sen- carried her design into execution. It appears by one sible of the superiority of Descartes, whom she disgust- of her letters to M. Canut, in whom she put great coned, and at last wholly neglected. The rapid fortune fidence, that she had meditated this project for more which the adventurer Michon, known by the name of than eight years 5 and that she had communicated it Bourdelot, acquired by her countenance and liberality, to him five years before it took place. The ceremony of her abdication was a mournful sowas also a great scandal to literature. He had no pretensions to learning j and though sprightly was yet in- lemnity, a mixture of pomp and sadness, in which decent. He was brought to court by the learned Sau- scarce any eyes but her own were dry. She contimaise •, and, for a time, drove literary merit out of it, nued firm and composed through the whole; and, as making learning the object of his ridicule, and exact- soon as it was over, prepared to remove into a couning from Christina an exorbitant tribute to the weak- try more favourable to science than Sweden was. ness and inconstancy of her sex 5 for even Christina, Concerning the merit of this action, the world has alwith respect to this man, showed herself to be weak ways been divided in opinion ; it has been condemned and inconstant. At last she was compelled, by the alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler public indignation, to banish this unworthy minion : and the sage. It was admired, however, by the and he was no sooner gone than her regard for him great Conde : “ How great was the magnanimity of was at an end. She was ashamed of the favour she had this princess (said he), who could so easily give up shown him ; and, in a short time, thought of him with that for which the rest of mankind are continually hatred or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his as- destroying each other, and which so many throughcendency over the queen, had supplanted Count Mag- out their whole lives pursue without attaining!” It nus de la Gardie, son of the constable of Sweden, who appears, by the works of St Evremond, that the abdiwas a relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of cation of Christina was at that time the universal toChristina. M. de Mottville, who had seen him ambas- pic of speculation and debate in France. Christina, sador in France, says, in his memoirs, that he spoke besides abdicating her crown, abjured her religion : of his queen in terms so passionate and respectful, that but this act was universally approved by one party every one concluded his attachment to her to be more and censured by another; the Papists triumphed, and ardent and tender than a mere sense of duty can the Protestants were ofl’ended. No prince, after a produce. This nobleman fell into disgrace because he long imprisonment, ever showed so much joy upon showed an inclination to govern ; while M. Bourdelot being restored to his kingdom, as Christina did in seemed to aim at nothing more than to amuse 5 and quitting hers. When she came to a little brook, which concealed, under the unsuspected character of a droll, separates Sweden from Denmark, she got out of her the real ascendency which he exercised over the queen’s carriage ; and leaping on the other side, cried out in a transport of joy, “ At last I am free, and out of mind. -About this time, an accident happened to Christina Sweden, whither, I hope, I shall never return.” which brought her into still greater danger than that She dismissed her women, and laid by the habit of which has been related already. Having given or- her sex : “ I would become a man (said she) j yet I ders for some ships of war to be built at the port of do not love men because they are men, but because Stockholm, she went to see them when they were fi- they are not women.” She made her abjuration at nished $ and as she was going on board of them, cross Brussels j where she saw the great Conde, who, after hi* 3

C H R [ 73 ] C H R Christina. I’i9 defection, made that city his asylum. “ Cousin, should take shelter in his arms.” A musician having Christina — -v—■ > (said she), who would have thought, ten years ago, quitted her service for that of the duke of Savoy, she [] that we should have met at this distance from our was so transported with rage as to disgrace herself by Christocountries ?” these words, in a letter written with her own hand : . P^er sThe inconstancy of Christina’s temper appeared in “ He lives only for me : and if he does not sing for ’ her going continually from place to place : from Brus- me, he shall not sing long for any body.” sels she went to Rome; from Rome to France, and Bayle was also threatened for having said that the from France she returned to Rome again ; after this letter which Christina wrote, upon the revocation of she went to Sweden, where she was not very well re- the edict of Nantes, was “ a remain of Protestantism j” ceived j from Sweden she went to Hamburgh, where but he made his peace by apologies and submission. she continued a year, and then went again to Rome ; See the article Bayle. from Rome she returned to Hamburgh ; and again Upon the whole, she appears to have been an unto Sweden, where she was still worse received than common mixture of faults and great qualities j which, before j upon which she went back to Hamburgh, however it might excite fear and respect, was by no and from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended means amiable. She had wit, taste, parts, and learnanother journey to Sweden $ but it did not take place, ing : she w'as indefatigable upon the throne ; great in any more than an expedition to England, where private life $ firm in misfortunes j impatient of contraCromwell did not seem well disposed to receive her ; diction ; and, except in her love letters, inconstant and after many wanderings, and many purposes of in her inclinations. The most remarkable instance of wandering still more, she at last died at Rome in this fickleness is, That after she had abdicated the 1689. crown of Sweden, she intrigued for that of Poland. It must be acknowledged, that her journeys to She was, in every action and pursuit, violent and arSweden had a motive of necessity; for her appoint- dent in the highest degree j impetuous in her desires, ments were very ill paid, though the states often con- dreadful in her resentment, and fickle in her confirmed them after her abdication : but to other places duct. she was led merely by a roving disposition ; and, She says of herself, that, “ she was mistrustful, amwhat is more to her discredit, she always disturbed bitious, passionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous, the quiet of every place she came into, by exacting satirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and viogreater deference to her rank as queen than she had lent temper, and extremely amorous;” a disposition, a right to expect, by her total non-conformity to the however, to which, if she may be believed, her pride customs of the place, and by continually exciting and and her virtue were always superior. In general, her fomenting intrigues of state. She was indeed always failings were those of her sex, and her virtues the virtoo busy, even when she was upon the throne j for tues of ours. there was no event in Europe in which she was not Santa Christina, one of the Marquesas Islands. ambitious of acting a principal part. During the CHRISTMAS day, a festival of the Christian troubles in France by the faction called the Fronde, church; observed on the 25th of December, in meshe wrote with great eagerness to all the interested mory of the nativity or birth of Jesus Christ. As to parties, officiously offering her mediation to recon- the antiquity of this festival, the first footsteps we find cile their interests, and calm their passions, the secret of it are in the second century, about the time of the springs of which it was impossible she should know. emperor Commodus. The decretal epistles indeed This was first thought a dangerous, and afterwards a carry it up a little higher; and say that Telesphorus, ridiculous behaviour. During her residence in France who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered dishe gave universal disgust, not only by violating all the vine service to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn to customs of the country, but by practising others di- be sung the night before the nativity of our Saviour. rectly opposite. She treated the ladies of the court However, that it was kept before the times of Conwith the greatest rudeness and contempt : when they stantine, we have a melancholy proof: for whilst the came to embrace her, she being in man’s habit, cried persecution raged under Dioclesian, who then kept out, “ What a strange eagerness have these women to his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other acts kiss me ! is it because I look like a man ?” of cruelty, finding multitudes of Christians assembled But though she ridiculed the manners of the French together to celebrate Christ’s nativity, commanded the court, she was very solicitous to enter into its intrigues. church doors where they w7ere met to be shut, and fire Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma- to be put to it, which, in a short time, reduced them demoiselle de Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarine ; and the church to ashes. Christina flattered their passion, and offered her serCHRISTOPHER’S, St, one of the Caribbee islands, vice. “ I would fain be your confidant (said she) j if in America, lying on the north-west of Nevis, and you love, you must marry.” about 60 miles w’est of Antigua. It was formerly inThe murder of Monaldechi is, to this hour, an in- habited by the French and English ; but, in 1713, it scrutable mystery. It is, however, of a piece with the was ceded entirely to the latter. In 1782, it was expressions constantly used by Christina in her letters, taken by the French, but restored to Britain at the with respect to those with whom she was offended j peace. It is about fifteen mile's in breadth, and four in for she scarce ever signified her displeasure without length, and contains 43,726 acres. It has high mounthreatening the life of the offender. “ If you fail in tains in the middle, whence rivulets run down. Beyour duty, (said she to her secretary, whom she sent to tween the mountains are horrid precipices, and thick Stockholm after her abdication), not all the pow'er of woods. The population was computed by Bryan Edthe king of Sweden shall save your life, though you wards in 1794 to be 4000 whites and 21,000 negroes* 6 J Vol. VI. Part I. ' + K The

CHR [74] CHR Christo- The air is good j the soil light, sandy, and fruitful $ entering into the enharmonic species *, but two major chromatic. pher’s but the island is subject to hurricanes. The produce semitones twice follow each other in the chromatic orII is chiefly sugar, cotton, ginger, indigo, and the tropical der of the scale. Chromatic. fruits. W. Long. 62. 32. N. Lat. 17. 30. The most certain procedure of the fundamental bass CHRO AST ACES, an old term in Natural History, to generate the chromatic elements in ascent, is alterapplied to gems, and comprehending all those of vari- nately to descend by thirds, and rise by fourths, whilst able colours, as viewed in dift’erent lights and in dif- all the chords carry the third major. If the fundaferent positions j of which kinds are the opal and the mental bass proceeds from dominant to dominant by perfect cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in asteria or cat’s eye. CHROMATIC, a kind of music which proceeds descending. To produce both at once, you interweave by several semitones in succession. The word is de- the perfect and broken cadences, but at the same time rived from the Greek which signifies colour. avoid them. For this denomination several causes are assigned, of As at every note in the chromatic species one must which none appear certain, and all equally unsatisfac- change the tone, that succession ought to be regulated tory. Instead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we shall and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpose, it offer a conjecture of our own $ which, however, we will be proper to recollect, that the space most suitable do not impose upon the reader as more worthy of his to chromatic movements, is between the extremes of the attention than any of the former. may per- dominant and the tonic in ascending, and between the haps not only signify a colour, but that of a shade of a tonic and the dominant in descending. In the major colour by which it melts into another, or what the mode, one may also chromatically descend from the doFrench call nuance. If this interpretation be admit- minant upon the second note. This transition is very ted, it will be highly applicable to semitones j which common in Italy 5 and, notwithstanding its beauty, bebeing the smallest interval allowed in the diatonic scale, gins to be a little too common amongst us. The chromatic species is admirably fitted to express will most easily run one into another. To find the reasons assigned by the ancients for this denomination, grief and affliction j these sounds boldly struck in asand their various divisions of the chromatic species, the cending tear the soul. Their power is no less magireader may have recourse to the same article in Rous- cal in descending $ it is then that the ear seems to be seau’s Musical Dictionary. At present, that species pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper consists in giving such a procedure to the fundamental harmony, this species appears proper to express every bass, that the parts in the harmony, or at least some thing; but its completion, by concealing the melody, of them, may proceed by semitones, as well in rising sacrifices a part of its expression ; and for this disas descending ; which is most frequently found in the advantage, arising from the fulness of the harmony, minor mode, from the alterations to which the sixth and it can only be compensated by the nature and geseventh note are subjected, by the nature of the mode nius of the movement. We may add, that in proportion to the energy of this species, the composer ought itself* The successive semitones used in the chromatic spe- to use it with greater caution and parsimony ; like cies are rarely of the same kind ; but alternately ma- those elegant viands, which, when profusely adminijor and minor, that is to say, chromatic and diatonic : stered, immediately surfeit us with their abundance j for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or as much as they delight us when enjoyed with temperchromatic semitone, and another which is major or dia- ance, so much do they disgust when devoured with protonic, a measure which temperament renders common digality. Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic. to all tones : so that we cannot proceed by two minor semitones which are conjunctive in succession, without

CHROMATICS; THAT part of optics which explains the several many others, thought the difference of colour dependproperties of the colours of light, and of natural ed upon the quick or slow vibrations of a certain elastic medium filling the whole universe. Rohault imabodies. x Different Before the time of Sir Isaac Newton, we find no gined that the different colours were made by the rays hypothesis hypothesis concerning colours of any consequence, of light entering the ray at different angles with respect eonceruing 'j'jjg opinions of the old philosophex*s, however, we to the optic axis ; and from the phenomena of the rainco 0UIS ’ shall briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiosity bow, he pretended to calculate the precise quantity of of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the the angle that constituted each particular colour. Lastsuperfices of body. Plato said that it was a flame is- ly, Dr Elooke, the rival of Newton, imagined that cosuing from them. According to Zeno, it is the first lour is caused by the sensation of the oblique or uneven configuration of matter ; and Aristotle said, it was that pulse of light; and this being capable of no more than which moved bodies actually transparent. Des Cartes two varieties, he concluded there could be no more than 2 asserted, that colour is a modification of light; but he two primary colours. In the year 1666, Sir Isaac Newton began to inves-T™8.^'J imagined, that the difference of colour proceeds from the prevalence of the direct or rotatory motion of the tigate this subject ; and finding the coloured image of^telfby particles of light* Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and the sun, formed by a glass prism, to be of an oblong, sir Isaac and Newton.

CHROMATICS. 75 and not of a circular form, as, according to the laws the violet in the former circuit, and the green was of refraction, it ought to be, he began to conjecture more conspicuous ; being as brisk and copious as any that light is not homogeneal; but that it consists of rays, of the other colours, except the yellow j but the red some of which are much more refrangible than others. began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple. See this discovery fully explained and ascertained un- The fourth circle consisted of green and red j and of these the green was very copious and lively, inclining dei; the article Optics. This method of accounting for the different colours on the one side to blue, and on the other to yellow ; of bodies, from their reflecting this or that kind of but in this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue, rays most copiously, is so easy and natural, that Sir nor yellow, and the red was very imperfect and dirty. Isaac’s system quickly overcame all objections, and to All the succeeding colours grew more and more imperthis day continues to be almost universally believed. fect and dilute, till after three or four revolutions they It is now acknowledged, that the light of the sun, ended in perfect whiteness. ^ As the colours were thus found to vary according Supposed which to us seems perfectly homogeneal and white, is composed of no fewer than seven different colours, viz. to the different distances of the glass plates from each to arise red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and violet other j our author thought that they proceeded from ftom (*en' or indigo. A body which appears of a red colour hath the different thickness of the plate of air interceptedSlty’ the property of reflecting the red rays more power- between the glasses ; this plate of air being, by the fully than any of the others j and so of the orange, mere circumstance of thinness or thickness, disposed yellow, green, &c. A body which is of a black co- to reflect or transmit this or that particular colour. lour, instead of reflecting, absorbs all or the greatest From this he concluded, as already observed, that the part of the rays that fall upon it; and on the contra- colours of all natural bodies depended on their denry, a body which appears white reflects the greatest sity, or the bigness of their component particles. He part of the rays indiscriminately, without separating also constructed a table, wherein the thickness of a the one from the other. plate necessary to reflect any particular colour was The foundation of a rational theory of colours be- expressed in parts of an inch divided into 1,000,000 ing thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by parts. what peculiar mechanism in the structure of each parSir Isaac Newton, pursuing his discoveries concern- Colours hyticolar body it was fitted to reflect one kind of rays ing the colours of thin substances, found that the same reflection, more than another ? This Sir Isaac Newton attributes were also produced by plates of a considerable thickto the density of these bodies. Dr Hook had remark- ness. There is no glass or speculum, he observes, ed, that thin transparent substances, particularly water how well polished soever, but besides the light which and soap blown into bubbles, exhibited various colours it refracts or reflects regularly, scatters every way iraccording to their thinness ; though, when they have regularly a faint light $ by means of which the poa considerable degree of thickness, they appear colour- lished surface, when illuminated in a dark room by a less j and Sir Isaac himself had observed, that as he beam of the sun’s light, may easily be seen in all powas compressing two prisms hard together, in order to sitions of the eye. It was with this scattered light that make their sides (which happened to be a little con- the colours in the following experiments were provex) to touch one another, in the place of contact they duced. were both perfectly transparent, as if they had been The sun shining into his darkened chamber through 3 but one continued piece of glass. Hound the point of a hole in the shutter one inch wide, he let the beam of Colours contact, where the glasses were a little separated from light fall perpendicularly upon a glass speculum conappearing each other, rings of different colours appeared. To cave on one side and convex on the other, ground to a between £wo glass observe more nicely the order of the colours produced sphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and quicksilelates. in this manner, he took two object-glasses 5 one of vered over on the convex side. Then holding a quire them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re- of white paper at the centre of the sphere to which the fracting telescope, and the other a large double con- speculums were ground, in such a manner as that the vex one for a telescope of about 50 feet j and laying beam of light might pass through a little hole made in the former of them upon the latter, with its plain side the middle of the paper, to the speculum, and thence downwards, he pressed them strongly together ; by be refracted back to the same hole, he observed on the which means the colours very soon emerged, and ap- paper four or five concentric rings of colours like rainpeared distinct to a considerable distance. Next to bows, surrounding the hole, very much like those which the pellucid centrical spot, made by the contact of the appeared in the thin plates above mentioned, but larglasses, succeeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The ger and fainter. These rings, as they grew larger blue was very little in quantity, nor could he discern and larger, became more dilute, so that the fifth was any violet in it j but the yellow and red were very co- hardly visible; and yet sometimes, when the sun shone pious, extending about as far as the white, and four very clear, there appeared faint traces of a sixth and or five times as far as the blue. The next circuit im- seventh. mediately surrounding these, consisted of violet, blue, We have already taken notice, that the thin plates Colours by green, yellow, and red : all these were copious and made use of in the former experiments reflected some refraction vivid, except the green, which was very little in quan- kinds of rays in particular parts, and transmitted an ^Je sum will be found to be the Julian period. So the year 1789 will be found to be the 6502d year of that period. Or, to find the year of the Julian peri 0 al Swer,n to !in , ^l ! S y given year before the first year of Christ, subtract the number of that given year from 4714, and the remainder will be the year of the Julian period. Thus, the year 585 before the first year of

Christ (which was the 584th before his birth) was the 4129th year of the said period. Lastly, to find the cycles of the sun, moon, and indiction for any given year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19, and 15 $ the three remainders will be the cycles sought, and the quotients the number of cycles run since the beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year of the Julian period, the cycle of the sun was 10, the cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of indiction 4 j the solar cycle having run through 168 courses, the lunar 248, and the indiction 314. ^ The vulgar era of Christ’s birth was never settled till Year of the year 527, when Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman ab- Christ’s bot, fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian b‘rt!1 pei’iod, which was four years too late ; for our Savioursett C "~ t The clearing itself, however, entirely is a work are impregnated by the cock, containing the young , animal alive j and waiting only a due degree of warmth of more time in this case, than is the passing ol the chrysalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs case there is a crack sufficiently large in the skin of the transpire notwithstanding the hardness of their shells; back, and the whole chrysalis being loose comes out and when they have been long kept, there is a void at once. But in this case, every particular limb, and found near one of their ends, between tbe shell and part of the body, has its separate case 5 jind these are the internal membrane, which is a mark of their being almost inconceivably thin and tender, yet it is neces- stale, and is the effect of an evaporation of part of « sary that every part he drawn out of them before it their humidity : and the same varnish which had been appear naked to the open air. As soon as all this is used to the chrysalis, being tried on eggs, was found to effected, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con- preserve them for two years, as fresh as if laid but the tinues some time upon the remains of its covering, or same day, and such as the nicest palate could not dicreeps a little way distant from it, and there rests. stinguish from those that were so. See Eggs. It is not yet known how much farther this useful The wings are what we principally admire in this creature. These are at this time so extremely folded up, speculation might be carried, and whether it might and placed in so narrow a compass, that the creature not Ive of great use even to human life, to Invent someseems to have none at all j but they by degrees ex- thing that should-act in the manner of this varnish, by pand and unfold themselves j and finally, in a quarter being rubbed over the body, as the athletce did of old, of an hour, or half an hour at the utmost, they appear and the savages of the West Indies do at this time, at their full size, and in all their beauty. The man- without knowing why. But to return to the insects ner of this sudden unfolding of the wings is this : the which are the subjects of this article *, their third state, small figure they make when the creature first comes that in which they are winged, is always very short, out of its membranes, does not prevent the observing and seems destined for no other action but the propathat they are at that time considerably thick. This is gation of the species. See Entomology Index. CHRYSANTHEMUM, Corn-Marygold : A owing to its being a large wing folded up in the nicest manner, and with folds so arranged as to he by no genus of the polygamia superflua order, belonging to the means sensible to the eye, for the wing is never seen syngenesia class of plants. See Botany Index. CHRYSES, the priest of Apollo, father of Astyto unfold ; but, when observed in the most accurate manner, seems to grow under the eye to this extent. nome, called from him Chryseis. When Lyrnessus was When the creature is first produced from the shell, it taken, and the spoils divided among the conquerors, is everywhere moist and tender; even its wings have Chryseis fell to the share of Agamemnon. Chryses no strength or stiffness till they expand themselves; upon this went to the Grecian camp to solicit his but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other daughter’s restoration j and when his prayers were parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident fruitless, he implored the aid of Apollo, who visited prevents the wings from expanding at their proper the Greeks with a plague, and obliged them to restore time, that is, as soon as the creature is out of its shell, Chryseis. CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher, born at Sothey never afterwards are able to extend themselves $ but the creature continues to wear them in their con- los in Cilicia, was disciple to Cleanthus, Zeno’s suctracted and wholly useless state ; and very often, when cessor. He wrote many books, several of which rethe wings are in part extended before such an accident lated to logic. None of the philosophers spoke in happens, it stops them in a partial extension, and the stronger terms of the fatal necessity of every thing, nor creature must be contented to pass its whole life with more pompously of the liberty ol man, than the Stoics, Chrysippus in particular. He was so considerable them in that manner. M. Reaumur has proved, that heat and cold make among them, as to establish it into a proverb, that if it great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly had not been for Chrysippus, the Porch had never been. from its chrysalis state : and this he particularly tried Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates, that he with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in had collected so many arguments in favour of the scepvessels in warm rooms, and in ice-houses ; and it seem- tical hypothesis, that he could not answer them himed wholly owing to the hastening or retarding the eva- self; and thus had furnished Carneades, their antagoporation of the abundant humidity of the animal in the nist, with weapons against them. There is an apophchrysalis state, that it sooner or later appeared in the thegm of this philosopher preserved, which does him butterfly form. He varnished over some chrysalises, honour. Being told that some persons spoke ill of him, in order to try what would be the effect of thus wholly “ It is no matter (said he), I will live so that they preventing their transpiration $ and the consequence shall not be believed. was, that the butterfly came forth from these two CHRYS1S, or Golden-fly. See Entomology months later than their natural time. Thus was the Index. duration of the animal in this state lengthened j that is, CHRYSITRIX. See Botany Index. its existence was lengthened : but without any advanCHRYSOBOLANUS, Cocoa Plum. See Botage to the creature, since it was in the time of its tany Index. state of inaction, and probably of insensibility. CHRYSOCOMA, Goldy-locks. See Botany * Though this was of no consequence, M. Reaumur JC/iclcx * deduces a hint from it that seems to be of some use. CHRYSOGONUM. See Botany Index. CHRYSOLARUS, 2

C H R [ 136 ] C H R Achard says that it is never found crystallized, Cbrycopra. Chrysolarus CHRYSOLARUS, EmanuEL, one of those learn- M. and that it is semi-transparent. By others it is rec- s“* 11 ed men inintothethe14th century who abrought CLrysopraliterature west. He was man of the rankGreek ; and koned among the quartz, and its colour is supposed to . T , descended from an ancient family, said to have removed be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine 1 ktom. ' with Constantine from Rome to Byzantium. He was blue glass when melted with borax, or with fixed alsent into Europe by the emperor of the east to im- kali, M. Achard, however, found the glass of a deep yellow when the fusion was made with borax 5 and plore the assistance of Christian princes, Pie after- that it really contains some calx of copper instead of wards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome $ and died at Constantinople, in 1415, aged 47. He cobalt. M. Dutens says, that some gold has been found in this kind of stone 5 but this last belongs in wrote a Greek grammar, and some other small pieces. CHRYSOLITE, or Yellowish-green Topaz ; all probability, says M. Magellan, to another class of a precious stone of a grass-green colour, found in the substances, viz. the vitreous spars. East Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in Au- To the latter belongs most probably the aventurine, vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyshire in whose colour is generally a yellow brown red 5 though England. Some are likewise found with volcanic la- sometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenish, vas, as in the Vivarais, where some large lumps have than to the red. These stones are not quite transpabeen seen of 20 or 30 pounds weight j but it is re- rent : some indeed shine with such a brilliancy, as to markable, that some of these chrysolites are partly de- render them of considerable value, but they are very composed into an argillaceous substance. All chry- rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glass solites, however, are far from being of the same kind. of various colours, with which powder of gold has The oriental is the same with the peridot, and differs been mixed 5 and these imitated aventurines so freonly by its green hue from the sapphires, topazes, and quently excel the native ones in splendour, that the rubies of the same denomination. This becomes elec- esteem of the latter is now much lowered. With retric by being rubbed 5 has a prismatic form of six, or gard to the chrysoprasus, its name, from ?rg 5> 7> 9j &-c< the altitude, computed from the twelfth Clepsydra hour, will be as the squares of the times, I, 4, 9, 16, |] 25, &c. therefore the square of the whole time 144 Cl ere. v comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the vessel to be evacuated. But a third proportional to I and 12 is the square of 12, and consequently it is the number of equal parts into which the altitude is to be divided, to be distributed according to the series of the unequal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours. Since in lieu of parts of the same vessel, other less vessels equal thereto may be substituted, the altitude of a vessel emptied in a given space of time being given, the altitude of another vessel to be emptied in a given time may be found ; viz. by making the altitudes as the squares of the time. For a further description, see Hydrodynamics Index. CLERC, John le, a most celebrated writer and universal scholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he had passed through the usual course of study at Geneva, and had lost his father in 1676, he went to France in 1678; but returning the year after, he was ordained with the general applause of all his examiners. In 1682, Le Clerc visited England with a view to learning the language. He preached several times in the French churches in London, and visited several bishops and men of learning ; but the smoky air of the town not agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Holland within the year, where he at length settled. He preached before a synod held at Rotterdam by the remonstrants in 1684; and was admitted professor of philosophy, polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their school at Amsterdam. The remainder of his life affords nothing but the history of his works, and of the controversies he was engaged in ; but these would lead into too extensive a detail. He continued to read regular lectures ; and because there was no single author full enough for his purpose, he drew up and published his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural Philosophy. He published Ars Cntica; a Commentary on the Old Testament; a Compendium of Universal History; an Ecclesiastical History of the two first Centuries ; a French Translation of the New Testament, &c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de Crose, his Jdibliotheque Universeile et Historique, in imitation of other literary journals ; which was continued to the year 1693 inclusive, in 26 vols. In 1703, he began his Bibliotheque Choisie, and continued it to 1714, and then commenced another work on the same plan, called Bibliotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he continued to the year 1728 ; all of them justly deemed excellent stores of useful knowledge. In 1728 he was seized with a palsy and fever ; and after spending the last six years of his life with little or no understanding, died in 1736. Clerc, John le, called Chevalier, an eminent historical painter, was born at Nanci in 1587, but studied in Italy, where he resided for 20 years ; and was a disciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked a long time, and whose style he so effectually studied and imitated, that several of the pictures which were finished by Le Clerc were taken for the work of Venetiano. He was most highly esteemed at Venice for his extraordinary merit; and as a token of public respect, he was made a knight of St Mark. His freedom of hand was remarkable ; he had a light pencil 5 and

[ 192 ] C L E C L E He died any number of converts was made, as soon as they Clergy. Clerc, and in his colouring he resembled his master. Clec were capable of being formed into a congregation or 111 * V”— gy* in 1633. v Clerc, Sebastian le, engraver, and designer in or- church, a bishop or presbyter, with a deacon, were ordinary to the French king, was horn at Metz in 1637. dained to minister to them. Of the bishops, priests, Aker having learnt designing, he applied himself to and deacons, the clergy originally consisted $ but in the mathematics, and was engineer to the marshal de la third century, many inferior orders were appointed, as Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, where he applied subservient to the office of deacon, such as AcpLUhimself to designing and engraving with such success, thists, Readers, &c. This venerable body of men being separated and set Btackst. that M. Colbert gave him a pension of 600 crowns. apart from the rest of the people, in order to attend ommen^ In 1672 he was admitted into the royal academy of the more closely to the service of Almighty God, have painting and sculpture J and in 1680 was made protherefore large privileges allowed them by our munifessor of geometry and perspective in the same academy. He published, besides a great number of designs cipal laws •, and had formerly much greater, which and prints, 1. A Treatise on theoretical and practical were abridged at the time of the reformation, on acGeometry. 2. A treatise on Architecture $ and other count of the ill use which the Popish clergy had endeaworks: and died in was an excellent ar- voared to make of them. For, the laws having extist, but chiefly in the petit style. His genius seldom empted them from almost every personal duty, they exceeds the dimensions of six inches. . Within those attempted a total exemption from every secular tie. limits he could draw up 20,000 men with great dex- But it is observed by Sir Edward Cooke, that as the terity. No artist except Callot and Della Bella could overflowing of waters doth many times make the ritouch a small figure with so much spirit. His most ver to lose its proper channel, so, in times past, eccleesteemed prints are : 1. The passion of our Saviour, on siastical persons seeking to extend their liberties be36 small plates, lengthwise, from his own compositions. yond their due bounds, either lost, or enjoyed not, The best impressions are without the borders. 2. The those which of right belonged to them. 1 he personal miracle of the feeding five thousand, a middling sized exemptions do indeed for the most part continue: a plate, lengthwise. In the first impressions, which are clergyman cannot be compelled to serve on a jury, nor very rare, a town appears in the back-ground ; in to appear at a court-leet, or view of frank-pledge, place of which a mountain is substituted in the common which (almost every other person is obliged to do j ones. 3. The elevation of the large stones used in build- but if a layman is summoned on a jury, and before the ing the front of the Louvre, a large plate, lengthwise. trial takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear and The first impressions are without the date 1677, which be sworn. Neither can he be chosen to any temporal was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the sciences, office, as bailiff, reeve, constable, or the like •, in rea middling-sized plate, lengthwise. The first impres- gard of his own continual attendance on the sacred nions are before the skeleton of the stag and tortoise function. During his attendance on divine service, he were added. The second impressions are before the is privileged from arrests in civil suits. In cases also shadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right- of felony, a clerk in orders shall have the benefit of his hand side of the print. Both these impressions are clergy, without being branded in the hand j and may very scarce. The first is rarely met with. This print likewise have it more than once j in both which perwas copied for Chambers’s Dictionary. 3* The May ticulars he is distinguished from a laymen. But, as of the Gobelins, a middle-sized plate, lengthvvise. The they have their privileges, so also they have their disfirst impression is before the woman was introduced, abilities, on account of their spiritual avocations. Clerwho covers the wheel of the coach. 6. The /owr con- gymen are incapable of sitting in the house of comquests, large plates, lengthwise, representing the taking mons; and by statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are not of Tournay, the taking of Douay, the defeat of the in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to compte de Marsin, and the Switzerland alliance. 7* The farm, upon pain of lol. per month, and total avoidance battles of Alexander, from Le Brun, six small long of the lease •, nor, upon like pain, to keep any tapplates, including the title, which represents the picture house or brew-house j nor engage in any manner of gallery at the Gobelins. The first impressions of the trade, nor sell any merchandise, under forfeiture of tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this set, is treble value. Which prohibition is consonant to the distinguished by the shoulder of the woman, who is canon law. Benefit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege, whereby seated in the front, being without the shadow, which was afterwards added ; for which reason they are called one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to the prints with the naked shoulder. 8. The entry of purge himself ot felony. After trial and conviction * of a criminal, the judg-# See the Alexander into Babylon, a middle-sized plate, lengthwise. In the first impressions, the face of Alexander ment of the court regularly follows, unless suspended article-i is seen in profile j in the second, it is a three quar- or arrested by some intervening circumstances, of which cu ter face, and therefore called the print with the head the principal 1% benefit of clergy; a title of no small " an£i Ceiw riosity as well as use j and concerning which, therefore, turned. it may not be improper to enquire, 1. Into its original, Clerc, George le. See Buffon. CLERGY, a general name given to the body of and the various mutations which this privilege of the ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in contradistinc- clergy has sustained. 2. To what persons it is to be allowed at this day. 3. In what cases. 4. The consetion to the laity* See Laity. The distinction of Christians into clergy and laity quences of allowing it. I. Clergy, the privilegium clericale, or (in common piackst. was derived from the Jewish church, and adopted into speech, the benefit of clergy) had its original from the the Christian by the apostles themselves: whenever pious

e l e [i Cieigy. pious regard paid by Christian princes to the church in —v> its infant state, and the ill use which the popish ecclesiastics soon made of that pious regard. The exemptions which they granted to the church were principally of two kinds: I. Exemptions of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests j which was the foundation of sanctuaries. 2. Exemption of the persons of clergymen from criminal process before the secular judge in a few particular cases; which was the true original and meaning of the privilegium delicate. But the clergy increasing in wealth, power, honour, number, and interest, soon began to set up for themselves ; and that which they obtained by the favour of the civil government, they now claimed as their inherent right, and as a right of the highest nature, indefeasible, and j«r£ divino. By their canons, therefore, and constitutions, they endeavoured at, and where they met with easy princes, obtained, a vast extension of those exemptions; as well in regard to the crimes themselves, of which the list became quite universal, as in regard to the persons exempted; among whom were at length comprehended, not only every little subordinate officer belonging to the church or clergy, but even many that were totally laymen. In England, however, although the usurpations of the pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII. totally exterminated his supremacy, yet a total exemption of the clergy from secular jurisdiction could never be thoroughly effected, though often endeavoured by the clergy; and therefore, though the ancient privilegium ctericate was in some capital cases, yet it was not universally allowed. And in those particular cases, the use was for the bishop or ordinary to demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s courts as soon as they were indicted ; concerning the allowance of which demand there was for many years a great uncertainty; till at length it was finally settled in the reign of Henry VI. that the prisoner should first be arraigned; and might either then claim his benefit of clergy by way of declinatory plea ; or, after conviction, by way of arrest of judgment. This latter way is most usually practised, as it is more to the satisfaction of the court to have the crime previously ascertained by confession or the verdict of a jury ; and also it is more advantageous to the prisoner himself, who may possibly be acquitted, and so need not the benefit of his clergy at all. Originally the law was held that no man should be admitted to the benefit of clergy, but such as had the habitum et tonsuram ctericatem. But, in process of time, a much wider and more comprehensive criterion was established ; every one that could read (a great mark of learning in those days of ignorance and her sister superstition) being accounted a clerk, or ctencus, and allowed the benefit of clerkship, though neither initiated in clerkship, nor trimmed with the holy tonsure. But when learning, by means of the invention of printing, and other concurrent causes, began to be more generally disseminated than formerly, and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerkship, or being in holy orders ; it was found that as many laymen as divines were admitted to the privitegium dencate; and therefore by statute 4 Henry VII. c. 13. Vol. VI. Part I. f

»3 ] C L E a distinction was once more drawn between mere lay Clergy, scholars and clerks that were really in orders. And, '—~sr— though it was thought reasonable still to mitigate the severity of the law with regard to the former, yet they were not put upon the same footing with actual clergy; being subjected to a slight degree of punishment, and not allowed to claim the clerical privilege more than once. Accordingly the statute directs, that no person, once admitted to the benefit of clergy, shall be admitted thereto a second time, until he produces his orders ; and in order to distinguish their person, all laymen who are allowed this privilege, shall be burned with a hot iron in the brawn of the left thumb. This distinction between learned laymen and real clerks in orders, was abolished for a time by the statutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 3.; but is held to have been virtually restored by statute I Edw. VI. c. 12. which statute also enacts, that lords of parliament and peers of the realm may have the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of clergy, for the first offence (although they cannot read, and without being burnt in the hand), for all offences then clergyable to commoners, and also for the crimes of housebreaking, highway robbery, horse-stealing, and robbing of churches. After this burning, the laity, and before it the real clergy, were discharged from the sentence of the law in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordinary, to be dealt with according to the ecclesiastical canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not satisfied with the proofs adduced in the profane secular court, set himself formally to make a purgation of the offender by a new canonical trial; although he had been previously convicted by his country, or perhaps by his own confession. This trial was held before the bishop in person, or his deputy; and by a jury of twelve clerks: And there, first, the party himself was required to make oath of his own innocence ; next, there was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who swore they believed he spoke the truth ; then, witnesses were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf of the prisoner only; and, lastly, the jury were to bring in their verdict upon oath, which usually acquitted the prisoner; otherwise, if a clerk, he was degraded or put to penance. A learned judge, in the beginning of last century, remarks with much indignation the vast complication of perjury and subornation of perjury, in this solemn farce of a mock trial; the witnesses, the compurgators, and the jury, being all of them partakers in the guilt : the delinquent party also, though convicted in the clearest manner, and conscious of his own offence, yet was permitted, and almost compelled to swear himself not guilty; nor was the good bishop himself, under whose countenance this scene was transacted, by any means exempt from a share of it. And yet, by this purgation, the party was restored to his credit, his liberty, his lands, and his capacity of purchasing afresh, and was entirely made a new and an innocent man. This scandalous prostitution of oaths, and the forms of justice, in the almost constant acquittal of felonious clerks by purgation, was the occasion that, upon very heinons and notorious circumstances of guilt, temporal courts would not trust the ordinary with the trial of tbe offender, but delivered over to him the Bb convicted

Clergy, ‘“■""“V

C L E C L E [ >94 ] convicted clerk, absquepurgatione faciendo ; in which time not less than six months, and not exceeding two Clergy. situation the clerk convict could not make purgation ; years ; with a power of inflicting a double confinement hut was to continue in prison during life, and was in- in case of the party’s escape from the first. And it capable of acquiring any personal property, or receiv- is also enacted by the statutes 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and ing the profits of his lands, unless the king should 6 Geo. I. c. 23. that when any persons shall be conplease to pardon him. Both these courses were in some victed of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any fedegree exceptionable ; the latter perhaps being too ri- lonious stealing or taking of money or goods and chatgid, as the former was productive of the most abandon- tels, either from the person or the house of any other, ed perjury. As therefore these mock trials took their or in any other manner, and who by the law shall be rise from factious and popish tenets, tending to exempt entitled to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the one part of the nation from the general municipal law, penalties of burning in the hand, or whipping ; the it became high time, when the reformation was tho- court in their discretion, instead of such burning in roughly established, to abolish so vain and impious a the hand, or whipping, may direct such offenders to ceremony. be transported to America for seven years 5 and if Accordingly the statute 18 Eliz. c. 7. enacts, that, they return, or are seen at large in this kingdom for the avoiding such perjuries and abuses, after the within that time, it shall be felony without benefit of offender has been allowed his clergy, he shall not be clergy. delivered to the ordinary as formerly j but, upon such In this state does the benefit of clergy at present allowance, and burning of the hand, he shall forthwith stand 5 very considerably different from its original inbe enlarged and delivered out of prison, with pro- stitution ; the wisdom of the English legislature havviso, that the judge may, if he thinks fit, continue the ing, in the course of a long and laborious process, exoffender in gaol lor any time not exceeding a year. tracted, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poiAnd thus the law continued unaltered for above a sonous ingredients 5 and converted, by gradual mutacentury ; except only, that the statute 21 Jac. I. c. 6. tions, what was at first an unreasonable exemption of allowed, that women convicted of simple larcenies particular popish ecclesiastics, into a merciful mitigaunder the value of xos. should (not properly have the tion of the general law with respect to capital punishbenefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to ments. read ; but) be burned in the hand, whipped, or stockFrom the whole of this detail, we may collect, that ed, or imprisoned for any time not exceeding a year. however in times of ignorance and superstition, that And a similar indulgence by the statutes 3 and 4 Will, monster in true policy may for a while subsist, of a and Mary, c. 9. and 4 and 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24. body of men residing in a state, and yet independent was extended to women guilty of any clergyable felony of its laws ; yet when learning and rational religion whatever j who were allowed once to claim the benefit have a little enlightened men’s minds, society can no of the statute, in like manner as men might claim the longer endure an absui'dity so gross, as must destroy its benefit of clergy, and to be discharged upon being vexy fundamentals. For, by the original conti'act of burned in the hand, and imprisoned for any time not government, the price of protection by the united force exceeding a year. All women, all peers, and all male of individuals, is that of obedience to the united will commoners who could read, were therefore discharged of the community. This united will is declared in the in such felonies absolutely, if clerks in orders j and for laws of the land ; and that united force is exerted in the first offence upon burning in the hand, if lay ; yet their due, and universal, execution. all liable (except peers), if the judge saw occasion, to II. We are next to inquix-e, to what persons the beimprisonment not exceeding a year. And these men nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day j and this who could not read, if under the degree of peerage, must chiefly be collected from what has been obserwere hanged. ved in the preceding article. For, upon the whole, Afterwards, indeed, it was considered, that educa- we may pronounce, that all clerks in orders are, withtion and learning were not extenuations of guilt, but out any branding, and of course without any ti’ansquite the reverse.; and that if the punishment of death portation (for that is only substituted in lieu of the for simple felony was too severe for those who had other), to be admitted to this privilege, and immedibeen liberally instructed, it was, a fortiori, too severe ately discharged, or at most only confined for one year j for the ignorant also. And thereupon, by statute and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of 5 Anne, c. 6. it was enacted that the benefit of clergy parliament, and peers of the realm, by the statute should be granted to all those who were entitled to ask 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. shall be discharged in all clergyable it, without requiring them to read by way of condi- and other felonies provided for by the act without any tional merit. And experience having shown that so burning in the hand, in the same manner as real clerks universal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an convict $ but this is only for the first offence. Lastly, encouragement to commit the lower degrees of felo- all the commons of the realm, not in orders, whether ny ; and that though capital punishments were too ri- male or female, shall, for the first offence, be dischargorous for these inferior offences, yet no punishment ged of the punishment of felonies, within the benefit of at all (or next to none, as branding or whipping), clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and suffering was as much too gentle j it was enacted by the same discretionary imprisonment j^or, in case of larceny, upstatute 5 Anne, c. 6. that when any person is convict- on being transported for seven years, if the court shall ed of any theft or larceny, and burnt in the hand think propex-. for the same, he shall, at the discretion of the judge, III. The third point to be considered is, for xyhat be committed to the house of correction, or public crimes the privilegiutn clericale, or benefit of clergy, work-house, to be there kept to hard labour for any is to be allowed. And it is to be observed, that nei2 ther

OLE [ 195 ] C L E ;!ergy. ther in high treason, nor in petit larceny, nor in any laymen, subsequent to the burning in the hand, is Clergy, “"■v'"—' mere misdemeanors, it was indulged at the common equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although Clerk, law ; and therefore we may lay it down as a rule, never branded at all. For they have the same privithat it was allowable only in petit treason and capital leges, without any burning, to which others are entitled felonies ; which for the most part became legally en- after it. titled to this indulgence by the statute de clet'o, CLERK (clericus), a word formerly used to signify 25 Edw. III. stat. 3. c. 4. which provides, that clerks a learned man, or man of letters. The word comes convict for treason or felonies, touching other persons from the Greek *>ojg«s, used for clergy ; but more prothan the king himself or his royal majesty, shall have perly signifying lot or heritage, in regard the lot and the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al- portion of clerks or ecclesiastics is to serve God. Aclowed in all cases whatsoever j for in some it was de- cordingly clerus was at first used to signify those who nied even in common law, viz. msidatio viarum, or ly- had a particular attachment to the service of God. ing in wait for one on the highway ; depopulatio agro- The origin of the expression is derived from the Old rum, or destroying and ravaging a country j combustio Testament, where the tribe of Levi is called the lot, domorum, or arson, that is, burning of houses \ all heritage, xAjjgo; ; and God is reciprocally called their which are a kind of hostile acts, and in some degree portion; by reason that tribe was consecrated to the border upon treason. And farther, all these identical service of God, and lived on the offerings made to God, crimes, together with petit treason, and very many without any other settled provision as the rest had. other acts of felony, are ousted of clergy by particular Thus Pasquier observes, the officers of the counts {coacts of parliament. mites) were anciently created under the title of clerks Upon the whole, we may observe the following ojaccompts ; and secretaries of state were called clerks rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created, of the secret. So clericus domini regis, in the time of or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unless ta- Edward I. was Englished, the king's secretary, ov clerk ken away by act of parliament. 2. That where clergy of his council. The term was applied indifferently to is taken away from the principal, it is not of course ta- all who made any profession of learning 5 or who knew ken away from the accessory, unless he be also particu- how to manage the pen j though originally it was aplarly included in the words of the statute. 3. That propriated to ecclesiastics. As the nobility and gentry when the benefit of clergy is taken away from the of- were usually brought up to the exercise of arms, there fence (as in case of murder, buggery, robbery, rape, were none but the clergy left to cultivate the sciences : and burglary), a principal in the second degree, being hence, as it was the clergy alone who had made any present, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well ex- profession of letters, a very learned man came to be cluded from his clergy, as he that is a principal in called a great clerk, and a stupid ignorant man a bad the first degree : but, 4. That where it is only taken clerk. away from the person committing the offence (as in Clerk is also applied to such as by their course of the case of stabbing, or committing larceny in a life exercise their pens in any court or office; of which dwelling-house), his aiders and abettors are not ex- there are various kinds : thus, cluded, through the tenderness of the law, which hath Clerk of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s determined that such statutes shall not be taken lite- bench, whose business is to file all bail-pieces taken in rally. that court, where he always attends. IV. Lastly, We are to inquire what the conseClerk of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s quences are to the party, of allowing him this benefit court; so called, because he has the check and conof clergy. We speak not of the branding, imprison- troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen, ment, or transportation j which are rather concomitant or prince. He likewise, by himself or deputy, sets the conditions, than consequences, of receiving this indul- watch in the court. There is also an officer in the gence. The consequences are such as affect his pre- navy of the same name, belonging to the king’s yards. sent interest, and future credit and capacity; as havClerk of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench, ing been once a felon, but now purged from that who frames, reads, and records all indictments against guilt by the privilege of clergy j which operates as a offenders, there arraigned or indicted of any public kind of statute pardon. And we may observe, 1. That, crime. He is likewise termed clerk of the crown-ofby his conviction, he forfeits all his goods to the king ; fice, in which capacity he exhibits information by order which, being once vested in the crown, shall not after- of the court for divers offences. wards be restored to the offender. 2. That, after conClerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer whose viction, and till he receives the judgment of the law business it is constantly to attend the lord chancellor by branding or the like, or else is pardoned by the in person or by deputy ; to write and prepare for the king, he is, to all intents and purposes, a felon j and great seal special matters of state by commission, both subject to all the disabilities and other incidents of a ordinary and extraordinary, viz. commissions of lieufelon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dis- tenancy, of justices of assize, oyer and terminer, gaolcharged for ever of that, and all other felonies before delivery, and of the peace ; all general pardons, grantcommitted, within the benefit of clergy ; but not of ed either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament; felonies from which such benefit is excluded ; and this the writs of parliament, with the names of the knights, by statutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. That citizens, and burgesses, are also returned into his office. by the burning, or pardon of it, he is restored to all He also makes out special pardons and writs of execucapacities and credits, and the possession of his lands, tion on bonds of statute-staple forfeited. as if he had never been convicted. 3. That what is Clerk of the Deliveries of the Ordnance. See Ordsaid with regard to the advantages of commoners and nance. Bb2 Clerk

C L E [196 }' C L E Clerk.1 1 Clerk of the Errors, In the court of common pleas, gift of the custos rotulorum, and may be executed by ckrk. ■—v-"" - ' an officer who transcribes and certifies into the king’s deputy. Clerk of the Pells, an officer that belongs to the bench the tenor of the record of the action on which the writ of error, made out by the cursitor, is brought exchequer, whose business is to enter every teller’s bill there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the clerk into a parchment roll called pellis receptorum ; and to of the errors transcribes and certifies the records of make another roll of payments called pellis exituum. Clerk of the Petty Bag, an officer of the court of causes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer. And the business of the clerk of the errors in the exchequer, chancery, whereof there are three, the master of the is to transcribe the records certified thither out ot the rolls being the chief: their business is to record the king’s bench, and to prepare them for judgment in the return of all inquisitions out of every shire $ to make out patents of customers, gauger, comptrollers, &c. ; exchequer chamber. Clerk of the Essoins, in the court of common pleas, liberates upon extent of statutes-staple ; conge d'elires keeps the essoin roll, or enters essoins : he also provides for bishops j summons of the nobility, clergy, and burparchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the numbers on gesses to parliament; and commissions directed to them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and re- knights and others of every shire, for assessing subsidies and taxes. ceives them again when written. See Essoin. Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who Clerk of the Estreats, an officer in the exchequer, who every term receives the estreats out of the lord- having the account of all debts due to the king, delitreasurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out vered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out to be levied for the crown. Clerk of the Green Cloth, formerly an officer in warrants to sheriffs, to levy the said debts on the goods and chattels of the debtors $ and if they have no goods, chancery, but now abolished. Clerk 0/ the Hamper or Hanaper, an officer in then he draws them down to the treasurer’s rememchancery, whose business is to receive all money due to brancer to write estreats against their lands. Clerk of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in the king for the seals of charters^ letters patent, commissions, and writs $ also the fees due to the officers whose office all the officers of the court, having special privilege, ought to sue or to be sued in any action. In for enrolling and examining them. CLERK-Comptroller of the Ring's Household, an offi- this office plso actions at law may be prosecuted by other cer of the king’s court, authorised to allow or disallow persons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor the charges of pursuivants, messengers of the green- to the king, or some way accountable to him. The cloth, &c. to inspect and controul all defects of any of under clerks are attorneys in all suits. Clerks of the Privy-seal, four officers that attend the inferior officers; and to sit in the counting-house with the lord-steward and nther officers of the house- the lord privy seal, for writing and making out all things that are sent by warrant from the signet to the hold for regulating such matters. Clerk of the King's Silver, an officer of the common privy seal, and to be passed the great seal ; and likepleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has pas- wise to make out privy seals, upon special occasions of sed the office of the custos brevium ; and who enters the his majesty’s affairs, as for loan of money or the like. Clerk of the Polls, an officer of the chancery, whose* effect of writs of covenant, into a book kept for that purpose, according to which all the fines of that term business is to make searches after, and copies of deeds-, officers, &c.. are recorded in the rolls of the court. Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attending Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s house, to whom is given the charge of the king’s measure and upon his majesty’s principal secretary, who has the cueights, the standards of those that ought tp be used stody of the privy signet, as well for sealing the king’s private letters as those grants which pass the king’s all over England. Clerk of the Nichi/s or Nihils, an officer , of the ex- hand by bill signed. There are four of these officers chequer, who makes a roll of all such sums as are ni- who have their diet at the secretary’s table. Six Clerks, officers in chancery next in degree bechilled by the sheriffs upon their estreats of green wax, and delivers them into the remembrancer of the trea- low the twelve masters, whose business is to inrol comsury, to have execution done upon them for the king. missions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which pass the great seal. They were anciently clerici, and forSee Nihil. feited their places if they married. These are also atClerk of the Ordnance. See Ordnance. Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the common torneys for parties in suits depending in the court of pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making chancery. Clerk of the Treasury, an officer belonging to the out all writs of capias utlegatum, after outlawry, to court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping which there must be the king’s attorney’s name. Clerk of the Paper-office, an officer belonging to the the records of the court, makes out all records of nisi king’s bench, whose business is to make up the paper- prius, and likewise all exemplifications of records being in the treasury. He has the fees due for all searches} books of special pleadings in that court. Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the ses- and has under him an under keeper, who always keeps sions of the peace, whose business is to read indictments, one key of the treasury-door. Clerk of the Warrants^ an officer of the common iurol the proceedings, and draw the process: he likewise certifies into the king’s bench transcripts of in- pleas, whose business is to enter all warrants of atdictments. outlawries, attainders, and convictions had torney for plaintiffs and defendants in suit j and to inbefore the justices of peace, .within the time limited by rol deeds of bargain and sale, that are acknowledged statute, under a certain penalty. This office is in the in court, ox before a judge. His office is likewise to> estreat 3 *

C

L

E

[

197 ] C L E The various readings of this MS. were communicated Clermont Clerk «nto the exchequer all issues, fines, estreats, | and amercements, which grow due to the crown in that to Archbishop Usher, and they are preserved by Wal- Manuton. The MS. itself was in the possession of Morinus ; saqit Clermont court. MannCLERKE, Captain Charles, a celebrated Eng- and after his death deposited among the MS. copies of sc t “P ‘ , lish navigator, was bred up in the navy from his youth, the royal library at Paris, N° 2245. CLEROMANCY, a kind of divination performed and was present in several actions during the war of 1755. In the engagement between the Bellona and by the throwing of dice, or little bones 5 and observing Courageux he was in great danger $ for having been the points, or marks turned up. The word comes from stationed in the mizen-top on board the former, the xErigeg, “ lot,” and pcttrux “ divination.” At Bura, a mast was carried overboard, by a shot, and he fell into city of Achaia, was a temple and celebrated oracle of the sea along with it; but, however, was taken up with- Hercules, where such as consulted the oracle, after pray* out having received any injury. When Commodore ing to the idol, threw four dice, the points whereof beByron made his first voyage round the world, Mr Clerke ing well scanned by the priest, he was supposed to draw served on board his ship in quality of a midshipman ; an answer from them. Something of this kind seems to have been practised and was afterwards on the American station. In the year 1768, he sailed round the world a second time in with regard to Jonah. CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franche. the Endeavour, on board of which he served in the station of master’s mate ; but, during the voyage, succeed- Comte, seated on the river Doux, and in the departed to a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was ment of Doubs. It contained 1200 inhabitants in 1815. soon after appointed master and commander. When E. Long. 5. 57. N. Lat. 46. 35. CLERVAUX, one of the most celebrated and finest Captain Cook undertook his last voyage, Mr Clerke was appointed captain of the Discovery $ and in con- abbeys of France, in Champagne, five miles from Barsequence of the death of Captain Cook, naturally suc- sur-Aube, and seated in a valley surrounded with woods ceeded to the supreme command. He did not, how- and mountains. It is the chief of the Cistercian orever, long enjoy his new dignity. Before his depar- der. Here is the famous Tun of St Bernard, which ture from England, he had manifest symptoms of a will hold 800 tuns of wine. Near this abbey is a small consumption. Of this disease he lingered during the town. CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years bewhole of the voyage j and his long residence in the cold northern climates cut off all hopes of recovery j fore Christ, in the reign of Antiochus I. He revenged but though sensible that the only chance he had of pro- the injuries he had received from Queen Stratonice, by longing his life was by a speedy return to a warmer representing her in the arms of a fisherman. However climate, his attention to his duty was so great, that he indecent the painter might represent the queen, she was persevered in search of a passage between the Asiatic drawn with such personal beauty, that she preserved and American continents until every one of the officers the piece and liberally rewarded the artist. was of opinion that it was impracticable. He bore his CLETHRA. See Botany Index. distemper with great firmness and equanimity, retainCLEVELAND, a district in the north riding of ing a good flow of spirits to the last; and died on the Yorkshire in England, from whence the noble family, 22d of August 1778, in the 38th year of his age, the ship of Fitzroy took the title of duke, but which is now extinct. then being within view of the coast of Kamtschatka. Cleveland, John, an English poet of some emiClerke's Island lies on the western side of the American continent, in N. Lat. 63. 15. and E. Long. 169. nence in his time, who during the civil war under 30. It was discovered by Captain Cook in his last Charles I. engaged as a literary champion in the royal voyage, but a landing could not be effected. At a di- cause against the parliamentarians. He died in 1658, stance it appeared to be of considerable extent, and and was much extolled by his party. His works, which to have several hills connected with the low grounds in consist of poems, characters, orations, epistles, &c. were such a manner as to make it look like a group of islands. printed in octavo in 1677. Near its eastern extremity is a little island remarkable CLEVES, a duehy in the circle of Westphalia, in for having three elevated rocks upon it. Both the large Germany, and subject to the king of Prussia since and small island are uninhabited. 1815. It is divided into two parts by the Rhine, and CLERMONT, a considerable, rich, and populous is about 40 miles in length from east to west, and 20 town of France, in the department of Puy de Dome. in breadth from north to south. It is a fine agreeable The cathedral, the public squares, and the walks, are country. The towns are Cleves* the capital, Calcar, very fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as they Gennet, Santen, Orsoy, Bureck, and Greit. These lie pretend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain, E. on the left side of the river. On the right, Daysburgh, Wese, Rees, and Emmerick. It contained ] 25,000 inLong. 3. 10. N. Lat. 45. 47. Clermont Manuscripts is a copy of St Paul’s Epi- habitants in 1815. The inhabitants of the country are stles, found in the monastery of Clermont in France, ehiefly Catholics, those of the towns chiefly Protestants. Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy of and used by Beza, together with the Cambridge MS. in preparing his edition of the New Testament. This Cleves, of which it is the capital. It stands upon a copy is in the octavo form, and is written on fine pleasant hill, about a mile from the Rhine, with which vellum in Greek and Latin, with some mutilations. it communicates, by means of a canal which is large Beza supposes that it is of equal antiquity with the enough for great barges. The castle stands upon a Cambridge copy j but both were probably written by mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable. It was 3 Latin scribe in a later period than he assigns to them. built in the time of Julius Caesar. It contains about JOQOj

C L I C L I [ 198 ] C'leves 5000 inhabitants. Calvinists, Lutherans, and Roman the pole j and are so many bands, or zones, termi- Climate (1 Catholics, are all tolerated in this city. E. Long. 5. nated by lines parallel to the equator *, though, in Climax, Climate. ]SJ_ ^I# strictness, there are several climates in the breadth of ""V CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put one zone. Each climate only differs from its contihimself under the protection of some great man, who guous ones, in that the longest day in summer is longer in respect of that relation was called patron. or shorter by half an hour in the one place than in the This patron assisted his client with his protection, in- other. As the climates commence from the equator, terest, and goods $ and the client gave his vote for his the first climate at its beginning has its longest day patron, when he sought any office for himself or his precisely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a friends. Clients owed respect to their patrons, as these half: the second, which begins where the first ends, owed them their protection. viz. at twelve hours and a half, ends at 13 hours ; and The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus, so of the rest, as far as the polar circles, where, what to unite the rich and poor together, in such a manner the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and monthas that one might live without contempt and the climates commence. An hour climate is a space comother without envy; but the condition of a client, in prised between two parallels of the equator, in the course of time, became little else than a moderate sla- first of which the longest day exceeds that in the latter very. by half an hour ; so the month-climate is a space terClient is now used for a party in a law-suit, who minated between two circles parallel to the polar cirhas turned over his cause into the hands of a counsellor cles, whose longest day is longer or shorter than that of or solicitor. its contiguous one by a month or 30 days. CLIFFORTIA. See Botany Index. The ancients who confined the climates to what CLIMACTERIC, among physicians, (from cti- they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only macter, “ a ladder”), a critical year in a person’s allowed of seven. The first they made to pass through life. Meroc, the second through Sienna, the third through According to some, this is every seventh year ; but Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth others allow only these years produced by multiplying through Rome, the sixth through Pontus, and the 7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climacteri- seventh through the mouth of the Borysthenes. . The cal. These years, they say, bring with them some moderns, who have sailed further toward the poles, remarkable change with respect to health, life, or for- make 30 climates on each side; and, in regard the tune : the grand climacteric is the 63d year 5 but obliquity of the sphere makes a little difference in the some, making two, add to this the 81st: the other length of the longest day; instead of half an hour, remarkable climacterics are the 7th, 21st, 35th, 49th, some only make the difference of climates a quarter. and 56th. Vulgarly the term climate is bestowed on any counCLIMATE, or Clime, in Geograplnj, a part of try or region difi’ering from another either in respect the surface of the earth, bounded by two circles oi the seasons, the quality of the soil, or even the parallel to the equator, and of such a breadth, as manners of the inhabitants; without any regard to that the longest day in the parallel nearest the pole the length of the longest day. Abulfeda, an Arabian exceeds the longest day in that next the equator by author, distinguishes the first kind of climates by the some certain spaces, viz. half an hour. The wTord term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent comes from the Greek icXipm, inolinamentum^ “ an in- climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates; clination.” but without any regard to the refraction. Ricciolus The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle furnishes a more accurate one, wherein the refractions wherein the day is the shortest. The end of the cli- are allowed for; an abstract of which follows. See mate, is that wherein the day is the longest. The this subject fully treated in the article Climate in the climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to Supplement. Middle Longest Latit. of Clim. Day. I II III IV V VI VII

Middle Longest Latit. of Clim. Day.

12th 30 7° 18 VIII 16th 13 O 15 36 IX !7 8 X 18 ^ 3° 23 14 o 29 49 XI *9 14 30 35 35 XII 20 15 o 40 32 XIII 22 15 30 44 42 XIV 24

Middle of Clim.

48 15 XV 66 53 46 XVI 69 57 44 XVII 73 60 39 XVIII 78 62 44 XIX 84 6 c 10 XX 90 65 54

CLIMAX, or Gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure wherein the word or expression which ends the first member of a period begins the second, and so on ; so that every member will make a distinct sentence, taking its rise from the next foregoing, till the argument and period be beautifully finished ; as in the following

Cont. Light.

North Night.

Cont. South Light. Night.

31° 62 0 93 6 124 o 156 o 188

27d 58 87 II 7 148 180

3° 60 89 I 20 150 178

Latit. 53 30

28d 59 88 118 149 177

gradation of Dr Tillotson. “ After we have practised good actions a while, they become easy ; and when they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them ; and when they please us we do them frequently ; and by frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature : and so far as any

C L I [i 99 ] C L I Climax any thing is natural, so far it is necessary j and we can a farther extirpation subjects the patient to an involun|| hardly do otherwise j nay, we do it many times when tary discharge of urine. Clitoris. we (]0 no(- think 0f Jt.” CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of —^ CLINCH, in the sea language, that part of a cable Umbria, on this side the Apennines. According to which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then Pliny, it was a fountain consisting of several veins, seized or made fast. situated between Hispellum and Spoletium; which soon CLINCHING, in the sea language, a kind of slight after swelled into a very large and navigable river, caulking used at sea, in a prospect of foul weather, running from east to west into the Tinia, and both toabout the posts : it consists in driving a little oakum gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milkinto their seams, to prevent the water coming in at white flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the rithem. ver was called Clitumnus. CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient churchCLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurse, historians to those who receive baptism on their death- followed that prince in his conquests, and saved his life bed. by cutting off the hand of Rosaces, who held an axe Clinic Medicine, was particularly used for the me- lifted up to kill him at the passage of the Granithod of visiting and treating sick persons in bed, for cus. Alexander, who had a great regard for him, the more exact discovery of all the symptoms of their some time after invited him to supper; when Clidisease. tus, at the end of the repast, being heated with wine, CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philosopher, and musi- diminished the exploits of that prince, in order to cian, in the 63th Olympiad. He was wont to assuage magnify’ those of Philip his father. This so enraged his passion, being very choleric, by his lyre. Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand ; CLINOPODIUM, Field Basil. See Botany but he was afterwards so afflicted at it, that he atIndex. tempted his own life. CLIO, in Pagan mythology, the first of the muses, CLIVE, Robert, Lord, son of Richard Clive, Esq. daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725. over history. She is represented crowned with laurels, Toward the close of the war in 1741, he was sent as holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the a writer in the East India service to Madras; but beother. Sometimes she holds a plectrum or quill with a ing fonder of the camp than the compting-house, he lute. Her name signifies honour and reputation, xAeof, soon availed himself of an opportunity to exchange gloria ; and it was her office faithfully to record the his pen for a pair of colours. He first distinguished actions of brave and illustrious heroes. She had Hya- himself at the siege of Pondicherry in 1748; acted cintha by Pierius, son of Magnes. under Major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in Clio, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging to Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high the order of vermes mollusca. The body is oblong and terms ; commanded a small party for the taking of fitted for swimming; and it has two membranaceous Arcot, and afterwards defended that place against the wings placed opposite to each other. The species are French ; and performed many other exploits, which, three, principally distinguished by the shape of their considering the remoteness of the scene of action, vagina, and are all natives of the ocean. would require a long detail to render sufficiently inCLIPEUS, an old term in Natural History, which telligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upon is given to the flat depressed centroniae, from their re- and acknowledged as the man who first roused his sembling a shield. countrymen to spirited action, and raised their repuCLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magistrate, tation in the East; so that when he came over to the author of the mode of banishing ambitious citizens England in 1753, he was presented, by the court of by ostracism, or writing their names upon a shell; the directors, with a rich sword set with diamonds, as an intention was patriotic, but it was abused like all other acknowledgment of past, and an incitement to future, human institutions : some of the worthiest citizens of services. Captain Clive returned to India, in 1755, as Athens being thus exiled. He died c 10 years before governor of Fort St David, with the rank of lieutenantChrist. colonel in the king’s troops ; when as commander cf CLITOMACHUS, the philosopher, flourished a- the company’s troops, he, in conjunction with Admiral bout 140 years before Christ. He was born at Car- Watson, reduced Angria the pirate, and became masthage ; quitted his country at 40 years of age ; and ter of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated treawent to Athens, where he became the disciple and suc- sure. On the loss of Calcutta, and the well known cessor of Carneades. He composed many books, but barbarity of the sonbah Surajah Dowlah, they sailed to they are all lost. Bengal ; where they took Fort William, in January CLITORIA. See Botany Index. 1757 ; and Colonel Clive defeating the soubah’s army CLITORIS, in Anatomy, is a part of the external soon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowlah’s perpudenda, situated at the angle which the nymphae form fidy, however, soon produced fresh hostilities, which with each other. Like the penis it has an erection, ended in his ruin; he being totally defeated by Colonel and is thought to he the principal seat of venereal Clive at the famous battle of Plassey. The next day, pleasure. The clitoris is of different sizes in different the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph ; and women ; but in general it is small, and covered with placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal genethe labia. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris is rals, on the throne ; the deposed soubah was soon afwhat constitutes a hermaphrodite. When the clitoris ter taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier’s son. is too large, it may be so extirpated as to remove Admiral Watson died at Calcutta ; but Colonel Clive the unnecessary part; but this requires much care, for commanded in Bengal the two succeeding years ; he

C L O C L O [ 200 ] Archimedes’s sphere mentioned by Clau- Clock. Clive Was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an and ranks dian, and that of Posidonius mentioned by Cicero, ' omrah of the empire ; and was rewarded by the new Clock. soubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing among the machines of this kind : not that either their 27,000!. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England, form or use was the same with those of ours, but that where he received the unanimous thanks of the com- they had their motion from some hidden weights or pany, was elected member of parliament for Shrews- springs, with wheels or pulleys, or some such clockbury, and was raised to an Irish peerage by the title work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain of Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. In 1764, fresh dis- the art of making clocks, such as are now in use, was turbances taking place in Bengal, Lord Clive was es- either first invented, or at least retrieved, in Germany, teemed the only man qualified to settle them, and was about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepsyaccordingly again appointed to that presidency ; after drae, and sun-dials, have both a much better claim to being honoured with the order of the Bath, and with antiquity. The French annals mention one of the the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India, former kind sent by Aaron, king of Persia, to Charlehe exceeded the most sanguine expectation, in resto- magne, about the year 807, which seemed to bear ring tranquillity to the province without striking a some resemblance to the modern clocks : it was of blow, and fixed the highest ideas of the British power brass, and showed the hours by twelve little balls of in the minds of the natives. He returned home in the same metal, which fell at the end of each hour, 1767; and in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry and in falling struck a bell and made it sound. There into the conduct of the East India Company was Were also figures of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of agitated, he entered into an able justification of each hour came forth at certain apertures or winhimself in a masterly speech in the house of com- dows in the side of the clock, and shut them again, mons. He died suddenly towards the close of the &c. The invention of pendulum clocks is owing to the year I774CLOACAE, in antiquity, the common sewers of happy industry of the last age : the honour of it is disRome, to carry off the dirt and soil of the city into puted by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who it was the Tiber j justly reckoned among the grand works of has written a volume on the subject,andeclares t,,e descripthe Romans. The first common sewer, called Cloaca first put in practice in the year 1657, ^ Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, some say Priscus, tion thereof printed in 1657. Becker, de Nova Ternothers Superbus, of huge blocks of stone joined toge- poris dimetiendi Theona, anno 1680, contends for Gather without any cement, in the manner of the edi- lileo ; and relates, though at second-hand, the whole fices of those early times, consisting of three rows of history of the invention ; adding, that one Tresler, at arches one above another, which at length conjoin that time clock-maker to the father of the Grand Duke and unite together j measuring in the clear 18 palms of Tuscany, made the first pendulum-clock at Florence, in height, and as many in width. Under these arches, by direction of Galileo Galilei; a pattern of which they rowed in boats, which made Pliny say that the was brought into Holland. The Academy del’ Cicity was suspended in air, and that they sailed be- menta say expressly, that the application of the penneath the houses. Under these arches also were ways dulum to the movement of a clock was first proposed by through which carts loaded with hay Could pass with Galileo, and first put in practice by his son Vincenzo ease. It began in the Forum Romanum 5 measured Galilei, in 1649. Be the inventor who he will, it is 300 paces in length ; and emptied itself between the certain the invention never flourished till it came into temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were Huvgen’s hands, who insists on it, that if ever Galileo as many principal sewers as there were hills. Pliny thought of such a thing, he never brought it to any deconcludes their firmness and strength from their stand- gree of perfection. The first pendulum-clock made in ing for so many ages the shocks of earthquakes,' the England was in the year 1662, by Mr Fromantil, a fall of houses, and the vast loads and weights moved Dutchman. Among the modern clocks, those of Strasburg and over them. CLOACINA, the goddess of jakes and common Lyons are very eminent for the richness of their furniture, and the variety of their motions and figures. sewers, among the Romans. CLOCK, a machine constructed in such a manner, In the first, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims die and regulated so by the uniform motion of a pendulum hour ; the angel opens a door and salutes the virgin ; (a), as to measure time, and all its subdivisions, with and the Holy Spirit descends on her, &c. In the second, two horsemen encounter, and beat the hour on great exactness. The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to each other ) a door opens, and there appears on the Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time theatre the Virgin, with Jesus Christ in her arms; the of Lotharius son of Louis the Debonnair, on the cre- Magi with their retinue, marching in order, and predit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by senting their gifts ; two trumpeters sounding all the him from Panvinius. They were at 'first called noc- while to proclaim the procession. These, however, are turnal dials, to distinguish them from sun-dials, which excelled by two lately made by English artists, and showed the hour by the sun’s shadow. Others ascribe intended as a present from the East India Company to the invention to Boethius, about the year 510. Mr the emperor of China. The clocks we speak of are Derham makes clock-work of a much older standing j in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine altitude,

( a) A balance not unlike the fly of a kitchen-jack was formerly used in place of the pendul

c L O [ 201 ] C L 0 attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part The wheel EE is fijtecl qpon the axis of the pinion clock Ciock. of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious work- dand the motion cpmmitnicated to the wheel DD —y—. manship, little larger than a shilling, that strikes and by the weight is transmitted to the pinion d, conserepeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger sits a quently to the wheel E E, as likewise to the pibird finely modelled, and set with diamonds and ru- nion e and wheel FF, which moves the pinion f, upon bies, with its wings expanded in a flying posture, and the axis of which the crown or balance wheel GH is actually flutters for a considerable time on touching a fixed. 1 he pivots of the pinion /*play in holes of the diamond button below it $ the body of the bird (which plates LM, which are fixed horizontally to the plates contains part of the wheels that in a manner give,life TS. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is to it) is not the bigness of the 16th part of an inch. transmitted from the wheel GH to the palettes IK, The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much and, by means of the fork UX rivetted on the pathicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a small lettes, communicates motion to the pendulum AB, round box, to which a circular ornament set with dia- which is suspended upon the hook A. The pendulum monds not larger than a sixpence is fixed, which goes AB describes, round the point A, an arc of a circle round near three hours in a constant regular motion. alternately going and returning. If then the penduOver the lady’s head, supported by a small fluted pil- lum be once put in motion by a push of the hand, the lar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon the largest of which a bell is fixed at a considerable di- itself and it will continue to go alternately backward stance from the clock, and seems to have no connection and forward, till the resistance of the air upon the penwith it} but from which a communication is secretly dulum, and the friction at the point of suspension at A, conveyed to a hammer, that regularly strikes the hour destroy the originally impressed force. But as, at every and repeats the same at pleasure, by touching a dia- vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balancemond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of wheel GH, act so upon the palettes IK (the pivots the lady is a gold dog j before which from the point upon the axis of these palettes play in two holes of the of the chariot are two birds fixed on spiral springs j the potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated wings and feathers of which are set with stones of va- motion to the palette K, that tooth escapes j then the rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the opposite tooth G acts upon the palette I, and escapes chariot, which, from another secret motion, is con- in the same manner j and thus each tooth of the trived to run in a straight, circular, or any other direc- wheel escapes the palettes IK, after having commution ; a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind, seems nicated their motion to the palettes in such a manner also to push it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers that the pendulum, instead of being stopt, continues to and ornaments of precious stones ; and it terminates move. with a flying dragon set in the same manner. The The wheel EE revolves in an hour j the pivot c of whole is of gold, most curiously executed, and embel- the wheel passes through the plate, and is continued lished with rubies and pearls. to r ; upon the pivot is a wheel NN with a long socket Of the general Mechanism of Clocks, and how theij fastened in the centre j upon the extremity of this Plate measure Time. The first figure of Plate CXLVI. is socket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel NN CXLVI. fi g- i. a profile of a clock : P is a weight that is suspended acts upon the wheel O j the pinion of which p acts by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C, upon the wheel g g, fixed upon a socket which turns which is fixed upon the axis a a ; the pivots b b go into along with the wheel N. This wheel gg makes its reholes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn volution in 12 hours, upon the socket of which the freely. These plates are made of brass or iron, and are hour-hand is fixed. connected by means of four pillars ZZ j and the whole From the above description it is easy to see, 1. That together is called the frame. the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the same The weight P, if not restrained, would necessarily time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That turn the barrel C with an uniformly accelerated motion, the quickness of the motion of the wheel is determined in the same manner as if the weight was falling freely by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point from a height. But the barrel is furnished with a rat- out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of chet-wheel KK, the right side of whose teeth strikes the pendulum. against the click, which is fixed with a screw to the When the cord from which the weight is suspendwheel DD, as represented in fig. 2. *so that the action ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound of the weight is communicated to the wheel DD, the up again by means of a key, which goes on the square teeth of which act upon the teeth of the small wheel d, end of the arbor at Q by turning it in a contrary diwhich turns upon the pivots c c. The communication rection from that in which the weight descends. For or action of one wheel with another is called the pitch- this purpose, the inclined side of the teeth of the wheel ing ; a small wheel like d is called a pinion, and its teeth B (fig. 2.) removes the click C, so that the ratchet- fig. are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requisite wheel R turns while the wheel D is at rest $, but as to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are soon as the cord is wound up, the click falls in between obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are the teeth of the wheel D, and the right side of the employed. The teeth and pinion leaves should be of a teeth again act upon the end of the click, which obliproper shape, and perfectly equal among themselves j ges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel j and the size also of the pinion should be of a just proportion the spring A keeps the click between the teeth of the to the wheel acting into it; and its place must be at a ratchet-wheel R. certain distance from the wheel, beyond or within We shall now explain how time is measured by the which it ujill make a bad pitching, motion of the pendulum j and how the wheel E, upon Vol. VI. Part I. ° f Cc the

C L O [ 202 ] C L 0 tlie axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but the length of the pendulum ; and, 5. By adding to one precise revolution in an hour. The vibrations of the number of wheels and pinions. But in proportion a pendulum are performed in a shorter or longer time as the time is augmented, if the weight continues the in proportion to the length of the pendulum itself. A same, the force which it communicates to the last wheel pendulum of 3 feet French lines in length, makes GH will he diminished. 3600 vibrations in an hour, e. each vibration is per- It only remains to take notice of the number of formed in a second of time, and for that reason it is teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minutecalled a secondpendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches hands. 2* French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour; two vibrations in a second of time, and is called a half- the wheel NN, which is turned by the axis of the second pendulum. Hence, in constructing a wheel wheel E, must likewise make only one revolution in whose revolution must be performed in a given time, the same time; and the minute-hand is fixed to the the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re- socket of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and gulates its motion must be considered. Supposing, acts upon the wheel O, which has likewise 30 teeth, then, that the pendulum A B makes 7200 vibrations in and the same diameter; consequently the wheel O an hour, let us consider how the wheel E shall take up takes one hour to a revolution : now the wheel O cara hour in making one revolution. This entirely de- ries the pinion p, which has 6 teeth, and which acts pends on the number of teeth in the wheels and pini- upon the wheel qqof 72 teeth; consequently the pions. If the balance wheel consists of 30 teeth, it will nion/? makes 12 revolutions while the wheel q q makes turn once in the time that the pendulum makes 60 vi- one, and of course the wheel q q takes 12 hours to one brations j for at every turn of the wheel, the same tooth revolution; and upon the socket of this wheel the acts once on the palette I, and once on the palette K, hour hand is fixed. All that has been said here conwhich occasions two separate vibrations in the pendu- cerning the revolutions of the wheels, &c. is equally lum j and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occasions twice applicable to watches as to clocks. 30, or 60 vibrations. Consequently, this wheel must The ingenious Dr Franklin contrived a clock to perform 1 20 revolutions in an hour j because 60 vibra- show the hours, minutes, and seconds, with only three tions, which it occasions at every revolution, are con- wheels and two pinions in the whole movement. The Kg- 3tained 120 times in 7200, the number of vibrations dial-plate (fig. 3.) has the hours engraven upon it in performed by the pendulum in an hour. Now, in spiral spaces along two diameters of a circle containing order to determine the number of teeth for the wheels four times 60 minutes. The index A goes round in four the hours,pinions and counts the minutes from anythathour by F. F, and ef it must be remarked, one revolution of the wheel E must turn the pinion e which it has passed to the next following hour. The as many times as the number of teeth in the pinions time, therefore, in the position of the index shown in is contained in the number of teeth in the wheel. the figure is either 327 minutes past XII. III. or VIII.; Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and the pi- and so in every other quarter of the circle it points to nion e 6, the pinion will make 12 revolutions in the the number of minutes after the hours which the intime that the wheel makes l ; for each tooth of the dex last left in its motion. The small hand B, in the wheel drives forward a tooth of the pinion, and when arch at top, goes round once in a minute, and shows the 6 teeth of the pinion are moved, a complete re- the seconds. The wheel-work of this clock may be volution is performed j but the wheel E has by that seen in fig. 4. A is the first or great wheel, contain- Fig.4 time only advanced 6 teeth, and has still 66 to ad- ing 160 teeth, and going round in four hours with the vance before its revolution be completed, which will index A in fig. 3. let down by a hole on its axis. This occasion II more revolutions of the pinion. For the wheel turns a pinion B of 10 leaves, which therefore same reason, the wheel F having 60 teeth, and the goes round in a quarter of an hour. On the axis of pinion f 6, the pinion will make 10 revolutions while this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth; which goes the wheel performs one. Now, the wheel F being round in the same time, and turns a pinion D of turned by the pinion c, makes 12 revolutions for one eight leaves round in a minute, with the second of the wheel E; and the pinion f makes 10 revolu- hand B of fig. 3. fixed on its axis, and also the comtions for one of the wheel F; consequently, the pi- mon wheel E of 30 teeth for moving a pendulum nion performs 10 times 12 or 120 revolutions in (by palettes) that vibrates seconds, as in a common the time the wheel E performs one. But the wheel clock. This clock is wound up by a line going over G, which is turned by the pinion^ occasions 60 vi- a pulley on the axis of the great wheel, like a common brations in the pendulum each time it turns round ; thirty-hour clock. Many of these admirably simple consequently the wheel G occasions 60 times 120 or machines have been constructed, which measure time 7200 vibrations of the pendulum while the wheel E exceedingly well. It is subject, however, to the inperforms one revolution j but 7200 is the number of convenience of requiring frequent winding by drawing vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour, and con- up the weight, and likewise to some uncertainty as to sequently the wheel E performs but one revolution in the particular hour shown by the index A. Mr Ferguson has proposed to remedy these inconveniences by an hour j and so of the rest. From this reasoning, it is easy to discover how a the following construction. In the dial-plate of his clock may be made to go for any length of time with- clock (fig. 5.) there is an opening, abed, below the out being wound up : 1. By increasing the number of centre, through which appears part of a flat plate, on Fig. : teeth in the wheels j _ 2. By diminishing the number of which the 12 hours, with their divisions into quarters, teeth in the pinions; 3. By increasing the length of are engraved. This plate turns round in 12 hours; the cord that suspends the weight $ 4. By increasing and the index A points out the true hour, &c^ B is the 3

C L 0 t m ] C L O Clack, the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle of moon to new moon ; and each day stands directly un- clock, —V—' 60 minutes whilst the plate a £ c J shifts its place one der the time, in the twenty-four hour circle, of the y— hour under the fixed index A. There is another open- tnoon’s coming to the meridian $ the XII under the ing, efg, through which the seconds are seen on a sun standing for noon, and the opposite XII for midflat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis night. The moon M is fixed to another circular plate ig« 6. engraved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great (fig. 6.) of the same diameter with that which carries wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn- the sun, part of which may be seen through the opening round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears ing, over which the small wires r and b pass in the the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin pas- moon-plate. The wire a shows the moon’s age and sing through small holes drilled in the plate, without time of her coming to the meridian, and b shows the affecting the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns time of high-water for that day in the sun-plate. The a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car- distance of these wires answers to the difference of time ries the minute hand B on its axis round the dial- between the moon’s coming to the meridian and highplate in the same lime. On this axis is a wheel C of water at the place for which the clock is made. At 120 teeth, turning round a pinion 1) of six leaves in London their dift’erence is two hours and a half. three minutes j on the axis of which there is a wheel Above the moon-plate there is a fixed plate N, supE of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, Vi- ported by a wire A, joined to it at one end, and fixed at brating seconds by palettes, as in a common clock, right angles into the dial plate at the midnight XII. when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes This plate may represent the earth, and the dot L round in a minute. In order to show the seconds by London, or the place to which the clock is adapted; this clock, a thin plate must be divided into three Around this plate there is an elliptic shade on the times sixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered 10, 20, moon-plate, the highest points of which are marked 30, 40, 50, 60, three times successively 5 and fixed on high-water* and the lowest low-water. As this plate the same axis with the wheel of 90 teeth, so as to turns round below the plate N, these points come sucturn round near the back of the dial-plate $ and these cessively even with L, and stand over it at the times divisions will show the seconds through the opening tvhen it is high or low water at the given place ; e f g h, fig. 5. This clock will go a week without which times are pointed by the sun S on the dialwinding, and always show the precise hour ; but this plate ; and the plate H above XII at noon rises or clotkj as Mr Ferguson candidly acknowledges, has two falls with the tide. As the sun S goes round the dialdisadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free. plate in twenty-four hours, and the moon M in twentyWhen the minute-hand B is adjusted, the hour-plate four hours fifty minutes and a half, it is plain that the must also be set right by means of a pin $ and the small- moon makes only twenty-eight revolutions and a half* ness of the teeth in the pendulum-wheel will cause the whilst the sun makes twenty-nine and a half; so that pendulum-ball to describe but small arcs in its vibra- it will be twenty-nine days and a half from conjunctions ; and therefore the momentum of the ball will be tion to conjunction. And thus the wire a shifts over less, and the times of the vibrations will be more affect- one day of the moon’s age on the sun-plate in twentyed by any unequal impulse of the pendulum-wheel on four hours. The phases of the moon for every day of the palettes. Besides, the weight of the flat ring on her age may be seen through a round hole m in the which the seconds are engraved will load the pivots of moon-plate: thus at conjunction or new-moon, the the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of whole space seen through m is black ; at opposition or friction, which ought by all possible means to he avoid- full moon this space is white ; at either quadrature ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the second plate half black and half white; and at every position the might be omitted. white part resembles the visible part of the moon for A clock similar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin- every day of her agC; The black-shaded space NJY l colnshire about the end of the 17th century or begin- (fig. 8.) on the sun-plate serves for these appearances. Fig- 8. ning of the 18th j and is said to be in London in the N represents the new moon, F the full itioon, and f possession of a grandson of the person who made it. her first quarter, and / her last quarter, &c. The A clock, showing the apparent diurnal motions of wheel-work and tide-work of this clock are reprethe sun and moon, the age and phases of the moon, sented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal Fig. 9» with the time of her coming to the meridian, and the diameters; A has fifty-seven teeth, with a hollow axis times of high and low water, by having only two that passes through the dial of the clock, and carries wheels and a pinion added to the common movement, the sun-plate with the sun S. B has fifty-nine teeth, was contrived by Mr Ferguson, and described in his Se- with a solid spindle for its axis, which turns within the riate lect Exercises. The dial plate of this clock (fig. 7.) hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the XLVII. contains all the twenty-four hours, of the day and night. moon M: both wheels are turned round by a pinion ** S is the sun, which serves as an hour index by going C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours ; and M is by the common clock-work in'eight hours; and as the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty nineteen is the third part of fifty-seven, the wheel A minutes and a half, the time of her going round in the will go round in twenty-four hours ; and the wheel B heavens from one meridian to the same meridian again. in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half; fiftyThe sun is fixed to a circular plate (see fig. 8.) and seven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-four carried round by the motion of that plate on which the hours fifty minutes and a half very nearly; On the twenty-four hours are engraven ; and within them is a back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which, circle divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts in its revolution, raises and lets down a lever EF, whose for the days of the moon’s age, reckoning from new Centre of motion is on a pin at F £ and this, by the upCc2 right

C L O [ 04 ] C L .O Clock, right bar G, raises and lets down the tide-plate H M of the machine, which wheel by its teeth shall com- £]ocj. ' twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me- municate with the train of wheels, &c. on the other 1 ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between side, and the power of the weight be just equal to the four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock, of this kind was friction or resistance of the train, it will remain motionadapted by Mr Ferguson to the movement of an old less as it did before when it was fixed $ and consewatch : the great wheel of a watch goes round in four quently the clock also will be at rest on the inclined hours j on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty plane. But supposing the power of the weight P to teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the be superior to the resistance of the train, it will then pinion C $ by which means that pinion was turned put it into motien, and of course the clock likewise ; round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and which will then commence a motion down the plane j the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a while the weight P, its vectis PM, and the wheel 1, half. all constantly retain the same position which they have To this article we shall subjoin a brief account of at first when the clock begins to move. Hence it is two curious contrivances. The first, for giving motion easy to understand, that the weight P may have such to the parts of a clock by making it to descend along an intrinsic gravity as shall cause it to act upon the an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice train with any required force, so as to produce a moWheeler ; the clock itself was formerly seen in Don tion in the machine of any required velocity; such, for Plate Saltero’s coffee-house at Chelsea. DE, fig. 10. is the instance, as shall carry it once round in twenty-four inclined plane on which the clock ABC descends j hours : then, if the diameters of the plates ABC be e’ this consists externally of a hoop about an inch broad, four inches, it will describe the length of their circumand two sides or plates standing out beyond the hoop ference, viz. 1256 inches, in one natural day j and about one-eighth of an inch all round, with indented therefore, if the plane be of a sufficient breadth, such edges, that the clock may not slide, but turn round a clock may go several days, and would furnish a whilst it moves down. One of these plates is inscribed perpetual motion, if the plane were infinitely exwith the twenty-four hours, which pass successively tended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicular Fig. 21. under the index LP, fig. u. which is always in a po- to the inclined plane in the point D j also let LD be sition perpendicular to the horizon, and shows the hour perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, passing on the top of the machine : for this reason the lower through D j then is the angle HDE=LDS=DMT $ part of the index, or HL, is heaviest, that it may pre- whence it follows that the greater the angle of the ponderate the other HP, and always keep it pendu- plane’s elevation is, the greater will be the arch DT j lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move- and consequently the further will the common centre ment goes on. Instead of this index, an image may of gravity be removed from M j therefore the power be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an of P will be augmented, and of course the motion of erected finger performs the office of an index. In or- the whole machine accelerated; Thus it appears, that der to describe the internal part or mechanism of this by duly adjusting the intrinsic weight of P, at first to clock, let LETQ be the external circumference of produce a motion showing the mean time as near as the hoop, and/y the same plate, on which is placed possible, the time may be afterwards corrected, or the the train of wheel work I, 2, 3, 4, which is much the clock made to go faster or slower by raising or depressame as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance sing the plane, by means of the screw at S. The anand regulator as in them. But there is no need of a gle to which the plane is first raised is about ten de- , spring and fusee in this clock: their effects being grees. The marquis of Worcester is also said to have otherwise answered as we shall see. In this machine contrived a w'atch that moved on a declivity. See the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the farther Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. i. p. 468, &c. or N° axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts 161. towards one side, which would therefore prove a bias The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for to the body of the clock, and cause it to move, even making a clock ascend on an inclined plane. To this on a horizontal plane, for some short distance : this end let ABC (fig. 12.) he the machine on the inclined Fig. u j makes it necessary to fix a thin plate of lead at C, on plane EDE, and let it be kept at rest upon it, or in the opposite part of the hoop, to restore the equilibrium equilibrio, by the weight P at the end of the level PM. of the movement. This being done, the machine will The circular area CF is one end of a spring barrel in abide at rest in any position on the horizontal plane the middle of the movement, in which is included a HH ; but if that plane be changed into the inclined spring as in a common watch. To this end of the plane DE, it will touch it in the point D j but it barrel the arm or lever PM is fixed upon the centre M $ cannot rest there, because the centre of gravity at M and thus, when the clock is wound up, the spring acting in the direction MI, and the point T having moves the barrel, and therefore the lever and weight P nothing to support it, must continually descend, and in the situation PM. In doing this, the centre of carry the body down the plane. But now if any gravity is constantly removed farther from the centre weight P be fixed on the other side of the machine, of the machine, and therefore it must determine the such as shall remove the centre of gravity from M to clock to move upwards, which it will continue to do the point V in the line LD which passes through the as long as the spring is unbending itself j and thus the point D, it will then rest upon the inclined plane, as weight and its lever PM will preserve the situation they in the case of the rolling cylinder. If this weight first have, and to do the office of a chain and fusee. P be supposed not fixed, but suspended at the end of Phil. Trails. N° 140. or Abridg. vol. i. p. 467. an arm, or vectis, which arm or lever is at the same By stat. 9 and 10 W. III. cap. 28. § 2. no person time fastened to a centrical wheel I, moving on the axis shall export, or endeavour to export, out of this kingdom,

C L O C L O [ 205 ] Clock. ^ > any outward or inward box-case or dial-plate, of quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many 1 Clock. ■—^ gold, silver, brass, or other metal, for clock or watch, turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the without the movement in or with every such box, &c. strokes of 12 hours (which are 78), so many turns must made up fit for use, with the maker’s name engraven the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wheel thereon 5 nor shall any person make up any clock or once ; or thus the quotient of 78, divided by the numwatch without putting his name and place of abode ber of striking-pins, shall be the quotient for the pior freedom, and no other name or place, on every nion of report and the count-wheel ; and this is in case clock or watch j on penalty of forfeiting every such the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the pinbox, case, and dial-plate, clock and watch, not made wheel, which is commonly done. up and engraven as aforesaid j and 20I. one moiety An example will make all plain : The locking-wheel to the king, the other to those that shall sue for the being 48, the pinion of report 8, the same. pin-wheel 78, the striking pins are 13, Clocks, Portable, or Pocket, commonly denomina- and so of the rest. Note also, that 78 8) 48 ( 6 ted Watches. See the article Watch. divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of - .. ChoCK-Work, properly so called, is that part of the the pinion of report. As for the warn- 6) 78 (13 movement which strikes the hours, &c. on a bell 5 in ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters little 6) 60 (10 contradistinction to that part of the movement of a what numbers they have $ their use being 6) 48 ( 8 clock or watch which is designed to measure and ex- only to bridle the rapidity of the motion hibit the time on a dial-plate, and which is termed of the other wheels. Watch-work. The following rules will be of great service in this ar calculation. 1. Tofind how many strokes a clock strikes I'YTVHT ^ P t’ The wheels cjomposing this in one turn of the fusee or barrel: As the turns of the 3 ’ part are : The great or first wheel H, which is moved by the weight or spring at the barrel G: in sixteen or great wheel or fusee are to the days of the clock’s conthirty-hour clocks, this has usually pins, and is called tinuance j so is the number of strokes in 24 hours, viz. the pin-wheel; in eight day pieces, the second wheel 156, to the strokes of one turn of the fusee. I is commonly the pin-wheel, or striking wheel, which 2. To find how many days a clock will go : As the is moved by the former. Next the striking wheel is strokes in 24 hours are to those in one turn of the futhe detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop see j so are the turns of the fusee to the days of the almost round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the clock’s going. clock locks. The next is the third or fourth wheel, ac3. To find the number of turns of the fusee or barcording to its distance from the first, called the warn- rel : As the strokes in one turn of the fusee are to those ing-wheel L. The last is the flying pinion Q, with a of 24 hours 5 so is the clock’s continuance to the turns fly or fan, to gather air, and so bridle the rapidity of of the fusee or great wheel. the clock’s motion. To these must be added the pi4. To find the number of leaves in the pinion of renion of report, which drives round the locking-wheel, port on the axis of the great wheel: As the number of called also the count-wheel; ordinarily with eleven strokes in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the notches in it, unequally distant, to make the clryk strike fusee $ so are the strokes in 12 hours, viz. 78, to the the hours. quotient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of Besides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the the great wheel. rash or ratch ; a kind of wheel with twelve large fangs, 5. To find the strokes in the clock''s continuance: As running concentrical to the dial wheel, and serving to 12 is to 78 ; so are the hours of the clock’s continuance lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock to the number of strokes in that time. strike : the detents or stops, which being lifted up and By means of the following table, clocks and let fall, lock and unlock the clock in striking the ham- watches may be so regulated as to measure true equal mer, as S, which strikes the bell R j the hammer-tails, time. as T, by which the striking pins draw back the fiamThe stars make 366 revolutions from mersj latches, whereby the work is lifted up and un- any point of the compass to the same ^ H. M. S. locked ; and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up and un- point again in 365 days and one lock the detents. minute ; and therefore they gain a 1 3 56 The method of calculating the numbers of a piece 365th of a revolution every 24 hours 2 7 52 of clock-work having something in it very entertain- of mean solar time, near enough for 3 11 48 ing, and at the same time very easy and useful, we regulating, any clock or watch. 4 15 44 shall give our readers the rules relating thereto: 1. ReThis acceleration is at the rate of 5 19 40 gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel, 3 min. 55 sec. 53 thirds, 59 fourths 6 23 36 striking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round in 24 hours ; or in the nearest round 7 27 32 in this proportion : the count-wheel commonly goes numbers, 3 minutes, 56 seconds j by 8 31 28 round once in 12 or 24 hours ; the detent-wheel moves which quantity of time every star 9 35 24 round every stroke the clock strikes, or sometimes hut comes round sooner than it did on the 10 39 20 once in two strokes : wherefore it follows, that, 2. day before. 11 43 16 As many pins as are in the pin-wheel, so many turns Therefore, if you mark the precise 12 47 12 hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel $ moment shown by a clock or watch 13 5i 8 or, which is the same, the pins of the pin-wheel are when any star vanishes behind achim- 14 55 4 the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of ney, or any other object, as seen 15 59 o the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel moves but through a small hole in a thin plate 16 2 56 once round in two strokes of the clock, then the said of metal, fixed in a window-shutter j 17 6 52 18 om

'C L 0 T 206 ] C L 0 on the arbor of the great wheel ; and serves to drive clock, and do this for several nights succes^Clock. —y— H. M. S. sivelv (as suppose twenty) j if, at the the dial-wheel, as that serves to carry the hand. For the illustration of this part of the work which lies end of that time, the star vanishes as *18 I 10 48 much sooner than it did the first night, concealed, let ABC (fig* 14.) represent the uppermost pjg. I4, *9 1 14 44 by the clock, as answers to the time side of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached •20 1 18 40 denoted in the table for so many days, from the dial-plate s the middle of this plate is perforated 21 I 22 36 the clock goes true ; otherwise not. with a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the 22 1 26 32 If the dilference between the clock centre wheel which carries the minute hand ; near 23 1 30 28 and star he less than the table shows, the plate is fixed the pinion of report a i of 10 teeth } 34 24 the clock goes too fast; if greater* this drives a wheel c d a( 40 teeth j this wheel carries 24 38 20 it goes too slow ; and must be re- a pinion efofl2 teeth } and this again drives a wheel 25 42 16 gulated accordingly, by letting down g h with 36 teeth. 26 As in the body of the watch the wheels every46 12 or raising up the ball ot the pendulum* 27 28 50 8 by little and little, by turning the where divide the pinions 5 here, on the contrary, the 54 4 screw-nut under the hall, till you find pinions divide the wheels, and by that means dimi29 hish the motion, which is here necessary 3 for the hour _ _ 58 o it keeps true equal time. 3° Thus supposing the star should disappear behind a hand, which is carried on a socket fixed on the wheel •chimney, any night when it is XII. by the clock $ g h, is required to move but once round, while the and that, on the 20th night afterward, the same star pinion a b moves twelve times round. For this purshould disappear when the time is 41 minutes 22 se- pose the motion of the wheel c e? is ^ of the pinion a b. conds past X, by the clock j which being subtracted Again, while the wheel c d, or the pinion e f goes from 12 hours o min. o sec. leaves remaining 1 hour once round, it turns the wheel g h but -y part round j 18 minutes 40 seconds for the time the star is then Consequently the motion of gf h is but of £ of the mofaster than the clock i look in the table, and against tion of a b ; but ^ of ^ is T r ; i. e. the hour-wheel g h 20, in the left-hand column, you will find the acce- moves once round in the time that the pinion of releration of the star to be I hour 18 min. 40 sec. port, on the arbor of the centre of the minute wheel, agreeing exactly with What the difference ought to be makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the strucbetween the clock and star 5 which shows that the» ture of that part of a clock or watch which shows the clock measures true equal time, and agrees with the time may be easily understood. The cylinder A (fig. 13.) put into motion by a mean solar time, as it ought to do. II. Of the Watch part of a clock or watch. This, weight or inclosed spring moves the fusee B, and the is that part of the movement which is designed to great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line pr cord measure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate j in con- that goes round each, and answers to the chain of a tradistinction to that part which contributes to the watch. The method of calculation is easily understood by striking of the hour, &c. The several members of the watch part are, I. The the sequel of this article 3 for, suppose the great wheel balance, consisting of the rim, which is its circular part j C goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal and the verge, which is its spindle j to which belong pendulumclock, vibrating seconds, wehave 60 X 60 X * 2 two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the =43200 seconds or beats in one turn of the great crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which is wheel. But because there are 60 swings or seconds the strong stud in pocket watches, whereon the lower in one minute, and the seconds are shown by an index pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which on the end of the arbor of the swing-wheel, which in one pivot of the balance-wheel plays $ the bottom of those clocks is in an horizontal position 5 therefore it is the swing-wheel F should have 30 teeth; the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the necessary4 ,that oo nose, and the upper part the shoulder. 3. The cock, whence ■ . .^ rz720, the number to be broken into which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re- quotients for finding the number of teeth for the other gulator, or pendulum spring, which is the small spring, wheels and pinions. in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance. In spring-clocks, the disposition of the wheels in 5. The pendulum (fig. 13.) ; whose parts are, the verge the watch part is such as is here represented in the fipalettes 5, 5, cocks y y y, the rod, the fork, z, the gure, where the crown-wheel F is in an horizontal poflatt 2, the bob or great ball 3, and the corrector or sition 3 the seconds not being shown there by an index, regulator, 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for as is done in the large pendulum clocks. Whence in bringing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The these clocks the wheels are disposed in a different manwheels, which are the crown-wheel F in pocket- ner, as represented in fig. 15. where C is the great wheel,Fig, 15. pieces, and swing-wheel in pendulums $ serving to and D the centre or minute wheel, as before : but drive the balance or pendulum. 7. The. contrate-wheel the contrate wheel E is placed on one side, and F the E, which is that next the crown-wheel, &c. and swing-wheel is placed with its centre in the same perWhose teeth and hoop lie contrary to those of other pendicular line GH with the minute-wheel, and with wheels \ whence the name. 8. The great, or first its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the wheel C; which is that the fusee B, &c. immediately others. Thus the minute and hour hands turn on drives, by means of the chain or string of the spring- the end of the arbor of the minute wheel at o, and box or barrel A ; after which are the second wheel the second hand on the arbor of the swing-wheel D, third wheel, &c. Lastly, between the frame and at b. dial-plate, is the pinion of report, which is that fixed Theory and calculation of the Watch-part, as laid doivn

C L O C L O [ 207 ] pocket-watch) or a slower of about 16,000 (the train Clock, down by the Rev. Dr Derham.— I. The same motion, — v —1 * it is evident, may be performed either by one wheel and of the new pendulum pocket-watches), or any other one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions $ pro- train. Next, resolve on the number of turns the fusee vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear the is intended to have, and the number of hours the proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel piece is to go: suppose e. gr. 12 turns, and to go 30 bears to its pinion : or, which is the same thing, if hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), &c. Proceed now the number produced by multiplying all the wheels to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one together be to the number produced by multiplying turn of the fusee ; thus in numbers j 12:16:: 20,000 : *11 the pinions together, as that one wheel to that 26666. Wherefore 26666 are the beats in one turn one pinion. Thus, suppose you had occasion for a of the fusee or great wheel, and are equal to the quowheel of 1440 teeth, and a pinion of 28 leaves j tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied toyou make it into three wheels of 36, 8, and 5, and gether. Now this number is to be broken into a conthree pinions of 4, 7, and I. For the three wheels, venient parcel of quotients; which is to be done thus:: 36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 1440 for the first, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and youwheels, and the three pinions, 4, 7, and I, multiplied have 13333 5 then pitch on the number of the crowntogether, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat- wheel, suppose 17: divide 13333 by 17, and you have ters not in what order the wheels and pinions are set, 784 for the quotient (or turns) of the rest of the or which pinion runs in which wheel j only for con- wheels and pinions ; which, being too big for one or venience sake, the biggest numbers are commonly put two quotients, may be best broken into three. Choose therefore three numbers ; which, when multiplied all to drive the rest. 2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers may together continually, will come nearest 784: as supperform the same motion. Thus, a wheel of 36 drives pose 10, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 810 a pinion of four j the same as a wheel of 45 a pinion which is somewhat too much ; therefore try again oof 5 j or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10 the turns of ther numbers, ll, 9, 8: these, drawn one into another continually, produce 792 5 which is as near as each being 9. 3. If, in breaking the train into parcels, any of can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus the quotients should not be liked j or if any other two contrived the piece from the great wheel to the banumbers, to be multiplied together, are desired to be lance, but the numbers not falling out exactly, as you varied, it may be done by this rule. Divide the two first proposed, correct the work thus: first multiply 792, numbers by any other two numbers which will mea- the product of all the quotients pitched upon, by 17sure them *, multiply the quotients by the alternate di- (the notches of the crown-wheel) ; the product is visors ; the product of these two last numbers found 13464, which is half the number of beats in one turn will be equal to the product of the two numbers first of the fusee : Then find the true number of beats in an given. Thus, if you would vary 46 times 8, divide hour. Thus, 16 : 12 :: 13464 : 10098, which is half these by any two numbers which will evenly measure the beats in an hour. Then find what quotient is to be them : so, 36 by 4 gives 9; and 8 by I gives 8 $ now, laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given under by the rule, 9 times I is 9, and 8 times 4 is 32 ; so that word). Thus, 16 : 12 :: 12 : 9, the quotient of that for 364-8, you have 324-95 each equal to 288. the pinion of report. Having thus found your If you divide 36 by 6, and 8 by 2, and multiply as quotients, it is easy to determine what numbers the wheels shall have, for choosing what numbers the pibefore, you have 24-}-12=364-8=288. 4. If a wheel and pinion fall out with cross num- nions shall have, and multiplying the pinions by their bers, too big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be quotients, the product is the number for x ^ , 3 v 9 altered by these rules; in seeking for the pinion of re- the wheels. Thus the number of the port, find two numbers of the same, or a near propor- pinion of report is 4, and its quotient is x rr (n tion, by this rule 5 as either of the two given num- 9 ; therefore the number for the dial-wheel ^x ^ > ^ g bers is to the other, so is 360 to a fourth. Divide must be 4x9, or 36: so the next pinion ^ the ^ that fourth number, as also 360, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, being 5, its quotient II, therefore an 80 12, 15, (each of which numbers exactly measures 360), great wheel must be 5x11=55 i ^ nor by any of those numbers that bring a quotient near- of the rest. Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a est to a integer. As suppose you had 147 for the wheel, and 170 for the pinion} which are too great to 16 hour watch. Which watch may be made to go be cut into small wheels, and yet cannot be reduced longer by lessening the train, and altering the pinion into less, as having no other common measure but unity ; of report. Suppose you could conveniently slacken the say, as 170 : 147 :: 360 : 311. Or, as 147 : 170 :: train to 16000 5 then say, As £ 16000 or 8000: 360 : 416. Divide the fourth number and 360 by 13464 :: 12 : 205 so that this watch will go 20 hours. one of the foregoing numbers ; as 311 and 360 by 6, Then, for the pinion of report, say (by the rule given it gives 52 and 60 5 divide them by 8, you have 39 under that word), as 20 : 12 :: 12 : 7. So that 7• and 45 ; and if you divide 360 and 416 by 8, yon is the quotient of the pinion of report. 4) 28 ( 7have 45 and 52 exactly. Wherefore, instead of the And as to the numbers, the operation is two numbers 147 and 170, you may take 52 and 60, the same as before, only the dial-wheel 5) 55 C11 is but 28 5 for its quotient is altered to 7. or 39 and 45, or 45 and 52, &c. 5) 45 ( 9 5. To come to practice in calculating a piece of If you would give numbers to a watch of 5) 40 ( 8 Watch-work : First pitch on the train or beats of the about 10,000 beats in an hour, to have 12 balance in an hour; as, whether a swift one of about turns of the fusee, to go 170 hours, and *7? 2Q,ooo beats (the usual train of a common 30 hour 17 notches in tha crown-wheel; the work

Clock'.

C L O [ 208 ] C L O will show the hour 5 or it may be done by the minute- clock Clock, is the same, in a manner, as in the last example: and Clodia. —consequently thus : as 12 : 170 IOQOO : 14x666, wheel. It is requisite for those who make nice astronomical which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the fusee $ its half, 70833, being divided by 17, gives observationto have watches that make some exact 4167 for the quotient j and because this number is too number of beats per second, without any fraction 5 but big for three quotients, therefore choose four, as 10, we seldom find a watch that does. As four beats per 8, 8, 6 f $ whose product into 17 makes 71808, near- second would be a very convenient number, we shall ly equ;«l to half the true beats in one turn of the fu- here give the train for such a watch, which would (like see. Then say, as 170 : 12 :: 71808 : 5069, which is most others) go 30 hours, but is to be wound up once half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 : in 24 hours. 12 :: I2x4£, the denominator of which expresses the The fusee and first wheel to go round in four hours. pinion of report, and the numerator is the number of This wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of 12 the dial-wheel. But these numbers being too big to be leaves, oh whose axis is the second wheel, which goes cut in small wheels, they must be varied by the fourth round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This rule above. Thus : wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves; As 144 : 170 :: 360 : 425 ; on whose axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning Or X70 : 144 :: 360 : 305. a pinion of 6 leaves ; on whose axis is the fourth (or 24) 20 (-|£ Then dividing 360, and either of these contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and car— two fourth proportionals (as directed by rying the small hand that shows the seconds, on a 6) 60 (10 the rule), suppose by 15 j you will have small circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts : 6) 48 ( 8 H or •!£ 5 then the numbers of the whole this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion 5) 40 ( 8 movements will stand as in the margin. of 6 leaves ; on whose axis is the crown or balance5) 33 ( Such is the calculation of ordinary wheel of 15 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revo—- watches, to show the hour of the day: lution. 17 in such as show minutes, and seconds, the The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour, process is thus: and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats I. Having resolved on the beats in an hour, by di- in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 seconds ; and viding the designed train by 60, find the beats in a mi- Aristophanes compares him to the this impiety about them, Christians; nay, what with king of Persia ; most authors also take notice of the many is a superior and distinct character, men of bespectatissimum insigne, serratum, quod eorum verti- nevolence and morality. Bi»t let the morality and becem regies coronce modo exornat.” His tenderness to- nevolence of such be appreciated from the following wards his brood is such, that, contrary to the custom instance recorded as authentic in the obituary of the of many other males, he will scratch and provide for Gentleman’s Magazine for April 1789. “ Died them with an assiduity almost equal to that of the hen ; April 4. at Tottenham, John Ardesoif, Esq. a young and his generosity is so great, that, on finding a hoard man of large fortune, and in the splendour of his carof meat, he will chuckle the hens together, and with- riages and horses rivalled by few country gentlemen. out touching one bit himself will relinquish the whole His table was that of hospitality, where it may be said of it to them. Pie was called the bird, xuv by he sacrificed too much to conviviality $ but if he had many of the ancients •, he was highly esteemed in some his foibles, he had his merits also that far outweighed countries, and in others was even held sacred, inso- them. Mr Ardesoif was very fond of cock-fighting, much that one cannot but regret that a creature so use- and had a favourite cock upon which he had won many ful and noble, should, by a strange fatality, be so enor- profitable matches. The last bet he laid upon this cock mously abused by us. It is true, our uXatT^veftaytet, or he lost; which so enraged him, that he had the bird the massacre of Shrove Tuesday, is now in a declining tied to a spit and roasted alive before a large fire. The way •, and, in a few years, it is to be hoped, will be screams of the miserable animal were so affecting, that totally disused ; but the cock-pit still continues a re- some gentlemen who were present attempted to interproach to the humanity of Englishmen, and to their fere, which so enraged Mr Ardesoif, that he seized a religion ; the purest, the tenderest, and most compas- poker, and with the most furious vehemence declared, sionate, of all others, not excepting even the Brach- that he would kill the first man who interposed ; but, in mannic. the midst of his passionate asseverations, he fell down It is unknown when the pitched battle first entered dead upon the spot. Such, we are assured, were the England, but it was probably brought hither by the circumstances which attended the death of this great Romans. This bird was here before Ctesar’s arrival, pillar of humanity.” but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the Cock-pit, of a ship of war, the apartment of the surtime of William Eitz-Stephen, who wrote the life of geon and his mates, being the place where the wounded Archbishop Becket, some time in the reign of Henry II. men are dressed in time of battle, or otherwise. It is and describes the cocking as a sport of school-boys on situated under the lower deck. Shrove Tuesday. From this time at least the diverCOCKBURNE, Mrs Catharine, a most accomsion, however absurd and even impious, was continued plished lady and celebrated writer, was the daughter of amongst us. It was followed, though disapproved and Captain David Trotter, a native of Scotland, and a seaprohibited, 39 Edward III. $ also in the reign of commander in the reign of King Charles II. She was Henry VIII. and A. D. 156,9. It has by some been born in London, August 16. 1679, and baptized in the

C O C C 243 ] c o c Bckburne.'tfi6 Protestp.nt church, according to which she was bred ed writer j and their admiration was greatly increased Cockburae fl —v——' up. She gave early marks of her genius 5 and learned when her sex and advanced age were known. Dr Ruto write, and also made herself mistress of the French therford’s Essay on the Nature and Obligations of1[ Cocket. language, by her own application and diligence, with- Virtue, published in May 1744, soon engaged her " out any instructor ; but she had some assistance in the thoughts $ and notwithstanding the asthmatic disorder study of the Latin grammar and logic, of which latter which had seized her many years before, and now left she drew up an abstract for her own use. The most her small intervals of ease, she applied herself to the serious and important sebjects, and especially religion, confutation of that elaborate discourse, and finished it soon engaged her attention.—But notwithstanding her with a spirit, elegance, and perspicuity, equal, if not education, her intimacy with several families of distinc- superior, to all her former writings. The loss of her husband in 1748, in the 71st year of tion of the Romish persuasion, exposed her, while very young, to impressions in favour of that church, which his age, was a severe shock to her ; and she did not not being removed by her conferences with some emi- long survive him, dying on the nth of May 1749, in nent and learned members of the church of England, her 71st year, after having long supported a painful she embraced the Romish communion, in which she con- disorder with a resignation to the Divine will, which tinued till the year 1707. In 1695 she produced a tra- had been the governing principle of her whole life, and gedy called Agnes de Castro, which was acted at the her support under the various trials of it. Her works are collected into two large volumes 8vo theatre-royal when she was only in her 17th year. The reputation of this performance, and the verses which by Dr Birch, who has prefixed to them an account of she addressed to Mr Congreve upon his Mourning Bride her Life and Writings. COCKERMOUTH, a town of Cumberland in in 1697, were probably the foundation of her acquaintance with that celebrated writer. Her second tragedy, England, situated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat. 54. 33. Fatal Friendship, was acted in 1698, at the new theatre It is a large town, irregularly built, with broad streets. in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields. This tragedy met with great It is washed by the Derwent on the western side; •applause, and is still thought the most perfect of her divided in two by the Cocker 5 and the parts are condramatic performances. Her dramatic talents not be- nected by a stone bridge of a single arch. The numing confined to tragedy, she brought upon the stage, in ber of inhabitants is between three and four thousand : 1707, a comedy called Love at a loss, or Most votes the manufactures are shalloons, worsted stockings, and carry it. In the same year she gave the public her hats $ the last exported from Glasgow to the West third tragedy, entitled the Unhappy Penitent, acted at Indies. It is a borough-town, and the right of vothe theatre-royal in Drury-lane. But poetry and dra- ting is vested by burgess tenure in certain houses : this matic writing did not so far engross the thoughts is also the town where the county elections are held. of our author, but that she sometimes turned them to —Here is a castle seated on an artificial mount on a subjects of a very different nature, and distinguished bank above the Derwent. It is a square building, herself in an extraordinary manner in defence of Mr and strengthened with several squai’e towers : on each Locke’s writings, a female metaphysician being a re- side of the inner gate are two deep dungeons capable of holding 50 persons in either. They are vaulted at markable phenomenon in the republic of letters. She returned to the exercise of her dramatic genius top, and have only a small opening in order to lower in 1703, and fixed upon the revolution of Sweden, un- through it the unhappy victims into this dire prison j der Gustavus Erickson, for the subject of a tragedy. and on the outside of each is a narrow slit with a slope This tragedy was acted in 1706, at the queen’s theatre from it, down which were put the provisions allotted in the Hay-Market. In 1707, her doubts concerning for the wretched inhabitants. This castle was foundthe Romish religion, which she had so many years pro- ed by Waldof, first lord of Allerdale, and son of Gosfessed, having led her to a thorough examination of patrick earl of Northumberland, cotemporary with the grounds of it, by consulting the best books on both William the Conqueror. Waldof resided first at Papsides of the question, and advising with men of the best castle, which he afterwards demolished j and with the judgment, the result was a conviction of the falseness materials built that at Cockermouth, where he and his of the pretensions of that church, and a return to that family long resided ; but several arms over the gateof England, to which she adhered during the remain- way, which Camden says are those of the Multons, der of her life. In 1708 she was married to the Rev. Humfranvilles, Lucies, and Percies, evince it to have Mr Cockburne, then curate of St Dunstan’s in Fleet- belonged in later times to those families. It appears street, bflt he afterwards obtained the living of Long- that it was first granted by Edward II. to Anthony Horsely, near Morpeth in Northumberland. He was de Lucie, son of Thomas de Multon, who had assuma man of considei’able abilities ; and, among several ed that name, because his mother was daughter and other things, wrote an account of the Mosaic Deluge, co-heiress to Richard de Lucie ; and afterwards, by marriages, this castle and its honours descended to the which was much approved by the learned. Mrs Cockburne’s remarks upon some writers in the Humfranvilles, and finally to the Percies. In 1658, controversy concerning the foundation of moral duty it was garrisoned for the king ; and being besieged and and moral obligation, were introduced to the world taken by the rebels, was burnt, and never afterwards in August 1712, in the Literary Journal, entitled, The repaired.—Cockermouth is now in the possession of the History of the Works of the Learned. The strength, Lowther family, who have here a great property in clearness, and vivacity shown in her remarks upon the coal-works. The town sends two members to parliamost abstract and perplexed questions, immediately rai- ment, and had 2964 inhabitants in 1811. COCKET, is a seal belonging to the king’s customaed the curiosity of all good judges about the concealHh2 house.

C O C [ 244 ] COD Cocket house,, or rather a scroll of parchment sealed and deli- A brazen statue was raised to him in the temple of Coclei [| II vered by the officers of the customs to merchants, as a Vulcan, by the consul Publicola, for his eminent serCodes. warrant tlJat their merchandises are customed. vices. t Code*. ¥ '' It is also used for the office where goods transported COCOA. See Cocos, Botany Index. ~ COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, fawere first entered, and paid their custom, and had a mous for being the birth-place of Columbus, who cocket or certificate of discharge. COCKLE. See Cardium, Conchology Index. first discovered America. E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. Cockle, Schorl, or Shir/e, in Mineralogy, a spe- 44. 50. cies of stones, belonging to the siliceous class. See COCOS, in Botany, a genus belonging to the natural order of Palmee. See Botany Index. Mineralogy Index. COCKNEY, a very ancient nickname for a citizen COCTION, a general term for all alterations made of London. Ray says, an interpretation of it is, A in bodies by the application of fire or heat. COCYTUS, one of the rivers of hell, according to young person coaxed or cockered, made a wanton, or nestle-cock, delicately bred and brought up, so as when the theology of the poets. It has its name uno rrt arrived at man’s estate to be unable to bear the least KMKvtn, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Milton, hardship. Another, A person ignorant of the terms Cocytus nam’d of lamentation loud, of country economy, such as a young citizen, who haHeard on the rueful stream. ving been ridiculed for calling the neighing of a horselaughing, and told that it was called neighing, next It was a branch of the river Styx : and flowed, accordmorning, on hearing the cock crow, to show instruction ing to Horace, with a dull and languid stream. was not thrown away upon him, exclaimed to his forCOD, in Ichthyology. See Garus and Fishery. mer instructor, How that cock neighs ! whence the Cod is also a term used, in some parts of the kingcitizens of London have ever since been called cock- dom, for a pod. See Pod. neighs, or cockneys. Whatever may be the origin of Con-Cape, a promontory on the coast of New Engthis term, we at least learn from the following verses, land, near the entrance of Boston harbour. W. Long. attributed to Hugh Bagot earl of Norfolk, that it was 69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o. in use in the time of King Henry II. CODDY MODDY, the English name of a species of Larus. Was I in my castle at Bungay, CODE (codex'), a collection of the laws and constiFast by the river Waveney, tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order of I would not care for the king of Cockney. Justinian. The word comes from the Latin codex, (i. e. the king of London.) “ a paper bookso called a codicibus, or caudicibus The king of the cockney occurs among the regula- arborum, “ the trunks of trees j” the bark whereof betions for the sports and shows formerly held in the ing stripped off, served the ancients to write their books Middle Temple, on Childermas day, where he had on. his officers, a marshal, constable, butler, &c. See The Code is accounted the second volume of the civil Dugdale’s Origines Juridicales, p. 247. law, and contains twelve books ; the matter of which is COCKROACH. See Blatta. In Captain Cook’s nearly the same with that of the Digests, especially the last voyage, the ships, while at Huaheine, were infest- first eight books ; but the style is neither so pure, nor ed with incredible numbers of these creatures, whom the method so accurate, as that of the digests $ and it it was found impossible by any means to destroy. E- determines matters of daily use, whereas the digest*, very kind of food, when exposed only for a few mi- discuss the more abstruse and subtle questions of the nutes, was covered with these noxious insects, and pier- law, giving the various opinions of the ancient lawyers. ced so full of holes, that it resembled a honey comb. Although Justinian’s code is distinguished by the apThey were particularly destructive to birds which had pellation of code, by way of eminence, yet there were been stuffed for curiosities, and were so fond of ink, codes before his time : such were, 1. The Gregorian that they ate out the writing on labels. Books, how- code, and Hermogenean code, collections of the Roever, were secured from their ravages by the closeness man laws, made by two famous lawyers, Gregorius of the binding, which prevented them from getting and Hermogenes, which included the constitutions of in between the leaves. They were of two kinds, the the emperors from Adrian to Dioclesian and MaximiB/atta Orientalis and Germanica. nus. 2. The Theodosian code, comprised in 16 books, COCKSWAIN, or Cockson, an officer on board formed out of the constitutions of the emperors from a man of war, who hath the care of the boat or sloop, Constantine the Great to Theodosius the Younger: and all things belonging to it. He is to be always this was observed almost over all the west, till it was ready with his boat’s gang or crew, and to man the abrogated by the Justinian code. There are also seveboat on all occasions. He sits in the stern of the boat, ral later codes, particularly the ancient Gothic, and and steers $ and hath a whistle to call and encourage those of the French kings j as the code of Euridic, his men. code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Marchande, code des COCLES, Pub. Horatius, a celebrated Roman, Eaux, &c. j and the present king of Prussia has lately who alone opposed the whole army of Porsenna at published a code, which comprises the laws of his kingthe head of a bridge, while his companions behind dom in a very small volume. him were cutting off the communication with the CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on other shore. When the bridge was destroyed, Codes, which the ancients wrote. See Code. though wounded by the darts of the enemy, leapt Codex also denoted a kind of punishment by means into the Tiber, and swam across it with his arms. of a clog or block of wood, to which slaves who had offended

COE [ 245 ] COE Code* fended were tied fast, and obliged to drag it along with out without any prejudice to the animal. Mr Giles Coeenm H them ; and sometimes they sat on it closely bound. gives us another of the ccecum of a lady being distend|1 Coeeum. CODIA, among botanists, signifies the head of any ed, so as to form a tumor that held almost six pints of Ooelu*. 1 plant, but more particularly a poppy head $ whence its a thin grayish, almost liquid substance, of which she syrup is called diacodium. died. And Mr Knowler a third, of a boy’s coecum CODICIL, a writing, by way of supplement to a being vastly extended and stuffed with cherry-stones, will, when any thing is omitted that the testator would which likewise proved mortal. have added, or wants to be explained, altered, or reCOEFFICIENTS, in Algebra, are such numbers or called. known quantities as are put before letters or quantiCODLIN, an apple useful in the kitchen, being the ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they are supposed to be multiplied. Thus in 3 .v, ax, or most proper for baking. CODLING, an appellation given to the young cod- b x; 3, a and b, are the coe fficients of a?; and in 6 a, fish. See. Gadus, Ichthyology Index. gb; 6 and 9 are the coefficients of a and b. See CODON (K*J*»), in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather Algebra. little brass bell, resembling the head of a poppy. They COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, denotes any thing belonging to the heavens: thus we say, were fastened to the trappings and bridoles of horses. CODRINGTON, Christopher, a brave English celestial observations, the celestial globe, fyc. officer, and not less distinguished for his learning and COELIAC artery, in Anatomy, that artery which benevolence, was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668, issues from the aorta, just below the diaphragm. See and educated at Oxford j after which he betook him- Anatomy Index. self to the army; and by his merit and courage, soon Coeliac Vein, in Anatomy, that running through the recommending himself to the favour of King William, intestinum rectum, along with the cceliac artery. was made a captain in the first regiment of foot-guards. COELIMONTANA Porta (Pliny), one of the He was at the siege of Namur in 1695; and, upon the gates of Rome, situated at the foot of Mount Coelius; conclusion of the peace of Ryswick, was made captain- and hence its name, thought to be the ancient Asinaria general and governor in chief of the Leeward and by some ; but this others doubt. By this gate Alaric Caribbee islands. However, in 1701, several articles with his Goths is said to have entered and plundered were exhibited against him to the house of commons Rome. in England ; to which he published a distinct and parCOELIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town ticular answer, and was honourably acquitted of all of the Bracari in the Hither Spain, to the south of imputations. In 1703, he showed great bravery at the Bracara Augusta, the north of the Durius, and not attack of Guadaloupe, but at last he resigned his go- far from the Atlantic; a municipium (Coin). Now vernment, and lived a studious retired life $ for a few thought to be Barcelos, a town of Entre Minho y years before his death, he chiefly applied himself to D uero. W. Long. 9. 15. Lat. 41. 20. COELIUS MONs, one of the seven hills of Rome, church-history and metaphysics. He died at Barbadoes on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there so called from Codes, a Tuscan captain, who came to the day following; but his body was afterwards brought the assistance of Romulus against the Sabines, (Dionyover to England, and interred on the 19th of June sius Halicarnassus). Called also Querculanus or Quer1716, in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. By cetulanus, from the oaks growing on it; and Augustus, his last will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba- by Tiberius (Tacitus, Suetonius). To the east it had does, and part of the island of Barbuda, to the society the city walls, on the south the Coeliolus, to the west for propagating the gospel in foreign parts j and left a the Palatine, and on the north the Esquiline. COELIOLUS, a part of Mount Coelius to the noble legacy to All-Souls College, of which he had been a fellow. This legacy consisted of his library, south, called Minor Codius (Martial) ; having the city which was valued at 6000I.; and io,oool. to be laid walls on the east, the Aventine to the south, and on out, 6000 in building a library, and 4000 in furnish- the west and north the valley through which the rivulet ing it with books. He wrote some of the poems in the of the Appia runs. Musce Ang/icanee, printed at London in I741, COELOMA, among physicians, a hollow ulcer, CODRUS, the 17th and last king of Athens, son seated in the tunica cornea of the eye. of Melanthus. When the Heraclidae made war against COELOS PORTUSj in Ancient Geography, a town Athens, the oracle said that the victory would be of the Chersonesus of Thrace, to the south of Sestos, granted to that nation whose king was killed in battle. where the Athenians erected a trophy, after a sea vicThe Heraclidge upon this gave strict orders to spare tory over the Lacedaemonians (Diodorus Siculus). COELOSYRIA, in the larger sense of the word, the life of Codrus $ but the patriotic king disguised himself and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he was the name of the whole country lying southward was killed. The Athenians obtained the victory, and of Seleucia, and extending as far as Egypt and Arabia; Codrus was deservedly called the father of his coun- but this word as principally applied to the valley lying try. He reigned 21 years, about 2153 years before between Libanus and Antilibanus. This word occurs the Christian era. To pay more honour to his me- only in the apocryphal writings of the Old Testamory, the Athenians made a resolution that no man ment. after Codrus should reign in Athens under the name of COELUS (Heaven), in Pagan mythology, the son king. of Aither and Dies, or Air and Day. According to COECUM, or Blind Gut. See Anatomy Index. Hesiod, he married Terra or the Earth, on whom he Dr Musgrave gives us an account, in the Philoso- begat Aurea or the Mountains, the Ocean, &c. But phical Transactions,, of the coecum of a dog being cut having at length imprisoned the Cyclops, who were also,

c O SF [ 246 ] C O F C oclus also Ills children, his wife, being offended, incited her skin, and divided into two parts, as may be seen by the J! son Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers j form of it after it has undergone this operation ; beinot cflea ~ , and by her assistance, he bound and castrated Ccelus, flat on the one side and round on the other. From this when the blood that flowed from the wound produced machine it falls into a brass sieve, where the skin drops the three furies, the giants, ‘and the wood-nymphs 5 between the wires, while the fruit slides over them into and the genital parts being thrown into the sea, im- baskets placed ready to receive it: it is then thrown pregnated the waters and formed the goddess Venus. into a vessel full of water, where it soaks for one night, This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus. and is afterwards thoroughly washed. When the COEMETERY. See Cemetery. whole is finished, and well dried, it is put into anCOEMP1IONALES, among the Homans, an ap- other machine called the peeling-mill. This is a woodpellation given to old slaves, which were sold in a lot en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a with others, because they could not be sold alone. mule or horse. In passing over the coffee it takes off COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent, the parchment, which is nothing but a thin skin that or in community, under a certain rule j in opposition detaches itsell irom the berry in proportion as it grows to anchoret or hermit, who lives in solitude. The dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out word comes from the Greek Kciioq, communis ; and /$016 ly doms of Angola and Congo, two thousand make what ing usually for 25 Attic drachms of silver the negroes call a rnacoute, which is no real money ; in our money. for of this there is none in this part of Africa, but a According to our proportion of gold to 109 manner of reckoning: thus, two Flemish knives they silver o esteem a macoute \ a copper bason two pounds weight, There were likewise the stater Cyzice18 I and 12 inches diameter, they reckon three macoutes j nus, exchanging for 28 Attic drachms, or a fusee 10, &c. .Stater Philippicus, and stater AlexanIn some places fruits are current for coins. Of these drinus, of the same value. there are three sorts used j two in America, particuStater Daricus, according to Josephus, J j 2* larly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao and worth 50 Attic drachms, or 3 maize ; the other in the East Indies, viz. almonds Stater Croesius, of the same value. brought thither from Lar, and growing in the desarts of Arabia. Of cacao 15 are esteemed equivalent to a ROMAN. Spanish rial, or seven pence sterling. Maize has sterl. s. d. qrs.^ ceased to be a common money since the discovery of O O America by the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly used Teruncius o O ItW Semilibella where the cowries are not current. As the year proves more or less favourable to this fruit, the value of the Libella^ o o 3vV money is higher or lower. In a common year 40 alAs S most are set against & pescha, or halfpenny sterling} ° I 3i 24 Sestertius which brings each almond to ^ of a farthing. Quinarius 1 ° 3 3i Ancient Coins are those chiefly which have been Victoriatus 3 current among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Their 2|Denarius ° 7' 3 _ values and proportions are as follow : Note*

C6in, < oinajre.

C O I C O I [ 254 ] Note. Of these the denarius, victoriatus, sestertius, was and is still given to the two dyes, rendering thorn Cojua aru} sometimes the as, were of silver, the rest of brass. capable of bearing those repeated blows. Coining has nr See As, &c. been considerably improved and rendered expeditious, There were sometimes also coined of brass the triens, by several ingenious machines, and by a wise applicasextans, uncia, sextula, and dupondius. tion of the surest physical experiments to the methods of fining, dyeing, and stamping the difl'erent metals. The Roman gold coin was the aureus, l, s. d. The three finest instruments the mint-man uses, are which weighed generally double the dena- j the laminating engine ; the machine for making the rius ; the value of which, according to the impressions on the edges of coins ; and the mill. first proportion of coinage, mentioned bv Alter they have taken the laminae, or plates of mePliny, was tal, out of the mould into which they are cast, they do According to the proportion that ob-‘' 0 not beat them on the anvil, as was • formerly done, 9 tains now amongst us, worth but make them pass and repass between the seAccording to the decuple proportion," veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux, ■ O 12 II gradually brought closer and closer, to each other, preworth I sently give the lamina its uniform and exact thickness. According to the proportion mention-" k Instead ol dividing the lamina into small squares, they ed by Tacitus, and which afterwards obat once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can o 16 tained, whereby the aureus exchanged for contain, by means of a sharp steel trepan, of a roun25 denarii, its value, dish figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable Coin, in Architecture, a kind of dye cut diagonal- diameter, to shape and cut off the piece at one and the ly, after the manner of a flight of a staircase, serving same time. After those planchets have been prepared at bottom to support columns in a level, and at top to and weighed with standard pieces, filed or scraped, to correct the inclination of an entablature supporting a get off the superfluous part of the metal, and then vault. boiled and made clean, they arrive, at last, at the maCoin is also used for a solid angle composed of two chine (fig. 1.), which marks them upon the edge j surfaces inclined towards each other, whether that and finally, the mill (fig. 2), which, squeezing each Plate CJ angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or of them singly between the two dyes, brought near interior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See each other with one blow, forces the two surfaces or Quoin. fields of the piece to fill exactly all the vacancies of the COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making money, two figures engraved hollow. The engine which serves as performed either by the hammer or mill. to laminate lead, gives a sufficient notion of that which Formerly the fabric of coins was different from serves to flatten gold and silver laminse between rollers what it is at present. They cut a large plate of metal of a lesser size. into several little squares, the corners of which were The principal pieces of the machine (fig. 1.), to Fig. 1.] cut off with scissars. After having shaped these pieces, stamp coins on the edge, are two steel laminae, about a so as to render them perfectly conformable, in point of line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring, is weight, to the standard piece, they took each piece engraved on the thickness of one of the Jaminee, and in hand again, to make it exactly round by a gentle the other half on the thickness of the other} and these hammering. This was called &planchet, and was fit two laminae are straight, although the planchet markfor immediate coining. Then engravers prepared, as ed with them be circular. they still do, a couple of steel masses in form of dyes, When they stamp a planchet, they first put it be. cut and terminated by a flat surface, rounded off at the tween the laminae in such a manner, as that these beedges. They engraved or stamped on it the hollow of ing each of them laid flat upon a copperplate, which a head, a cross, a scutcheon, or any other figure, ac- is fastened upon a very thick wooden table, and the cording to the custom of the times, within a short le- planchet being likewise laid flat upon the same plate, gend. As one of these dyes was to remain dormant, the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminse on and the other moveable, the former ended in a square each side, and in their thick part. prism, that it might be introduced into the square hole One of these laminae is immoveable, and fastened of the block, which, being fixed very fast, kept the with several screws $ the other slides by means of a dye as steady as any vice could have done. The plan- dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on chet of metal was horizontally laid upon this inferior the surface of the lamina. This sliding lamina makes mass, to receive the stamp of it on one side, and that the planchet turn in such a manner, that it remains of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered, on the stamped on the edge, when it has made one turn. Onother. I his moveable dye, having its round engraved ly crown and half-crown pieces can bear the impression surface resting upon the planchet, had at its opposite of letters on the thickness of their edges. extremity a flat, square, and larger surface, upon which The coining engine or mill is so fitted for dispatch, they gave several heavy blows, with a hammer of an (fig. 2.), that a single man may stamp 20,QQ0 planch-Hg. enormous size, till the double stamp was sufficiently, ets in one day ; gold, silver, and copper planchets, are in relievo, impressed on each side of the planchet. all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining This being finished, was immediately succeeded by an- squares (fig. 3.) commonly called dyes are fastened; other, and they thus became a standard coin, which that of the face under, in a squa.e box furnished with had the degree of fineness of the weight and mark de- male and female screws, to fix and keep it steady ; and termined by the judgment of the inspectors, to make it the other above, in a little box, garnished with the good current money j the strong tempering which same screws, to fasten the coining square. The plan. diet

c o I [ 255 ] C O K ie Sf uare ie e Russian Coinage. In Russia there is no other oinage. ^ * ^ L °f ^ ffigy» which is -tv—' dormant j and they immediately pull the bar of the coin struck but silver, and that only in the cities of mill by its cords, which causes the screw set within it Moscow, Novogorod, Tvvere, and Pleskow, to which to turn. This enters into the female screw, which is may be added Petersburgh. The coinage of each of in the body of the mill, and turns with so much strength, these cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the that by pulling the upper square upon that of the efli- royal revenue. gy, the planchet, violently pressed between both squares, Persian Coinage. All the money made in Persia receives the impression of both at one pull, and in the is struck with a hammer, as is that of the rest of Asia j twinkling of an eye. and the same may be understood of America, and the The planchet, thus stamped and coined, goes through coasts of Africa, and even Muscovy: the king’s duty, a final examination of the mint wardens, from whose in Persia, is seven and a half per cent, for all the mohands it goes into the world. neys coined, which are lately reduced to silver and In the Coining of Medals, the process is the same in copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind effect with that of money, the principal difference con- of medals, at the accession of a new sophi. sisting in this, that money having but a small relievo, Spanish Coinage is esteemed one of the least perfect receives its impression at a single stroke of the engine : in Europe. It is settled at Seville and Segovia, the whereas for medals, the height of their relievo makes only cities where gold and silver are struck. it necessary that the stroke be repeated several times: COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large to this end the piece is taken out from between the and handsome town of Switzerland, and capital of the dyes, heated, and returned again; which process, in country of the Grisons, with a bishop’s see, whose premedallions and large medals, is repeated 15 or 20 late has the right of coining money. It is divided times before the full impression be given : care must be into two parts j the least of which is of the Roman taken, every time the planchet is removed, to take off Catholic religion, and the greatest of the Protestant. the superfluous metal stretched beyond the circumfe- It is governed by its own laws, and seated in a plain, rence with a file. Medallions, and medals of a high abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Plesrelievo, are usually first cast in sand, by reason of the sure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 2C. difficulty of stamping them in the press, where they N. Lat. 46. 50. are put only to perfect them ; in regard the sand does COITION, the intercourse between male and fenot leave them clear, smooth, and accurate enough. male in the act of generation. Therefore we may see that medals receive their form It is observed that frogs are forty days in the act of and impression by degrees, whereas money receives coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make them all at once. 130 vibrations of the wings in one act of coition. British Coinage, both by the beauty of the engraCOIX, Job’s-tears. See Botany Index. In ving, and by the invention of the impressions on the Spain and Portugal the poor people grind the seeds edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al- of this plant in times ef scarcity, and make a coarse teration of the species, is carried to the utmost perfec- kind of bread of them. The seeds are inclosed in tion. small capsules about the bigness of an English pea, and It was only in the reign of King William lit. that of different colours. These are strung upon silk, and the hammer money ceased to be current in England, used instead of bracelets by some of the poorer sort in where till then it was struck in that manner, as in the West Indies, but especially by the negroes. other nations. Before the hammer specie was called COKE, or Cooke, Sir Edward, lord chief justice in, the English money was in a wretched condition, of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was dehaving been filed and clipped by natives as well as fo- scended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born reigners, insomuch that it was scarce left of half the at Milcham in 1549. When he was a student in the value: the retrieving this distressed state of the Eng- Inner-Temple, the first occasion of his distinguishing lish money is looked upon as one of the glories of King himself was the stating the case of a cook belonging to William’s reign. the Temple so exactly, that all the house, who were The British coinage is now wholly performed in the puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the Tower of London, where there is a corporation for it, whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage under the title of the mint. Formerly there were here, with a lady of great fortune, preferments flowed in as there are still in other countries, the rights of sein- upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chose orage and brassage $ but since the eighteenth year of him for their recorder j the county of Norfolk, for King Charles II. there is nothing taken either for the one of their knights in parliament; and the house of king or for the expences of coining ; so that weight is commons, for their speaker, in the 35th year of Queen returned for weight to any person who carries their Elizabeth. The queen appointed him solicitor-general gold and silver to the Tower. in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In The species coined in Great Britain are esteemed 1603, he was knighted by King James I.; and in Nocontraband goods, and net to be exported. All foreign vember the same year, upon the trial of Sir Walter species are allowed to be sent out of the realm, as well Raleigh, &c. at Winchester, he treated that gentleas gold and silver in bars, ingots, dust, &c. See the man with a scurrility of language hardly to be paralregulations of the mint, and the process of coining, fully leled. June 27. he w'as appointed lord chief justice explained in the article Coinage in the Supplement. of the common pleas ; and in 1613, lord chief justice Barbary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and Tu- of the king’s bench, and sworn one of the privy counnis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldsmith, cil. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the discovery Jew, or even private person, undertakes it at pleasure. and prosecution of the persons employed in poisoning 2 c iet 9

on

COL [2 Coke Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His |1 contest not long after with the lord chancellor Egerton, Colbert \vith some other cases, hastened the ruin of his intev "' rest at court; so that he was sequestrated from the council-table and the office of lord chief justice. In 1621, he vigorously maintained in the house of commons, that no proclamation is of any force against the parliament. The same year, being looked upon as one of the great incendiaries in the house of commons, he was removed from the council of state with disgrace ; the king saying, “ that he was the fittest instrument for a tyrant that ever was in England he was also committed to the Tower, and his papers were seized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in 1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elected a member, got him appointed sheriff of Buckinghamshire j to avoid the office, if possible, he drew up exceptions against the oath of a sheriff, but was obliged to undertake the office. In 1628 he spoke vigorously upon grievances, and made a speech, in which he affirmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the cause of all our miseries.” While he lay upon his deathbed, his papers and last will were seized by an order of council. He died in 1634, and published many works: the most remarkable are his Institutes of the Laws of England j the first part of which is only a translation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one of the chief justices of the common pleas in the reign of Edward IV. COKENHAUSEN, a strong town of Livonia in Russia, on the river Dwina. E. Long. 25. 50. N. Lat. 56. 30COL, one of the western islands of Scotland, is annexed to the county of Argyle. It is 13 miles long, and 9 broad. It abounds in corn, pastui’e, salmon, eels, and cod. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the fisheries. W. Long, 7. 15. N. Lat. 57. COLAPIS, Colops, in Ancient Geography, a river of Liburnia, which after a winding north-east course, falls into the Savus at the Insula Segestica. Now the Gulpe, the boundary of the Alps, running through Croatia into the Save. Colapiani, the people living on it (Pliny). COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a set of Christians in the second century ; so called from their leader Colarbasus, a disciple of Valentinus; who, with Marcus, another disciple of the same master, maintained the whole plenitude and perfection of truth and religion to be contained in the Greek alphabet; and that it was upon this account that Jesus Christ was called the alpha and omega. This sect was a branch of the Valentinians. See also Marcosians. COLBERG, a strong, handsome sea-port town of Germany, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of Prussia, with 3000 or 4000 inhabitants. It is remarkable for its salt works ; and is seated at the mouth of the river Persaut, on the Baltic sea, 60 miles north-east of Stetin, and 30 north-east of Camin. It was taken by the Russians in 1761, but restored at the subsequent peace. E. Long. 15. 39. N. Lat. 54. 22. COLBERT, John Baptist, Marquis of Segnelai, one of the greatest statesmen that France ever had, was born at Paris in 1619; and descended from a family that lived at Rheims in Champagne, no way considerable for its splendour and antiquity. His 3

6 ] COL grandfather is said to have been a wine merchant, and bis father at first followed the same occupation ; but afterwards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his relation John Baptist Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, preferred him to the service of Michael le Tellier, secretary of state, whose sister he had married ; and here he discovered such diligence, and exactness in executing all the commissions that were entrusted to his care, that he quickly grew distinguished. One day his master sent him to Cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Sedan, with a letter written by the queen-mother ; and ordered him to bring it back, after that minister had seen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not return without it, though the cardinal treated him roughly, used several arts to deceive him, and obliged him to wait for it several days. Some time after, the cardinal returning to court, and wanting one to write his agenda, or memoranda, desired Le Tellier to furnish him with a fit person for that employment : and Colbert being presented to him, the cardinal had some remembrance of him, and desired to know where he had seen him. Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind of Sedan, lest the remembrance of his importunacy, in demanding the queen’s letter, should renew the cardinal’s anger. But his eminency was so far from hating him for his faithfulness to his late master, that he received him on condition that he should serve him with the like zeal and fidelity. Colbert applied himself wholly to the advancement of his master’s interests, and gave him so many marks •of his diligence and skill, that afterwards he made him his intendant. He accommodated himself so dexterously to the inclinations of that minister, by retrenching his superfluous expences, that he was entrusted with the management of that gainful trade of selling benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s counsel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of frontier places to maintain their garrisons with the contributions they exacted ; with which advice his eminency was extremely pleased. He was sent to Rome to negotiate the reconciliation of Cardinal de Retz, for which the pope had showed some concern ; and to persuade his holiness to consent to the disincamerating of Casto, according to the treaty concluded with his predecessor Urban VIII. Upon the whole Mazarine had so high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities, and withal such a regard for his faithful services, that at his death, which happened in 1661, he earnestly recommended him to Louis XIV. as the properest person to regulate the finances, which at that time stood in much need of reformation. Louis accepted the recommendation, and made Colbert intendant of the finances. He applied himself to their regulation, and succeeded, though it procured him many enemies, and some affronts. France is also obliged to this minister for establishing at that time her trade with the East and West Indies: a great design, and from which she has reaped innumerable advantages. In 1664, he became superintendant of the buildings; and from that time applied himself so earnestly to the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that they are at present so many masterpieces of architecture : witness the palace of the Thuilleries, the Louvre, St Germain, Fountainbleau, and Chambord. As for Versailles, it may be said that he raised it from the

COL [ 257 ] COL Colbart ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis ried many years, had sons and daughters grown up, Colbert, — v * XIII. kept his hunting furniture: it is now a palace all of which, as occasion served, he took care to marry Colchester, fit for the greatest monarch. But royal palaces were to great persons. For though he had no reason to » J‘ not Colbert’s only care} he formed several designs for doubt of his master’s favour, yet he wisely secured his increasing the beauty and convenience of the capital fortune by powerful alliances. However, business was city, and he did it with great magnificence and gran- certainly Colbert’s natural turn, and he not only loved deur. The public was obliged to this same minister for it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as the establishment of the academy for painting and sculp- the following anecdote may serve to show. A lady of ture in 1664. The king’s painters and sculptors, with great quality was one day urging him, when he was in other skilful professors of those arts, being prosecuted the height of his power, to do her some piece of serat law by the master-painters at Paris, joined together, vice, and perceiving him inattentive and inflexible, and began to form a society, under the name of the threw herself at his feet, in the presence of above IOO Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their persons, crying, “ I beg your greatness, in the name design was to keep public exercises for the sake of of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Colimproving those fine arts, and advancing them to the bert, kneeling down over against her, replied, in the highest degree of perfection. They put themselves un- same mournful tone, “ I conjure you madam, in the der the protection of Mazarine, and chose Chancellor name of God, not to disturb me.” Seguier their vice-protector; and after Mazarine’s This great minister died of the stone, September 6. death chose Seguier their protector, and Colbert their 1683, in his 65th year, leaving behind him six sons vice-protector. It was at his solicitation that they and three daughters. He was of a middle stature, rawere finally established by a patent, containing new ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejected, privileges, 1664. Colbert, being made protector af- his air gloomy, and his aspect stern. He slept little, ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that a historio- and was very sober. Though naturally sour and mographer should be appointed, whose business it should rose, he knew how to act the lover, and had mistresses. be to collect all curious and useful observations that He was of a slow conception, but spoke judicimight be made at their conferences. This was ac- ously of every thing after he had once comprehended cordingly done $ and his majesty was pleased to settle it. He understood business pretty well, and he puron him a salary of 300 Hvres. To Colbert also the sued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the erection the most important places with high reputation and of the Academy of Sciences, for the making of which credit; and his influence diffused itself through every the more useful, he caused to be erected, in 1667, the part of the government. He restored the finances, royal observatory at Paris, which was first inhabited the navy, the commerce ; and he erected those various by Cassini. But these are not the only obligations works of art, which have ever since been monuments France has to that minister. She owes to him all the of his taste and magnificence. He was a lover of advantages she receives by the union of the two seas ; a learning, though he never applied to it himself; and prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finished in 1680. therefore conferred donations and pensions upon schoColbert was also very intent upon matters of a more lars in other countries, while he established and proprivate nature, such as regarded the order, decency, tected academies in his own. He invited into France and well-being of society. He undertook to reform painters, statuaries, mathematicians, and artists of all the courts of justice, and to put a stop to the usurpa- kinds, who were any way eminent, thus giving new tion of noble titles, which it seems was then very life to the sciences, and making them flourish, as they common in Fratice. In the former of these attempts did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wise, ache failed, in the latter he succeeded. tive, generous-spirited minister ; ever attentive to the In 1669, he was made secretary of state, and en- interests of his master, the happiness of the people, the trusted with the management of affairs relating to the progress of arts and manufactures, and in short to sea; and his performances in this province were an- every thing that could advance the credit and interest swerable to the confidence his majesty reposed in him. of his country. He was a pattern for all ministers of He suppressed several offices, which were chargeable, state; and every nation may wish themselves blessed but useless; and in the mean time, perceiving the with a Colbert. king’s zeal for the extirpation of heresy, he shut up COLCHESTER, the chief town of Essex, is pleathe chamber instituted by the edicts of Paris and Roan. santly situated upon an eminence, gradually rising on He proposed several new regulations concerning cri- the south side of the river Colne. It is the ancient minal courts, and was extremely severe with the par- Colonia Camulodunum, from which w'ord, Colonia, both liament of Thoulouse for obstructing the measures he the town and the river Colne received their names. took to carry the same into execution. His main de- The Saxons called it Colneceaster. That it flourished sign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at under the Romans, several buildings full of their bricks, law, was to give the people more leisure to apply them- and innumerable'quantities of coin dug in and about selves to trading; for the advancement of which he it, fully evince. In the ye^r 1763, a curious tesseprocured an edict, to erect a general insurance-office lated or mosaic pavement was found in a garden three at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made feet under the surface of the earth. The emperor minister of state; for how busied soever he was in the Constantine the Great was born here, his mother Heregulation of public affairs, yet he never neglected his len being daughter of Cool, governor or king of this own or his family’s interest and grandeur, or missed any district under the Romans. She is said to have found opportunity of advancing either. He had been mar- out the cross of Christ at Jerusalem; and on that acKk count Vql. VI. Part I. f

C

0> L

0-

258 ] COL dea. It was fruitful in poisonous herbs, and produced Colchis Colchester count the arms oF this town are a cross regulee between H I! three ducal coronets, two in chief and one in base, the excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp- Col( Colchis, coronet in base passing through the cross. tians, who settled there when Sesostris king of Egypt , h V ““ 'C----' ^'j]e vva||s 0f t|ie towll are still tolerably entire on the extended his conquests in the north. COLCOTHAR, the substance remaining after the south, east, and west sides, but much decayed on the north side ; they are generally about nine feet thick. distillation or calcination of martial vitriol or sulphate By a statute of Henry VIII. this town was made the of iron. See CHEMISTRY Index. COLD, in a relative sense, signifies the sensation see of a suffragan bishop. This town is the most noted in England for making produced by the abstraction of heat from the body. The nature of cold, and the methods of producing of baiz.e j it is also of special note for candying the it artificially, have been treated of under the article eringo roots, and for oysters. In the conclusion of the civil war 1648, this town Chemistry, to which we refer the reader. Great degrees of cold occur naturally in many parts sustained a severe siege of 10 weeks j and the besieged making a very gallant defence, it was changed into a of the globe in the winter-time. In the winter of blockade, wherein the garrison and inhabitants suffer- 1780, Mr Wilson of Glasgow observed, that a thered the utmost extremity of hunger, being reduced to mometer laid on the snow sunk to 25° below o } but the necessity of eating horse-flesh, dogs, and cats, and this was only for a short time $ and in general our atwere at last obliged to surrender at discretion, when mosphere does not admit of very great degrees of cold their two valiant chief officers, Sir Charles Lucas, and for any length of time. In 1732, the thermometer at Sir George Lisle, were shot under the castle walls in Petersburgh stood at 28° below o j and in 1737, when cold blood. Colchester is a borough by prescription, the French academicians wintered at the north0 polar and under that right sends two members to parliament, circle, or near it, the thermometer sunk to 33 below all their charters being silent on that head. The char- o ; and in the Asiatic and American continent, still ter was renewed in 1763. The town is now governed greater degrees of cold are very common. The effects of these extreme degrees of cold are by a mayor, recorder, 12 aldermen, 18 assistants, 18 common-council men. Quarter sessions are held here very surprising. Trees are burst, rocks rent, and rivers and lakes frozen several feet deep ; metallic subfour times in the year. The famous abbey-gate of St John is still standing, stances blister the skin like red-hot iron : the air, when and allowed to he a surprising, curious, and beautiful drawn in by respiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a piece of Gothic architecture, great numbers of persons cough : even the eftects of fire in a great measure coming from distant places to see it. It was built, to- seem to cease j and it is observed, that though metals gether witli the abbey, in 1097*, and Guido, steward are kept for a considerable time before a strong fire, they will still freeze water when thrown upon them. to King William Rufus, laid the first stone. St Ann’s chapel, standing at the- east end of the When the French mathematicians wintered at Torneo town, is valuable in the esteem of antiquarians as a in Lapland, the external air, when suddenly admitted building of great note in the early days of Christianity, into their rooms, converted the moisture of the air and made no small figure in history many centuries into whirls of snow 5 their breasts seemed to be past. It is still pretty entire. St Botoph’s priory rent when they breathed it, and the contact of it was founded by Ernulphus, in the reign of Henry I. was intolerable to their bodies ; and the alcohol, in the year mo. It was demolished in the wars of which had not been highly rectified, burst some of Charles I. by the parliament army under Sir Thomas their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous Fairfax. The ruins still exhibit a beautiful sketch of part. Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals in ancient masonry, much admired by the lovers of antiquities. The castle is still pretty entire, and is a mag- those countries where the winters are very severe; and nificent structure, in which great improvements have thus 700c Swedes perished at once in attempting to of late been made. Here is an excellent and valuable pass the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden. library. It is not necessary indeed, that the cold, in order to The markets, which are on Wednesday and Satur- prove fatal to the human life, should be so very intense day, are very well supplied with all kinds of provisions. as has been just mentioned. There is only requisite a The town contained 12,544 inhabitants in 1811. Col- degree somewhat below 3 2° of Fahrenheit, accompachester is 51 miles from London, and 22 ENE of nied with snow or hail, from which shelter cannot be Chelmsford. It had 16 parish churches, in and out of obtained. The snow which falls upon the clothes, or the walls, only 12 of which are now used, the rest be- the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by ing damaged at the siege in 1648. E. Long. I. o. a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to N. Lat.51. 55. sue!) a degree, that a sufficient quantity is not left for COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hither the support of life. In such cases, the person first feels India, thought to be Cochin, on the coast of Malabar j himself extremely chill and uneasy ; he begins to turn now a factory and strong fort of the Hutch. E. Jjong. listless, unwilling to walk or use exercise to keep him75. O. N. Lat. 10. o. self warm ; and at last turns drowsy, sits down to reC0LCH1CUM, Meadow-saffron. See Botany fresh himself with sleep, but wakes no more. An instance of this was seen not many years ago at Terra Index. COLCHIS, a country of Asia, at the south of del Fuego, when Hr Solander, with some others, haAsiatic Sarmatia, east of the Euxine sea, north of Ar- ving taken an excursion up the country, the cold was menia, and west of Iberia. It is famous for the expe- so intense, that one of their number died. The Hocdition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me- tor himself, though he had warned his companions of the

COL [ 259 ] c O L COLDSHIRE Iron, that which is brittle when Colctshirc Celd danger of sleeping in that situation, yet could not ,, 11 be prevented from making that dangerous experiment cold. j Cold-finch, himself; and though he was awakened with all possible COLE, William, the most famous botanist of his Colemin. expedition, his body was so much shrunk in bulk, that time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordshire about his shoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmost the year 1626, and studied at Merton college in Oxford. He at length removed to Putney, near London } difficulty that he was recovered. In those parts of the world where vast masses of ice and published “ The Art of Simpling } and Adam in are produced, the accumulation of it, by absorbing the Eden, or Nature’s Paradise.” Upon the restoration of heat of the atmosphere, occasions an absolute sterility King Charles II, he was made secretary to Dr Dupin the adjacent countries, as is particularly the case pa, bishop of Winchester } but died two years after, with the island of Iceland, where the vast collections aged 37. ► COLE-fish, a species of Gadus. See Ichthyoof ice floating out from the northern ocean, and stopped on that coast, are sometimes several years in logy Index. CoLE-Sted, the seed of the napus sativa, or longthawing. Indeed,' where great quantities of ice are collected, it would seem to have a power like fire, rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called in English naveiv, both augmenting its own cold and that of the adjacent and reckoned by Linnaeus among the brassicas, or cabbodies. An instance of this is related under the article bage kind. See Brassica. This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many Evaporation, in Mr Wedgewood’s experiment, where the true cause of this phenomenon is also pointed parts of England, on account of the rape oil expressed from its seeds. The practice of sowing it was first inout. See Cold, Supplement. troduced by the Germans and Dutchmen who drainCold, in Medicine. See Medicine Index, ed the fens of Lincolnshire } and hence the notion Cold. See Farriery Index. hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in a COLDENIA. See Botany Index. COLDINGHAM, supposed to be the Colonia of marshy soil} but this is now found to be a mistake. In Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of preparing the land which is to receive it, care must Colud (Coludum), situated on the borders of Scot- be taken to plough it in May, and again about midland, about two miles from Eyemouth, was a place summer, making the ground as fine and even as posfamous many ages ago for its convent. This was the sible. It is to be sown the very day of the last plougholdest nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of JaEtheldreda took the veil in 670 ; but by the ancient nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food name Coludum it should seem that it had before been for cattle, and will sprout again when cut} after which inhabited by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it it is excellent nourishment for sheep. After all, if it was destroyed by the Danes, but its name rendered is not too closely fed, it will bear seed against next immortal by the heroism of its nuns $ who, to pre- July. The same caution, however, is requisite with serve themselves inviolate from those invaders, cut off this food as with clover, till cattle are accustomed to their lips and noses : and thus rendering themselves it, otherwise it is apt to swell them. When this plant objects of horror, were, with their abbess Ebba, burnt is cultivated solely with a view to the seed, it must in the monastery by the disappointed savages. After be sown on deep strong land without dung, and must this it lay deserted till the year 1098, when King be suffered to stand till one-half of the seeds at least Edgar founded on its site a priory of Benedictines in are turned brown } which, according to the seasons will honour of St Cuthbert, aud bestowed it cn the monks of be sometimes sooner, sometimes later. In this state it is to be cut in the same manner and with the same Durham. Mr Pennant’s description of the black, joyless, care as wheat} and every handful as it is cut is to be heathy moor where it was situated, might be sufficient regularly ranged on sheets, that it may dry leisurely to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were it in the sun, which will commonly be in a fortnight; still subsisting. That description, however, is now al- after which it is to be carefully threshed out, and cartogether inapplicable: The whole tract, five miles ried to the mill for expressing the oil. The produce over, has been since improved, and converted into corn of cole-seed is generally from five to eight quarters fields j the cheerless village of Old Cambus is no more} on an acre} and is commonly sold at 20s. per quara decent inn with good accommodations has been esta- ter. COLEOPTERA, or Beetle, the name of Linblished at a convenient distance } and the passage of the steep glen called the Pease, which terminates the naeus’s first order of insects. See ENTOMOLOGY Index. COLEWORT. See Brassica. moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and was formerCOLERAIN, a large town of Ireland, in the ly the terror of travellers, is now rendered safe and easy by means of a bridge extending from one side of county of Londonderry and province of Ulster; seated on the river Bann, four miles south of the ocean, in the chasm to the other. COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10. It was formerly a Jutland, and diocese of Ripen. It is remarkable for place of great consideration, being the chief town of a its bridge, over which pass all the oxen and other cat- county erected by Sir John Perrot, during his governtle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings ment of Ireland; whereas it is now only the head ol in a considerable revenue to the king. It is seated on one of the baronies in the county of Londonderry ; an eminence, in a pleasant country abounding with but it is still a corporation, and sends two members to parliament. It is of a tolerable size, and very elev game. E. Long, 9. 25, N. Lat. 55. 35. COLD-finch, a species of Motacilla, See Qr- gantly built. The port is very indifferent, occasioned by the extreme rapidity of the river, which repels the kithqlqgy Index, Kk2 tide,

COL [ 260 ] COL on the south side of the choir of St Paul’s ; and a Cojet tide, and makes the coming up to the town difficult j Colcrain j) s so that it has but little trade, and might perhaps have stone was laid over his grave, with no other inscription ii Colct. less, if it was not for the valuable salmon-fishery, which than his name. Besides the preferments above men- Colisniinj amounts to some thousand pounds a-year. If the na- tioned, he was rector of the guild of Jesus at St -“""v-vigation of the Bunn could be opened, which is total- Paul’s, and chaplain to King Henry VIII. Dean Coly obstructed by a ridge of rocks, it would quickly let, though a Papist, was an enemy to the gross superchange the face of things j for then, by the help of stitions of the church of Rome, fie disapproved aurithis river, and the Newry canal, there would be a di- cular confession, the celibacy of the priests, and such rect communication across the kingdom, and, with the other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever assistance of the Black-water river, which likewise falls been condemned by men of sound understanding in into Lough Neagh, almost all the counties of the pro- every age and country. He wrote, 1. Ruclimenta vince of Ulster might have a correspondence with each grammatices. 2. The construction of the eight parts of other by water-carriage, to their reciprocal and very speech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. Epistolce ad Erasmum. great emolument. 5. Several sermons : and other works which still remain COLES, Elisha, author of the well known Latin in manuscript. and English dictionary, was born in Northamptonshire COLIBERTS {Caliberti), in LaiVy were tenants in about the year 1640; and was entered of Magdalene soccage, and particularly such villeins as were manuCollege Oxford, which he left without taking a de- mitted or made freemen. But they had not an absogree } and taught Latin to young people, and English lute freedom j for though they were better than serto foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. He vants, yet they had superior lords to whom they paid afterwards became an usher in Merchant-taylors school j certain duties, and in that respect might be called serbut for some great fault, nowhere expressly mentioned, vants, though they were of middle condition between he was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he never freemen and servants. returned. He was, however, a good critic in the COLIC, a severe pain in the lower venter, so called English and Latin tongues ; and wrote several useful because the colon was formerly supposed to be the part books of instruction in his profession. affected. See Medicine Index. COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, the son of HenColic, in Farriery. See Farriery Index. ry Colet, knight, was born in London in the year 1466. COLIGNI, Gaspard DE, admiral of France, was His education began in St Anthony’s school in that born in 1516. He signalized himself in his youth, in city, from whence, in 1483, he was sent to Oxford, the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made and probably to Magdalene college. After seven years colonel of infantry and admiral of France in 1552. study of logic and philosophy, he took his degrees in Henry II. employed him in the most important affairs j arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris, but alter the death of that prince, he embraced the and thence to Italy, probably with a design to improve reformed religion, and became the chief of the Protehimself in the Greek and Latin languages, which at stant party : he strongly opposed the house of Guise, this time were imperfectly taught in our universities. and rendered this opposition so powerful, that it was On his return to England in 1497, he took orders ; and thought he would have overturned the French goreturned to Oxford, where he read lectures gratis, on vernment. On the peace made after the battles of the epistles of St Paul. At this time he possessed the Jernac and Montcontour, Charles XI. deluded Coligni rectory of St Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had into security by his deceitful favours j and though he been instituted at the age of 19- He was also pre- recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was inin London. In 1502 be became prebendary of Sarum ; cluded in the dreadful massacre of the Protestants on prebendary of St Paul’s in 1505 ; and immediately af- St Bartholomew’s day 1572, and his body treated with ter dean of that cathedral, having previously taken wanton brutality by a misguided Popish populace. the degree of doctor of divinity. He was no sooner COLIMA, a Sea-port town of Mexico in North raised to this dignity, than he introduced the practice America, and capital of a fertile valley of the same of preaching and expounding the scriptures ; and soon name. It is seated at the mouth of a river, in W. after established a perpetual divinity lecture in St Paul’s Long 103. 20. N. Lat. 18. 30. church, three days in every week ; an institution which COLIOURE, a small, but ancient and strong town gradually made way for the reformation. About the of France, in Rousillon, seated at the foot of the Pyyear 1508, Dean Colet formed his plan for the foun- renean mountains, with a small harbour. E. Long. 3. dation of St Paul’s school, which be completed in 1312, 10. N. Lat. 43. 24. and endowed with estates to the amount of 122I. and COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lyle, called an inspector, having an eye over what passes in was his first master, and the company of mercers were every court or tribunal of the" empire. In order to appointed trustees. The dean’s notions of religion render him impartial, he is kept independent, by were so much more rational than those of his contem- having his post for life. The power of the colirs is porary priests, that they deemed him little better than such, that they make even the princes of the blood a heretic 5 and on that account he was so frequently tremble. molested, that he at last determined to spend the rest COLISEUM, or Colisjeum, in the ancient archiof his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten- tecture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Vestion he built a house near the palace of .Richmond ; pasian, in the place where stood the bason of Nero’s but being seized with the sweating sickness, he died gilded diouse. The word is formed from eolosceumy on in 1519, in the 53d year of his age. He was buried account of the colossus of Nero that stood near it* or,

COL [26 i ] COL of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, Co lateral jliseum ! according to Nardini, from the Italian coliseo. In |j this were placed statues, representing all the provinces and cousins, are collaterals, or in the same collateral P 1 lateral. 0f tlie empire ; in the middle whereof stood that of line : those in a higher degree, and nearer the common Collateral. Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The same root, represent a kind of paternity with regard to those *~ term, coliseum, is also given to another amphitheatre more remote. See Consanguinity. of the emperor Severus. In these colisea were repreCollateral Succession. When a defunct, for want sented games, and combats of men and wild beasts $ of heirs descended of himself, is succeeded in his estate but there is now little remaining of either of them, by a brother or sister, or their descendants, the estate time and war having reduced them to ruins. is said to have gone to collateral heirs. COLLAERT, Adrian, an eminent engraver who COLLATIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the flourished about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After Sabines, thought to be distant between four and five having learned in his own country the first principles miles from Rome to the east-, situated on an eminence of engraving, he went to Italy, where he resided some (Virgil.) Of this place was Tarquinius Collatinus, time to perfect himself in drawing. He wrought en- married to Lucretia, ravished by Sextus Tarquinius ' tirely with the graver, in a firm neat style, but rather (Livy) j situated on this or on the left side of the Anio stift and dry. The vast number of plates executed by (Pliny). Extant in Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s his hand sufficiently evince the facility with which he day only a village ; now no trace of it remains.—Aneaigraved ; and though exceedingly neat, yet they are other supposed Collatia of Apulia, near Mount Garseldom highly finished. ganus, because Pliny mentions the Collatini in Apulia, Collaert, Hans or John, son to the foregoing, and Frontinus the Ager Collatinus. was also an excellent artist. He drew and engraved COLLATINA PORTA, a gate of Rome, at the exactly in the style of his father, and was in every Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Pinciana, from respect equal to him in merit. He must have been the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Collatina is from very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from Collatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina, 1555 to 1622. He assisted his father in all his great which led to that town. works, and engraved besides a prodigious number of COLLINA, a gate of Rome, at the Collis Quiriplates of various subjects. One of his best prints is nalis, not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid) $ Moses striking the rock, a large print, lengthwise, from called also Solaria, because the Sabines carried their Lambert Lombard. A great number of small figures salt through it (Tacitus). Now Salaro. are introduced into this print ; and they are admirably COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or well executed : the heads are fine, and the drawing bestowing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bishop, very correct. who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a sort of chain put from institution in this, that institution is performed generally round the neck of slaves that had run away, by the bishop, upon the presentation of another; and after they were taken, with an inscription round it, in- collation is his own gift or presentation ; and it diftimating their being deserters, and requiring their be- fers from a common presentation, as it is the giving ing restored to their proper owners, &c. of the church to the person, and presentation is the Collar, in a more modern sense, an ornament con- giving or offering of the person to the church. But sisting of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently set collation supplies the place of presentation and instiwith ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the tution, and amounts to the same as institution where order hanging at the bottom, worn by the knights of the bishop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the several military orders over their shoulders, on the right of presentation to all churches was in the bimantle, and its figure drawn round their armories. shop ; and now if the patron neglects to present to a Thus, the collar of the order of the Garter consists church, this right returns to the bishop by collation. of S. S. with roses enamelled red, within a garter en- If the bishop neglects to collate within six months after amelled blue, and the george at the bottom. the elapse of the patron, then the archbishop hath a Lord Mayor's Collar is more usually called chain. right to do it j and if the archbishop neglects, then it See Chain. devolves to the king ; the one as superior, to supply Knights of the Collar, a military order in the re- the defects of bishops, the other as supreme, to supply public of Venice, called also the order of St Maik, or all defects of government, the Medal. It is the doge and the senate that confer Collation, in common law, the comparison or this order j the knights wear no particular habit, only presentation of a copy to its original, to see whether the collar, which the doge puts around their neck, or not it be conformable ; or the report or act of the with a medal, wherein is represented the winged lion officer who made the comparison. A collated act is of the republic. equivalent to its original, provided all the parties conCollar of a Hr aught-horse, a part of harness made cerned were present at the collation. of leather and canvas, and stuffed w'ith straw or wool, Collation, in Scots L,aw, that right which an heir to be put about the horse’s neck. has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars estates of the deceased into one mass, and sharing it of wine-drawing horses. equally with the others in the same degree of kindred, COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c. when he thinks such share will be more than the value situated by the side of another. of the heritage to which he had an exclusive title. Collateral, in genealogy, those relations which Collation is also used among the Romanists for proceed from the same stock, but not in the same line the meal or repast made in a fast day, in lieu of a supof ascendants or descendants, but being, as it were, aside per. Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lobineao r

G L r 2 Cologne. j]e nia(}e 0f Horace’s Art of Poetry, he prefixed an in- the elector had considerable dominions in Westphalia, genious account of the intention of its author; and add- which they call the Domain. This prelate was one of ed importance to the whole work by many critical notes. the electors of the empire, and held alternately with The Genius, and the Gentleman, were other two of his that of Treves the second or third rank in the elecperformances, as also a number of small pieces of the toral college. He was arch-chancellor of the empire humorous kind. His understanding was much impair- in Italy, which dignity was very important when the ed by a stroke of the palsy, which seized him in the emperors were masters of Italy. When the emperors year 1789, in consequence of which melancholy event, were crowned at Aix-la-chapelle, the archbishop of his son w'as intrusted with the management of the theatre. Cologne performed the ceremony, which caused him to He died in the month of August 1794, in the 62d year pretend to the same right elsewhere ; but he was opof his age. posed by the archbishop of Mentz. This occasioned COLMAR, a considerable town of France, in the an order, that they should each of them have that hodepartment of the Upper Rhine, of which it is the ca- nour in his own diocese, but if it was done elsewhere, pital. It has great privileges, and the Protestants have they should perform it alternately. The archbishop of liberty of conscience. It is seated near the river 111, in Cologne was elected by the chapter in that city, which was the most illustrious in all Germany. They were E. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat. dS. 5. COLMARS, a town of France, in the department all princes or counts, except eight doctors, who have of Lower Alps, and the diocese of Sens. It is seated no occasion to prove their nobility. The archbishopric near the Alps, in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 44. 7. was secularised during the French revolution, and is COLNBROOK, a town of Buckinghamshire in now subject to Prussia. England, seated on the river Coin, which separates Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of Gerthis county from Middlesex. It is a great thorough- many, in the diocese of that name, with an archbishop’s fare on the western road, and has several good inns. see, and a famous university, seated on the river Rhine, There are some small islands formed in its neighbour- in E. Long, 7. 10. N. Lat. 50. 55. In the times of hood by the different branches of the river Coin, where the Romans, this city was called Colonia Agrippina, and the Danes are supposed to have sheltered themselves Vbiorum, because it was built by Agrippina, the wife from the attacks of Alfred. W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. of Claudius I. and mother of Nero ; and because the Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower Rhine. In 51* 3°* COLNE, a town of Lancashire in England, seated 755 it was an archbishopric, and in 1260 entered into on a small hill near the confines of the county. W. the Hanseatic league, which has now no existence. The Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50. university was established in 1388 by Pope Urban VI. COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Morea, in The city is fortified with strong walls, flanked with 83 Turkey in Europe. E. Long. 22. 25. N. Lat. 36. 32. large towers, and surrounded with three ditches ; but COLOCYNTHIS, in Botany, a species of Cu- these fortifications being executed after the ancient CUMIS. manner, could make but a poor defence at present. It COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, seated on the Da- lies in the shape of a half-moon, and is said to have nube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an arch- 20 gates, 19 parishes, 17 monasteries, and 365 churches bishop’s see. It was taken by the Turks in 1686, but and chapels; but the streets, in general, are dirty afterwards retaken by the Imperialists. E. Long. 18. and badly paved, the windows of the houses composed of small bits of round glass, and the inhabitants are 29. N. Lat. 46. 38. COLOGNA, a town of Italy, in Padua, and in the but few for so large a place. It is inhabited mostly by territory of Venice, now subject to Austria. E. Long. Papists ; but there are also many Protestants, who rel 7. 27. N. Lat. 41;. 14. pair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the COLOGNE, The Archbishopric or Diocese of, duchy of Berg, for public worship. Its trade, which formerly one of the states that composed the electoral is considerable, especially in Rhenish wine, is chiefly circle of the Rhine, in Germany. It wras bounded on in the hands of Protestants, and carried on by the the north by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the Rhine. The ships with which they trade to the Netherwest by that of Juliers, on the south by the archbisho- lands are of a particular construction, and considerable pric of Cleves, and on the east by the duchy of Berg, burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have from which it was almost wholly separated by the Rhine. large revenues. That of the archbishop was 130,000!. Tills country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which Baron Polnitz says, that though Cologne is one of the inhabitants dispose of by embarking it on the the. greatest cities, it is one of the most melancholy in Rhine, it extending above seventy miles along that ri- all Europe; there being nothing to be seen but priests, ver. It was divided into the Higher and Lower Dio- friars, and students, many of whom beg alms with a cese : the Higher Diocese contained that part which song, and nothing to be heard but the ringing of lies above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town bells ; that there are very few families of quality ; that of the electorate, and where the elector resided ; be- the vulgar are very clownish ; and that the noblemen sides which there were Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl, of the chapter stay no longer in town than their duty Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocese was on the obliges them. Mr Wright, in his Travels, says, that other side of Cologne, and contained the towns of Zonz, the women go veiled; and that the best gin is that Neuys, Heizarwart, Kempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen. distilled from the juniper berries which grow in this The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the most rewithin the diocese of Cologne, did not belong to it; markable of any in the world for the great number of precious.

[ 269 ] COL C O L CoLOGyE-Earih, a kind of very light bastard ochre, Cologne, precious relics it contains, of which the Popish clergy —' no doubt make their advantage. In the church of of a deep brown colour. COLOMBO, a handsome, pleasant, and strong town St Ursula, they pretend to show her tomb, and the bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though of Asia, seated on the western side ot the island of that story is entirely owing to a mistaken inscription. Ceylon in the East Indies. It was built by the PorThe heads of some of these imaginary martyrs are kept tuguese in 1638 ; and in 1658 they were driven from in cases of silver, others are covered with stufts of gold, it by the natives, assisted by the Dutch, who were afand some have caps ot cloth of gold and velvet. Bre- terwards dispossessed by the British. It is about three vat savs, he saw between 4000 and 5000 skulls, decked quarters of a mile long, and as much in breadth. The with garlands and coronets, ranged on shelves. The natives live in the old town, without the walls of the canonesses of St Ursula, who must be all countesses, new j the streets of this last are wide and spacious j have a handsome income. In their church they-pre- and the buildings are in the modern taste, particularly tend to show three of the thorns of our Saviour’s the governor’s house, which is a handsome structure. crown, and one of the vessels which contained the E. Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 7. 10. COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in water that he converted into wine at the marriage of Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of Red Russia, seated on the river Pruth, in E. Long. 25. Moorish cavaliers, said to have been in the army of 9. N. Lat. 48. 45. COLOMNA, FaBIO, a very learned botanist, born Constantine before it W'as converted, and to have been beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to idols. Every at Naples about the year 1567. He became skilled one of the heads has a cap of scarlet, adorned with in the languages, in music, designing, painting, and pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the the mathematics} and died about the middle of the three wise men who came from the east to visit our 17th century. He wrote, 1. Qvro/Sxcrctvos, seu PlantaSaviour, are said to be interred. They lie in a large rum aliquot (ac piscium) historia. 2. Minus cognipurple shrine spangled with gold, set upon a pedes- tarum rariorumque stirpium sxtp^eirti; itemque de aquatal of brass, in the midst of a square mausoleum, faced tilibus, aliisque nonnullis animalibus, libellus j and within and without with marble and jasper. It is other works. COLON, in Anatomy, the first and most consiopened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the canons of the cathedral are present, when the kings derable of the large intestines. See Anatomy, N° or wise men are seen lying at full length, with their 194. Colon, in Grammar, a point or character formed heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnished with precious stones. Their names, which are Gasper, Mel- thus [:], serving to mark a pause, and to divide the c/tier, and Balthasar, are in purple characters on a members of a period. See POINTING; see also Pelittle grate, which is adorned with an infinite number riod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians geneof large rich pearls and precious stones, particularly rally assign the use of a colon to be, to mark the midan oriental topaz as big us a pigeon’s egg, and valued dle of a period ; or to conclude a sense less perfect than at above 30,000 crowns. Over against them are six the dot or period :—but, a sense less perfect than the large branches of silver, with wax candles, which burn period, is an expression extremely vague and indeternight and day. The bones of these men, we are told, minate. See Period. Others say, a colon is to be used when the sense is were brought to Constantinople by Helena mother to Constantine, from thence to Milan by Eustorpius perfect, but the sentence not concluded j but neither is bishop of that see, and afterwards hither by Archbishop this over clear and express. A late author, in a ingenious discourse, De ratione Rainold. In the Jesuits college are the portraits of the first 13 generals of that order, with Ignatius Lo- interpungendi, marks the office of the colon, and whereyola at their head *, and in the church, which is the in it differs from the semicolon, &c. more precisely. finest in Cologne, are many rich statues, with an ama- A colon, on his principles, serves to distinguish those zing quantity of fine silver plate j and the utensils for conjunct members of a sentence, which are capable of mass are all of gold enriched with precious stones. In being divided into other members j whereof one, at the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous Duns least, is conjunct. Thus, in the sentence, As we canScotus, surnamed Doctor Subtilis, with this epitaph, not discern the shadow moving along the dial-plate, so “ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me suscepit, Gallia me the advances we make in knowledge are only perceived docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne was a free impe- by the distance gone over ; the two members being both rial city, but was deprived of its privileges in 1806, simple, are only separated by a comma. In this, As and is now subject to Prussia. Towards the defence we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not perof the empire, its assessment was 825 florins 5 and to- ceive it moving ; so our advances in understanding, in wards the maintenance of the chamber-court, 405 rix- that they consist of such minute steps, are only perceivable dollars kruitzers, each term. Its militia consists by the distance ;—the sentence being divided into two of four companies of foot, who keep guard at the gates. equal parts, and those conjunct ones, since they include Cologne surrendered to the French in I794> and was others; we separate the former by a semicolon, and delivered over to the Prussians in 1814. It has re- the latter by commas. But in this, As we perceive peatedly suffered from inundations of the Rhine, par- the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not ticularly in 1784. The wine raised in the adjacent perceive it moving ; and it appears the grass has grown, country is of a very inferior quality. The principal though nobody ever saw it grow ‘ so the advances we objects of export are wine, timber, earthen-ware, slates, make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, arc only perceivable by the distance——advancement hard •ware, and fire-arms.

COL [ 270 ] COL in knowledge is compared to the motion of a shadow, of Belgiea, surnamed also Ulpia, (Antonine) j and Colonia and the growth of grass ; which comparison divides the Tricesima, from being the station of the thirtieth le- Tiajana Colonia sentence into two principal parts ; but since what is said gion, (Ammian). Now Kellen, a village of the duchy !! Trajana. of the movement of the shadow, and likewise of the of Cleves, a mile from the Rhine. Colony. growth of grass, contains two simple members, they are Colonia Valentia, (Ptolemy, Livy) j a town of the to be separated by a semicolon ; consequently a higher Hither Spain, on the Turias j destroyed by Pompey, pointing is required to separate them from the other (Sallust) $ restored by Julius Caesar. Still called Vapart of the sentence, which they are opposed to : and lencia, on the river Guadalaviar, in Valencia. \V. Long. 35. Lat. 39. 20. this is a colon. See Punctuation. COLONEL, in military matters, the commander COLONNA, a town of Italy in the Campagna of in chief of a regiment, whether horse, foot, or dra- Rome, 18 miles eastward of that city. E. Long. 12. goons. 56. N. Lat. 41. 55. Skinner derives the word from colony, being of Colonna, Eompey, cardinal archbishop of Montopinion, the chiefs of colonies, called coloniales, might real in Sicily, and bishop of a very great number of give the name to chiefs of forces. In the French and places, made a conspicuous figure in the world. He Spanish armies, colonel is confined to the infantry and was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and dragoons : the commanding officer of a regiment of the helmet, and experienced more than once the rehorse they usually call mestre de camp. Formerly, in- verses of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all stead of colonel, the French used the word coronel: his dignities; but Leo I. restored him, created him and this old spelling comes nearer to our common way cardinal, and sent him on several embassies. Clement VII. divested him of the purple, and again reof pronouncing the word colonel. A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in stored him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to arrest, but must acquaint the general with it 5 he is him for his exaltation to the papal throne. The pope not allowed a guard, only a sentry from the quarter- refusing him some request, he reproached him, saying, “ That it was by his interest he had arrived at his guard. CoLONEL-Lieutenant, he who commands a regiment dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let me of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other person of be pope, and do not endeavour to be so yourself; for the first eminence, is colonel. These colonel-lieute- by acting as you do, you endeavour to dispossess me nants have always a colonel’s commission, and are usu- of that you have raised me to.” He died viceroy of Naples in 1532. He wrote some poems in praise of ally general officers. Lieutenant Colonel, the second officer in a regi- Isabella Filamarini, in which he protests the chastity ment, who is at the head of the captains, and com- of his wishes. He wrote another work, De laudibus mulierum. mands in the absence of the colonel. COLONIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the COLONNADE, in Architecture, a peristyle of a Trinobantes, a little above Camelodunum. Now Col- circular figure ; or a series r.r columns disposed in a chester in Essex, according to Camden, who supposes it circle, and insulated within side. A Polyslyle Colonnade, is that whose numbers of to take its name from the river Colne, and not that it was a colony ; though others think Antonine’s distance columns are too great to be taken in by the eye at a single view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of agrees with Sudbury. Colonia Equestris, an ancient and noble colony on St Peter’s at Rome, consisting of 284 columns of the the Lacus Lemanus. It appears to be the work of Doric order, each above four feet and a half diameter, Julius Csesar, who settled there Equites Limatenei; and all in Tiburtine marble. COLONOS, in Ancient Geography, an eminence to this Lucan is thought to refer. By the Itinerary it is supposed to have stood between Lausanne and Gene- near Athens, whither Oedipus, after his banishment va, 12 miles from the last place by Peutinger’s map, from Thebes, is said to have retired; and hence it is which directs to Nyon, placed in Cavo Lemano, ac- that Sophocles calls the tragedy on the subject Oedipus cording to Lucan’s expression, that is, a bay or cove of Coloneus. A place sacred to Neptune, and where stood the lake. Its ancient name was Noviodunum, (Notitia an equestrian statue of him. Here also stood Timon’s Gallise) : hence its modern name. tower; who, for his love of solitude, and hatred to Colonia Metallina, or Metallinensis, a town of Lu- mankind, was called Misantht'opos, (Pansanias.). sitania, situated on the right or west side of the Anas, COLONSAY, one of the Hebrides or Western or Guadiana j but now on the left or east side, from Islands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends^ that the river’s shifting its bed or channel, and called Me- of Oronsay, from which it is only separated in time of delin, a town in Estremadura. W. Long. 6. 12. Lat. flood, and both belong to the same proprietor, viz. Mr M‘Neil. See Oronsay. 38*45* COLONUS, a husbandman or villager, who was Colonia Monnorum, a town in Belgica, thought to be Tarvenna, the capital of the Morini. Now bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain Terrouen, a town of Artois. E. Long. 2. 15. Lat. times of the year to plough some part of the lord’s land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is Colonia Norbensis, or Norba Ccesarea, a town of called by the Dutch, boor. COLONY, a company of people transplanted inLusitania, to the south of Trajan’s bridge on the Tagus. Now Alcantara, in Estremadura. W. Long. to a remote province in order to cultivate and inha7. 10. N. Lat. 39. 10. bit it. We may distinguish three kinds of colonies. First, Colonia Trajana, (Antonine, Peutinger) j a town those 2 Colon

COL [ 271 ] . COL by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony consisted of or- Colony, those serving to ease or discharge the inhabitants of a Colony. country, where the people are become too nume- dinary inhabitants. On all the medals are seen the rous, so that they cannot any longer conveniently sub- names of the decemviri, who held the same rank and had the same authority there as the consuls had at sist. The second are those established by victorious prin- Rome. Lastly, the colonies of commerce are those estaces and people, in the middle of vanquished nations, to blished by the English, French, Spaniards, Portuguese, keep them in awe and obedience. The third may be called colonies of commerce ; be- and other nations, within these two last centuries; and cause, in effect, it is trade that is the sole occasion and which they continue still to establish, in several parts of Asia, Africa, and America : either to keep up a object thereof. It was by means of the first kind of colonies that, regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the some ages after the deluge, the east first, and succes- ground, by planting sugar canes, indigo, tobacco, and sively all the other parts of the earth, became inha- other commodities. The principal of this kind of cobited $ and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe- lonies are in the one and the other America, northnician and Grecian colonies, so famous in ancient hi- ern and southern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Canada, story, it is notorious that it was for the establishment (lately Virginia, New England, Carolina), la Louiof such colonies, that, during the declension of the em- siana, 1’Acadia, Hudson’s Bay, the Antilles islands, pire, those torrents of barbarous nations, issuing, for Jamaica, Domingo, and the other islands.—In Africa, the generality, out of the north, overran the Gauls, Madagascar, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Verd, and its Italy, and the other southern parts of Europe j and, islands, and all those vast coasts extending thence as far after several bloody battles, divided it with the ancient as to the Red sea. Lastly, in Asia, the famous Batavia of the Dutch ; Goa, Diu, of the Portuguese ; and some inhabitants. For the second kind of colonies, the Romans used other less considerable places of the English, French, them more than any other people ; and that to secure and Danes. The practice of settling commercial colonies in dithe conquests they had made from the west to the east. It is well known how many cities in Gaul, stant countries hath been adopted by the wisest nations Germany, Spain, and even England, value themselves of antiquity, who acted systematically upon maxims on their having been of the number of Roman colo- of sound policy. This appears to have been the case with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinese, the Phoeninies. There were two kinds of colonies among the Ro- cians, the commercial states of Greece, the Carthagimans : those sent by the senate $ and the military ones, nians, and even the Romans ; for though the colonies consisting of old soldiers, broken and disabled with the of the latter were chiefly military, it could easily be fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands shown that they were likewise made use of for the puras the reward of their services. See Benefice. The poses of trade. The savage nations who ruined the Rocolonies sent by the senate were either Roman or La- man empire, sought nothing but to extirpate or hold in tin, i. e. composed either of Roman citizens or Latins. vassalage those whom they overcame ; and therefore, The coloniae Latinae were such as enjoyed the jus La- whenever princes enlarged their dominions at the exin; said to consist in those two things ; one, that pence of their neighbours, they had recourse to strong whoever was edile or praetor in a town of Latium, be- forts and garrisons to keep the conquered in awe. came for that reason a Roman citizen j the other, that For this they have been blamed by the famous Machithe Latins were subject to the edicts of their own and avel, who labours to show, that the settling of colonies not to those of the Roman magistrates : in the year of would have been a cheaper and better method of bridthe city six hundred and sixty-two, after the Social ling conquered countries, than building fortresses in war, the city was granted to all Latium, by the lex them. John de Witt, who was one of the ablest and Julia. The coloniae Romanae, were such as had the best statesmen that ever appeared, strongly recomjus Romanum, but not in its full extent j namely, in mended colonies ; as affording a refuge to such as had the right of sufi’rage, putting up for honours, magistra- been unfortunate in trade ; as opening a field for such cies, command in the army, &c. j but the jus Quiri- men to exert their abilities, as through want of intetum only, or private right j as right of liberty, of rest could not raise themselves in their own country; gentility, or dignity of family, sacrifice, marriage, &c. and as a supplement to hospitals and other charitable For it was long a rule, never to grant the liberty of foundations, which he thought in time might come to the city in full to colonies ; nor is there any instance be overcharged. Some, however, have ridiculed the to the contrary, till after the Social war, in the year supposed advantages of colonies, and asserted that they of the city six hundred and sixty-two. According to must always do mischief by depopulating the motherUlpian (1. 1. D. de Censi) there were other colonies, country. The history of the British colonies undoubtedly which had little more than the name, only enjoying what they calledy^ Italicum, i. e. they were free from shows, that when colonists become numerous and oputhe tributes and taxes paid by the provinces. Such lent, it is very difficult to retain them in proper subwere the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, Heliopolis, Pal- jection to the parent state. It becomes then a quesmyra, &c. M. Vaillant has filled a volume in folio tion not very easily answered, how far they are entitwith medals struck by the several colonies, in honour led to the rights they had as inhabitants of the motherof the emperors who founded them. The ordinary country, or how far they are bound by its laws ? On symbol they engraved on their medals, was either an this subject Mr Blackstone hath the following observaeagle; as when the veteran legions were distributed in tions. “ Plantations, or colonies in distant countries are the colonies : or a labourer, holding a plough drawn either

COL [ 272 ] COL Colour, either such where the lands are claimed by right of for which the grant was made be substantially pursued, Colony v" - occupancy only, by finding them desert and unculti- and that nothing be attempted which may derogate [j vated, and peopling them from the mother-country ; from the sovereignty of the mother-country. 3. Char-*'0*0Ph°n)ror where, when already cultivated, they have either ter governments, in the nature of civil corporations ; ’'■““Y—J been gained by conquest, or ceded to us by treaties. with the power of making bye-laws for their own inAnd both the rights are founded upon the law of na- terior regulation, not contrary to the laws of Britain ; ture, Or at least on that of nations. But there is a and with such rights and authorities as are specially difference between these two species of colonies with given them in their several charters of incorporation. respect to the laws by which they are bound. For it The form of government, in most of them, is borhath been held, that if an uninhabited country be dis- rowed from that of England. They have a governor covered and planted by English subjects, all the Eng- named by the king (or, in some proprietary colonies, lish laws then in being, which are the birthright of by the proprietor), who is representative or deputy. every subject, are immediately there in force. But They have courts of justice of their own, from whose this must be understood with many and very great re- decisions an appeal lies to the king in council here in strictions. Such colonists carry with them only so England. Their general assemblies, which are their much of the English law as is applicable to their own house of commons, together with their council of state, situation, and the condition of an infant colony j such, being their upper house, with the concurrence of the for instance, as the general rules of inheritance, and of king, or his representative the governor, make laws protection from personal injuries. The artificial re- suited to their own emergencies. But it is particufinements and distinctions incident to the property of a larly declared, by stat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that all great and commercial people, the laws of policy and laws, bye-laws, usages, and customs, which shall be in revenue (such especially as are enforced by penalties), practice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any the mode of maintenance for the established clergy, the law made or to be made in this kingdom relative to jurisdiction of spiritual court?, and a multitude of other the said plantations, shall be utterly void and of none provisions, are neither necessary nor convenient for effect. And, because several of the colonies had claimthem, and therefore are not in force. What shall be ed the sole and exclusive right of imposing taxes upon admitted, and what rejected, at what times, and under themselves, the statute 6 Geo. III. c. 12. expressly what restrictions, must, in cases of dispute, be decid- declares, that all his majesty’s colonies in America, ed in the first instance by tbeir own provincial judica- have been, are, and of right ought to be, subordinate ture, subject to the revision and controul of the king to and dependent upon the imperial crown and parliain council ; the whole of their constitution being also ment of Great Britain, who have full power and auliable to be new-modelled and reformed by the gene- thority to make laws and statutes of sufficient validity ra] superintending power of the legislature in the mo- to bind the colonies and people of America, subjects to ther-country. But in conquered or ceded countries the crown of Great Britain in all cases whatsoever. that have already laws of their own, the king may in- And the attempting to enforce this by other acts of pardeed alter and change those laws $ but, till he does liament, penalties, and at last by military power, gave actually change them, the ancient laws of the country rise, as is well known, to the late revolt and final separemain, unless such as are against the law of God, as ration of thirteen colonies. See the article America. in an infidel country. Our American plantations are This country is now detached from Britain, and conprincipally of this latter sort, being obtained in the sists of 21 independent states. See the article COLOlast century, either by right of conquest and driving NY, Supplement. out the natives (with what natural justice I shall not at COLOPHON, in Ancient Geography, a town of present inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the Ionia, in the Hither Asia, on a promontory on the iEcommon law of England, as such, has no allowance or gean sea, and washed by the Halesus. The ancient authority there ; they being no part of the mother- Colophon was destroyed by Lysimachus, in his war country, but distinct (though dependent) dominioHS. with Antigonus, in order to enlarge Ephesus. PauThey are subject, however, to the controul of the par- sanias says, it was rebuilt in the neighbourhood, in a liament j though (like Ireland, Man, and the rest) not more commodious scite. This was one of the cities bound by any acts of parliament, unless particularly that laid claim to Homer. Colophonem addere, a pronamed.” verbial saying, explained by Strabo to denote, that the With respect to their interior polity, our colonies, Colophonian horse turned the scales in favour of the whether those we formerly possessed or still possess, side on which they fought. The Colophonians had a may be distinguished into three sorts. 1. Provincial grove, a temple, and an oracle of Apollo Clarius establishments, the constitutions of which depend on (Strabo). Of this town was tiie poet Antimachus, the respective commissions issued by the crown to remarked on for his turgid style by Catullus. He the governors, and the instructions which usually ac- wrote a life of Homer, whom he makes a Colophonian company those commissions ; under the authority of (Plutarch). which provincial assemblies are constituted, with the COLOPHONY, in Pharmacy, black resin, or turpower of making local ordinances not repugnant to pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or, the laws of Britain. 2. Proprietary governments, which is still better, the caput mortuum remaining afgranted out by the crown to individuals, in the nature ter the distillation of the ethereal oil, being further of feudatory principalities, with all their inferior rega- urged by a more intense and long continued fire.—It lities, and subordinate powers of legislation, which receives its name of colophonia, from Colophon, a city formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine ; of Ionia, because the best was formerly brought from yet still with these express conditions, that the ends thence. Two sorts are mentioned in ancient writings; the 3

COL [ 273 ] COL The latter white lead or ceruse ; yellow and red ochres \ several Colour. ]olophony the one dry, the other in a liquid state. lj seems to have been liquid pitch, which is the crude kinds of earth, umber, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt Colour. resin of the pine brought from Colophon j the other ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermilion, gamboge, was called resina fricta, and consisted only of the for- lacca, blue and green ashes, verdigris, bistre, bice, smalt, carmine, ultramarine ; each of which, with mer deprived of its humid parts. COLOQUINTIDA, in Botany. See Cucumis. their uses, &c. are to be found under their proper COLORATURA, in Music, denotes all manner of articles. variations, trillos, diminutions, &c. serving to make a Of these colours, some are used tempered with gumwater, some ground with oil, others only in fresco $ song agreeable. COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmasan, and others for miniature. Painters reduce all the colours they use under these near the river Po, eight miles from Parma. The duke of Parma has a pleasure-house here, one of the most two classes, of dark and light colours : dark colours delightful seats in all Italy, and the gardens are very are black, and all others that are obscure and earthy, as umber, bistre, &c. fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 34. COLOSSiE, or Colose^e, in Ancient GeograUnder light colours are comprehended white, and all phy, a considerable town of Phrygia Magna, in which others that approach nearest to it. Painters also distinguish colours into simple and the Lycus falls into a gulf, and at the distance of five stadia emerges again, and runs into the Meander (He- mineral. Under simple colours they rank all those which are rodotus). Others say, the genuine name is Colossce, and the people Colossenses, to whom St Paul wrote an extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear epistle : Strabo calls them Colosseni. In Nero’s time the fire 5 as the yellow made of saffron, French berries, lacca, and other tinctures extracted from flowers, the town was destroyed by an earthquake (Orosius). COLOSSUS, a statue of enormous or gigantic size. used by limners, illuminers, &c. The mineral colours are those which being drawn The most eminent of this kind was the Colossus of Rhodes, a statue of Apollo, so high that ships passed from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and therewith full sails betwixt its legs. It was the workman- fore used by enamellers. Changeable and permanent ship of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, who spent 12 colours is another division, which, by some, is made of years in making it : it was at length overthrown by an colours. earthquake, after having stood 1360 years. Its height Changeable colours are such as depend on the situawas six score and six feet: there were few people who tion of the objects with respect to the eye, as that of could fathom its thumb, &c. When the Saracens be- a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c.: the first, however, became possessed of the island, the statue was found pro- ing attentively viewed by the microscope, each fibre strate on the ground: they sold it to a Jew, who load- of the feathers appears composed of several little squares, alternately red and green, so that they are fixed 900 camels with the brass. The basis that supported it was a triangular figure j ed colours. its extremities were sustained with 60 pillars of marble. JPater-CoLOURS are such as are used in painting There was a winding staircase to go up to the top of with gum-water or size, without being mixed with it, from whence one might discover Syria, and the oil. ships that went into Egypt, in a great looking glass, Incapacity of distinguishing Colours. Of this extrathat was hung about the neck of the statue. Among ordinary defect in vision, we have the following inthe antiquities of Rome, there are seven famous colos- stances in the Philosophical Transactions for 1777. suses ; two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo, one of Nero, One of the persons lived at Maryport in Cumberland. one of Domitian, and one of the Sun. The account was communicated by Mr Huddart to COLOSTRUM, the first milk of any animal after Or Priestley, and is as follows. “ His name was bringing forth young, called in some places beestings. Harris, by trade a shoemaker. I had often heard It is remarkable that this milk is generally cathartic, from others, that he could discern the form and magand purges the meconium ; thus serving both as ali- nitude of all objects very distinctly, but could not diment and medicine. stinguish colours. This report having excited my cuAn emulsion prepared with turpentine dissolved riosity, I conversed with him frequently on this subwith the yolk of an egg, is sometimes called by this ject. The account he gave was this : That he had name. reason to believe other persons saw something in obCOLOSWAR, a large and celebrated town of jects which he could not see; that their language Transylvania, where the senates have their meetings seemed to mark qualities with precision and confidence, It is seated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 21. 35 which he could only guess at with hesitation, and freN. Lat. 46. 53. quently with error. His first suspicion of this arose COLOUR, in Physics, a property inherent in light when he was about four years old. Having by acciby which, according to the various sizes of its parts dent found in the street a child’s stocking, he carried or from some other cause, it excites difierent vibrations it to a neighbouring house to inquire for the owner ; in the optic nerve ; which propagated to the sensorium he observed the people called it a red stocking, though he did not understand why they gave it that denomiaffect the mind with different sensations. See Chro matics and Optics. nation, as he himself thought it completely described Colour, in Painting, is applied both to the drugs, by being called a stocking. This circumstance, howand to the tints produced by those drugs variously mix- ever, remained in his memory, and, together with subed and applied. sequent observations, led him to the knowledge of his The principal colours used by painters are red and defect. Mm “ He Vol. VI. Part I. f

COL [ 274 ] COL light and shade $ and that all colours could be compo- Coloui. Colour. “ He also observed, that when young, other chil——v " ■■1 dren could discern cherries on a tree, by some pre- sed of these two mixtures only ? With some hesitation *■—-v — tended difference of colour, though he could only dis- he replied, No, he did imagine there was some other tinguish them from the leaves by the difference of difference. “ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the their size and shape. He observed also, that by means of this difference of colour they could see the cherries striped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a good at a greater distance than he could, though he could light.” Colours for staining different kinds of Stones. See see other objects at as great a distance as they, that is, where the sight was not assisted by the colour. Large Chemistry. Colour, in Dyeing. See Dyeing. objects he could see as well as other persons •, and Colour of Plants, is an attribute found to be very even the smaller ones if they were not enveloped in other things, as in the case of cherries among the variable. Different colours are observed, not only in different individuals of the same species, but likewise in leaves. “ I believe he could never do more than guess the different parts of the same individual. Thus, marvel name of any colour $ yet he could distinguish white of Peru, and sweet-william, have frequently petals of from black, or black from any light or bright colour. different colours on the same plant. Three or four Dove or straw colour he called white, and different different colours are frequently found upon the same colours he frequently called by the same name *, yet leaf or flower, as on the leaves of the amaranthus he could discern a difference between them when pla- tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula, threeced together. In general, colours of an equal degree coloured violet and others. To produce the most of brightness, however they might otherwise differ, he beautiful and striking variety of colours in such confounded together. Yet a striped ribbon he could flowers, is the principal delight and business of the distinguish from a plain one ; but he could not tell what florist. The primitive colours, and their intermediate shades the colours were with any tolerable exactness. Dark colours, in general, he often mistook for black; but or gradations enumerated by botanists, are as follow: never imagined white to be a dark colour, nor dark to Water-colour, hyalinuz. be a white colour. White. “ He was an intelligent man, and very desirous of Lead-colour, cinereus. understanding the nature of light and colours j for Black, niger. which end he had attended a course of lectures in naPiovn\,fuscus. tural philosophy. Pitch-black, ater. “ He had two brothers in the same circumstances as Yellow, luteus. to sight; and two other brothers and sisters, who, as Straw-colour, flavus. well as their parents, had nothing of this defect. Flame-colour, “ One of the first mentioned brothers, who is now Iron-colour, gilvus. living, I met with at Dublin, and wished to try his Red. capacity to distinguish the colours in a prism j but not Fleshy colour, incarnatus. having one by me, I asked him, Whether he han ever Scarlet, coccineus. seen a rainbow ? he replied, He had often, and could Purple. distinguish the different colours j meaning only, that Violet-colour, ceeruleo-purpureus. it was composed of different colours, for he could not Blue, cceruleus. tell what they were. Green. “ I then procured and showed him a piece of ribbon j he immediately, and without any difficulty, proThese colours seem to be appropriated to particular nounced it a striped, and not a plain, ribbon. He then attempted to name the different stripes: the se- parts of the plant. Thus white is most common in veral stripes of white he uniformly and without hesi- roots, sweet berries, and the petals of spring flowers. tation called white ; the four black stripes he was Water-colour, in the filaments and styles. Black, in deceived in ; for three of them he thought brown, the roots and seeds $ rarely in the seed-vessel, and though they were exactly of the same shade with the scarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is freother, which he properly called black. He spoke, quent in the antheroe or tops of the stamina •, as likehowever, with diffidence, as to all those stripes; and wise in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the comit must be owned, that the black was not very di- pound ligulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is common stinct ; the light green he called yellow j but he was in the petals of summer flowers, and in the acid fruits. not very positive; he said, “ I think this is what you Blue and violet-colour in the petals. Green in the call yellow.” The middle stripe, which had a slight leaves and calyx, but rarely in the petals. In the intinge of red, he called a sort of blue. But he was terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to most of all deceived by the orange colour, of which he depend upon differences in heat, climate, soil, and culspoke very confidently, saying, “ This is the colour of ture, a sort of elective attraction is observed to take grass, this is green.” I also showed him a great va- place. Thus, red is more easily changed into white riety of ribbons, the colour of which he sometimes and blue *, blue into white and yellow j yellow into named rightly, and sometimes as differently as possible white $ and white into purple. A red colour is often changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother from the true colour. “ I asked him whether he imagined it possible for of thyme, betony, pink, viscous campion, cueubalus, all the various colours he saw to be mere difference of trefoil, orchis, foxglove, thistle, cudweed, saw-wort, rose,

COL [ 275 ] COL Colour, 1 rose, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Red passes into parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green — blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in to red, and from red to white. Even in ripe fruits bell-flower, greek-valerian, bind-weed, columbine, vi- the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vary • olet vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s bugloss, com- particularly in apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees! frey, borrage, hyssop, dragon’s head, scabious, blue- Seeds are more constant in point of colour than the bottle, and succory. Blue is changed into yellow in vessel which contains them. In the seeds, however, crocus. Yellow passes easily into white in melilot, agri- of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va! mony, mullein, tulip, blattaria or moth-mullein, and riations are frequently observed. The root, too alcorn marigold. White is changed into purple in wood- though not remarkably subject to change, is’found to sorrel, thorn-apple, pease, and daisy. vary in some species of carrot and raddish. Leaves Although plants are sometimes observed to change frequently become spotted, as in a species of orchis, their colour upon being moistened with coloured juices, hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grass, and lettuce •, but yet that quality in vegetables seems not so much seldom relinquish their green colour altogether. Those owing to the nature of their nourishment, as to the ac- of some species of amaranthus, or flower-eentle, are tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and beautifully coloured. The spots that appear on the the primitive organization of the parts. In support of surface of the leaves are of different colours, liable to this opinion, we may observe with Dr Grew, that vary, and not seldom disappear altogether. The there is a far less variety in the colours of roots, than leaves of officinal lung-wort, and some species of sow°f the other parts of the plant; the pulp within the bread, sorrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with skin, being usually white, sometimes yellow, rarely white spots. Those of dog’s-tooth violet, with purplered. That this effect is produced by their small inter- and white. Those of several species of ranunculus and course with the external air, appears from this circum- orchis, with black and purple. Those of amaranthus tristance, that the upper parts of roots, when they hap- color, with green, red, and yellow. Those of ranunculus pen to stand naked above the ground, are often dyed acris, and a species of bog bean, with red or purple. The with several colours: thus the tops of sorrel roots under surface of the leaves of some species of pimpernel turn red; those of turnips, mullein, and radishes, and the sea-plantain is marked with a number of dots or purple; and many others green; whilst those parts of points; a white line runs through the leaves of Indian the same roots which lie more underground, are com- reed, black-berried heath, and a species of Canary monly white. The green colour is so proper to leaves, grass: and the margin or brim of the leaf, in some spethat many, as those of sage, the young sprouts of St cies of box, honeysuckle, ground-ivy, and the everJohn’s wort, and others which are reddish when in the green oak, is of a silver-white colour. The whole plant bud, acquire a perfect green upon being fully expand- is often found to assume a colour that is unnatural or ed. In like manner, the leaves of the sea-side grape (po- foreign to it. The varieties in some species of eryngo, /ygowwm), which when young are entirely red, become, mug-wort, orrach, amaranthus, purslane, and lettuce! as they advance in growth, perfectly green, except the furnish examples. middle and transverse ribs, which retain their former Such being the inconstancy of colours in all the parts colour. of the plant, specific names derived from that quality As flowers gradually open and are exposed to the are very properly, by Linnaeus, deemed erroneous; air, they throw off their old colour and acquire a new whether they respect the colour of the flower, fruit, one. In fact, no flower has its proper colour till it is seeds, roots, leaves, or express in general the beauty fully expanded. Thus the purple stock julyflowers or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular are white or pale in the bud. In like manner ba- view to that circumstance. Of this impropriety, comchelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red daisies, and mitted by former botanists, Linnseus himself is not many other flowers, though of divers colours when always guiltless. Thus the two species of or blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers the side-saddle flower, are distinguished by the colour change their colour thrice successively ; thus, the very of their petals into the yellow and purple sarracena ; young buds of. lady’s looking-glass, bugloss, and the although the shapes and figure of the leaves afforded like, are all white ; the larger buds purple or murrey; much more constant as well as striking characters. The and the open flowers blue. same may be said of his lupinus albus and luteus; reWith respect to the colours of the juices of plants, seda alba, glauca, and lutea; angelica atro-purpurea ; we may observe, that most resinous gums are tinctured ; dictamnus albus ; lamium album ; selago coccinea ; sida some, however, are limpid; that which drops from the alba ; passiflora rubra, lutea, incarnata, and coerulea ; domestic pine is clear as rock-water. The milk of and of many others, in which the specific name is desome plants is pale, as. in burdock ; of others white, as rived from a character or quality that is so liable to vary »n dandelion, euphorbium, and scorzonera; and of in the same species. others yellow, as in lovage, and greater celandine. We shall conclude this article with observing, that Most mucilages have little colour, taste, or smell. Of of all sensible qualities, colour is the least useful in inall the colours above enumerated, green is the most dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables. The common to plants, black is the most rare. following general positions on this subject are laid down Colour being a quality in plants so apt to change, by Linnaeus, and seem sufficiently confirmed by expeought never to be employed in distinguishing their riment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter species. These ought to be characterized from cir- taste; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and cumstances not liable to alteration by culture or other other yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or sour accidents. 1 he same inconstancy of colour observed taste ; as in cranberries, barberries,currants, raspberries, w the flowers, is likewise to be found in the other mulberries, cherries, the fruit of the rose, sea-buckMm2 thorn,

,

COL [ 276 ] COL Colours, thorn, and service-tree. Hei’bs that turn red toward# are entirely different from those on which the theory of Colour, Colour- autumn, have likewise a sour taste } as sorrel, wood- other parts of chemistry is founded ; and the practical making, making. sorrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude al- part being in the hands of those who find it their in- '■“•“v——' kaline taste, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale co- terest to conceal their methods as much as possible, it lour denotes an insipid taste, as in endive, asparagus, thence happens, that there is not only no distinct theory and lettuce. White promises a sweet luscious taste j of this art, but scarce a single good receipt for making t as in white currants and plums, sweet apples, &c. any one colour hath ever yet appeared. *’ The first general division of colours is into opaque Divuion of Lastly, black indicates a harsh, nauseous, disagreeable coloursin taste ; as in the berries of deadly night-shade, myrtle- and transparent. By the first are meant such colours u leaved sumach, herb-christopher, and others j many of as, when laid over paper, wood, &c. cover them f ^y> which are not only unpleasant to the taste, but perni- so as to efface any other painting or stain that mightparenti have been there before ; the others are of such a nature cious and deadly in their effects. To be ascertained of the acid or alkaline property of as to leave the ground on which they are laid visible any plant, express some of the juice, and rub it upon a through them. Of the first kind are white-lead, redpiece of blue paper ; which, if the plant in question is lead, vermilion, &c. ; of the latter kind are the colours ' 2 of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an alkaline, used for illuminating maps, &c. Another division is into oil-colours and water-co-Oil and green. For the method of extracting colours from watel the ditferent parts of plants, see the article Colour- lours ; by which is meant such as are appropriated to ours topainting in oil and in water. Most ol all those which' ‘ Making. Difference of Colour in the Human Species. See are proper for painting in water, are also proper for being used in oil. There is, however, this remarkable Complexion. Colour, in Heraldry. The colours generally used difference betwixt colours when mixed with water and in heraldry are, red, blue, black, green, and purple ; with oil, that such as are quite opaque in water will which the heralds call gides, azure, sable, vert or si- become perfectly transparent in oil. Thus, blue vernople, and purpure ; tenne or tawny, and sanguine, are diter, though exceedingly opaque in water, if ground not so common ; as to yellow and white, called or and with oil, seems totally to dissolve, and will become very transparent. The same thing happens to such argent, they are metals, not colours. The metals and colours are sometimes expressed in colours as have for their basis the oxide of tin, alabasblazon by the names of precious stones, and sometimes ter, or calcareous earth. The most perfectly opaque colours in oil are such as have lead, mercury, or iron, by those of planets or stars. See Blazoning. Oenomaus is said first to have invented the distinc- for their basis : to the latter, however, Prussian blue tions of colours, to distinguish the gundillse of comba- is an exception ; for though the basis of that colour is tants at the Circensian games ; the green for those who iron, it proves quite transparent when ground with oil. represented the earth, and blue for those who repre- In water colours, those prepared from metals, Prussian blue alone excepted, are always opaque ; from sented the sea. Colours, in the military art, include the banners, vegetables or animals, transparent. Coals, however, flags, ensigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or whether vegetable or animal, are opaque both in water and oil. 3 fleet. See Flag and Standard. Colours, again, may be considered as either simple Simple and | Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are used to distinguish several mysteries and feasts celebrated or compound. The simple ones are such as require no-oompmmd thing to be superadded to them, in order to make a full01165, therein. Five colours only are regularly admitted in the La- strong colour, without regarding whether they are formtin church : these are white, green, red, violet, and ed of many or new ingredients ; and in this view, whiteblack. The white is for the mysteries of our Saviour, lead, red-lead, vermilion, oxides of iron, &c. are simple the feast of the Virgin, those of the angels, saints, and colours. The compound ones are formed by the union confessors : the red is for the mysteries and solemnities of two or more colouring substances ; as blue and yelof the holy sacrament, the feasts of the apostles and low united together to form a green, red and yellow to martyrs; the green for the time between pentecost and form an orange, a white earth or oxide with the red advent, and from epiphany to septuagesima ; the violet colour of cochineal or brazil to form a lake, &c.; and in advent and Christmas, in vigils, rogations, &c. and thus carmine, lake, rose-pink, Dutch-pink, English4 in votive masses in time of war; lastly, the black is for pink, &c. are compound colours. The last and most important division of colours is True and j the dead, and the ceremonies thereto belonging. a co In the Greek church, the use of colours is almost in o true and false. By. the former are meant those j 0^ ' j abolished, as well as among us. Red was, in the Greek which retain their colour under every possible variety church, the colour for Christmas and the dead, as black of circumstances, without fading in the least: the others are such as do not; but either lose their colour altoamong us. To Colour Strangers Goods, is when a freeman al- gether, or change to some other. What is chiefly apt lows a foreigner to enter goods at the customhouse in to affect colours, is their being exposed to the sun in summer, and to the cold air in winter: but to this his name. CoLOUR-Making, the art of preparing the different there is one exception, viz* white-lead ; which, when gi’ound with oil, retains its whiteness if exposed to the kinds of colours used in painting. This art properly belongs to chemistry; and is one weather, but degenerates into a brownish or yellowish of the most curious, though least understood, parts of colour if close kept. In water this substance is very it. The principles on which colour-making depends apt to lose its colour, whether exposed to the air or

COL [ 277 ] COL 'olour- not. The great desideratum in colour-making is to duced by the mixture of different substances together; Colouriaking. produce the first kind of colours, viz. such as will not the permanency of these colours can only be in pro- making, —y—-* fade by exposure to the weather ; and indeed it is to portion to the ability of such mixtures to resist the c0 8 be regretted, that the most beautiful are in general the weather. Thus, suppose a high scarlet or orange * perm aneu_ least permanent. It may, for the most part, however, lour is produced by means of spirit of nitre, it is plain cyofco by be expected, that the more simple any colour is, the that, was such a colour exposed to the air, it could re- lours, w at c eter less liable will it be to change upon exposure to the main no longer than the spirit of nitre which produced m|’ne ^ it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the spirit * °' air. The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a of nitre was exhaled into the air, or otherwise destroycolour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con- ed, the colour behoved to fade, and at last to be totalcerning the nature of colouring substances. With all ly destroyed ; and thus, in proportion to the destructiour disadvantages, however, we may observe, that bility of the substances by which colours are produced, whatever change of colour is produced in any substance will be the disposition of such colours to fade, or the by exposure to the sun and air, that colour to which contrary. In this respecl alkalies are much more deit changes will bid fair for being permanent, and structible than acids, and consequently less proper for therefore ought to be employed where it can be done. the preparation of colours. With regard to acids, the Of these changes the instances are but very rare, nitric seems most destructible, the sulphuric less so, and stances of ^ne *s ^ie PurP'e 0f ^ ancients, which assumed the muriatic the least of all. From the extreme fixity lours pro-its colour by exposure to the sun, and consequently of the phosphoric acid and sedative salt, perhaps they ced by was exceedingly permanent. Another is in the solu- might be of service in preserving colours. posure to tJon 0f silver j which being mixed with chalk, the As all colours, whether derived from the animal or e sun an d preeipitate turns to purplish black where it is exposed vegetable kingdom, must be extracted either by pure to the sun.. A third is in solutions of indigo by alka- water or some other liquid menstruum, they cannot line substances, which constantly appear green till ex- be used for the purposes of painting till the colouring posed to the air by spreading them very thin, upon substance is united with some earthy or solid matter which they become almost instantaneously blue, and capable of giving it a body, as the workmen call it; Opaque or f the mix-cont>nue 80 ever after. Sometimes, though still more and, according to the nature of this substance, the co- transparent C0 U1S > re of two rarely, a very remarkable change of colour happens, lour . will be transparent or otherwise. This basis 1 1° getable upon mixing two vegetable juices together. Almost ought to be of the most fixed and durable nature ; | “vv foun~ lces ’ the only instance of this we have on the authority of unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies. Mr George Forster, who informs us, that the inhabi- It ought also to be of a pure white colour, and easily tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of a crimson colour, reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reason by mixing together the yellow juice of a small species all earthy substances should be avoided as being acted of fig with the greenish juice of a kind of fern. But upon by acids; and therefore, if any of these were the most remarkable alterations of colour are effected added to heighten the colour, they Would not fail to by different metallic and saline solutions mixed with be destroyed, and their effect totally lost. Precipitates certain animal or vegetable substances ; and with these of lead, bismuth, &c. though exceedingly fine and white, ought also to be avoided, as being apt to turn s ^ the colour-maker will be principally conversant, ffects of ^ a common observation in chemistry, that acids black by exposure. The only substance to be chosen oxide 0p tin, the •ids and mixed with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and in preference to all others, is oxide of tin, preparedniost Pr>°" kalies on alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not so either by fire orj the nitric acid. Thisissoexceed•lours. generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend ingly refractory as not only to be unalterable by al-^ to heighten red colours, so as to make them approach kalies, acids, or the sun and weather, but even byjourg to the scarlet or true crimson j and alkalies to darken, the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is beor make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed sides white as snow, and capable of being reduced to with yellow colours, acids also universally tend to an extreme degree of fineness, insomuch that it is brighten the yellow j and alkalies to turn it to an made use of for polishing metallic speculums. For orange, and make it become more dull. But though these reasons, it is the most proper basis for all fine coir this is very generally the case, we are not to expect lours. For coarse ones, the white precipitate of lead, Precipitate mo*t that all acids are equally powerful in this respect. The mentioned under the article Chemistry, will answer ofrolead er i0L hath a very nstrong body, i. e. is very P P ' nitric acid is found to heighten the most of any, and veryJ well. j It ■11 , • •> coarse ones, the muriatic acid the least of the mineral ones. The opaque, and will cover well; may be easily ground vegetable, as might be expected, are less powerful fine, and is much less apt to turn black than white than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tincture of lead ; it is besides very cheap, and may be prepared at cochineal, either in water or alcohol, is mixed the the small expence of 3d. per pound. I2 If what we have just now observed is attended to, General pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an exceeding high orange or flame colour, which it will the general method of extracting colours from any method of preparing impart to cloth. If sulphuric acid is used, a full vegetable or animal substance, and fixing them on a coou is. scarlet, inclining to crimson rather than orange, is proper basis, must be very easily understood. For produced. With muriatic acid, a true crimson colour, this purpose, a quantity of oxide of tin is to be procubordering on purple, is the consequence. Alkalies, red in proportion to the quantity of colour desired. both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple, This must be well rubbed in a glass mortar, with a which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al- little of the substance designed for brightening the colour, as aldm, cream of tartar, spirit of nitre, &c. kalies. Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro- after which it must be dried, and left for some time, , that i

COL t 278 ] COL Colour- that the union between the two substances may be eye-bright, iris &c. are heightened so as to equal, Colour.; making. as perfect as possible. If the colour is to be a very if not excel, the blue produced by a solution of cop- making J fine one, suppose from cochineal, the colouring mat- per in volatile alkali. In short, this solution seems v—■ ter must be extracted with alcohol without heat. to be of much moi'e extensive use in colour-making, When the spirit is sufficiently impregnated, it is to when properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought be poured by little and little upon the oxide, rub- of. It is not, however, universally serviceable. The bing it constantly, in order to distribute the colour colour of madder it totally destroys, and likewise that equally through all parts of the oxide. The spirit soon of saf-flower, changing them both to a dull orange. evaporates, and leaves the oxide coloured with the co- It likewise spoils the colour of archil ; and what is very chineal. More of the tincture is then to be poured remarkable, the 'fine red colour of tincture of roses on, rubbing the mixture constantly as before ; and made with sulphuric acid is by solution of tin changed thus, with proper management, may very beautiful to a dirty green. colours, not inferior to the best carmine, be prepared The most important consideration in colour-making Directior at a moderate expence. If, instead of cochineal, we is to make choice of such materials as produce the for the substitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. differ- most durable colours j and if these can be produced,ch°ice of ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced. an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to^teriah For the coarser colours, aqueous decoctions are to be a bright one from those which fade sooner. In what used in a similar manner; only, as these are much the difference consists between the colours that fade longer in evaporating than the alcohol, very little must and those which do not, is not known with any debe poured on at. a time, and the colours ought to be gree of certainty. From some appearances it would made in large quantity, on account of the tediousness seem, that those substances which are most remarkable of the process. for keeping their colour, contain a viscous glutinous 13 Hitherto we have considered only the effects of the matter, so combined with a resinous one as to be soEffects of different pure and simple salts, viz. acids and alkalies, on differ- luble both in water and alcohol. The most durable kinds of ent colours $ but by combining the acids with alka- red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very salts. lies, earths, or metals, these effects may be varied strongly resinous, though at the same time so far almost in infinitum ; neither is there any rule yet laid glutinous, that the colouring matter can be extracted down by which we can judge a priori of the changes from it by water. Next to gum-lac are madder-roots of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or and cochineal. The madder is an exceedingly penethat particular salt with any colouring substance. In trating substance, insomuch that, when given to anigeneral, the perfect neutrals act weakly $ the imper- mals along with their food, it tinges their bones of a fect ones, especially those formed from metals, much deep red colour. Its colouring matter is soluble both more powex-fully. Alum and sal ammoniac consider- in water and alcohol. Along with the pure red, howably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme- ever, there is in madder a kind of viscous astringent ric, fustic, madder, logwood, &c. The same thing substance, of a dark brown colour, which seems to is done, though in a less degree, by common salt, give the durability to the whole. The colouring Glauber’s salt, nitre, and many other neutrals. So- matter of cochineal, though soluble both in water and lutions of iron in all the acids strike a black with alcohol, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which every one of the above mentioned substances ; and it bears some resemblance to the purpura of the anlikewise with sumach, galls, and other astringents. cients, which kept its colour exceedingly well. Where Solutions of lead, or saccharum saiurni, universally the colours are fugitive, the tinging substance seems to debase red colours to a dull purple. Solution of cop- be too resinous or too mucilaginous. Thus the colours per changes the purple colour of logwood to a pretty of brazil, turmeric, &c. are very resinous, especially good blue $ and, in general, solutions of this metal are the latter, insomuch that the colouring matter of turfriendly to blue colours. The effects of solutions of meric can scarcely be extracted by water. Both these gold, silver, and mercury, are not so well known $ are perishable, though beautiful colours 5 and much j, they seem to produce dark colours of no great beauty. more are the red, purple, and blue flowers, commonly Solution of The most powerful solution, however, with regard to a to be met with. These seem to be entirely mucilatin the most great number of colours, is that of tin, made in ni- ginous, without the least quantity of resinous matter. powerful. tro-muriatic acid. Hence we may see the fallacy of The yellow flowers are different, and in general keep * See Chro-Mr Delaval’s hypothesis concerning colours*, that their colour pretty well. Whether it would be possimatics, the least refrangible ones are produced by the most ble, by adding occasionally a proper quantity of gum •N° S. dense metals : for tin, which hath the least density of or resin, to make the fugitive colours more dux-able, any metal, hath yet, in a state of solution, the most ex- hath not yet been tried, but seems to have some probatraordinary effects upon the least refrangible colours, as bility. What tends a little to confirm this, is a pro-M. Hello well as those that are most so. The colour of cochi- cess given by M. Hellot for imparting durability to method ® neal is changed by it into the most beautiful scarlet; the colour of brazil. It consists only in letting decoc-*!^,0^ a similar change is made upon the colouring matter of tions of the wood stand for some time in wooden casks J1™ gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made to yield a fine pur- till they grow stale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth ail-wood, plish crimson j logwood, a beautiful dark purple $ tur- now dyed in the liquor acquired a colour so durable, meric, fustic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and that they were not in the least altered by exposure to flowers, are made to communicate colours far more the air during four months in the winter season. beautiful than can be got from them by any other me- Whether this change in the durability of the colour thod. The blue colour of the flowers of violets. was effected by the ropiness following the fermentation,

COL [ 279 ] COL Colour- tlon, or by some other cause, or whether the experi- slowly under a copper-pan. All the soots were of a Colourmaking. ment can be at all depended upon, must be referred to deeper black colour than those obtained from the same making, kinds of wood in a common chimney $ and very little, ' ' —v—' future observation. *7 Having thus collected all that can as yet be de- if at all, inferior to those of the oils : they gave only -P-, pended upon for establishing a general theory of co- a just discernible tincture to water and alcohol, while tent co- lour-making, we shall now proceed to give an account the soots of the chimney imparted a strong deep one to urs. of the different pigments generally to be met with in both. The soot of mineral bitumens, in this close way of burning, appears to be of the same qualities with 18 the colour-shops. amp1, Black. These are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue- those of woods, oil, and resins: in some parts of Geraclj ' black, and Indian-ink. The first is the finest of what many, great quantities of good lamp-black are prepared are called the soot-blacks, and is more used than any from a kind of pit-coal. “ It appears, therefore, that the differences of soots other. Its preparation is described in the Swedish Transactions for the year 1754, as a process dependent do not depend altogether on the qualities of the subon the making of common resin : the impure resinous jects, but in a great measure on the manner in which juice collected from incisions made in pine and fir the subject is burnt or the soot caught. The soots trees, is boiled down with a little water, and strained produced in common chimneys, from difi’erent kinds of whilst hot through a bag; the dregs and pieces of wood, resinous and not resinous, dry and green, do not bark left in the strainer are burnt in a low oven, differ near so much from one another, as those which from which the smoke is conveyed through a long are produced from one kind of wood in a common chimpassage into a square chamber, having an opening on ney, and in the confined way of burning above menao the top on which is a large sack made of thin woollen tioned. Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt Ivorystuff: the soot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the b ac t chamber, from whence it is swept out once in two or in a close vessel. This, when finely ground, forms ' * ’ three days, and partly in the sack, which is now and a more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black j then gently struck upon, both for shaking down the but in the common methods of manufacturing, it is so soot, and for clearing the interstices betwixt the much adulterated with charcoal-dust, and so grossly lethreads, so as' to procure aTsufficient draught of air vigated, as to be unfit for use. An opaque deep black through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black the turpentine houses in England, from the dregs and with gum water, or with the liquor which settles from refuse of the resinous matters which are there manu- the whites of eggs after they had been suffered to stand a little. Some use gum water and the whites 19 factored. )r Lewis’s On this subject Dr Lewis hath some curious obser- of eggs together,’and report, that a small addition of bsem- vations, “ The soot (says he) arising in common the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from chimneys, from the more oily or resinous woods, as the the pencil, and improves its glossiness. It may be obfir and pine, is observed to contain more dissoluble served, however, that though ivory-black makes the matter than that from the other woods ; and this dis- deepest colour in water as well as in oil painting, yet soluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of it is not on this account always to be preferred to an oily or resinous nature than in the latter, alcohol other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is selextracting it most powerfully from the one, and water dom wanted in painting; and in the lighter shades, from the other. The oiliness and solubility of the whether obtained by diluting the black with white soot seeming therefore to depend on those of the bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the subject it is made from, it has been thought that lamp- particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea4I black must possess these qualities in a greater degree sure lost. Blue black is said to be prepared from the burnt Blue-black, than any kind of common soot. Nevertheless, on examining several parcels of lamp-black, procured from stalks and tendrils of the vine. These, however, the different shops, I could not find that it gave any tinc- colour-makers seldom give themselves the trouble of procuring, but substitute in its place a mixture of ivoryture at all, either to alcohol or to water. ^ Suspecting some mistake or sophistication, or that black, and the common blue used for clothes. Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours. jncjian.jllkthe lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to fit it for some particular uses, I prepared myself some It hath been discovered by Dr Lewis to consist of a soot from linseed-oil, by hanging a large copper pan mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory black, over the flame of a lamp to receive its smoke. In this or charcoal, he found to answer equally well, provided manner the more curious artists prepare lamp-black they were levigated to a sufficient degree of fineness, 23 for the nicer purposes; and from this collection of it which indeed requires no small trouble. 2. White. The white colours commonly to be met Whitefrom the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably received its name. The soot so prepared gave no tincture with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartshorn, coloureither to water or to alcohol, any more than the com- pearl-white, Spanish-white, egg-shell white, and nimon lamp-black of the shops. I tried different kinds trate of bismuth. The flake-white and white-lead are of oily and resinous bodies with the same result j even properly the same. The preparation of the former is the soots obtained from fish oils and tallow did not ap- kept a secret; the method of preparing the latter is pear to differ from those of the vegetable oils and re- described under Chemistry, N° 1856. Ihese are the sins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp- only whites that can be used in oil, all the rest being transparent unless they are laid on with water. Calblack commonly sold. “ Some soot was collected in like manner from fir cined hartshorn is the most useful of the earthy whites, and other woods, by burning small pieces of them as being the least alkaline. Spanish white is only

COL [ 280 ] COL Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears of a ColonrColour- finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from making. making;, oyster-shells j and egg-shell white from the shells of very dark dusky purple. Of the preparation of vermilion and red-lead, an ac‘v ■' eggs. All these, by their attraction for acids, must necessarily destroy such colours as have any acid or count is given under the article Chemistry, N° 1701. metallic salt in their composition. The nitrate of bis- 1832. These are very durable colours : the first is the muth is apt to turn black, as are also flake-white and best red used in oil painting, but does not answer well white-lead, when used in water. The white precipi- in water; the other is rather an orange; and, like tate of lead recommended under Chemistry, N° 1856. other preparations of lead, is in some cases apt to turn is greatly superior as a water-colour to all these, being black. 2, 4. Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints Orange perfectly free of any alkaline quality, and not at all apt to lose its own colour, or to injure that of other sub- are red orpiment and orange lake. The first is a sub-colours, limate formed of arsenic and sulphur; the other may stances. It is a carbonate of lead. be prepared from turmeric infused in alcohol having Red To 3* The red colours used in painting are of lours. two sorts, viz. those which incline to the purple, and its colour struck upon oxide of tin, and brightened such as are of a full scarlet, and tend rather to the orange. by a solution of that metal. All the shades of orange, The first are carmine, lake, rose-pink, red-ochre, and however, may be extemporaneously prepared by mixVenetian-red. The second are vermilion, red-lead, ing red and yellow colours together, in due proporscarlet-ochre, common Indian red, Spanish-brown, and tions. 25 5. Yellow. The yellow paints most commonly in Yellow terra di Sienna, burnt. We have already laid down some general rules for use are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink, colours the preparation of carmine and lake. Particular re- English-pink, masticot, common orpiment, yellowceipts have been delivered with the greatest confidence ochre, terra di Sienna unburnt, and turpith mineral. King’s-yellow is evidently an arsenical preparation. for making these fine colours ; but all of them must necessarily prove ineffectual, because an earthy basis Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade; is recommended for striking the colour upon. From on which account, and its great price, it is seldom the principles of chemistry, however, we are certain, used. Naples-yellow was for a long time thought to be a that if nitric acid, or solution of tin, is made use of for brightening a colour made with any earthy basis, it preparation of arsenic, but is now discovered to have must infallibly be destroyed by that basis, by reason of lead for its basis. It is therefore apt to turn black and its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brighest and most lose its colour, which makes it the less valuable. It is beautiful red colour known at present; the best comes nevertheless used in preference to king’s-yeilow, on acfrom France. Lake differs from it in being capable count of its inferiority in price. This colour is partiof mixture with oil, which carmine is not, unless with cularly liable to be spoiled by iron when moist, and great difficulty. The former is also much more in- therefore should never be touched by that metal unless clined to purple than carmine. This last quality, how- previously ground in oil. Dutch-pink is said to be prepared by striking the ever, is reckoned a defect; and accordingly, the more that lake approaches to the scarlet or true crimson, the colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk. more it is valued. On dropping solution of tin into But of this there is great reason to doubt; the basis an aqueous tincture of brazil wood, a beautiful preci- of Dutch-pink seems much more hard and gritty than pitate falls, of a purplish crimson colour. This may chalk, and its colour more durable than those struck _ be very well substituted in place of the dearer lakes on upon that earth usually are. Very good yellows may be prepared with the white precipitate of lead, formany occasions. Rose-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more merly mentioned, by using either yellow berries, fustic, to the purple than scarlet. It seems to be made of chalk, or any other substance capable of yielding that colour. coloured with a decoction of brazil-wood, heightened English pink is paler than the Dutch, and keeps its by an alkaline salt; for which reason it is exceedingly colour greatly worse. Masticot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it perishable, and but little esteemed. The colour might be made much more durable, as well as better, by em- assumes a yellowish colour. It is not apt to change, ploying for a basis the white precipitate of lead above- but the colour is so dull that it is seldom used either in mentioned, and brightening it with solution of tin. oil or water. Common orpiment is a pretty bright greenish-yelRed ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The oxides of low, prepared by subliming arsenic with sulphur. Its iron may be made to appear either purplish, or in- nauseous smell, which is greatly increased by grinding clining to the scarlet, according to the manner in which in oil, makes it very disagreeable ; nor does it keep its the calcination is performed. If the matter is per- colour for any length of time. That kind of orpiment fectly deprived of its phlogiston, and subjected to an least inclined to green is to be preferred for the purintense fire, it always turns out red ; but the mixture poses of painting. Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna are ferruginous of a small quantity of inflammable matter gives it a purplish cast. Hence various paints are kept in the shops earths, capable of becoming red by calcination. Green under different names, which yet differ from each other vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageously subonly in the slight circumstances above mentioned ; and stituted for either of them. See Chemistry. Turpith mineral is but little used in painting, though such are the scarlet-ochre, Spanish brown, and terra di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the oxides of its fine yellow colour seems greatly to recommend it. iron never show their colour till they become cold. Th is preparation is in all probability very durable ; and 3

COL [ 281 COL ] Colour. and should seem therefore worthy of a preference either the best chemists have been puzzled to find out the Colourmaking. to king’s or Naples yellow. See Chemistry Index. method. The colour is exceedingly bright, and has a making. J Gamboge is a paint that can only be used in water, considerable tinge of green. A method of preparing »“ and is the most common yellow made use of for co- a colour equally beautiful, and agreeing in all respects louring maps, &c. } but for this it is not very proper, with what is sold in the shops, except that of efferbeing neither quite transparent, nor very durable. 27 vescing with acids, we have found to be as follows : . reen co6. Green. The only simple green colour that hath Dissolve copper in strong caustic alkali, until the liquid irs. a tolerable degree of brightness is verdigris, or pre- has assumed a very deep blue colour j and the deeper parations of it. This, however, though a very beau- this colour is, the finer will your verditer be. When tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved the menstruum has dissolved as much of the metal as it in colour, though not in durability, by dissolution and can take up, it is to be poured out into a broad and crystallization in distilled vinegar, in which state it is well glazed earthen pan, held over a very gentle fire j called distilled vei'digris. A more durable watercolour and from the moment it is put on, the liquor is to be is made by dissolving the verdigris in cream of tar- continually agitated with a wooden spatula, so that the tar, or rather the pure tartaric acid ; but in oil this is liquor may be heated as equally as possible. The found to be equally fugitive with the verdigris itself. whole secret consists in properly regulating the degree See Chemistry Index. of heat; for if it exceeds the due proportion ever so Compound greefts are either made of Prussian or little, the verditer will turn out of a dirty green. The some other blue, mixed with yellow ; but in whatever proper degree is about 90° of Fahrenheit’s thermomeway these colours can be compounded, the beauty of ter. In this gentle heat the alkali slowly evaporates ; the green produced is greatly inferior to distilled, or and in proportion to its doing so the verditer falls to even common verdigris. The tartaric solution of the bottom. Alter it is once formed, freed from the verdigris, mixed with a little gamboge, is the best alkaline liquor, and dried, it can bear the effusion of transparent green water-colour we have had an oppor- boiling water without the least injury. Dr Priestley, tunity of trying ; and a mixture of Prussian blue and in his sixth volume, takes notice, that a solution of turpith-mineral is probably the best opaque one. copper in volatile alkali affords a blue precipitate by Sap-green is a simple colour, but exceedingly infe- heat, but without taking notice of the requisites for its rior to distilled verdigris, or even to the tartaric success. In making this preparation it is necessary to solution of verdigris with gamboge. It is prepared dissolve copper in its metallic state ; for the solution of from the juice of unripe buckthorn berries evaporated any oxide will not yield a blue but a green colour. to the consistence of a gum. Its green colour is greatly This colour is durable in water, but dissolves in oil, inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has and has then all.the inconveniences of verdigris above been sometimes used, called Prussian green, which con- mentioned. sists only of Prussian blue and yellow ochre. It has Smalt is glass coloured with zaffre, a preparation no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as Prus- from cobalt*. It is commonly so grossly powdered * See Zo/t sian blue, only not pouring on any muriatic acid to that it cannot be used in painting, and its texture is so/fe a,100 Ov O >-1 M letters each square yard will contain 5 therefore if we divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600, The

COM [ 295 ] COM Now the first two squares, consisting of two parts CombinaCombina- The construction of this table is very simple. The 1 tion. line A. a consists of the first 12 numbers. The line out of 8, they may each of them, by the eighth rank tio* Ab consists everywhere of units ; the second term 3, of the triangle, be taken 28 different ways, which of the line B c, is composed of the two terms 1 and 2 makes 56. And the last two squares, consisting of in the preceding rank: the third term 7, in that line, four parts, may each be taken by the same rank of the is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding triangle 70 times, which makes rank: and so of the rest j every term, after the first, To which add the foregoing number 56 being composed of the two next terms in the preceding rank: and by the same method it may be conti- And the number of the different squares that 196 may be formed of the 8 triangles will be 3 nued to any number of ranks. To find by this table how often any number of things can be combined in VII. A man has 12 different sorts of flowers, and a another number, under 13, as suppose five cards out of large number of each sort. He is desirous of setting 8 : in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is them in beds or flourishes in his parterre : Six flowers 56, and that is the number required. in some, 7 in others, and 8 in others •, so as to have the Though we have shown in the foregoing problems greatest variety possible j the flowers in no two beds to the manner of finding, the combination of all number’s be the same. To find how many beds he must have. whatever, yet as this table answers the same purpose, 1. The combinations of 6 and 12 by the last rank of the for small numbers, by inspection only, it will be found triangle, are _ 524 useful on many occasions j as will appear by the follow- 2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are 792 ing examples. 3. The combinations of 8 in 12, are 495 V. To find how many different sounds may he produced by striking on a harpsichord two or more of Therefore the number of beds must be 2211 the seven natural notes at the same time. 1. The VIII. To find the number of chances that may be combinations of two in seven, by the foregoing triangle are, 21 thrown on two dice. As each die has six faces, and as 2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are 35 each face of one die may be combined with all the 3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are ”35 faces of the others, it follows that 6 multiplied by 6, 4. The combinations of 5, are 21 that is, 36, will be the number of all the chances j as 5. The combinations of 6, are " ” 7 is also evident from the following table : 6. The seven notes altogether once, 1 Numb, of Numb, of chances. points. Points. Therefore the number of all the sounds will be 120 2 2 6 1.2 3 VI. Take four square pieces of pasteboard, of the 12 4 2.2 3-1 !-3 2 same dimensions, and divide them diagonally, that is, 20 5 4.1 1.4 3-2 -3 by drawing a line from two opposite angles, as in the 3° 63 3 5*1 2 4.2 2.4 figures, into 8 triangles ; paint 7 of these triangles 76 .1 1.6 5- 2-5 4-3 3-4 42 with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green, 40 8 4.4 6.2 2.6 5-3 3-5 blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To 96 •3 3-6 5*4 4-5 36 find how many chequers or regular four-sided figures, 10 5- 56 4 4.6 3° 22 different either in form or colour, may be made out 11 6- 5.6 12 of those eight triangles. First, by combining two of 12 6.6 these triangles, there may be formed either the trian252 gular square A, or the inclined square B called a rhomb. 36 Secondly, by combining four of the triangles, the large square C may be formed $ or the long square D, called a parallelogram. It appears by this table, 1. That the number of chances for each point continually increases to the point of seven, and then continually decreases till 12: therefore if two points are proposed to be thrown, the equality, or the advantage of one over the other, is clearly visible (a). 2. The whole number of chances on the dice being 252, if that number be divided by 36, the number of different throws on the dice, the quotient is 7 : it follows therefore, that at every throw there is an equal chance of bringing seven points. 3. As there are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6 of them doublets, it is 5 to I, at any one throw, against throwingL a doublet. ^ By (a) It is easy from hence to determine whether a bet proposed at hazard, or any other game wi ie ice, e advantageous or not $ if the dice be true (which, by the way, is rarely the case for ^ny ong time to^e icr, as 1 is so easy for those that are possessed of a dexterity ol hand to change the true dice for ia se.J i

COM COM [296 By the same method the number of chances upon any number of dice may be found: for if 36 be mulTables of Combinations, tiplied by 6, that product, which is 216, will be the chances on 3 dice j and if that number be multiplied Constructed on the foregoing principles. by 6, the product will be the chances of 4 dice, &c. " Combinations of the Cards. The following expeI. For ten Numbers. riments, founded on the doctrine of combinations, may Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the ad. After the possibly amuse a number of our readers. The tables 2 given are the basis of many experiments, as well on 5 numbers, letters, and other subjects, as on the cards; but the effect produced by them with the last is the most surprising, as that which should seem to prevent any collusion, that is, the shuffling of the cards, is on the contrary the cause from whence it proceeds. It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made use of in forming these tables. We shall here confine ourselves to such as are applicable to the subsequent experiments. Any one may construct them in such manner as is agreeable to the purposes he intends they These tables, and the following examples at piquet, shall answer. except the 36th, appear to have been composed by To make them, for example, correspond to the nine digits and a cipher, there must be ten cards, and at M. Guyot. the top of nine of them must he written one of the II. For twenty four Numbers. digits, and on the tenth a cipher. These cards must Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d. be placed upon each other in the regular order, the 1 22 21 *7 number I being on the first, and the cipher at bottom. 2 24 22 20 You then take the cards in your left hand, as is com18 12 2 3 monly done in shuffling, and taking off the two top J 1 4 9 7 5 cards 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4, x I 5 3 5 3 upon them $ and under those four cards the three folx 6 6 H 4 lowing 5, 6, and 7 j at the top you put the cards 8 8 7 9 and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o j con3 8 18 9 3 stantly placing in succession 2 at top and 3 at bottom : 18. 12 9 3 And they will then be in the following order : x 10 4 5 *9 2 11 1 21 8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5.6 3 12 2 24 22 *3 5 If you shuffle them a second time, in the same manner, *3 5 I 6 6 M 4 they will then stand in this order: 8 7 9 1 163.4..8.9..1.2. 10 4 6.7.. 9 2 11 1 17 3 18 12 2 24 Thus, at every new shuffle they will have a differJ 8 9 15 ent order, as is expressed in the following lines : 7 20 16 10 4 21 11 1 *7 1 shuffle 8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0 20 22 16 10 2 6.7.3.4.8.9.1.2.5.0 2 21 1r 3 2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.0 3 *7 2 22 20 16 4 9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0 4 5 7.8.3.4.9.1.2.5.6.0 III. For twenty-seven Numbers. 6 5.6.3.4.7.S.9.1.2.0 7 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0 Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the ad. After the 3d. 2 1 21 3 *7 It is a remarkable property of this number, that 2 24 22 20 the cards return to the order in which they were first 18 12 2 3 x placed, after a number of shuffles, which added to the I 4 9 S 7 1 number of columns that never change the order, is I 5 3 5 3 1 equal to the number of cards. Thus the number of x 6 6 4 4 shuffles is 7, and the number of columns in which the 8 7 9 3 cards marked 3, 4, &c. never change their places is 3, 8 18 9 3 which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This 18 12 3 9 property is not common to all numbers j the cards 1 10 16 4 9 sometimes returning to the first order in a less number, 1 1 11 21 3 and sometimes in a greater number of shuffles than that 2 2 12 22 4 J of the cards. I 3 5 3 5 x 4

297 ] COM which, after they have been twice shuffled, shall give Combinathe following answer : tion. Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d. A dream of joy that soon is o'er. 6 6 14 H 8 First write one of the letters in that line on each of 9 7 15 10 16 4 the cards (b). Then write the answer on a paper, and J9 1 11 assign one of the 24 first numbers to each card, in the 23 17 2 18 12 24 following order: 8 7 15 *9 10 DREAM OFJOY THAT SOON 16 20 4 1 11 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819 21 17 10 16 20 22 1 S O’ E R. 11 21 17 23 20 21 22 23 24. 20 16 22 24 2J Next write on another paper a line of numbers 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi27 nations, you will see that the first number after the se27 27 27 cond shuffle is 21 5 therefore the card that has the first IV. For Thirty-two Numbers. letter of the answer, which is A, must be placed Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d. against that number, in the line of numbers you have 26 22 28 just made (c). In like manner the number 22 being 1 27 the second of the same column, indicates that the card 2 25 29 which answers to the second letter D of the answer, 17 7 23 3 20 12 must be placed against that number j and so of the rest. 24 4 18 10 The cards will then stand in the following order : 9 5 n 6 3 '9 1234 56789 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 !9 28 1 *3 7 OOFSAMNTO I S R H A O ’E J 2 29 14 8 8 2 20 21 22 14 24 9 8 R A D T 10 14 9 J 11 7 23 3 20 From whence it follows, that after these cards have 12 24 4 28 26 1 been twice shuffled, they must infallibly stand in the 13 29 2 order of the letters in the answer. 27 14 18 10 Observe, 1. You should have several questions, with 5 *5 J 11 their answers, consisting of 24 letters, written on cards ; 6 16 9 J 1 these cards should he put in cases and numbered, that 3 7 17 8 you may know to which question each answer belongs. 10 18 9 11 You then present the questions $ and when any one of 3 23 19 12 them is chosen, you pull out the case that contains the 20 24 4 18 21 answer, and showing that the letters written on them 5 15 6 16 make no sense, you then shuffle them, and the answer 22 J9 becomes obvious. 7 17 *3 23 2. To make this experiment the mere extraordi20 12 24 4 nary, you may have three cards, on each of which 21 5 25 16 6 an answer is written; one of which cards must be 22 26 21 a little wider, and another a little longer, than the 25 27 22 others. You give these three cards to any one, and 26 16 28 when he has privately chosen one of them, he gives 21 27 25 29 you the other two, which you put in your pocket with32> 30 3° 30 out looking at them, having discovered by feeling 31 31 31 31 2 32which he has chosen. You then pull out the case that 32 32 3 contains the cards that answer to his question, and perI. “ Several letters that contain no meaning, being form as before. * 3. You may also contrive to have a long card at the “ written upon cards, to make them, after they have “ been twice shuffled, to give an answer to a question bottom after the second shuffle. The cards may be “ that shall be proposed $ as, for example, What is then cut several times, till you perceive by the touch “ hve Let 24 letters be written on as many cards that the long card is at bottom, and then give the answer ; COM

(b) These letters should be written in capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be easily legible when the cards are spread open. (c) For the same reason, if you would have the answer after one shuffle, the cards must be placed according to the first column of the table j or if after three shuffles, according to the third column. Vol. VI. Part I. + PP

COM [ 298 ] COM BOAST? Combii Combina- swer; for the repeated cuttings, however often, will ^oa. make no alteration in the order of the cards, y—j The second of these observations is applicable to IBSLERTHIY some of the subsequent experiments, and the third may23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 be practised in almost all experiments with the cards. You should take care to put up the cards as soon as Therefore, by the first column of the table, they will the answer has been shewn ; so that if any one should next stand thus : desire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer another question, and pull out those cards that contain 1 234 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 i2 13 14 15 16 ITBRONSCHB O A E A S T long card. the answer. Though this experiment cannot fail of exciting at all 17 18 10 20 21 22 23 24 2? 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 times pleasure and surprise, ye t it must be owned that I 1 S B S LIBER T W H II I Y a great part of the applause it receives arises from the You must observe, that the card here placed the address with which it is performed. II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being written 16th in order, being the last of the question, is a long “ upon so many cards, to shuffle them, and pronounce card ; that you may cut them, or have them cut, after “ the letters shall then be in their natural order j but the first shuffle, at that part, and by that means sepa“ that not succeeding, to shuffle them a second time, rate them from the other ten cards that contain the “ and then show them in proper order.” Write the answer. Your cards being thus disposed, you show that they 24 letters on the cards in the following order: make no meaning ; then shuffle them once, and cut1234 56789101112 ting them at the long card, you give the first part to RSHQ EFTPG U X C any one, who reads the question, but can find no answer in the other, which you open before him ; you 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 then shuffle them a second time, and show the answer NODYZ IK&ABLM as above. IV. “ To write 32 letters on so many cards, then The cards being disposed in this manner, show them upon the table, that it may appear they are promiscu- “ shuffle and deal them by twos to two persons, in ously marked. Then shuffle and lay them again on the “ such manner, that the cards of one shall contain a table, pronouncing that they will be then in alphabe- “ question, and those of the other an answer. Suptical order. Appear to be suprised that you have fail- “ pose the question to be, Is nothing certain ? and the ed •, take them up again, and give them a second shuffle, “ answer, Yes, disappointment.'''' Over the letters of this question and answer, write and then counting them down on the t^ble they will the following numbers, which correspond to the order all be in their natural order. III. “ Several letters being written promiscuously in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two. “ upon 32 cards, after they have been once shuffled, to ISNOTHI NG CE RTAIN? “ find in a part of them a question ; and then shuffling 31 32 27 28 23 24 19 20 15 16 11 12 7 8 3 4 “ the remainder a second time, to show the answer. “ Suppose the question to be, What is each Briton's YES, DI SAPOINTMENT. “ boast0? and the answer, His liberty; which taken 29 30 25 26 21 22 17 18 13 14 9 10 5 6 1 2 “ together contain 32 letters.” Then have recourse to the first column of the table After you have written those letters on 32 cards, write on a paper the word, his liberty, and annex to for 32 numbers, and dispose these 32 cards in the following order, by that column. the letters the first ten numbers thus: HISLIBERTY. I 2 3 4 c 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 123456 789 10 O I ERG CAN T P I N T A IS 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Then have recourse to the table of combinations for TMEHSDINNOYNTE IS ten numbers, and apply the respective numbers to them in the same manner as in experiment I. taking the first The cards being thus disposed, shuffle them once, column, as these are to be shuffled only once according and deal them two and two : when one of the parties to that order. will necessarily have the question, and the other the 12345678910 answer. IBS L ERTHIY Instead of letters you may write words upon the 32 cards, 16 of which may contain a question, and the reThis is the order in which these cards must stand mainder the answer; or what other matter you please. after the whole number 32 has been once shuffled, so If there be found difficulty in accommodating the ihat after a second shuffle they may stand in their pro- words to the number of cards, there may be two or per order. Next dispose the whole number of letters more letters or syllables written upon one card. according to the first column for 32 letters; the last V. “ The five beatitudes.” The five blessings we ten are to be here placed in the order above ; as fol- will suppose to be, 1. Science. 2. Courage. 3. Health. lows : 4. Riches, and, 5. Virtue. These are to be found WHATI SEACHBRI TON’S upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five persons. 1 2 in 34 5 ^ 7 8 91011121314151617 First, write the letters of these words successively,the

COM [ 299 ] Mnbina- tlie order they stand, and then add the numbers here II Nine }sPa,les tion. annexed to them. 17 King clubs SCIENCECOURAGE 18 Ten 7 u 31262116x16 1 32272217127 2 19 Nine Jhearts ^ 20 Seven clubs H E A L T H R I CHES 21 Ace diamonds 28 23 18 13 8 3 29 24 19 14 94 22 Knave spades VIRTUE 23 Queen hearts 30 25 20 15 105 Then range them in order agreeable to the first column of the table for 32 numbers, as in the experiment. Thus, I 2 345 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 LHNATEREUA C R G T 1U 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 E EC I I CHSOHREEVS C

COM 24 Knave hearts 25 Ace spades 26 King diamonds 27 Nine clubs 28 Ace hearts 29 King 1 30 Eight clubs 32 Sen }sPa'1,‘3

You then shuffle the cards, and cutting at the wide card, which xvill be the seven of hearts, you lay the eight cards that are cut, which will be the suit of hearts, down on the table. Then shuffling the remaining cards a second time, you cut at the second wide card, which will be the seven of spades, and lay, in like manner, the eight spades down on the table. You shuffle the cards a third time, and offering them to any one to cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide card (d), which is the seven of diamonds, and consequently divide the remaining cards into two equal parts, one of which will be diamonds and the other clubs. VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together, to divide the pack into two equal parts, and name the number of points contained in each part.” You are first to agree that each king, queen, and knave, shall count, as usual, 10, the ace 1, and the other cards according to the number of the points. Then dispose the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the following order, and observe that the last card of the first division must be a wide card.

Next take a pack of cards and write on the four first the word Science j on the four next, the word Courage j and so of the rest. Matters being thus prepared, you show that the cards on which the letters are written convey no meaning. Then take the pack on which the words are written, and spreading open the first four cards, with their backs upward, you desire the first person to choose one. Then close those cards, and spread the next four to the second person 5 and so to all the five j telling them to hold up their cards lest you should have a confederate in the room. You then shuffle the cards, and deal them one by one, in the common order, beginning with the person who chose the first card, and each one will find in his hand the same word as is written os his card. You Ox-der of the Cards before shuffling. will observe, that after the sixth round of dealing, there will be two cards left, which you give to the first and 17 Nine diamonds second persons, as their words contain a letter more ' 1 Seven hearts 18 Ace spades 2 Nine clubs than the others. 19 Ten clubs 3 Eight hearts VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet being mixed 20 Knave T 4 Eigflt 7 together, after shuffling them, to bring, by cutting 5 Knave > spades 21 Eight > diamonds them, all the cards of each suit together.” The order 22 Knave j 6 Ten J in which the cards must be placed to produce the effect 23 Seven spades desired being established on the same principle as that i 'tr 24 Seven 1 , explained in experiment II. except that the shuffling 9 Ace hearts 4 Queen r1’ is hex-e to be repeated three times, we think it will be wide card sufficient to give the order in which they are to be 26 Knave hearts 10 Nine hearts placed before the first shuffle. 11 Queen spades 27 King clubs 28 Nine 7 j 12 Knave clubs Order of the Cards. 29 King IsPadeS 13 Ten diamonds 8 Ten 1 Ace clubs 30 Ace diamonds 14 Ten T 9 Nine y diamonds 2 Knave 31 Seven 1 , , 15 King > hearts 3 Eight J. (jjanjondg 10 Queen . j 32 Eight j-clubs 16 Queen J II Knave J 4 beven wide card You then shuffle them carefully, according to the 5 Ten clubs 12 Queen clubs method before described, and they will stand in the fol6 Eight 7 1 12 lowing order. 14 beven 1 3 hearts *’ 7 beven j r wide card wide card Pp2 I Nine' (d) You must take particular notice whether they be cut at the wide card, and if they are not, you mast have them cut, or cut them again yourself.

C O M [ 3°o ] Numbers, 30 Ten clubs 25 Seven spades 31 Ten diamonds brought up 34 26 Seven diamonds 32 Ace hearts 6 Ten clubs 10 27 Nine spades 1 Nine *1 9 wide card. 7 Ten diamonds 10 28 I 2 King > spades 10 P"g1 29 Ace j r 8 Ten hearts 3 Seven J 7 t 10 9 Ace clubs I 4 Seven diamonds 7 5 Ace spades 1 10 Ace hearts (wide card) 1 The cards being thus disposed, you ask your adversary in what suit you shall repique him ? If he say in total 66 carried up 34 clubs or diamonds, you must deal the cards by threes, brought up 101 and the hands will be as follows: 10 8 22 Queen hearts 11 Eight hearts 8 23 Nine Elder. Younger. 12 Eight spades 9 10 Hearts, king Clubs, ace 13 Seven hearts 7 24 Knave diamonds 8 ■ ' king queen 14 Nine clubs 9 25 Eight 10 ■■ ■ 10 26 King knave • ■ " queen 10 — nine 'Ar:r}^ 10 27 Queen knave 10 10 28 Knave hearts eight 17 Queen clubs 10 ■ Diamonds, ace seven 18 Nine hearts 9 29 King clubs king 1 Spades, queen 10 30 Ace diamonds 19 Queen spades —— — queen 10 31 Seven! clubs 20 Knave clubs 7 . ■ — - knave 8 ■— eight 10 32 Eight j —— knave 21 King hearts Diamonds, eight nine total 194 Clubs, eight Spades, ten carried up 101 Hearts, ten When the cards are by shuffling disposed in this or" Rentr^e of the younger der, you cut them at the wide card, and pronounce Rentree, or take in of the elder. that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and Ten clubs Seven spades consequently the remaining part 194. Ten diamonds VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique (e).” When Seven diamonds Ace hearts you would perform this experiment with the cards used Nine T in the last, you must observe not to disorder the first 10 King > spades cards in laying them down on the table. Putting Ace J those cards together, in their proper order therefore, you shuffle them a second time in the same manner, and If he against whom you play, who is supposed to be offer them to any one to cut, observing carefully if he elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace of taken in five cards, you must then lay out the queen, hearts, and will then be at top 5 if not, you must make knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with him, under some pretence or other, cut them till it is j the three cards you take in, a sixiem major in clubs, and the cards will then be ranged in such order that and quatorze tens. If he leave one or two cards, you you will repique the person against whom you play, must discard all the diamonds. though you let him choose (even after he has cut) in If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then diswhat suit you shall make the repique. card the queen, knave, and nine of clubs : or all the clubs, if he leave two cards j and will then have a Order of the cards after they have been shuffled and hand of the same strength as before. Note. If the adversary should discard five of his cut. hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have a septiem in spades: or if he only take one card : but 13 Seven 1 , , 1 Eight hearts neither of these any one can do, who has the least 14 Eight j cl“l>s 2 Eight " 1 knowledge of the game. If the person against whom 3 Knave | > spades 15 Knave hearts you play would be repiqued in hearts or spades, you 4 Ten , 1 16 King clubs must deal the cards by twos, and the game will stand 5 Queen clubs 17 Nine diamonds thus : 18 Knave } 6 Knave 19 Nine hearts 7 King hearts 20 Queen spades 8 Queen Elder der!hand. Younger hand. 9 Eight *" 21 Seven hearts King Ace 1 clubs 10 22 Nine clubs King J fy"S diamonds 23 Ten hearts 11 Queen nLT 5-‘>iaraon‘ls 24 Ace clubs Queen Eight } 12 Ace Queen Cards.

c O M Numbers, Cards.

(e) This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the countess of Lted by her to M. Guyot.

(a French lady), and communica-

Elder hand. Queen 1 Knave j clubs Nine Eight Seven Eight Seven 1 hearts Eight spades Ken tree Seven spades Seven diamonds Nine T King > spades Ace \

COM Younger hand. Queen T Knave > spades Ten J King Queen Knave !> hearts Ten Nine Rentree. Ten clubs Ten diamonds Ace hearts

3°i ] Cards* 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 *4 15 16 18

Colours. White White Red Red Red Red Green Green White White Yellow Yellow White Yellow Yellow White Red Red Green Green Green Green Yellow Red Red Yellow White White

c o M Objects. Words. Bird To hear Orange Beauty Butterfly My Flower Notes Flower In Butterfly Shepherdess Butterfly Lover Butterfly Your Flower Of Flower An inconstant Orange Image Flower Enchanting Orange Adorn Butterfly My Butterfly Phyllis Bird Birds Orange Sing Orange Dear Orange And sweetness Orange The Bird Of Bird Present As Flower Bird Changes Bird Bosom Orange Me Butterfly Your Butterfly I long

20 If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the 21 quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of spades, and 22 lay out which of the rest you please j then, even if he should leave two cards, you will have a sixiem major 23 24 in hearts, and quatorze tens, which will make a repique. 25 26 But if he demand to be repiqued in spades; at the end of the deal you must dexterously pass the three 27 28 cards that are at the bottom of the stock (that is, the ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to 29 the top (f), and by that means you reserve the nine, 30 king, and ace of spades for yourself j so that hy keep31 . ing the quint in hearts, though you should be obliged 32 to lay out four cards, you will have a sixiem to a king The cards thus coloured, figured, and transcribed, in spades, with which and the quint in hearts you must are to be put in a case, in the order they here stand. make a repique. When you would perform this experiment, you take Observe here likewise, that if the adversary lay out only three cards, you will not make the repique 5 but the cards out of the case, and show, without changing that he will never do, unless he be quite ignorant of the the order in which they were put, that the colours, objects, and words, are all placed promiscuously. You game, or has some knowledge of your intention. This last stroke of piquet has gained great applause, then shuffle them in the same manner as before, and deal when those that have publicly performed it have them, two and two, to four persons, observing that they known how to conduct it dexterously. Many persons do not take up their cards till all are dealt, nor mix who understand the nature of combining the cards, them together: and the eight cards dealt to each person have gone as far as the passing the three cards from will be found all of one colour. You then take each the bottom of the stock, and have then been forced person’s cards, and put those of the second person unto confess their ignorance of the manner in which it der those of the first, and those of the fourth person under those of the third. After which you shuffle them was performed. XI. w The Metamorphosed Cards.” Provide 32 a second time $ and having dealt them in the same cards that are differently coloured, on which several manner, on the first person’s cards will be painted all different words are written, and different objects paint- the birds j on the second person’s cards all the buttered. These cards are to be dealt two and two to four flies j on those of the third, the oranges ; and on those persons, and at three different times, shuffling them of the fourth, the flowers. You take the cards a seeach time. After the first deal, every one’s cards are cond time, and observing the same precautions, shuffle to be of the same colour $ after the second deal they and deal them as before j and then the first person, who are all to have objects that are similar : and after the had the last time the birds in his hand, will have the words that compose this sentence : third, words that convey a sentiment. Sing, dear birds ; I long to hear your enchanting notes. Dispose of the cards in the following order. The second person, who the last deal* had the butterCards. Colours. Objects. Words. flies, will now have these words : 1 Yellow Bird I find Of an inconstant lover your chajiges present me the image. 2 Bird Yellow In you Green Flower Charming The third, who had the oranges, will have this sen3 Flowers Green Flower tence : 4 As (f) The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legf.RDEMAIN.

302 ] COM distinguished comedy according to the quality of the Comedy Combina- As in my ’Phyllis, I find in you heauty and sweetness. persons represented, and the dress they wore, into || tion The fourth, who had the flowers, will have these togatse, prsetextatse, trabeatae, and tabernariae, which Comet, Cotnedv. words : last agrees pretty nearly with our farces. Among us, comedy is distinguished from farce, as the former reCharming floivers, adorn the bosom ofi my shepherdess. presents nature as she is ; the other distorts and overIt seems quite unnecessary to give any further detail, charges her. They both paint from the life, but with as they who understand the foregoing experiments will different views : the one to make nature known, the other to make her ridiculous. ' easily perform this. COMENIUS, John Amos, a grammarian and Among the different purposes to which the doctrine of combinations may be applied, those of writing in Protestant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See eminent for his design to introduce a new method of teaching languages ; for which purpose he publishthe article CIPHER. Combination, in Chemistry, signifies the union of ed some essays in 1616, and had prepared some others, two bodies of different natures, from which a new when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having compound body results. For example, when an acid taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minister and is united with an alkali, we say that a combination be- master of the school. Comenius fled to Lesna, a city twixt these two saline substances takes place $ because of Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pubfi'om this union a neutral salt results, which is compo- lished in 1631, under the title of Janua Linguarum rescrata, gained him a prodigious reputation, insomuch sed of an acid and an alkali. COMBUST, in Astronomy. When a planet is in that he was offered a commission for regulating all the conjunction with the sun, or not distant from it above schools in Poland. The parliament of England desihalf its disk, it is said to be combust, or in com- red his assistance to regulate ths schools in that kingdom. He arrived at London in 1641 ; and would bustion. According to Argol, a planet is combust, or in com- have been received by a committee to hear his plan, bustion, when not above eight degrees and thirty mi- had not the parliament been taken up with other matters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited nutes distant from the sun, either before or after him. COMBUSTIO FECUNliE, the ancient way of trying by a generous patron, who settled a stipend upon him mixed and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching j and payments into the exchequer. In the time of King now he employed himself wholly in discovering geHenry II. a constitution was made, called the trial by neral methods for those who instructed youth. In combustioni the practice of which differed little or no- 1657 he published the different parts of his new mething from the present method of assaying silver. But thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the whether this examination of money by combustion was reformation of schools ; but he also filled his brain with to reduce an equation of money only to sterling, viz. prophecies, the fall of Antichrist, Millennium, &c. At a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it last Comenius took it into his head to address Louis to pure fine silver, does not appear. On making the XIV. of France, and to send him a copy of the proconstitution of trial it was considered, that though the phecies of Drabicius j insinuating, that it was to this money did answer numero et pondere, it might be de- monarch God promised the empire of the world. He ficient in value $ because mixed with copper or brass, became sensible at last of the vanity of his labours, and died in 1671. &c. COMET, an opaque, spherical, and solid body COMBUSTION, a term denoting the operation of fire upon any inflammable substance, by which it like a planet, performing revolutions about the sun in elliptical orbits, which have the sun in one of their smokes, flames, and is reduced to ashes. There is not a phenomenon in nature by which the foci. There is a popular division of comets into tailed, attention of philosophers has been more engaged, or which has puzzled them more to account for, than this bearded, and hairy comets j though this division rather very common operation. To explain it, theories have relates to the difl’erent circumstances of the same cobeen invented, the most opposite and contradictory to met, than to the phenomena of several. Thus, when one another that can be imagined; and, till very the light is westward of the sun, and sets after it, the lately, the state of science did not afford data sufficient comet is said to be tailed, because the train follows it to explain it in a rational manner. See Chemistry in the manner of a tail : when the comet is eastward of the sun, and moves from it, the comet is said to be Index. COMEDY, a sort of dramatic poetry, which gives bearded, because the light marches before it in the a view of common and private life, recommends vir- manner of a beard. Lastly, when the comet and the tue, and corrects the vices and follies of mankind by sun are diametrically opposite (the earth between them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet, means of ridicule. See the article Poetry. This last kind alone was received among the Ho- except a little that appears round it in form of a bormans, who nevertheless made a new subdivision of it der of hair: and from this last appearance the word cometa, comes from ftofin, into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari- comet is derived j as ous periods of the commonwealth. Among the an- coma, hair. But there have been comets whose disk cient comedies were reckoned those of Emus Andro- was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of nicus $ among the middle those of Pacuvius j and a- Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See raong the new ones, those of Terence. They likewise Astronomy Index. COMETAMUM, 3 c

o

M

[

COM C 303 ] COM Cometa- COMETARIUM, a curious machine, exhibiting other chief officers, the making and abrogating of Comitia. riuin an idea of the revolution of a comet about the sun. laws, and the judging of capital causes. After the ex- —v— II. ^ SeeCOMETEAN, Astronomy Index. pulsion of the kings, when the commons had obtained Coroitia. a town of Bohemia in the circle of the privilege to have tribunes and sediles, they elected * Saltz, with a handsome town-house. It was taken by them for some time at these assemblies; but that cestorm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, women, remony being at length transferred to the comitia triand children, put to the sword. It is seated in a fer- buta, the curiae were never convened to give their votes, except now and then upon account of making tile plain, in E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 5c. 30. COMETES. See Botany Index. some particular law, relating to adoptions, wills, and COMFREY. See Symphytum, Botany Index. tastaments, or the creation of officers for an expediCOMINES, Philip de, an excellent historian, tion ; or for electing come of the priests, as \\\z jlamiborn of a noble family in Flanders in 1446. He lived nes, and the curio maximus, or superintendant of the in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold, duke of curiones, who were themselves chosen by every partiBurgundy, for about eight years 5 but being seduced cular curia. to the court of France by Louis XI. he was highly The power of calling these assemblies belonged at promoted by him, and executed several successful ne- first only to the kings ; but upon the establishment of gotiations. After this king’s death he experienced the democracy, the same privilege was allowed to most many troubles on account of being a foreigner, by the of the chief magistrates, and sometimes to the pontienvy of other courtiers, and lay long in prison before fices. he was discharged : he died in 1309. Comines was The persons %vho had the liberty of voting here a man of more natural abilities than learning-, he were such Roman citizens as belonged to the curiae j spoke several living, but knew nothing of the dead or such as actually lived in the city, and conformed languages; he has left behind him some memoirs of to the customs and rites of their proper curiae; all his own times, that are admired by all true judges of those being excluded who dwelt without the bounds history. Catherine de Medicis used to say, that Co- of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own mines made as many heretics in politics as Luther had country, though they had been honoured with ihejus civitatis, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The done in religion. Comines, a town of French Flanders, on the lines place where the curiae met was the comitmm, a part of which the French have made to defend their country the forum: No set time was appointed for the holding against the Austrian Netherlands. It is situated on these, or any other of the comitia, but only as business required. the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. I. N. Lat. 50. 30. COMITATUS, in Law, a county. Ingulphus tells The people being met together, and confirmed by us, that England was first divided into counties by the report of good omens from the augurs (which was King Alfred j and the counties into hundreds, and necessary in all the assemblies), the rogatio, or business these again into tythings: and Fortescue writes, that to be proposed to them was publicly read. After regnum Anglice per comitatus, ut regnum Franciee per this (if none of the magistrates interposed), upon ballivatus distinguitur. Sometimes it is taken for a ter- the order of him that presided in the comitia, the ritory or jurisdiction of a particular place $ #is in Mat. people divided into their proper curias, and consulted Paris, anno 1234. See County. of the matter \ and then the curias being called out, COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, were general as- as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by man, 1 semblies of the people, lawfully called by some magis- in ancient times viva voce, and afterwards by tablets j trate for the enjoinment or prohibition of any thing the most votes in every curia going for the voice of the whole curia, and the most curiae for the general conby their votes. The proper comitia were of three sorts 5 curiata, sent of the people. centuriata, and tributa; with reference to the three In the time of Cicero, the comitia curiata were so grand divisions of the city and people into curice, cen- much out of fashion, that they were formed only by turice, and tribes: For, by comitia calaia, which we 30 lictors representing the 30 curiae -, whence, in his sometimes meet with in authors, in earlier times were second oration against Rullus, he calls them comitia meant all the comitia in general j the word calata adumbrata. from xxXix, or calo, being their common epithet j though The comitia centuriata were instituted by Servius it was at last restrained to two sorts of assemblies, those Tullius * who, obliging every one to give a true acfor the creation of priests, and those for the regulation count of what he was worth, according to those accounts, divided the people into six ranks or classes, of last wills and testaments. The comitia curiata owe their origin to the division which he subdivided into 193 centuries. The first which Romulus made of the people into 30 curiae -, classis, containing the equites and richest citizens, ten being contained in every tribe. They answered consisted of 98 centuries. The second, taking in the in most respects to the parishes in our cities, being not tradesmen and mechanics, consisted of 22 centuries. only separated by proper bounds and limits, but di- The third, 20. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30. stinguished too by their different places set apart for The sixth, filled up with the poorer sort, but one the celebration of divine service, which was performed century: and this though it had the same name with by particular priests (one to every curia), with the the rest, yet was seldom regarded, or allowed any power in public matters. Hence it is a common thing name of curiones. Before the institution of the comitia centuriata, all with the Roman authors, when they speak of the classes, the grand concerns of the state were transacted in the to reckon no more than five, the sixth not being diassembly of the curia j as the election of kings and worth their notice. This last classis or order wasvided

COM [ 3°4 1 COM Comitia. vlded into two parts or orders; t\\c proletarii and the the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of Comitia v capite censi. The former, as their name implies, were jure vocatce, because they were called out according to t v — designed purely to stock the republic with men, since their proper places. they could supply it with so little money : and the The prerogative century being chosen by lot, the latter, who paid the lowest tax of all, were rather chief magistrate, sitting in a tent in the middle of the counted and marshalled by their heads than by their campus martius, ordered that century to come out and estates. give their voices ; upon which they presently separated Persons of the first rank, by reason of their pre-emi- from the rest of the multitude, and came into an inclonence, had the name of classici; whence came the name sed apartment, which they termed septa or ovilia, pasof classici auctores for the most approved writers. All sing over the pontes or narrow boards laid there for the others, of what classis soever, were said to be infra occasion ; on which account de pontibus dejici signifies classem. The assembly of the people by centuries was to be denied the privilege of voting, and persons thus held for the electing of consuls, censors, and praetors; dealt with are called depontani. as also for the. judging of persons accused of what they At the higher end of the pontes stood the diribitores called crimen perduellionis, or actions by which the (a sort of under officers, so called from their marshallparty had showed himself an enemy to the state, and ing the people), and delivered to every man, in the tor the confirmation of all such laws as were proposed election of magistrates, as many tablets as there appearby the chief magistrates, who had the privilege of cal- ed candidates, one of whose names was written upon ling these assemblies. every tablet. A proper number of great chests were The place appointed for their meeting was the cam- set ready in the septa, and every body threw in which pus martins ; because in the primitive times of the com- tablet he pleased. monwealth, when they were under continual appreBy the chests were placed some of the public serhensions of enemies, the people, to prevent any sudden vants, who taking out the tablets of every century, assault, went armed, in martial order, to hold these for every tablet, made a prick or a point in another assemblies ; and were for that reason forbidden by the tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the business laws to meet in the city, because an army was upon being decided by most points gave occasion to the no account to be marshalled within the walls ; yet, in phrase omne tulit punctum, and the like. later ages, it was thought sufficient to place a body The same method was observed in the justiciary proof soldiers as a guard in the janiculum, where an im- cess at these comitia, and in the confirmation of laws ; perial standard was erected, the taking down of which except that, in both these cases, only two tablets were denoted the conclusion of the comitia. offered to every person ; on one of which was written Though the time of holding these comitia for other U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters; the two matters was undetermined ; yet the magistrates, after first standing for uti rogas, “ be it as you desire,” relathe year of the city 601, when they began to enter on ting to the magistrate who proposed the question; and their place, on the kalends of January, were constant- the last for antique, or “ I forbid it.” ly designed about the end of July and the beginning of It is remarkable, that though in the election of maAugust. gistrates, and in the ratification of laws, the votes of All the time between their election and confirmation that century, whose tablets were equally divided, sigthey continued as private persons, that inquisition nified nothing ; yet in the trials of life and death, if the might be made into the election, and the other candi- tablets pro and con were the same in number, the perdates might have time to enter objections, if they met son was actually acquitted. with any suspicion of unfair dealing. Yet, at the elecThe division of people into tribes was an invention tion of the censors, this custom did not hold ; but as of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into soon as they were elected, they were immediately in- Rome ; and though he constituted at that time only vested with the honour. three, yet as the state increased in power, and the By the institution of these comitia, Servius Tullius city in number of inhabitants, they rose by degrees to secretly conveyed the whole of the power from the 35. For a long time after this institution, a tribe sigcommons-^ for the centuries of the first and richest nified no more than such a space of ground with its inclass being called out first, who were three more in habitants. But at last the matter was quite altered, number than all the rest put together, if they all a- and a tribe was no \ox\gerpars urbis, but civitatis ; greed, as generally they did, the business was already not a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens decided, and the other classes were needless and insig- living where they pleased. This change was chiefly nificant. However, the three last scarce ever came to occasioned by the original difference between the tribes vote. in point of honour. For Romulus having committed The commons, in the time of the free state, to re- all sordid and mechanic arts to the care of strangers, medy this disadvantage, obtained, that before they slaves, and libertines; and reserved the more honest proceeded to voting any matter at these comitia, that labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, who century should give their suffrages first upon whom it by this active course of life might be prepared for fell by lot, with the name of centuria prerogativa ; the martial service; the tribus rusticce were for this rearest being to follow according to the order of their son esteemed more honourable than the tribus vrbance. classes. After the constitution of the 35 tribes into And now all persons being desirous of getting into the which the classes and their centuries were divided, in more creditable division ; and there being several ways the first place, the tribes cast lots which should be the of accomplishing their wishes, as by adoption, by the prerogative tribe ; and then the centuries of the tribes power of censors, or the like ; that rustic tribe which for the honour of being a prerogative century. All had the most worthy names in its roll had the preference

COM

COM t 305 ] same author instancing many particular cases not yet Comma Comida rence to all others, though of the same general deU nomination. Hence all of the same great family included herein, where yet the comma is advisable. II Comma, bringing themselves by degrees into the same tribe, See Punctuation. Commen- » gave the name of their family to the tribe they hoIt is a general rule that a comma ought not to come , ^^ noured ; whereas at first the generality of the tribes between a nominative and a verb, or an adjective and did not borrow their names from persons but from substantive, when these are not otherwise disjoined: thus, in the sentence, God ruleth with infinite wisdom, places. The first assembly of the tribes we meet with is a comma between God and ruleth, or between infinite about the year of Rome 263, convened by Sp. Sici- and wisdom, would be absurd. But to this exceptions nius, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial may occur; as when riot a single word, but a sentence, of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com- happens to be the nominative ; thus, in the example mons were ordered to be elected here; and at last first above given, where the sentence that so many all the inferior magistrates, and the collegiate priests. people are pleased with trifles, forms the nominative to The same comitia served for the enacting of laws re- the verb is, a comma at trifles is proper, both for the lating to war and peace, and all others proposed by sake of perspicuity, and as coinciding with a slight nathe tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not tural pause. Comma, in Music. See Interval. properly the name of leges, hni plebiscita. They were COMM ANDINUS, Frederick, born at Urbino generally convened by the tribunes of the commons ; but the same privilege was allowed to all the chief in Italy, and descended from a very noble family, in the magistrates. They were confined to no place; and 16th century. To a vast skill in the mathematics, he therefore sometimes we find them held in the comitium ; had added a great knowledge in the Greek tongue, by sometimes in the campus martius, and now and then which he was well qualified to translate the Greek in the capitol. The proceedings were in most respects mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he translaanswerable to those already described in the account ted and published several, which no writer till then of the other comitia, and therefore need not be insist- had attempted j as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid, ed on. Only we may farther observe of the comitia &c. COMMANDRY, a kind of benefice or fixed revein general, that when any candidate was found to have most tablets for a magistracy, he was declared to be nue. belonging to a military order, and conferred on designed or elected by the president of the assembly ; ancient knights who had done considerable services to and this they termed renunciari consul, preetor, or the the order. There are strict or regular commandries, obtainlike ; and that the last sort of the comitia only could be held without the consent or approbation of the ed in order and by merit ; there are others of grace senate, which was necessary to the convening of the and favour, conferred at the pleasure of the grand master; there are also commandries for the religious other two. COMITIALIS MORBUS, an appellation given to in the orders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The the Epilepsy, by reason the comitia of ancient Rome kings of France have converted several of the hoswere dissolved if any person in the assembly happened pitals for lepers into commandries of the order of St Lazarus. to be taken with this distemper. The commandries of Malta are of different kinds ; COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in for as the order consists of knights, chaplains, and brothe forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held. COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac- thers servitors, there are peculiar commandries or reter marked thus (,), serving to denote a short stop, venues attached to each. The knight to whom one and to divide the members of a period. Different au- of these benefices or commandries is given is called thors define and use it differently. According to F. commander, which agrees pretty nearly with the Buffier, the comma serves to distinguish the members praepositus set over the monks in places at a distance of a period, in each of which is a verb and the nomi- from the monastery, whose administration was called native case of the verb : thus, “ That so many people obedientia; because depending entirely upon the abare pleased with trifles, is owing to a weakness of bot who gave him his commission. Thus it is with 1 mind, which makes them love things easy to be com- the simple commanders of Malta, who are rather farprehended.” Besides this, the comma is used to distin- mers of the order than beneficiaries; paying a certain guish, in the same manner of a period, several nouns- tribute or rent, called responsio, to the common treasubstantive, or nouns-adjective, or verbs not united by sury of the order. COMMELTNA. See Botany Index. a conjunction : thus, “ Virtue, wit, knowledge, are COMMEMORATION, in a general sense, the rethe chief advantages of a man or, “ A man never becomes learned without studying constantly, metho- membrance of any person or thing, or the doing any dically, with a gust, application,” &c. If those words thing to the honour of a person’s memory, or in reare united in the same phrase with a conjunction, the membrance of any past event. Thus, the eucharist is comma is omitted : thus, “ the imagination and the a commemoration of the sufferings of Jesus Christ. COMMENDAM, in the ecclesiastical law, the trust judgment do not always agree.” The ingenious author of the tract De ratione in- or administration of the revenues of a benefice, given terpungendi, printed with Vossius’s Element. Rhetor. either to a layman, to hold by way of depositum for Bond. 1734. lays down the use of a comma to be, to six months, in order to repairs, &c. or to an ecclesiasdistinguish the simple members of a period or sentence ; tic or beneficed person, to perform the pastoral duties i- e. such as only consist of one subject, and one defi- thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a regu^ nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the lar incumbent. Qq Anciently Vol. VI. Parti. f

COM COM [ 3°6 ] Anciently the administration of vacant bishoprics under the protection of any superior lord : for ancient Coin men belonged to the nearest neighbouring bishop; which is homage was either predial, due for some tenure $ or dams still practised between the archbishopric cl Jj\ons and personal, which was by compulsion, as a sign of neces- Commen. the bishopric of Autun 1 on this account they weie sary subjection ; or voluntary, with a desire of protec- tary. tion 5 and those who, by voluntary homage, put themcalled commendatory bishops. This custom appears to be very ancient. St Atha- selves under the protection of any man of power, were nasius says of himself, according to Nicephorus, that sometimes called homines ejus commendati, as often octhere had been given him in commendam, i. e. in ad- curs in Doomsday. Commendati dimidii were those ministration, another church besides that of Alexandria who depended on two several lords, and paid one half of their homage to each ; and sub-commendati were like whereof lie was stated bishop. The care of churches, it seems, which had no pastor, under-tenants under the command of persons that were was committed to a bishop, till they were provided themselves under the command of some superior lord : with an ordinary : the register of Pope Gregory I. is also there were dimidii sub-commendati, who bore a full of these commissions, or commendams, granted du- double relation to such depending lords. This phrase ring the absence or sickness ol a bishop, or the vacancy seems to be still in use in the usual compliment, “ Commend me to such a friend,” &c. which is to let him of the see. Some say, that Pope lieo IV. first established the know, “ I am his humble servant.” COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an modern commendams, in favour of ecclesiastics who had been expelled their benefices by the Saracens ; to whom appellation given to such quantities as are measured by the administration of the vacant churches was commit- one and the same common measure. Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or fracted for a time, in expectation of their being restored j though St Gregory is said to have used the same while tions, are such as can be measured or divided by some other number without any remainder j such are I2and the Lombards desolated Italy. In a little time the practice of commendams was ex- 18, as being measured by 6 and 3. Commensurable in Power, is said of right lines, ceedingly abused j and the revenues of monasteries given to laymen for their subsistence. The bishops also when their squares are measured by one and the same procured several benefices, or even bishoprics, in com- space or superfices. Commensurable Surds, those that being reduced mendam, which served as a pretext for holding them all, without directly violating the canons. Part of the to their least terms, become true figurative quantities abuse has been retrenched $ but the use of commendams of their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quantity is still retained as an expedient to take oft the incom- to a rational one. COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of lipatibility of the person by the nature of the benefice. When a parson is made bishop, his parsonage becomes terature, an illustration of the difficult or obscure pasvacant ; but if the king give him power, he may still sages of an author. Commentary, or Commentaries, likewise denotes a hold it in commendam. COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro- kind of history, or memoirs of certain transactions, tection of a great man. Commendati homines, were wherein the author had a considerable hand : such are persons who, by voluntary homage, put themselves the Commentaries of Caesar.

COMMERCE, first notice we have of any considerable trade refers it to the Ishmaelites, who were settled in the hither part of Arabia. To them Joseph was sold by his brethren, when they were going down with their camels to Egypt with spicery, balm, and myrrh. It may seem strange to infer from hence, that commerce was already practised by this nation, since mention is Chap. I. History 0/Commerce. here made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly implies an inland trade $ and it must be likewise al§ 1. General History. lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to their country. But whence had they the spicery ? Or what nation the invention and first use of commerce how came Arabia to be so famous in ancient times for belonged : some attribute it to one people, some to spices ? Or whence proceeded that mistake of many another, for reasons that are too long to be discussed great authors of antiquity, that spices actually grew here. But it seems most probable that the inhabitants there ? Most certainly, because these people dealt ill of Arabia were those that first made long voyages. them} and that they dealt in them the first of any It must be allowed, that no country was so happily nation that we know of, appears from this very insituated for this purpose as that which they inhabited, stance. Strabo and many other good authors assure being a peninsula washed on three sides by three fa- us, that in succeeding times they were very great mous seas, the Arabian, Indian, and Persian. It is traders: they tell us particularly what ports they had ", also certain, that it was very early inhabited 5 and the what prodigious magazines they kept of the richest kinds

TS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either -*■ of individuals or of societies, may be exchanged by a set of men called merchants, for an equivalent, proper for supplying every want, without any interruption to industry, or any check upon consumption.

COMMERCE, 3^7 Hittory. kinds of goods ; what wonderful wealth they obtained j their country, for large cities, magnificent structures, History, 1 f —y—' in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won- ‘" '» . der of the world. what excesses they fell in respect to their expences for The Phoenicians, though they possessed only a narcarving, building, and statues. All this shows that they were very great traders j and it also shows, that row slip of the coast of Asia, and were surrounded by they traded to the East Indies j and from thence only nations so powerful and so warlike that they were they could have their spices, their rich gums, their never able to extend themselves on that side, became sweet-scented woods, and their ivory, all which it is famous, by erecting the first naval power that makes expressly said they had in the greatest abundance. any figure in history, and for the raising of which they This therefore proves, that they had an extensive and took the most prudent and ciTectual measures. In orflourishing commerce j and that they had it earlier der to this, they not only availed themselves of all the than any other nation, seems evident from their deal- creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had bestowing at that time in spices. Besides, there is much less ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but imdifficulty in supposing that they first discovered the proved them in such a manner, that they were no less route to the Indies, than if we ascribe that discovery remarkable for their strength than considerable for to any other nation ; for, in the first place, they lay their conveniency ; and so attentive were they to nearest, and in the next they lay most conveniently j whatever might contribute to the increase of their to which we may add, thirdly, that as the situation power, that thev were not more admired for the vast of their country naturally inclined them to navigation, advantages they derived from their commerce, than so by the help of the monsoons they might make re- they were formidable by their fleets and armies. gular voyages to and from the Indies with great facili- They were likewise celebrated by antiquity as the inty ; nor is it at all unlikely that this discovery might ventors of arithmetic and astronomy j and in the lastbe at first owing to chance, and to some of their vessels mentioned science they must have been very considerbeing blown by a strong gale to the opposite coast, from able proficients, since they had the courage to underwhence they might take the courage to return, by ob- take long voyages at a time when no other nation serving the regularity of the winds at certain seasons. (the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durst venture All these reasons taken together seem to favour this farther than their own coasts. By these arts Tyre opinion, that commerce flourished first among them ; and Sidon became the most famous marts in the uniand as to its consequences in making them rich and verse, and were resorted to by all their neighbours, and even by people at a considerable distance, as the happy, there is no dispute about them. ; We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele- great storehouses of the w orld. We learn from the brated more early for carrying all arts to perfection Scriptures how advantageous their friendship and althan the inhabitants of Egypt: and it is certain also, liance became to the two great kings of Israel, David that no art was there cultivated more early, with and Solomon ; and we see, by the application of the more assiduity, or with greater success, than trade. latter for architects and artists to Hiram king of Tyre, It appears from the foregoing instance, that the richest to what a prodigious height they had carried manufaccommodities were carried there by land j and it is no tures of every kind. It is very certain that Solomon made use of their less certain, that the most valuable manufactures were invented and brought to perfection there many ages assistance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Rziongebefore they were thought of in other countries; for, ber j and it is very probable that they put him upon as the learned Dr Warburton very justly observes, at acquiring those ports, and gave him the first hints of the time that Joseph came into Egypt, the people the amazing advantages that might be derived from were not only possessed of all the conveniences of the possession of them, and from the commerce he life, but were remarkable also for their magnificence, might from thence be able to carry on. Ihese ports their politeness, and even for their luxury j which ar- were most commodiously situated on the Arabian gues, that traffic had been of long standing amongst gulf j and from thence his vessels, manned chiefly by them. To say the truth, the great advantages deri- Phoenicians, sailed to Ophir and Tharsis, wherever ved from their country’s lying along the Red sea, and those places were. Some writers will needs, have the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile, them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a which they very emphatically called The liivej', or The wild and extravagant supposition ; others believe that River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make we are to look for Ophir on the coast of Afiica, all the uses that can be imagined, gave them an op- and Tharsis in Spain j but the most probable opinion portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a is, that they were both seated in the East Indies. greater height than in any country at that time, but By this adventurous navigation, he brought into his even higher than it has been carried anywhere, Chi- country curiosities not only unseen, but unheard of bena only excepted $ and some people have thought it fore, and riches in such abundance, that, as the Scripno trivial argument to prove the descent of the Chi- ture finely expresses it, “ He made silver in Jerusalem nese from the Egyptians, that they have exactly the as stones, and cedar-trees as sycamores that grow in the metaphor is very bold and emphatical } same sort of genius, and with wonderful industry and plains.” The r care have drawn so many cuts and canals, that their but when w e consider that it is recorded in this Hicountry is almost in every part of it navigable. It story, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir was by such methods, by a wise and well-regulated produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,320 government, and by promoting a spirit of industry pounds of our Troy weight, about 2,463,744!. sterling, amongst the people, that the ancient Egyptians be- we cannot doubt of the immense profit that acciued 10m observable that the queen of came so numerous, so rich, so powerful} and that this commerce. It is also Qq2 Sheba,

308 COMMERCE. History. Sheba, or Saba, which lies in that part of Arabia be- nity, and after a resistance that ruined the army of Histoiy. fore mentioned, surprised at the reports that were spread the great conqueror of Asia. Out of the ashes of ‘t-— of the magnificence of this prince, made a journey to this proud city the great spirit of its inhabitants prohis court on purpose to satisfy herself, whether fame had duced a phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to not exaggerated the fact 5 and from the presents she its parent. New Tyre was situated on an island } and made him of 120 talents of gold (656,640!.), of spices though her bounds were very narrow, yet she became in great abundance, and precious stones, we may dis- quickly the mistress of the sea, and held that supreme cern the true reason of her curiosity, which proceeded dominion till subdued by Alexander the Great, whom from an opinion that no country could be so rich as her no power could resist. The struggle she made, howown. And there is another circumstance very rema'rk- ever, though unsuccessful, w7as great, and very much able, and which seems strongly to fortify what we have to the honour of her inhabitants : it must be owned, advanced in the beginning of this section ; it is added, that the Greek hero found it more difficult to master u neither were there any such spices as the queen of this single place, than to overcome the whole power of Sheba gave to King Solomon which seems to inti- Persia. mate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into The views of the Macedonian prince were beyond the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince, comparison more extensive than his conquests j and and brought from thence other spices (perhaps nut- whoever considers Alexander’s plan of power, and megs and cloves) than had ever been seen before. It enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a powas by his wisdom, and by his steady application to litician than he was a conqueror. He framed in his the arts of peace, all of which mutually support each own mind an idea of universal monarchy, which it other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of com- was indeed impossible to accomplish } but the very nomerce, which supplies every want, and converts every tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vicsuperfluity into merchandise, that this monarch raised tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia } his subjects to a condition much superior to that of and of disposing things in such a manner, as to have any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of Is- commanded the most remote part of the Indies, at rael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of the same time that he maintained a connexion with the East. He made great acquisitions without making the most distant countries in Europe. He was for wavs ; and his successor, by making wars, lost those making use of force to acquire, but be very well acquisitions. It was his policy to keep all his people knew, that commerce only could preserve, an empire, employed j and, by employing them, he provided that was to have no other limits than those which naequally for the extension of their happiness, and his ture had assigned the world. He desired to be master own power; but the following kings pursued other of all } but at the same time he was willing to be a measures, and other consequences attended them. wise and gracious master, and to place his happiness The trade of Judea sunk almost as suddenly as it rose, in that of his people, or rather in making all the naand in process of time they lost those ports on the tions of the earth but one people. A vast, an extralied sea, upon which their Indian commerce depend- vagant, an impracticable scheme it was, of which he ed. lived not long enough to draw the outlines ; but the The whole trade of the universe became then, as sample he left in his new city of Alexandria sufficiently it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the shows how just and how correct his notions were, and Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In- how true a judgment he had formed of what might dies, and, together with her corn and manufactures, be effected by those methods upon which he depended. brought such a prodigious balance of wealth continu- That city, which he might be said to design with his ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his of Egypt to compass all those memorable works, that, eye, became in succeeding times all that he expected, in spite of time and barbarous conquerors, remain the the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for monuments of their wisdom and power, and are like several ages. to remain so as long as the world subsists. The PhoeWhile Tyre was in the height of her glory, and had nicians drew from Egypt a great part of those rich no rival in the empire of the sea, she founded her commodities and valuable manufactures which they noble colony of Carthage on the coast of Africa. The exported into all the countries between their own and situation of the city was everywhere admirable, whethe Mediterranean sea $ they drew likewise a vast re- ther considered in the light of a capital, of a strong sort to their own cities, even from countries at a fortress, or of a commodious port. It was equally great distance ; and we need only look into the pro- distant from all the extremities of the Mediterranean phets Isaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced that sea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in these governments, founded on trade, were infinitely the neighbourhood of any power capable of restraining more glorious and more stable than those that were its commerce or its growth. It is almost inexpressible erected by force. All this we find likewise confirmed how soon its inhabitants became not only numerous by profane histories •, and by comparing these, it is and wealthy, but potent and formidable. By degrees evident, that the industry of the inhabitants of this they extended themselves on all sides, conquered the small country triumphed over all obstacles, procured best part of Spain, and erected there a new Carthage } the greatest plenty in a barren soil, and immense the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at least the riches, where, without industry, there must have been best part of them, submitted likewise to their yoke. the greatest indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was Their conquests, however, were inconsiderable in exdestroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till she had tent, when compared with their navigation. On one flourished for ages} and even then she fell witE dig- side they stretched. as far westward as Britain } and the

COMMERCE. 3°9 History, the Scilly islands, which are now so inconsiderable, tected her inhabitants, they took every measure pos- History, —v~-—' were to them an Indies, the route to which they used sible to preserve her commerce; and this with so good v——' the utmost industry to conceal. On the other hand, an effect, that she actually preserved it longer than they discovered a great part of the coast of Africa, Rome herself could preserve her power. She followthe Canary islands ; and some there are who believe ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and became at they first found the way to America. While they last dependant upon Constantinople, when its founder consigned themselves to trade, and the arts which be- removed thither the capital of the empire; and his longed thereto, their power was continually increas- successor found means to transfer also a part of the sing $ but when industry gave way to luxury, and a trade of Alexandria to the same place. Yet this city spirit of ambition banished their old maxims of fruga- continued still to hold up her head, and though she lity and labour, their acquisitions remained at a stand. sunk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet The Romans began to grow jealous ef their naval they grew polished by degrees ; by degrees she repower, which it cost them two obstinate wars of 40 covered somewhat of her ancient pre-eminence; and years continuance to humble. When she w’as at length though she never rose to any thing like her former destroyed, her very ruins were majestic*, for at the lustre, yet she remained the centre of what little trade, beginning ol the third fatal Punic war, this city con- there was in the world ; which is more than can be said tained 700,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities of almost any place that has fallen under the Mohamin Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire medan power. of Carthage, raised entirely by commerce: and to When the Roman empire was overrun by barbariwhich, if she had been content to have applied herself ans, and arts and sciences sunk with that power which with the same steadiness in her highest prosperity as in had cultivated and protected them, commerce also viher early beginnings, there is no doubt she had pre- sibly declined ; or, to speak with greater propriety, served her freedom much longer than she did ; for as was overwhelmed and lost. When that irruption of economy, diligence, and good faith, are the pillars of various nations had driven the Roman policy out of a commercial state *, so when these are once shaken, it the greatest part of Europe, some straggling people is not only natural that she should decline, but also either forced by necessity, or led by inclination, took unavoidable. shelter in a few straggling islands that lay near the The Ptolemies, who were the successors of Alex- coasf of Italy, and which would never have been ander in Lgypt, entered deeply into that hero’s scheme, thought worth inhabiting in a time of peace. This and reaped the benefit of his wise establishment. Pto- was in the 6th century ; and at their first fixing there lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his they had certainly nothing more in view than living in subjects immensely rich, and himself inexpressibly a tolerable state of freedom, and acquiring a subsistence powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he as well as they could. These islands being divided had 120 galleys of war of an enormous size, and up- from each other by narrow channels, and those chanwards of 4000 other vessels, small and great. This nels so encumbered by shallows that it was impossible would appear incredible, if other wonders were not for strangers to navigate them, these refugees found related of him, which seem to explain and confirm themselves tolerably safe; and uniting amongst themthese. He raised a new city on the coast of the Red selves for the sake of improving their condition, and sea ; he was at an immense expence in opening har- augmenting their security, they became in the 8th bours, constructing quays, in raising inns at proper century a well-settled government, and assumed the distances on the road, and in cutting a canal from sea form of a republic. to sea. A prince who comprehended the importance Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it of commerce to a degree that induced him to dare is a plain and true account of the rise, progress, and such expences as these, might have what treasures, establishment of the famous and potent republic of Vewhat armies, what fleets he pleased. In his time, nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and slow ; Alexandria appeared in pomp and splendour. She but when the foundation was once well laid, her owed her birth to Alexander ; but it was Ptolemy, growth was quick, and the increase of her power who caught a double portion of his master’s spirit, amazing. She extended her commerce on all sides ; which raised her to that magnificence that ages could and takino' advantage of the barbarous maxims of the not deface. We may guess at what she was in her Mohammedan monarchies, she drew to herself the glory, by what we are told was the produce of her profits of the Indian trade, and might in some sense, customs, which fell little short of two millions of our he said to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens money annually; and yet we cannot suppose that her subjects. By this means her traffic swelled beyond Ptolemy, who understood trade so well, would cramp conception ; she became the common mart of all nait by big!) duties, or extravagant impositions. When tions ; her naval power arrived at a prodigious height; the revenue of the prince from a single port was so and making use of every favourable conjuncture, she great, what must have been the riches of his subjects ? stretched her conquests not only over the adjacent terBut what shows us Alexandria in the highest point ra firma of Italy, but though the islands of the Arof light, is the credit she maintained after Egypt sunk chipelago, so as to be at once mistress of the sea, ot from an empire into a province. The Romans them- many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the selves were struck with the majesty of her appearance ; great city of Constantinople itself. But ambition, and and though till then they had little regarded traffic, the desire of lording it over her neighbours, brought yet they were not long before they comprehended upon her those evils which first produced a decay of the advantages of such a port, and such a mart as trade and then a declension of power. General hiAlexandria : they confirmed her privileges, they pro- stories indeed ascribe this to the league of Cambrays, when

COMMERCE. 310 History, when all the great powers in Europe combined against observed by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic Histor* u—this republic : and in truth, from that period the Hanse grew in a short time to so high a rank in power—y— sinking ot her power is truly dated: but the \ enetian and authority by the immense riches it acquired, that writers very justly observe, that though this eil'ect princes themselves rendered it a sincere homage from followed the league, vet there was another more la- principles of esteem and admiration. Those of the tent, but at the same time a more eftectual cause, north principally had frequent occasion for their crewhich was, the falling off of their commerce j and dit, and borrowed of them considerable sums. The they hav;e ever since been more indebted to their wis- grand masters of the Teutonic order, who were at dom than their power} to the prudent concealing that time sovereigns of Livonia, declared themselves of their own weakness, and taking advantage oi the conservators of the rights and privileges of the Hanse : errors of their enemies, than to any other cause, for all succeeded, not only to, but beyond their wishes; their keeping up that part which they still bear, and and Germany, charmed with their progress, looked which had been lost long ago by any other nation but on them with the same eyes as a curious gardener does on certain rare plants, though not of his own themselves. At the same time that Venice rose, as it were, out raising and culture. The kings of France and Engof the sea, another republic was erected on the coast land granted also various privileges to the Teutonic of Italy. There could not well be a worse situation confederacy ; they exempted their vessels in case of than the narrow, marshy, unprofitable, and unwhole- shipwreck from all demands whatsover from the adsome islands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren, miralty, or from private persons ; they forbade any and inhospitable shores of Liguria 5 and yet as com- disturbance to their navigation at all times, and even merce raised Venice the Rich on the one, so she erect- when France was at war with the emperor, or the ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In spite ol ambi- princes of the north. In fine, during the course of tious and warlike neighbours, in spite of a confined these unhappy wars which were styled Croisades, the and unproducing country, and, which were still great- Hanse was signally consulted, and gave always puiser impediments, in spite of perpetual factions and sant succours in money and in ships to the Christians successive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her oppressed by infidels. It is astonishing that cities at so rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries, great a distance from each other, subject to different and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to kings, sometimes in open war, but always jealous of the other. Her fleets became formidable; and, be- their rights, should be able to confederate and live tosides the adjacent island of Corsica, she made larger gether in so strict an union. But when this union had and important conquests. She fixed a colony at Caffa, rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot seem and was for some time in possession of the coasts on at all strange, that on the one hand they grew arroboth sides of the Black sea. The emulation which gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealousy treat with sovereigns on the foot of equality, but even which rises from the pursuit of the same mistress, com- to make war with them, and more than once with merce, begat continual wars between these rival re- success. It will, on the other hand, appear still less publics ; which, after many obstinate and bloody bat- strange, that such behaviour as this awakened various tles, were at last terminated in favour of Venice, by princes to a more particular view of the dangers that that famous victory of Chiozzo gained by her doge such a league might produce, and the advantages that Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never pre- would naturally flow to their respective states, by retended to be mistress of the sea. These quarrels were covering their trade, thus made over, at least in some fatal to both; but what proved more immediately part, to others, entirely to themselves ; and these, in destructive to the Genoese, was their avarice, which few words, were the causes of the gradual declension induced them to abandon the fair profits of trade for of the Hanseatic alliance, which is now totally disthe sake of that vile method of acquiring wealth by solved, although the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh, and Bremen, maintain sufficient marks of that splendour usury. But we must now look to another part of the world. and dignity with which this confederacy was once In the middle age of the German empire, that is, adorned. We must now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain, about the middle of the 13th century, there was formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at where in the space of about 50 years there happened least of cities not far from the sea. This confederacy a train of events which gradually led on to such dissolely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured to coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the promote and extend, by interesting therein a great commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later number of persons, and endeavouring to profit by ages what for some thousand years had been kept setheir different views and different lights. Though the cret from all mankind ; we mean a perfect and distinct cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu- notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit. tonic Hanse, they did not however forbear associating The kingdom of Portugal was small, but well cultivamany other cities, as well in France as in England and ted, very populous, and blessed with a variety of good in the Low Countries; the whole, however, without ports ; ail which, however, had stood them in little hurting the authority, without prejudice to the rights stead, if they had not had a succession of wise princes, of the sovereign on whom they depended. This confe- who, instead of involving themselves in war with deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments, their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavourwhich were observed with the same respect as the ma- ed to extend the happiness and wealth of their subjects, ritime code of the Rhodians, who passing for the ab- and consequently their own power, in the softer and lest seamen in all antiquity, their constitutions were more successful method of protecting arts and sciences, encouraging

COMM encouraging industry, and favouring trade. This, with History. the convenient situation of their country, in the begining of the 15th century, prompted some lively spirits to attempt discoveries j and these, countenanced by a heroic young prince, pushed on their endeavours with such success, that step by step the coast of Africa was surveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which they gave that name. The point they had in view was a new route to the East Indies, which Vasquez de Gama happily discovered *, and in a short space of time Portugal, from one of the least considerable, grew to be one of the richest powers in Europe, gained prodigious dominions in Asia and Africa, and raised a naval power superior to any thing that had been seen for many ages before. ee Colum- But while this was doing, Christopher Columbus, a w (Chris- Genoese of great capacity, though of almost unknown tpher). original, who had been bred to the sea from his youth, and who had carefully studied what others made a trade, formed in his mind the amazing project of counteracting experience, and sailing to the Indies by a western course. He ofl’ered this project to the Portuguese, by whom it was considered and rejected as a chimera. He proposed it afterwards to other states, but with no better fortune *, and at last owed the discovery of the New World to the high spirit of a heroine, the famous Isabella, queen of Castile, who almost at her own expence, and with very little countenance from her husband, who yet was styled Ferdinand the JFtse, furnished the adventurous Columbus with that poor squadron, with which, at once, in spite of all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and the obstinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way, he perfected his design, and laid open a new Indies, though in reality he aimed at the discovery of the old. Neither was this noble effort of his matchless understanding defeated *, for after his decease, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, proposed to the emperor Charles V. the discovery of a passage to the spice islands by the South seas, which was what Columbus aimed at; and though Magellan lived not to return, yet in one voyage the discovery was perfected. It is inconceivable almost how many and how great benefits accrued to Europe from these discoveries $ of which, however, it is certain, that the Portuguese made a very indifferent, and the Spaniards a much worse, use j the former making slaves of, and the latter rooting out the natives. This, as it was a most ungrateful return to divine Providence for so high a blessing $ so it might have been easily foreseen it would prove, as experience has shown it did prove, highly prejudicial to their own interests, by depopulating very fine countries, which have been thereby turned into deserts : and though on their first discovery infinite treasures were returned from them, which were coined in the mints of Spain ; yet by an obstinate pursuit of this false policy, the Spanish islands in the West Indies are now brought so low as to be scarce worth keeping. The consequences that naturally followed on the discovery of a passage by the Cape of Good Hope, and of a fourth part of the globe in the western hemisphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the cause of an entire change in the state of Europe, and produced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in most other nations, a desire of visiting these remote parts j of 2

E R C E. establishing colonies and manufactures ; of exporting and importing commodities, and of raising, settling, and protecting.^ new manufactures. By this means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only particular nations brought about signal advantages to themselves, but Europe in general received a lasting and invaluable benefit 5 for its potentates made themselves formidable, and even terrible in those distant parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly reached before. It is however true, that this has not been carried on as high as it might have been j for though there was room enough for every nation to have had its share, and though it might be demonstrated that the good of the whole would have contributed sufficiently to the profit of every state, the subjects of which had engaged in this traffic; yet instead ot prosecuting so natural and so equitable a measure, they have taken a quite contrary course ; and by decrying, attacking, and destroying each other, have very much lessened that prodigious reverence which the Asiatics, Africans, and Americans, at first had for the inhabitants of Europe. The naval power of the Portuguese received an incurable wound by falling under the power ot the Spaniards; and though human policy would have suggested, that this alone must have raised the latter to the monopoly of commerce, and the universal dominion of the sea; yet the very pursuit ot a design so visibly detrimental to the interest of mankind, proved very quickly their ruin also. For the Spaniards, from the natural haughtiness of their temper, misled by the boundless ambition of their princes, and endeavouring to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in their own defence to make a much quicker progress in navigation than otherwise they could have done. For the English and Dutch, who till this time seemed blind to the advantages of their situation, had their eyes opened by the injuries they received ; and by degrees the passion of revenge inspired them with designs that possibly public spirit would never have excited. In short, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches that flowed from these discoveries to herself, and the dangerous, detestable, and destructive purposes to which she applied the immense wealth that flowed in upon her from them, produced effects directly opposite to those which she proposed, and made her enemies rich, great, powerful, and happy, in proportion as her commerce dwindled away, and as her naval power sunk and crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper display, an ill managed exertion, and a wrong application of it. It was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven Provinces, whom her oppression had made poor, and her severities driven mad, became first free, then potent, and by degrees rich. Their distresses taught them the necessity of establishing a moderate and equal government ; the mildness of that government, and the blessings which it procured to its subjects, raised their number and elevated their hopes. The consequences became quickly visible, and in a short time amazing both to friends and enemies ; every fishing village improved into a trading town ; their little towns grew up into large and magnificent cities; their inland boroughs were filled with manufactures; and in less than half a century the distressed States of Holland

312 COMMERCE, History. Holland became high and mighty $ nay, In spite of the tons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the latter to * V'11' dangers and expences which attended a war made all make some improvements in those slight leather and that time against a superior force, these people, sur- wicker boats, which they used for passing their own rounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, exposed to rivers, and creeping along their coasts, till at last they personal service, and to a thousand other disadvantages, ventured themselves over to Gaul, and entered upon grew up to such a strength as not only made the Spa- some kind of correspondence with their neighbours. niards despair of reducing them any more under their All this is so deducible from the laws of nature, that dominion, but inclined them to wish, and at last forced we might have conceived thus much by the light of them to solicit, their friendship. reason, if we had not the Commentaries of Ctesar to This, at least as far as ancient or modern histories guide us, and to strengthen by the authority of history, inform us, was the quickest and strongest of all the the facts that might have been found out by the force productions of commerce that the world has ever seen. of rational conjecture. For it is beyond dispute that the republic of the United Things were precisely in this situation wdien the Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and her wealth, Romans invaded Britain j and there is no doubt that entirely to industry and trade. The greatest part of our ancestors falling under the power of that empire, the country is far from being fertile : and what is so, and under its power at a time when, with respect to produces not enough to suffice the tenth part of the arts and sciences, it was in a most flourishing condiinhabitants for the tenth part of the year : the climate tion, was a great advantage to them •, and though from is rather tolerable than wholesome $ and its havens are their love of civil liberty, which, when under the dirather advantageous from the difficulty of entering rection of reason, is the most natural and laudable of them, than from their commodiousness in any other all passions, they made a long and vigorous, and in respect. Of native commodities they have few or some sense a noble and glorious, resistance $ yet by none $ timber and maritime stores are entirely want- degrees they caught the manners and customs of their ing j their country cannot boast so much as of a coal- conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than mine ; and yet these provinces, upon which nature has free. With learning and politeness the Romans inbestowed so little, in consequence of an extensive trade, troduced foreign commerce j and according to the are enriched with all things. Their store-houses are nature of their policy, as they made high roads through full of corn, even when the harvest in corn-countries the island, established colonies in proper places, and fails $ there is no commodity, however bulky, or scarce fixed standing camps, which were a kind of fortresses, and hard to be come at, which may not be had from where they thought proper ; so they were no less caretheir magazines. The shipping of Holland is prodi- ful with regard to marts or emporiums for the convegious j and to see the quantities of naval stores with niency of traders, and of which what they found was which their yards and ports abound, astonishes those who uncertain ; but that they left many, is without quesare unacquainted with the vigour of that cause which tion •, and among the rest London, which is not more produces this abundance. But above all, the populous- famous for her present extensive trade, than venerable ness of this country is the greatest miracle. That men for her unrecorded antiquity. should resort to a Canaan, and desire to live in a land When the Romans unwillingly left Britain, and the flowing with milk and honey, is nothing strange j but Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a that they should make it their choice to force nature, new deluge of barbarity overflowed this island ; alto raise palaces, lay out gardens, dig canals, plant most all the improvements of our civilized conquerors woods, and ransack all the quarters of the earth for were effaced j and upon the establishment as it were fruits and flowers, to produce an artificial paradise in of a new people, things were all to begin again. a dead plain, or upon an ungrateful heath in the midst This necessarily took up a great deal of time j and of fogs and standing lakes, would in so critical an age before they were in any tolerable posture, the Saxons as this pass for a fable, if the country did not lie so found themselves distressed by fresh swarms of barbanear us as to put the truth of it out of question. rians. Yet there still remain some evidences of their having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their § 2. British History. circumstances would have permitted, most certainly would have entered upon and carried foreign comWe may easily conceive, that foreign commerce by merce to a great height. We have authentic testithe natives of this island must have been a work of monies, that Alfred the Great formed projects of vast time 5 for men first think of necessaries, then of con- discoveries to the North, as he actually sent persons veniences, and last of superfluities. Those who came of great prudence and abilities into the East j and the originally from the continent might have better no- curiosities which they brought home were for many tions of things y but as it must be presumed that ei- ages preserved in the treasury of the church of Salis*ther fear of indigence drove them hither, so it is easy bury. to apprehend that succeeding generations must for some As for the Danes, they were not long our masters ; time sink much below their ancestors in their notions but as they became so by a maritime force, and as of the commodities of life ; and, deriving their man- their countrymen had established themselves not only ners from their circumstances, become quite another on the opposite shore of France, but in other parts of sort of people. But those on the opposite continent, Europe, it is reasonable to believe that they held some knowing that this island was inhabited, and having correspondence with them from thence j and that, the use, though in ever so imperfect a degree, of ves- if their dominion had lasted longer, this might have sels and of foreign traffic, came over hither, and bar- been better regulated, and productive of many advantered their goods for the raw commodities of the Bri- tages. But they had soon to do with their brethren in

COMMERCE. History. *n another way ; for the Normans, men of the same y—' race, but better established in another country, disposChap. II. Principles of Commerce. sessed them here ; and partly under colour of right, partly by force, erected that monarchy, which, not Sect. I. Origin of Trade. without various alterations and changes, subsists even to our times, and to the subsistence of which, with the The most simple of all trade is that which is carhelp of those changes and alterations, we owe that ried on by bartering the necessary articles of subsisthappy constitution under which we live $ that univer- ence. If we suppose the earth free to the first possal improvement which adorns the face of our country 5 sessor, this person who cultivates it will first draw that domestic trade which nourishes so numerous a peo- from it his food, and the surplus will be the object of ple, by plentifully rewarding their industry 5 and that barter : he will give this in exchange to any one who extensive commerce which is at once the source of our will supply his other wants. This naturally supposes wealth and the support of our liberty. both a surplus quantity of food produced by labour, It cannot be expected, that in a work like this we and also free hands j for he who makes a trade of agrishould attempt to trace the progress of trade through culture cannot supply himself with all other necessaries, every reign ; show how it was encouraged and protect- as well as food ; and he who makes a trade of supplyed, or discountenanced and checked ; what occasions ing the farmers with such necessaries, in exchange for were luckily seized, or what opportunities unfortunate- his surplus of food, cannot be employed in producing ly lost. It may be sufficient for us, after what has that food. The more the necessities of man increase, been already said, to observe, that the opinion com- the more free hands are required to supply them ; and monly entertained, of our having little or no trade be- the more free hands are required, the more surplus food fore the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is very far from be- must be produced by additional labour, to supply their ing well founded. demand. In fact, the reign of that princess was great and This is the least complex kind of trade, and may be glorious in whatever light we consider it ; but it was carried on to a greater or less extent, in different most so in this, that under Providence, it became countries, according to the different degrees of the great and glorious by the wisdom and prudence of the wants to be supplied. In a country where there is no queen and her ministers. The English nation never money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of was in so desperate a condition as at her accession. mankind will be confined to few objects} to wit, the The crown was in debt, the treasury empty, the na- removing the inconveniences of hunger, thirst, cold, tion involved in a foreign war directly against her own heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who by his interests, her coasts naked ; in a word, without credit industry can procure all the comforts of a simple life, abroad, and without concord at home, no settled reli- will enjoy his rest, and work no more } and, in genegion, the great men split into factions, and the com- ral, all increase of work will cease, so soon as the demon people distracted and dejected. Sad circumstances mand for the purposes mentioned comes to be satisfied. these ! and yet from thence arose the grandeur of that There is a plain reason for this. When the free hands reign, and the establishment of our commerce. The have procured, by their labour, wherewithal to supply queen found herself obliged to act with great caution, their wants, their ambition is satisfied : so soon as the to derive assistance from every quarter, to employ it husbandmen have produced the necessary surplus for faithfully, and to promote to the utmost of her power relieving theirs, they work no more. Here then is the welfare of her subjects, whom nothing but the pu- a natural stop to industry, consequently to barterblic-spiritedness of her government could enable to ing. grow rich enough to support the necessary expences of The next thing to be examined is, how bartering the crown. It was this gave a popular turn to her grows into trade, properly so called, and understood, councils. She encouraged her subjects to arm against according to the definition given of it above } how the Spaniards, that they might be accustomed to the trade comes to be extended among men } how masea, and acquire that knowledge in navigation, with nufactures, more ornamental than useful, come to be which, till then, fhey had been unacquainted. She established } and how men come to submit to labour, passed many laws for the public good, erected several in order to acquire what is not absolutely necessary for companies, and saw that those companies pursued the them. ends for which they were erected ; in short, she did This, in a free society, is chiefly owing to the introevery thing that could be expected, during the whole duction of money, and a taste for superfluities in those course of her reign, to excite and encourage industry who possess it. at home, and to enable us to make a proper figure aIn ancient times money was not wanting} but the broad. In a word, she furnished us with stock and taste for superfluities not being in proportion to it, credit, put us upon improving our commodities and the specie was locked up. This was the case in Eumanufactures, brought the art of ship-building amongst rope four hundred years ago. A new taste for superus, filled our ports with able seamen, showed a just re- fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circulaspect to English merchants, reduced Ireland so as to tion, from our own treasures, than from the mines of render it beneficial to Britain, and approved our send- the new world. The poor opinion we entertain of ing colonies into America j and thus the seeds of Bri- the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the motish wealth were sown in her time, though the harvest dern way of estimating wealth, by the quantity of coin Was reaped in the days of her successors. See the ar- in circulation, from which we conclude, that the greatticles Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, Manufac- est part of the specie now in our hands must have come tures, Shipping, and Trade. from America. Vol. VI. Part I. t Hr It

3H Principles, > i...—v-m

COMMERCE. It is more, therefore, through the taste of super- them is contrived), than to the taste for luxury in the principlei than in consequence of the quantity of coin, rich, who, to indulge their ease, engage the poor toy—» that trade comes to be established } and it is only become industrious. Let any man make an experiment of this nature upin consequence of trade that we see industry carry things in our days to so high a pitch of refinement and on himself, by entering into the first shop. He will delicacy. Let us illustrate this, by comparing toge- nowhere discover so quickly his wants as there. Every ther the different operations of barter, sale, and com- thing he sees appears either necessary, or at least highly convenient j and he begins to wonder how he could merce. When reciprocal wants are supplied by barter, there have been so long without that which the ingenuity of is not the smallest occasion for money : this is the most the workman alone bad invented, in order that from the novelty it might incite his desire $ for perhaps when simple of all combinations. When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more it is bought, he will never once think of it more, nor difficult: upon this money is introduced. This is the ever apply it to the use for which at first it appeared common price of all things : it is a proper equivalent so necessary. Here then is a reason why mankind labour though in the hands of those who want, perfectly calculated to supply the occasions of those who, by industry, can not in want. They become desirous of possessing the relieve them. This operation of buying and selling is very instruments of luxury, which their avarice or a little more complex than the former j but still we ambition prompted them to invent for the use of have here no idea of trade, because we have not in- others. What has been said represents trade in its infancy, troduced the merchant, by whose industry it is carried or rather the materials with which that great fabric is on. Let this third person be introduced, and the built. We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind whole operation becomes clear. What belore we called wants, is here represented by the consumer $ multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly supplied by what we called industry, by the manufacturer ; what the employment of all the free hands set apart for that we called money, by the merchant. The merchant purpose. But if we suppose the workman himself dishere represents the money, by substituting credit in posing of his work, and purchasing with it food from its place j and as the money was invented to facili- the farmer, clothes from the clothier j and, in general, tate barter, so the merchant, with his credit, is a new seeking for the supply of every want from the hands refinement upon the use of money. This renders it of the person directly employed for the purpose of restill more effectual in performing the operations of lieving it j this will not convey an idea of trade acbuying and selling. This operation is trade : it re- cording to our definition. Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this lieves both parties of the whole trouble of transportation, and adjusting wants to wants, or wants to long process; a scheme invented and set on foot by money $ the merchant represents by turns both the merchants, from a principle of gain, supported and exconsumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To tended among men, from a principle of general utility the consumer he appears as the whole body of manu- to every individual, rich or poor; to every society, facturers } to the manufacturers as the whole body of great or small. Instead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50 consumers j and to the one and the other class his credit supplies the use of money. This is sufficient at pre- different persons, for whose labour he has occasion, he sent for an illustration. We now return to the simple sells all to the merchant for money or for credit; and operations of money in the hands of the two contract- as occasion offers, he purchases all his wants, either diing parties, the buyer and the seller, in order to show rectly from those who supply them, or from other merhow men come to submit to labour in order to acquire chants, who deal with manufacturers in the same way his merchant dealt with him. superfluities. Another advantage of trade is, that industrious peoSo soon as money is introduced into a country, it becomes an universal object of want to all the inhabi- ple in one part of the country may supply customers in tants. another, though distant. They may establish themThe consequence is, that the free hands of the state selves in the most commodious places for their respecwho before stopt working, because all their wants were tive business, and help one another reciprocally, withprovided for, having this new object of ambition before out making the distant parts of the country suffer for their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their la- want of their labour. They are likewise exposed bour, to remove the smaller inconveniences which re- to no avocation from their work, by seeking for cusult from a simplicity of manners. People, who for- stomers. Trade produces many excellent advantages j it marks merly knew but one sort of clothing for all seasons, willingly part with a little money to procure for themselves out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or difl'erent sorts of apparel properly adapted to summer overstocked with hands. If it is understocked, they and winter, which the ingenuity of manufacturers, and will find more demand than they can answer 5 if it is their desire of getting money, may have suggested to overstocked, the sale will be slow. Intelligent men, in every profession, will easily distheir invention. Indeed these refinements seem more generally ow- cover when these appearances are accidental, and when ing to the industry and invention of the manufactu- they proceed from the real principles of trade. rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive means of Posts, and correspondence by letters, are a consesoftening or relieving inconveniencies which mankind quence of trade j by the means of which merchants are seldom perceive to be such, till the way ef removing regularly informed of every augmentation or diminution 2

COMM principles* nution of industry in every branch, in every part of the country. From this knowledge they regulate the prices they offer j and as they are many, they serve as a check upon one another, from the principles of competition. From the current prices, the manufacturers are as well informed, as if they kept the correspondence themselves : the statesman feels perfectly where hands are wanting, and young people destined to industry, obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall naturally in to supply the demand. Two great assistances to merchants, especially in the infancy of trade, are public markets for collecting the work of small dealers, and large undertakings in the manufacturing way by private hands. By these means the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity of work in the market, as on the other hand the manufacturers learn, by the sale of the goods, the extent of the demand for them. These two things being justly known, the price of goods is easily fixed. Public sales serve to correct the small inconveniences which proceed from the operations of trade. A set of manufacturers got all together into one town, and entirely taken up with their industry, are thereby as well informed of the rate of the market as if every one of them carried thither his work ; and upon the arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off their hands, he has not the least advantage over them from his knowledge of the state of demand. This man both buys and sells in what is called wholesale; and from him retailers purchase, who distribute the goods to every consumer throughout the country. These last buy from wholesale merchants in every branch, that proportion of every kind of merchandise which is suitable to the demand of their borough, city, or province. Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at some additional cost to the consumer, who must naturally reimburse the whole expence. The distance of the manufacturer, the obscurity of his dwelling, the caprice in selling his work, are quite removed ; the retailer has all in his shop, and the public buys at a current price. § 2. How the price of Goods is determined by Trade. In the price of goods, two things must be considered as really existing, and quite different from one another j to wit, the real value of the commodity, and the profit upon alienation. I. The first thing to be known of any manufacture, when it comes to be sold, is how much of it a person can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to the nature of the work, which may require more or less time to bring it to perfection. In making such estimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an average, a workman of the country in general may perform, without supposing him the best or the worst in his profession, or having any peculiar advantage or disadvantage as to the place where he works. Hence the reason why some people prosper by their industry, and others not j why some manufactures flourish in one place and not in another. II. The second thing to be known is, the value of the workman’s subsistence, and necessary expence, both for supplying his personal wants and providing the

E R C E. 315 instruments belonging to his profession, which must Principles, be taken upon an average as above, except when the ——•v"-—* nature of the work requires the presence of the workman in the place of consumption ; for although some trades, and almost every manufacture, may be carried on in places at a distance, and therefore may fall under one general regulation as to prices; yet others there are, which, by their nature, require the presence of the workman in the place of consumption 5 and in that case the prices must be regulated by circumstances relative to every particular place. III. The third and last thing to be known, is the value of the materials, that is, the first matter employed by the workman j and if the object of his industry be the manufacture of another, the same process of inquiry must be gone through with regard to the first as the second ; and thus the most complex manufactures may be at last reduced to the greatest simplicity. These three articles being known, the price of manufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the amount of all the three, that is, than the real value j whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit. This will ever be in proportion to demand, and therefore will fluctuate according to circumstances. Hence appears the necessity of a great demand, in order to promote flourishing manufactures. By the extensive dealings of merchants, and their constant application to the study of the balance of work and demand, all the above circumstances are known to them, and are made known to the industrious, who regulate their living and expence according to their certain profit. Employ a workman in a country where there is little trade or industry, he proportions his price always to the urgency of your want, or your capacity to pay, but seldom to his own labour. Employ another in a country of trade, he will not impose upon you, unless perhaps you be a stranger, which supposes your being ignorant of the value $ but employ the same workman in a work not usual in the country, consequently not demanded, and therefore not regulated as to the value, he will proportion his price as in the first supposition. We may therefore conclude, from what has been said, that in a country where trade has been established, manufactures must flourish, from the ready sale, the regulated price of work, and the certain profit resulting from industry. Let us next inquire into the consequences of such a situation. § 3. How foreign Trade opens to an industrious People, and the consequences of it to the Merchants who set it on foot. The first consequence of the situation described in the preceding section is, that wants are easily supplied for the adequate value of the thing wanted. The next consequence is, the opening of foreign trade, under its two denominations of passive and active. Strangers and people of distant countries, finding the difficulty of having their wants supplied at home, and the ease of having them supplied from this country, immediately have recourse to it. This is passive trade. The active is when merchants, who have executed this plan at home with success, begin to transRr2 port

716 COMMERCE, Principtes. portns the labour of their countrymen into other re- ken a taste for refinement from the traders, apply pn',u;p ^i “”““v gi° > which either produce, or are capable of produ- themselves to agriculture, in order to produce articles cing such articles of consumption, proper to be manu- of subsistence, they will solicit the merchants to give factured, as are most demanded at home ; and conse- them part of their manufactures in exchange for those j quently will meet with the readiest sale, and fetch the and this trade will undoubtedly have the effect of mullargest profits. tiplying numbers in the trading nation. But if food Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its cannot be furnished, nor' any other branch of production found out to support the correspondence, the taste two denominations of active and passive. What then are the consequences of this new com- for refinement will soon die away, and trade will stop merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in in this quarter. quest of gain abroad ? Had it not been for the furs in those countries adThe first is, that, arriving in any new country, they jacent to Hudson’s bay, and in Canada, the Europeans find themselves in the same situation with regard to th« never would have thought of supplying instruments of inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade, luxury to those nations j and if the inhabitants of those with regard to those who employ him •, that is, they regions had not taken a taste for the instruments of proportion the price of their goods to the eagerness of luxury furnished to them by the Europeans, they neacquiring, or the capacity of paying, in the inhabi- ver would have become so indefatigable nor so dextants, but never to their real value. terous hunters. At the same time we are not to supThe first profits then, upon this trade, must be very pose that ever these Americans would have come to considerable j and the demand from such a country will Europe in quest of our manufactures. It is, therebe high or low, great or small, according to the spirit, fore, owing to our merchants, that these nations are not the real wants of the people j for these in all coun- become in any degree fond of refinement $ and this tries must first be supplied by the inhabitants them- taste, in all probability, will not soon exceed the proselves, before they cease to labour. portion of the productions of their country. From If the people of this not-trading country be abun- these beginnings of foreign trade it is easy to trace its dantly furnished with commodities useful to the traders, increase. they will easily part with them, at first, for the instruOne step towards this, is the establishing corresponments of luxury and ease ; but the great profit of the dences in foreign countries j and these are more or less traders will insensibly increase the demand for the pro- necessary in proportion as the country where they are duction of their new correspondents: this will have established is more or less polished, or acquainted with the effect of producing a competition between them- trade. They supply the want of posts, and point out selves, and thereby throwing the demand on their side. to the merchants what proportion the productions of This is perpetually a disadvantage in traffic; the most the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for unpolished nations in the world quickly perceive the manufactures. This communicates an idea of comeffects of it, and are taught to profit by the discovery, merce to the not-trading nation, and they insensibly in spite of the address of those who are the most ex- begin to fix a determined value upon their own propert in commerce. ductions, which perhaps bore no determined value at The traders will therefore be very fond of falling all before. upon every method and contrivance to inspire this Let us trace a little the progress of this refinement people with a taste of refinement and delicacy. A- in the savages, in order to show how it has the effect of bundance of fine presents, consisting of every instru- throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating ment of luxury and superfluity, the best adapted to the a competition among them for the productions of the genius of the people, will be given to the prince and new country. leading men among them. Workmen will even be Experience shows, that, in a new discovered counemployed at home, to study the taste of the strangers, try, merchants constantly find some article or other of and to captivate their desires by every possible means. its productions, which runs out to a great account in The more eager they are of presents, the more lavish commerce j and we see that the longer such a trade the traders will be in bestowing and diversifying them. subsists, and the more the inhabitants take a taste for It is an animal put up to fatten 5 the more he eats, the European manufactures, the more their own producsooner he is fit for slaughter. When their taste for tions rise in their value, and the less profit is made by superfluity is fully formed, when the relish for their trading with them, even in cases where the trade is former simplicity is sophisticated, poisoned, and obli- carried on by companies ; which is a very wise institerated, then they are surely in the fetters of the tution for one reason, that it cuts off a competition betraders, and the deeper they go, the less possibility tween our merchants. there is of being extricated. The presents then will This is the best means of keeping prices low in fadie away, having served their purpose ; and if after- vour of the nation 5 however, it may work a contrary wards Jhey are found to be continued, it will probably effect with respect to individuals who must buy from be to support the competition against other nations, these monopolies. who will incline to share of the profits. When companies are not established, and when trade If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not is open, our merchants, by their eagerness to profit by abound with commodities useful to the traders, these the new trade, betray the secrets of it; they enter into will make little account of trading with them, what- competition for the purchase of the foreign produce y ever their turn may be ; but, if we suppose this coun- and this raises prices, and favours the commerce of the try inhabited by a laborious people, who, having ta- most ignorant savages. 5 4s*

COMMERCE. 317 the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and Principles, k rincipies. ^ ^ Consequences of the Introduction of a passive Fo- you and I will settle our account as to the small quan’ ' reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity tity I desire of you. The bargain is made : the poor and Idleness. fellow gets his loaf, and lives at least; perhaps he We now suppose the arrival of traders, all in one marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not interest, with instruments of luxury and refinement, at been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was a port in a country of great simplicity of manners, a- purchased by the industry of this poor fellow, by what bundantly provided by nature with great advantages argument could he have induced the farmer to part for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of adopt- with a loaf ? Here the sentiment of charity is excluded. This ing a taste for superfluities. The first thing the merchants do is, to expose their alone is a principle of multiplication j but as true it is, goods, and point out the advantages of many things, on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got either agreeable or useful to mankind in general, such bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a as wines, spirits, instruments of agriculture, arms and hunting. Here then it appears, that the very dawning of ammunition for hunting, nets for fishing, manufactures for clothing, and the like. The advantages of these trade, in the most unpolished countries, implies a mulare presently perceived, and such commodities are ea- tiplication. This is sufficient to point out the first step, and to connect the subject of our present inquiries gerly sought after. The natives, on their side, produce what they most with what has already been discussed in relation to esteem, generally something superfluous or ornamental. other circumstances. So soon as all the furs are disposed of, and a taste for The traders, after examining all circumstances, determine the object of their demand, giving the least superfluity is introduced, both the traders and the naquantity possible in return for this superfluity, in order tives will be equally interested in the advancement of to impress the inhabitants with a high notion of the industry in this country. Many new objects of profit value of their own commodities ; but as this parsimony for the first will be discovered, which the proper emmay do more hurt than good to their interest, they are ployment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural advery generous in making presents, from the principles vantages of their soil and climate, will make effectual. The Traders will therefore endeavour to set on foot mentioned above. When the exchange is completed, and the traders many branches of industry among the savages, and the depart, regret is commonly mutual j the one and the allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will animate other are sorry that the superfluities of the country fall these in the pursuit of them. When once this revolution is brought about j when short. A return is promised by the traders, and assurances are given by the natives of a better provision those who formerly lived in simplicity become industrious ; matters put on a new face. another time. That is to say, we now find two trading nations What are the first consequences of this revolution ? It is evident, that, in order to supply an equivalent instead of one j with this difference, however, that as for this new want, more hands must be set to work hitherto we have supposed the merchants all in one than formerly. And it is evident also, that this aug- interest, the compound demand, that is, the competimentation of industry will not essentially increase num- tion of the buyers, has been, and must still continue on bers : Why? Because the produce of the industry is, the side of the natives. This is a great prejudice to in this case, intended to be exported. But, if we can their interest: but as it is not supposed sufficient to find out any additional consumption at home, even im- check their industry, nor to restrain their consumption plied by this new trade, it will have the efiect of aug- of the manufactures, let us here examine, a little more particularly the consequences of the principle of dementing numbers. An example will make this plain. Bet us suppose the superfluity of this country to be mand in such a situation ; for although we allow, that the skins of wild beasts, not proper for food j the ma- it can never change sides, yet it may admit of different nufacture sought for, brandy. The brandy is sold for modifications, and produce different effects, as we shall furs. He who has furs, or he who can spare time to presently perceive. The merchants we suppose all in one interest, conhunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion j but there is no reason to conclude from this simple opera- sequently there can be no competition among them ‘y tion, that one man more in the country must necessari- no check can be put upon their raising their prices, as ly be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture must long as the prices they demand are complied with. So soon as they are raised to the full extent of the abiliof consequence ensue from this new traffic. But let us throw in a circumstance which may imply ties of the natives, or of their inclination to buy, the an additional consumption at home, and then examine merchants have the choice of three things, which are all perfectly in their option ; and the preference to be the consequences. A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for given to the one or the other, depends entirely upon food, who is miserable, and ready to perish for want themselves, and upon the circumstances we are going of subsistence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf 5 he to point out. First, they may support their high demand j that comes to a farmer with the skin, and says, You are well fed, but you have no brandy j if you will give is, not lower their price, which will preserve a high me a loaf, I will give you this skin, which the stran- estimation of the manufactures in the opinion of the gers are so fond of, and they will give you brandy. inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade But, says the farmer, I have no more bread than what the greatest possible. This part they may possibly is sufficient for my own family. As for that, replies take, if they perceive the natives doubling their diligence, ,

COMMERCE. Principles, gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchase last voyage, demand will be found rather on the rising prjnc; "V'—' considerable cargoes at a high value ; from which sup- hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in competi- 't ' position is inferred a strong disposition in the people to tion with the former, both will offer to sale ; but if become luxurious, since nothing but want of ability both stand at the same prices, it is very natural to supprevents them from complying with the highest de- pose, that the former dealers will obtain a preference j mand : but still another circumstance must concur to as, cceteris paribus^ it is always an advantage to know engage the merchants not to lower their price. The and to be known. The last comers, therefore, have no great proportion of the goods they seek for in re- other way left to counterbalance this advantage, but to turn, must be found in the hands of a few. This will lower their prices. be the case if slavery he established ; for then there This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices must be many poor and few rich j and they are com- is not voluntary as formerly, nor consented to from monly the rich consumers who proportion the price expediency ; not owing to a failure of demand, but they offer, rather to their desires, than to the value of to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to the thing. wit, a double competition, which we shall now exThe second thing which may be done is, to encourage a great demand j that is, to lower their prices. § 5. Of double Competition. This will sink the value of the manufactures in the opinion of the inhabitants, and render profits less in When competition is much stronger on one side of proportion, although indeed, upon the voyage, the pro- the contract than on the other, it is called simple. fits may be greater. This is the species of competition which is implied in This part they will take, if they perceive the inha- the terms high demand, or when it is said that demand bitants do not incline to consume great quantities of raises prices. the merchandise at a high value, either for want of Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it abilities or inclination ; and also, if the profits upon takes place on both sides of the contract at once, or the trade depend upon a large consumption, as is the vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is case in merchandise of a low value, and suited chiefly to what restrains prices to the adequate value of merchanthe occasions of the lower sort. Such motives of expe- dise. diency will be sufficient to make them relinquish a high The great difficulty is to distinguish clearly between demand, and prefer a great one j and the more, when the principles of demand and those of competition: here there is a likelihood that the consumption of low-priced then follow the principal differences between the two goods in the beginning may beget a taste for others of relatively to the effects they produce severally in the a higher value, and thus extend in general the taste of mercantile contract of buying and selling, which we superfluity. here express shortly by the word contract. A third part to be taken is the least politic, and Simple demand is what brings the quantity of comperhaps the most familiar. It is to profit by the com- modity to market. Many demand^ who do not buy $ petition between the buyers, and encourage the rising many offer, who do not sell. This demand is called of demand as long as possible ; when this comes to a great oy small; it is said to increase, to augment, to stop, to make a kind of auction, by first bringing down swell; and is expressed by these and other synonymous the prices to the level of the highest bidders, and so to terms, which mark an augmentation or diminution of descend by degrees, in proportion as demand sinks. quantity. In this species, two people never demand the Thus we may say with propriety, that demand com- same thing, but a part of the same thing, or things monly becomes great, in proportion as prices sink. By quite alike. this operation, the traders will profit as much as possiCompound demand is the principle which raises ble, and sell off as much of their goods as the profits prices, and can never make them sink 5 because in this will permit. case more than one demands the very same thing. It is But this plan, in a new discovered country, is not po- solely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price litic, as it both discovers a covetousness and a want of they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is faith in the merchants, and also throws open the secrets said to rise, to fall, to mount, to sink, and is expressed of their trade to those who ought to be kept ignorant by these and other synonymous terms. of them. Simple competition, when between buyers, is the same Let us next suppose, that the large profits of our as compound or high demand; but differs from it in so merchants shall be discovered by others, who arrive at far, as this may equally take place among sellers, which the same ports in a separate interest, and who enter in- compound demand cannot j and then it works a conto no combination which might prevent the natural ef- trary effect: it makes prices sink, and is synonymous fects of competition. with low demand ; it is this competition which overLet the states of demand among the natives be sup- turns the balance of work and demand. posed the same as formerly, both as to height and greatDouble competition is what is understood to take ness, in consequence of the operation of the different place in almost every operation of trade ; it is this principles, which might have induced our merchants which prevents the excessive rise of prices ; it is this to follow one or other of the plans we have been de- which prevents their excessive fall. While double scribing : we must, however, still suppose, that they competition prevails, the balance is perfect, trade and have been careful to preserve considerable profits upon industry flourish. every branch. The capital distinction, therefore, between the terms If we suppose the inhabitants to have increased in demand and competition is, that demand is constantly renumbers, wealth, and taste for superfluity, since the lative to the buyers y and when money is not the price, as

3i3

319 COMM E R C E. nciples. as in barter, then it is relative to that side upon which chandise is refused to one at a certain price 3 a second Principles,J either offers more, or does not offer at all 3 but so soon y— -v—“■ the greatest competition is found. We therefore say, with regard to prices, demand is as another seller finds his account in accepting the price high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchandise, the first had refused, then the first enters into compedemand is great or small. With regard to competition, tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the first price 3 and thus competition takes place among the it is always called great or small, strong or weak. Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to sellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices both parties in the contract. A competition among from falling lower. In all markets this competition is varying, though buyers is a proper expression 3 a competition among sellers, who have the merchandise, is fully as easily under- insensibly, on many occasions 3 but in others the vistood, though it be not quite so striking, for reasons brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found strongest on the side of the buyers 3 and in proportion which an example will make plain. You come to a fair, where you find a great variety as this grows, the competition between the sellers diof every kind of merchandise, in the possession of dit- minishes. When the competition between the former ferent merchants. These, by offering their goods to has raised prices to a certain standard, it comes to a sale, constitute a tacit competition 3 every one of them stop 3 then the competition changes sides, and takes wishes to sell in preference to another, and at the same place among the sellers, eager to profit by the highest price. This makes prices fall 3 and according as they time with the best advantage to himself. The buyer begins by cheapening at every shop. fall, the competition among the buyers diminishes. The first price asked marks the covetousness of the They still wait for the lowest period. At last it comes, seller j the first price offered, the avarice of the buyer. and then perhaps some new circumstance, by giving From this operation competition begins to work its the balance a kick, disappoints their hopes. If thereeffects on both sides, and so becomes double. The fore it ever happens, that there is but one interest upprinciples which influence this operation are now to be on one side of the contract, as in the example in the former section, where we supposed the sellers united, deduced. It is impossible to suppose the same degree of eager- you perceive, that the rise of the price, occasioned by ness either to buy or sell, among several merchants 3 the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to because the degree of eagerness is exactly in propor- a stop, could not possibly have the effect of producing tion to their views of profit 3 and as these must necessari- any competition on the other side 3 and therefore, if ly be influenced and regulated by different'circumstan- prices come afterwards to sink, the fall must have proces, that buyer, who has the best prospect of selling ceeded from the prudential considerations of adapting again with profit, obliges him, whose prospect is not so the price to the faculties of those who, from the height good, to content himself with less 3 and that seller who of it, had withdrawn their demand. From these principles of competition, the forestalling has bought to the best advantage, obliges him, who has paid dearer for the merchandise, to moderate his desire of markets is made a crime, because it diminishes the competition which ought to take place between difof gain. It is from these principles that competition among ferent people, who have the same merchandise to ofbuyers and sellers must originate. This is what con- fer to sale. The forestaller buys all up, with an intenfines the fluctuation of prices within limits which are tion to sell with more profit, as he has by that means compatible with the reasonable profits of both buyers taken other competitors out of his way, and appears and sellers 3 for we must constantly suppose the whole with a single interest on one side of the contract, in the operation of buying and selling to be performed by face of many competitors on the other. This person merchants 3 the buyer cannot be supposed to give so is punished by the state, because he has prevented the high a price as that which he expects to receive when price of the merchandise from becoming justly proporhe distributes to the consumers, nor can the seller be tioned to the real value 3 he has robbed the public and supposed to accept of a lower than that which he paid enriched himself 3 and in the punishment he makes into the manufacturer. This competition is properly stitution. Here occur two questions to be resolved, for called double, because of the difficulty to determine the sake of illustration. Can competition among buyers possibly take place upon which side it stands 3 the same merchant may have it in his favour upon certain articles, and against when the provision made is more than sufficient to him upon other 3 it is continually in vibration, and the supply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand, arrival of every post may less or more pull down the can competition take place among the sellers, when the quantity demanded exceeds the total provision made heavy scale. In every transaction between merchants, the profit for it ? We think it may in both cases 3 because in the one resulting from the sale must be exactly distinguished from the value of the merchandise. The first may and the other, there is a competition implied on one vary, the last never can. It is this profit alone which side of the contract, and the very nature of this comcan be influenced by competition 3 and it is tor that petition presupposes a possibility of its coming on the reason we find such uniformity everywhere in the prices other, provided separate interests be found upon both sides. But to be more particular : of goods of the same quality. I. Experience shows, that however justly the proThe competition between sellers does not appear so striking as that between buyers 3 because he who portion between the demand and the supply may be offers to sale, appears only passive in the first opera- determined in fact, it is still next to impossible to distion 3 whereas the buyers present themselves one af- cover it exactly, and therefore the buyers can only reter another 3 they make a demand when the mer- gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reason-

COMMERCE. 3-20 Principles, ably expect to sell for gain. The sellers, on the other can be then no competition among the buyers, be- Prineip r—^ hand, can only regulate the prices they expect, by what cause the market cannot last, and they find themselves ——ythe merchandise lias cost them when brought to mar- entirely masters, to give what price they please, beket. We b ave already shown, how, under such cir- ing sure the sellers must accept of it, or lose their mercumstances, the several interests of individuals affect chandise. In the first example, humanity commonly stops the activity of the principle of competition ; in each other, and make the balance vibrate. 2. The proportion between the supply and the de- the other, it is stopped by a certain degree of fair dealmand is seldom other than relative among merchants, ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandise for who are supposed to buy and sell, not from necessity, nothing. In proportion therefore as the rising of prices can but from a view to profit. What we mean by relative is, that their demand is great or small according to stop demand, or the sinking of prices can increase it, prices ; there may be a great demand for grain at 35s. in the same proportion will competition prevent either per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40s. 5 that the rise or the fall from being carried beyond a certain length ; and if such a case can be put, where the rising is, among merchants. It is essential to attend to the smallest circumstance of prices cannot stop demand, nor the lowering of in matters of this kind. The circumstance we mean, prices augment it, in such cases double competition has is the difference we find in the effect of competition, no effect ; because these circumstances unite the most when it takes place purely among merchants on both separate interests of buyers and sellers in the mersides of the contract, and when it happens, that either cantile contract ; and when upon one side there is the consumers mingle themselves with the merchant- no separate interest, there can then be no competibuyers, or the manufacturers, that is, the furnishers, tion. From what has been said, we may form a judgment mingle themselves with the merchant-sellers. This combination we shall illustrate by the solution of ano- of the various degree of competition. A book not ther question, and then conclude with a few reflections worth a shilling, a fish of a few pounds weight, are often sold for considerable sums. The buyers here are upon the whole. Can there be no case formed where the competition not merchants. When an ambassador leaves a court in upon one side may subsist, without a possibility of its a hurry, things are sold for less than the half of their taking place on the other, although there should be se- value } he is no merchant, and his situation is known. When, at a public market, there are found consumers, parate interests upon both ? The case is hardly supposable among merchants, who who make their provision, or manufacturers, who disbuy and sell with a view to profit; but it is absolutely pose of their goods for present subsistence ; the mersupposable, and that is all, when the direct consumers chants, who are respectively upon the opposite side of are the buyers j when the circumstances of one of the the contract to these, profit of their competition j and parties are perfectly known j and when the competition those who are respectively upon the same side with is so strong upon one side, as to prevent a possibility of them, stand by with patience until they have finished its becoming double, before the whole provision is sold their business. Then matters come to be carried on oft', or the demand satisfied. Let us have recourse to between merchant and merchant, and then profits may rise and fall in the proportion of quantity to demand ; examples. Grain arriving in a small quantity, at a port where that is to say, if the provision is less than the demand, the inhabitants are starving, producing so great a com- the competition among the demanders, or the rise of petition among the consumers who are the buyers, the price, will be in the compound proportion of the that their necessity becomes evident; all the grain is falling short of the commodity, and of the prospect of generally bought up before prices can rise so high as selling again with profit. It is this combination which to come to a stop •, because nothing but want of mo- regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds. ney, that is, an impossibility of complying with the It can affect but the profits upon the transaction ; the prices demanded by the merchants, can restrain them : intrinsic value of the commodity stands immoveable $ but if you suppose, even here, that pi-ices come natu- nothing is eveir sold below the real value ; nothing is rally to a stop •, or that, after some time, they fall ever bought for more than it may probably bring. lower, from prudential considerations ; then there is We mean in general. Whereas, so soon as consumers a possibility of a competition taking place among the and needy manufacturers mingle in the operation, all sellers, from the principles above deduced. If, on the proportion is lost. The competition between them is contrary, the stop is not natural, but occasioned by the too strong for the merchants ; the balance vibrates by interposition of the magistrate, from humanity, or the jerks. In such markets merchants seldom appear 5 the like, there will be no competition, because then the principal objects there, are the fruits and productions principles of commerce are suspended j the sellers are of the earth, and articles of the first necessity for life, restrained on one side, and they restrain the buyers on not manufactures strictly so called. A poor fellow the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magistrate, or often sells to purchase bread to eat *, not to pay what compassion, who in a manner fixes the price, and per- he did eat while he was employed in the work he disposes of. The consumer often measures the value of forms the office of both buyer and seller. A better example still may be found, in a competi- what he is about to purchase, by the weight of his purse, tion among sellers, where it may be so strong as to and his desire to consume. render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as § 6. Of what is called Expence, Profit, and Loss. in the case of an uncommon and unexpected draught of fish, in a place of small consumption, when no preThe term expence, when simply expressed, without parations have been made for salting them. There any particular relation, is always understood to be relative. 2

321 COMMERCE. of objects. In one part, we see a decent and comely Principles, iuciples. lative to moftey. This kind is distinguished under the beginning of industry j wealth flowing gently in to re- v—v— ' —three heads of private, public, and national. x. Private expence is what a private person, or pri- compense ingenuity j numbers both augmenting, and vate society, lays out, either to provide articles of con- every one becoming daily more useful to another j agrisumption, or something more permanent, which may culture proportionally extending itself j no violent rebe conducive to their ease, convenience, or advantage. volution ; no exorbitant profits $ no insolence among Thus we say, a large domestic expcnce, relative to one the rich ; no excessive misery among the poor j multiwho spends a great income. We say, a merchant has tudes employed in producing; great economy upon been at great expence for magazines, for living, for consumption 5 and all the instruments of luxury, daily clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy- produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of ing goods. In the same way a manufacturer may ex- the country for the service of strangers ; not remaining pend for building, machines, horses, and carriages, but at home for the gratification of sensuality. At last never for the matter he manufactures. When a thing the augmentations come insensibly to a stop. Then is bought in order to be sold again, the sum employed these rivers of wealth, which were in brisk circulation is called money advanced; when it is bought not to be through the whole world, and which returned to this trading nation as blood returns to the heart, only to sold, it may be said to be expended. 2. Public expence is the employment of-that money be thrown out again by new pulsations, begin to be which has been contributed by individuals for the cur- obstructed in their course ; and flowing abroad more rent service of the state. The contribution, or the gather- slowly than before, come to form stagnations at home. ing it together, represents the effects of many articles These, impatient of restraint, soon burst out into doof private cxpence ; the laying it out when collected is mestic circulation. Upon this cities swell in magnifipublic expence. cence of buildings ; the face of the country is adorned 3. National expence is what is expended out of the with palaces, and becomes covered with groves •, luxucountry, this is what diminishes national wealth. The ry shines triumphant in every part; inequality becomes principal distinction to be here attended to is between more striking to the eye ; and want and misery appear public expence, or the laying out of public money, and more deformed from the contrast; even fortune grows national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s more whimsical is her inconstancy ; the beggar of the wealth in favour of strangers. Thus the greatest pub- other day now rides in his coach ; and he who was lic expence imaginable may be no national expence ; born in a bed of state, is seen to die in a gaol, or in an because the money may remain at home. On the alms house. Such are the effects of great domestic cirother hand, the smallest public, or even private ex- culations. pence, may be a national expence j because the money The statesman looks about with amazement; he may go abroad. who was wont to consider himself as the first man m Profit and loss is divided into positive, relative, and the society in every respect, perceives himself, percompound. Positive pi'ofit implies no loss to any body $ haps, eclipsed by the lustre of private wealth, which it results from an augmentation of labour, industry, or avoids his grasp when he attempts to seize it. This ingenuity, and has the effect of swelling or augmenting makes his government more complex and more diffithe public good. cult to be carried on *, he must now avail himself of Positive loss implies no profit to any bodv ; it is what art and address, as well as of pow'er and force. By results from the cessation of the former, or of the ef- the help of cajoling and intrigues he gets a little into fects resulting from it, and may be said to diminish the debt; this lays a foundation for public credit, which public good. growing by degrees, and in its progress assuming many Relative profit is what implies a loss to somebody ; it new forms, becomes, from the most tender beginmarks a vibration of the balance of wealth between par- nings, a most formidable monster, striking terror into ties, but implies no addition to the general stock. those who cherished it in its infancy. Upon this, as Relative loss is what, on the contrary, implies a pro- upon a triumphant war-horse, the statesman gets afit to somebody $ it also marks a vibration of the ba- stride ; he then appears formidable anew ; his head lance, but takes nothing from the general stock. turns giddy; he is choked with the dust he has raisThe compound is easily understood j it is that species ed ; and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his utof profit and loss which is partly relative and partly po- ter astonishment and surprise, he finds a strong mositive. neyed interest of his own creating, which, instead of swallowing him up, as he apprehended, flies to his § 7. The general consequences resulting to a trading support. Through this he gets the better of all oppoNation, upon the opening of an active foreign Com- sition, he establishes taxes, multiplies them, mortgages merce. his fund of subsistence ; either becomes a bankrupt, and rises again from his ashes; or if he be less audaA nation which remains passive in her commerce cious, he stands trembling and tottering for a while on is at the mercy of those who are active, and must be the brink ot the political precipice. From the one or the greatly favoured indeed by natural advantages, or by other of these perilous situations, he begins to discover a constant flux of gold and silver from her mines, to an endless path, which after a multitude of windings be able to support a correspondence not entirely hurtful still returns into itself, and continues an equal course to the augmentation of her wealth. through this vast labyrinth. When we look upon the wide field which here opens It is now full time to leave off rhapsody, and reto our view, we are perplexed with too great a variety turn to reasoning and cool inquiry, concerning the 3 Vol. VI. Part I. Ss more

E R C E. who are either idle, or even negligent, will be great Principlf losers. —v— A proprietor of land, inattentive to the causes of his farmer’s additional ex pence, may very imprudently suffer his rents to fall, instead of assisting him on a proper occasion, in order to make them afterwards rise the higher. Those who live upon a determined income in money, and who are nowise employed in traffic, nor in any scheme of industry, will, by the augmentation of prices, be found in worse circumstances than before. In a trading nation every man must turn his talents to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in this universal emulation, in which the most industrious, the most ingenious, and the most frugal, will constantly carry off the prize. This consideration ought to be a spur to every man. The richest men in a trading nation have no security against poverty ; we mean proportional poverty j for though they diminish nothing of their income, yet, by not increasing it in proportion to others, they lose their rank in wealth, and from the first class in which they stood they will slide insensibly down to a lower. There is one consequence of an additional beneficial trade, which raises demand and increases wealth ; but if we suppose no proportional augmentation of supply, it will prove at best but an airy dream which lasts for a moment j and when the gilded scene is passed away, numberless are the inconveniences which are seen to follow. We shall now point out the natural consequences of this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign nations, when the statesman remains inattentive to increase the supply both of food and manufactures, in proportion to the augmentation of mouths, and of the demand for the produce of industry. In such a situation profits w'ill daily swell, and every scheme for reducing them within the hounds of moderation, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpopular measure : be it so 5 but let us examine the consequences. We have said, that the rise of demand for manufactures naturally increases the value of work: now we must add, that under such circumstances, the augmentation of riches in a country, either not capable of improvement as to the soil, or where precautions have not been taken for facilitating a multiplication of inhabitants, by the importation of subsistence, will be productive of the most calamitous consequences. On one side, this wealth will effectually diminish the mass of the food before produced j and on the other, will increase the number of useless consumers. The first of these circumstances will raise the demand for food j and the second will diminish the number of useful free hands, and consequently raise the price of manufactures : here are shortly the outlines of this progress. The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more delicate they become in their manner of living : if they fed on bread formerly, they will now feed on meat $ if they fed on meat, they will now feed on fowl. The same ground which feeds a hundred with bread, and a proportional quantity of animal-food, will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers. Food CO

22 COMM •ineiples. more immediate and more general effects and revolutions produced by the opening of a foreign trade in a nation of industry. The first and most sensible alteration will be an increase of demand for manufacturers, because by supplying the wants of strangers, the number of consumers will now be considerably augmented. What again will follow upon this, must depend upon circumstances. If this revolution in the state of demand should prove too violent, the consequence of it will be to raise demand j if it should prove gradual, it will increase it. This distinction is well understood, and the consequence appears just; for, if the supply do not increase in proportion to the demand, a competition will ensue among the demanders j which is the common effect of such sudden revolutions. If, on the other hand, a gentle increase of demand should be accompanied with a proportional supply, the whole industrious society will grow in vigour, and in wholesome stature, without being sensible of any great advantage or inconveniency j the change of their circumstances will even be imperceptible. The immediate effects of the violent revolution will, in this example, be flattering to some and disagreeable to others. Wealth will be found daily to augment, from the rising of prices, in many branches of industry. This will encourage the industrious classes, and the idle consumers at home will complain. We have already dwelt abundantly long upon the effect resulting from this to the lower classes of the people, in providing them with a certain means of subsistence. Let us now examine in what respect even the higher classes will be made likewise to feel the good effects of this general change, although at first they may suffer a temporary inconvenience from it. Farmers, as has been observed, will have a greater difficulty in finding servants, who, instead of labouring the gtound, will choose to turn themselves to manufactures. This we have considered in the light of purging the lands of superfluous mouths $ but every consequence in this great chain of politics draws other consequences after it j and as they follow one another, things put on different faces, which affect classes differently. The purging of the land is but one of the first $ here follows another. The desertion of the hands employed in a trifling agriculture will at first, no doubt, embarrass the farmers j but in a little time every thing becomes balanced in a trading nation, because here every industrious man must advance in prosperity, in spite of all general combinations of circumstances. In the case before us, the relative profits upon farming must soon become greater than formerly, because of this additional expence which must affect the whole class of farmers j consequently, this additional expence, instead of turning out to be a loss to either landlord or farmer, will, after some little time, turn out to the advantage of both, because the produce of the ground, being indispensably necessary to every body, must in every article increase in its value. Thus, in a short time, accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands j that is to say, the same proportion of wealth will, cateris paribus, continue the same among the industrious. We say among the industrious j for those 3

COMMERCE. 323 inciples. Food must then become more scarce} demand for it on with a painful assiduity to labour $ and if the conse- Principles, v*" "i/ rises j the rich are always the strongest in the marketj quences of it become now hurtful to one part of the they consume the food, and the poor are forced to state, they must at least be allowed to be essentially starve. Here the wide door to modern distress opens j necessary for the support of another. But that luxury is no necessary concomitant of foto wit, a hurtful competition for subsistence. Farther, when a people become rich, they think less of economy $ reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of it a number of useless servants are hired, to become an are understood, will appear very plain, from a contrast additional dead weight on consumption ; and when their we are now going to point out, in the example of a starving countrymen cannot supply the extravagance modern state, renowned for its commerce and frugality. of the rich so cheaply as other nations, they either im- The country is Holland. A-set of industrious and frugal people were assemport instruments of foreign luxury, or seek to enjoy them out of their own country, and thereby make re- bled in a country by nature subject to many inconveniences, the removing of which necessarily employed stitution of their gains. Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things abundance of hands. Their situation upon the conticome to this pass, additional subsistence be not provided nent, the power of their former masters, and the amby one method or other, the number of inhabitants bition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep great must diminish •, although riches may daily increase by bodies of troops. These two articles added to the a balance of additional matter supposed to be brought numbers of the community, without either enriching into the country in consequence of the hitherto bene- the state by their labour exported, or producing food ficial foreign trade ? This is not all. We say further, for themselves or countrymen. The scheme of a commonwealth was calculated to that the beneficial trade will last for a time only. For the infallible consequences of the rise of prices at home draw together the industrious; but it has been still will be, that those nations which at first consumed your more useful in subsisting them : the republican form manufactures, perceiving the gradual increase of their of government being there greatly subdivided, vests price, will begin to work for themselves; or finding authority sufficient in every part of it, to make suitable out your rivals who can supply them cheaper, will provision for their own subsistence $ and the tie which open their doors to them. These again, perceiving unites them, regards only matters of public concern. the great advantages gained by your traders, will be- Had the whole been governed by one sovereign, or by gin to supply the market j and since every thing must one council, this important matter never could have be cheaper in countries where we do not suppose the been effected. It would be impossible for the most able minister concurrence of all the circumstances mentioned above, these nations will supplant you, and be enriched in their that ever lived, to provide nourishment for a country so extended as France, or even as England, supposing turn. Here comes a new revolution. Trade is at a stand: these as fully peopled as Holland is ; even although what then becomes of all the hands which were for- it should be admitted that a sufficient quantity of food might be found in other countries for their subsistence. merly employed in supplying the foreign demands ? Were revolutions so sudden as we are obliged to re- The enterprise would be too great, abuses would mulpresent them, all would go to wreck ; in proportion as tiply ; the consequence would be, that the inhabitants they happen by quicker or slower degrees, the incon- would die for want. But in Holland, the case is different : every little town takes care of its own inhaveniences are greater or smaller. Prices, we have said, are made to rise by compe- bitants ; and this care being the object of application tition. If the competition of the strangers was what and profit to so many persons, is accomplished with raised them, the distress upon the manufacturers will success. When once it is laid down as a maxim in a counhe in proportion to the suddenness of their deserting the market. If the competition was divided between try, that food must of necessity be got from abroad in the strangers and the home-consumers, the inconve- order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade niences which ensue will be less j because the deser- becomes considerable, and at the same time certain, retion of the strangers will be in some measure made up gular, and permanent. This was the case in Holland: by an increase of home-consumption which will follow as the inhabitants were industrious, the necessary conUpon the fall of prices. And if, in the third case, the sequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplicanatives have been so imprudent, as not only to sup- tion ; and at the same time such an abundance of port a competition with the strangers, and thereby grain, that, instead of being in want themselves, they disgust them from coming any more to market, but often supply their neighbours. There are many exeven to continue the competition between themselves, amples of England’s being supplied with grain from the whole loss sustained by the revolution will be na- thence 5 and, which is still more extraordinary, from tional. Wealth will cease to augment j but the incon- the re-exportation of the very produce of its own fx-uitveniences, in place of being felt by the manufacturers, tul soil. will only affect the state ; these will continue in affluIt is therefore evident, that the only way to supence, extolling the generosity of their countrymen, and port industry, is to provide a supply of subsistence, despising the poverty of the strangers who had enrich- constantly proportional to the demand that may be ed them. made far it. This is a precaution indispensably neDomestic luxury will here prove an expedient for1 cessary for preventing hurtful competition. This is preserving from ruin the industrious part of a people, the particular care of the Dutch : so long as it can be who in subsisting themselves had enriched their country. effectual, their state can fear no decline ; but whenNo change will follow in their condition j they will go ever they come to be distressed in the markets, upon Ssa which

324 ' COMM Filnciples, which they depend for subsistence, they will sink into v~—« ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and parsimonious living, that the navigation of this industrious people is supported. Constant employment, and an accumulation of almost imperceptible gains, fill their coffers with wealth, in spite of the large outgo^ ings, to which their own proper nourishment yearly forces them. The large profits upon industry in other countries, which are no proof of generosity, but a fatal effect of a scanty subsistence, is far from dazzling their eyes. They seldom are found in the list of competitors at any foreign port j if they have their cargo to dispose of, they wait with pleasure in their own vessels, consuming their own provisions, and at last accept of what others have left. It may be said, that many other circumstances concur in favour of the Dutch, besides the article of subsistence. Without disputing this matter, it may be observed, that if a computation be made of the hands employed in providing subsistence, and of those who are severally taken up in supplying every other want, their numbers will be found nearly to balance one another in the most luxurious countries. From this we may conclude, that the article of food, among the lower classes, must bear

E R C E. a very high proportion to all the other articles of their pr; • consumption ; and therefore a diminution upon the price of subsistence, must be of infinite consequence to manufacturers who are obliged to buy it. From this consideration, let us judge of the consequence of such augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar to us j 30 or 40 per cent, seems nothing. Now this augmentation operates upon two-thirds, at least, of the whole expence of a labouring man: let any one who lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this to himself, and examine how he would manage his affairs, if, by accidents of rains or winds, his expences were to rise 30 per cent, without a possibility of restraining them j for this is unfortunately the case with all the lower classes. From whence it may be concluded, that the keeping food cheap, and still more the preserving it at all times at an equal standard, is the fountain of the wealth of Holland j and that any hurtful competition in this article must beget a disorder which will affect the whole of the manufacturers of a state. See a statement of the newest views of political economists on the principles of commerce in the article Commerce, Supplement.

COM Cotnmerey COMMERCY, a handsome town of France in the H . department of the Meuse, with 3700 inhabitants. It °mryina* ^as a magn'ficent castle. It is seated on the river i ‘ , Meuse, in E. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 48. 46. COMMERSONIA. See Botany Index. CQMMINATTON, an office in the liturgy of the church of England, appointed to be read on Ash Wednesday, or the first day of Lent. It is substituted in the room of that godly discipline in the primitive church, by which (as the introduction to the office expresses it), “ such persons as stood convicted of notorious sins, were put to open penance, and punished in this world, that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord ; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend.” This discipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the church of Rome, into a formal confession of sins upon Ash Wednesday, and the empty ceremony of sprinkling ashes upon the heads of the people. Our reformers wisely rejected this ceremony, as mere shadow and show j and substituted this office in its room, which is A denunciation of God's anger and judgment against sinners, that the people being apprised of God’s wrath and indignation against sin, may not, through want of discipline in the church, be encouraged to follow and pursue them ; but rather be moved to supply that discipline to themselves, and so as to avoid being judged and condemned at the tribunal of God.. COMMINATORY, an appellation given to whatever threatens punishment, or some penalty. Thus, in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return under pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty ; since, if he do return, it is not strictly executed : but a second injunction is laid on him, which is more

COM than comminatory, and, from the day of the date there- Commin of, imports death without remedy. tory COMMINGES, formerly a province of France, 45 fC miles in length, and 15 in breadth j bounded on the ° ' north by Gascony, on the south by Catalonia, on the 1—y-_ east by Cousserans, and on the west by Bigorre. Its principal trade consists in cattle, mules, and corn. St Bertrand is the capital town. COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather grinding, a body to very small particles. COMMIRE, John, a celebrated Latin poet, born, at Amboise in 1625, entered into the society of the Jesuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his Latin Poems, and a collection of his posthumous works. His odes and fables are more particularly admired. COMMISSARY, in the ecclesiastical lawr an officer of the bishop, who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a diocese so far from the episcopal see, that the chancellor cannot call the people to the bishop’s principal consistory court, without giving them too much inconveniency. CoMMJssARY-Cout't, in Scotland, a court originally constituted by the bishops for executing in their name an usurped jurisdiction ; and was anciently called the bishop's court, curia Chr is t ia n it a tis, or consistorial couid. Tins court was modelled by Queen Mary at the Reformation, and continues to this day. Commissary, in a military sense, is of different sorts. CoMMissARY-General of the Musters, an officer appointed to muster the army, as often as the general thinks proper, in order to know the strength of each regiment

COM COM [ 325 ] lommis- regiment ami company, to receive and inspect the nius- whose debt on the balance of accounts, does not Cemmissary, ter-rolls, and to keep an exact state of the strength of amount to 10I. And at the third meeting at farthest, sion. J Commi*the army. which must be on the 42d day after the advertise- '—--y—*loa‘ , Commissary of Horses, an officer in the artillery ap- ment in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice also pointed to have the inspection of the artillery-horses, personally served upon him, or left at his usual place to see them mustered, and to send such orders as he of abode, must surrender himself personally to the receives from the commanding officer of the artillery commissioners, and must henceforth in all respects by some of the conductors of horses, of which he has a conform to the directions of the statutes of bankruptcertain number for his assistants. cy *, or, in default thereof, shall be guilty of felony Commissary of Provisions, an officer who has the without.benefit of clergy, and shall suffer death, and charge of furnishing the army with provisions. his goods and estate shall be divided among his creCommissary of Stores, an officer in the artillery who ditors. has the charge of all the stores, for which he is acIn case the bankrupt absconds, or is likely to run countable to the office of ordnance. away between the time of the commission issued and COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or the last day of surrender, he may, by warrant from any letters patent, which all persons exercising jurisdiction judge or justice of the peace, be apprehended and comhave to empower them to hear or determine any cause mitted to the county gaol, in order to be forthcoming or suit; as the commission of the judges, &c. to the commissioners, who are also empowered imCommission of Bankruptcy, is the commission that mediately to grant a warrant for seizing his goods issues from the lord chancellor on a person’s becom- and papers. ing a bankrupt within any of the statutes, directed When the bankrupt appears, the commissioners are to certain commissioners appointed to examine into it, to examine him touching all matters relating to his and to secure the bankrupt’s lands and effects for the trade and effects. They may also summon before them, satisfaction of his creditors. See the article Bank- and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other perrupt. son whatsoever, as to all matters relating to the bankThe proceedings on a commission of bankruptcy may rupt’s affairs : And in case any of them shall refuse to be divided, I. Into those which affect the bankrupt answer, or shall not answer fully, to any lawful question, himself. to2. tInto those iewhich affect his property. or shall refuse to subscribe such their examination, the commissioners may commit them to prison without bail, mmerit theI*first place, *10Sebe a petition ^ former kind, there must, in to the lord chancellor by till they make and sign a full answer ; the commissionone creditor to the amount of look or by two to ers specifying in their warrant of commitment the questhe amount of 150I. or by three or more to the tion so refused to be answered. And any gaoler, peramount of 200I. $ upon which he grants a commission mitting such person to escape or go out of prison, shall to such discreet persons as to him shall seem good, who forfeit 500I. to the creditors. are then styled commissioners of bankrupt. The pe- The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, uptitioners, to prevent malicious applications, must be on pain of death, to make a full discovery of all his bound in a security of 200I. to make the party amends, estate and effects, as well in expectancy as possession, in case they do not prove him a bankrupt. And if, and how he has disposed of the same j together with on the other hand, they receive any money or effects all books and writings relating thereto : and is to defrom the bankrupt, as a recompense for suing out the liver up all in his power to the commissioners (excommission, so as to receive more than their rateable cept the necessary apparel of himself, his wife, and dividends of the bankrupt’s estate, they forfeit not on- his children) j or in case he conceals or embezzles ly what they shall have so received, but their whole any effects to the amount of 20I. or withholds any debt. When the commission is awarded and issued, book or writings, with intent to defraud his crethe commissioners are to meet at their own expence, ditors, he shall be guilty of felony without benefit of and to take an oath for the due execution of their com- clergy. mission, and to be allowed a sum not exceeding 20s. After the time allowed the bankrupt for such discoper diem each, at every sitting. And no commission very is expired, any other person voluntarily discoverof bankruptcy shall abate or be void on any demise on ing any part of his estate before unknown to the assigthe crown. nees, shall be entitled to five per cent, out of the, When the commissioners have received their com- effects so discovered, and such farther reward as the asmission, they are first to receive proof of the per- signees and commissioners shall think proper. And son’s being a trader, and having committed some act of any trustee wilfully concealing the estate of any bankbankruptcy ; and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro- rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, shall forfeit tool, ved so $ and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and and double the value of the estate concealed, to the at the same time to appoint three meetings. At one creditors. of these meetings an election must be made of as- Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors 5 signees, or persons to whom the bankrupt’s estate shall and the law seeips to be pretty rigid and severe against be assigned, and in whom it shall be vested for the be- the bankrupt} but, in case he proves honest, it makes nefit of the creditors $ which assignees are chosen by him full amends for all this rigour and severity. For, the major part, in value, of the creditors who shall if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous discovery, then have proved their debts j but may be originally hath conformed to the directions of the law, and hath appointed by the commissioners, and afterwards ap- acted in all points to the satisfaction of his creditors ; proved or rejected by the creditors j but no creditors and if they, or four parts in five of them in number shall be admitted to vote in the choice of assignees, and value (but none of them creditors for less than 20I.)

COM [ 326 ] COM vested in him since, before his debts are satisfied or Comm] ConiiniK- 20I.) will sign a certificate to tliat purport; the comsiou. missioners are then to authenticate such certificate agreed for. Therefore, it is usually said that once a sion. v ' ' under their hands and seals, and to transmit it to the bankrupt and always a bankrupt; by which is meant, u,^v— lord chancellor: and he, or two judges whom he shall that a plain direct act of bankruptcy once committed, appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that such certi- cannot be purged, or explained away, by any subseficate was obtained without fraud, may allow the same $ quent conduct, as a dubious equivocal act may be; but or disallow it, upon cause shown by any of the creditors that, if a commission is afterward awarded, the comof the bankrupt. mission and the property of the assignees shall have a If no cause be shown to the contrary, the certi- relation, or reference, back to the first and original act ficate is allowed of course; and then the bankrupt is of bankruptcy. Insomuch that all transactions of the entitled to a decent and reasonable allowance out of bankrupt are from that time absolutely null and void, bis effects for his future support and maintenance, and either with regard to the alienation of his property, or to put him in a way of honest industry. This allow- the receipt of his debts from such as are privy to his ance is also in proportion to his former good beha- bankruptcy; for they are no longer his property, or viour, in the early discovery of the decline of his his debts, but those of the future assignees. And if an affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a large di- execution be sued out, but not served and executed vidend. For if his effects will not pay one half of his on the bankrupt’s effects till after the act of bankdebts, or 10s in the pound, he is left to the dis- ruptcy, it is void, as against the assignees. But the cretion of the commissioners and assignees, to have a king is not bound by this fictitious relation, nor is competent sum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent.; within the statutes of bankrupts; for if, after the act but if they pay 1 os. in the pound, he is to be allowed of bankruptcy committed, and before the assignment 5 per cent.; if 12s. 6d. then 7^ per cent.; and if 15s. of his effects, an extent issues for the debt of the in the pound, then the bankrupts shall be allowed 10 crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this per cent.; provided that such allowance do not in the doctrine of relation is carried to a very great length ; first case exceed 200I. in the second 250I. and in the for there, every act of a merchant, for ten days precethird 300I. dent to the act of bankruptcy, is presumed to be frauBesides this allowance, he has also an indemnity dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law granted him, of being free and discharged for ever stands upon a more reasonable footing; for as these from all debts owing by him at the time he became a acts of bankruptcy may sometimes be secret to all but bankrupt; even though judgment shall have been ob- a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry tained against him, and he lies in prison upon execution this notion to its utmost length, it is provided by stat. for such debts ; and, for that among other purposes, 19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt all proceedings on commission of bankrupt, are, on to a bona fide, or real creditor, in a course of trade, petition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar even after an act of bankruptcy done, shall be liable against actions to be commenced upon this account: to be refunded. Now by stat. I Jac. I. c. 15. shall any though, in general, the production of the certificate debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without properly allowed shall be sufficient evidence of all pre- knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a again. The intention of this relative power being clear man again ; and by the assistance of his allow- only to reach fraudulent transactions, and not to distress ance and his own industry, may become an useful mem- the fair trader. ber of the commonwealth; which is the rather to be The assignees may pursue any legal method of reexpected, as he cannot be entitled to these benefits, covering this property so vested in them by their own but by the testimony of his creditors themselves of his authority; but cannot commence a suit in equity, nor honest and ingenuous disposition ; and unless his failures compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer have been owing to misfortunes, rather than to miscon- any matters to arbitration, without the consent of the duct and extravagance. creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a 2. As to the proceedings which affect the bankrupt’s meeting to he held in pursuance of notice in the gaproperty. zette. By virtue of the statutes before mentioned, all the When they have got in all the effects they can reapersonal estate and effects of the bankrupt are consi- sonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money, dered as vested, by the act of bankruptcy, in the fu- the assignees must, within 12 months after the comture assignees of his commissioners, whether they be mission issued, give 21 days notice to the creditors, of goods in actual possession, or debts, contracts, and other a meeting for a dividend or distribution; at which choses in action; and the commissioners by their war- time they must produce their accounts, and verify rant may cause any house or tenement of the bankrupt them upon oath, if required. And then the commisto be broken open, in order to enter upon and seize the sioners shall direct a dividend to be made, at so much same. And when the assignees are chosen or approved in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved, by the creditors, the commissioners are to assign every or shall then prove their debts. This dividend must thing over to them ; and the property of every part of be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all the estate is hereby as fully vested in them as it was the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts; in the bankrupt himself, and they have the same re- no regard being paid to the quality of them. Mortmedies to recover it. gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real secuThe property vested in the assignees is the whole rity in his own hands, are entirely safe; for the comthat the bankrupt Jiad in himself, at the time he com- mission of bankrupt reaches only the equity of remitted the first act of bankruptcy, or that has been demption. So are all personal debts, where the creditor

COM [ 327 ] COM ditor lias a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn, COMMISSIONER, a person authorized by comfor the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or mission, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the examine any matters, or execute any lawful commisstat. 8 An. c. 14. (which directs, that upon all execu- sion. tions of goods being on any premises demised to a teCommissioner in the General Assembly of the nant, one year’s rent and no more, shall, if due, be church of Scotland. See Assembly {General.') paid to the landlord) it hath also been held, that under Commissioners of the Customs. See Customs. a commission of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a Commissioners of Excise. See Excise. statute execution, the landlord shall be allowed his arCommissioners of the Navy. See Navy. Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. See Trearears of .rent to the same amount, in preference to other creditors, even though he hath neglected to dis- sury and Exchequer. train while the goods remained on the premises j COMMISSURE, a term used by some authors which he is otherwise entitled to do for his entire for the small metuses or interstices of bodies j or the rent, be the quantum what it may. But otherwise little clefts between the particles: especially when judgments and recognizes (both which are debts those particles are broadish and flat, and lie contiguof record, and therefore at other times have a pri- ous to one another, like thin plates and lamellae. The ority), and also bonds and obligations by deed or spe- word literally signifies a joining or connecting of one cial instrument (which are called deeds by speciality, thing to another. and are usually the next in order), these are all put on Commissure, in Architecture, &c. denotes the joint a level with debts by mere simple contract, and all of two stones, or the application of the surface of the paid pari passu. Nay, so far is this matter carried, one to that of the other. See Masonry. that, by the express provision of the statutes, debts Among anatomists, commissure is sometimes also used not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds for a suture of the cranium or skull. See Suture. or notes of hand, payable at a future day, shall be COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the sending paid equally with the rest, allowing a discount or to prison a person who hath been guilty of any crime. drawback in proportion. And insurances, and obli- This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or gations upon bottomry or respondentia, bona fide, the party cannot find BAIN*; must be by proper warmade by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the rant, containing the cause of the commitment ; and commission is awarded, shall be looked upon in the continues till put an end to by the course of law same light as debts contracted before any act of bank- (see Trial) j imprisonment being intended only for ruptcy. safe custody, and not for punishment (see ArrestWithin 18 months after the commission issued, a ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between second and final dividend shall be made, unless all the the commitment and trial, a prisoner ought to be used effects were exhausted by the first. And if any surplus with the utmost humanity; and neither be loaded remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it with needless fetters, nor subjected to other hardships shall be restored to the bankrupt. This is a case than such as are absolutely requisite for the purpose of which sometimes happens to men in trade, who invo- confinement only : though what are so requisite must luntarily, or at least unwarily, commit acts of bank- too often be left to the direction of the gaolers, who ruptcy, by absconding and the like, while their effects are frequently a merciless race of men, and by being are more than sufficient to pay their creditors. And conversant in scenes of misery, steeled against any tenif any suspicious or malevolent creditor will take the der sensation. advantage of such acts, and sue out a commission, the COMMITTEE, one or more persons to whom the bankrupt has no remedy, but must quietly submit to consideration or ordering of a matter is referred, either the effects of his own imprudence : except that upon by some court, or by the consent of parties to whom it satisfaction made to all the creditors, the commission belongs. may be superseded. This case may also happen when Committee of Parliament, a certain number of a knave is desirous of defrauding his creditors, and is members appointed by the house for the examination compelled, by a commission, to do them that justice of a bill, making a report of an inquiry, process of the which otherwise he wanted to evade. And there- house, &c. See Parliament. fore, though the usual rule is, that all interest on debts Sometimes the whole house is resolved into a comcarrying interest shall cease from the time of issuing mittee } on which occasion each person has a right to the commission, yet in case of a surplus left after pay- speak and reply as much and as often as he pleases : an ment of every debt, such interest shall again revive, expedient they usually have recourse to in extraordinary and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his representa- cases, and where any thing is to be thoroughly cantives. vassed. When the house is not in a committee, each Commission of Lunacy, issues out of the court of gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to speak chancery, whether a person represented to he a luna- once, unless to explain himself. tic, be so or not. See Lunacy. The standing committees, appointed by every new Commission of Teinds, a court at Edinburgh, parliament, are those of privileges and elections, of which came in place of a committee of the Scottish religion, of grievances, of courts of justice, and of trade j parliament, for erecting new parishes, and valuing though only the former act. teinds for the support of the clergy. It is vested in the COMMIXTION, in Scots Law, is a method of aclords of session. See Law Index. quiring property, by mixing orblending together difCOMMission-officers. See Officers. ferent substances belonging to different proprietors. Commission, in Commerce. See Factorage. See Law Index. COMMODATE,

COM L 328 ] COM COMMODATE, Commodatum, in the civil ju- all alike $ is owned or allowed by all $ and not confined risprudence, the loan or free concession of any thing to this more than that. In this sense, common stands moveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con- opposed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is dition of restoring again the same individual after a said to be our common mother; in the first or golden certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan 5 age all things were in common, as well as the sun and there is this difference, however, between a loan and elements : the name animal is common to man and a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not beast; that of substance to body and spirit. Common, Communia, (i. e. quod ad omnes pertinet), transfer the property : the thing must be returned in essence, and without impairment 5 so that things which in law, signifies that soil, the use whereof is common to consume by use or time cannot be objects of a com- a particular town or lordship ; or it is a profit that a modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return- man hath in the land of another person, usually in ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law In- common with others ; or a right which a person hath to put his cattle to pasture into ground that is not his dex. COMMODTANUS, Gazeus, a Christian author own. And there is not only common of pasture, but in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verse, also common of piscary, common of estovers, common entitled Instructions; the moral of which is excellent, of turbary, &c. And in all cases of common, the law but the verse extremely heavy. M. Davies published much respects the custom of the place ; for there a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end of Minucius the rule is, consuetudo loci est observanda. See Commonty. Felix. Common Council. Sec Council. COMMODITY, in a general sense, denotes all sorts of wares and merchandises whatsoever that a perCommon Law, that body of law received as rules in parliament to alter the same. See Law, Part II. son deals or trades in. Staple Commodities, such wares and merchandises N° 36. CoMMON-Place Book, is a register of what things as are commonly and readily sold in a market, or exported abroad 5 being for the most part the proper pro- occur, worthy to be noted, in the course of a man’s thinking or study, so disposed as that among a numduce or manufacture of the country. COMMODORE, a general officer in the British ber of subjects any one may be easily found. The admarine, invested with the command of a detachment vantages of making a common-place book are many : of ships of war, destined on any particular enterprise, it not only makes a man read with accuracy and atduring which time he bears the rank of brigadier- tention, but- induces him insensibly to think for himgeneral in the army, and is distinguished from the in- self, provided he considers it not so much as a register ferior ships of his squadron by a broad red pendant of sentiments that strike him in the course of reading, tapering towards the outer end, and sometimes fork- but as a register of his own thoughts upon various subed. The word is corrupted from the Spanish comen- jects. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of no extraordinary genius. These, without the assistdador. Commodore is also a name given to some select ship ance of a common-plac® book, are generally lost in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time both to himself and others. There are various meof war, and carries a light in his top to conduct the rest thods of arranging common place books; that of Mr and keep them together. He is always the oldest cap- Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been contrived. tain in the fleet which he commands. The first page of the book you intend to take down COMMODUS, L. Aurelius Antoninus, son of •M. Antoninus, succeeded his father in the Roman their common-place in, is to serve as a kind of index empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul- to the whole, and to contain references to every place ging his licentious propensities. He wished to he call- or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of ed Hercules; and, like that hero, he adorned his which index, so as it may admit of a sufficient copia or shoulders with a lion’s skin, and armed his hand with variety of materials, without any confusion, all the sea knotted club. He publicly fought with the gladi- cret of the method consists. ators, and boasted of his dexterity in killing the wild In order to this, the first page, as already mentioned, beasts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho- or, for more room, the two first pages that front each nours from -the senate, and they were granted. He other, are to be divided by parallel lines into 25 equal was wont to put such an immense quantity of gold parts ; whereof every fifth line is to be distinguished dust in his hair, that when he appeared bareheaded in by its colour or other circumstance. These lines are to the sunshine his head glittered as if surrounded with be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn from top to sun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whose bottom : and in the several spaces thereof the several death he had prepared, poisoned him : but as the poi- letters of the alphabet, both capital and minuscle, are son did not quickly operate, he was strangled by a to be duly written. wrestler. He died in the 31st year of his age, and The form of the lines and divisions, both horizontal the 13th of his reign. It has been observed, that he and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the letnever trusted himself to a barber j but always burnt ters therein, will be conceived from the following spehis beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionysius. A. D. cimen ; wherein, what is to be done in the book for all I92. the letters of the alphabet, is here shown in the first COMMON, Communis, something that belongs to four, A, B, C, and D. 2

COM

[

329

]

COM Common, Coinmounlty.

The index to the common-place book thus formed, matters are ready for the taking down any thing therein. In order to this, consider to what head the thing you would enter is most naturally referred ; and under which one would be led to look for such a thing j in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial letter, and the first vowel that follows it j which are the characteristic letters whereon all the use of the index depends. Suppose (e. gr.) I would enter down a passage that refers to the head beauty. B, I consider, is the initial letter, and e the first vowel: then looking upon the index for the partition B, and therein the line e (which is the place for all words whose first letter is b, and the first vowel e; as beautyy beneficence, bread, breeding, blemishes), and finding no numbers already down to direct me to any page of the book where words of this characteristic have been entered, I turn forward to the first blank page I find (which, in a fresh book, as this is supposed to be, will be page 2d), and here write what I have occasion for on the head beauty; beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all the other subservient lines, that the head may stand oat, and show itself; this done, I enter the page where it is written, viz. 2. in the index in the space B e; from which time the class be becomes wholly in possession of the 2d and 3d pages, which are consigned to letters of this characteristic. Had I found any page or number already entered in the space B e, 1 must have turned to the page, and have written my matter in what room was left therein : so, if after entering the passage on beauty, I should have occasion for benevolence, or the like, finding the number 2 already possessed of the space of this characteristic, I begin the passage on benevolence in the remainder of the page $ which not containing the whole, I carry it on to page 3d, which is also for be ; and add the number 3 in the index. Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held constantly in Westminster-hall, but in former times was moveable. All civil causes, as well real as personal, are, or were formerly, tried in this court, according to the strict law of the land. In personal and mixed actions it has a concurrent jurisdiction with the king’s bench, but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The actions belonging to the court of common-pleas come thither by original, as arrests and outlawries ; or by privilege, or attachment for or against privileged persons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone, Vol. VI. Part I. f

recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of false judgment, &c. The chief judge of this court is called lord chief justice of the common pleas, who is assisted by three other judges. The other officers of the court are the custos brevium, who is the chief clerk; three prothonotaries, and their secondaries ; the clerk of the warrants, clerk of the essoins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s silver, clerk of the treasury, clerk of the seal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recoveries, and clerk of the errors. Common Prayer is the liturgy in the church of England : (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to use the public form of prayers prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer : and refusing to de so, or using any other public prayers, are punishable by stat. 1 Eliz. c. ii. Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns which are equally applicable to both sexes ; thus “ a parent,” is of the common gender. Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line, or the like, which belongs equally to two figures. Common Divisor, a quantity or number which exactly divides two or more other quantities or numbers, without leaving any remainder. COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divisions of the civil state. See Civil State. The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into several degrees : and as the lords, though different in rank, yet all of them are peers in respect of their nobility ; so the commoners, though some are greatly superior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in respect of their want of nobility. 1. The first name of dignity next beneath a peer was anciently that of vidames, vice-domini, or valvasors: who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magnce dignitatis; and Sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Yet they are now quite out of use} and our legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their original or ancient office. 2. Now, therefore, the first personal dignity after the nobility is a knight ot the order of St George or of the Garter, first instituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344. 3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities, as privy-counsellors, the chancellors of the exchequer and duchy of Lancaster, the chief justice of the king’s bench, the master of the rolls, and the other English judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed, by statutes j Richard II. stat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II. c. 11. is ranked next after barons ; and bis precedence before the younger sons of viscounts was confirmed to him by order of King James I. in the tenth year of his Tt reign.

COM [ 33° ] COM Common- reign. But in order to entitle him to this rank, he degree, or mystery, in all actions and other legal pro- Common, alty, must have been created by the king in person, in the ceedings. COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in field, under the royal banners, in time of open war j the universities, a student entered, in a certain rank. else he ranks after, COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomi4. Baronets; who are the next in order: which is a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent, nation given to the lower house of parliament. See and usually descendible to the issue-male. See Baro- Parliament. The commons consist of all such men of any pronets. perty in the kingdom as have not seats in the house 5. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath. 6. The last of these inferior nobility are knights ba- of lords, every one of whom has a voice in parchelors ; the most ancient, though the lowest, order of liament, either personally or by his representatives. In a free state, every man who is supposed a free knighthood amongst us. See Bachelor. 7. The above, with those enumerated under the ar- agent, ought to be in some measure his own goverticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke says, are all the nor : and therefore a branch at least of the legislanames of dignity in this kingdom $ esquires and gentle- tive power should reside in the whole body of the men being only names of worship. But before these people. And this power, when the territories of the last the heralds rank all colonels, sergeants at law, and state are small and its citizens easily known, should be exercised by the people in their aggregate or collecdoctors in the three learned professions. 8. Esquires and gentlemen are confounded together tive capacity, as was wisely ordained in the petty reby Sir Edward Coke : who observes, that every es- publics of Greece, and the first rudiments of the Roquire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to man state. But this will be highly inconvenient when be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour j” the the public territory is extended to any considerable grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in degree, and the number of citizens is increased. Thus like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy founded in thejW imaginum^ or having the image of were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a one ancestor at least who had borne some curule of- vote in the public assemblies, it became impossible to fice. It is indeed a matter somewhat unsettled what distinguish the spurious from the real voter, and from constitutes the distinction, or who is a real esquire j that time all elections and popular deliberations grew for it is not an estate, however large, that confers this tumultuous and disorderly ; which paved the way for rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himself a Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Csesar, to trample on herald, distinguishes them the most accurately ; and he the liberties of their country, and at last to dissolve reckons up four sorts of them: 1st, The eldest sons of the commonwealth. In so large a state as ours, thereknights, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession. fore, it is very wisely contrived, that the people should 2dly, The eldest sons of younger sons of peers, and do that by. their representatives which it is impraciheir eldest sons, in like perpetual succession : both ticable to perform in person : representative* chosen which species of esquires Sir Henry Spelman entitles by a number of minute and separate districts, wherearmigerinatalitii. 3dly, Esquires created by the king’s in all the voters are or may be easily distinguished. letters patent, or rather investiture ; and their eldest The counties are therefore represented by knights, sons. 4thly, Esquires by virtue of their office : as elected by the proprietors of lands j and cities and bojustices of the peace and others who bear any office roughs are represented by citizens and burgesses choof trust under the crown. To these may be added the sen by the mercantile or supposed trading interest of esquires of the knights of the Bath, each of whom con- the nation; much in the same manner as the burghers stitutes three at his installation ; and all foreign, nay, in the diet of Sweden are chosen by the corporate Irish peers *, for not only these, but the eldest sons of towns, Stockholm sending four, as London does with peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular lords, us, other cities two, and some only one. The numare only esquires in the law, and must be so named in ber of English representatives is 513, of Scots 45, of all legal proceedings. Irish 100 j in all 658, and every member, though 9. As for gentlemen, says Sir Thomas Smith, they chosen by one particular district, when elected and rebe made good cheap in this kingdom j for whosoever turned, serves for the whole realm j for the end of his studieth the laws of the realm, who studieth in the coming thither is not particular, but general j not universities, who professeth liberal sciences, and (to be barely to advantage his constituents, but the commonshort) who can live idly and without manual labour, wealth j to advise his majesty, as appears from the writ and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a of summons, “ de communi consilio super negotiis quigentleman, he shall be called master, and shall be taken busdam arduis et urgentibus, regem, statum, et defen* for a gentleman. sionem regni Anglite et ecclesise Anglicanae concer10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40s. by nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a dethe year j who is thereby qualified to serve on juries, puty in the United Provinces, to consult with, or vote for knights of the shire, and do any other act take the advice of, his constituents upon any particuwhere the law requires one that is probus et legalis lar point, unless he himself thinks it proper or prudent homo. so to do. II. The rest of the commonalty are tradesmen, The peculiar laws and customs of the house of comartificers, and labourers; who (as well as all others) mons relate principally to the raising of taxes, and the must, in pursuance of the statute I Henry V. c. 5. elections of members to serve in parliament. See be styled by the name and addition of their estate, Taxes and Elections. Doctors

COM ... C 33 Common* Doctors Commons. See College of Civilians. Proctor of the Commons. See Proctor. II CommuCOMMONTY, in Scots Law, sometimes signifies nion. lands belonging to two or more common proprietors $ sometimes a heath or muir, though it should belong in property to one, if there has been a promiscuous possession upon it by pasturage; and the act 1695 mentions commonties belonging in property to the king and to royal boroughs. See Law Index. COMMONWEALTH. See Republic. COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting half a cantred, or hundred : containing 50 villages. See HUNDRED. Wales was anciently divided into three provinces ; each of these subdivided into cantreds, and every cantred into two commotes or hundreds. Silvester Girald, however, tells us in his Itinerary, that a commote is but a quarter of a hundred. COMMUNIS, in Botany, the name of a class in Linnaeus’s Methodus Calycina, consisting of two plants which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or flower-cup common to many flowers or florets. These are the aggregate or compound flowers of other systems. COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term, in frequent • use among philosophical, &c. writers ; implying some medium or mean relation, between several places. Dr Keil supposes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile deep, communibus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking one place with another. Communibus Annis, has the same import with regard to years that communibus locis has with regard to places. Mr Derham observes that the depth of rain, communibus annis, or one year with another, were it to stagnate on the earth, would amount in Townley in Lancashire, to 42^ inches ; at Upminster in Essex, to 19at Zurich, 32^ ; at Pisa, 437: and at Paris to 19 inches. COMMUNICATING, in Theology, the act of receiving the sacrament of the eucharist. Those of the reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under both kinds ; those of the Romish, under only one. The oriental communicants receive the species of wine by a spoon, and anciently they sucked it through a pipe, as has been observed by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian. COMMUNICATION, in a general sense, the act of imparting something to another. Communication, is also used for the connection of one thing with another, or the passage from one place to another; thus a gallery is a communication between two apartments. Communication of motion, the act whereby a body at rest is put into motion by a moving body ; or, it is the acceleration of motion in a body already moving. Lines of Communication, in military matters, trenches made to continue and preserve a safe correspondence between two forts or posts ; or at a siege between two approaches, that they may relieve one another. Canal of Communication. See Canal. COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being united in doctrine and discipline ; in which sense of the word, different churches are said to hold communion with each other.

i

] COM In the primitive Christian church, every bishop was C*mmuobliged, after his ordination, to send circular letters to nion. foreign churches, to signify that he was in communion ‘ -1 ' with them. The three grand communions into which the Christian church is at present divided, is that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and the Protestant church : but originally all Christians were in communion with each other, having one common faith and discipline. Communion is also used for the act of communicating the sacrament of the eucharist, or the Lord’s supper. The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every believer shall receive the communion, at least at Easter ; which seems to import a tacit desire, that they should do it oftener; as, in effect, they did it much oftener in the primitive days. Gratian, and the master of the sentences, prescribe it as a rule for the laity, to communicate three times a-year, at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas. But in the 13th century, the practice was adopted, never to approach the eucharist, except at Easter; and the council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law, lest their coldness and remissness should go farther still. And the council of Trent renewed the same injunction, and recommended frequent communion without enforcing it by an express decree. In the ninth century the communion was still received by the laity in both kinds ; or, rather the species of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by the Romanists themselves. (Acta SS. Benedict. Saec. III.) M. de Marca observes, that they received it at first in their hands, Hist, de Bearn, and believes the communion under one kind alone to have had its rise in the West under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time of the conquest of the Holy Land. And it was more solemnly enjoined by the council of Constance in 1414. The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont enjoins the communion to be received under both kinds, distinctly ; adding, however, two exceptions; the one of necessity, the other of caution, nisi per necessitatem et cautelam ; the first in favour of the sick, the second of the abstemious, or those who had an aversion for wine. It was formerly a kind of canonical punishment, for clerks guilty of any crime, to be reduced to lay communion, i. e. only to receive it as the laity did, viz. under one kind. They had another punishment of the same nature, though under a different name, called foreign communion ; to which ’the canons frequently condemned their bishops and other clerks. This punishment was not any excommunication, or deposition ; but a kind of suspension from the function of the order, and a degradation from the rank they held in the church. It had its name because the communion was only granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk, i. e. being reduced to the lowest of his order, he took place after all those of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did in the churches to which they did not belong. The second council of Agda orders every clerk that absents himself from the church to be reduced to foreign communion. Communion Service, in the liturgy of the church of England, the office for the administration of the hely Tt2 sacrament,

COM L 332 ] COM Communion sacrament, extracted from several ancient liturgies, as are of a close, dense, and heavy texture, with few Compa pores, and those very small. Companl 11 th ose of St Basil, St Ambrose, &c. Compact, in a legal sense, signifies an agreement or ,Comp-ict. t|ie jagt ,.„i,ric, part of tliis service is appointed to be read every Sunday and holiday, after the morn- contract stipulated between several parties. COMPANION, one with whom a man frequently ing prayer, even though there be no communicants. COMMUNITY, denotes a society of men living in converses. As the human mind cannot always be on the the same place, under the same laws, the same regulastretch, nor the hand always employed in labour, retions, and the same customs. COMMUTATION, in Laiv, the changes of a pe- creation becomes both agreeable and necessary. Of nalty or punishment from a greater to a less j as when all recreations, that of the company of a few chosen companions must be allowed to be the most manly and death is commuted for banishment, &c. COMNENA, Ann, daughter of Alexius Comne- most improving : but as in those hours oi recreation nas emperor of the East *, memorable for her great we are most in danger of being misled, being generallearning and virtue, and for her history of the life and ly at such seasons more off our guard than usual, the actions of her father, which is highly esteemed. She greatest care should be taken in making choice of flourished about the yearn 17. The history, which whom to associate with j for according to our choice is in 15 books, was first published very imperfectly by of them, both our character and disposition will reHeschelius in 1610 ; and afterwards printed in the col- ceive a tincture, as waters passing through minerals lection of the Byzantine historians, with a diffuse and partake of their taste and efficacy. This is a truth so incorrect Latin version by the Jesuit Possimus, but universally received, mat it is become a proverb both in the natural and moral world, That a man is known with excellent notes by the learned Du Fresne. COMO, a strong and populous town of Italy, in the by his company. As by chemistry we learn, that disduchy of Milan, and in the Comasco, with a bishop’s cordant mixtures produce nothing but broil and fersee. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1706, and is mentation till one of them gets the ascendency of the seated on a lake of the same name, in E. Long. 8. 57. rest ; so from Scripture we learn, that two cannot walk together except they be agreed. From which we N. Lat. 45. 45. Como, the lake so called, is the largest in Italy. It may see, how impossible it is for any one to be thought is situated in the duchy of Milan, in the Comasco, on a person of real goodness and integrity, whilst he the confines of Switzerland and the Grisons. It is 88 chooses for his companions the abandoned and licen| miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over tious. By associating with such, he will not only lose his in any part. COMORA islands lie between the north end of the character, but his virtue ; for whatever fallacious diisland of Madagascar and the coast of Zanguebar, stinction he may be pleased to make between the men from 10 to 15 degrees south latitude. Authors differ and their vices, in the end the first generally qualifies greatly with regard to their number, some speaking the last *, and by ceasing to hate them he will soon learn of three, others of five, and some of eight of these both to love and practise them. In short, the society islands. They all abound in horned cattle, sheep, hogs, of sensual men is peculiarly ensnaring. The malignity and a variety of fruits common in warm countries. of their contagion doth not appear all at once. Their They are said also to produce a kind of rice which frolics first appear harmless ; then, when partaken of, turns of a violet colour when boiled. The most re- they leave a longing relish behind them ; and one apmarkable of them, and which the Europeans are best pointment makes way for another, one expence leads acquainted with, is the island of Johanna. See that on to a second ; and so time and fortune are wasted away to very bad purpose. The one appetite craves, article. COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the most south- and another must be gratified, till all become too imerly promontory of the Hither India, lying north-west portunate to be denied ; which verifies what the wisest of the island of Ceylon. of men long since said, “ That the beginning of sin is COMORRA, a handsome and large town of Lower like the breaking forth of waters, which when it once Hungary, and capital of a territory of the same makes an entrance, carries all before it with rushing name. It is so well fortified, that the Turks could impetuosity.” Some pangs of remorse may be felt by never take it. The greatest part of the inhabitants the infatuated creature on the first degeneracy, and are Hungarians or Russians, who are very rich, and some faint resolutions against being seduced any more ; are of the Greek religion. It is seated on the river which will no sooner be discovered by those leaders to Danube, in the island of Silbut. E. Long. 18. 5. destruction, than all arts will be used to allure him N. Lat. 47. 46. back to bear them company in the broad beaten path COMOStE, in Botany, from Coma; an order of to ruin. Of all which methods, none is more to be plants in the former edition of Linnsfeus’s Fragments dreaded than raillery ; for this is generally exercised of a Natural Method, consisting of the spiked willow with all its force, and too often proves fatal. Anoor Spiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadow- ther method used to mislead the young novice not sweet. These, though formerly distinct genera, are yet hackneyed in vice, and no less dangerous than the by Linnaeus collected into one, under the name of spu other, is to call evil good, and good eviL Lust and rcea. The flowers growing in a head resemble a bush, sensuality must pass for love and gallantry ; revenge or tuft of hair, which probably gave rise to the epithet and malice, for heroism. But steadiness should be Comostg. shown, by holding such pests of society in derision, and COMPACT, in Philosophy, is said of bodies which looking on them with contempt j. by appearing unmo-

C O M COM [ 333 ] ments, and who professedly devote themselves to a life Company, Company, ved by thtir ill-founded banters, and uustung by their 1 of pleasure, little else seems to constitute the idea of it, “ v —^ 1" impious jests. Upon the wliole, in order to escape the danger hut an unceasing succession of company, public or priwhich attends the keeping ot evil company, let those vate. The dress, and other circumstances preparatory you associate with be persons as carefully educated to the enjoyment of this pleasure, scarcely leave a moand as honestly disposed as yourselt; of a good moral ment for reflection. Day after day is spent in the same character, not given to any known vice 5 whose lives toilsome round, till a habit is formed, which renders are temperate, and whose expences are moderate : with dissipation necessary to existence. One week without it such company as these, you will neither get discredit, would probably induce a lowness of spirits, which might nor degenerate into excess. You will be a mutual terminate in despair and suicide. When the mind has check to each other j and your reputation will be so no anchor, it will suffer a kind of shipwreck ; it will established, that it will be the ambition of others to be sink in whirlpools, and be dashed on rocks. What,in- admitted members of your society. Select those for deed, is life or its enjoyments without settled principles, your companions who are men of good sense and un- laudable purposes, mental exertions, and internal comderstanding; and, if possible, who excel in some art, fort ? It is merely a vapour, or, to drop the language of science, or accomplishment; that so, in the course of figure on so serious a subject, it is a state worse than your acquaintance, your very hours of amusement may non-entity, since it possesses a restless power of action, contribute to vour improvement; and for the most productive of nothing but misery. It is recommended, therefore, to all who wish to part such are open and communicative, and take as much pleasure in being heard as you to be informed. enjoy their existence (and who entertains not that By pursuing such a conduct, you will be an ornament wish P) that they should acquire a power not only of bearing, hut of taking a pleasure in, temporary soliand useful member of society. COMPANY, a collective term, understood of seve- tude. Every one must, indeed, sometimes be alone. ral persons assembled together in the same place, or Let him not repine when he is alone, but learn to set with the same design. The word is formed ot the a value on the golden moments. It is then that he is French compagnie, and that of companio, or companies, enabled to study himself and the world around him. which Chifflet observes, are found in the Salic law, It is then that he has an opportunity of seeing things tit. 66. and are proper military words, understood of as they are, and of removing the deceitful veil, which soldiers, who, according to the modern phrase, are almost every thing assumes in the busy scene of worldly comrades or mess-mates, i. e. lodge together, eat toge- employments. The soul is enabled to retire into herther, &c. of the Latin, cum, “with,” and penis, “bread.” self, and to exert those energies which are always atIt may be added, that in some Greek authors under the tended with sublime pleasure. She is enabled to see the western empire, the word KHftTrccitx occurs in the sense dependent, frail, and wretched state of man as the child of nature ; and incited by her discovery, to imof society. Company, in a familiar or fashionable sense, is used plore grace and protection from the Lord of the unifor an assemblage of persons met for the purpose of con- verse. They, indeed, who fly from solitude, can seldom be religious; for religion requires meditation. versation, pastime, or festivity. The love of company and of social pleasures is na- They may be said to “ live without God in the world tural, and attended with some of the sweetest satisfac- not, it is true, from atheistical principles, but from a tions of human life; but, like every other love, when carelessness of disposition ; a truly deplorable state, the it proceeds beyond the bounds of moderation, it ceases consciousness of which could not fail to cloud the gaieto produce its natural effect, and terminates in disgust- ty of those halcyon beings who sport in the sunshine of ful satiety. The foundation-stone and the pillar on unremitted pleasure. There is no doubt that man is made for action, and which we build the fabric of our felicity, must be laid in our own hearts. Amusement, mirth, agreeable va- that his duties and pleasures are often most numerous riety, and even improvement, may be sometimes sought and most important amidst the busy hum of men. Many in the gaiety of mixed company, and in the usual di- vices, and many corrupt dispositions, have been fosterversions of the world ; but if we found our general hap- ed in a solitary life. Monkery is not favourable to hupiness on these, we shall do little more than raise castles man nature or human happiness ; but neither is unlimited dissipation. in the air, or build houses on the sand. In short, let there be a sweet interchange of retireTo derive the proper pleasure and improvement from company, it ought to be select, and to consist of per- ment and association, of repose and activity. A few sons of character, respectable both for their morals and hours spent every day by the votaries of pleasure in setheir understandings. Mixed and undistinguished so- rious meditation, would render their pleasure pure, and ciety tends only to dissipate our ideas, and induce a more unmixed with misery. It would give them knowlaxity of principles and practice. The pleasure it af- ledge, so that they would see how far they might adfords is of a coarse, mixed, noisy, and rude kind. In- vance in their pursuit without danger; and resolution, deed, it commonly ends in weariness and disyust, as so that they might retreat when danger approached. even they are ready to confess who yet constantly It would teach them how to live, a knowledge which pursue it, as if their chief good consisted in living in a indeed they think they possess already ; and it would also teach them, what they are often too little solicitous crowd. Among these, indeed, who are exempted by their to learn, how to die. circumstances from professional and official employCOMPANY,

[

334

]

COMPANY, Company. YN a commercial sense, is a society of merchants, ‘“““"v*——' mechanics, or other traders, joined together in one common interest. When there are only two or three joined in this manner, it is called a partnership; the term company being restrained to societies consisting of a considerable number of members, associated together by a charter obtained from the prince. The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incorporated, are thus erected into companies, which have charters of privileges and large immunities. Company seems more particularly appropriated to those grand associations set on foot for the commerce of the remote parts of the world, and vested by charter with peculiar privileges. When companies do not trade upon a joint stock, but are obliged to admit any person, properly qualified, upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to the regulations of the company, each member trading upoft his own stock and at his own risk, they are called Regulated Companies. When they trade upon a joint stock, each member sharing in the common profit or loss in proportion to his share in this stock, they are called Joint-stock Companies. Such companies, whether regulated or joint-stock, sometimes have, and sometimes have not, exclusive privileges. However injurious companies with joint-stock, and incorporated with exclusive privileges, may at this time be reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain that they were the general parent of all our foreign commerce j private traders being discouraged from hazarding their fortunes in foreign countries, until the method of traffic had been first settled by joint-stock companies. Rut since the trade of this kingdom and the number of traders have increased, and the methods of assurance of shipping and merchandise, and the navigation of all parts of the known world have become familiar to us, these companies, in the opinion of most men, have been justly looked upon in the light of injurious monopolies. I. Regujlated Companies resemble, in every respect, the corporations of trades, so common in the cities and towns of all the different countries of Europe j and are a sort of enlarged monopolies of the same kind. As no inhabitant of a town can exercise an incorporated trade, without first obtaining his freedom in the corporation ; so in most cases no subject of the state can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade, for which a regulated company is established, without first becoming a member of that company. The monopoly is more or less strict according as the terms of admission are more or less difficult ; and according as the directors of the company have more or less authority, or have it more or less in their power to manage in such a manner as to confine the greater part of the trade to themselves and their particular friends. In the most ancient regulated companies the privileges of apprenticeship were the same as in other corporations; and entitled the person who had served his time to a member of the company, to become himself a member, either without paying any fine, or upon paying a much smaller one than what was exacted from other people. 2

The usual corporation spirit, wherever the law does Compa not restrain it, prevails in all regulated companies.v—vWhen they have been allowed to act according to their natural genius, they have always, in order to confine the competition to as small a number of persons as possible, endeavoured to subject the trade to many burdensome regulations. When the law has restrained them from doing this, they have become altogether useless and insignificant. The regulated companies for foreign commerce, which at present subsist in Great Britain, are, The Hamburgh Company, the Russia Company, the Eastland Company, the Turkey Company, and the African Company. I. The Hamburgh Company is the oldest trading establishment in the kingdom $ though not always known by that name, nor restrained to those narrow bounds under which it is now confined. It was first called the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, Holland, Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders : then it acquired the general title of Merchant-adventurers of England: as being composed of all the English merchants who traded to the Low Countries, the Baltic, and the German ocean. Lastly, it was called the Company of Merchant-adventurers of England trading to Hamburgh. This company was first incorporated by Edward I. in 1296J and established again, by charter, in 1406, under the reign of King Henry IV. It was afterwards confirmed, and augmented with divers privileges, by many of his successors. Before the charter of Henry IV. all the English merchants who trafficked out of the realm, were left to their own discretion, and managed their affairs with foreigners as might be most for their respective interests, without any regard to the general commerce of the nation. Henry, observing this disorder, endeavoured to remedy it, by uniting all the merchants in his dominions into one body $ wherein, without losing the liberty of trading each for himself, they might be governed by a company still subsisting; and be subject to regulations, which should secure the general interest of the national commerce, without prejudice to the interest of particulars. W7ith this view, he granted all the merchants of his states, particularly those of Calais, then in his hands, a power of associating themselves into a body politic, with directors and governors, both in England and abroad $ to hold assemblies, both for the direction of business and the deciding of controversies among merchants $ make laws j punish delinquents j and impose moderate duties and taxes on merchandises, and merchants, to be employed in the service of the corporation. These few articles of the charter of Henry IV. were afterwards much augmented by Henry VII. who first gave them the title of Merchant-adventurers to Calais, Holland, &c. gave them a power of proclaiming and continuing free fairs at Calais $ and ordered, that to be reputed a member of the society, each person pay 20 marks sterling j and that the several members should attend the general meetings, or courts, appointed by the directors, whether at London, Calais, or elsewhere. A petition being made to Queen Elizabethan 1564, for

COM P A N Y. 335 Their privileges were, to have a governor, four conCompany, for an explanation of certain articles In the charter of unpany. Henry VII. and a confirmation of the rest granted by suls, and 24 assistants, for their commerce; for their '“■"“v other kings j that princess, by a charter of the same policy, to make laws, inflict penalties, send out ships, year declares that, to end all disputes, they shall be to make discoveries, take possession of them in the incorporated anew, under the title of the Company of king’s name, set up the banner royal of England, Merchant-adventurei's of England; that all who were plant them ; and lastly, the exclusive privilege of tramembers of the former company should, if they de- ding to Archangel, and other ports of Muscovy, not sired it, be admitted members of this j that they should yet frequented by the English. This charter not being sufficiently guarded, was have a common seal j that they should admit into their society what other persons, and on what terms, they confirmed by parliament in the 8th year of Quee-n pleased, and expel them again on misbehaviour j that Elizabeth $ wherein it was enacted, that in regard the the city of Hamburgh and neighbouring cities should former name was too long, they should now be called be reputed within their grant, together with those of the Company of English Merchants for discovering new Low Countries, &c. in that of the former company : trades; under which name, they should be capable of that no member should marry out of the kingdom, acquiring and holding all kinds of lands, manors, rents, nor purchase lands, &c. in any city beyond sea j and &c. not exceeding 100 marks per annum, and not that those who do, shall be, ipso facto, excluded for held of her majesty ; that no part of the continent, ever. Twenty-two years after this first charter, Queen island, harbour, &c. not known or frequented before Elizabeth granted them a second j confirming the for- the first enterprise of the merchants of their company, mer, and further granting them a privilege of exclu- situated to the north, or north-west, or north-east of sion ; with a power of erecting in each city within their London •, nor any part of the continent, islands, &c. under the obedience of the emperor of Russia, or in the grant a standing council. The revolutions which happened in the Low Coun- countries of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Persia, or tries towards the end of the sixteenth century, and the Caspian sea, should be visited by any subjects of which laid the foundation of the republic of Holland, England to exercise any commerce, without the conhaving hindered the company from continuing their sent of the said company, on pain of confiscation* The commerce with their ancient freedom $ it was obliged said company shall use no ships in her new commerce to turn it almost wholly to the side of Hamburgh, and but those of the nation ; nor transport any cloths, the cities on the German ocean } from which change, serges, or other woollen stuffs, till they have been dyed some people took occasion to change its name to that and pressed. That in case the company discontinue of of the Hamburgh Company ; though the ancient title itself to unload commodities in the road of the abbey of Merchant-adventurers is still retained in all their of S. Nicolas, in Russia, or some other port on the horth coasts of Russia, for the space of three years, the writings. About the middle of the last century, the fine for other subjects of England shall be allowed to traffic to admission was fifty, and at one time one hundred pounds, Narva, while the said company discontinues its comand the conduct of the company was said to be ex- merce into Russia, only using English vessels. This company subsisted with reputation almost a tremely oppressive. In 1643, *n I^45» and in 1661, the clothiers and free traders of the west of England whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is said, complained of them to parliament, as of monopolists the czar then reigning, hearing of the murder of King who confined the trade and oppressed the manufactures Charles I. ordered all the English in his states to be of the country. Though those complaints produced expelled j which the Dutch taking the advantage of, setno act of parliament, they had probably intimidated tled in their room. After the Restoration, the remains the company so far, as to oblige them to reform their of the company re-established part of their commerce conduct. The terms of admission are now said to be at Archangel, but never with the same success as bequite easy and the directors either have it not in their fore j the Russians being now well accustomed to power to subject the trade to any burdensome restraint the Dutch merchants and merchandise. This company subsists still, under the direction of or regulations, or at least have not of late exercised a governor, four consuls, and assistants. By the 1 oth that power. 2. The Russia Company, was first projected towards and nth of William III. c. 6. the fine for admission the end of the reign of King Edward VI. executed in was reduced to 5I. 3 The Eastland Company was incorporated by Queen the first and second years of Philip and Mary $ but had not its perfection till its charter was confirmed by act Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By of parliament, under Queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It the first article the company is erected into a body pohad its rise from certain adventurers, who were sent in litic under the title of the Company of Merchants of the three vessels on the discovery of new countries j and to East ; to consist of Englishmen, all real merchants, who find out a north-east passage to China 5 these, fall- have exercised the business thereof, and trafficked ing into the White sea, and making up to the port of through the Sound before the year 1568, into NorArchangel, were exceedingly well received by the way, Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Prussia, Pomerania, Muscovites ; and, at their return, solicited letters pa- &c. as also Revel, Coningsberg, Dantzick, Copenhatent to secure to themselves the commerce of Russia, gen, &c. excepting Narva, Muscovy, and its dependencies. Most of the following articles grant them for which they had formed an association. By their charter, the association was declared a body the usual prerogatives of such companies, as a seal, gopolitic, under the name of the Company of Merchant- venor, courts, laws, &c. The privileges peculiar to this company are, that adventurers of England, for the discovery of lands, territories, islands, &c. unknown or unfrequented. none shall be admitted a member who is already a member

336 COMP Company, member of any other company $ nor any retail-dealer —v—■— at all. That no merchant qualified be admitted without paying six pounds thirteen shillings and sixpence. That a member of another company desiring to renounce the privileges thereof, and to be received into that of the East shall be admitted gi'atis i provided he procures the same favour for a merchant of the East willing to fill his place. That the merchant-adventurers who never dealt in the East, in the places expressed in the charter, may be received as members of the company on paying 40 marks ; that, notwithstanding this union of the adventurers of England with the company of the East, each shall retain its rights and privileges. That they shall export no cloths but what are dyed and pressed, except a hundred pieces per annum, which are allowed them gratis. This charter was confirmed by Charles II. in 1629, with this addition, that no person, of what quality soever, living in London, should be admitted a member, unless he were free of the city. This company was complained of as a monopoly, and first curtailed by legal authority in 1672 and since the declaration of rights in 1689, exist only in name j but still continue to elect their annual officers, who are a governor, a deputy, and twenty-four assistants. 7. The Turkey or Levant Company, had its rise under Queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its charter in 1605, adding new privileges. During the civil wars, there happened some innovations in the government of the company ; many persons having been admitted members, not qualified by the charters of Queen Elizabeth and King James, or that did not conform to the regulations prescribed. Charles II. upon his restoration, endeavoured to set it upon its ancient basis j to which end, he gave them a charter, containing not only a confirmation of their old one, but also several new articles of reformation. By this, the company is erected into a body politic, capable of making laws, &c. under the title of the Company of Merchants of England trading to the seas of the Levant. The number of members is not limited, but is ordinarily about three hundred. The principal qualification required is, that the candidate be a freeman of London, and a wholesale merchant, either by family or by serving an apprenticeship of seven years. Those under 25 years of age pay 25I. sterling at their admission ; those above, twice as much. The fine was reduced by act of parliament, in 1753, to 20I. and the privilege of admission extended to every British subject. Each makes oath at his entrance not to send any merchandise to the Levant but on his own account $ and not to consign them to any but the company’s agents or factors. This restriction is likewise enlarged by the above-mentioned statute. \ The company has a court or board at London, which is composed of a governor, deputy-governor, and fifteen directors or assistants, who are all actually to live in London or the suburbs. They have also a deputy-governor in every city and port, where there are any members of the company. The assembly at London sends out the vessels, regulates the tariff for the price at which the European merchandises sent to the Levant are to be sold, and for the quality of those returned. It raises taxes on merchandises, to defray impositions, and the common expences of the compa3

A N Y. ny } presents the ambassador which the king is to keep Companj at the Porte, elects two consuls for Smyrna and Con- —v— stantinople, &c. One of the best regulations of the company is, not to leave the consuls, or even ambassador, to fix the imposition on vessels for defraying the common expences (a thing fatal to the companies of most other nations) ; but to allow a pension to the ambassador and consuls, and even to the chief officers, as secretary, chaplain, interpreters, and janizaries, that there may not be any pretence for their raising any sum at all on the merchants or merchandises. In extraordinary cases, the consuls, and even the ambassador, have recourse to two deputies of the company, residing in the Levant; or, if the affair be very important, they assemble the whole body. Here are regulated the presents to be given, the voyages to be made, and every thing to be deliberated j and on the resolutions here taken, the deputies appoint the treasurer to furnish the moneys, &c. required. The ordinary commerce of this company employs from 20 to 25 vessels, carrying from 25 to 30 pieces of cannon. The merchandises exported thither are, cloths of all kinds and colours, pewter, lead, pepper, cochineal, and a great deal of silver, which they take up at Cadiz : the returns are in raw silk, galls, camlets, wools, cottons, Morocco leather, ashes for making glass and soap, and several gums and medicinal drugs. The commerce to Smyrna, Constantinople, and Scanderoon, is not esteemed much less considerable than that of the East India Company j but is, doubtless, more advantageous to Britain, because it takes off much more of the British manufactures than the other, which is chiefly carried on in money. The places reserved for the commerce of this company are, all the states of Venice, in the gulf of Venice; the state of Bagusa; all the states of the grand seignior, and the ports of the Levant and Mediterranean ; excepting Carthagena, Alicant, Barcelona, Valencia, Marseilles, Toulon, Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Palermo, Messina, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, and Corsica ; and other places on the coasts of France, Spain, and Italy. 5. The Company of Merchants trading to Africa, established in 1750. Contrary to the former practice with regard to regulated companies, who were reckoned unfit for such sort of service, this company was subjected to the obligation of maintaining forts and garrisons. It was expressly charged at first with the maintenance of all the British forts and garrisons that lie between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and afterwards with that of those only which lie between Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The act which establishes this company (the 23d of George 11. c. 31.) seems to have had two distinct objects in view ; first, to restrain effectually the oppressive and monopolizing spirit which is natural to the directors of a regulated company; and secondly, to force them as much as possible to give an attention, which is not natural to them, towards the maintenance of forts and garrisons. For the first of these purposes, the fine for admission is limited to forty shillings. The company is prohibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or upon a joint stock; from borrowing money upon common

C O M P A N Y. 337 mon seal, or from laying any restraints upon the trade garrisons. The captains of his majesty’s navy, indeed, Company, Jompany. which may be carried on freely from all places, and by or any other commissioned officers, appointed by the .—-1 all persons being British subjects, and paying the fine. board of admiralty, may inquire into the condition of The government is in a committee of nine persons, who the forts and garrisons, and report their observations meet at London, but who are chosen annually by the to that board. But that board seems to have no difreemen of the company at London, Bristol, and Li- rect jurisdiction over the committee, nor any authoriverpool j three from each place. No committee-man ty to correct those whose conduct it may thus inquire can be continued in office lor more than three years into; and the captains of his majesty’s navy, besides, together. Any committee-man might be removed by are not supposed to be always deeply learned in the the board of trade and plantations ; now by a com- science of fortification. Removal from an office, which mittee of council, after being heard in his own defence. can be enjoyed only for the term of three years, and of The committee are forbid to export negroes from which the lawful emoluments, even during that term, Africa, or to import any African goods into Great are so very small, seems to be the utmost punishment Britain. But, as they are charged with the mainte- to which any committee-man is liable, for any fault, nance of forts and garrisons, they may for that purpose except direct malversation, or embezzlement either of export from Great Britain to Africa goods and stores the public money or that of the company ; and the of different kinds. Out of the money which they fear of that punishment, can never be a motive of suffishall receive from the company, they are allowed a sum cient weight to force a continual and careful attention not exceeding eight hundred pounds, for the salaries of to a business to which he has no other interest to attheir clerks and agents at London, Bristol, and Liver- tend. The committee are accused of having sent out pool ; the house-rent of their office at London j and bricks and stones from England for the reparation of all other expences of management, commission, and Cape Coast Castle on the coast of Guinea, a business agency, in England. What remains of this sum, after for which parliament had several times granted an exdefraying those different expences, they may divide traordinary sum of money. These bricks and stones among themselves, as compensation for their trouble, too, which had thus been sent upon so long a voyage, in what manner they think proper. “ By this consti- were said to have been of so bad a quality, that it was tution, it might have been expected (Dr Smith ob- necessary to rebuild from the foundation the walls which serves,) that the spirit of monopoly would have been bad been repaired with them. The forts and garrisons effectually restrained, and the first of these purposes which lie north of Cape Rouge are not only maintainsufficiently answered. It would seem, however, that ed at the expence of the state, but are under the immeit had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20. diate government of the executive power ; and why the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been those which lie south of that cape, and which too are, vested in the company of merchants trading to Africa, •in part at least, maintained at the expence of the state, yet in the year following (by the 5th of George III. could he under a different government, it seems not c. 24.), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the very easy even to imagine a good reason.” whole coast from the port of Sallee, in south Barbary, The above company succeeded that called T/te Royal to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurisdiction of African Company, which traded upon a joint stock that company, was vested in the crown, and the trade with an exclusive privilege. Though England began to it declared free to all his majesty’s subjects. The to trade to Africa as early as the year 1536, and sevecompany had been suspected of restraining the trade, ral voyages were made to Guinea in 1538, and some and of establishing some sort of improper monopoly. following years, for the importation of gold and eleIt is not, however, very easy to conceive how, under phants teeth, nothing like a company was formed till the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do the year 1588, when Queen Elizabeth granted a patent so. From the printed debates of the house of com- of exclusive privilege to certain persons for ten years. mons (not always the most authentic records of truth), In 1618, King James I. established a company by charit appears, however, that they have been accused of ter, which was soon dissolved. Another company was this. The members of the committee of nine being erected by charter of Charles T. in 1631, W’hich met all merchants, and the governors and factors, in their with little success ; but the demand for negroes in the different forts and settlements, being all dependent up- English American plantations increasing, a third comon them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have pany was established by a charter granted 1662, in given peculiar attention to the consignments and com- favour of the duke of York ; securing to him the commissions of the former, which would establish a real merce of all the country, coasts, islands, &c. belonging monopoly.” to the crown of England, or not possessed by any other For the second purpose mentioned, the maintenance Christian prince, from Cape Blanco in 20® N. Lat. to of the forts and garrisons, an annual sum has been al- the Cape of Good Hope, in 34* 34' S. Lat. The charlotted to them by parliament, generally about 13,000k ter was soon after returned into the king’s bands by For the proper application of this sum, the committee the duke, and revoked, by consent of the parties asis obliged to account annually to the cursitor baron of sociated with him in the enterprise ; in consequence exchequer } which account is afterwards to be laid of which, the fourth and last exclusive company was before parliament. But parliament (continues our established and incorporated by letters patent in 1672, author), which gives so little attention to the applica- under the title of the Royal African Company. A cation of millions, is not likely to give much to that of pital was soon raised of 111,000k and this new com13,Cook a-year $ and the cursitor baron of exchequer, pany improved their trade, and increased their forts ; from his profession and education, is not likely to be but after the revolution in 1689, this trade was laid profoundly skilled in the proper expence of forts and open. In 1698, all private traders to Africa were Vol. VI. Part I. t Uu obliged

333 COM Company, obliged by stat. 9 and 10 Will, to pay ten per cent, in 1 —“”v~—order to assist the company in maintaining their forts and factories. But notwithstanding this heavy tax, the company were still unable to maintain the competition j their stock and credit gradually declined. In 1712, their debts had become so great, that a particular act of parliament was thought necessary, both for their security and for that of their creditors. It was enacted, that the resolution of two-thirds of these creditors in number and value should bind the rest, both with regard to the time which should be allowed to the company for the payment of their debts, and with regard to any other agreement which it might be thought proper to make with them concerning those debts. In 1730, their affairs were in so great disorder, that they were altogether incapable of maintaining their forts and garrisons5 the sole purpose and pretext of their institution. From that year till their final dissolution, the parliament judged it necessary to allow the annual sum of ten thousand pounds for that purpose. In 1732, after having been for many years losers by the trade of carrying negroes to the West Indies, they at last resolved to give it up altogether ; to sell to the private traders to America the negroes which they purchased upon the coast; and to employ their servants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa for gold dust, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, &c. But their success in this more confined trade was not greater than in their former extensive one. Their affairs continued to go gradually to decline, till at last being in every respect a bankrupt company, they were dissolved by act of parliament, and their forts and garrisons vested in the present Regulated Company of Merchants trading to Africa. II. Joint-Stock Companies, established either by royal charter or by act of parliament, differ in several respects not only from regulated companies, but from private copartneries. I. In a private copartnery, no partner, without the consent of the company, can transfer his share to another person, or introduce a new member into the company. Each member, however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the copartnery, and demand payment from them of his share of the common stock. In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, no member can demand payment of bis share from the company: but each member can, without their consent, transfer his share to another person, and thereby introduce a new member. The value of a share in a joint-stock is always the price which it will bring in the market j and this may be either greater or less, in any proportion, than the sum which its owner stands credited for in the stock of the company. 2. In a private copartnery, each partner is hound for the debts contracted by the company to the whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the extent of his share. The trade of a joint-stock company is always managed by a court of directors. This court indeed is frequently subject, in many respects, to the controul of a general court of proprietors. But the greater part of those proprietors seldom pretend to understand any thing of the business of the company 5 and when the spirit of faction happens not to prevail among them, give themselves no trouble about it, but receive

3

A N Y. contentedly such half-yearly or yearly dividend as the Comparj directors think proper to make to them. This total '—“"v— exemption from trouble and from risk, beyond a limited sum, encourages many people to become adventurers in joint-stock companies, who would upon no account hazard their fortunes in any private copartnery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw to themselves much greater stocks than any private copartnery can boast of. The trading stock of the South-Sea Company, at one time, amounted to upwards of thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand pounds. The directors of such companies, however, being the managers rather of other people’s money than of their own, it cannot well be expected that they should watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with which the partners in a private copartnery frequently, watch over their own. Like the stewards of a rich man, they are apt to consider attention to small matters as not for their master’s honour, and very easily give themselves a dispensation from having it. Negligence and profusion, therefore, must always prevail, more or less, in the management of the affairs of such a company. It is upon this account that joint-stock companies for foreign trade have seldom been able to maintain the competitions against private adventurers. They have, accordingly, very seldom succeeded without an exclusive privilege ; and frequently have not succeeded with one. Without an exclusive privilege they have commonly mismanaged the trade. With an exclusive privilege they have- both mismanaged and confined it. The principal joint-stock companies presently subsisting in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the East India companies $ to which may be added, though of very inferior magnitude, the Hudson'1 s Ray Company. 1. The South-Sea Company. During the long war with France in the reign of Queen Anne, the payment of the sailors of the royal navy being neglected, they received tickets instead of money, and were frequently obliged, by their necessities, to sell these tickets to avaricious men at a discount of 40 and sometimes 50 per cent. By this and other means, the debts of the nation unprovided for by parliament, and which amounted to 9,471,321}. fell into the hands of these usurers. On which Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, proposed a scheme to allow the proprietors of these debts and deficiencies 6 per cent, per annum, and to incorporate them for the purpose of carrying on a trade to the South Sea) and they were accordingly incorporated under the title of “ the Governor and Company of Merchants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas, and other parts of America, and for encouraging the Fishery,” &c. Though this company seemed formed for the sake of commerce, the ministry never thought seriously, during the course of the war, about making any settlement on the coast of South America, which was what flattered the expectations of the people ) nor was it ever carried into execution by this company. Some other sums were lent to the government in the reign of Queen Anne at 6 per cent. In the third of George I. the interest of the whole was reduced to 5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions more to the government at the same interest. By the statute

= Co

COMPANY. jinpany. statute of the 6th of George I. it was declared, that they engaged in, was that of supplying the Spanish Compa —V——' they might redeem all or any of the redeemable na- West Indies with negroes, of which (in consequence tional debts 5 in consideration of which, the company of what was called the Assiento contract granted them were empowered to augment their capital according by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclusive prito the sums they should discharge j and for enabling vilege. But as it was not expected that much profit them to raise such sums for purchasing annuities, ex- could be made by this trade, both the Portuguese and changing for ready money new exchequer bills, carry- French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the same ing on their trade, &c. they might, by such means as terms before them, having been ruined by it, they they should think proper, raise such sums of money as were allowed, as compensation, to send annually a ship in a general court of the company should be judged of a certain burden to trade directly to the Spanish necessary. The company were also empowered to raise West Indies. Of the ten voyages which this annual money on the contracts, bonds, or obligations under ship was allowed to make, they are said to have gained their common seal, on the credit of their capital stock. considerably by one, that of the lloyal Cax-oline in But if the sub-governor, deputy-governor, or other 1731, and to have been loseis, more or less, by almost members of the company, should purchase lands or re- all the rest. Their ill success was imputed, bv their venues of the crown upon account of the corporation, factors and agents, to the extortion and oppression of or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch the Spanish government; but was, perhaps, principally of the revenue, other than such part only on which a owing to the profusion and depredations of those very credit of loan was granted by parliament, such sub- factoi’s and agents j some of whom are said to have governor, or other member of the company, should for- acquired great fortunes even in one year. In 1734, the company petitioned the king, that they might be feit treble the value of the money so lent. The fatal South Sea scheme, transacted in the year allowed to dispose of the trade and tonnage of their 1720, was executed upon the last-mentioned statute. annual ship, on account of the little profit which they The company had at hrst set out with good success, made by it, and to accept of such equivalent as they and the value of their stock, for the first five years, had could obtain from the king of Spain. In 1724, this company had undertaken the whalerisen faster than that of any other company 5 and his majesty, after purchasing 10,0001. stock, had conde- fishery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly ; but scended to be their governor. Things were in this si- as long as they carried it on, no other British subjects tuation, when, taking advantage of the above statute, appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages the South Sea bubble was projected. The pretence which their ships made to Greenland, they were gainers was, to raise a fund for carrying on a trade to the by one, and losers by all the rest. After their eighth and South Sea, and purchasing annuities, &c. paid to the last voyage, when they had sold their ships, stores, and other companies : and proposals were printed and di- utensils, they found that their whole loss, upon this stributed, showing the advantages of this design. The branch, capital and interest included, amounted to upsum necessary for carrying it on, together with the wards of 237,000!. In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to profits that were to arise from it, were divided into a certain number of shares, or subscriptions, to be purcha- be allowed to divide their immense capital of more sed by persons disposed to adventure therein. And the than 33,800,000!. the whole of which had been better to carry on the deception, the directors enga- lent to government, into two equal parts : The oneged to make very large dividends : and actually de- half, or upwards of 16,900.000!. to be put upon the clared that every 100I. original stock would yield 50I. same footing with other government annuities, and per annum; which occasioned so great a rise of their not to be subject to the debts contracted, or losses instock, that a share of look Was sold for upwards of curred, by the directors of the company, in the pro800I. This was in the month of July j but before secution of their mercantile pi-ojects; the other half the end of September it fell to 150I. by which multi- to remain, as before, a trading stock, and to be subtoo tudes were ruined, and such a scene of distress occa- ject to those debts and losses. The petitionie was a an sioned, as is scarcely to be conceived. But the con- reasonable not to be granted. In 1733, ^ y g i sequences of this infamous scheme are too well known ; petitioned the parliament that three-fourths of their most of the directoi’s were sevex-ely fined, to the loss trading stock might be turned into annuity stock, and of nearly all their property : some of them had no only one-fourth remain as ti'ading stock, or exposed hand in the deception, nor gained a farthing by it ; to the hazards arising from the bad management of but it was agreed, they ought to have opposed and their directors. Both their annuity and trading stocks had by this time, been reduced more than 2,000,000k prevented it. The South Sea Company never had any forts or each, by several diftei’ent payments from govex-nment j garrisons to maintain, and therefore were entirely ex- so that this fourth amounted only to 3,662,784!. 8s. 6d. empted from one great expence, to which other joint- In 1748, all the demands of the company upon the stock companies for foreign trade ai-e subject. But king of Spain, in consequence of the Assiento contract, they had an immense capital divided among an im- were by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, given up for mense number of proprietors. It was naturally to be what was supposed an equivalent. An end was put to expected, therefore, that folly, negligence, and profu- their trade with the Spanish West Indies, the remainsion, should prevail in the whole management of their der of their trading stock was turned into an annuity stock, and the company ceased in every respect to be affairs. Their stock-jobbing speculations were succeeded by a trading company. This company is under the direction of a governor, submercantile projects, which, Dr Smith observes, were not much better conducted. The first trade which governor, deputy-governor, and 21 directors: but no peril u 2 son

340 COMPANY. Company, son is qualified to fee governor, his majesty excepted, English market, cannot well be doubted ; but that it Gompa w—unless such governor has in his own name and right should have raised very much their price in the Indian y5000I. in the trading stock 5 the sub-governor is to have market, seems not very probable, as all the extraordi4O00I. the deputy-governor 3000I. and a director 2000I. nary demand which that competition could occasion, in the same stock. In every general court, every mem- must have been but as a drop of water in the immense ber having in his own name and right 500I. in trading ocean of Indian commerce. The increase of demand, stock, has one vote ; if 2000I. two votes j if 3000I. adds he, though in the beginning it may sometimes three votes •, and if 5000!. four votes. raise the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the 2. The East India Cornpamj. The first, or as it is issue. It encourages production, and thereby incalled the Old East India Company, was established creases the competition of the producers, who, in orby a charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 j but for der to undersell one another, have recourse to new disome time the partners seem to have traded with se- visions of labour and new improvements of art, which parate stocks, though only in the ships belonging to might never otherwise have been thought of. The the whole company. In 1612, they joined their stocks miserable effects of which the company complained, into one common capital : and though their charter were the cheapness of consumption and the encouragewas not as yet confirmed by act of parliament, it was ment given to production, precisely the two effects looked upon in that early period to be sufficiently which it is the business of political economy to promote. valid, and nobody ventured to interfere with their The competition, however’, of which they gave this trade. At this time their capital amounted to about doleful account, had not been allowed to continue 740,000!. and the shares were as low as 50I.: their long. In 1702 the two companies were, in some trade was in general successful, notwithstanding some measure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which heavy losses, chiefly sustained through the malice of the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they the Dutch East India Company. In process of time, were, by act of parliament, perfectly consolidated into however, it came to be understood that a x-oyal char- one company by their present name of “ The United ter could not by itself convey an exclusive privilege to Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies.” traders, and the company was reduced to distress by Into this act it was thought worthy to insert a clause, reason of the multitude of interlopers who carried off allowing the separate traders to continue their traffic the most of their trade. This continued during the till Michaelmas 1711, but at the same time empowerlatter part of the reign of Charles II. the whole of ing the directors, upon three years notice, to redeem that of James II. and part of William III. when in their capital of 7200k and thereby convert the whole 1698 a pi’oposal was made to parliament for advancing capital of the company into a joint-stock. By the the sum of 2,ooo,oool. to government, on condition same act, the capital of the company, in consequence of erecting the subscribers into a new company with ex- of a new loan to government, was augmented from clusive privileges. The old company endeavoured to 2,ooo,oool. to 3,200,000k In 1743, another milprevent the appearance of such a formidable rival, by lion was advanced to government. But this being offering government 700,000k nearly the amount of raised, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by their capital at that time > but such were the exigen- selling annuities and contracting bond-debts, it did cies of the state, that the larger sum, though at eight not augment the stock upon which the proprietors per cent, interest, was preferred to the smaller at one could claim a dividend. Thus, however, their trading half the expence. stock was augmented; it being equally liable with the Thus were two East India Companies erected in other 3,200,000k to the losses sustained, and debts the same kingdom, which could not but be very pre- contracted, by the company in the prosecution of judicial to each other. Through the negligence of their mercantile projects. From 1708, or at least those who prepared the act of parliament also, the from 1711, this company being freed from all comnew company were not obliged to unite in a joint-stock. petitors, and fully established in the monopoly of the I he consequence of this was, that a few private traders, English commerce to the East Indies, carried on a whose subscriptions scarce exceeded 7200I. insisted on successful trade ; and from their profits made annually a right of trading separately at their own risk. Thus a moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily, a kind of third company was established ; and by their however, in a short time, an inclination for war and mutual contentions with one another, all the three were conquest began to take place among their servants ; brought to the brink of ruin. Upon a subsequent occa- which, though it put them in possession of extensive sion, in 1730, a proposal was made to parliament for territories and vast nominal revenues, yet embarrassed putting the trade under the management of a regula- their affairs in such a manner, that they have not ta ted company, and thus laying it in some measure open. this day been able to recover themselves. The partiThis, however, was opposed by the company, who re- culars of these wars are given under the articles Bripresented in strong terms the mischiefs likely to arise tain, and Indostan. Here it will be sufficient to Smith's from such a proceeding. “ In India (they said), it observe, that they originated during the war in 1741 Wealth of raised the price of goods so high, that they were not through the ambition of M. Dupleix the French gotlie ^ WOrth J and in England, by overstocking vernor of Pondicherry, who involved the company in ie mar et sun tbe r ce to suc y, 134^ k > k Pi h a degree that no the politics and disputes of the Indian princes., Afprofit could be made of them.” Here Dr Smith re- ter carrying on hostilities for some time with various marks, that by a more plentiful supply, to the great success, they at last lost Madras, at that time the prinadvantage and conveniency of the public, it must have cipal settlement in the East Indies, but it was restored reduced very much the price of Indian goods in the by the treaty of Aix-la-Cbapell'e. During the war

COMPANY. 341 >»pany. of 1755, they acquired the revenues of a rich and ex- ly extended its jurisdiction over the rest, was now re- Company. trial of mercantile causes,—y —v—tensive territory, amounting, as was then said, to near duced and confined to the 3,ooo,oool. per annum. the purpose for which it wras originally instituted. InFor several years they remained in quiet possession stead of it a new supreme court of judicature was estaof the revenue arising from this territory, though it blished, consisting of a chief justice and three judges certainly never answered the expectations that had to be appointed by the crown. Besides these alterabeen formed concerning it. But in 1767 the British tions, the stock necessary to entitle any proprietor to ministry laid claim to the territorial possessions of the vote at the general courts was raised from 500I. to company, and the revenue arising from them, as of 1000I. To vote on this qualification, too, it was right belonging to the crown 5 and the company, ra- necessary that he should have possessed it, if acquired ther than yield up their territories in this manner, by his own purchase and not by inheritance, for at agreed to pay government a yearly sum of 400,000!. least one year, instead of six months, the term requiThey had before this gradually augmented their di- site formerly. The court of 24 directors had before vidend from about six to ten per cent. $ that is, on been chosen annually ; but it was now enacted, that their capital of 3,200,000!. they had raised it from each director should for the future be chosen for four 192,000!. to 320,000!. a-year. About this time al- years; six of them, however, to go out of office by so they were attempting to raise it still farther, viz. rotation every year, and not to be capable of being refrom 10 to 12J per cent.; but from this they were pre- chosen at the election of the six new directors for the vented by two successive acts of parliament, the design ensuing year. It was expected that, in consequence of which vras to enable them to make a more speedy of these alterations, the courts both of the propriepayment of their debts, at this time estimated at more tors and directors would be likely to act with more than six or seven millions sterling. In 1769 they re- dignity and steadiness than formerly. But this was newed their agreement with government for five years far from being the case. The company and its sermore, stipulating, that during the course of that pe- vants showed the utmost indifference about the happiriod they should be allowed gradually to augment their ness or misery of the people who had the misfortune dividend to 12* per cent. ; never increasing it, however, to be subjected to their jurisdiction. This indifference, more than one per cent, annually. Thus their annual too, was more likely to be increased than diminished payments could only be augmented by 6o8,oool. be- by some of the new regulations. The house of comyond what they had been before their late territorial mons, for instance, had resolved, that when the acquisitions. By accounts from India in the year i,6oo,oool. lent to the company by government should 1768, this revenue, clear of all deductions and military be paid, and their bond debts reduced to 1,500,000!. charges, was stated at 2,048,747!. At the same they might then, and not till then, divide eight per time they were said to possess another revenue, arising cent, upon their capital j and that whatever remained partly from lands, but chiefly from the customs esta- of their revenues and nett profits at home should be blished at their different settlements, amounting to divided into four parts 5 three of them to be paid into about 439,000!. The profits of their trade, too, ac- the exchequer for the use of the public, and the fourth cording to the evidence of their chairman before the to be reserved as a fund, either for the further reduchouse of commons, amounted to at least 400,000! per tion of their bond debts, or for the discharge of other annum $ their account made it 500,000!. ; and the contingent exigencies which the company might lalowest account stated it at least equal to the highest bour under. But it could scarce be expected that, if dividend paid to their proprietors. Notwithstanding the company were bad stewards and bad sovereigns this apparent wealth, however, the affairs of the com- when the whole of their nett revenue and profits bepany from this time fell into disorder; insomuch that longed to themselves, they would be better when threein 1773 their debts were augmented by an arrear fourths of these belonged to other people. The reguto the treasury in the payment of the 400,000!. stipu- lations of 1773, therefore, did not put an end to the lated ; by another to the customhouse for duties un- troubles of the company. Among other institutions, paid j by a large sum borrowed from the bank ; and it had been at this time enacted, that the presidency by bills drawn upon them from India to the amount of Bengal should have a superiority over the other preof more than 1,200,000!. Thus they were not only sidencies in the country j the salary of the chief justice obliged to reduce their dividend all at once to six per was fixed at 8000I. per annum, and those of the other cent, but to apply to government for assistance. A judges at 6000I. each. In consequence of this act, particular account of this transaction is given under the Sir Elijah Impey, who was created a baronet on the article Britain. Here it may be mentioned in gene- occasion, set sail with three other judges, for India, in ral, that the event proved very unfavourable to the the year 1774. The powers with which they were incompany, as they were now subjected to an interference vested were very extraordinary. They had the title of government altogether unknown before. Several of his Majesty’s Supreme Court of Judicature in Inimportant alterations were made in their constitution dia. Civil law, common law, ecclesiastical, criminal, both at home and abroad. The settlements of Madras, and admiralty jurisdiction, belonged of right to them. Bombay, and Calcutta, which had hitherto been entire- They were empowered to try Europeans on personal ly independent of one another, were subjected to a go- actions, and to assess damages without a jury. Every vernor-general ; assisted by a council of four assessors. native, either directly or indirectly in the service of the The nomination of the first governor and council, who company, or in their territories, was made subject to were to reside at Calcutta, was assumed by parliament; their jurisdiction, with a view to prevent the Eurothe power of the court of Calcutta, which had gradual- peans from eluding justice under the pretence of employing

1A O

COMPANY. Company, 1 ploying natives in the commission of their crimes ; so ters of attorneys, court-officers, under-sheriffs, and Compam that in fact they were absolute lords and sovereigns of bailiffs. It may easily be supposed, that people of such characters would find it for their interest to prothe whole country. Such excessive and unlimited powers conferred on mote suits in the supreme court : and in this some of any small number of men, could not but be extremely them employed themselves with great success. The disagreeable to the Europeans, who had been accustom- consequence of all this was, that on the 4th of Deed to enjoy a liberty almost equally unbounded before j cember 1780, a petition was presented against the sunor was it to be supposed that the judges, thus sudden- preme court by a great number of British inhabitants ly raised from the rank of subjects to the height of in the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa. In despotism, would always use their power in an unexcep- this, complaint was made of the indiscriminate mantionable manner. The design of the establishment was ner in which the judges of the supreme court attemptto preserve the commerce and revenues of the company ed to exercise the English laws in that country, at the from depredation $ by subjecting its servants to the con- same time that they refused the undoubted right of troul of the court; to relieve the subject from oppres- every British subject, viz. that of trial by jury. They sion by facilitating the means of redress $ and to fix a entreated the house “ to reflect on the innumerable regular course of justice for the security of liberty and hardships which must ensue, and the universal confuproperty. Instead of considering the circumstances of sion which must be occasioned, by giving to the volumithe country, however, or the manners and customs of nous laws of England a boundless retrospective power the natives, the judges now precipitately introduced in the midst of Asia, and by an application of those the British laws in their full extent, without the least laws, made for the freest and most enlightened people modification to render them agreeable to the Asiatics, on earth, the principle of whose constitution was foundwho had been accustomed to others of a quite different ed on virtue and liberty, to transactions with the nanature ; nor did they even pay the least regard to tives of India, who had, from time immemorial, lived the religious institutions or habits to which the Indians under a despotic government, founded on fear and reare so obstinately attached, that they would sooner straint. What must be the terrors of individuals to part with life itself than break through an article of find their titles to property, and their transactions with the natives previous to the establishment of this court them. Besides this it was said, that, on the first arrival of the of judicature, tried by the standard of the English Jaw, judges, they endeavoured to extend their authority be- and by men educated under its forms, and unavoidably yond even what the British legislature had allowed them. imbibing its prejudices, when no such law could Hence they were frequently at variance with the coun- be known to or practised by natives or Europeans cil ; and complaints of their conduct were repeatedly then residing in the country, and that at a time when sent to England by the servants of the company. These there were few persons of legal knowledge in the produced a letter in 1777 from the directors to Lord country to advise or assist them ? No tyranny could Weymouth, secretary of state for the southern depart- be more fatal in its consequences, than that a court, ment. In this they stated, that the supreme court of invested with all the authority of one of the first courts India had extended its jurisdiction to those whom it in England, should also possess undefined powers and did not appear to have been the intention of the king jurisdiction, of which its judges were the sole interpreor parliament to subject to its authority. It had also ters, and at such an immense distance from the mother taken cognizance ef matters which, they apprehended country. This was in truth the situation of the Bribelonged properly to other courts. That the judges tish subjects in India at that time j for the judges of considered the criminal law of England as in force, and the supreme court could at pleasure determine on the binding on the natives of Bengal, though utterly re- denomination of a civil jury, the degree of guilt inpugnant to the laws and customs by which they had curred by any offence, the statute by which it should hitherto been governed ; and that the jurisdiction ex- be tried, what penalties should be inflicted, as well as ercised by the supreme court was incompatible with who were and who were not amenable to the jurisdicthe powers given by parliament to the governor-gene- tion of the court. ral and council, obstructed the administration of go“ Besides their other powers also, the judges of the vernment, and tended to alienate the minds of the na- supreme couTt were allowed to sit as a court of chancery, tives j all which they feared would prevent the esta- and in that capacity to revise, correct, rescind, or conblishment of the government of India upon any settled or firm the decisions passed by themselves as a court of permanent foundation. law; and by another part of their constitution they This letter not having produced any effect, the dis- were allowed to stop execution in criminal cases until contents of India, both in the Europeans and natives, his majesty’s pleasure was known. The petitioners continued and increased. The decisions of the judges conceived, that there must be some fundamental error were such as by no means did them honour. A num- in that constitution, which required a more than ordiber of adventurers had also emigrated along with them, nary degree of temper, integrity, and ability, to carry in hopes of enriching themselves under the new con- its purposes into execution ; and they did not hesitate stitution. Some of these were of the lowest sort of to declare, that to administer the powers appertaining people, who had rendered it in a manner impossible to the institution of the supreme court, without comfor them to remain in England on account of their mitting flagrant acts of injustice, and doing great detrivices or extravagance. Many such persons had en- ment to the public, required more equity, moderation, rolled themselves among the domestics of the judges, discernment, and enlightened abilities, than they could or had become their immediate dependents $ and hope to find in any set of men.” They concludsome of these were permitted to assume the charac- ed with earnestly soliciting parliament, that a trial b y

COMPANY. 343 >mpany. by jury might be granted to the British subjects in never heard of, nor could ever dream that he \vould be Company, Bengal, in all cases where it was established by law in subjected to its power. What rendered this execution England ; that the retrospective powers of the su- the more remarkable was, that, at the very time when preme court might be limited to the time of its esta- the charge of forgery was brought against him, Nundblishment in Bengal; that it should be defined beyond comar had been employed in exhibiting an accusation the power of discretional distinction who the persons against Mr Hastings. This, together with the hurry were that properly came under the jurisdiction of the in which the court were to have him put to death (for court, and who did not j that it should be expressly the court refused to allow him a respite till his majesdeclared what statutes should, and what should not, be ty’s pleasure was known), made the natives conclude in force in Bengal ; that distinct and separate judges that he was executed, not on account of the forgery, for the law and equity sides of the court should be ap- but for having ventured to prefer an accusation against pointed j and that a power of delaying executions in an English governor. In other respects they were tercriminal cases until his majesty’s pleasure was known, rified to such a degree, that many of them ran into the should be lodged in the governor and council. river on seeing a bramin put to death with such circumThis petition was soon followed by another signed stances of ignominy. The alarm excited by the execution of Nundcomar by Warren Hastings, Esq. governor-general, Philip Francis and Edward Wheeler, Esqs. counsellors for the was kept up by fresh decisions of the supreme court: government and presidency of Fort-William in Ben- Among those the Patna cause, as it is commonly gal ; in which they represented, “ that, though the ju- called, was one of the most remarkable. An advenrisdiction of the supreme court of judicature at Cal- turer, named Shahaz Beg Cawn, had come from Cacutta, as wrell as the powers granted to the governor- bul in Persia to Bengal, where he entered himself in general and council, were clearly limited by parlia- the service of the company, and was preferred to the ment and the king’s letters patent, yet the chief command of a body of horse. Having gained a comjustice and judges of that court had exercised authori- petent fortune, and obtained from the Mogul a grant ty over persons not legally within their jurisdiction, of lands called an Ultumghaw in the province of Baand had illegally and improperly advised and admitted har, he retired from the army, and settled in Patna. suits against the governor-general and council : that About this time, when advanced in years, he married they had attempted to execute their writs upon natives a woman of low rank, named Nadara Begum, by whom of high rank in the kingdom of Bengal, who were not he had no children. His brother, Allum Beg, came within their jurisdiction : the governor and council likewise to Patna j and on his leaving the place some therefore had found themselves under a necessity of time after, committed the care of one of his sons, opposing them, and of affording protection to the named Behader Beg, to his brother Shahaz Beg Cawn. country and people, who were placed under their own On the death of the latter in 1776, a dispute ensued immediate inspection, and freeing them from the terrors concerning the inheritance betwixt the widow and of a new and usurped dominion. They had even been Behader Beg. The widow having taken possession obliged to make use of a military force, in order to re- of the whole property of Shahaz, the nephew, as sist the proceedings of the judges and their officers : adopted son and heir, give in a petition to the provincial And they declared, that no other conduct could have council at Patna, on the 2d of January 1777, setting saved those provinces, and the interests of the company, forth his claim. In this petition he stated, that the or of the British nation itself, from the ruin with which widow was removing and secreting the effects of the they were threatened. They also declared themselves deceased; and concluded with a prayer, that orders to be of opinion, that the attempt to extend, to the should be given to prevent their removal j to recover inhabitants of these provinces, the jurisdiction of the such as had already been carried away J and that the supreme court of judicature, and the authority of the cadi or Indian judge should be directed to ascertain English law, which were still more intolerable than his right. As the parties were Mahometans, the the law itself, would be such a restraint on the minds council of course referred the cause to the cadi and of the people of those provinces, by the difference of two mufties, the proper officers for determining it acsuch laws and forms from their laws, that they might cording to the established laws of the country. These at last inflame them, notwithstanding their known mild- having inquired into the matter, reported, that the ness and patience, into an open rebellion.” The pe- title-deeds, on which the widow pretended to found tition was concluded, by soliciting an indemnity from her right, appeared to be forged ; and that, even if the legal consequences of the resistance they had been they had appeared in the life-time of Shahaz, they obliged to make to that court. were still informal, on account of a point of the MaWhile the British were thus expressing their dis- hometan law, which requires, that to make deeds of t pleasure against the conduct of these judges, the na- gift valid, possession should be entered into at the time tives were thrown into the utmost consternation and of executing or delivering them over $ but that, as no despair by the acts of oppression and violence com- possession of this kind had been given, the estate ought mitted by them. A prosecution for forgery had been to be divided according to the Mahometan law j viz. commenced against Nundcomar, a bramin of the first one-fourth to the wife, and three-fourths to the nerank in Bengal. The crime was not capital by the phew, as the representative of his father Allum Beg, laws ot Indostan, and had been committed many who was considered as the more immediate heir of the years before j yet with the utmost cruelty and in- deceased. This decision was confirmed by the counjustice was this man condemned and executed on the cil of Patna, with the following exception in favour of British statute, by which forgery is made capital 5 a sta- the widow, that the heir-at-law should pay her onetute which, at the commission of the crime, he had fourth of the rents of the ultumghaw, or royal grant,

COMP 344 vompany. for her support during life. The widow, however, refused to submit to the decision, or to deliver up the effects of her husband $ in consequence of which compulsatory methods were used } when bv the advice of some English lawyers, an action of trespass was brought, according to the law of England, against the cadi and two mufties for their proceedings against her, laying the damages at about 66,oool. sterling. This process being brought before the supreme court, was by them conducted in such a manner as must entail everlasting infamy on the actors. They began with obliging the cadi and mufties to find bail in no less than 40,000 pounds for their appearance, which was immediately given by the council at Patna. The supreme court then having entered into the merits of the cause, and decided the matter in the most rigorous manner, according to all the forms of English law, assessed the cadi and mufties in damages no less than 30,000!. sterling. Their houses and effects were seired by the sheriff’s officers, and publicly put up to sale 5 the cadi, who was upwards of 60 years of age, and had been in office for many years with great applause, died on his way to the common gaol at Calcutta, to which the nephew and two mufties were conveyed, being a distance of no less than 400 miles from their former residence at Patna. A suit, however, was commenced against the widow, on account of having forged the title-deeds by which she claimed her husband’s estate ; but it was suppressed on account of some informality. Another decision, by which the supreme court likewise incurred much censure, was that against Juggernaut, the principal public officer of a Mahometan court at Dacca. The action was brought at the instigation of an English attorney, in behalf of one Khyne, a servant or messenger, who had been fined and imprisoned for a misdemeanor, in which Juggernaut had concurred in virtue of his office as judge of the Nizarnut (the name of the Mahometan court just mentioned). The sheriff-officers attempted to arrest the judge as he sat on the tribunal j which could not fail to produce much disturbance. Jaggernaut, with his officers, denied the authority of the supreme court over the Nizainut, and refused to comply with the writ. The English sheriff-officers proceeded to force j and a violent scuffle ensuing, Jaggernaut’s father was wounded in the head with a sword by one of the under-sheriff’s attendants, while his brother-in-law was very dangerously wounded with a pistol bullet by the under-sheriff himself. The immediate consequence of this was an absolute refusal of the judge to take cognizance of any criminal matter j and this was intimated in a letter from the conncil at Dacca to the English governor and council of India *, wherein they declared that all criminal justice was at a stand. The supreme court, having proceeded in this arbitrary and oppressive manner for some time, at length attempted to extend their jurisdiction over the hereditary zemindars of Bengal. These are a kind of tributary lords, or great landholders, who are answerable to the company for the revenues or rents of the districts ; and excepting the circumstances of remitting their revenues to the company, have not the least connection with the English in any respect. At the time we speak of, however, a writ upon an action of debt was issued out to arrest one of these zemindars in his

ANY. palace. Timely notice, however, was given, by one Compan; of the company’s collectors, of this attempt to the governor and council, and application made to protect a man of such quality from the disgrace of an arrest. They being unanimously of opinion that the zemindar was not within the jurisdiction of the court of Calcutta, desired him to pay no regard to the writ. The court, however, determined to enforce their process by a writ of sequestration ; upon which the natives, who are superstitiously attached to their zemindars, rose in his defence, and insulted the sheriff’s officers. The latter having obtained a reinforcement, the zemindar’s palace was entered by 86 men armed with bludgeons, cutlasses, and muskets; the apartment of his women, always held inviolably sacred by the Asiatics, was broken open ; his temple profaned j and the image which was the object of his worship, put into a basket, and carried off with some common lumber. This roused the attention of the governor and council ; who, from a full conviction of the ruinous tendency of these proceedings, determined at last to oppose it force by force. They accordingly sent a party of military to apprehend the sheriff’s people, and they were all conducted prisoners to Calcutta. The judges ordered attachments against the officers who commanded the troops, and against two other servants of the company, while the governor and council endeavoured to justify their proceedings, by writing to England as already mentioned. Besides all this, the natives themselves testified their disapprobation of the conduct of the supreme court in very strong terms. A petition to his Britannic majesty was sent by the natives of Patna ; in which are the following remarkable passages : “ When the ordinances of this court of judicature were issued, as they W’ere all contrary to the customs, modes, usages, and institutions, of this country, they occasioned terror in us; and day by day, as the powers of this court have become more established, our ruin, uneasiness, dishonour, and discredit, have accumulated ; till at last we are reduced to such a situation, that we consider death to us as infinitely preferable to the dread we entertain of the court: for from this court no credit, no character is left to us, and we are now driven to the last extremity. Several who possessed means and ability, deeming flight as their only security, have banished themselves from the country ; hut bound as we are by poverty and inability, and fettered by the dearest ties of consanguinity, we do not all of us possess the means of flight, nor have we power to abide the oppression of this court.”—“ If, which God forbid ! it should so happen, that this our petition should not he accepted, and should be rejected at the chamber of audience, those amongst us who have power and ability, discarding all affection for our families, will fly to any quarter we can j whilst the remainder, who have no means or ability, giving themselves up with pious resignation to their fate, will sit down in expectation of death.” These repeated complaints could not but be taken notice of in parliament. On the 12th of February 1781, General Smith made a motion in the house of commons, that the petition from the British inhabitants of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, should be taken into consideration by a select committee, consisting of 15 persons, chosen by ballot. In the introduction to

COMPANY. iompany, his motion, he stated briefly the had conduct of the brought along with it additional expences ; and the supreme court in the particulars already related j and public had already received a very large share of the concluded, that the affairs of Bengal required the im- company’s profits. He declared it to be his opinion, mediate attention and consideration of parliament. The that the company should always make it a rule to give matter was accordingly debated ; when, after various as ample and full relief to the public burdens as their proposals, a motion was at length made by General situation would allow ; and if they did this, he saw no Smith, for leave to bring in a bill “ to explain and reason why the minister should exact any more. Mr amend so much of an act passed in the 13th year of Dempster reminded the house of the consequences of his present majesty, for the better regulation of the violating the American charters; and added, that to East India Company, as related to the administration tear from the company by force what was not stipulaof justice in Bengal : and also to indemnify the go- ted in any act of parliament, would be a breach of vernor and council of Bengal for having resisted by public faith disgraceful to the nation, and such as force of arms the execution of an order of the supreme would damp the spirit of enterprise and adventure, court of judicature in that kingdom.” Leave was ac- which had been productive of such happy effects.— cordingly given to bring in the bill. The house hav- Notwithstanding these remonstrances, however, the bill ing resolved itself into a committee, Lord North ob- was at last passed into a law; only with this mitigation, served, “ that it had been much his wish that an agree- that the company should pay only 400,000!. instead ment for the renewal of the company’s charter had been of 6oo,oool. demanded originally by the minister.— made in an amicable manner; and that voluntary pro- Another bill was also passed the same year, in consepositions should have come from themselves, offering quence of the motion made by General Smith. This terms for the benefit of the exclusive trade and the ter- act declared, that the governor-general and council of rito-rial acquisitions. No such terms, however, had been Bengal were not subject to the jurisdiction of the suproposed, nor any agreement made. A negotiation had preme court, and indemnified the former for the reindeed taken place between him and the chairman and sistance they had made to the orders of that court. It deputy-chairman ; but the propositions made by them enacted also, that no person should be subject to the were neither such as the public might expect, nor had jurisdiction of that court on account of his being a the company any right to them. With regard to the landholder or farmer of land in the provinces of Benterritorial possessions, he was clearly of opinion, that gal, Bahar, or Orissa; that no judicial officers in the they of right belonged to the public; though how far country courts should be liable to actions in the suit might be proper to allow the revenue of them to re- preme court for their decisions ; and the two mufties, main in the possession of the company was quite ano- with Bebader Beg, who were then in prison, in conther matter. In his opinion it would be proper to sequence of the decision of that court in the Patna allow it to remain in their hands as long as they pos- cause, were ordered to be set at liberty. sessed an exclusive trade, but he never would consent The debates on this subject were attended with the to forego the claim of the public. He made a mo- most violent charges against the minister, and assertions tion, therefore, “ that it was the opinion of the com- the most humiliating and disgraceful to the British namittee, that three-fourths of the surplus of the nett tion. Mr Townshend affirmed, that it was from the profits of the East India Company, ever since the com- minister’s screening the delinquents who came from pany’s bond debt was reduced to 1,500,000!. and the India that all the evils in that quarter had originated; company’s dividends had been eight per cent, per an- and if matters were suffered to go on in that country num, belong to the public; and that 6oo,oocl. in lieu as they had done for some time past, the conduct of thereof, and in discharge of all claims on that part of the British in the East Indies must be viewed in alight the public, be paid into his majesty’s exchequer by in- still more detestable than that of the Spaniards in Astalments, in such manner, and at such times, as shall be merica* It rvas reported, that the nabob of Arcot had agreed on.” This proposal was vehemently opposed by several members in the house of commons ! If it were the minority. Mr Burke called it the daring effort of true, that by sending over a sum of money to Enga minister determined on rapine and plunder, without land he could seat eight or ten members in that house, regard to truth, honour, or justice. Mr Hussey repro- then Mr Townshend declared, that in his opinion they bated the idea of taking 6oo,OOol. from the company were the most abject and contemptible beings in the in their circumstances at that time. He produced world.—The bill for regulating the powers of the sua paper full of arithmetical calculations, which he preme court, also, though so evidently founded in rearead to the house ; asserting that they contained an son and justice, did not pass without opposition, parexact state of the amount of the company’s exports and ticularly from Mr Dunning; who was thought on imports, the expences of their trade at home, and the this occasion to have allowed his regard for his friend balance of profit of each year, for many years past, di- Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, to bias him too stinguishing the territorial from the commercial income much. and expences. From these he showed, that the comThe regulations just mentioned did not yet put an end mercial and territorial revenues of the company had, to the troubles of the East India Company, nor alupon an average for 16 years, constituted a sum equi- lay the ferment which had been so effectually excited. valent to a proportion of 16 per cent. ; that 9 per cent, Their affairs were still a subject of parliamentary disof this had arisen from the commercial profits accruing cussion ; and in the moPth of April I7^2> a m°tion was to the company ; and therefore, that there had not made by Mr Dundas, then lord advocate of Scotland, been 8 per cent, divided upon that part of the profits to for taking into consideration the several reports concernwhich the public had any claim or pretension. The ing affairs, which had been made by the secret commitaccession of territorial possessions, he observed, had tee appointed to inquire into them during the last a'd VOL. VI. Part I. f Xx present

COMPANY. 346 i Company, present session of parliament. In his speech on this Elijah Impey, the chief justice, appear to have been Compaxiy —V——' occasion, he x*emarketl, that the opinion of Lord Clive concerned, the one in giving, the other in receiving, -y—. had been against keeping too extensive a territory an office not agreeable to the late act for regulating in that country. Instead of this he had restored Sujah the company’s affairs $ which unjustifiable transaction Dowlah to the possession of his country j considering was attended with circumstances of evil tendency and the British territories in Hindustan, with those on the example.” Resolutions were also passed for ascertaincoast of Coi’omandel and Bombay, as sufficient for all ing more distinctly the powers of the governor-general the purposes by which this country could be benefited $ and council of Bengal ; and votes of censure against but instead of adhering to the maxims of sound policy Laurence Sullivan, Esq. chairman of the East India laid down by his lordship, they had become so ambi- Company, for having neglected to transmit to India tious of extending their territories, that they had in- an act for explaining and amending the act for regulatvolved themselves in a war with almost all India. He ing the affairs of the company, and for the relief of then considered the finances of the company. The re- certain persons imprisoned at Calcutta. Among the venue of Bombay, be said, fell short of the necessary number of this gentleman’s transgressions, also, w’as his civil and military establishment by 200,000!. a year, imposing an oath of secrecy on Mr Wilkes, one of the which was annually drawn from Bengal. With regard company’s clerks ; and especially his restraining him to that of Madras, it appeared on an average of 12 from giving information to a select committee of the years, from 1767 to 1779, that there had been eight house of commons. years of war and only four of peace ; and that, during Mr Dundas having made several motions tending the whole time of war, the revenue had not been able to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly goverto support the civil and militai’y establishments $ though nor of Bengal, a bill %vas brought in and passed into in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-half a law, for restraining him and Peter Perring, Esq. more. Bengal, however, was the most lucrative of all from going out of the kingdom for the space of one the East India settlements $ but such had been the ex- year, for discovering their estates, &.c. An address pences of the Mahratta war, that the governor-general was also presented to the king, requesting him to rehad been obliged to contract a very large debt, inso- cal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to answer much, that it was doubtful whether the investments for for high crimes and misdemeanours. A number of England should be wholly or partially suspended. Mr other resolutions were now passed by the house, in Hastings, he said, had in many instances proved him- consequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and wlxich self a very meritorious servant: but he wished that were founded on the reports of the secret committee. I every one of their servants would consider himself as Among these it was resolved, “ That the orders of bound in the first place to prove a faithful steward to the court of directors of the East India Company, the company ; not to fancy that he was an Alexander which have conveyed to their servants abroad a prohior Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to bitory condemnation of all schemes of conquest and the improvement of the trade and commerce of his enlargement of dominion, by prescribing certain rules country.—General Smith observed, that by the evi- and boundaries for the operation of their military dence produced to the committee, it appeared that force, were founded no less in wisdom and policy than there had been a vai’iety of great abuses in India. Sir in justice and moderation. That every transgression Elijah Impey, his majesty’s chief justice in that coun- of these orders, without evident necessity, by any of ti’y, had so far derogated from the character of a judge, the several governments in India, has been highly as to accept of a place from the company ; by which reprehensible, and tended in a great degree to weaken means he was brought under their controul, and con- the force and influence, and to diminish the influence sequently allowed himself to be deprived of that inde- of the company in those parts. That every inteiffependence which he ought to possess as a judge. Ju- rence of the company as a party in the domestic or stice had been so partially administered, that several national quarrels of the country powers, and all new worthy and respectable persons had been imprisoned, engagements with them in offensive alliance, have some had been ruined, and others died in jail. From been wisely and providentially forbidden by the comall which considerations he moved, that the affairs of pany in their commands to their administrations in the company ought to be taken into consideration by India. That every unnecessary deviation from these a committee of the whole house. Some hints were rules should be severely reproved and punished. That thrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial pos- the maintenance of an inviolable character for modesessions in the East ought to be taken from the com- ration, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty, pany entirely, and put under the direction of the ought to have been the simple grounds on which the crown ; but this was opposed by Mr Fox, as furnish- British government should have endeavoured to estaing ministers with such ample means of corruption and blish an extensive influence, superior to that of other undue influence, as might overthrow the constitution Europeans $ and that the danger and discredit arising entirely. For this reason, he thought it would be from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be more prudent to leave the appointment of its own ser- compensated by the temporary success of any plan of vants to the company *, but at the same time to keep violence and injustice. That should any relaxation take a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu- place, without sufficient cause, in those principles of nish and remove those who should be found delin- good government on the part of the directors themselves, quent. it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the The house having resolved itself into a committee, resentment of the legislative power of their country. a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren That the conduct of the company, and their servants Hastings, Esq. governor-general of Bengal, and Sir in India, in various instances specified, was contrary to 3

COMPANY. 347 mpany. to policy and good faith ; the company’s servants, in more abundant reason for censure. It was discover- Company, their presidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notori- ed, that corruption, fraud, and injustice had pervaded v— ous instances of disobedience to the orders of their em- every department. It had become an object with the ployers, particularly in forming an alliance Avith B.a>- servants of the company to oppress the natives by every gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken, possible method. They monopolized every article of without any adequate military force, or certainty of a trade, and seemed to have no other principle of comsufficient revenue, and without proper communication merce but lawless violence : the court of directors with the superior government upon which they were sent out instructions 5 but for the most part without to depend for sanction and support, to reinstate the any effect. Though the delegated administration of usurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them- India ought to have preserved the strictest obedience to selves in a war with the ruling ministers of the Mahrat- that of Britain $ yet, being at so great a distance from ta state, while Ragobah himself was not in the mean the seat of supreme authority, and being possessed of time able to give the company any secure possession of endless means of abuse, it had become corrupt in an the grants he had made to them for the purchase of extreme degree. Instead of being subservient to go-, their assistance. That it was the opinion of the house, vernment at home, the administration of India affecthat all the disasters in which the British empire in the ted independence. The maxims of Mr Hastings were East was involved had proceeded from the unjustifi- arbitrary ; and he seemed to have no inclination to able manner in which the Mahrattas had been treated, obey. He treated with sovereign contempt the auand the conduct of the Madras presidency in other re- thority of the court of directors : and the confusion spects specified. That it is the opinion of this house, produced by the disputes between them were fosterthat it must be reckoned among the additional mis- ed by the body of India proprietors, who were dischiefs arising chiefly from the improvident war with posed to act as a check upon the directors. The the Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic necessity of new regulations in the government of Inhad been weakened by reinforcements sent to the Ma- dia was universally admitted j and a bill for this labar coast: that the Bengal government had been purpose was accordingly brought in by Mr Dununder a necessity of supporting, on their confines, the das. His propositions were, that the governor and army of a power confederated against them (a) : that council of Bengal should have a controuling power they had been under the necessity of suing for the me- and jurisdiction over the inferior presidencies of Indiation of the same power : and submitted to a refu- dia ; and he was of opinion that the governor-general sal, and purchased at last an uncertain, because appa- should be invested with a power to act even against rently an unauthorized, treaty, on most extravagant the will and opinion of the council, whenever he and dishonourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rajah should imagine that, by so doing, he could contribute of Berar’s son : and finally, that being burdened with to the public good ; though, in these cases, he alone the expences of a variety of distant expeditions, while should b« responsible for the event. With regard to their allies were in distress, and their tributaries under the inferior governors, though he did not think it prooppression, there was also an alarming deficiency in the per that they should be authorized to act contrary to resources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula- the advice of the council, he was of opinion, that they tion of their debt, and the reduction of their infeft- ought to have a right of negativing every proposition, tnent. That it was the opinion of the house, that an until application was made to the governor-general and attempt made by the govexmor-general, in the begin- council of Bengal. With regard to the zemindaries ning of January 1781, to form an engagement of alli- and other tenures of land, he observed, that when Hinance, offensive and defensive, with the Dutch East India dustan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute Company, in the manner stated by the proceedings of was imposed upon the zemindars ; and while they their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, extravagant, continued to pay this tribute, they accounted themand unjust.” selves to be the real proprietors and masters of the These severe censures extended even to the directors lands they possessed. The people called n/ots, to whom themselves, whose conduct on some occasions was de- these zemindaries were lent out, considered themselves clared to be indefensible, as well as that of their ser- likewise as secure in their possessions while they pervants and agents. It was also resolved, “ That War- formed the articles of their respective contracts. Of ren Hastings, Esq. governor-general of Bengal, and late, however, these rights had been infringed j and William Hornsby, Esq. president of the council of the Mogul came to consider himself as the absolute Bombay, having, in sundry instances, acted in a man- master of all the soil of Indostan $ which maxim he ner repugnant to the honour and policy of this nation, was inclined to destroy, and erect upon it another, that and thereby brought great calamities on India, and might secure the landholders in their property. He enormous expences on the India company, it was the proposed to secure the nabob of Arcot and rajah of duty of the directors to pursue all legal and effectual Tanjore in their territories, by making an act of means for the removal of the said governor-general parliament in favour of the latter; but was of opiand president from their offices, and to recal them to nion, that the debts of these princes ought not to be Britain.” too nicely inquired into, as the greatest part of them The commons having thus seriously entered into a originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion, consideration of East India affairs, soon found still however, that Governor Hastings ought to be recallXxa ed j (a) The power here alluded to was Movedajee Boosla, rajah of Berar. See Indostan.

COMPANY. 348 Company. etl j and that steps ought to he taken to prevent the Bengal by private loan ; and used it as an argument court of proprietors from presuming to act in contra- that the company had ceased to exist, and that their 1 distinction to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared commerce was nothing more than an instrument for to be the most proper successor to Mr Hastings. His procuring immense fortunes to individuals, totally depersonal honour, and that of his ancestors, were pled- stitute of conscience or principle. All this was excused by Governor Johnstone. He ges for his good behaviour j and being independent in his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his regarded the sum of 8oo,oool. as merely trifling, estate out of the spoils of India j and from his profes- when the number of civil and military servants on the sion, he could add to the character of governor that of Bengal government was considered. The famine at commander in chief; he would not, however, insist on Madras was owing to the modes of war which prehis name being filled op in the hill, as that would rest vailed in the East j as the enemy there marked their course by desolation. He concluded with censuring more properly with government. Mr Hastings was defended by Governor Johnstone, the manner in which Mr Hastings had been spoken of} who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro- and insisted that his high reputation ought to have posals of Mr Dundas. He observed, to the honour guarded him from such insults. Mr Burke replied by of the former, that he had been able to conclude a an intimation of his design to impeach Mr Hastings on peace with the Mahrattas ; and while he enlarged on his return ; whom he called the greatest delinquent his talents for negotiation, he admired the resources that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity with which he had supplied the expences of the war. and justice. It was observed by Lord John Cavendish, that the It ought to be considered that Mr Hastings was in a situation the most difficult, and that no man could have territorial acquisitions of the company were a fruitful sustained it with more fortitude and ability. His ene- source of grievance j and it would have been more for mies had dealt in insinuation and invective ; but when their advantage to have confined themselves to their the hour of trial came, they would find that their charges original character of merchants. However, as the terwould be refuted with equal ease. He was defended also ritorial acquisitions had been obtained, it was proper to by Mr Dempster, who advised the house seriously to take means for their preservation j as otherwise they think before they passed a vote for the removal of Mr would not revert to the natives, but fall into the hands Hastings. His exertions had been extraordinary j and of our natural enemies the French. In the house of peers the cause of the company was it would then he as ridiculous to supersede him, as it would have been to recal General Elliot, when the ably defended by Earl Fitzwiliiam. He maintained, Spanish batteries were playing against Gibraltar. He that their situation was desperate, and bankruptcy inewas not, however, an advocate for all the measures of vitable, unless relief was instantly afforded. A report Mr Hastings ; his errors might be numerous ; but no of their being in an insolvent state had gone abroad, censure of him should he established before they were and nothing was better calculated to preserve and support their credit than a large dividend sanctioned by pointed out and explained. Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring act of parliament. The expenditure on their settlein his hill, another was moved for by Sir Henry Uet- ments had far exceeded their revenue } of consequence cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dis- their servants bad drawn bills, which they were unable charge and indemnify the united company of mer- to answer without a temporary supply. Thus the exchants trading to the East Indies, from all damages, istence of the company might be said to depend on the interests, and losses, in respect to their not making re- bill} and he hoped no objections could be raised strong gular payment of certain sums due to the public, and enough to destroy it. On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox proposed to allow farther time to such payment; to enable the company also to borrow a certain sum of money, and his celebrated East India bill, which for some time to make a dividend for the proprietors of four per cent, attracted the attention of the nation at large in a very at midsummer 1783.” He endeavoured to show, considerable degree. By this it was intended to take that the public had derived very considerable advan- from the India proprietors and directors the entire adtages from the company j that their dividend had ministration of their territorial and commercial affairs. been 81. 4s. annually during the time of peace, and It took from them also their house in Leadenhall7I. 15s. per cent, during war j they were by no means street, together with all books, papers, and documents y in a state of insolvency, as some members had en- vesting the entire management, the appointment of all deavoured to prove, their present application pro- officers and servants, the rights of peace and war, and ceeding only from a temporary embarrassment. A the disposal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cernew dispute took place concerning Mr Hastings, who tain commissioners. These were, in the first instance, was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by to he appointed by the whole legislature, but afterGovernor Johnstone. The former enlarged on the wards by the crown 5 and were to hold their offices by bloodshed, ravages, and rapacity, which had taken the same tenure as the judges in England, via. during place in India, The established system of the servants their good behaviour ; and could be removed only by of the company, he said, was rapine and robbery. The an address from one of the houses of parliament. They Mahratta war was occasioned by their refusal to be were required to come to a decision upon every querobbed j the famine at Madras was occasioned by the stion within a limited time, or to assign a specific reamisconduct of the English government in India $ and son for their delay. They were never to vote by balhe set forth in strong colours the manner in which the lot 5 and, almost in every case, were to outer the reaIndian princes and princesses had been plundered. He son of their vote in their journals. They were also to instanced, that Mr Hastings had raised 8oo,oool. in submit, once every six months, an exact state of their accounts

,any ^-

COMPANY, 349 accounts to the court of proprietors j and at the be- but give a very severe blow to the national credit. Company. > ginning of every session, a state of their accounts and On the other hand, the requisite assistance was a mat- and 1596, a second company was formed, under the name of the Company of Bemote Carts; which, in 1597, took the ordinary route of the Portuguese to the Indies, arid returned in two years and a half’s time with little gain but good hopes. This company, and a new one just established at Amsterdam, being united, equipped other fleets; and these occasioned other companies at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, in Zealand, &c. insomuch that the states soon began to apprehend they might be prejudicial to each other. Under this concern, they called all the directors of the several companies togetlier, who all consented to an union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by the states in 1602; a very remarkable epocha, as being that of the most solid and celebrated establishment of commerce that ever was in the world. Its first capital was six million six hundred thousand guilders. It had sixty directors, divided into several chambers; twenty in that of Amsterdam, twelve in that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft and Rotterdam, and a like number in those at Sluys and Horn. As each grant expires, the company is obliged to procure a new one, which it has already done five times since the first, paying a considerable sum each time. The last application was in 1773, when the company, after stating that its trade had declined, solicited the states-general to grant a diminution of the sum formerly paid for the renewal of the charter. Upon this representation their high mightinesses, in order to have time to inquire into the matter, prolonged the charter.

C O M P A N Y. 357 charter for three years, upon the old establishment; it loses on the whole, the loss to fall on the king’s Company. smpany. and finding, upon examination, that the company had side. The capital fund of the company, which was mostly really sustained great losses, and its trade considerably declined, they acted with the spirit of a wise commer- furnished by the king, was seven or eight millions of cial commonwealth, by complying with the company’s livres, but was to have been fifteen millions. request. They, therefore, in 1776, granted them a In eftect, though no means were wanting to support new charter for 30 years, on the same terms as the the company, yet it still drooped and still struggled ; former, on the immediate payment of 2,000,000 of till having subsisted ten years without any change in florins, instead of 3,000,000 which they paid before, its form, and being no longer able to discharge its enand the sum of 360,000 florins yearly 5 which annual gagements, there were new regulations concerted, but payment they were allowed to make either in money to little purpose. At length, things not being dispoor merchandise. In consequence of this indulgence, sed for a new East India Company, nor much good to the stock of the company rose in a short time no less be expected from the old one, in 1708 the minister than 19 per cent. allowed the directors to treat with the rich traders of Their factories, residencies, &c. in the East Indies, St Malo, and resign to them their privileges under are very numerous; reaching from the Persian gulf to certain conditions. In the hands of these last, the the coast of China : the principal is that of Batavia, the company began to flourish. See India Company, becentre of their commerce; here resides their general, low. with the state and splendour of a sovereign prince ; Its chief factory was at Pondicherry, on the coast of making war and peace with the eastern kings and em- Coromandel. This was the residence of the directorperors at pleasure. general. The other factories were inconsiderable. The The other more considerable factories are, Taiouam, merchandises which the company brought into France on the coast of China, Nangisac in Japan, Malacca, were, silks, cottons, spices, coffee, rice, saltpetre ; seveSurat, Amboyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. several ral kinds of gums and drugs, woods, wax, printed calion the coast of Coromandel, and at Ispahan, Cape of coes, muslins, &c. Good Hope, &c. : in all, they number 40 factories and 2. Their TFest India Company was established in 25 fortresses. But the whole are now in the hands of 1664. Their charter gave them the property and the British. seignory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles islands, isle 2. Their TFest India Company was established in of Cayenne, and the Terra Firma of America, from 1621, with an exclusive privilege to trade 24 yeara tire river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko ; with along the coasts of Africa, between the tropic of Can- an exclusive privilege for the commerce of those places,’ cer and the Cape of Good Hope ; and in America from as also of Senegal and the coasts of Guinea, for 40 the south point of Newfoundland, through the straits of years, only paying half the duties. The stock of the Magellan, that of Le Maire, or others, to the straits company was so considerable, that in less than six of Anian, both in the North and South sea. The di- months 45 vessels were equipped ; with which they took rectors are divided into five chambers (as in the East possession of all the places in their grant, and settled a India Company), out of which 19 are chosen for the commerce: yet this only subsisted nine years. In general direction of affairs. In 1647, ^,e company re- 1674, the grant was revoked, and the countries above newed its grant for 25 years ; but it was scarce able to reunited to the king’s dominions as before : the king hold out the term, on account of its great losses and reimbursing the actions of the adventurers. This reexpences in taking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fer- vocation wras owing partly to the poverty of the comnambuc, and the greatest part of Brasil, from the Por- pany, occasioned by its losses in the wars with Engtuguese. The weakness of this company, which had land, which had necessitated it to borrow above a milseveral times in vain attempted to be joined to that of lion, and even to alienate its exclusive privilege for the the East Indies, occasioned its dissolution at the expira- coasts of Guinea: and partly to its having in good meation of its grant. sure answered its end: which was to recover the comIn 1674, a new company, composed of the ancient merce of the West Indies from the Dutch, who had proprietors and their creditors, was settled in the torn it from them: for the French merchants, being same rights and establishment with the former ; and now accustomed to traffic to the Antilles, by permission still subsists, though considerably decayed. Their first of the company, were so attached to it, that it was not capital was about six millions of florins. Its principal doubted they would support the commerce after the establishments are, one at Cape Verd, another on the dissolution of the company. Gold Coast of Africa, at Tobago, Curassao, &c. in 3. Their Mississippi Company was first established inAmerica. 1684 in favour of the Chevalier de la Salle; who haII. French Companies. 1. Their Hast India Com- ving projected it in 1660, and being appointed goverpany was established in 1664, with an exclusive privi- nor of the fort of Frontignac at the mouth of that rilege to trade for 50 years in all the seas of the East ver, travelled over the country in the year 1683, andIndies and South sea. No adventurer to be ad- returned to France to solicit the establishment. This mitted without IOOO livres in stock ; and foreigners obtained, he set sail for his new colony with four veswho have 20,000 livres in stock to be reputed regni- sels laden with inhabitants, &c. but entering the coles. gulf of Mexico, he did not, it seems, know the river The patent grants them the island of Madagascar; that had cost him so much fatigue, but settled on anoand the king to be a£ one-fifth of the expence of the ther river unknown, where his colony perished by dethree first armaments, without interest ; the principal grees; so that in 1685 there were not 100 persons reto be refunded in ten years ; or, if the company find maining, Making several expeditions to find the Mississippi^

COMPANY. 358 Company, sissipi, he was killed in one of them by a party who actions which were granted to the India company, he- Compat, ' —v'— ■' mutinied against him ; whereupon the colony was dis- yond the hundred millions of stock allowed the com-v— persed and lost. M. Hiberville afterwards succeeded pany of the West, being filled as soon as the books better. He found the Mississippi, built a fort, and were opened j to satisfy the earnestness of the subscrisettled a French colony there j but he being poisoned, bers, the stock was increased by several arrets to three it is said, by the intrigues of the Spaniards, who feared hundred millions. Credit still increasing, the new acsuch a neighbour, in 1712 M. Crozat had the whole tions rose to 1200 per cent, and those of the ancient property of trading to the French territories called company of the West to 1900 per cent.; an exorbitant Louisiana granted him for 15 years. price, to which no other company ever rose. Its con4. Company of the JFest. In 1717, the Sieur Crozat dition was now so flourishing, that in 17x9 it offered surrendered this grant $ and in the same year a new the king to take a lease of all his farms for nine years company was erected under the title of Company of the at the rate of three millions five hundred thousand livres West: to which, besides every thing granted to the per annum more than had been given before ; and also former company, was added the commerce of beaver, to lend his majesty twelve hundred millions of livres to enjoyed by the Canada company from the year 1706, pay the debts of the state. These offers were acceptbut expiring in 1717. In this establishment, an equal ed j and the king, in consideration hereof, granted view was had to the finances and the commerce of the them all the privileges of the several grants of the comnation ; and, accordingly, part of the conditions of its panies united to that company to the year 17705 051 establishment regarded the settling a colony, a trade, condition, however, of discharging all the debts of the &c. 5 the other the vending part of the bills, called Old East India Company, without any deduction at all. bills of state, which could no longer subsist on their pre- The loan of twelve hundred millions not being suffisent footing. The former are no more than are usual cient for the occasion of the state, was augmented, in such establishments : for the latter, the actions are three months afterwards, with three hundred millions fixed at 500 livres, each payable in bills of state $ the more ; which, with the former loan, and another of actions to be esteemed as merchandise, and in that one hundred millions before, made sixteen hundred milquality to be bought, sold, and trafficked. The bills of lions, for which the king was to pay interest at the rate state, which make the fund of the actions, to be con- of three per cent. verted into yearly revenue. To put the finishing hand The duke of Orleans, in February 1720, did the to the company, iu I7I7> its fund was fixed at an hun- company the honour to preside in their assembly, where dred millions of livres j which being filled, the cash was he made several proposals to them on the part of the shut up. king: the principal of these was, that they should take 5. India Company. The junction of the former com- on them the charge and administration of the royal pany with that of Canada was immediately followed by bank. This was accepted of: and Mr Law, comptrolits union with that of Senegal, both in the year 1718, ler-general of the finances, was named by the king by an arret of council : which at the same time grant- inspector-general of the India Company and bank ed the new company the commerce of beavers, and united. made it mistress of the negro or Guinea trade to the This union, which, it was proposed, should have been French colonies in America. a mutual help to both those famous establishments, Nothing was now wanting to its perfection but an proved the fatal point from whence the fall of both union with the East India company, and with those commenced : from this time, both the bank bills and of China and St Domingo; which was effected, with the actions of the company began to fall. In effect, the two first in 1719, and with the third in 1720. the first perished absolutely, and the other had been This union ol the East India and China company with drawn along with it but for the prudent precautions the company of the West, occasioned an alteration of taken for its support. the name $ and it was henceforth called the India ComThe first precaution was the revoking the office of pany. inspector-general, and the obliging Mr Law to quit The reasons of the union were, the inability of the the kingdom 5 the ancient directors were discarded, two former to carry on their commerce $ the immense and new ones substituted 5 and to find the bottom of debts they had contracted in the Indies, especially the the company’s affairs, it was ordered they should give East Company, complaints whereof had been sent to an account of what they had received and disbursed, court by the Indians, which discredited the company both on the account of the company and of the bank, so that they durst not appear any longer at Surat j which they had had the management of near a vear. the little care they took to discharge their en- Another precaution to come at the state of the "comgagements ; and their having transferred their privi- pany was, hy endeavouring to distinguish the lawful aclege to the private traders of St Malo, in considera- tionaries from the Mississippi extortioners j whose imtion of a tenth iu the profits of the returns of their mense riches, as well as their criminal address in reaships. lizing their actions either into specie or merchandise, The ancient actions of the company of the West, were become so fatal to the state, in order, if possible, which were not at par when this engraftment was pro- to secure the honest adventurers in their stock. To jected, before it was completed, were risen to 300 per this end, an inquisition was made into their books, &c. cent.; which unexpected success gave occasion to con- by persons appointed by the king ; and the new direcclude the new actions of the united companies would tors, or as they were called, regisseurs, began seriousnot bear less credit. The concourse of subscribers was ly to look about for their commerce abroad. Their so great, that in a month’s time there were above fifty affairs, however, declined, and at length sunk into a millions subscribed for j the first twenty-five million ruined and bankrupt state about the year 1769. The king 3

COMP ANY. 359 they would fit out no adventures for India; that they Company, umpaay. immediately suspended their exclusive privileges, and laid the trade to the East open to all his subjects 5 hoped to obtain a prolongation of this injurious indul- v consigning, at the same time, the alFairs of the compa- gence ; and that, of consequence, their incorporation ny to the care of the ministry to adjust and settle. But was in reality a conspiracy to prevent all future comthe various schemes which were then formed for the munication between France and the sources of comrestoration of the old company, and the establishment merce in Asia. A provision in the act, directing that of a new one, were accompanied with such insur- the prices of East India goods in the islands of Maurimountable difficulties, as to prove wholly ineffectual. tius and Bourbon should be regulated by a tariff to be Nor was the laying open of the trade attended imme- fixed by the court of Versailles, excited still louder diately with the success that was expected ; the mer- exclamations. In this instance, it was said, the first chants being very slow in engaging in it, though the principles of commerce were trampled upon in a manking, by way of encouragement, lent them some of his ner the most wanton and absurd. Instead of suffering own ships to convey their commodities to the East; it to find its own level by the mutual collision of the and the garrison and civil establishments continued to wants of one party and the labour of another, it was be supported in their existing form by the crown. The arbitrarily to be fashioned by a power whose extreme measure, however, proved in time successful ; so that distance must necessarily render its decisions ill-timed for a course of years previous to 1785, the annual im- and inapplicable. The very mode in which the monoportation from India was considerably greater than du- poly was introduced was a subject of complaint. It ring any former period. But whether it was that was determined by a resolution of the king in council ; they regarded this prosperity as precarious ; or aim- a proceeding totally inadequate to the importance of ed at a more extensive success ; or that they wished, the subject, and which was to be regarded as clandesin imitation of Britain, for territorial acquisitions in tine and surreptitious. In all former instances such that climate, and believed an incorporated society measures assumed the form of edicts, and were registerthe best instrument of obtaining them ; the French ed in the parliaments. It was the prerogative of these court was induced to listen to proposals for establishing courts to verify them ; that is, to inquire into the facts a new East India Company. Their privilege was for which had led to their adoption. The injured parties seven years, with the special proviso, that years of war had an opportunity of being heard before the privilege which might occur in the interim should be excluded assumed the form of a law ; not privately by the minifrom the computation. sters of the sovereign, but publicly by the most consiIn the preamble of the act of the 14th April 1785, derable bodies in the kingdom, and in the face of the by which the scheme was adopted, it was alleged, nation. “ that the commodities of Europe not having of late The act of council establishing a new East India years been regulated by any common standard, or pro- Company, was followed on the tenth of June by anoportioned to the demands of India, had on the one hand ther declaration, intended still farther to promote their sold at a low price ; while, on the other, the compe- interest ; by which it was expressly forbidden to imtition of the subjects of France had raised the price of port cottons, printed linens, and muslins, except through the objects of importation : that, upon their return the medium of the company. The arret proceeds uphome, a want of system and assortment had been univer- on the same principles of monopoly as in the former sally complained of, the market being overstocked with instance. It sets out indeed with a declaration, “ that one species of goods, and totally destitute of another ; nothing can appear more desirable to the king, or betthat these defects must necessarily continue as long as ter accord with the sentiments of his heart, than a gethe trade remained in private hands ; and that, on their neral liberty, that freeing at once the circulation of account, as well as that of the capital required, the commodities from every species of restraint, should establishment of a new company was absolutely neces- seem to make of all the people of the world but one sary. nation with respect to commerce.” But it adds, “ that These reasonings did not appear altogether satisfac- the period of this liberty is not yet arrived ; that it tory to the persons principally interested. France has must either be, with respect to the nations of Eubeen so far enlightened by the discussions of the excel- rope, unlimited and reciprocal, or that it cannot be lent writers she has produced upon questions of poli- admitted: that the revocation of the former indultics and commerce, as not to be prepared to behold gence respecting cottons and linens was become necesthe introduction of monopolies with a very favourable sary on account of the opportunities it created for coneye. By many persons it was remarked, that the ar- traband trade; and because the competition of the East guments of the preamble did not apply more to the India Company and private traders would occasion a trade of India than to any other trade ; and that, if surplus in the market, and the admission of foreign they were admitted in their entire force, they were manufactures would decrease and annihilate the national calculated to give a finishing blow to the freedom of industry.” commerce. The capital of the new company, which The provisions that were made for carrying this law amounted to 830,000!. was ridiculed as altogether into effect were considered as unjust and severe. The inadequate to the magnitude of the undertaking. The merchants possessing any of the prohibited commodiprivileges with which it was indulged were treated as ties were allowed twelve months to dispose of them ; , enormous. The monopoly of East India goods im- but upon the express condition, that the commodities ported into France from any part of Europe, was rvere to bear a stamp, importing that they were vengranted to them for two years, as well as the mono- dible only to a certain period ; a circumstance that must poly of East India goods imported from the place of necessarily depreciate their value. It was also enacted, . their growth. It was said, that during that period that the house of any trader might be entered by day or -

360 COMPANYCompany, or by night, at the solicitation of the directors, to I ranee, were represented as peculiarly obnoxious, when 1 search for prohibited goods which were to be confis- they were made for the sole benefit of a privileged mo- Compan cated to the use of the company. These kinds of vi- nopoly. sits of the officers of revenue, hitherto unauthorized in

Company

C O M COMPANY, in military affairs, a small body of foot,

b a Com laril - commantlecl y captain, who has under him a lieute3 nant and ensign. 1 v—The number of sentinels or private soldiers in a company is from 50 to 100 ; and a battalion or regiment consists of 9, 10, or ri, such companies, one of ■which is always grenadiers, and posted on the right; next them stands the colonel’s company, and on the left the light infantry company. Companies not incorporated into regiments are called irregulars^ or independent companies. Artillery Company. See Artillery. Company of Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, who make a charter-party among themselves ; the principal conditions whereof usually are, that certain vessels shall he acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral j that such and such signals shall be observed j that those which bear no guns shall pay so much per cent, of their cargo; and in case they be attacked, that what damages are sustained shall be reimbursed by the company in general. In the Mediterranean such companies are called conserves. COMPAEATIVE anatomy, is that branch of pnatomy which considers the secondary objects, or the bodies of other animals ; serving for the more accurate distinctions of several parts, and supplying the defect of human subjects. * It is otherwise called the anatomy of beasts,a.ni\sametimes %ootomy; and stands in contradistinction to human anatomy, or that branch of the art which considers the human body the primary object of anatomy. See Anatomy. Comparative Degree, among grammarians, that between the positive and superlative degrees, expressive of any particular quality above or below the level of another. COMPAEISON, in a general sense, the consideration of the relation between two persons or things, when opposed to each other, by which we judge of their agreement or difference. Comparison of Ideas, an act of the mind, whereby it compares its ideas one with another, in respect of extent, degree, time, place, or any other circumstances. See Idea. Comparison, in Grammar, the inflection of the comparative degree. See Grammar. Comparison, in Rhetoric, is a figure whereby two things are considered with regard to some third, which is common to them both. Instruction is the principal, but not the only end of comparison. It may be employed with success in putting a subject in a strong point of view. A lively idea is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination by comparing it to a river overflowing its banks, and involving all in its impetuous course. The same effect

COM is produced by contrast: a man in prosperity becomes Compaq more sensible of his happiness, by comparing his con-, stm' dition with that of a person in want of bread. Thus comparison is subservient to poetry as well as to philosophy. Comparisons serve two purposes : when addressed to the understanding, their purpose is to instruct j when to the heart, their purpose is to please. Various means contribute to the latter: 1st, The suggesting some unusual resemblance or contrast*; 2d, The setting an*Seethi object in the strongest light ; 3d, The associating an*rtlcle object with others that are agreeable ; 4th,, The ele-j^^ vating an object; and, 5th, The depressing it. AndaMcZDisst that comparisons may give pleasure by these various^^M^ means, will be made evident by examples which shall he given, after premising some general observations. Objects of different senses cannot be compared together ; for such objects are totally separated from each other, and have no circumstance in common to admit either resemblance or contrast. Objects of hearing may be compared together, as also of taste, of smell, and of touch ; hut the chief fund of comparison are objects of sight; because in writing or speaking, things can only he compared in idea, and the ideas of sight are more distinct and lively than those of any other sense. When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot long lie concealed; and when discovered, they are generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earliest poems of every nation, we find metaphors and similes founded on the slightest and most distant resemblances, which, losing their grace with their novelty, wear gradually out of repute ; and now, by the improvement of taste, no metaphor nor simile is admitted into any polite composition but of the most striking kind. To illustrate this observation, a specimen shall he given afterward of such metaphors as we have been describing : with respect to similes take the following specimen: “ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as “ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead : “ thy teeth are like a flock of sheep from the wash“ ing, every one bearing twins : thy lips are like “ a thread of scarlet: thy neck like the tower of “ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a “ thousand shields of mighty men : thy two breasts “ like two young roes that are twins, which feed “ among the lilies : thy eyes like the fish-pools in “ Hesbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbim : thy nose “ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward Da“ mascus.” Song of Solomon. “ Thou art like snow on the heath ; thy hair like “ the mist of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks “ and shines to the beam of the west: thy breasts “ are

mparU ton.

COM [361 “ are like swo smooth rocks seen from Branno of the “ streams : thy arms like, two white pillars in the “ hall of the mighty Fingal.” FmgaL It has no good effect to compare things by way of simile that are of the same kind ; nor to contrast things of different kinds. The reason is given in the article above cited on the margin, and shall be here illustrated by examples. The first is a comparison built upon a resemblance so obvious as to make little or no impression. Speaking of the fallen angels searching for mines of gold : A numerous brigade hasten’d: as when bands Of pioneers with spade and pickaxe arm’d, Forerun the royal camp to trench a field Or cast a rampart. Milton. The next is of things contrasted that are of difi'erent kinds. Queen. What, is my Richard both in shape and mind Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d Thine intellect ? Hath he been in thy heart ? The lion, dying, thrusteth forth his paw, Asd wounds the earth, if nothing else, with rage To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like, Take thy correction mildly, kiss the rod, And fawn on rage with base humility ? Richard II. Act v. sc. 1. This comparison has scarce any force: a man and a lion are of different species, and therefore are proper subjects for a simile ; but there is no such resemblance between them in general, as to produce any strong effect by contrasting particular attributes or circumstances. A third general observation is, That abstract terms can never be the subject of comparison, otherwise than by being personified. Shakespeare compares adversity to a toad, and slander to the bite of a crocodile $ but in such comparisons these abstract terms must be imagined sensible beings. To have a just notion of comparisons, they must be distinguished into two kinds j one common and familiar, as where a man is compared ts a lion in courage, or to a horse in speed ; the other more distant and refined, where two things that have in themselves no resemblance or opposition, are compared with respect to their effects. There is no resemblance between a flower-pot and a cheerful song; and yet they may be compared with respect to their effects, the emotions they produce in the mind being extremely similar. There is as little resemblance between fraternal concord and precious ointment} and yet observe how successfully they are compared with respect to the impressions they make. “ Behold, how good and how pleasant it is for w brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like the “ precious ointment upon the head, that ran down “ upon Aaron’s beard, and descended to the skirts “ of his garment.” Realm 133. For illustrating this sort of comparison, we shall add some more examples: Vol. VL Part I. f

✓

] COM “ Delightful is thy presence, O Fingal ! it is like Compari“ the sun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns his son. v 1 “ absence for a season, and sees him between the ~ “ clouds. “ Did not Ossian hear a voice ? or is it the sound “ of days that are no more? Often, like the evening “ sun, comes the memory of former times on my “ soul. “His countenance is settled from war 5 and is “ calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of “ the west looks on Cona’s silent vale.” Fingal.

We now proceed to illustrate, by particular instances, the different means by which comparisons, whether of the one sort or the other, can afford pleasure ; and, in the order above established, we shall begin with such instances as are agreeable, by suggesting some unusual resemblance or contrast. Sweet are the uses of Adversity, Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, Wears yet a precious jewel in her head. As you like it, Act ii. sc. 1. See, how the morning opes her golden gates, And takes her farewel of the glorious sun ; How well resembles it the prime of youth, Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love. Second Part Henry VI. Act ii. sc. I. Thus they their doubtful consultations dark Ended, rejoicing in their matchless chief: As when from mountain tops, the dusky clouds Ascending, while the North-wind sleeps, o’erspread Heav’n’s cheerful face, the lowering element Scowls o’er the darken’d landscape, snow, and shower ; If chance the radiant sun with farewel sweet Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive, The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings. Paradise Lost, Book ii. None of the foregoing similes tend to illustrate the principal subject, and therefore the chief pleasure they afford must arise from suggesting resemblances that are not obvious j for undoubtedly a beautiful subject introduced to form the simile affords a separate pleasure, which is felt in the similes mentioned, particularly in that cited from Milton. The next effect of a comparison in the order mentioned, is to place an object in a strong point of view ; which effect is remarkable in the following similes. As when two scales are charg’d with doubtful loads, From side to side the trembling balance nods, (While some laborious matron, just and poor, With nice exactness weighs her woolly store), Till pois’d aloft, the resting beam suspends Each equal weight; nor this nor that descends ; So stood the war, till Hector’s matchless might, With fates prevailing, turn’d the scale of fight. Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies, And fires his host with loud repeated cries. Iliad, Book xii. 521. ' —. ' She never told her love ; But let concealment, like a worm i* th’ bud, Zz Feed

COM [362 ] COM Feed on her damask cheek : she pin’d in thought $ But when he frown’d, it was against the French, And with a green and yellow melancholy, And not against his friends. His noble hand She sat like Patience on a monument, Hid win what he did spend 5 and spent not that Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, Act. ii. sc. 6. Which his triumphant father’s hand had won. His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood, “ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with But bloody w'ith the enemies of his kin. “ the sorrowful. But they are wasted with mournOh Richard, York is too far gone with grief, “ ing, O daughter of Toscar, and their days are Or else he never would compare between. “ few. They fall away like the flower on which Richard II. Act ii. sc. 3, “ the sun looks in his strength, after the mildew has “ passed over it, and its head is heavy with the drops Milton has a peculiar talent in embellishing the prin“ of night.” Fingal. cipal subject, by associating it with others that are — Out, out, brief candle ! agreeable; which is the third end of a comparison. Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player, Similes of this kind have, beside, a separate effect : That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, they diversify the narration by new images that are And then is heard no more. not strictly necessary to the comparison j they are Macbeth, Act. v. sc. 5. §hort episodes, which, without drawing us from the principal subject, afford great delight by their beauty O thou goodness, and variety. Thou divine nature! how thyself thou blazon’st In these two princely boys ! they are as gentle He scarce had ceas’d, when the superior fiend As zephyrs blowing below the violet, Was moving toward the shore ; his pond’rous shield, Not wagging his sweet head j and yet as rough Ethereal temper, massy, large, and round, (Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rudest wind, Behind him cast: the broad circumference That by the top doth take the mountain-pine, Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb And make him stoop to the vale. Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views Cymbeline, Act iv. sc. 4. At evening from the top of Fesole. “ Why did not I pass away in secret, like the Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, “ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unseen, Rivers, or mountains, in her spotty globe. “ and strows its withered leaves on the blast ?” Milton, Book i, Fingal. ■' Thus far these beyond As words convey but a faint and obscure notion of Compare of mortal prowess, yet observ’d great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the Their dread commander. He, above the rest, object he describes, with regard to number, does well In shape and stature proudly eminent, to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known. Stood like a tow’r 5 his form had not yet lost Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of All her original brightness, nor appear’d number to a swarm of bees j in another passage he Less than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excess compares it to that profusion of leaves and flowers Of glory obscur’d : as when the sun new-risen which appear in the spring, or of insects in a summer’s Looks through the horizontal misty air evening : And Milton, Shorn of his beams $ or, from behind the moon, In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds "■ ■ '■ ■■ As when the potent rod On half the nations, and with fear of change Of Amram’s son in Egypt’s evil day Perplexes monarchs. Milton, Book i. Wav’d round the coast, up call’d a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, As when a vulture on Imaus bred, That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung WHiose snowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds, Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile 5 Dislodging from a region scarce of prey So numberless were those bad angels seen, To gorge the flesh of lambs, or yeanling kids, Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell, On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the springs ’Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding fires. Of Ganges or Hydaspes, Indian streams, Paradise Lost, Book i. But in his way lights on the barren plains Of Sericana, where Chineses drive Such comparisons have, by some writers, been conW7ith sails and wind their cany waggons light: demned for the lowness of the images introduced, but So on this windy sea of land, the fiend surely without reason ; for with regard to numbers, Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey. they put the principal subject in a strong light. Milton, Book iii. The foregoing comparisons operate by resemblance y others have the same effect by contrast. Next of comparisons that aggrandise or elevate. York. I am the last of noble Edward’s sons, These affect us more than any other sort $ the reason Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was first y of which will be evident from the following instances: In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce j In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild, As when a flame the winding valley fills, Than was that young and princely gentleman. And runs on crackling shrubs between the hills, His face thou hast, for even so look’d he, Then o’er the stubble up the mountain flies, Accomplish’d with the number of thy hours, Fires the high woods, and blazes to the skies, Tins

COM [ 363 ] COM This way and that, the spreading torrent roars 5 In general, when by any animating passion, whether CompariSo sweeps the hero through the wasted shores. pleasant or painful, an impulse is given to the imagison. Around him wide, immense destruction pours, nation ; we are in that condition disposed to every >r— And earth is delug’d with the sanguine show’rs. sort of figurative expression, and in particular to comIliad, xx. 569. parisons. This in a great measure is evident from the comparisons already mentioned ; and shall be furMethinks, King Richard and myself should meet ther illustrated by other instances. Love, for example, With no less terror than the elements in its infancy, rousing the imagination, prompts the Of fire and water, when their thund’ring shock, heart to display itself in figurative language, and in At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven. Richard II. Act. iii. sc. 5. similes : Troilus. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love, “ As rusheth a foamy stream from the dark shady What Cressida is, what Pandar, and what we ? “ steep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above, and Her bed is India, there she lies a pearl : “ dark brown night rests on the hill; so fierce, so vast, Between our Ilium and where she resides, “ so terrible, rush forward the sons of Erin. The Let it be call’d the wild and wand’ring flood ; “ chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all its bilOurself the merchant, and this sailing Pandar “ lows, pours valour forth as a stream, rolling its might Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark. “ along the shore.” Fingal, Book i. Troilus and Cressida, Act i. sc. i» “ As roll a thousand waves to a rock, so Swaran’s Again : “ host came on ; as meets a rock a thousand waves, so Come, gentle night; come, loving black-brow’d “ Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid. night! The last article mentioned, is that of lessening or Give me my Romeo : and when he shall die, Take him and cut him out in little stars, depressing a hated or disagreeable object; which is effectually done by resembling it to any thing low or desAnd he will make the face of heav’n so fine, That all the world shall be in love with night, picable. Thus Milton, in his description of the rout of the And pay no worship to the garish sun. rebel-angels, happily expresses their terror and dismay Romeo and Juliet, Act iii. sc. 4. in the following simile : But it will be a better illustration of the present ■ 1 ... As a herd head, to give examples where comparisons are improOf goats or timorous flock together throng’d, perly introduced. Similes are not the language of a man in his ordinary state of mind, dispatching his Drove them before him thunder-struck, pursu’d With terrors and with furies to the bounds daily and usual work : for that reason the following And crystal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide, speech of a gardener to his servant is extremely imRoll’d inward, and a spacious gap disclos’d proper : Into the wasteful deep; the monstrous sight Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricots, Struck them with horror backward, but far worse Which, like unruly children make their sire Urg’d them behind ; headlong themselves they threw Stoop with oppression of their prodigal weight: Down from the verge of heav’n. Milton, Book vi. Give some supportances to the bending twigs. Go thou, and, like an executioner, By this time the different purposes of comparison, Cut off the heads of two fast growing sprays, and the various impressions it makes on the mind, are That look too lofty in our commonwealth: sufficiently illustrated by proper examples. This was All must be even in our government. an easy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules Richard II. Act iii. sc. 7. about the propriety or impropriety of comparisons ; in what circumstances they may be introduced, and The fertility of Shakespeare’s vein betrays him frein what circumstances they are out of place. It is evi- quently into this error. dent, that a comparison is not proper upon every occaRooted grief, deep anguish, terror, remorse, despair, sion : a man in his cool and sedate moments is not and all the severe dispiriting passions, are declared enedisposed to poetical flights, nor to sacrifice truth and mies, perhaps not to figurative language in general, reality to the delusive operations of the imagination; but undoubtedly to the pomp and solemnity of comparifar less is he so disposed when oppressed with care, or son. Upon this account, the simile pronounced by interested in some important transaction that occu- young Rutland, under terror of death from an invetepies him totally. On the other hand it is observed, rate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural: that a man, when elevated or animated by any pasSo looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch sion, is disposed to elevate or animate all his subjects ; That trembles under his devouring paws; he avoids familiar names, exalts objects by circumloAnd so he walks insulting o’er his prey, cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary And so he comes to rend his limbs asunder. action to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind, Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy sword, the highest poetical flights are indulged, and the And not with such a cruel threat’ning looki boldest similes and metaphors relished. But without Third Part Henry VI. Act i. sc. 5. soaring so high, the mind is frequently in a tone to A man spent and dispirited after losing a battle is relish chaste and moderate ornament; such as comparisons that set the principal object in a strong point not disposed to heighten or illustrate his discourse by of view, or that embellish and diversify the narration. similes. Z Zz 2 York.

Com parison.

COM [ 3 > blunt at each end ; the glass and cover are quently such needles will never deviate from their hov"™1—> -v——' put on in the common way.” The above gentleman informs us, that a similar com- rizontal position. pass was submitted to his inspection by the captain of Compass is also an instrument of considerable use in a sloop of war, who declared, that during a hard gale surveying land, dialing, &c. Its structure, in the main, is the same with that of of some days continuance, he had no other compass that was of the smallest use. In the opinion of Mr the mariner’s compass ; consisting like that of a box and Romans the account was not exaggerated j in which needle : the principal difference consists in this, that conclusion we are disposed to join issue with him. instead ot the needle’s being fitted into the card, and Yet Mr Nicholson in his interesting journal is of an playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone 5 the card opposite sentiment, who believes that the compass is being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a circle divery little disturbed by tilting the box on one side, but vided into 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. This Plate CL. very much by sudden changes of place in a horizontal instrument is of obvious use to travellers, to direct them % 5direction j that provision made against the latter in a in their road j and to miners, to show them what way scientific manner is the chief requisite in a well con- to dig, with other considerable uses. structed instrument of this nature 5 and that no other 1. To take the declination of a wall by the Compass. provision is necessary than good workmanship agree- Apply that side of the compass whereon the north is ably to the common construction, and properly adjust- marked along the side of the rvall j the number of deing the weight respecting the centres and axes of sus- grees over which the north end of the needle fixes pension. He conceives it will improve the compass will be the declination of the wall, and on that side ; very much to make the needle flat and thin, and to e. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards the suspend it, not in the common way, with its flat side, north, that wall may be shone on by the sun at noon $ but with its edge uppermost; for, as it is known that if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the north tohard steel retains its magnetism longer than soft, it wards the east, the declination is so many degrees from follows that, except both sides of a needle be equally north towards east. hard, the magnetic virtue will incline towards the hardBut since the needle itself declines from the north er side in process of time. towards the west, with us, 130 ; it must be noted, that The Chinese compass has some advantages over the Eu- to retrieve the irregularity, 130 are alw'ays to be added ropean, from which it differs in the length of the needle, to the degrees shown by the needle, when the declinaand the manner of its suspension. The needle of the tion of the wall is towards the east ; on the contrary, Chinese seldom exceeds an inch in length, and is scarce- when the declination is towards the west, the declinaly a line in thickness. It is poised with great nicety, tion of the needle is to be subtracted. and is remarkably sensible. This is effected by the fol2. To take an angle with the Compass. Suppose the lowing contrivance. angle required he 1)AE, fig. 4. apply that side of thejrjg. 4. A piece of thin copper is strapped round the centre compass whereon the north is marked to one of the of the needle. This copper is rivetted by its edges to lines AD : when the needle rests, observe the degrees the upper part of a small hemispherical cup of the same at which its north point stands, which suppose 80 : so metal, turned downwards. The cup thus inverted many degrees does the line decline from the meridian. serves as a socket to receive a steel pivot rising from a In the same manner take the declination of the line cavity made in a round piece of light wood or cork, AE, which suppose 2150; subtract 8o° from 2150, which forms the compass-box. The surfaces of the the remainder ^135°; which subtracted from 180°, socket and pivot, intended to coincide, are highly po- there will remain 450 ; the quantity of the angle relished, to prevent friction as much as possible. The quired. But if the difi’erence between the declination cup has a proportionably broad margin, which not of the two lines exceed 180* j in that case, 1800 must only adds to its weight, but from its horizontal posi- be subtracted from that difference ; the remainder then tion tends to keep the centre of gravity, in every situa- is the angle required. tion of the compass, nearly coinciding with the centre In measuring angles by the compass, there needs of suspension. The cavity in which the needle is sus- not any regard be had to the variation j that being suppended, is circular, and little more than capable to posed the same in all the lines of the angles. remove the needle, cup and pivot. A thin piece of 3. To take a plot of a field by the Compass. Suppose transparent talc is placed over the cavity, which hin- the field A, B, C, D, E, fig. 10. 5 for the greater ac- pig. 10. ders the needle from being affected by the motion of curacy let there be two sights fitted to the meridian line the external air j but allows the apparent motion of of the compass; place it horizontally, and through the former to be easily observed. The small short the sights look along the side AB, or a line parallel to needle of the Chinese has a singular advantage over it; applying the eye to the sight at the south point of those commonly used in Europe, in respect of the dip the compass. Draw a rough sketch of the field by the towards the horizon j which, in the latter, requires eye, and on the corresponding line enter down the dethat one extremity of the needle should be made so gree to which the needle points, which suppose 90° ; much heavier than the other as will sufficiently counter- measure the length of the side, and enter that too, act the magnetic attraction. This being different in which suppose 10 chains. different parts of the world, the needle can only he In this manner proceed with all the rest of the sides accurately true at the place for which it has been con- and angles of the field ; the sides, which suppose 70, structed. But in short and light needles, suspended 65, 70, 44, 50 fathom ; and the angles, which supafter the Chinese manner, the weight below the point pose 30, 100, 130, 240, 300 degrees. To protract of suspension is more than sufficient to overcome the the field, set down the several angles observed, one VOL. VI. Part I. + 3A after ar

COM [ 3?o ] COM about a foot long, bearing three cursors j to one of Compaq Compass, after another, and subtract the lesser from the next Compasses, greater : thus will you have the quantity of the several which may be screwed points of any kind : to the hot--y«~« angles, and the length of the lines that include them. tom of the other two are rivetted two sliding dove-tails, For the rest, see Geometry. adjusted in grooves made .in the cross branches of the Note. All the angles of the figure taken together, beam. The dove-tails having a motion every way by must make twice as many right angles j abating two if turning about the long branch, go backwards and forwards along the cross ; so that when the beam has gone no mistake has been committed. Azimuth Compass. See Azimuth. half-way about, one of these will have moved the whole CoMPASs-Dials, are small horizontal dials, fitted in length of one of the branches 5 and when the beam has brass or silver boxes, for the pocket, to show the hour got quite round, the same dove-tail has got back the of the day, by the direction of a needle that indicates whole length of the branch. Understand the same of how to place them right, by turning the dial about till the other dove-tail. the cock or style stands directly over the needle ; but Note. The distance between the two sliding dovethese can never be very exact, because of the variation tails is the distance between the two foci of the ellipsis j of the needle itself. See Compass and Dialing. so that by changing that distance, the ellipsis w'ill be COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses, a mathe- rounder or slenderer. Under the ends of the branches matical instrument for describing circles, measuring of the cross are placed four steel points to keep it fast. figures, &c. The use of this compass is easy j by turning round The common compasses consist of two sharp-pointed the long branch, the ink, pencil, or other point, will branches or legs of iron, steel, brass, or other metal, draw the ellipsis required. Its figure shows both its joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they use and construction. move as on a centre. Those compasses are of the best German Compasses have their legs a little bent outsort in which the pin or axle on which the joint turns, wards, towards the top; so that when shut, the points and also half the joint itself, is made of steel, as the only meet. opposite metals wear more equably. The perfection of Hair Compasses are so contrived within side, by a them may be known by the easy and uniform opening small adjusting screw to one of the legs, as to take an and shutting of their legs ; one of which is sometimes, extent to a hair’s breadth. made to take in and out, in order to make room for Lapidary's Compasses are a piece of wood, in form two other points to describe with ink, black-lead or of the shaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as half its other materials. length j with this they measure the angles, &c. of There are now used compasses of various kinds and jewels and precious stones, as they cut them. There contrivances, accommodated to the various uses they is in the cleft a little brass rule, fastened there at one are intended for •, as, end by a pin •, but so that it may be moved in the manCompasses of three legs, or Triangular Compasses, ner of a brass level : with this kind of square they take are, setting aside the excess of a leg, of the same the angles of the stones, laying them on the shaft as structure with the common ones j their use being to they cut them. take three points at once, and so to form triangles j Proportional Compasses sre those whose joint lies to lay down three positions of a map, to be copied at between the points terminating each leg: they are once, &c. either simple or compound. In the former sort the Beam-CoMPAssES consist of a long branch, or beam, centre is fixed, so that one pair of these serves only for made of brass or wood, carrying two brass cursors, the one proportion. one fixed at one end, the other sliding along the beam, Compound propoj'tional Compasses consist of two piate ci with a screw to fasten it occasionally. To the cursors parts or sides of brass, which lie upon each other so fig. 6. may be screwed points of any kind, whether steel for nicely as to appear but one when they are shut. These pencils, or the like. It is used to draw large circles, sides easily open, and move about a centre, which is to take great extents, &c. To the fixed cursor is itself moveable in a hollow canal cut through the greatsometimes applied an adjusting or micrometer screw, est part of their length. To this centre on each side by which an extent is obtained to extreme nicety. Mr is affixed a sliding piece A of a small length, with a fine Jones of Hoi born has made beam-compasses to adjust line drawn on it serving as an index, to be set against to the °f an inch. other lines or divisions placed upon the compasses on Calibre-Compasses. See Caliber. both sides. These lines are, I. A line of lines. 2. A Clockmaker's Compasses are joined like the com- line of superfices, areas, or planes. 3. A line of solids. mon compasses, with a quadrant, or bow, like the spring 4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be incompasses 5 only of different use, serving here to keep scribed in circles. These lines are all unequally dithe instrument firm at any opening. They are made vided ; the three first from 1 to 20, the last from 6 to very strong, with the points of their legs of well tem- 20. Their uses are as follow : pered steel, as being used to draw lines on pasteboard By the line of lines you divide a given line into any or copper. number of equal parts ; for by placing the index A Cylindrical and Spherical Compasses, consist of four against 1, and screwing it fast, if you open the combranches, joined in a centre, two of which are circular, passes, then the distance between the points at each end and two flat, a little bent on the ends : their use is to will be equal. If you place the index against 2, and take the diameter, thickness, or caliber of round or open the compasses, the distance between the points of cylindric bodies ; such as cannons, pipes, &c. the longer legs BB, will be twice the distance beplate CL. Elliptic Compasses. Their use is to draw ellipses, tween the shorter ones CC; and thus a line is bisected, % 9. or ovals of any kind : they consist of a beam AB or divided into two equal parts. If the index be placed against 3

CY

C O i X l N (i.

F!. j_ Vfi fc//


but that depends upon circumstances. Guard the with dry coal-ashes sifted line, and an equal quantity heap from dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as these of soot. The lands upon which this experiment was animals are remarkably fond of whale-flesh. This animade, were much worn out with a long succession of mal compost may with great advantage be applied to crops. The lands which had the benefit of the ashes all purposes where good rotten dung is required. I and soot produced an exceeding fine crop j the oil- have used it with great success for cabbages, and find compost produced a tolerable good one ; hut that it an excellent dressing for meadow-ground. Accordwhich had only the assistance of the baron’s compost, ing to the best computation, one hogshead of whale produced a very poor one. It could not have been refuse, will make eight loads of dung; which when we consider the great facility with which this basis of our worse had it been left destitute of every assistance.” Composts, made with putrified animal substances dung-hill may be carried, is a momentous concern to will no doubt answer much better, in most cases, than such farmers as lie remote from a large town.” See any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be Manure, under Agriculture, where the method of procured. The following is recommended by Dr Hun- preparing it from peat earth, is particularly detailed. ter of York.—“ Take a sufficient quantity of saw- We may here recommend a most ingenious thermomedust, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a ter, invented by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, for regulaslaughter-house, putting a layer of one and a layer of ting the temperature of compost dunghills, which the the other till the whole becomes a moist and fetid com- farmer will find of great use in managing the process. Compost, in Gardening, is a mixture of several position. Two loads of this compost, mixed with three loads of earth, will be sufficient for an acre of earthy substances and dungs, either for the improvewheat or spring-corn. Being a kind of top-dressing, ment of the general soil of a garden, or for that of parit should be put on at the time of sowing, and har- ticular plants. Almost every plant delights in some rowed in with the grain. The present year I have a peculiar mixture of soils or compost, in which it will field of wheat manured in this manner, and have the thrive better than in others. COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain, pleasure to say, that it is extremely clean, and has all the appearance of turning out an excellent crop. As and capital of Galicia, with an archbishop’s see, and this kind of compost lies in a small compass, it seems an university. The public squares, and the churches, well adapted for the use of such farmers as are obliged particularly the metropolitan church, are very magnito bring their manures from a distance. It is besides ficent. It has a great number of monasteries, for both extremely rich, and will probably continue in the land sexes, and about 12,000 inhabitants. It is pretended much longer than fold-yard or stable-dung. I appre- that the body of St James was buried here, which hend that it is capable of restoring worn-out land to draws a great number of pilgrims from most parts of its original freshness ; and I am induced to be of that Christendom. They walk in procession to the church, opinion, from the appearance of the above crop, which and visit his wooden image, which stands on the great is now growing upon land much impoverished by bad altar, and is illuminated with 40 or 50 wax candles. They kiss it three times with a very respectful devomanagement.” Another compost, prepared from whales flesh, is tion, and then put their hats on its head. In the church recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—“ I have a there are 30 silver lamps always lighted, and six chanparticular pleasure (says he) in describing and ma- deliers of silver five feet high. The poor pilgrims are king public the best method of forming a compost received into an hospital, built for that purpose, which from whales flesh, as recommended to me by Dr Hun- stands near the church ; and round it are galleries of ter. Having marked out the length and breadth of free-stone, supported bv large pillars. I he archbishop your intended dung-hill, make the first layer of earth is one of the richest prelates in Spain, having jo,ooo about a foot in thickness. Moor-earth, or such as is crowns a-year. From this town the military order ol taken from ant-hills, is the best for this purpose. O- St Jago, or St James, had its origin. It is seated in a ver the earth lay one layer of long litter, from the peninsula, formed by the rivers Tambra and Ulla, in a fold-yard or stable, above 12 inches in thickness, pleasant plain, 265 miles north-west ol Madrid. AY. then a layer of whale-flesh, and over that another layer Long. 8. 17. N. Lat. 42. 52. New Compostella, a town of North America, in of dung. Repeat the operations till the head be rai1, sed about six feet, then give it a thick covering of New Spain, and province of Xalisco, built in iJS earth, and coat the heap with sods. In this manner It is situated near the South sea. AY. Long. 104. 42. each layer of flesh will be placed between two layers of N. Lat. 21. 20. COMPOUND, in a general sense, an appellation dung. In about a month turn the whole in the usual given:.

COM [ 382 ] COM Compound given to whatever is composed or made up of differCOMPROMISE, a treaty or contract, wh.ereby two c0iiipi0 i! ent things; thus we say, a compound word, compound contending parties establish one or more arbitrators to nmc Compres- sounf|} compound taste, &c.—Compound differs from judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable 11 > d , complex, and stands opposed to simple. See Complex manner. Computa.l t and Simple. COMPTON, Henry, bishop of London, was the < ^D‘ J Compound Flower. See Compositus Flos. youngest son of Spencer earl of Northampton, and Compound Interest, called also interest upon interest, born in 1632. After the restoration of Charles H. is that which is reckoned not only upon the principal, he became cornet of a regiment of horse ; but soon afbut upon the interest itself forborne ; which hereby ter quitting the army for the church, he was made bibecomes a sort of secondary principal. See Inte- shop of Oxford in 1674 5 an^ about a year after transrest. lated to the see of London. He was entrusted with Compound Motion, that motion which is effected the education of the two princesses Mary and Anne, by several conspiring powers. Powers are said to con- whom he also afterwards married to the princes of spire if the direction of the one be not quite opposite to Orange and Denmark ; and their firmness in the Prothat of the other, as when the radius of a circle is con- testant religion was in a great measure owing to their ceived to revolve about a centre, and at the same time tutor, to whom, when Popery began to prevail at court, a point to move straight along it. it was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He was Compound Numbers, those which may be divided suspended from his ecclesiastical function by James II. by some other number besides unity, without leaving but was restored by him again on the prince of Orange’s any remainder; such as 18, 20, &e. the first being invasion. He and the bishop of Bristol made the mameasured by the numbers 2, 6, 9 ; and the second by jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he -the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10. performed the ceremony of the coronation ; was apCompound Quantities. See Algebra. pointed one of the commissioners for revising the liturCompound Ratio, is that which the product of the gy ; and laboured with much zeal to reconcile dissenantecedents of two or more ratios has to the product of ters to the church. His spirit of moderation made him their consequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio com- unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12. checked his further promotion. He died in 1713 ; Compound (substantive), the result or effect of a but living in busy times, did not leave many writings composition of different things ; or a mass formed by behind him. the union of many ingredients. COMPTROLLER. Sec Controller. COMPREHENSION, in English church-history, COMPULSOR, an officer under the Roman emdenotes a scheme proposed by Sir Orlando Bridgman perors, dispatched from court into the provinces, to in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity in be- compel the payment of taxes, &c. not paid withhalf of Protestant dissenters, and admitting them into in the time prescribed. The word is formed of the the communion of the church. A bill for this pur- verb compellere, “ to oblige, constrain.” These were pose was drawn up by Lord Chief-Baron Hale, but charged with so many exactions, under colour of disallowed. The attempt was renewed by Tillotson their office, that Honorius cashiered them by a law in and Stillingfleet in 1674, and the terms were settled 412. to the satisfaction of the nonconformists ; but the biThe laws of the Visigoths mention military comshops refused their assent. This scheme was likewise pulsors ; which were officers among the Goths, whose revived again immediately after the Revolution ; the business was to oblige the tardy soldiers to go into the king and queen expressing their desire of an union : fight, or to run to an attack, &c. however, the design failed after two attempts ; and the Cassian mentions a kind of monastic compulsors, act of toleration was obtained. whose business was to declare the hours of canonical Comprehension, in Metaphysics, is that act of the office, and to take care the monks went to church at mind whereby it apprehends or knows any object that these hours. is presented to it, on all the sides whereon it is capable COMPUNCTION, in Theology, an inward grief of being apprehended or known. To comprehend a in the mind for having offended God. The word comes thing is defined by the schoolmen, rem alicpuam totam from compungere, of pungere, “ to prick.”—The Roet totaliter cognoscere. manists own their confession insignificant unless attendComprehension, in Rhetoric, a trope or figure ed with compunction or pricking of heart. whereby the name of a whole is put for a part ; or Among spiritualists, compunction bears a more exthat of a part for a whole ; or a definite number of tensive signification ; and implies not only a grief for any thing for an indefinite. having offended God, but also a pious sensation of grief, COMPRESS, in Surgery, a bolster of soft linen sorrow, and displeasure, on other motives.—Thus, the cloth, folded in several doubles, frequently applied to miseries of life, the danger of being lost in the wmrld, cover a plaster, in order not only to preserve the part the blindness of the wicked, &c. are to pious people from the external air, but also the better to retain the motives of compunction. dressings or medicines. COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, justifies anCOMPRESSION, the act of pressing or squeezing other person’s innocence. Compurgators were introsome matter together, so as to set its parts nearer to duced as evidences in the jurisprudence of the middle each other, and make it possess less space. Compres- ages. Their number varied according to the importsion properly differs from condensation, in that the lat- ance of the subject in dispute, or the nature of the ter is performed by the action of cold, the former by crime with which a person was charged. some external violence. COMPUTATION, in a- general sense, the manner

CON [ 3?3 ] CON omputa- ner estimating time, weights, measure, moneys, or Monte Cassino, where he was to paint a chapel in fres- Conca. y— tion quantities of any kind.—-The word is sometimes also co ; and there made Conca acquainted with every thing II used among mathematicians in the like sense as cal- relative to that manner of painting. At his return to C 1Ka Naples with Solimena, he was, if possible, still more ° ' ' eolation. COMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the assiduous to improve himself to the utmost ; and enOrobii, of an ancient standing, and formerly powerful, tered on a project that might at once advance his indaring to dispute with the Romans : Comenses, the peo- come, and add to his expertness in his profession. That ple ; Comensis Ager, the epithet. It became afterwards project was, to paint portraits in a small size and at a no inconsiderable municipium, to which Julius Ceesar low rate; by which scheme all ranks of persons crowdadded 50CO new colonists (Strabo) •, whence it was ge- ed to him ; and beside the pecuniary advantages renerally called Novocomvm, and the peopie LSovocomenscs. sulting from it, he acquired an extraordinary freedom But in time it recovered its ancient name, Comum ; Pli- of hand in penciling and colouring ; a good habit of ny the younger, a native of that place, calling it by imitating nature with an elegant choice ; and likewise no other name. Now Como, in the duchy of Milan, great diversity of airs of heads, which were of extraat the south end of the lake of that name. E. Long. ordinary use to him in his future beautiful compositions. 9. 37. N. Lat. 46. It is about 80 miles N. E. of As he had a great desire to see Rome, he obtained Turin. permission from Solimena to indulge his inclination ; COMUS, in Mythology, the god of jollity or festi- and although he was near thirty years of age when he vity. There is great reason to believe he was the visited that city, yet he spent eight years in constant Chamos of the Moabites ■, Beel-Phegor, Baal-Peor, study after the antiques, after Buonaroti, Raphael, Priapus, and Bacchus. He is represented under the and the Carracci, and perfected himself in every part appearance of a young man, with an inflamed red of h is profession. The fame of his wmrks soon spread countenance, his head inclined, and crowned with th roughout Rome, and procured him the patronage of flowers j his air drowsy ; leaning on a huntsman’s Cardinal Ottobuoni, who was a princely encourager spear in his left hand, and holding an inverted torch of artists ; and Conca having shown an elegant proof in his right. His statue was placed at the chamber of his abilities in a composition representing Herod doors of new married persons j his pedestal crowned inquiring of the wise men the place of the birth of the Messiah, the figures being as large as life, the Carwith flowers. dinal thought it so excellent a performance, that he CON, or CoND. See CoND. CONANT, Hr John, a learned English divine, rewarded him in a munificent manner, entertained him born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter college in his own palace, and introduced him to Pope CleOxford ; was, by the parliament, constituted one of ment XI. who appointed Conca to paint the picture of the assembly of divines, though he seldom, if ever, sat the prophet Jeremiah in the church of St John Latewith them ; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor ral! ; which he executed with universal applause. On of the university. On the restoration he was one of that occasion the pope was desirous of giving him some the commissioners, and assisted at the conferences in particular mark of his esteem ; and therefore, in a gethe Savoy j but was deprived by the act of uniformi- neral assembly of the academicians of St Luke, he ty j after eight years he was confirmed, and was made conferred on him the order of knighthood, and the archdeacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcester. cardinal presented him with a rich diamond cross, In 1686 he lost his sight; and died in 1693 ; leaving which Conca, out of respect to his patron, always a number of admired sermons, afterwards published in wore at his bosom. From that time he was incessantly employed, and his works were solicited by most of six volumes. CONARION, or Conoides, a name for the pineal the princes of Europe. The churches and chapels of every part of Italy are enriched with some of his comgland. See Anatomy Index. CONATUS, a term frequently used in philosophy positions ; of which he painted an incredible number, and mathematics, defined by some to be a quantity of as he lived to a very advanced age, and never disconmotion, not capable of being expressed by any time tinued his labours. He was earnestly invited by Phior length ; as the conatus recedendi ab axe niotus, is lip V. of Spain to visit his court, but he could not be the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes prevailed on to leave Rome. He painted two admito recede, or fly off, from the centre or axis of its mo- rable pieces for the king of Poland, with figures as large as life ; in one was represented Alexander pre• tion. CONCA, Sebastian, called Cavalier, a celebrated senting Bucephalus to Philip, after he had managed history and portrait painter, was born at Gaeta in him ; a grand composition, with a multitude of fi1679, and placed as a disciple with Francesco Solime- gures, correctly designed, and charmingly grouped na, an incomparable master. Uuder his direction and disposed ; the whole being adorned with most eleConca exerted his utmost industry to obtain a proper gant architecture, in true and beautiful perspective.. knowledge of the true principles of the art of paint- The other was the marriage of Alexander with Roxing , nor did he permit any kind of amusement to ana, the daughter of Harius, which was in every rewithdraw his attention from his studies. Solimena spect equal to the former. He was at last so strongsoon perceived in his disciple such talents, and such a ly pressed to go to Naples, that he undertook the disposition, as would qualify him to make a very great journey ; and was received in that kingdom with all progress ; and on that account he conceived so strong the respect and honour due to his merit; and there he an affection for him, that he not only afforded him the finished several noble designs, as also at Gaeta his nabest instructions, but often employed him to sketch tive city. While he continued at Naples, he received after his own designs ; took him along with him to in the royal presence a snuff-box of very great value, presented

CON CON [ 384 1 kind, the woman begins to count the series of her Conce presented to him in the king’s name by tne maiquis of weeks, without taking any notice of the time before tioa Tanucci, at that time prime minister; and in the year elapsed ; after this, or between the second or third ' lyijy, the king was pleased to ennoble him and all his descendants. At that time he was 78, and it is confi- months, but generally about the third, the motions of dently said, that he died in 1761, aged 82, which is the embryo become perceivable to the mother ; who very probable, though not positively certain. He un- hereupon becomes troubled with a nausea, vomiting, derstood perspective and architecture thoroughly, and loathing, longing, &c. About this time the breasts added to it a fine understanding of the chiaro scuro. begin to swell, grow hard and painful, and contain a His style of composition is grand and elegant *, his de- little milk ; the nipples also become larger, firmer, and sign very correct; his disposition ingenious ; his atti- darker coloured, a livid circle appearing round them ; tudes and expression full of truth, nature, and variety ; the eyes seem sunk and hollow. During the two first and his colouring is excellent. The history ot Diana months of pregnancy, the woman grows thinner and and Actseon, by Conca, is in the possession of the earl slenderer ; the abdomen being also depressed ; though it afterwards distends, and grows gradually larger. of Pembroke at Wilton. The manner wherein conception is effected is thus CONCALE BAY, is on the coast of France in Brittany, where the British forces landed in June 1758, laid down by the modern writers: In the superfices of in order to go to St Maloes ; which they did, and the ovaries of women, there are found little pellucid burnt all the ships in that harbour, which were above spherules, consisting of two concentric membranes fill100, of all sorts. Concale is the town which gives ed with a lymphatic humour, and connected to the surname to the bay, and is famous for oysters. It is 18 face of the ovaria underneath the tegument, by a thick miles east of St Maloes, and 197 west of Paris. W. calyx, contiguous to the extremities of the minute ramifications of the Fallopian tubes. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 48. 41. These spherules, by the use of venery, grow, swell, CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in the department of Finisterre, with a harbour and a castle, raise and dilate the membrane of the ovary into the and 2200 inhabitants. E. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 47. 46. form of papillae ; till, the head propending from the CONCATENATION, a term chiefly used in stalk, it is at length separated from it; leaving behind speaking of the mutual dependence of second causes it a hollow cicatrix in the broken membrane of the ovary ; which, however, soon grows up again; upon each other. Now, in these spherules, while still adhering to the CONCAVE, an appellation used in speaking of the inner surface of hollow bodies, but more especially of ovarv, fetuses have been frequently found ; whence it appears, that these are a kind of ova, or eggs, deriving spherical ones. Concave Glasses, such as are ground hollow, and their structure from-the vessels of the ovary, and their are usually of a spherical figure, though they may be liquor from the humour’s prepared therein. of any other, as parabolical, &c. All objects seen Hence also it appears, that the Fallopian tubes bethrough concave glasses appear erect and diminished. ing swelled and stiffened by the act of venery, with CONCENTRATION, in general, signifies the their muscular fimbriae, like fingers, may embrace the bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles ovaries, compress them, and by that compression exof salt, in sea-water, are said to be concentrated ; that pand their own mouths : and thus the eggs, now mais, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the wa- ture, and detached as before, may be forced into their tery part. cavities, and thence conveyed into the cavity of the CONCENTRIC, in Mathematics, something that uterus ; where they may either he cherished and retainhas the same common centre with another : it stands in ed, as when they meet with the male seed ; or, if they opposition to excentric. want that, again expelled. CONCEPTION, in Logic, the simple apprehension Hence the phenomena of false conceptions, aboror perception which we have of any thing, without tions, fetuses found in the cavity of the abdomen, the proceeding to affirm or deny any thing about it. Some Fallopian tubes, &c. For in coition, the male seed, writers, as Lord Karnes, distinguish between concep- abounding with living animalcules, agitated with a tion and perception ; making the latter to denote the great force, a brisk heat, and probably with a great consciousness of an object when present, or to include quantity of animal spirits, is violently impelled through the reality of its object; whereas conception expresses the mouth of the uterus, which on this occasion is the forming an idea of an object whether present or opener, and through the valves of the neck of the uteabsent, or without any conviction of its reality. rus, which on this occasion are laxer than ordinary, Conception, in Medicine, denotes the first forma- into the uterus itself; which now, in like manner, betion of the embryo, or foetus in the womb. comes more active, turgid, hot, inflamed, and moistenConception is no other than such a concourse and ed with the flux of its lymph and spirits, by means of commixture of the prolific seed of the male with that the titillation excited in the nei’vous papillae by the atof the female, in the cavity of the uterus, as immedi- trition against the rugse of the vagina. ately produces an embryo. The semen thus disposed in the uterus, is retained, The symptoms of conception or pregnancy are heated, and agitated, by the convulsive constriction of when, in a few days after the conjugal act, a small the uterus itself; till meeting with the ova, the finest pain is perceived about the navel, and is attended with and most animated part enters through the dilated some gentle commotions in the bottom of the abdo- pores of the membranula of the ovum, now become men ; and within one, two, three, or even four glandulous ; is there retained, nourished, and dilated ; months, the menses cease to flow, or prove in less grows to its umbilicus, or navel; stifles the other less quantity than usual. Upon the first failure of this lively animalcules j and thus is conception effected. Hence

CON

[

385 ] CON corps that was seldom complete. None of the fortifica- Conceponoe'iHence it appears, that conception may happen in tion.1 any part where the semen meets with an ovum: thus tions are considerable j bnt those towards the land are tion I) whether it be carried through the Fallopian tube to wretched. The Spaniards now live in tolerable secu- Coni>!0 ( ^ the ovary, and there cast upon the ovum ; or whether rity with respect to the Indians, and have no notion it meet with it in some recess of the tube itself $ or, of any attack on that side. This town, with the rest lastly, whether it join it in the cavity of the uterus, it of the province, fell into the hands of the Independents may still have the same effect, as it appears from obser- in 1817. Conception, a town of North America, in New vation actually to have had. But it is probable, that conception is then most perfect when the two, viz. the Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala. It is seated semen and .ovum, are carried at the same time into the near the sea coast, 100 miles west of Porto-bello, and a small river that runs into the sea. W. Long. 81. 45. uterus, and there mixed, &c. According to other physiologists the male seed is N. Lat 10. 0. Conception del Pao, a town of South America, in taken up, before it arrives in the uterus, by the veins which open into the vagina, &c. and thus mixed with the province of Caraccas, containing 2300 inhabitants, the blood ; by which, in the course of circulation, it is who live chiefly by their cattle. It is 84 miles southcarried, duly prepared, into the ovary, to impregnate the east of Caraccas. W. Long. 65. 10. N. Lat. 8. 42. CONCERT, or Concerto, in Music, a number or eggs. It has been advanced by several writers, that women company of musicians, playing or singing the same may possibly conceive in their sleep, and be with child piece of music or song at the same time. CONCERTATO intimates the piece of music to be without anv knowledge of the occasion of it. As ridiculous and absurd as this doctrine may appear to the ge- composed in such a manner, as that all the parts may nerality of the world, no less an author than Gensili has have their recitatives, be it for two, three, four, or more voices or instruments. thought it worthy a particular dissertation. CONCERTO grossi, the grand chorus of a conConception, Immaculate, of the Holy Virgin, is a feast established in honour of the holy virgin, particu- cert, or those places where all the several parts perlarly with regard to her having been conceived and form or play together. CONCESSION, in general, signifies either the act born immaculate, i. e. without original sin, held in the Romish church on the 8th of December. The imma- of granting or yielding any thing, or the thing itself culate conception is the great head of controversy be- which is so granted or yielded. Concession, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby sometween the Scotists and Thomists $ the former maintaining, and the latter impugning it. In the three thing is freely allowed, that yet might bear dispute, Spanish military orders, of St James of the sword, Ca- to obtain something that one would have granted to latrava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied, as their admission to defend the immaculate conception. in the following concession of Dido, in Virgil; This resolution was first taken in 1652. Peter d’Alva “ The nuptials he disclaims, I urge no more j has published 48 huge volumes in folio on the myste“ Let him pursue the promis’d Latian shore. M ries of the conception. A short delay is all I ask him now j Conception, an episcopal town of Chili in South “ A pause of grief, an interval from wo.” America. It is situated in W. Long. 73. 50. S. Lat. CONCHA, in TLoology, a synonyme of the Myti36. 40 $ and is the oldest European settlement in Chili, and the second in point of dignity. On their first Lus, Solen, and other shell-fish. CONCHES, a town of Normandy, in the departsettlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven off by the Indians, so that they were obliged to take ment of Eure, which carries on a considerable trade. up their residence at St Jago. Since that time both It is seated on the top of a mountain, in the territory the cities of Conception and St Jago have been fre- of Ouche, 45 miles north-west of Paris. E. Long. quently destroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1751 O. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58. CONCHITES marmor, a name given by the anboth of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful shock, the first concussions of which were attended with an un- cients to a species of marble dug near Megara, and usual swelling of the sea, that overturned the few houses remarkable for containing a great number of sea-shells, which had escaped the ravages of the earthquake. and other marine bodies immersed in it. The harbour is good, and pretty much frequented j on CONCHOID, in Geometry, the name of a curve, which account the city is regarded as a place of con- given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. See sequence, The king allowed annually 350,000 pieces Fluxions. of eight for the support of a garrison of 3500 men j a

CONCH O L O G Y, t ^uc* ]S that department of natural history which treats of f testaceous animals. In the Linnaean arrangement it constitutes the third order of the class of Vermes. This is the order testacea, of which we propose to lay Vol. VI. Part I. f

before our readers a pretty full view in the present treatise. The peculiarity and extent of this order of animals have induced us to consider it in a separate treatise, by which means we shall avoid swelling out to 3C art

C hap. ] .CONCHOLOGY. gems, in the estimation of mankind, is the production Histor an inconvenient magnitude, the class of Vermes, which will be treated of in its proper place in the course of of testaceous animals. Its nature and mode of formation, therefore, cannot fail to he objects of curious investithe work. 2 Importance The fine polish, splendid colours, and elegant form gation. But testaceous animals and their productions, of concho- of shells, have been long admired, and have procured are not only beneficial and ornamental; some are found logy. for them a conspicuous place in the cabinets ol the curi- to be highly pernicious. The snail ravages the garden ous. Indeed in this respect, mankind have discovered and the field, and marks its progress with the destruction no small degree of folly and extravagance, in the high of some of the fairest of the vegetable tribes ; while price which has been given for rare and beautiful shells, the ship-worm is justly the dread of the mariner ; seand often only on account of their rarity. But the study cure, as it were, in its insignificance, it humbles the of conchology acquires a higher degree of importance glory and pride of man ; and labouring in secret, deand utility in another view. In many parts of the molishes the noblest efforts of ingenuity. In these world, different kinds of testaceous animals are em- views, then, the economy and habits of testaceous aniployed as an excellent and nutritious food ; and some mals, which at first sight might appear a barren and tribes supply the table with a delicate luxury. Dif- useless pursuit, become an important and beneficial ferent shells furnish employment to ingenuity and art, subject of investigation. The following chapters, therein the manufacture of mother-of-pearl for various pur- fore, shall he occupied in the classification and natural poses $ and the pearl itself, so much sought after as an history of this tribe of animals. ornament of dress, and often the rival of the richest CHAP. I. HISTORY OF CONCHOLOGY. Cultivated THE few scattered fragments concerning the natuby the an- ral history of shells, or testaceous animals, which are cients. j0 fou,ul ;n the writings of the ancients, when compared with the more extended and systematic labours of the moderns, are so unimportant and inaccurate, that it would be altogether superfluous to trouble our readers with an account of the information which they contain. It appears, however, from the works of Aristotle and Pliny, the great naturalists of Greece and Home, that the study of conchology was not entirely neglected in their time. It appears too, that admirers and collectors of shells were not then wanting. Scipio and Lselius, we are informed, found a relaxation from the toils and cares of war and government, by indul^ ging in this elegant amusement (a). By the mo- Nor will it be attended with much advantage to derns. give a particular account of the works of the earlier writers on this subject, among the moderns. These are Gesner, Johnston, Rondeletius, Aldrovandus, Bellonius, Wormius, and some other authors, who cultivated this department of natural history, and accompanied their descriptions with figures, illustrative of the objects which they described. The first author who attempted a systematic division of shells, according to their external form and character, was John Daniel Major, professor of medicine in the university of Kiel in Holstein. His method is published at the end ol his curious and interesting remarks on the treatise concerning the 'purpura of Fabius Columna, printed at Kiel in 1675. The system of the German naturalist was followed by that of our countryman Dr Lister, on a more extended and improved plan, which was published ten years after. Succeeding naturalists turned their attention to the study of conchology, and to the improvement of the classification of the numerous objects of this department of natural hi-

story. Such were Buonanni, Rumfius, Langius, Breynius, Tournefort, Gualtieri, D’Argenville, Klein, Linnaeus, Adanson, Geoffroy, and Muller. We shall here exhibit some of the most celebrated systems of conchology which have been proposed by writers on this subject. This, we trust, will not be unacceptable to our readers, and particularly as the works of these authors are in few hands, and therefore become less accessible. S I. The first general arrangement of shells is thatSyitem ster published by Dr Lister in a work with the followingI'* • title. Martini Lister, M. D. Histories sive Synopsis methodicee Conchyliorum libri quatuor, continentes 10 SI figures cere nitidissime insculptas, a Susanna et Anna Lister depictas. Londini, 1685—1688, folio. A second edition of the same work was published at Oxford in I77°> with additional figures. SYSTEM of LISTER. Lib. I. He Cochleis Terrestribus. Pars I. De Buccinis et Turbinibus terrestribus. Sect. 1. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, laevibus, edentulis. Sect. 2. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, edentuiis, striatis. Sect. 3. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata. Sect. 4. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apertura plana. Sect. 5. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata. id est compactiore figura.

et S pionem COncl aS et , f , ‘, "mbUicos ad Cajetam consuesse, et ad omo. amon remissionem ludumque descendere. Cic. de Oral. lib. ii. et ad Laurentum legere °

[. CONCH O L O G Y. Cap. 8. De Pectunculis striatis, ex latere muko maSect. 7. Trochilus. gis diffusis, latioribus. Cap. 9. De Pectunculis striSect. 8. De Tarbinibus terrestribus, compressis edenatis, ex latere diffusis angustioribus. Cap. 10. De tulis, ipso ambitu acuto. Pectunculis striatis imbricatis. Sect. 9. De Turbinibus compressis, ambitu obtusiore, Sect. 6. Cap. I, De Musculis marinis, cardine laeyi apertura edentula. minimeque dentato. Cap. 2. De Musculis marinis Sect. 10. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, a sipolyleptoginglymis. nistra dextrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata. Sect. 11. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, aper- Sect. 7. Cap. 1. De Pinnis, margine velut praecisa obtusave. Cap. 2. De Pinnis, margine producta et tura dentata, a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apice auctiore. inverse ex ipsa aperturse parte. Sect. 8. Cap. 1. De Tellinis, id est conchis fere cuneiPars II. Cochleae nudae terrestres, limaces quibusdam formibus, ambitu serrata. Cap. 2. De lellinis quidictae. bus ambitus ex interna parte laevis est. Sect. 9. De Solenis, id est conchis tenuibus longissiLib. II. De Turbinibus et Bivalvibus aquee dulcis. misque ab utraque parte naturaliter hiantibus. Pars I. De Turbinibus. Sect. 10. Cap. I. De Chamis, ab altero tantum latere fere naturaliter hiantibus. Cap. 2. De Chamis pho* Sect. I. De Buccinis fluviatilibus. ladibus. Sect. 2. De Cochleis fluviatilibus. Sect. 3. De Cochleis fluviatilibus compressis. Pars II. De Testaceis multivalvibus. Sect. 1. Cap. I. De Pholadibus triumve testarum conPars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus. chis, cardinibus loculis quibusdam quasi perforatis. Sect. 1. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine dentato. Cap. I. De Pholadibus, cardine integro. Sect. 2. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine laevi. Sect. 2. De Conchis quinque testarum anatiferis pieSect. 3. De Pectunculis fluviatilibus. risque dictis. Sect. 3. De Balanis, id est, duodecim testarum conLib. III. De Testaceis bivalvibus marinis. chis praeter operculum mitratum. Sect. 4. Sive appendix ad librum tertium de conchitis Pars I. De Testaceis bivalvibus, imparibus testis. iisve lapidibus, qui quandum similitudinem cum conSect. I. Cap. I. De Pectinibus ex ntraque parte aequachis marinis habeant. liter auritis, striatis. Cap. 2. De Pectinibus aequaliter auritis, laevibus. Cap. 3. De Pectinibus io®- Lib. IV. De Buccinis marinis, quibus etiani vermiculi qualiter auritis, non dentatis. Cap. 4* De Pectinidentalia et patella;, numerantur. bus inaequaliter auritis dentatis. Sect. I. Cap. I. DePatellis, vertice perforate. Cap. 2. Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Ostreis apophysi plana longa reDe Patellis, vertice integro, laevibus. Cap. 3. De curva, angulo acuto desinente. Cap. 2.] De Ostreis Patellis, vertice integro, striatis, margine quasi raapophysi brevi, subter et quasi in occulto posita. diata. Cap. 4. De Patellis, vertice adunco marSect. 3. De Spondylis. gine aequali. Cap. 5. De Patellis, vertice adunco, margine obliqua. Cap. 6. De Patellis, vertice aPars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus, paribus testis. dunco, quibus ex interna parte cavitas qusedam quasi Sect. I. Cap. 1. De Pectinibus margaritiferis. Cap. 2. arcuata, longis compressis. Cap. 7. De Patellis, De Pectinibus, binis apophysibus longis conjunctis. vertice acuto, stilo quodam interno donatis. Cap. 3. De Pectinibus margaritiferis polyginglymis. Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, Sect. 2. De Dentalibus. margine ex altera parte productiore. Cap. 2. De Sect. 3. De Vermiculis. Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda, Sect. 4. Cap. De Nautilis caudatis, sive e plurimis tabulatis confectis. Cap. 2. De Nautilis vacuis, sive striatis. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglynon tabulatis. mis, margine rotunda, laevibus. Sect. 3. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis laevibus, triquetris Sect. 5. Cap. I. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, umbilicatis, sinu aurito. Cap. 2. De Cochleis mafere, cervice angustiore. Cap. 2. De I ectunculis rinis, apice brevi, umbilico simplici. Cap. 3. De laevibus, triquetris, cervice latiore. Cap. 3. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, centro minime sinuaPectunculis laevibus, rostro recurvo. to. Cap. 4. De Cochleis marinis, basi brevi, apice Sect. 4. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis fasciatis, lunula notaad oris initium parum elato. Cap. 5. De Cochleis tis, margine striata. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis fasciamarinis, apice mediocriter producto, ore dentato. tis, lunula quadam notatis, margine laevi. . Cap. 3. Cap. 6. De Cochleis marinis, apice medioeriter proDe Pectunculis fasciatis, ad rostrum integris. ducto, ore edentulo, Isevibus. Cap. 7. De CochSect. 5. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis striatis productileis marinis, apice mediocriter producto, striatis. oribus, striis a rostro ad medium usque dorsum Cap. 8. De Cochleis marinis, clavicula tenui et concurrentibus. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis striatis dilongissima, striatis. Cap. 9. De Cochleis marinis, vei’simode exaratus, sive dissimilibus. Cap. 3. De clavicula tenui et longissima, laevibus. Pectunculis striatis, striis similibus, dorso ad alteSect. 6. Cap. 1. De. Neritis dentatis, clavicula paulurum latus paululum eminente. Cap. 4. De Pectunlum prominente. Cap. 2. De Neritis dentatis, claculis striatis, dorso in aciem compresso. Cap. 5. De vicula compressa, striatis. Cap. 3* De Neritis denPectunculis striatis, muricatis asperisve. Cap. 6. tatis, clavicula compressa, laevibus. Cap. 4* De De Pectunculis striatis, striis a rostro tantum deducNeritis ad columellam dentatis, labio productiore tis Levibus. Cap. 7. De Pectunculis cancellatis. 3 C 2 edentulo.

388

History

CONCHOLOGY. Chap. edentulo. Cap. 5. De Neritis edentulis Itevibus. bus donatis, labro simplici. Cap. 4. De Buccinis Hiutor Cap. 6. De Neritls edentulis muricatis. utrinque productioribus, striis paucioribus, labro doySect. 7. De Auribus marinis. plicato donatis. Cap. 5. De Buccinis utrinque proSect. 8. Cap. 1. De Trochis pyramidalibus, apertura ductioribus, muricatis. five basi leviter tumida. Cap. 2. De Trochis pyra- Sect. 15. Cap. 1. De Buccinis brevirostris, nodosis. midalibus, basi paululum cava sive sinuata. Cap. 3. Cap. 2. De Buccinis brevirostris, striatis. Cap. 3. De Trochis, apertura sive basi plana. Cap. 4. De De Buccinis brevirostris, Igevibus, fere clavicula Trochis brevioribus, umbilicatis, dentatis. Cap. 5. productiore. Cap. 4. De Buccinis brevirostris, labro De Trochis cochleseformibus, umbilicatis, edenturepando, tenuibus. Cap. 5. De Buccinis brevirostiis, lis. Cap. 6. De Trochis clavicula breviore, colulabro repando, crassis. Cap. 6. De Buccinis brevimella paulo erectiore Integra. Cap. 7. De Trochis, rostris, compressis. Cap. 7. De Buccinis auritis, basi media leviter tumida, quasi altera clavicula. sive rostro recurvo donatis, ventriculosis. Cap. 8. Cap. 8. De Trochis, unico dente ad columellam De Buccinis brevirostris, sinu reflexo, laevibus. Cap. 9. acuto. De Buccinis brevirostris, rostro reflexo, clavicula Sect. 9. Cap. r. De Conchis venereis unicoloribus. productiore. Cap. 2. De Conchis venereis, lineis nigris secundum Sect. 16. Seu appendix de buccinitis, iisve lapidibus longitudinem depictis. Cap. 3. De Conchis undaque buccina omnigena valde referant. tim depictis. Cap. 4. De Conchis venereis fasciatis, immaculatis j et de conchis venereis fasciatis et II. In 1722, Langius presented to the world the fol-Oflang maculatis, aut alias cum fasciis variegatis. Cap. 5. lowing work on conchology. Caroli Nicolai Lavgii De Conchis venereis, punctis nigris distinctis. Cap. 6. Lucernen. Helvet. Phil, et Med. &fc. Methodas nova De Conchis venereis, maculis albis nigrisve inter- et facilis, testacea marina plceraque, quce hue usque nospersis insignitis $ et de conchis venereis maculis al- bis nota sint, in suas debitas et distinctas classes, gebis quasi reticulatim depictis. Cap. 7. De Conchis nera, et species, distribuendi, nominibusque suis provenereis, striis eminentibus conspicuis. Cap. 8. De priis, structurce potissimum accommodatis mincupandi, Conchis venereis, punctis elatis exasperatis, nodisve Sfc. Lucernce, 1722, 410, p. 102. insequalibus. Cap. 9. De Conchis venereis, apertura non dentata, basi integra. Cap. 10. De ConSYSTEM of LANGIUS. chis venereis, basi umbilicata cochleata. Sect. 10. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindraceis columella Pars Prima. Testacea marina univalvia non tutbidentata, crassis, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhomnata. bis cylindraceis dentatis, maculosis. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindxaceis dentatis, fasciatis. Cap. 4. De Classis Prima. Tesfacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et in se non contorta. Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, undatis. Cap. 5. De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, dorso gibboso. Sect I. Testacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindraceis edentulis, ore in se non contorta nullo modo, vel solummodo in strictiore. Cap. 7. De Rhombis edentulis tenuibus, summo apice tantiliura iucurvata. Gen. 1. Patella?. ore patulo, clavicula paululum exserta. Cap. 8. De Gen. 2. Balani. Rhombis edentulis, ore patulo, clavicula compressa. Sect. 2. Tubuli marini, seu testacea marina univalvia, Pars IT. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalinon turbinata, et in se non contorta, elongata tubuli bus, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindriinstar concava. Gen. 1. Penicilla. Gen. 2. Denco-pyramidalibus, quibus linete maculatse circum intales. Gen. 3. Tnbuli radiciformes. Gen. 4. Tujiciuntur. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramibuli vermiculares. dalibus, striatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindricopyramidalibus, undatis. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cy- Classis Secunda. Testacea marina univalvia, non turbinata, sed ita in se contorta, ut eorum spirae non lindrico-pyramidalibus, fasciatis. Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, reticulatis. Cap. 7. De promineant. Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, dentetis. Sect. I. Testacea marina univalvia ita in se transversim, Sect. II. Cap. 1. De Buccinis persicis dictis. Cap. 2. vel oblique secundum longitudinem contorta, ut eoDe Buccinis musicis dictis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis rum circumvolutiones vix appareant. Gen. 1. Naucolumella dentata, clavicula longissima et tenuistili. Gen. 2. Nuces marinse. si ma. Sect. 2. Porcellanas, seu testacea marina univalvia non Sect. 12. Cap. 1. De Buccinis bilinguibus, Igevibus. turbinata. Gen. 1. Porcellanae vulgares. Gen. 2. Cap. 2. De Buccinis bilinguibus, striatis. Cap. 3. Porcellanse fimbriatse. Gen. 3. Porcellanse spirales. De Buccinis bilinguibns, aspersis et muricatis. Cap. 4. Gen. 4. Porcellanae thoracicae. Gen. 5. Porcellanoe De Buccinis bilinguibus, digitatis. minores integrse. Sect. 13. Cap. 1. De Buccinis ampullaceis Igevibus, Sect. 3. Divis. 1. Cornua ammonis, quge sunt testacea aut certe minus asperis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis ammarina univalvia non turbinata, et serpentum in pullaceis, muricatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis ampulmodum in se contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones laceis, ad sinistram convolutis. nulla ex parte promineant, et tamen ex utroque laSect. 14. Cap. 1. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, tere omnes appareant. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis Igevibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis utrinque productioriunita. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis anomala. Divis. 2. bus, striis densis et tenuioribus exasperatis. Cap 3 Gen. I. Cornua ammonis simpliciter divisa.. Gen. 2. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, striis paucioriCoruua ammqnis integra divisa, Pars

CONCHOLOGY. bap. !• canaliculati acuminatl. Gen. 2. Strombi canalicu[i«tory. latl rostrati, ore simplicl. Gen. 3. Strombi canaliPars SeCUNDA. Cochlea marina, sen testacea marina culati rostrati, ore anguloso. Gen. 4. Strombi canatinivulvia turbinata, qua unica tanhnn constant vulva liculati rostrati, ore labioso. Gen. 5. Strombi sulcati et Jigura sun cochlearum in modum intorta sunt, ita vulgares. Gen. 6. Strombi sulcati, ore labioso. vt intimo eorum spira aliquo saltern modo promineat Sect. 2. Strombi integri, ore superius clauso, seu inteet producatur. gro. Gen. 1. Strombi integri vulgares, ore simplici. Gen. 2. Strombi integri, ore labioso. Gen. 3. Strombi Classis Prima. Cochleae marinae longae, seu cochintegri, ore fimbriato et dentato. leae marinoe ore admodum elengato et superius aperto. Sect. I. Cochleae marinae longse ore labiis rectis. Classis Quinta. Cochleae marinae, ore admodum brevi seu parvo, mucrone vero insigniter elongato. Gen. 1. Cochleae pyramidales. Gen. 3. Cochleae cylindroideae. Sect. 1. Turbines aperti, seu cochleae marinae, ore adSect. 2, Cochleae longae pyriformes, seu cochleae mamodum brevi seu parvo superius aperto, mucrone rinae longae ore labiis leviter incurvatis, ideoque longissimo. Gen. I. Turbines aperti lati. Gen, 2. etiam leviter ventricosis. Divis. 1. Cochleae longae Turbines aperti acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines aperpyriformes minores. Gen. 1. Cochleae long* pyriti canaliculati recte rostri. Gen. 4. Turbines aperti formes minores, vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae canaliculati oblique incurvati. Gen. 5. Turbines pyriformes minores intortas integrae. Gen. 3. Cochaperti sulcati. leae longae pyriformes minores intortae et insulcatae. Sect. 2. Turbines integri, ore superius clauso seu inteD ivis. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores. Gen. I. gro. Gen. 1. Turbines integri vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores vulgares. Gen. 2. Turbines integri acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines inCochleae longae pyriforaies majores, intortae integrae. tegri fimbriati. Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae Sect. 3. Trochi seu cochleae marinae ore admodum cylindroideae. brevi, seu parvo e basi lata et quasi plana in mucronem quasi rectilineam conoideum insigniter elongaClassis Secunda. Cochleae canaliculatae, seu cochtum abeuntes. Gen. I. Trochi ore angusto et horileae marinae ore elongato et superius in canaliculum sontaliter compresso. Gen. 2. Trochi ore ampliore abeunte. et subrotundo. Sect. 1. Cochleae marinae canalicula recta. Gen. I, Cochleae canaliculatae rectae tenuiores. Gen. 2. Classis Sexta. Cochleae marinae breviores, seu Cochleae canaliculatae rectae crassiores. Gen. 3. Purcochleae marinae ore et mucrone breviores, magisque purae rectirostrae. contracto. Sect. 2. Cochleae marinae canaliculatae incurvatae. Gen. Sect. 1. Cochleae breviores proportionatae. Gen. 1. 1. Cochleae canaliculatae introrsum incurvatae. Gen. Cochleae trochiformes breviores proportionatae et 2. Cochleae canaliculatae extrorsum incurvatae. Gen. mucronatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae marinae terrestri3. Murices. Gen. 4. Cochleae muriciformes informes breviore proportionatae. Gen. 3. Cochleae signiter incrispatae. Gen. 5. Purpurse curvirostrae. depress*. Gen. 6. Cochleae cassidiformes umbilicatfe. Gen. 7. Sect. 2. Cochle* marin* breviores perpendiculariter Cassidae. anomal*. Gen. 1. Nerit*. Gen. 2. Cochle* umbilical* foramine spirarum semicircular!. Gen. 3. Classis Tertia. Buccina sunt cochleae marinae ore Cochle* umbilicat* foramine spirarum rotundo. et mucrone simul elongatis, primaque spira notabiSect. 3. Cochle* marin* breviores horisontaliter anoliter ventricosa. mal*. Gen. I. Cochle* plan*. Gen. 2. Aures Sect. 2. Buccina parva mucrone mediocriter elongato marin*. et tenuiter acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina parva pruni- Sect. 4. Varia hucusque enarratarum cochlearum operformia acuminata. Gen. 2. Buccina parva prunicula qu* aut propter usum aut propter singularem formia canaliculata. Gen. 3. Buccina parva curvistructuram, magis nota sunt. Gen. 1. Opercula rostra. Gen. 4. Buccina parva sulcata. Gen. 5. cochlearum marinarum subrotunda. Gen. 2. UnBuccina parva sulcata et canaliculata. Gen. 6. Bucgues marini, seu opercula cochlearum marinarum cina parva Integra ore perpendicular!. Gen. *]. Bucoblonga. cina parva Integra ore obliquo. Sect. 2. Buccina majora, quse sunt Buccina mucrone Pars Tertia. Concha marina, id est testacea mariadmodum elongato et acuminato. Gen, I. Buccina na bivalvia qua duabus constant valvis in car dine, majora canaliculata rostrata ore simplici. Gen. 2. articulatione quadam inter se conjunctis, ut commode Buccina majora canaliculata, ore labioso. Gen. 3. claudi et aperiri queant. Buccina majora canaliculata rostrata, ore labioso, fimbriata. Gen. 4. Buccina majora canaliculata et Sect. 1. Conch* marin* notabiliter. umbonat* et rect* incurvat*. Gen. 1. Conch* marin* valvis *sulcata. qualibus *quilater*. Gen. 2. Conch* cordiformes Classis Quarta. Strombi, qui sunt cochle* maumbone cardinum deducto. Gen. 3. Conch* maririn* ore et mucrone simul insigniter elongatis, et n* cordiformes *quilater*, umbone cardinum^unito. prima spira notabiliter angustiore quam in Bucciuis. Sect. 2. Conch* marin* valvis *qualibus *quilater* leviter. umbonat*. Gen. 1. Conch*crass*. Gen. 2. Sect. 1. Strombi ore superius aperto. Gen. X. Strombi ! Pec C tines' i,

;Q0 Hist' ry.

CONCH Pectlnes tenues. Gen. 3. Pectunculi. Gen. 4. Conelite pectiniformes gequilaterse subrotundae. Gen. 5* Conchae pectiniformes aequilaterae. Sect. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae, notabiliter unibonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. I. Conchae marinae incurvatae subrotundae vulgares. Gen. 2. Chamae aequilaterae. Sect. 4. Conchae marinae, valvis aequalibus aequilaterae, Jevitur umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus subrotundae. Gen. 2. Tellinae aequilaterae. Sect. 5. Pinnae, seu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae, cardine umbone destituta. Gen. 1. Pinnae rectae. Gen. 2. Pinnae incurvatae. Classis Secunda. Conchae inaequilaterae, seu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus ex utroque cardinis latere inaequaliter effusae. Sect. 1. Conchae nparinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae notabiliter umbonatae, et rectae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae subrotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae marinae cordiformes inaequilaterae, umbone cardine deducto. Gen. 3. Conchae marinae cordiformes inaequilaterae, umbone cardinum unito. Sect. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, leviter umbonatae et rectae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae marinae leviter umbonatae et rectae incurvatae subrotundae. Sect. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inequilaterae, notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, subrotundae vulgares. Gen. 1. Chamae inaequilaterae. Gen. 2. Conchae rhomboidales. Sect. 4. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, Jeviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae max-inae, &c. subrotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae pectiniformes inaequilaterae triangulares. Gen. 3. Tellinae inaequilaterae. Gen. 4. Conchae tellinaeformes. Gen. 5. Musculi. Gen. 6. Conchae longaerugosae. Gen. 7. Conchae soleniformes. Gen. 8. Mytili. Sect. 5. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, leviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, structura et striis peculiaribus. Gen. 1. Conchae imbricatae. Gen. 2. Pholades. Gen. 3. Dactyli. Gen. 4. Hysteroconchae. Gen. 5. Conchae alaeformes. Gen. 6. Conchae quadratae. Sect. 6. Conchae inaequilaterae non umbonatae, seu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, cardine umbone destitute. Gen. 1. Solenes. Gen. 2. Concbae marinae, &c. structura peculiar]*. Chassis Tertia. Conchae anomalae, seu conchae marinae valvis inaequalibus. Sect. 1. Conchae marinae anomalae umbonatee et auritse. Gen. 2. Pectines anomali. Gen. 1. Spondyli. Sect. 2. Ostreae, seu conchae marinae anomalae omnino, non vel irregulariter tantum umbonatae rugosae. Gen. 1. Ostrea vulgaris. Gen. 2. Ostrea denticulata. Gen. 3. Ostrea rostrata. Gen. 4. Ostrea peculiaris.

Of Bteyai*g.

different system was proposed for the classification of testaceous animals by Breynius, in the following work, which was published in the year 1732.

O L O G Y. Chap. Joannis Philippi Breynii dissertatio physica de poly- History thalamiis, nova testaceorum classe, cui queedam preemit- l—— y—, tuntur de methodo testacea in classes et genera distt'ibuendi: huic adjicitur commentatiuncula de belemnilis prussicis, tandemque schediasma de Echinis methodice disponendis ; Gedani, 173 2, 4to. SYSTEM of BREYNIUS. In this system the author has divided shells into the eight following classes, viz. I. Tubulus. 2. Cochlidium. 3. Polythalamium. 4. Lepas. 5. Concha. 6. Conchoides. 7. Balanus. 8. Echinus. 1. Tubulus, est testa tubulosa monothalamia, vel in lineam rectam extensa, vel incurva, vel contorta, vel aliquando ad spii'am, sed iri’egulariter, accedens. Huic pertinent dentalia, entalia, solenes univalvi, &c. 2. Cochlidium, est testa tubulosa, monothalamia, conica, inspirans constanter regularem, convoluta aliquando opercula prsedita, sepius vero eo destituta. Ad hanc classem spectant nautili tenues sive vacui vulgo dicti; aures marinse, neritse, cochleae, buccina, murices, cassides, cylindri, volutae, porcellanae, et omnes testae turbinatae, exceptis nautilo et anomra, ad classem tertiam referendis. 3. Polythalamium, est testa tubulosa polythalamia, conica, recta, vel in spiram regularem convoluta, cum syphunculo thalamos transeunte : huic reducendi nautili anomia, litui, et orthocerata. 4. Lepas, est testa vasculosa simplex, referens vasculum magis minusve cavum, orificio multum patenta, ut patellae similesque. 5. Concha, est testa vasculosa conyposita bivalvis, id est quae ex duabus componitur valvis, sive vasculis magis minusve concavis in cardine articulatione quadam inter se junctis ut aperiri et claudi queant j ut chamae, mytili, tellinae, pinnae, ostreae, pectines anomiae. 6. Comhoides, est testa vasculosa composita bivalvis, sed quae prseterea et aliquot minoribus portiunculis testaceis componitur, ut pholades anatiferae. 7. Balanus, est testa vasculosa composita, que praeter unicam testam majorem alias portiones minores habet ex quibus componitur, ut balanus vulgo dictus. 8. Echinus, est testa vasculosa composita, undique clausa; magis minusve concava, duobus tantum foraminibus seu aperturis pro ore et ano perforata, externe aculeis vel claviculis mobilibus testaceis armata. S IV. The system of Tournefort appeared for the first Of Tout ■ time, and was published from the author’s manuscript,fort' in the treatise on conchology by Gualtieri. In this system shells are divided into three classes, viz. Monotoma, Ditoma, and Polytoma. SYSTEM of TOURNEFORT. Testacea dicuntur quorundam animalium integumenta, quse testae seu lateris duritiem habent, et in quibus tantum, in testa animalia vivant. Testacea autem omnia quae hucusque in musaeis curiosorum adversari et congeri solent, ad tres classes facile revocari possunt. Haec enim vel monotoma sunt, vel ditoma, vel polytoma. Monotoma testacea appellantur ea quorum testa indivisa est $ ditoma quae geminis constant testis ad cardinem

I iap< i

C O N C H O L O G Y. 391 dinem conriixis j polytoma vero quse ex pluribus simul the engravings, which are 80 in number, and are exe- 1 History, cuted with great accuracy and elegance. But the de— j adnexis compinguntur. scriptions of the genera and species only reach the 19th Classis Prima. Quse testacea monotoma com- plate j so that the work which was published in 1780 plectitur. Testacea monotoma quorum testa indi- is still unfinished. visa est, in tres familias abeant: alia enim univalvia SYSTEM of D’ARGENVILLE. sunt, alia spiralia, alia fistulosa.

Familia I. Testaceorum univalvium. Monotoma univalvia dicimus quorum testa simplex est, in os amplius effusa. Gen. I. Lepas. Gen. 2. Eruca. Familia II. Testaceorum spiralium. Monotoma spiralia dicimus testacea quorum pars inferior in spiram contorquetur : horum autem spiras seu helices exterius patent, et simpliciter spiralia dicuntur, vel eorum spira intus reconditur, et convoluta dicuntur. Divis. 1. Testacea monotoma simpliciter spiralia, seu quorum spira exterior est. Gen. 1. Murex. Gen. 2. Murex alatus. Gen. 3. Murex aporrhais. Gen. 4. Murex venereus. Gen. 5. Murex pyramidalis. Gen. 6. Buccinum. Gen. 7. Buccino-murex. Gen. 8. Purpura. Gen. 9. Buccino-purpura. Gen. 10. Peribolus. Gen. 11. Turbo. Gen. 12. Verticiilus. Gen. 13. Cochlea. Gen. 14. Cochlea terrestris. Gen. 15. Ceratites. Gen. 16. Cochlea marina. Gen. 17. Nerita. Gen. 18. Auris marina. Divis. 2. Testacea monotoma spiralia convoluta, quae cochleam interiorem habent vix foris conspicuam. Gen. 1. Concha venerea. Gen. 2. Concha persica. Gen. 3. Nautilus. Gen. 4. Conchilium. Familia III. Testaceorum jistulosorum. Testacea monotoma fistulosa seu tubulosa, ut ex nomine patet, fistulae in modum tenuantur. Gen. 1. Dentale. Gen. 2. Entale. Gen. 3. Tubuli marini. Classis Secunda, quae testacea ditoma continet. Testacea ditoma semper ex duabus testis ad cardinem articulatis compinguntur, et vel arete undique clauduntur, vel utrinque hiant; unde in duas familias dividi possunt. Familia I. Testaceorum ditomorum quae arete clauduntur. Gen. 1. Concha. Gen. 2. Conchula. Gen. 3. Ostreum. Gen. 4. Mytilus. Gen. 5. Pinna. Gen. 6. Perna. Gen. 7. Pholas. Gen. 8. Pecten. Gen. 9. Pectunculus. Familia II. Testaceorum ditomorum quae semper hiant. Gen. 1. Chamae. Gen. 2. Solen. Classis Tertia, quae testacea polytoma continet. Polytoma testacea dicuntur quorum testae ex pluribus partibus vel articulatis, vel per cartilaginem connexis compinguntur $ unde in duas familias abeunt. Familia I. Eorum quorum partes articulantur. Gen. 1. Echinus. Familia II. Eorum quorum partes per cartilaginem connectuntur. Gen. 1. Balanus. f D’ArV. M. D’Argenville, in 1742, published at Paris a wille. treatise on Conchology with 33 plates. A second edition of the same work appeared at Paris in 1757* this edition the number of the plates was increased to 41. A more splendid edition was published after the death of the author, by M. M. de Favanne de Montcerville father and son. This edition is extended to 3 volumes, two of which consist of letter press, and the 3d contains

In this system shells are divided into four parts. I. Sea-shells. II. Fresh-water shells. III. Land-shells. IV. Fossil-shells. Part I. Sea-shells are divided into 3 Classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves. Class I. contains 15 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Oreilles de mer. 3. Tuyaux et Vermisseaux de mer. 4. Nautiles. 5. Limagons a bouche ronde. 6. Lima£ons h bouche demi-ronde. 7. Lima^ons & bouche aplatie. 8. Cornets ou Volutes. 9. Olives ou Cylindres. 10. Rochers ou Murex. 11. Tonnes. 12. Porcelaines. 13. Buccins. 14. Pourpres. 15. Vis. Class II. contains 7 families, viz. 1. Huitres. 2. Carnes. 3. Tellines. 4. Monies. 5. Cceurs. 6. Peignes. 7. Manches de couteaux. Class III. consists of 7 families, viz. I. Oscahrions, ou lepas & huit pieces. 2. Oursins. 3. Glands de mer. 4. Pousse-pieds. 5. Conques anatiferes. 6. Pholades. 7. Tuyaux de mer multivalves. Part II. Fresh-water shells are divided into 2 Classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivales. Class I. contains 8 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Nautiles ou cornes d’ammon. 3. Lima^ons a bouche ronde. 4. Lima^ons a bouche demi-ronde. 5. Lima^ons a bouche triangulaire. 6. Tonnes. 7. Buccins. 8. Vis. Class II. is composed of two families. 1. Carnes. 2. Tellines. Part III. Land shells, constituting a single class, viz. Univalves, which contains 6 families $ viz. I. Lepas. 2. Lima^ons & bouche ronde. 3. Lima^ons a bouche demi-ronde. 4. Lima^ons a bouche aplatie. 5. Buccins. 6. Vis. Part IV. Fossil shells, which consist of 3 classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves. Class I. is composed of 15 families having the same names as the first class of sea-shells. Class II. contains 7 families similar to the 2d class of sea-shells. Class III. consists of 5 families, viz. 1. Oursins. 2. Glands de mer. 3. Pousse-pieds. 4. Pholades. 5. Tuyaux multivalves. 10 VI. A system of Conchology was published by Klein Of Klein, in 1753, and illustrated with engravings. In the same work the author enters into an investigation concerning the formation, increase, and colours of shells. The following is an abridged view of this arrangement. SYSTEM

Chap. CONCH O L O G Y. Sect. I. Famille 1. Les lima^ons univalves qui n’ont fjigtorTi v ni yeux ni cornes. Gen. 1. La gondole, —y— SYSTEM of KLEIN. Famille 2. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont deux In this system, shells are divided Into 6 parts. cornes, et les yeux places a leur racine et sur leur c6te interne. Gen. 2. Le bulin, bulinus. Gen. 3Y Part I. which Is entitled Cochlis, Is divided Into 2 Le coret, coretus. Gen. 4. Le pietin, pedipes. sections, viz. Cochlis simplex, and Cochlis coraFamille 3. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont quatres posita. cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux Sect. I. consists of 8 classes, viz. I. Cochlis plana, consur leur sommet. Gen. 5. Le lima^on, cochlea. taining 4 genera. 2. Cochlis convexa, 6 genera. Gen. 6. L’ormier, haliotis. Famille 4. Les li3. Cochlis fornicata, 5 genera. 4. Cochlis elliptica, magons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux 6 genera. 5. Cona-cochlis, 16 genera. 6. Cochlea, places h leurs racines, et sur le cote externe, ou par 8 genera. 7. Buccinum, 5 genera. 8. Turbo, 14 derriere. Gen. 7* Le lepas, lepas. Gen. 8. L’yet, genera. yetus. Gen. 9. La vis, lerebra. Famille 5. Les Sect. II. Consists of five classes, viz. 1. Cochlis rostralimagons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux ta, 7 genera. 2. Voluta longa, 15 genera. 3. Voposes un peu au-dessus de leur racine, et sur leur luta ovata, 8 genera. 4. Alata, 6 genera. 5. Mucote externe. Gen. 10. La porcellaine, porcellana. rex, 2 genera. Gen. 11. Le pucelage, cyprceu. Gen. I2> Le manPart II. Concha, Is also divided into 2 sections, viz. telet, peribolus. Monoconchse and Diconchae aequales. Sect. II. Famille 1. Limagons opercules qui ont deux Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. I. Patella, 2 genera. cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux 2. Ansata, 4 genera. ordinairement au-dessus de leur racise, et h leur cote Sect. II. consists of three subdivisions, viz. I. Diconchge externe. Gen. 1. Le rouleau, strombus. Gen. 2. conniventes. 2. Diconchse interrupt*. 3. Diconchae La pourpre, purpura. Gen. 3. Le buccin, bucinaequales. cinum. Gen. 4. Le cerite, cerithium. Famille 2. Subdiv. 1. is composed of 6 classes, viz. I. Diconchae Limagons opercules, qui ont deux cornes sans renfiguratae, 4 genera. 2. Ostreum, 6 genera. 3. flement, et les yenx places h leur racine, et sur leur Musculus, 3 genera. 4. Cyclas. 5. Diconcha auc6te externe. Gen. 5. Le vermet, vermetus. Gen. rita, 9 genera. 6. Dicouchae cordiformes, 3 ge6. La toupie, trochus. Gen. 7. La natice, natica. nera. Famille 3. Les limagons opercules, qui ont quatre Subdiv. 2. consists of 5 classes, viz. I. Diconcha sulcacornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux ta. 2. Diconchae umbilicatae, 3 genera. 3. Diconchae sur leur sommet. Gen. 8. Le sabot, turbo. Gen. 9. sinu profundo, seu chamae, 3 genera. 4. Diconchae La nerite, nerita. sinu prominulo, seu tellinae, 6 genera. 5. Pyloris, Class II. Les conques. Sect. I. Les conques bi9 genera. valves. Famille I. Les conques bivalves, qui ont Subdiv. 3. Diconchae inaequales, 7 genera. les deux lobes du manteau separds, dans tout leur Part III. Polyconchae, consists only of one genus. contour. Gen. 1. L’huitre, ostreum. Famille 2. Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau Part IV. Niduli Testacei, comprehends one class, viz. forment trois ouvertures sans aucun tuyau. Gen. 2. Balanus, which includes 4 genera. Le jataron, jataronus. Gen. 3. Le jambonneau, perna. Famille 3. Les conques bivalves dont les Part V. Echinus marinus, seu echinodermata, is divided into 3 sections, viz. I. Anocysti. 2. Catocydeux lobes du manteau forment trois qpvertures dont sti. 3. Pleurocysti. deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau asstz long. Gen. Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. I. Cidaris, 9 genera. 2. 4. La came, chama. Gen. 5. La telline, tellina. Clipeus, 1 genus. Gen. 6. Le pectoncle, pectuncidus. Gen. 7. Le soSect. II. is composed of four classes, viz. I. Fibula, 2 le n, solen. genera. 2. Classis, 2 genera. 3. Scutum, 2 genera. Class III. Les conques multivalves. Famille 1. Les 4. Placenta, 3 genera. conques multivalves, dont aucune des pieces de la Sect. III. consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Arachnoides, 1 coquille ne pr nd la forme d’un tuyau. Gen. I. genus. 2. Cor marinum, 2 genera. 3. Ovum maLa pholade, pholas. Famille 2. Les conques multirinum, 2 genera. valves, dont une des pidces de la coquille prend la forme d’un tuyau qui enveloppe entierement toutes Part VI. Tubulus marinus is composed of 11 genera. les autres. Gen. 2. Le taret, teredo. In the systems of Conchology which we have now VIII. The method of Geoffroy, formed on similar Of Ge0* exhibited, the characters are taken from the shells. In principles with the last, was published at Paris in 1767, the three following, the marks of discrimination are in a work entitled “ A Summary Treatise on the Testaderived from the animal as well as from the shell. The ceous Animals found in the vicinity of Paris.” The first by M. Adanson was published in 1757. following is a view of this method. It Of AdanSYSTEM of ADANSON. SYSTEM of GEOFFROY. soa. This system consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Lima^ons. 2. Sect. I. Coquilles univalves. Les conques. 3. Les conques multivalves. Gen.. I. Le limax, cochlea. Quatre tentacules, dont Class I. Lima^ons. Sect. I. Lima^ons univalves. deux plus grands portent des yeux h leur extremite. Sect. II. Lima^ons opercules. Coquille univalve en spirale. Gen. 3

CONCHOLOGY. 393 lap. L Gen. 15. Haliotis. Apertura repanda, poris pertusa. History. istory. Gen. 2. Le buccin, buccinum. Benx tentacules plats > 11^ -y—< en formes d’ovellles. Les yeux places & la base ties Sect. III. Testacea univalvia, testa operculata. tentacules du cAte interieur. Coquille univalve en Gen. 16. Tt'itonium. Libera, apertura canaliculata, spirale et conique. tentaculis duobus linearibus, angulo extrinseco ocuGen. 3. Planorbe, planorbis. Deux tentacules fililatis. formes. Les yeux places & la base des tentacules du Gen. 17. Trochus. Libera, apertura sub-tetragona, tencAtfc interieur. Coquille univalve en spirale, et ortaculis duobus setaceis, colliculo extrinseco oculatis. dinairement applatie. Gen. 18. Herita. Libera, apertura lunari, tentaculis Gen. 4. La nerite, nerita. Deux tentacules. Les duobus setaceis, angulo extrinseco oculatis. yeux places & la base des tentacules du cot6 exte- Gen. 19. Valvata. Libera, apertura circinnata, tenrieur. Opercule & la coquille. Coquille univalve en taculis duobus setaceis, angulo postico oculatis. spirale et presque conique. Gen. 20. Serpula. Adnata, apertura orbiculari, tenGen. 5. Ancile, ancylus. Deux tentacules. Les yeux taculis pinnatis. places ^ la base des tentacules du c6t£ inferieur. Coquille univalve concave et unie. Familia II. Testacea Bivalvia. Sect. II. Coquilles univalves. Gen. I. La dime, chama. Deux siphons simples et Sect. I. Testacea bivalvia cardine dentata. alongees. Charniere de la coquille dentelle. Coquille Gen. 1. Mya. Testa altera extremitate hiante 3 cardine dente crasso solitario. arrondle. Gen. 2. La moule, tnytilus. Deux siphons courts et Gen. 2. Solen. Testa utraque extremitate hiante 3 carfranges. Charniere de la coquille membraneuse et dine dente reflexo, stepe gemino. Gen. 3. Tellina. Siphone duplici, murico 3 cardine sans dents. Coquille along£e. dentibus utrinque tribus alternis. 13 Muller. IX. The system of Muller first published in I773> Gen. 4. Cardium. Siphone duplici, cirratq, pedeque falciform! 3 cardine dentibus mediis alternis, remotis and afterwards extended in a different work which appenetralibus. peared in 1776, arranges testaceous animals into three families. The following is a view of this arrangement Gen. 5. Venus. Siphone duplici, cirrata, pedeque laminaeformi 3 cardine dentibus tribus approximatis, taken from the latter work on the zoology of Denmark lateralibus divergentibus. and Norway. Gen. 6. Mactra. Cardine dente medio complicato, adjacente foveola. SYSTEM of MULLER. Gen. 7. Dona*. Cardine dentibus duobus, lateralique solitario. Familia I. Testacea Univalvia. Gen. 8. Area. Cardine dentibus numerosis, alternis, penetrantibus, Gen. 9. Terebratula. Branchiis circinnatis 3 cardine Sect. I. Testacea univalvia, testa pervia. dentibus alterius uncinatis, valvula superiore deorGen. 1. Echinus. Testa Crustacea, ano vertical!, tensum perforata. taculis simplicibus. Gen. 2. Spatagus. Testa Crustacea, ano infero, tenta- Sect. H. Testacea bivalvia, cardine edentulo. culis penicillatis. Gen. 10. Anomia. Branchiis simplicibus 3 valvula inGen. 3. Dentalium. Testa calcarea, testa rudi, tenferiore perforata. taculis nulli. Gen. 11. Ostrea. Branchiis simplicibus, pede nullo 3 cardines fossula cava. Sect. II. Testacea univalvia, testa patula. Gen. 12. Pecten. Branchiis cirratis, pede juxta auriGen. 4. Ahcra. Apertura effusa, tentaculis nullis. culam cardine fossula ovata, byssum emittens. Gen. 5. Argonauta. Apertura profunda, tentaculis binis. Gen. 13. Mytilus. Siphone duplici brevi 3 fossula linear!, byssum efmittens. Gen. 6. Bulla. Apertura repanda, tentaculis hinis setaceis, colliculo extrinsecus oculatis. Familia III. Testacea Multivalvia. Gen. 7. Buccinum. Apertura ovata, tentaculis hinis triangularibus, angulo intrinseco oculatis. Gen. I. Chiton. Valvulae dorsales, tentacula nulla. Gen. 8. Carychium. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis Gen. 2. Lepas. Valvulae erectae, tentacula bipartita. truncatis conspicuis, angulo intrinseco oculatis. Geo. 3. Pholas. Valvulae ad cardinem minores. Gen. 9. Vertigo. Apertura subquadrata, tentaculis bi14 nis sublinearibus, apice oculatis. X. To this account of the different methods of ar-Da Costa, Gen. 10. Turbo. Apertura orbicular!, tentaculis biuis ranging shells, we shall only add the system proposed by Da Costa in his Elements of Conchology. In this setaceis, conspicuis, angulo extrinseco oculatis. Gen. 11. Helix. Apertura lunari, tentaculis quatuor system the author adopts the usual general division into linearibus, apice oculatis. Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves. Gen. 12. Planorbis. Apertura semilunari, tentaculis I. Univalves are distributed into i 10. Ovate, thin, ventricose; hinge without lateral, la 'ioscu but with two primary teeth j 1^ inch long. Guinea. Chem. vi. t. 9. f. 78. 11. Angular, ventricose, and finely striated transosa. versely. Gualteri, t. 77. f. Q. 12. Striae recurved, transverse j lateral teeth obsolete $ inch long. Indian ocean. Chem. vi. t. 10. f. 92. f, iensis. * 13. Oblong, ovate, compressed, with fine, transverse striae ; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North seas, Weymouth, Yorkshire. Brown, t. xvi. f. 182. 14. Ovate, white, gibbous, with transverse, recurvf: His. ed striae; beaks yellowish ; % inch long. European seas. Chem. vi. t. 9. f. 84. 15. Oval, very smooth, and marked with interrupt( jtia. ed purple lines ; lateral teeth rather prominent; I inch long. Wood, t. 41. f. 4. and 5. ** Shells ovate, and compressed. 16. Oval, smooth, with prominent membranes, without lateral teeth j inch long. W. Indies and Britain. Brown, t. xvi. f. 3. 17. Slightly wedged, whitish, and transversely strit nguated $ if inch broad, and 1 long. Chem. vi. t. 10. l s. f. 85* 18. Oblong, brittle, yellowish j rounded on one side j c nga. ^ inch long. Europe. Chem. vi. t. 10. f. 87. i ngkri. 19. White, transversely striated, and bifariously hooked on each side; f inch long. Nicobar islands. Wood, t. 37. f. 2. ] icea. 20. Oval, with rough pubes, flattened sides, serrated 5 if inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean. Wood, t. 36. f. 1. t ta. 21. Oval, compressed, very minutely striated longitudinally j margins sharp ; 2 inches long. W. Indies. Wood, t. 44. f. 1. I iota. 22. Ovate, compressed, transversely substriated, smooth, with acute margins *, l£ inch long, 2 broad. European and Mediterranean seas. Born, t. 2. f. 9. 23. With whitish bands, glabrous and wrinkled at • gosa. the margin. African shores. Adamson, t. 17. f. 19. t igata. 24. Ovate, smooth, lateral teeth, margined. European and Indian seas. W'ood, t. 41. f. 1. 1 dagas- 25. Oval, a little pointed at one end j 2f inches 1 iensis. long and 3f broad. Madagascar. Wood, t. 39. f. 2. and 3. r iata. 26. Oblong •, strise faint, longitudinal. European and American seas. Wood, t. 38. f. 2. and 3. F escens. 27. Oblong, striated transversely, beaked, and obliquely angulated $ hinge central. E. Indies. Lister,. 398. f. 237. r rata. 28. Oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular beak. Indian ocean. Woon, t. 37. f. 3. ' scens. 29. Purple, with white bands, and decussated striae j one valve convex, the other flat j 2.\ inches broad, and long. Wood, t. 42. f. 1. escens, 30. Oval, yellowish white, with decussated striae, and one valve much more convex than the other j i-| inch long, 12^ broad. E. Indies. Chem. vi. 1.11. f. 98. a da.

O L O G Y. 407 31. Oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine de-Ayc/iW. cussated striae $ f inch long, 3 broad. Guinea. Chem. vi. t. 11. f. 99. 32. Oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve flat, lower convex j length f inch, breadth I inch. Euro-'fo/fif. pean and North seas. Wood, t. 47. f. 2 to 4. 33. Ovate, smoothish, triradiate with red, and slight-tfiT/ascwta ly striated transversely. European seas. Chem. vi. t. 12. f. 114. 34. Oval, pellucid, scarlet, transversely striated, cocci’wea. very thin $ \ inch long, if broad. Mediterranean. Chem. vi. t. 12. f. 109. 35. Ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, incarnata. tish j 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean seas. Gualteri, t. 88. f. M. 36. Oval, pellucid, with a rib in each valve, reach- apalina. ing from the hinge to the outer margin j very thin. Nicobar. Chem. vi. t. 112. f. 107. 37. Oval, very thin, transversely striated j 10 Wnzs lanceclata. long, if inch broad. India. Wood, t. 45. f. 2. 38. Oblong-oval, transversely striated, angular, sawgMfnca and somewhat beaked at the anterior end ; hinge with pointed lateral teeth j f inch long. Wood, t. 44. f. 2. 39. Oval, compressed, somewhat angular on the an-»fmr. terior side ; hinge with a solitary cleft primary tooth, in one valve, inserted between two in the opposite. American ocean. W^ood, t. 46. f. 1. 40. Oval, flat, transversely grooved, and angulated j sulcata. hinge with two teeth in one valve, and the lateral tooth prominent j f inch long. Wood, t. 47. f. 1. * 41. Ovate, flattish, very obtuse on the fore-part j