Encyclopaedia Britannica [4, 14 ed.]

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Initials of Contributors
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BRO
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BRY
BUC
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BYR
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CAM
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FOURTEENTH

EDITION

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA |€ BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH

EDITION EDITION

1830 "1853

NINTH

EDITION

1875

TENTH

EDITION

1902

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1910 1922 1926

1929,1932

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION A NEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME

4

BRAIN TO CASTING

THE ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPZDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED

STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, 1930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note. Pages 262-263 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. A.D. A. B. A. B. M.

Aan A, Drummonp, M.Sc., F.C. Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,}Casei. Teddington, England. AUBREY FITZGERALD BELL. }Camoens, Luis De, Author of Portugal for the Portuguese; etc. ARTHUR BARTLETT MAURICE,

Former Literary Editor, New York Herald. Century in Caricature.

A. Br.

A. Brapy, B.A.

A. D. M.

A. D. Mircuett, D.Sc., F.I.C.

Author of History of the Nineteenth } Caricature (in part).

Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Toronto.

A. E. B.

IV

Assistant Editor tothe Journal of the Chemical Society. Assistant Examiner in Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry.

}Canada (in part).

Calcium; -Carbon; Carbon Compounds.

ARTHUR E. Brown, B.Sc. Expert and Engineer to the Brick and Tile Trade. On the staff of The British Clay- Brick (in part) worker. Author of Brick Drying; Hand Brick Making. Patentee of improvements : in kilns and drying plant.

A. E.C. À. F. W. A. Go.

A. H. A.

å. H. S.

A. J. Gl. A.K. C.

ARTHUR EDWARD CLERY, LL.B. Barrister-at-Law. Professor of the Law of Property and of Contracts, University Brehon Laws (in pari). College, Dublin. Chairman of Convocation, National University of Ireland. A. F. WOODWARD. I Canning (in part). Editor of The Produce Markets Review (London). THe Rev. ALEXANDER Gorpon, M.A. Bullinger, Heinrich; Formerly Lecturer in Church History at the University of Manchester. Buckholdt, Johann. A. HILLIARD ÅTTERIDGE. Journalist (specializing on Foreign Affairs and International Questions). Author of Brittany (in part). several works, historical and technical, on military matters; also studies of the 16th century published in various reviews and newspapers. Rev. ARCHIBALD Henry Sayce, D.Lirt., LL.D., D.D. Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University, 1891-1919. Author of The Hittites; Early History of the Hebrews; Egyptian and Babylonian Religion; The Archaeology of Cuneiform Inscriptions; etc.

A. J. GLAZEBROOK.

Caria

:

}Canada (in part).

Lecturer on Finance, University of Toronto.

ANANDA K. Coomaraswamy, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S.

Keeper of Indian, Persian and Mohammedan Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Author of The Indian Craftsman; Essays in National Idealism; Art and Swadeshi.

}

(Bronze and Brass Ornamental Work (in part).

A, Ley,

A. LOVEDAY, Economic and Financial Section, League of Nations, Geneva,

Bulgaria (in part).

A. L. S.

ANDRÉ L. SIMON.

Burgundy Wines.

A. Mey.

Of Messrs. Pommery and Greno, Ltd. Author of The Blood of the Grape; etc. ALICE MEYNELL. | English Poet and Essayist. Authoress of Poems; The Rhythm of Life; etc.

A. Ne.

ANDREW NerrF, A.B., M.S., P.D:

ALN.J. W.

}

A. Puttemon Coreman, M.A., Pu.D., F.R.S. a Late Emeritus Professor of Geology and Natural History, Victoria University, Coburg, Ontario.

A.P. N.

oles

Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Buffer Action. A, NEVILLE J. Waymant, Pu.D., Lrrz.D. | ~ Professor of Chinese and Oriental Philosophy in Hosei University, Tokyo. Member of Council of the Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, University of Oxford. Member of the Editorial Staff (London), 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People.

A. P. Co.

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett.

Caspian Languages.

pCanada (in part).

President of Royal Society of Canada, I921.

A. PercrvaL NewrTon, M.A., D.L1rr., B.Sc., F.S.A.

e ET Pee Maaa la London. pent fa . the Cambridge History of the British Empire; visited Universities of the United States lps: sa i and the British Dominions under auspices of Universities Bureau of Empire and British Empire (in part). Institute of International Education, 1919-20. Author of The Universities and Educational Systems of the British Empire; etc. Vv

INITIALS A. P. W.

AND

NAMES

COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C. General Staff Officer, War Office, London.

A. R.

H.

Ar. Y.

A. W. C. A. W. Kr.

B. Ch. B. H. L. H.

Sik ARTHUR THOMAS QUILLER-CoucH, J.P., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.L. King Edward VII, Professor of English Literature, Cambridge University, sinceBrown, Thomas Edward. 1912; Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge; Hon. Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford.

Rev. A. W. CLIMENHAGA, M.A., P.D. Dean and Instructor in Church History and Systematic Theology, Messiah BibleBrethren in Christ. College, Grantham, Pa. Author of History of Brethren in Christ. A. WALTER KRAMER.

Vice-President, Radio Production, Inc., N.Y.

Music critic and writer on. musica! Broadcast Music (in part).

Composer of numerous compositions for Orchestra, Piano and Voice.

-ALLYN A. Yovno, Pu.D.

iCapital.

BENJAMIN B. KENDRICK, M.A., Pa.D. D Professor of History, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N.C. Author Calhoun, JC: of The Journal of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 1865-7. BERTRAM CHOLET. }Brush (in part). Colour Expert to De Voe and Raynolds, Cleveland, O. CAPTAIN B. H. LiopErLrL Harr, F.R.Haısrt.S. Military Historian

London, B. Re.

Ç.

and Critic.

Military Correspondent

to the Daily

Telegraph,

Editor of the Military Section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

BERTHA REMBAUGH,

A.M.,

LL.B.

CaRLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY.

aaa ae

amoral. | :

Lawyer. Author of Political Status of Women in U.S. RONALD JoHN McNEILL, 1st BARON CUSHENDUN, P.C.

| Bribery (im part).

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1927-9. Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1922-4 and 1924-5. Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1925-7. Assistant Editor of the 11th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of Ulster’s Stand for Union.

C. A.M.

Cane Fencing.

Contributor of Drawings to Puck, Life, Judge, The Masses and The Cartoon (in part).

‘ Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London.

B. B. K.

Carpathians, Battles of the.

Saturday Evening Post.

subjects.

A. Yo.

.

British Military Attaché on the Caucasus | Brest-Litovsk, Battles of;

Front, Nov. 1916-June 1917. General Staff Officer and Brigadier-General, General Staff, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20. A. R. HAMILTON. i Exhibitioner of Winchester College, and Scholar of New College, Oxford. Special Correspondent to The Times, London, on Fencing. Secretary of Prince’s Racquet and Tennis Club, London. ARTHUR YOUNG.

Cartoonist.

A. T. Q-C.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Bunker Hill.

|

Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, 1921-6. Passport Control Officer, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of Nations Union, 1926. Author of The Soctal Revolution in Austria; Survey of International Affairs for 1925; Part II (in part). Contributor to The Slavonic Review; etc.

Bulgaria (in part).

C. A. W.

C. A. WARREN.

C. Ba.

CHRISTIAN BARMAN. i : Editor of The Architect's Journal. Author of Sir John Vanburgh; The Rules of James pBridges (in part).

cC. D.H.

C. D. Howz, M.S., Pa.D.

C. E. Ch.

CHARLES EDWARD CHAPMAN, A.M., PH.D Associate Professor of History, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Author ot}california (in part).

|Brewing (in part).

Author of Brewing Waters. Gibbs; The Danger to St. Paul's; The Bridge; Balbus or The Future of Architecture; etc.

}Canada (in part).

Professor of Forestry, University or Toronto. The Founding of Spanish California and History of the Cuban Republic.

C. F. K.

C. G. F.

CHARLES F. KELLEY. Curator of Oriental Art and Assistant Historian of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Restoration of Ancient Bronzes. Editor Transactions American Society and author of numerous papers on electrochemistry. j

H.

Electrochemical

Bronze

and Brass

Orna-

mental Work (in pari).

Honorary Fellow Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in service of Rajah of Sarawak. Member of the Supreme Council and Judge of the Supreme Court of Sarawak, 1904. Member of the Sarawak State Advisory Council at. Westminster, 1919. Director of Brunei (iu part). the Agricultural and Industrial Exhibits, Sarawak Pavilion, British Empire Exhibition, Wembley (1924). Author of many books and articles.

CHARLES JASPER Jory, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.

C. K. H.

CHARLES KENNETH Hopson.

C. Pf..

Orna-

Cmarres Host, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I., F.R.S.A.

c. J. J.

C.L.K.

and Brass

mental Work (in part).

CorrnN G. FINg, M.A. Professor of Chemical Engineering, Head of Division of Electro-Chemistry, Columbia University, New York. Invented Ductile Tungsten Filament and Electrochemical

C.

Bronze

Formerly Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Author of The Export of Capital.

,

pCamera Lucida.

{ Capital, Export of.

.

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hıst.S., F.S.A. . Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, I905-—1I2. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor\Buckingharn, Henry Stafof Stow’s Survey of London and Chronicles of London; etc. Orgy an Ss

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-Ès-L.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Etudes sur le régne de Robert le Pieux.

Author of

iCapitulary; Carolingians.

C. R.

Ceci Rots, B.Litt., M.A., D.Par., F.R.Hist.8.

C. R. B.

CHARLES Raymonp Beazzey, M.A., D.Lirt., F R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

ee Set epublic; etc.

of Merton College, Oxford.

Author of The Last Florentine

pBrampton, Sir Edward.

Professor of History, University of Birmingham. Late Fellow of Merton and University Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford; formerly on Council of Royal

Cam, Diogo.

Geographical Society and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a member of the House of Laymen; Member of Advisory Committee of British Labour Party for International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham

Labour Party. Author of History of Russia; Nineteenth Century Europe.

C. R. Fay, M.A., D.Sc.

C. R. F.

Professor of Political Economy in the University of Toronto. Author of Co-partner-

pCanada (in part).

Ship in Industry; Life and Labour in roth Century; etc.

CamItte Roy, D.Pu., L-8s-L., F.R.S.(Can.). Professor of French Literature and Rector of Laval University. Author of Essais sur

C. Ro.

nr Literature in renci.

la littérature canadienne; etc.

C. S.

Sır CHARLES ScorTT SHERRINGTON, O.M., G.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

S.

Waynflete Professor of Physiology, Oxford. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1914-7. Chairman, Industrial Fatigue Research Board,

Brain (a part).

1918. Member of Medical Research Council of Privy Council. Author of The Integrative Action of the Nervous System and. papers to the Royal and other scientific societies, especially on the brain and nervous system.

C. Ta.

CLAUDE TAYLOR.

D. A.

Davi ANDERSON, B.Sc., M.Inst.E. |Bridges: Consiruction. Partner in the firm of Messrs. Mott, Hay and Anderson, Consulting Engineers. D. A. Wrrson, I.C.S. Barrister and writer. Author of The Truth About Carlyle; Carlyle till Marriage; Carlyle, Thomas (in part).

D.

A,

}British Industries Fair.

Secretary, British Industries Fair.

W.

Carlyle to “The French Revolution”; Carlyle at his Zenith; etc.

Davo BAXANDALL, A.R.C.S., F.R.A.S. Deputy Keeper of the Science Division, Science Museum, South Kensington. Author

D. B.

of papers on the history of scientific instruments,

D. B.

D.

C.

Davip BERNARD STEINMAN, B.S., A.M., C.E., Pu.D.

S.

Of the firm of Robinson and Steinman, Consulting Engineers, New York. Author of Suspension Bridges, Their Design, Construction and Erection; Suspension Bridges and Canitilevers. |

Mrs. C. S. PEEL, O.B.E. Departmental Editor Queen;

Pe.

. Editor of Hearth and Home and Woman;

Director of Beeton & Co., Ltd., 1903-6.

h

of Food, 1917-8.

D. D. C.

>Calculating Machines.

T.

Managing

Director of. Women’s Service, Ministry

Carquinez Strait Bridge. Bread: Home Made Bread;

(Cakes and Cake-Making.

Editor of The Daily Mail Cookery Book.

Mrs. D. D. COTTINGTON TAYLOR. Certificate Household and Social Science, King’s College for Women; First Class Teaching Diplomas, Cooking, Laundrywork, Housewifery, T Class Cookery, National Training School of Cookery, London. Director of Good H ouseReeping.

D. F.T.

Doxar F. Tovey, M.A.,Mus.Doc.

D. H.

Davin HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.

Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays tn Musical Analysis comprising the Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations; etc. Editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Author of A Short History of the Royal

Carving (in part)

`

Bruckner, Anton; Cantata. >Byng, John.

Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar.

D. L. R. L.

Lt. Cou. D. L. R. Lorrer, C.I.E. Indian Army (retired). Late H.M. Consul, Kerman and Persian Baluchistan; Civil Governor Amara, 1915-6; Political Agent, Loralai, Baluchistan, 1920; Gilgit, 1920-4. Author of Phonology of the Bakhtiari Badakhshani and Madaglashtt Dialects of Modern Persian; Persian Tales.

nie

ere

vernor of

a

Windsor

te

Castle.

oo k oe

Royal

Trustee,

Force Association, County of London,

a

British

Ses ee

Museum.

President,

Editor of The Correspondence

. Burushaski Language.

creer

Territoria

of Queen

Victoria; etc.

E. A.

Captain Epwarp AttHam, C. B., R.N.

|

E. Bra.

ERICH BRANDENBURG.

} .

E. Bu.

Epwarp Buriovucs, M.A.

E. C. B. E. D. R.

Ricut Rev. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O0.5.B., D.Litt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22. Srr Epwarp Dentson Ross, C.I.E., Pa.D., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

E. F. Ar.

EDWARD FRANKLAND ARMSTRONG, D.Sc., Pa.D., LL.D., F.I.C., F.R.S.

E. F, B.

.

:

Cabinet, The (im part).

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. | Brazil: Navy; Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of ‘ The Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section, 14th Capstan. Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Lecturer in Philosophy and History, Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin.

Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Biilow, Bernhard Von.

University (in

oa part).

ariel Canon. (i part).

Director, School of Oriental Studies, London, and Professor of Persian in the Uni- Bukhara: versity of London.

G.

Technical Director of British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd. ELINOR F. B. Grocan. (Lady Grogan) Author of Articles on Balkan Subjects in The Nineteenth Century; New Europe; etc.

ee

History.

Dyestuffs Corpora-

tion. Bulgaria (in part).

INITIALS

Vill E. F. M-S.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS Canning, Charles John; .) Canning, George.

ELIZABETH F. MALCOLM-SMITH, M.A., Pa.D. Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. ERNEST HARTLEY COLERIDGE, M.A.

E. H. C.

}Byron, George Gordon part).

Editor of Byron’s Poems; Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge; etc.

E. Hi.

(in

Eva HIBBERT, M.Sc.TECH. Assistant Lecturer in Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Technology, University ot }-Calico-Printing. Manchester.

EUGENE H. Leaman, M.A. President, Highland Manor Junior College, Tarrytown, N.Y., and Director of High}Camping (in part). land Nature Camps for Girls. Editor of Camps and Camping. E. J. Forsoyxe, M.A., F.S.A.. Deputy Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum; sometime | Bronze and Brass OrnaEditor of the Journal of Hellenic Studies. Student of the British School of Archaeology (mental Work (in part). at Athens and Secretary of the British School at Rome.

E. J. T.

EDWARD JOHN THOMAS, PH.D.

E. L.

P. R. Ersa Lewxowrrsca, PH.D., B.Sc., A.R.C.S.

}Candle (in part).

E. Lo.

Eris Lovejoy, E.M. Consulting Engineer in the Clay Industries; Research Director, Standard Pyrometric

x

}Buddha and Buddhism.

Translator, Vedic Hymns; Author of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History.

Cone Company, Columbus, O. Author of Scumming and Effiorescence; Burning Si [Brick(in part). Wares; Scum in Clay Wares.

E. M.

EDWARD H. Marsa, C.B., C.M.G., C.V.O. Private Secretary to Winston Churchill.

|Brooke, Rupert.

Author of Memoir of Rupert Brooke; etc.

E. M. WALKER. Professor of Biology in the University of Toronto.

E. S.

~ EDWARD

p

E.

a

E

2 hie

Ithaca, N.Y.

|Brunei (in part).

Author of The Book of Butter. }Butter (in part).

EDWARD THATCHER.

E. Th.

'

SALMON.

Editor of United Empire. Formerly on the staff of The Saturday Review,

E.S. G

E.

}Canada (in part).

Instructor in Fine and Applied Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University, New| Carving Tools. York. Author of Making Tin Can Toys. E. V. SHEPARD S.B. President, Shepard’s Studio, Inc., New York (devoted to teaching social games) }Casino Card Editor of several publications. E. W. Beatty, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L. é ;

vV. S.

W.

;

Cagadian Pacific Railway } Chancellor, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. President, Canadian Pacific rast-

B.

way Company. Rev. Epwın W. Smuts, F.R.A.L s Literary Superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Author of The Golden Stool; etc. Part author of The Ila-speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia. F. A. P EA renee Bee oe cea ee i Professor of Animal Genetics and Director of the Animal Breeding Research Depart-

E. W. Sm. F. A. E. C..

oe University of Edinburgh; Co-editor of the British Journal of Experimental tology.

F. E. DRURY,

F. E. D.

M.Sc.TECEH., M.I.STRUCT.E.,

F.I.SAN.E.

F. G. H. T.

Principal, L.C.C. School of Building, London. Francis G. H. Tate, F.C.S. Ist Class Chemist, Government Laboratory, London.

F. H.

FRED HORNER.

. : pBritish Empire(in part). ° Breeds and Breeding.

oy 4s.

i

}Building Industry (in part). } Brandy. Brake;

Consulting Engineer, Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement, London;

Engineering; Machinery.

ompany

'

Brazing and Soldering;

Buffer (in part); Bunsen Burner.

F. Howarta, B.Sc. iBryophyta. Lecturer in Botany, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. LIEUTENANT-COLONEL F. J. C. Wyatt, O.B.E., M.C. Organiser and Controller of Camouflage, British Expeditionary Force, France, -Camouflage (in part).

F. How.

F. J.C. W.

1916-8.

F. J. H.

FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. bam fe Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of | Britain (in part); Brasenose

College; Fellow

of the British Academy.

Roman History, especially Roman Britain

F. L. B.

FL s

°

` 4$

on | Caledonia

F. LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., Pa.D., F.S.A.

Professor and Reader in Egyptology, University

5ger

o

% i

j jà oe

t y:

logical Survey and Archeological Reports of the

Frank Lincett McDoucatt, C.M.G.

of Oxford.

(in part).

\Cabinet (in part).

Author, Journalist. Formerly Head of Colonial Department of The Times, London; undertook special commissions for The Times to South Africa, Australia and Canada. Author of A Tropical Dependency, ;

F. LLG. y

of monographs

Francis LYALL Brrca, M.A., O.B.E. Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge. Lapy Lucarp, D.B.E.

F. L. L.

„5

Author

Editor of the Archeo-

\pritish Empire (in part).

Busiris.

Egypt Exploration Fund.

Australian Representative on Imperial Economic Committee and Empire Marketing Board, London. Author of Sheltered Markets; etc.

|

British Empire (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

F. M. T. B.

F. M. THEODORE Boéut, D.D., Pu.D. Rector of the University of Gröningen, 1924-5.

F. R.C.

FRANK RicHarpson Cana, F.R.G.S. Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-8. Staff of The hs London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; The Peace Setilement. oa TEMPLE oe M.A.

F. T.G.

F. T. G. H.

it SR

Cameroons.

Honorary Veterinary Surgeon to the King; Principal, Royal Veterinary College since

>Canine Distemper.

Assistant Deputy Coroner, County of London. F. T. G. Hospay, C.M.G., E.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E.

G. A. BI.

SR

G. F. Z..

c

: : Capital Punishment.

F. W. We.

G. D. H. C.

Can: E

Wadham College, Oxford, and of Lincoln’s Inn; Barrister-at-Law; Assistant Honorary Secretary of the International Law Association and of the Grotius Society.

1927. Author of Canine Surgery; etc. E. W. WEBER. of F. Weber Co., Incorporated, Philadelphia.

G. A. S.

1X

ges ore

}Burnisher.

PH.D.

rofessor of Mathematics at the University of Chicago, 1913. President of the American Mathematical Society, 1920-2. Member of the National Academy of Sciences, American Philosophical Society. GEORGE A. SorER, B.S., M.A., P.D.

+ 4s Calculus of Variation.

Managing Director, American Society of Cancer Control, New York. Author of The | cancer (in

Air and Ventilation of Subways, and numerous medical subjects.

scientific papers on sanitary and

part)

tn part).

GrorcE Douctas Howarp Cots, M.A.

University Reader in Economics, Oxford. Author of The World of Labour; Self Goo.Butler Samuel; ernment in Industry; Short History of the British Labour Movement. & vanny.

GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.InsT.C.E., F.Z.S. . Consulting Engineer and Joint Editor of Engineering and Engineering and Industrial

. :

pBunkering of Ships.

Management,

G. G. A.

Major GENERAL Sir GEorGE G. Aston, K.C.B.

-

Lecturer on Naval History, University Collége, University of London.

Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Formerly

Author of Sea,

,

-Bulgaria: Defence.

Land and Air Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of Today; Editor of The Study of War. i

G. G. P. G.H. G.

GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE,

M.A., B.C.L.

tal

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. ` ie rofessor Steeof ake =i keley, Calif History at Berkeley, California, U.S U.S.A.

Author of The

(2

'

}Burial (in pari). Colonial l Policy Policy oof :

©

actor.

William TII in America and the West Indies (Choate Memorial Prize Essay); Life of f>"Hsh Honduras: Hestory

David Hariley, the American Patriot.

GEORGE H. WARBURTON.

es

:

eo

ie!

:

Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fais and Waxes by E;Lewkowitsch and chief chem- Candle (in part). ist of the Lewkowitsch laboratories, GEOFFREY JEFFERSON, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., M.5.U. : “Surgeon, Salféfd Royal Hospital.’ Neurologist and Surgeon, Manchester Royal In- pBrain, Surgery of the. firmary. Hunterian Professor of Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, England, 1924.

:

SIR GEORGE MACDONALD, K.C.B., M.A., Hon.LL.D., Hon.D.Litt., F.B.A.

Permanent Secretary, Scottish Edùcation Department, 1922-8. Honorary Curator of Hunterian Coin Cabinet; Honorary Curator of Coins to the Society of Anti- | Britain (in part); quaries of Scotland; -Medallist of Royal Numismatic Sociéty (1913) and of American Caledonia (in t) Numismatic Society (1926), etc. Member of the Royal Commission on Museums and | ~“ in p : Galleries, 1927; Member of the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland, 1927. | Author of numerous works on coinage and on Roman Britain. ~ ` > f

G. McL. Wo.

GEORGE McLane Woon. A

G. M. W.

GEORGE MAcKINNON Wronc, M.A.

G. R. P.

GEORGE Ricwarp Potter, M.A., Px.D.

G. T.

Siz GEORGE TAUBMAN GOLDIE, P.C., K.C.M.G., Hon.D.C.L., Hon.LL.D., F.R.S. English Administrator and F ounder of Nigeria. ? l

. , }Brazza, Pierre Paul Francois.

GILBERT T. Morcar, O.B.E., F.R.S.

|

G.

G. T. M.

nee:

a ;

2

ai

EOR

Editor, United States Geological Survey, Washington. Secretary, Chesapeake ani Potomac Telephone Company. Author of Texts for United States Geological Survey and-press notices. : 7

ae

~

Emeritus Professor of History in the University of Toronto. Nation: A History. , EEA 2

-

Late Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Queen's University of Belfast. oS :

,

Author of The British

i

Lecturer in Medieval History in the a

Director, Chemical Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science, Ireland,

2

“1 73 Brazil (in part). Canada (in part).

Cambridge University (in part).

: . Britannia Metal; Carbides;

Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Organic | Carbonylls, Metallic. Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry.

Editor of the Chemical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

H. A. I.

H. A. Innis, M.A., Pa.D.

H. A. R.

HORACE ARTHUR ROSE.

H. C.

Hvucx CursHorm, M.A.

,

}Canada (in part).

Assistant Professor of Political Economy, University of Toronto.

Caste.

District and Sessions Judge, Punjab (1906-17).

Editor of the r1th and r2th Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica graphical article CHISHOLM, HUGE.

See the bio-

7

}

pCanon (in part).

INITIALS

AND

H. De.

THE Rev. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE.

H. E. A.

Hvucu E. AcNEw, A.B.

Bollandist.

H. E. Ba.

H. J. B.

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS lCanonization.

Joint Editor of the Acta Sanctorum.

Chairman of the Department of Marketing, New York University School of CombBrands. merce, Accounts and Finance. Author of Co-operative Advertising by Competitors. HARRY EVERETT BARNARD, B.S., Pg.D., D.Sc. }Bread Manufacture (in part). President, H. E. Barnard, Inc., Indianapolis, Ind. Editor of Baking Technology. Henry Hiıccs, C.B., LL.B. Barrister-at-Law. Head of Department of Economics, University College of N orthBudget (in part). Wales. Formerly of H.M. Treasury.

H. J. BUTLER.

:

Technical expert of The Electric Railway and Tramway Journal. Late Technical Editor of The Automobile and Carriage Builders’ Journal. Author of Motor Bodies and Chassis; Motor Bodywork; Motor Body Drawing. Honours Silver Medalist in

H. J. D. H. J.R.

Road Carriage Building, City and Guilds of London Institute. Harry J. DANIELS. Editor of The Casket and Sunnyside, New York.

\Burial (in pari).

H. J. Rose, M.A. Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter

College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5. Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author of

The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology; several articles in Hastings’ Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics and various periodicals.

H. J. W.T. H. L. C. H. Le.

H. L. Hi. H. M. C.

H. M. J. L. H.

N.

H. Pe.

Carriage.

H. J. W. Trttyarp, M.A., D.Lirr. Professor of Greek in the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire. HucH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, C.B.E., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Physics, Imperial College of Science, London. H. Lewis. Professor of Welsh in University College, Swansea. H. Ltoyp Hinp, B.Sc., F.I.C. Consulting and Analytical Chemist. Hector Munro Cuapwick, M.A., Hon.D.Litt., Hon.LL.D., F.B.A.

}Calendar: Greek and Roman.

}Byzantine Music. Socata Calorimetry.

. }Br eton Literature.

: ; lBrewing (în part). } Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge University. Fellow of ote, T Clare College. Formerly University Lecturer in Scandinavian. Author of The Origin Britain: Anglo-Saxon. of the English Nation; The Heroic Age.

H. M. J. Loewe. University Lecturer in Rabbinic Hebrew, Oxford University.

i . Calendar: Jewish.

\caticos of Cotton; canto;

H. Nisset, F.T.I. Textile Technologist and Consultant. Author of Grammar of Textile Design. HAYFORD PEIRCE.

Cashmere.

f

Specialist in Egyptian, Byzantine and Islamic Art and Art in the Middle Ages. } Byzantine Art (in part).

Author (with Royall Tyler) of Byzantine Ari.

H. P. V.

H. Q. H. R. Ja. ÉH. R. K.

H. S. J.

HucxH P. Vowres, M.I.Mecs.E. Member of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. HucH Quicrey, M.A. n Chief Economist, The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers’ Association. H.R. James, M.A. i Sometime Principal, Presidency College, Calcutta.H. R. Kemp.

Professor of Political Economy in the University of Toronto.

HENRY Stuart Jones, M.A., D.Litt. Principal of University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. emy.

H. W. R.

}Briquetting. ; }British Electrical Manufac-

Fellow of the British Acadb Caesar,Gaius Julius.

REV. H. WHEELER Rosginson, M.A., D.D.

H. W. T. I. A. R.

Irma A. RICHTER.

I. E. L.

IsaBEL E. Lorn, B.L.S.

I. F. D. M.

I. F. D. Morrow, Px.D.

I. S.

I. SCHAPERA.

Chairman of Board of Directors and President of Canadian National Railways.

Artist and writer. Author of Getting Your Money's Worth; Editor of Everybody's Cook-Book.

J. BE. J. B. F.

\Canada (in part).

Formerly Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.

Principal of Regent’s Park College, London, since 1920. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology; etc. Sir Henry Worth THORNTON, K.B.E., M.Inst.C.E.

J. Ba.

turers’ Association.

\British Empire (in part).

Formerly Senior Moderator, Trinity College, Dublin.

Lecturer in Anthropology at the London School of Economics. JEAN BABELON. , Conservateur adjoint au Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. J. BADEFF. Dramatic Adviser at the National Theatre, Bulgaria.

Josx B. FIRTH.

i

}Canticles.

aise National Company.

:

Campin, Robert. }Budget, Family.

pe

on; Pierre Paul;

Capitulations.

}Bushman Languages.

}Carthage (in part). }Bulgarian Literature.

Editorial Staff of The Daily Telegraph, London. Author of Augustus Caesar: Constan- —

tine The Great; etc.

Railway

Edward Levy Law-

INITIALS J. Bt. J. C. W. R. J. D. B. J. E. M.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Caisson; Department,

N. J. K.

Author of The History of England.

President, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania.

Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc.

M. P. N.

}Canoe (in part).

Admiralty;

Chief

Civil Engineer for Docks,

Waterways, Ministry of Transport.

Harbours

and Inland | Canals and Canalised Rivers.

N. J: Krom. Professor of the History and Archaeology of the East Indies, University of Leyden. NATHANIEL Lioyp, O.B.E., F.S.A. Architect.

Lecturer on Architecture.

Author of A History of English Brickwork.

Norman UNDERWOOD. Chemist; United States Bureau of Engeving and Printing, Washington. Chemisistry and Technology of Printing n Inks.

Author of

ea? }Cambodia (in part).

}Brickwork. >Carbon Paper.

INITIALS O.

SYDNEY

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

x1

ee IST BARON OLIVIER OF RamspEN, P.C., K.C.M.G., C.B., B.A.,

Secretary for India, 1924. Late Governor of Jamaica.

Author of White Capital and

Coloured Labour; The Anatomy of African Misery; The Empire Builder. graphical article OLIVIER, S.

British Honduras (în part).

See bio-

O. L. D.

Our L. Demure. Former Head of Publicity and Advertising Department, American Can Company, -Canaing (in part).

O. W. H.

O. W. Hormes, B.A.

Chicago.

Formerly edited The Food Bulletin; The Canner and National Canner.

Reference Staff, New York Public Library (American History Division). Staff (New York), 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Editorial Carver, Jonathan.

PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.

Russian Geographer, Author and Revolutionary. Editor for the Jura Federation of

Le Pévolté.

.

Author of L’Anarchie: sa philosophie, son idéal; The State, Its Part in -Bulgaria, Eastern.

Htstory > Memoirs of a Revolutiontst; History of the Great French Revolution. graphical article KROPOTKIN, P. A.

See bio-

P. A. M.

PEES = Martin, A.M., Px.D.

P. B.

oe Foreign editor of the Journal des Débats; Paris correspondent of the Journal de pBriand, Aristide. Genéve. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. EIE P. oe ee F.G.S.

P. La.

rofessor of History, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Secretary of the Brazil Committee of the Pan-American Financial Conference, Washington. Author of The Republics of Latin America; Latin America and the War. PIERRE BERNUS.

a1 2 Brazil (in part).

P. L-B.

ecturer in Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly : of the Geological Survey of India. Author of A Monograph on British Cambrian Cambrian System. Trilobites; etc. Translator and Editor of Kayser’s Comparative Geology. PERCY LAZARUS-BARLOW, M.D.(CANTAB.) Pathologist to the East Sussex Hospital, Hastings. Formerly Assistant Bacteriolo- \ calculi, gist, Metropolitan Asylums Board and Pathological Registrar, the Middlesex Hospital.

P. Mo.

Parm Moorr, E.M. President, Nova Scotia Guides Tournament Association, Nova Scotia.

P. M. R.

P. M. Roxsy, M.A.

. Author of }Canoe (im part).

Gun and Rod in Canada; Slag and Gold.

P. P.

}

Professor of Geography in Liverpool University. PERCY PITT.

Canton.

Director of Music, Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London; British Broad- Broadcast Music (în part). casting Corporation. Director, British National Opera Company. Composer of numerous orchestral works.

R. B.

CAPTAIN P. P. EcKErRsLEY, M.LE.E., F.I.R.E. Formerly Chief Engineer to the British Broadcasting Corporation. Rarru Bown, M.E., Pu.D.

R. B. D.

ROLAND BuRRAGE Drxon, Px.D.

R.C. E.L.

RıcmarD C. E. Lone, B.A., F.R.A.I.

R. Co.

oe

P. P. E.

}Broadcasting (in part). ,

Department of Development and Research, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, New York. Past President, Institute of Radio Engineers. .

Professor of Anthropology at Harvard. of Man; The Building of Cultures.

Author of Oceanic Mythology; Racial History

C.I.E. l

Seed

5

Maya and Mex-

ican.

z

eit Professor of Colonial History, ord University. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Ancient History at Trinity College, Oxford. Author of The Study of the British Commonwealth,

sa

=

Caichaquian. e i

r

Author of Maya and Christian Chronology; The Age of the Maya Calendar; etc.

aT

Broadcasting (in part).

se > British Empire

° (in part).

ometime ritic eto the Academy, W Westminster G Gazette, NewNew S Statesman and dQ Queen, ea Cte he Academy, London, and secretary to Joseph Pulitzer, owner of New York World. Author of Six Centuries of Painting; Monographs on Velasquez; Reynolds and Romney; etc.

: P Caricature (in part).

Captain Royal Engineers.

Bridging, Military.

RALFE Davipson DAVIES.

Experimental Officer, Experimental Bridging Establish-

ment, Christchurch, Hants,

}

R. G.S.

RoBERrT G. SPROUL, B.S., LL.D.

R.H. R.

S

R. L P.

REGINALD InnES Pocock, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.G.1., F.R.S.

R. J. G.

REGINALD JoHN GLapsTONE, M.D., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.S.E.

R. K.

Rorrm Kresy.

R. L.

ROBERT LIEFMANN.

Vice-President, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.

College, University

: Butter (in part).

.

Carnivora (in part).

ere

of >Brain (in part).

Author of numerous articles in the Journal of Anatomy; etc.

Editorial Writer and Political Cartoonist of The New York World.

;

Professor of Economics and Finance, University of Freiburg im Breslau. of Kartel and Trusts. i

3

;

University of.

.

Natural History Editor of The Field and Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British Museum since 1923. London.

‘

š

; 7

R. HENRY Rew, K.C.B.

King’s

a

SALONA

:

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898, Assistant Secretary, 1906-18. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2. Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7. Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance in Agriculture, 1925-6. Author of A Primer of Agricultural Economics.

Reader in Embryology and Lecturer in Anatomy,

EPE

i

‘

Cartoon (in part).

AuthorCartel

XIV

R. L. B.

INITIALS Rieni Hon, SIR PE rime

R. Le. R.

P.

Minister of

AND

NAMES

Paen BorDEN, K.C.,

Canada, 1911-20.

OF CONTRIBUTORS TS

Representative of

Canada at the Imperial War

.

Cabinet and at the Imperial War Conference, 1917 and 1918. Author of Canadian Canada (in part). Constitutional Studies. R. Lessine, PH.D., F.I.C., M.I.CmEM.E. . . Consulting Chemist and Chemical Engineer, London. l }Carbolic Acid. RENE POUPARDIN, D-Es-L. a

nale,

of the Ecole des Chartes.

Paris.

Honorary Librarian of the Bibliothèque Natio- }Burgundy.

Sm RicHARD STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Member of Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (Past President); Hon. Member Surveyors’ Institute. H.M. Chief Inspector of Mines, 1908-20. Author of The British Coal Indusiry.

R. S. B.

REGINALD S. BRINTON.

R. S. M.

R. S. MORRELL, M.A., Pu.D., F.I.C Research Chemist, Mander Bros., Ltd., Wolverhampton. ville and Caius College, Cambridge.

R.S.R.

R. S. RAIT.

R. T. R. T.C. R. U. S.

S. B. S. D.

Cave ge.

} carpetManufacture

Of Messrs. Brinton, Ltd., Kidderminster, Worsted and Woollen Spinners, Carpet and Rug Manufacturers.

(in

part)

Formerly Fellow of Gon-Carmine (in part).

|Casket Letters.

Professor of History and Literature in the University of Glasgow. ROYALL TYLER. Author of Byzantine Art; etc. R. T. Coreate, D.Sc., F.1.C., A.C.G.L., D.I.C. Chief Chemist at Huntley and Palmers, Ltd., Reading, England. R. U. Sayce, M.A.

f ; |Byzantine Art (in part). .

}Bread Manufacture (in part)

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthropology, University of Cambridge. Cape Colony (in part); Formerly Lecturer in Geology and Geography, Natal University College, Pieter- (Cape Town (in part). maritzburg, Natal. STANDISH BACKUS. aoe Adding Machine President, Burroughs Adding Machine Company, Dayton, Ohio. Company. REV. SAMUEL Davison, D.D. Irish Biblical scholar. Examiner in Scripture in the University of London, 1862-98. MVSCanon (in part). Author of The Canon of the Bible; A Treatise on Biblical Criticism.

S. Le.

Stuart Lewis, A.M., Pa.D., D.C.L., M.F.S Professor of Law, New Jersey Law School. Author of Party Principles and Practical| Budget (in part).

S. L-P.

STANLEY LANE-PooLE, M.A., Lirt.D.

S. Mo.

STANLEY Morison.

S. Sm.

SYDNEY SMITH.

S. P.

SEYMOUR PILE, M.A.

S. P. V.

SYLVANUS PERCIVAL VIVIAN, C.B. Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Health and Registrar General.

Politics; An Outline of American Federal Government.

Formerly Professor of Arabic, Dublin University, and Examiner in the University of D; . Wales. Author of The Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe; Life of Sir Harry Parkes; Burton, Sir Richard Francis. Cairo; Turkey; etc. Editor of The Koran; The Thousand and One Nights; etc.

| } Calligraphy.

Editor of The Fleuron, London. Typographical expert to the Lanston Monotyp Corporation in London, and to the University Press, Cambridge. Author of Four Centuries of Fine Printing; German Gothic Incunabula,

Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.

Consulting Metallurgist.

Specialist in Non-Ferrous Metals.

Babylonian Assyrian. jCalendar: j} :

and

Brass; Brass Manufacture.

Editor of Campion, Thomas.

Campion’s Works.

S. V. K.

Captain S. T. H. Wirton, R.N. (retired) Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. S. V. KEELING, M.A.

T.A.

Troomas Asnupy, D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon. A.R.I.B.A.

T. E. P.

T. Eric PEET.

T. F. H.

Tarsor F. Hams, B.A., B.ARCH.

S. T. H. W.

Sarid in Philosophy, University College and Birkbeck London.

Canada: Defence, Navy. :

College, University of

>Cartesians.

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner’s Visions of| Callicula: Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Architecture. Revised and Cannae ? : completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Professor J. B. Plattner). Author of numerous archaeological articles.

Professor of Egyptology in the University of Liverpool.

.

}

;

;

Calendar: Egyptian.

Buttress;

:

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chair- ares A Romanesque man, City Plan Committee, Merchants’ Association. Author of The Enjoyment of c anile: ’

Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

;

ampanue

Capital.

T. F. Mci.

T. E. McItwraltn.

T. H. R.

THEODORE H. Rosinson, M.A., D.D. Poteo of Semitic Languages, University College of South Wales and Monmouth- Calf The Golden. shire. Mayor T. J.J. Epwa EDWARDS. JSecretary a to the Honours and Distinctions Committee, War Office, London. Autho Captain (in part). of The Non-Commissioned Officer's Guide to Promotion in the Infantry.

T. J. E.

Professor of Anthropology in the University of Toronto,

s

iCanada: Anthropology.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

T. M.T.

T. Marston TIL.

T. W. A.

Sır Tuomas W. Arnotp, C.I.E., M.A., Lirr.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Arabic, University of London. Author of The Caliphate; Preaching of Islam, etc.

V.C.C. C.

Miss V. C. C. Cortum.

}Brush (in pari).

Of the British Brush Manufacturers Association, London.

The

eens

V.K.

Fellow of the Royal Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. VERNON KeEttoce, LL.D., Sc.D. Permanent Secretary, National Research Council, Washington. Author of Scientific Aspects of Luther Burbank’s Work; Herbert Hoover, the Man and His Work; Evolution.

W. A. G.

Wiriram A. GANoE, M.A.

W. A. Go.

WALTER Arrson PHILLIPS, M.A.

W. A. R.

bridge Modern History. Author of Modern Europe; etc. WILLIAM ALFRED RED, LL.M.

W. B. P.

Megalithic Monu-

ments. >Burbank, Luther.

Major, United States Army. Author of The English of Military Communications; Buena Vista The History of the United States Army. Wirram A. Goop, B.S. . part). P ic anoe (in Editor for the Associated Press, New York.

W. A. P.

W. A. W.

Caliphate.

l Canon (in par Treaties of;

Lecky Professor of Modern History, University of Dublin.

Contributor to The Cam-

-Canon (in part);

Carlsbad Decrees.

Foreign Trade Adviser, Pan American Union. Lecturer on Latin American Commerce f at the School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, and on International Com- pBuenos Aires. merce at the School of Diplomacy, American University, Washington. Author of Ports and Harbours of South America; History of the Pan American Union. W. A. WoostTER, PH.D. iCarnelian. Demonstrator in Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B. Author of Life of Edward Rowland Sill; Life of Justin S. Morrill; Editor of South Bustamante, Antonio. Americans of Today.

W. B. S.

WILrram BARCLAY Soure, M.À., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

:

W. B. W.

W. Basitt WorsFotp, M.A. earn £od History of South Africa; Lord Milner’s Work in South Africa; The Empire

Late Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum, and Hon. Secretary of Byrd, William.

the Purcell Society. on the

W. B. Wo.

Anvil.

>Cape Colony (in part).

$

W. B. Woop, M.A. Sometime Classical Scholar of Worcester College, Oxford.

Late Assistant-Master at

Bull Run (im part).

Brighton College. Author of History of the Civil War in the United States. W. Da.

W."DALToN.

W. DE B. H.

Author of Bridge Abridged, or Practical Bridge. WILLIAM DE Bracy HERBERT.

WwW. D.M.

W. D. MaTTHEW, A.M., PED., F.R.S.

W. E. Cx.

WARREN E. Cox.

|Bridge (in part). |Bribery (in part).

Barrister-at-Law; Recorder of Newcastle under Lyme.

; Carnivora

Professor in Department of Palaeontology and Director of Museum of Palaeontology,

; (zn part).

University of California, Berkeley, Calif.

}Cartoon (in part).

Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

$

}Carmine (in part).

W. E. W.

W.E. Wornoum, A.R.C.S., B.Sc., A.I.C.

W. F. S.

WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, Sc.D., LL.M., M.A. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Senior Examiner to the Board of a

W. H. P. F.

Witt1aM H. P. Faunce, A.M., D.D., LL.D.

q

W. K. McC.

Witit1am Kipston McCturge, C.B.E.

| Cadorna, Luigi; Caporetto, Battle of.

Technical and Research Chemist, Mander Brothers, Ltd., Wolverhampton.

Education.

, -Calculus of Differences.

President of Brown University, Providence, R. I. President, World Peace Founda- [Brown University. tion. Author of The Educational Ideal in the Ministry; What Does Christianity Mean; © Facing Life.

Attached British Embassy, Rome, as Press Officer; formerly Correspondent of The Times (London) in Rome. War Correspondent of The Times on the Italian Front, 1915-7. Author of Italy's Part in the War; Italy in North Africa.

WILLIAM EAN Late

Colonial

History,

Queen’s

AEE

3

i

MA E

E

Professor of

University,

Kingston,

Canada.

For-

merly Beit Professor in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial Series).

Rev. W. L. Warre, D.D.

i

Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester University. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

W. N. Haworth.

Brown, George.

, Cain.

Carbohydrates. Budapest;

Professor of Chemistry at the University of Birmingham.

Burgenland (im part); Carinthia; Carlsbad; Carpathian Mountains.

W. S. LEWIS. Professor of Geography, University College, Exeter.

WALTER SypNEY Lazarus-BaRLow, M.D., F.R.C.P.

Member of the Cancer Committee, H. M. Ministry of Health; formerly Professor of

Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London

University.

Author of A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology. Editor of Medical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica,

Cancer Research.

XV1

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

W.S. Wa.

W. S. WALLACE, M.A.

W. T.C.

WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. Keeper, Department of Zoology, British Museum

OF

CONTRIBUTORS lCanada (in part).

Librarian, University Library, Toronto.

W. Tho.

Crustacea in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.

(Natural History). Author of

WaLLace TuHompson, B.Sc., Litr.D. Editor-in-chief of Ingenierta Internacional, New York. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Author of The People of Mexico; Trading with Mexico; The Mexican Mind; Rainbow Countries of Central America.

W. T. St.

WILFRED TETLEY STEPHENSON. ou See ondon.

W. W. W.

: Branchiopoda.

Cassel Reader in Transport, London School of Economics, University of

Caribbean Sea.

a

es

British Empire (in part).

W. W. WATTS. Formerly Keeper of the Department of Metal Work, Victoria and Albert Museum, | Bronze and Brass OmaLondon. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Old English f mental Work (in part). Stlver; Catalogues of Chalices and Pastoral Staves in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 4 BRAIN TO CASTING RAIN.

If by physiology of the brain we

mean the study of the biological function of that organ, the state of exact knowledge regarding it is still extremely inadequate, although there exists a vast body of detailed fact. General inferences as to function drawn from morphological and phylogenetic data are therefore a permissible and welcome help although often of the nature of suggestion rather than demonstration. It'is with the vertebrate brain, that the following account will be concerned; and the human brain constitutes the climax of the evolution of the vertebrate brain at present, though not, of course, in finality. The past history of the brain traced in the vertebrate stock assists comprehension of the function of the human brain. The Vertebrate Brain.—In the vertebrate a median lengthwise nerve-cord threads the fore-and-aft series of its segments; the brain is the anterior or head portion of the nerve-cord; the test of the cord being the “spinal-cord.” In the most primitive of all vertebrates, amphioxus, which must be a close relative of the prime ancestor of the vertebrate stock, that part of the nervecord lying at the front end differs so little from the rest that there is nothing which can properly be termed “brain.” But in amphioxus there is likewise so little differentiation of the front end segments of the creature itself that nothing there can properly be termed a “head.” The existence of a brain is thus correlative with the existence of those special developments, e.g., specially developed receptor-organs for distance-stimuli (tele-receptors) such as olfactory, photic, etc.; and for feeding apparatus, etc., which so commonly at the forward end characterize that end and form a head. The next earliest living fragment of the vertebrate ancestral line is a greatly higher though still quite primitive form, petromyzon. This possesses at its front end distance-receptor organs and a head. The corresponding anterior segments of its nerve-cord are specialized and developed as a rudimentary brain. As to which may be the propter hoc of this correlative growth and how far the neural development (brain) may be secondary

or not to the development of the non-neural factors in the cephalization is difficult or impossible to know. The brain is, however, always that part of the nervous system which is constructed upon and evolved alongside of the distancereceptors. The importance of this conjunction in this matter is that it means ability on the part of the animal to react to an

object when still distant and allows an interval for preparatory reactive steps, and this can go far to influence the success of its behaviour in regard to that object. The reactions initiated and guided by the distance-receptors are all steps towards final adjustments, which latter are consummations often of critical importance for the existence of the animal (e.g., attainment of food) or of its species (e.g., fertilization). This time-interval and its series of steps, along with the vicissitudes of relation between things of changing position reacting one on another at a distance, conspire to give to the distance-receptor reflexes a multiformity and a complexity unparalleled by the reflexes initiated from other receptors. This interval affords much more copious opportunity for adjustment and side-connection as occasion demands. It gives freer play for the affixing of new-conditioned (z.e., individuallyacquired) reflexes to the primal inborn reflexes. Further, the timeinterval allows opportunity for variations of behaviour to be failures and yet recovered from, and conversely, allows greater chance for successful reaction-variants to be selectively preserved. Course of Vertebrate Evolution.—As we pass from lower vertebrates to higher we find, broadly taken, a progressive increase in the relative size of the brain. This fact stands related to two features which characterize the vertebrate evolution, and seemingly also that of other phyla as well. One of these features is that, broadly speaking, the course of vertebrate evolution has tended to produce a more and more unified individual, an individual of greater functional solidarity, although still consisting of individually living cell-units. Consistently with the two main

biological requisites of the individual animal life, namely its preservation and that of its species, the closer functional. welding of the parts of the animal individual into an integrated whole seems, as we look along the vista of geological time and of geographical spread, to have been a steady outcome of evolution. The other feature is not unrelated to the foregoing one. It is, that evolution, though with chequered history, has resulted in animal forms possessing successively greater dominance over their environment. Organisms are commonly spoken of as “lower” and “higher.” The “lower” are usually the simpler, the “higher” the more complex; but the “lower” need not the less perfectly fulfil their primary biological requisites, preservation of self and spe-

cies. There are brachiopods which have without visible change

maintained themselves in and upon their environment from the era of the earliest fossil-bearing rocks till to-day, and they are “lower” animals. Such commerce with and maintenance in the

2

BRAIN

environment must be as admirably adjusted as can be any imaginable so far as concerns persistence of life. Yet, in the course of time, evolution has produced animal forms which pursue a far richer and more manifold commerce with the environment and some of these dominate the environment more variously and extensively than others, including their own ancestry, have done. In this sense they are “higher” forms.” The earliest animal forms have included none of these highest, and some of the very latest are also the very “highest” forms achieved. As judged by dominance of the environment man, although quite a recent form, is the highest as yet. The key to this evolutionary feature is furnished largely by the evolutionary history of the brain and its functions.

Increased Integration.—A factor, and in some respects a decisive one, both in the accomplishment of greater functional soli-

darity of the animal and of its higher mastery over the environment, is the progressive development in the nervous system of a dominant part. The organization of the central nervous system is thus enhanced as an integrator of the animal in its life of external relation. The integration combines into great unitary harmonies, reactions originally scattered and local and semi-independent acts. It organizes the several segments and segmental regions into a well-knit individual.

The establishment in the central nerve-cord

The simultaneous components of a “reflex-figure” (Sherrington, 1906) tend to stamp in a neural pattern. The functional “reflex-

figure” with its simultaneously reacting parts proceeds along with (as its structural counterpart) a neural pattern which may become

innate or be an individual acquirement (¢.g., mammalian cortex). A keystone of the principle of integration is that the concurrent activity of related parts results in more than the simple sum of the activity of the separate component parts. Thus, in psychical integration, the single touch gives experience of itself alone. ` But a double simultaneous touch (é.g., compasser) gives experience of two touches, and, which is new, an untouched space between. The integration results in more than the mere sum of the components. Again, the uniocular field gives experience of some amount of “depth”; but when in combination with the other uniocular field to a binocular, there is yielded such an enhancement of the third dimension as amounts to a new result, the “depth” of stereoscopic vision. So with the visual integration illustrated by the “steps” figure, it is much more than its component lines, because whether the steps appear to “overhang” or “run up” there is always a foreground and background, z.e., the whole presents

more than the parts, and constitutes a “situation” with “relations.” And in the vertebrate after advent of the brain the animal’s reactive behaviour shows in increased measure the important quality of modifiability by experience, using this last term without of necessity any psychological connotation. Late in vertebrate development in a restricted number of forms, all mammalian and nearly related one to another, and relatively very recently evolved, this modifiability of behaviour has become greatly more effective. Its highest outcome appears perhaps as the rational guidance of human conduct. It is not of course that either the fuller integration of the individual animal or the higher animal’s wider dominance of the environment are the result entirely of the brain or of the cerebral adjunct “mind.” Contributory to the latter result has been the mechanism (partly nervous) for ensuring a constant temperatureenvironment for the tissues of the body, enabling the individual’s activity to be uninterrupted by season, and largely independent of latitude; also the gestation arrangement which protects the

of, so to say, a headquarters station for receipt of calls from many directions and for dealing through subsidiary parts of the nervous system with the motor machinery of the animal as a whole, imbues the organism with individuality of a higher kind. It is this that the advent of -the brain foretells. The progressive development of the brain increasingly secures advantages. The success seems partly a matter of mere increase of centralization. The receptor apparatus of the head gets increased coordinative guidance of the body. The body tends to become a locomotor, and later a secondary prehensile train and a digestive appanage attached to the head, with, as inalienable possession, the reproductive organs. The brain in this respect merely takes with further specialized success the general rôle assigned to the nervous system from its earliest appearance and onward throughout evolutionary history, namely, the welding of the body’s component parts into one consolidated mechanism facing as a united en- young within the mother until a relatively late stage, providing tity the changeful world about it. The work of this kind done for exceptional pre-natal care for the offspring. Nevertheless the exthe “higher” animal by its brain presents the acme of animal in- treme importance of the contribution by the brain is shown by tegrative achievement. Hence is it that each of us, though made the degree of dominance over the environment obtained by man up of myriads of cell-lives individually feeding and breathing, and as compared with that of other, even the highest other, placental of manifoldly differing activities, constituting scores of organs, mammals. yet appears to himself a single entity, a unity experiencing and The vertebrate brain consists of a fore-and-aft series of three acting as one individual. That the particulár bodily system. which portions, the fore brain, mid brain and hind brain. - is specialized for integration, and whose sole function is integraHind-Brain.—The hind-brain, as traced upward from the tion, and that that portion of it where integrative function is at lamprey, shows two main functional divisions. Of these, one, the its highest should be the seat of mind, even from the dim mental basal, closely resembles the spinal cord of which it is the conbeginning, and that mind should remain there localized and de- tinuation in the posterior head segments. In air-breathing vertespite all mental growth stay restricted in seat there along millions brates this basal portion contains a “centre” regulating the moveof years, on into ourselves to-day, indicate the scope and ments which ventilate the lungs. This mechanism presents the crowning importance of nervous integration and the brain. -~ interesting physiological feature that while “reflex” in the sense Control of Environment.—In regard to attainment of wider of being driven and controlled by nervous impulses arriving at mastery over the environment, no less than in respect of organiz- it by well recognized afferent nerves, it is also activated and partly ing the individual, has phylogenetic development of the brain regulated by stimuli arising autochthonously within it. This intrinplayed a decisive part. The more numerous and extensive and sic stimulation is perhaps generated and is certainly influenced by the better co-ordinated the responses made by a creature to the the chemical condition (degree of acidity) of the blood. Another actions of the world around upon its receptors, the more com- centre in this basal part of the hind-brain is, in higher vertebrates, pletely will the bundle of reflexes (which from one standpoint the one which influences the general circulation of the blood, by regucreature in its life of external relation is) figure the complexity of lating the contraction of the muscles of the arterial tubes and to the environment and meet widely and successfully its situations. some extent of the heart itself. There lie also in this region reflex And at the root of the success of the brain as an integrator there centres which maintain postural contraction of the extensor mushes something more than is represented in its expressing merely cles of the limbs and trunk in response to passive stretch of these a more highly organized centralization. muscles. In the erect attitude of the animal these muscles are Over and over again in the evolution of the brain there is in- subjected by the weight of superincumbent parts to stretch stanced the importance, for the process of integration, of con- and they are termed antigravity muscles; and this hind-brain necting together nerve-structures which might or do react con- region therefore executes a crude reflex standing, traces of which currently but are originally unconnected. Concurrent activity of can be executed even by the isolated spinal cord itself (dog). such related nerve-paths promotes actual architectonic welding of Further forward still this part of the hind-brain receives the them (neuro-biotaxis, Arisus Kappers, 1908). A responsive group nervous impulse from the labyrinth-organs, and enables still more of neurons tend to be drawn toward their dominant stimulators. perfect reflexes of standing.

l

BRAIN

Cerebellum.—The hind-brain has further an important roof-

portion, the cerebellum, so called because in man, large and with paired lobes, it seems, to gross inspection, a small replica of the

great cerebral hemispheres in front. The cerebellum has its cradle, ontogenetically and phylogenetically, in the primary receiving stations of the receptive nerve from the labyrinth, a proprioceptive organ largely controlling the postures of the head in regard to the vertical (line of gravity) and the posture and motions of the body in regard to motions of the head. The primitive cerebellum rests further on spinal nerve-tracts from the proprioceptors of the body muscles and limb muscles. Traced up from the fish through amphibia and reptiles to birds the relative size of the cerebellum differs in even nearly allied groups, but bears evident proportion to range and power of skeleto-muscular motility. In forms which crawl and creep it is quite small, but in the great swimmers and fliers it is large, even very large. With the mammalian series, however, a steady progress in cerebellar size occurs along with ascension to higher forms and culminates in the ape and man. Two large lateral developments are added to the pre-existent, unpaired median portion. Each of these lateral additions is functionally an annex of the new mammalian neopallium of the contralateral cerebral hemisphere, and with this latter go considerable developments in the median (palaeo) cerebellum also. The surface sheet of the cerebellum has a peculiar and characteristic minute structure, which is both in the palaeocerebellum and in the neocerebellum, although the history of the two seems so different and though the genesis of the neocerebellum is separated by some millions of years from that of the palaeocerebellum. To all appearance the neural chains of the cerebellum are a collateral path which, as regards those of the palaeocerebellum, belongs to the afferent limbs of reflex arcs actuating skeletal movements, but as

regards those of the neocerebellum belong to the efferent central path of “volitional” movements. The excitability of the cerebellar surface by electricity has been denied, but recent studies confirm that, as formerly claimed (Ferrier), considerable areas of the surface are truly excitable by electrical stimuli. The excitable field is palaeocerebellar (Ingvar, Bremer) and causes inhibitory relaxation of certain active postures, ¢.g., of extension-abduction of limb (Bremer, Miller and Banting, Sherrington). Destruction of the palaeocerebellar region which receives-proprioceptive spinal tracts causes exaggeration of the stretch-reflexes of the limb-extensors (Bremer). Disease with

3

mainly those of the mid-brain. The neocerebellar function may be inferred to be similar in character to that of the palaeocerebellum but to be adjuvant to movements of a newer physiological order (voluntary), initiated and directed by the neopallium (cerebral cortex). The neopallium in activating these movements probably

activates collaterally the associated neocerebellar

co-operation.

The status of the cerebellum in the motor acts seems merely that of an executive instrument of them; the purpose and object of

them are none of its affair. Cerebellar reactions are unconscious. Its destruction entails no loss of sensation, although cerebellar disturbance may occasion some proprioceptive mis-perception. Mid-Brain.—The mid-brain like the hind-brain is made up of centres intrinsically its own as well as of conducting tracts merely passing through it to connect centres extrinsic to it. Its main intrinsic apparatus is collected in its roof. This receives a great afferent path from the retina, and also from the receptive centres of the hind-brain and spinal cord. It distributes efferent paths to neighbouring motor stations in the neighbourhood, including those of the eye muscles; many of these paths decussate across the midline. It sends also some longer paths forward to the forebrain and backward into the spinal cord. It has also rich intrinsic interconnections. By means of its mid-brain the mammal, even after destruction of the fore-brain, is able to execute and maintain the erect posture and with better adjusted muscular tone than by means of the hind-brain alone. It is able further to assume the erect posture from other positions passively imposed upon it. It can “right itself.” The mere motor execution of these reflexes is a matter of high complexity. Maintenance of standing involves duly adjusted simultaneous activation of many hundreds of thousands of motor units. The “righting reflexes” themselves are “‘chain-reflexes.” In a “chain-reflex” the result of a foregoing reflex’s execution is to evoke execution of the next succeeding one. This means due and successive activations of appropriate different great combinations of motor units, reaching at last the “standing complex,” which forms an equilibrium, and, until disturbed, an end-point.

The cat retaining the mid-brain but deprived of the fore-brain reacts to sounds, although without giving indication of the direction whence they come. The mid-brain is in fact a large ‘“‘exchange” where messages from the retina are associated with those from various other receptive nerves of the head and, via the spinal tracts, from the body (especially skin). In responding to these cerebellar defect in man produces its most obvious detectable re- messages the mid-brain uses efferent paths by which it can operate sults in the field of willed muscular acts. The accuracy of execu- upon motor centres, especially of the eyes and mouth and also of tion of the movement is impaired by overshoot, abruptness of start the neck and body. Severe impairments of motility and of normal and stop, ill-sustained contraction, and undue liability to fatigue. posture are therefore produced by injury of the mid-brain roof, Cerebellar ataxy seems to contain the following three factors but although relatively large in lower vertebrates it becomes rel(Walshe), diminished fineness of postural adjustment, excessive atively dwarfed in the mammalian brain. There is some evidence intensity of postural activity, and complication of the two fore- that in the course of vertebrate evolution along the mammalian going by voluntary efforts at correction. branch, the intrinsic importance of the mid-brain as a dominating Function of the Cerebellum.—a

or

=

PAT

to be formed with them on the sea side of a mound breakwater, reduce considerably the amount of materials required; especially at exposed sites, and also for breakwaters extended into deep water. These large concrete blocks are deposited by cranes travelling on staging or on the completed portion of the work, or are tipped into the sea from a sloping platform on barges, or floated out between pontoons, or slung out from floating cranes or derricks. Sometimes when a mound breakwater has been raised out of water, advantage is taken of a calm period of the year and a low tide to form large blocks of concrete within timber framing ` on the top of the mound so as to afford additional protection. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mound Breakwaters. —The large mass of a mound breakwater gives it great stability; this type is, moreover, suited to construction on a sandy or silty sea bed. The large quantity of material required for its construction and the continuous maintenance necessary are, however, disadvantages. The type has, since the end of the 19th century, been employed to a limited extent, excepting perhaps in North America, and usually in comparatively sheltered positions of moderate depth. Well known examples of the mound breakwater, in addition to those already mentioned, are at Howth (the first example SEA SIDE

BLOCKS 48 TONS HIGH WATER SPRING TIDES LOW WATER SPRING TIDES

SHELLY GRAVEL

BY

PERMISSION OF M. MICHEL-SCHMIDT FIG. 8.—CROSS SECTION OF THE DIGUE

CARNOT

AT BOULOGNE

on a large scale in the British Isles) and Kingstown, both on Dublin bay, at Table bay (Cape Town) and in the outer part of the Nuovo mole at Genoa (1862-68).

Instances of more recent

construction are at Colon, Panama (fig. 3) and Takoradi, a Gold Coast harbour (1922-28), and the Courtney bay breakwater at St, John, New Brunswick (1912-20). (2) MOUND

BREAKWATERS WITH SOLID SUPER-STRUCTURE AT OR NEAR WATER LEVEL

more usual to build breakwaters in such situations with super-

LSpe -

of any kind is difficult to procure at a reasonable cost, as for instance at Port Said, concrete is indispensable. At Para (Brazil) blocks made of Portland cement and sand (without any stone or shingle) were used in the construction of the port works. Large artificial blocks, moreover, by enabling a comparatively steep slope

This type is a modification of the first class and possesses most of its advantages and disadvantages. It comprises the majority of breakwaters constructed in the last quarter of the roth and the early years of the 20th centuries; but with the growing necessity of providing artificial shelter in great depths of water it has become

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structures carried down well below low water, as described later. ‘The solid superstructure reduces the amount of materials re-

quired, according to the depth at which it is founded, and the solid capping also serves to protect the top of the mound from the action of the waves. In the case of a mound breakwater, portions of the highest waves generally pass over the top of the mound, Fic. 7.—OLD INNER PORTION OF WEST BREAKWATER AT PORT SAID and their force is also to some extent expended in passing through harbour, the extension of the west breakwater at Port Said the interstices between the blocks or stones; whereas a super(1912-22) (fig. 5) and the older part of the north breakwater at structure presents a solid face to the impact of the waves. A Alexandria (1870-74). In this case concrete blocks compose the superstructure, accordingly, must be strongly built in proportion outer half of the mound, sheltering the inner half consisting of to the exposure and to the size of the waves liable to reach it. small rubble (fig. 6). Occasionally a mound breakwater has been Special care, moreover, has to be taken to prevent the superstrucformed entirely with concrete blocks, as for instance the main ture from being undermined, for the waves in storms, dashing up portion of the western breakwater at Port Said (1864-68) (fig. 7). against this nearly vertical, solid obstacle, tend in their recoil Utility of Concrete Blocks.—Concrete blocks possess the down the face to scour and displace the materials of the mound great advantage that they can be made wherever sand and shingle at the outer toe of the superstructure and thereby undermine it. can be procured, and of a size only limited by the appliances which This risk is speciaHy present where the superstructure is founded are available for handling them. In fact, in places where stone on the mound near low water level, and there is therefore no

BREAKWATER

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adequate cushion of water above the mound to withstand the recoil. Superstructures.—The forms of superstructure exhibit considerable variations, ranging from a few concrete blocks laid in courses on the top of the mound, or a paving protected by a

DIAGRAM SHOWS THE TITAN CRANE

USED IN BUILD-

These failures have led harbour engineers to recognize that destructive wave action can take place at depths of about soit. in situations of great exposure to the ocean, and down to more than 30ft. in the Mediterranean. In more sheltered positions the depths are proportionately less. Furthermore, the effect of the waves is at its maximum at sea level and the pressure of the wave on a vertical surface is more or less constant over the whole zone corresponding to the height of the wave, but below this zone it decreases rapidly (see E. Quellennec, Int. Congress of Navigation 1926, Paper 31). The pressure exerted at sea level by a wave in situations of great exposure may exceed three tons per square foot.

parapet wall on the sea side, up to a solid structure which is sometimes of considerable height in situations where there is a large tidal variation. The object aimed at in the case of superstructures founded at or near low water level is to lay the foundations on the mound at the lowest level consistent with building a solid structure with stones or concrete blocks set in mortar, out of water in the ordinary manner. The desideratum in the case of superstructure foundations laid at some depth below low water (see section [3]

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which follows) is to stop the raising of the mound at such a depth under water as to secure it from displacement by the waves.

It is to'the failure to provide adequately for this that the destruc-

‘or serious damage of‘many roth century breakwaters is to he attributed. (See Sir W. Matthews, Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. clxxi. [r908].: Sir Maurice Fitzmaurice has recorded, Proc. vol. ccxiv.

{1922}, that at Peterhead some 50-ton concrete blocks, joggled together: and: forming part of an apron protecting the rubble mound of. breakwater about 4sft. below low water, were displaced: soft. and overturned during a gale.)

JHE PROFILE OF THE INNER FACE OF THE BREAKWATER IS ON THIS LINE WHERE A QUAY IS NOT CONSTRUCTED

109

THE WAVE

BREAKER

OF LARGE

CONCRETE

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ON THE

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Examples of rubble mound breakwaters surmounted by a superstructure founded at or near low water or sea level are those at Cherbourg, Holyhead and Marseille, the Galliera and Giano moles at Genoa, the San Vincenzo mole at Naples, the east harbour breakwater at Alexandria, the digue Carnot at Boulogne, the north breakwater at Algiers and those at Fishguard, Le Havre, Oran, Civitavecchia: and Casablanca, the latter in a much exposed position on the Atlantic coast of -Morocco (fig. 9). The very exposed breakwater at Alderney was commenced on this principle about the middle of the 19th century (see section [3] which follows).

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Fishguard Breakwater.—The breakwater at Fishguard, constructed between 1900 and 1918, is an interesting example of a composite breakwater which, in spite of weaknesses inherent in the original design, has been made suitable to the exposed situation in which it has been installed. It was at first designed as a rubble mound carried up to about high water with concrete superstructure and parapet; but the wastage of rubble on its sea face was found to be so serious that in 1913 it was decided to protect the rubble by the deposit of 40-ton concrete blocks placed pell-mell over the whole of the seaward face of the mound above low water springs (fig. 12). Previous to this, the quantity of stone rubble deposited annually for maintenance purposes on the sea face, of about half a mile in length, averaged 85,000 tons for several years.

The outer breakwaters at Leghorn and St. Jean de Luz have super-

structures founded at low water level on concrete block mounds. The breakwaters at Le Havre and Boulogne (fig. 8) are exam-

ples of the sorted mound surmounted by superstructure walls which, although founded well above low water, rise to a considerable height on account of the large tidal range at these ports, viz., 244ft. and 2oft. respectively. Marseille Breakwater.—The great breakwater at Marseille

(see HARBOURS)

150

is a successful example of the sorted rubble

mound breakwater where a quay has been formed on the inner face, sheltered on the sea side by a narrow superstructure, founded at sea level, and protected on the sea slope of the mound from undermining by a wave breaker of large concrete blocks deposited pellmell (fig. 10) on the rubble mound and having'a flat slope from lowest water level up to the face of the superstructure wall well above highest sea level. Other Mediterranean Breakwaters.—The outer portions of

Danger of Non-solid Superstructures.—Formerly, in constructing a large superstructure upon a rubble mound, it was a common practice to build an outer sea wall and an inner harbour wall, the intermediate space being filled, in the interest of economy, with rubble. A parapet wall was also generally erected on the sea side. This system of construction was adopted for the superstructures at Holyhead and Portland (inner arm), and at St. Catherine’s, Jersey. Alderney, the Tyne and the Colombo south-west breakwaters were also commenced on this system (see section [3] which follows); but experience showed the danger in

the San Vincenzo breakwater at Naples and the older parts of the Galliera mole at Genoa extend into depths of about rroft. and Soft. respectively, and have been provided with superstructures similar in type to, but more solid than, the superstructure at Marseille. The sorted rubble mounds are protected on the sea slope by stepped courses of concrete blocks from a depth of over

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RUBBLE

MOUND

2oft. below sea level. The outer extension of the main breakwater at Civitavecchia is an interesting example of the composite type of breakwater in which the rubble mound has been protected, and greatly reduced in volume and extent in deep water, by stepped

courses of concrete blocks carried up from near the bottom of the mound (fig. 11). In all these cases, and in some other examples of similar construction, serious damage has occurred, largely due to the unequal settlement of the horizontally bedded courses of blocks. For this reason the Marseille type of sea face protection is to be preferred and is now generally adopted. |

WITH

SOLID

SUPERSTRUCTURE

PROTECTED

BY 40-TON

PELL-

exposed situations of a small breach in the comparatively weak outer wall, leading to the scouring out of the rubble filling and progressive destruction, and the practice was abandoned. (In certain cases the rubble filling was replaced by solid hearting.) Another cause of possible damage is due to the action of waves on the air which fills the interstices between the stones or blocks of mound and composite breakwaters. The violent compression of imprisoned air under a solid capping, or deck, exerts a destructive force which may blow up or displace the superstructure if its thickness and weight are not great enough to resist the pressure.

BREAKWATER

74 HARBOUR FACE

ee

Se

dem

HIGH WATER

sia

TU TH

M H

z

SEA FACE

ena

th I

Snel

BE

4 Ww å

T

oe

SLOPING BLOCKS ba a

;

EIEN eoleo EER E:+

;

,

|

;

Oust.

:

J

R 2 TAROT

FIG 14 aai

oss et OS

GROOVE

CONCRETE IN BAGS

Yona)

SO

Seas

rN

ya

aoe

T

An ori

HIGH WATER

MASS CONCRETE CAPPING

Ca AAAA AA A ao

a PLAN OF BLOCKS

i

ty

iy

s ON

Ia

DOOLA

ii RUBBLE MOUND a CANSA

eee

š

SIEA

T

HARBOUR SIDE

36

-s _ IGH

MASS CONCRETE

l A

JOGGLE GROOVES

AS

ANTI nt

IS

ACS TInt |

WATER

Se

a

Low WATER

ad

A ,

09

|

Ai UU

SLOPING

$

BLOCKS

on

Ue

Feed

oe Re

‘4,

Oa?ree

|

FIG I6 RUBBLE

PERMISSION

OF

MESSRS.

COODE,

FITZMAURICE

AND

WILSON

FIGS. 14, 15, 16.—-CROSS SECTIONS Fig. 14.—North-west breakwater——sloping block work Fig. 15.—-Side elevation of sloping block work Fig. 16.—Outer arm of south-west breakwater, showing sloping

Breakwaters in North America.—Many breakwaters constructed for forming harbours on the sea coasts of the United States and Canada and in the Great Lakes are of the rubble mound type. The two detached breakwaters sheltering the old Delaware harbour made many years ago were of this type. They were united towards the end of the 19th century by closing the

gap between them, the new work being similar in section to that STONES 5 TONS To 23 TONS

RUBBLE STONE WEIGHT FROM

25 Les TO 25 Tons SAND AND MUD

FIG. 13.—CROSS REFUGE, U.S.A.

SECTION

MOUND

OF BREAKWATER,

DELAWARE

BAY HARBOUR OF

of the breakwater (fig. 13) formed in 1897-1901 for providing a harbour of refuge seaward of the original Delaware harbour. The breakwater, commenced in 1898, in San Pedro bay, Los Angeles, in a depth of 48ft. at low water, is of the same form. A simple mound construction was adopted in 1910 for the Colon breakwater (fig. 3), when the construction of the Panama canal made the port, naturally a bad one, a harbour of importance,

OF THE

BREAKWATERS

block work

(3)

with wave

MOUND

OF

COLOMBO

breaker of 30-ton

BREAKWATERS

concrete

blocks on sea face

WITH

SUPERSTRUCTURE

BELOW LOW WATER As the main object of this ‘class of breakwater is to keep the mound below the zone of wave disturbance in severe storms, it is evident that the depth at which the superstructure is founded should vary directly with the exposure and inversely with the size of the materials forming the mound. Though composite breakwaters are still occasionally constructed with a superstructure founded on a rubble mound at, or above, low water, as described in the preceding section, the practice of placing the foundations at a considerable depth has become more usual. In Italian harbours, for instance, whereas at the close of the 19th century practically all the then existing breakwaters were of the former type, the deep submerged vertical-wall type has been adopted for nearly all breakwater construction in deep water since 1900. French engineers have, however, continued to favour the earlier form of the composite breakwater, the Marseille design being the prototype of most of the deep water breakwaters built by them during the first quarter of the 2oth century. They have, nevertheless, departed from this practice in the case of the later work carried out at Algiers, and it is probable that the future extension of the breakwater at Marseille, to form the Bassin du Phare, in a depth exceeding rooft. will be similar to the Algiers design. Alderney.—The depth at which wave action may adversely affect a rubble mound has been only very gradually realized. Thus in 1847 the Alderney breakwater, though fully exposed to the Atlantic ocean, was begun with a superstructure founded at low water upon a rubble mound. Within two years the foundations had to be carried 12ft. below low water. This construction was

BREAKWATER adhered to up to close to the head, though the breakwater, completed in 1864, extended 4,700ft. from the shore into a depth of 130ft. at low tide, the spring rise being 18 feet. The recoil of

the waves from the high superstructure wall brought about the degradation of the mound to a depth of 20 feet. Colombo.—At Colombo, where the range of tide is only 2ft., the south-west breakwater (1875-85), which is exposed to the full

force of the south-west monsoon, extends into a depth of 3o0ft. at low water.

75

by means of grooves in the blocks, filled by concrete in bags placed in position and rammed by divers, or by a groove and tenon moulded in the block faces (figs. 14 to 16, 18 to 20 and 24). The settlement of the structure is sometimes

accelerated by

placing extra blocks temporarily on the top of the permanent blocks, thus increasing the load above the normal. Where a Titan crane is employed for setting the blocks, the weight of this assists

The superstructure was founded on a rubble mound ‘CRAMP

2oft. below low water. It is protected along its sea face by an apron of concrete in bags. The lesser depth of water and the lower superstructure, combined with the concrete bag protection, are factors which saved the breakwater from the failure which overtook that at Alderney where the exposure is similar. Nevertheless, the experience gained of the action of the sea on the south-west breakwater led to the north-west detached breakwater at Colombo, of similar type, and constructed at a later date in a somewhat deeper but less exposed situation, being built with the foundations of the superstructure on the rubble mound placed at a depth of 31ft. below low water (fig. 14). In the building of the outer arm

extension of the south-west breakwater (completed 1912) a submerged wave breaker of 30-ton concrete blocks deposited pellmell was constructed on the sea face of the upright wall (figs. 15 and 16), and this protection was extended along the whole of the sea face of the older part of the breakwater. Peterhead.—The south breakwater for the harbour of refuge at Peterhead, begun in 1888, extends into a depth of 57{t. at low water (see Harsours). For 1,oooft. from the shore it was built as an upright wall on a rocky bottom, but the outer portion consists of a superstructure wall of concrete blocks founded on a rubble base originally 30ft. below low water, increased after a storm in 1898 to 43 feet. The outer toe is protected by concrete blocks laid on the rubble mound. The northern breakwater at Peterhead (building 1928) is of the upright wall type on a rock foundation.

HIGHEST WATER LEVEL LOWEST WATER LEVEL

we Nae

PAYA rT e ity NAS ENAN J setes

=i Cet chy] ae Barts At Wn

POE Al

eea

:

SCALE

St Ay g :

er

2tes

SLOPING

BLOCKS

FAIS aie Cane

pre Sa a TFAL E

er RAAPA etet fare

2

RUBBLE MOUN

OF FEET

>

s0

SEA BED, SAND

FIG.

18.—CROSS

SECTION

OF THE ORIGINAL

BREAKWATERS

AT MADRAS

settlement. The mass concrète capping on top of the blocks should never be constructed until settlement as far as can be assured has taken place. Karachi.—The first superstructure built on the sloping block system was at Karachi. The blocks were laid at an inclination of 76° in two rows of three superimposed blocks and were entirely unconnected. Consequently the sea, forcing its way in a storm between the two vertical rows, overturned some of the 27-ton top blocks and threw them on to the rubble mound. In effecting the necessary repairs the top blocks were connected by stone

dowels.

l

i

Madras.—The superstructures of the Madras breakwaters, commenced in 1877 (fig. 18), were of similar construction to that at Karachi; but the blocks in each row were connected by a morNaples.—The Ante-Murale breakwater at Naples (fig. 17) is tise and tenon joint with the blocks above it. The unconnected a rubble mound in a depth which at the outer end exceeds roo vertical joint between the two rows, however, led to the destruction feet. The superstructure of horizontally coursed concrete blocks of the greater part of the walls of the outer arms during a cyclone is founded 31ft. below sea level and is capped by mass concrete. in 1881. In the subsequent reconstruction bond was introduced in Here the sea bed is firm and comparatively non-yielding and the successive tiers of each sloping section and the upper blocks were cramped together. After settlement on the mound had ceased, a thick capping of mass concrete was laid on the top of SEA SIDE MEAN SEA LEVEL

HARBOUR SIDE

HORIZONTALLY COURSED BLOCKS

SCALE 10

9

(0 £O 30 40 50 60 70

oF

FEET.

80 90 100

FIG. 17.—CROSS SECTION OF THE ANTE-MURALE HARBOUR

BREAKWATER

AT NAPLES

special precautions were taken in building the rubble mound; consequently the structure has not suffered as a result of unequal settlement.

Sloping-block System.—A difficulty experienced in building

a solid superstructure on the top of a rubble mound arises from the settlement of the mound which takes place when the weight of the wall comes on it. When the superstructure consists of horizontal courses of masonry or concrete blocks, irregular settlement is likely to occur, resulting in dislocation of the joints and sometimes fracture of blocks. The sloping-block (or “sliced-block’’) system, in which the blocks form a series of sloping sections, laid at an angle to the horizontal usually from 67° to 74°, was devised to meet this difficulty. The blocks are free to settle, slice by slice, on the mound and are usually joggled together on the sliding faces

the structure; and, finally, a mound of pell-mell concrete blocks was deposited on the rubble on the sea face of the wall to break the force of the waves and prevent undermining. The harbour at Madras is constructed in a position of extreme exposure and the works have suffered severe sea damage on many occasions. The original harbour entrance on the east side between the ends of the two curved breakwaters was closed in 1910, partly on account of the serious range in the harbour, due to the position of the entrance, and also because of the rapid silting which was taking place (see Harsours). A new entrance was constructed on the north side of the harbour protected by a sheltering arm. This arm, as well as the new portion of the breakwater closing the old entrance, is of sloping block work on a rubble foundation protected by 30-ton wave-breaker blocks on the sea

face (fig. 19). The outer portion of the sheltering arm was destroyed during a cyclone in Nov. 1916 and has since been reconstructed. Marmagao.—The breakwater at Marmagao, a Portuguese harbour on the west coast of India, commenced in 1884, is somewhat similar to the later work carried out at Madras. The mound in this case is formed on a soft clay bed readily compressible (fig. 20). Colombo.—At Colombo the superstructures of both the southwest and north-west breakwaters were built on the sloping block system in sections 54ft. thick at an angle of 68° (figs. 14 to 16). The blocks are bonded across each section and grooves are formed in the adjacent faces of the sections. The voids so formed were filled with concrete in bags after settlement on the mound had ceased. The same method of bonding and keying was adopted in the later work at Madras.

76

BREAKWATER

HARBOUR SIDE

SEA SIDE

$ Fotis

CORA CIC IIS AYY NY

SLICED BLOCK WORK

==

HIGHEST HIGH WATER

CII a NAY HE LT M HED LT Shar saiRUIN

A

EIT TO I RaaQ

re ii

reas eS QSe DALEK hallstbatae te Haek 5 ae, A IFO, a 2g aa egies SoH

% Sa ea ee AA SE in

aIIO erase ialXAAo PSE OAS

GROOVES FILLED WITH

a

CONCRETE IN BAGS

FIG. 19,--THE

MODERN

MADRAS

REY

BREAKWATERS:

CROSS

Kot a A

Seati OF FEET

e SECTION

OF

NORTH

Other Examples of Sloping Block Construction.—The superstructure of the new Valparaiso breakwater extension (see below) makes use of sloping block work; and among other breakwaters of this type building in 1928 may be mentioned those at Port Elizabeth and Antofagasta (Chile), and the extension of the Table bay breakwater. In the case of the last named the MASS CONCRETE CAPPING

INDIAN SPRING LOW WATER LEVEL

ete Y iia

se LORE sean eesEANSTE + RCRANE ret eeeCOI APAOR Te ION Te Kor

LE niia

es

he

atena

R SHELTERING

ARM

AND

BREAKWATER

CLOSING

OLD

CNTRANCE

than any previously employed. The blocks, known as Cyclopean, are nearly solid, each having small cavities for convenience of lifting, which are ultimately filled with concrete (see Albertazzi and Cagli, Int. Congress of Navigation, 1926, Paper 36). The extension of the eastern jetty at Catania in Sicily is the first example of Cyclopean construction on a large scale, the blocks weighing 300 tons. Blocks of similar weight have been used in the new breakwater at Bari. The extensions of the Vittorio Emanuele III. breakwater and the Galliera mole at Genoa are (1928) being constructed with Cyclopean blocks. In these cases

the weight of each block is restricted to 220 tons in order to make use of the existing floating cranes-which had handled the earlier Low WATER SPRING TIDE cellular blocks at that port. At Bengazi (Cirenaica) solid blocks, eka ‘| weighing 550 tons and constructed in a small dock, were floated ; Ss enh into position by means of coupled pontoons between which a m SSA SLOPED BLOCKS 2 SSS, Sa SS block, partly waterborne, was slung. SCALE OF FEET wall 2 y% v y 100 In the building of the Mustapha bee at Algiers, begun ns SOFT CLAY in 1927, blocks which weigh up to 418 tons are founded on a rubble mound at a depth of 4oft. (fig. 22), and are lifted and ‘FIG. 20.—CROSS SECTION OF THE BREAKWATER AT MARMAGAO, INDIA lowered into place by a floating portal crane of 450 tons lifting blocks are, however, laid direct upon the hard clay of the sea bed capacity mounted on two pontoons. The joint faces of the blocks and not on a rubble mound. are grooved and tenoned in the vertical planes. Hollow-block Construction.—In the Granili breakwater at Caisson Walls in Composite Breakwatets.—Caissons conNaples, commenced in 1910, hollow concrete blocks each weighing structed of reinforced concrete or steel were employed in the under roo tons, but measuring 30ft.x163ft. 7${t., were substi- building of the superstructures of composite breakwaters many tuted for the smaller solid blocks used in the original work. The years before the introduction of the hollow block and Cyclopean cavities in the blocks were filled with concrete deposited under systems. The use of caissons is generally satisfactory when they water. The blocks being set one directly above another, five in can be founded directly on a firm and unerodible sea bed, but in height and in two rows, form separate piers free to settle inde- several instances where this is not the case extensive damage pendently. The two rows of blocks make up a superstructure 6oft. wide. The capping of solid masonry and concrete work SEA SIDE above water level is constructed in separate sections covering only two piers of blocks to enable the masonry to follow the settling movements of the blocks. MASS CONCRETE SUPERSTRUCTURE The weak point of the hollow block system is the necessity of depositing unset concrete under water, always a difficulty and MEAN SEA LEVEL attended by uncertainty as to the quality of the concrete so treated. Apart from this possible source of weakness, the hollow HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS HIGH WATER

SPRING TIDE

block method of construction gets rid of the fear of displacement

of solid concrete blocks set in horizontal bonded courses. It has been largely adopted in Italy, and to some extent in other countries, In situations of moderate exposure or where lengthy periods of calm weather can be looked for. At Genoa the Vittorio Emanuele III. breakwater (fig. 21), built after the construction of the Granili breakwater at Naples, is of similar type; but larger hollow blocks, which weigh up to 230 tons and extend the full width of the wall, were employed. Cyclopean Concrete Blocks.—Following on their successful work with hollow blocks Italian engineers devised in 1923 a system of construction in which blocks of large dimensions, each extending the full width of the superstructure, are set to form pillars usually of three or four tiers in height. Blocks weighing from 200 tons to over 400 tons have been used in the building of breakwaters of this description, and for their handling floating lifting appliances have been devised which are of far greater capacity

FILLED WITH MASS CONCRETE AFTER SETTING IN PLACE

RUBBLE MOUND

FIG. 21.—VITTORIO EMANUELE III. BREAKWATER AT GENOA. NOTE THE HOLLOW BLOCK CONSTRUCTION. BY PERMISSION OF THE CHIEF ENGINEER

has occurred. In any case it is a difficult matter to float, tow, sink and fill with concrete caissons of large dimensions. Bilbao.—The composite breakwater at Bilbao harbour at the mouth of the River Nervion, begun in 1888, has probably been one of the most difficult to construct on account of its great exposure to the Atlantic waves. The original design consisted of a wide rubble mound up to about 16ft. below low water; a mound of concrete blocks up to low water; and a solid masonry superstructure. The repeated damage to this wall by successive winter storms led (in 1895) to the abandonment of the original design and the construction, on a widened rubble base, of a superstruc-

BREAKWATER ture protected to some extent by the outlying concrete block mound. The modified superstructure was formed of iron caissons

partially filled with concrete which were floated out, sunk in position and filled up with concrete blocks and mass concrete. The caissons, which measured about 43ft. in width across the break-

water, 23ft. in length and 23ft. in height, weigh about 1,400 tons when filled.

They form the base of a concrete wall founded at

77

over r5oft., on a comparatively soft sea bed of clay and mud. The depth in which the Valparaiso breakwater has been built is greater than obtains in the case of any other marine structure and it is fully exposed to the northerly gales of the Pacific ocean. An extension of the breakwater, 2,300ft. in length, in an easterly direction across Valparaiso bay, in depths as much as r8oit. in places, was commenced in 1923 and was still under construction

half tide level and carried up to 8ft. above high water. Although some difficulties have been brought about by the settlement of the rubble foundation, these have been overcome and the breakwater has successfully resisted the attacks of the heavy Atlantic rollers (see Churruca and the Port of Bilbao, Bilbao, 1910). Other Examples of Caisson -Construction.—The mole of Zeebrugge (1900-09) (fig. 23), is an example of a breakwater, in a much less exposed situation than Bilbao, in the building of which caissons were used with not altogether satisfactory results, the work having suffered damage during construction. The caissons, of steel and reinforced concrete, are founded on a rubble mound at various depths up to 4goft. below low water. The largest caissons are rooft. long and 38ft. wide (see Mémoires, Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France, Dec. 1904). Reinforced concrete caissons have also been used in building (1908-13) the two breakwaters

at Bahia

(Brazil), where the water is shallow

and the position a sheltered one, and at Scheveningen in Holland. Their use in the construction of the Bizerta breakwater, begun in SEA SIDE

PLAN OF BLOCK MEAN SEA LEVEL

a

SIDE KEY HOLES

C CYCLOPEAN ” BLOCKS SEA BED RUBBLE MOUND

BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. SCHNEIDER AND COMPANY FIG. 22.——THE MUSTAPHA BREAKWATER, ALGIERS, OF CYCLOPEAN CONSTRUCTION. THE CONCRETE BLOCKS WEIGH OVER 400 TONS

BLOCK

1899, was attended by failure and ultimately abandoned. The east breakwater extension at Barcelona, finished in 1909, had a superstructure wall formed up to water level by caisson monoliths. Nearly a mile of this wall was destroyed or damaged during a gale in 1920; but the failuré was due not directly to the use of caissons but to inadequate width in the wall and the absence of protection of the inner toe of the superstructure. At Kobe, a Japanese port in a comparatively sheltered position, reinforced concrete caissons of large size have been used since rgro in the construction of breakwaters on a soft and yielding sea bed. The caissons are founded on a rubble mound and protected by coursed block work both on the outer and inner faces.

SEA SIDE MASS CONCRETE

eer

ee

HIGH WATER SPRING TIDE CONCRETE

tected on the sea face by a pell-mell block wave-breaker Madras type (see above). The superstructure of the outer (fig. 24), g4osft. in length, consists of reinforced concrete monoliths, which were floated over and sunk upon a rubble

of the portion caisson mound

at 46ft. below mean level of the ocean. These monoliths are the largest which had been hitherto constructed in such a situation, each measuring 654ft. long, 524ft. wide at base and 4oft. in height, and were, after sinking, filled with mass concrete. The monoliths, as well as the blockwork of the inner section, are surmounted by a mass concrete superstructure and parapet wall. The outer portions of the breakwater were founded at a depth of

BLOCKS

Low WATER SPRING TIDE

Pe

Taa

CE

= XT A Pe Loe

LISP OAT ROTCere eee eee ne eNO eN eens

SEA

ree

ee

+ esr

CONCRETE FILLING

5

STONE

oe

BED

SCALE OF FEET.

RUBBLE

STEEL AND REINFORCED CONCRETE CAISSON

50

FIG. 23.—CROSS SECTION OF OUTER PART OF MOLE OF THE ZEEBRUGGE BREAKWATER in 1928. For this extension sloping block work was substituted for caisson monoliths in the building of the superstructure, partly on account of the soft character of the sea bed in the silt of which it is estimated that the mound will sink considerably. The sloping blocks are joggled by pre-formed grooves and tenons on the sliding faces, and are surmounted by zm situ concrete work as in the older structure. The lower part of the mound, up to a level of 66it.

below mean sea level, is of sand dredged by a powerful suction hopper dredger, and deposited on the sea bed, the flat slopes being protected by stone rubble. Timber Cribwork.—The superstructures of composite breakwaters, built by the United States and the Canadian Governments in the Great Lakes, were often composed of timber cribs floated, like caissons, into position and sunk by filling them with rubble stone. The former cheapness of timber in those regions made this simple mode of construction economical in spite of the rapid decay of the timber. In the more modern examples the timber work is usually not carried higher than about 3ft. below water level, the upper parts being of concrete construction. Suitability

of Composite

Breakwaters

to Deep

Water

Conditions.—In view of the increased depth at which superstructures are now founded upon rubble mounds, causing the breakCONCRETE MONOLITH

MEAN SEA LEVEL

PLAN SLOPING BLOCKS IN SUPERSTRUCTURE OF EXTENSION, 1927

GROOVE

Valparaiso—One of the most interesting breakwater structures of the zoth century is that at Valparaiso, the first part of which was built in r912—21 (see Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. ccxiv., 1922). The breakwater is of composite construction; the inner section, 54zft. in length, consisting of horizontal coursed concrete blocks set on a submerged rubble mound at a depth of 2oft. and por-

HARBOUR SIDE

STONE QUARRY

RUBBLE

WASTE AND SAND

FIG. 24.—CROSS SECTION OF THE VALPARAISO BREAKWATER (1912-21), SHOWING REINFORCED CONCRETE MONOLITH SUPERSTRUCTURE The sloping (1927)

blocks used

are shown

In building the superstructure

of the extension

in the small plan on right

waters to approximate more and more to the upright wall type,

it might seem at first sight that the rubble base might be dispensed with and the superstructure founded directly on the sea bed.

Two circumstances, however, still render the composite form of breakwater indispensable in certain cases: (z) the great depth into which breakwaters have sometimes to extend, reaching about 6oft. below low water at Peterhead, 117ft. below mean sea level at Naples and even 18oft. at Valparaiso; and (2) the necessity, where the sea bottom is soft or liable to be eroded by scour, of a wide base between it and the upright superstructure.

BREAKWATER

78

The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been specially subject must be attributed primarily to the greater

masonry.

The face blocks are joggled together, and above low

water the blockwork is set in cement, mortar and the vertical

exposure and depth of the sites in which they have been frequently constructed as compared with rubble mounds or upright walls; but

joints grouted up.

the direct cause of damage and even destruction has in many cases been the insufficient depth at which superstructures have .been founded. Upright walls, indeed, are not well suited for erection

timber piles driven into the chalk bottom.

42-TON GOLIATH CRANE

GANTRY BAYs 50’ 3” APART C TO C

41-Ton BLOCK

THREE LATTICE GIRDERS 50’ LONG

CONCRETE BLOCK ON TRUCK CONCRETE BLOCKS

25 TO 41 TONS

| RT

a

IP

NX i

:

;

WX) Soe

WROUGHT IRON CLIPS

HIGH WATER

papees

XN N

BE

APRON OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

Low WATER SPRING TIDE

A CLUSTER

"y

BAG JOGGLES

SPRING TIDE

BED OF SEA

©

CHALK

BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. COODE, FITZMAURICE AND WILSON FIG. 25.—CROSS SECTION OF SOUTH BREAKWATER, DOVER HARBOUR, ILLUSTRATING THE METHOD EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE THREE BREAKWATERS AT DOVER HARBOUR

in waters of great depth owing to the increased pressure of air under which divers have to work in laying blocks or preparing foundations. In the case of simple rubble mounds, the very large quantity of materials required for a high mound with flat slopes makes that type unsuited to such situations. The ample depth at which superstructures are now commonly founded; the due

cranes

The blocks were laid by Goliath travelling

running on temporary

staging were

used

staging

for excavating,

supported by clusters of

Four Goliaths on each

preparing foundations

with

diving-bells and block-setting. The deepest foundation is 53ft. below low water springs. The rise of tide at springs being, 18#ft., the average depth is thus approximately 66ft. at high tide, necessitating a pressure of about 30 lb. on the square inch, which is near the limit at which divers can work continuously, without injurious effects, in diving bells, The detached southern breakwater has a flush deck, but the Admiralty pier and the eastern breakwater have parapet walls. All the breakwaters are protected from scour along their outer toe by an apron of concrete blocks. Tyne Piers.—The two breakwaters at the mouth of the River Tyne were originally commenced, about the middle of the roth century, as composite breakwaters, the foundation level of the superstructure being placed at varying depths from near low water down to about 27ft. below low water in the case of the north pier. Towards the end of the century the north pier was severely damaged and breached as a result of the undermining of the foundation of the superstructure, brought about by the degradation of the rubble mound. The outer portion of this breakwater, about 1,s5ooft. in length, was reconstructed (18991909) on a straight line inside and under the shelter of the damaged curved part of the original breakwater (see Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. clxxx., 1910). The reconstructed work is of the Dover type, the foundations, except near the inner end, being carried down to hard shale. All the exposed blocks are faced with granite and all blocks above low water are set in cement. A novel feature was introduced into the design with the object of preventing the HARBOUR

SIDE

protection of the outer toe; the adoption of improved systems of block construction, such as the sloping block or the Cyclopean; adequate bonding and keying of the blocks; and the dispensing in

many cases with a high sheltering wall, render modern superstructures as stable as upright wall breakwaters of similar height.

HIGH WATER SPRING TIDE

Nevertheless, the conditions of exposure being equal, superstructures require generally greater base width than upright walls of the same height, because the greater depth of water in which such composite breakwaters are built exposes them to larger waves. (4) UPRIGHT

WALL

Low WATER SPRING TIDE

BREAKWATERS

The fourth type of breakwater is a solid structure founded directly on the sea bottom in the form of an upright, or nearly upright, wall with only a moderate batter or inclination from the perpendicular on each face. This type is limited to sites where the sea bed consists of rock, chalk, boulders or other hard material not subject to erosion by scour, and where the depth at high water does not exceed about 70 feet. When the foundations for an upright wall breakwater have to be levelled by divers, and the blocks laid under water by their help, the extension of such breakwaters into a considerable depth is undesirable on account of the increased pressure imposed upon diving (g.v.) operations. in the north breakwater at Peterhead (1928) the coursed concrete blocks were built on a rock foundation in 6oft. at low water, or about 71ft. at high water springs. Dover.—The Admiralty pier at Dover was begun about the middle of the roth century and is an early and notable example of an upright wall breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom. It was subsequently extended in connection with the works for

forming a closed naval harbour at Dover, which works included the construction of an eastern breakwater and a detached south breakwater (see Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. ccix., 1921). These are founded on a bottom, carried down to the hard chalk underlying the surface layer, levelled by men in diving-bells. The break-

waters are built of concrete blocks in bonded courses (fig. 25), the outer blocks above low water being faced with granite

a

pe = = = on] O —_ Co

GRANITE FACE

=m

J7

k Cd Cc CI = aLJ a

6 To 1

PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE BLOCKS

6” CHECK

DUT

BAG JOGGLES

BY

COURTESY

OF

MESSRS.

FIG. 26.—CROSS 1899—1908

COODE,

SECTION

FITZMAURICE

OF TYNE

AND

WILSON

NORTH

PIER

AS

RECONSTRUCTED,

sliding of one course of blocks over the course immediately below it; a check 6in. high, extending practically from end to end of < work, being provided in each course of blocks below low water fig. 26). Granite-faced Blocks.—It may be mentioned here that the use of granite masonry facing for concrete blocks in breakwater construction is unusual in modern work. The improvements which have been effected in concrete construction, its reliability when properly carried out and the impermeability of sound, well made concrete, have resulted in the gradual abandonment of masonry

BREAKWATER

79

construction in favour of the more economical concrete. In some French ports large blocks are still made of a rough masonry

in the building of a breakwater it should be retained, on the com-

sort of coarse conglomerate.

then available for use if repairs have to be carried out involving the lifting of large blocks. Such maintenance work must always

consisting of rubble stone set in a concrete matrix and forming a materials

are

favourable

economical. Concrete-bag

Where the local conditions as to

this form

of construction

Foundations.—The

is very

levelling of the founda-

tions for an upright wall breakwater is costly and tedious, even in SUBWAY CONCRETE BLOCKS HIGH WATER SPRING TIDE

GRANITE FACED LOW WATER SPRING TIDE

CONCRETE IN BAGS 56 to 116 TONS

ROCK BY COURTESY

OF

THE

CHIEF

ENGINEER,

FIG. 27.—CROSS SECTION PIER, SUNDERLAND

RIVER

WEAR

COMMISSION

OF BREAKWATER

NEAR

OUTER

END

OF ROKER

chalk; and the expense and delay are enhanced where the bottom is hard rock. In constructing two breakwaters at the entrance to Aberdeen harbour on a bottom of granite, in 1870~77, bags of freshly mixed concrete were laid on the sea bed; and these bags, by adapting themselves to the rocky irregularities, obviated levelling the bottom. The bags each held 50 tons and were deposited from hopper barges towed out to the site. They were used for

the construction of the breakwaters up to low water, mass concrete being employed for those portions above that level. Bags holding 100 tons were used subsequently at Newhaven in constructing a breakwater on a chalk foundation. Still later the two breakwaters sheltering the approach to the River Wear and the Sunderland docks were built, on a sea bed of marl rock, with a foundation mound of concrete in bags holding 56 to 116 tons deposited from hopper barges. The more exposed northern

(Roker) breakwater (fig. 27) is devoid of a parapet, the deck being 11ft. above high water. The south breakwater has a parapet wall. Bag work was also used in constructing the superstructure of the eastern breakwater of Bilbao harbour below low water, where the rubble mound is of moderate height; but this application of the system appears less satisfactory, as settlement of the superstructure on the mound would produce cracks in the set concrete of the bags. i Caisson Monoliths.—Caisson monoliths have also been used in constructing the foundations of upright wall breakwaters, and some of the Heligoland moles, demolished after the World War,

were built on this system (see Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. 220, 1926). Caissons, sunk by means of compressed air through the overlying sand and gravel into a foundation of hard chalk, were employed in constructing the lower portions of the vertical walls of

the breakwaters springs.

at Dieppe where the tidal range is 3oft. at GENERAL

Block-setting Cranes.—The blocks used in breakwater construction are often laid in place by overhanging, block-setting cranes, called “Titans,” which travel along the completed portion of the breakwater and deposit the blocks in advance on the mound levelled by divers. The cantilever superstructure of the Titan crane is supported centrally on a ring of rollers, set on the top of the travelling pedestal or portal, so that it can revolve and pick up blocks from behind the crane and deposit them at the side of the breakwater as well as in advance of the finished work (fig.

9). The large Titan at Peterhead deposits so-ton blocks at a maximum radius of rooft.; that used at Fishguard had a radius of 125 feet. Titans are generally preferred for block setting by British engineers and have the important advantage, in exposed situations, that they can be moved back into shelter in stormy weather. The weight of the Titan also contributes to the con-

solidation of the rubble mound. When a Titan crane has been used

pletion of the work, in some convenient position, as well as permanent rails for its travel along the breakwater. The crane is

be anticipated in the case of breakwaters composite types.

Gantry cranes

(called “Goliaths”)

of the mound

and

travelling on temporary

staging, are sometimes employed for block setting when the depth of water is not too great. As several cranes can be employed at the same time more rapid progress can be made than with a single Titan crane working at the end of a breakwater; but the expenditure on plant and staging involved by this method of con-

struction is much greater than when a Titan crane is used. At many Mediterranean and other ports, where a continuance of calm seas over considerable periods of time is usual, floating plant is commonly employed for block setting. Breakwater

Heads.—The

end of a breakwater is frequently

subjected to intense scour which may extend to a considerable depth. The foundations of a superstructure wall at the head of a breakwater are therefore sometimes placed at a lower level than the rest of the work; the base of the superstructure is often made wider; and the rubble mound, if there be one, is extended and the protection by apron blocks increased. Moreover, in solid blockwork construction some special means must be adopted to finish off and protect the concrete blocks where the ordinary section of the work terminates. Various methods have been adopted for the construction of the heads of breakwaters. In some cases large steel caissons, circular or rectangular in plan, have been sunk on or into the sea bed or mound to form a foundation brought up above water level and afterwards filled with concrete blockwork or mass concrete. ‘The blockwork of the main portion of the breakwater is subsequently built up to, and makes junction with, the caisson head. The head of the Colombo south-west breakwater is an early instance of a steel caisson founded on a rubble mound; and a circular steel caisson sunk to below sea-bed level was used for the head of the north sheltering arm at Madras (see Proc. Inst. C.E., Selected papers, 1926). In other instances reinforced concrete caissons have been employed instead of steel caissons. Where caissons are not used the end of the breakwater is often built of specially constructed and keyed blocks in the form of a roundhead or some other enlargement of the normal section. This plan is commonly adopted in the construction of upright wall breakwaters on firm foundations such as the Dover breakwaters and the north pier at Tynemouth described in the preceding section. It has also been the Gibraltar moles (see Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. cxcvii., 1914) completed in 1905. Some form of lighthouse (g.v.) or port light for the guidance of mariners is usually established on a breakwater head. Parapet Walls.—It has been the general practice to provide a shelter or parapet wall on the sea face of breakwater superstructures. In many cases a tunnel-way or passage is formed in the parapet for access in stormy weather to the light at the head of the breakwater. In several important examples, however, such as the island breakwater at Dover and the Colombo western breakwaters, no parapet wall is provided. Moreover, sheltered access can be provided by a subway under the deck of the breakwater as at Sunderland. In special cases where a breakwater has to serve as a quay, like the Admiralty pier at Dover, a high parapet wall is essential; but in most cases, in order to increase the stability of the structure, it would seem advisable to keep the parapet very low or to dispense with it altogether. This course is particularly expedient in very exposed sites, as a high parapet intensifies the shock of the waves against a breakwater and their erosive recoil. Small Breakwaters.—The breakwaters and protective piers which are constructed at small harbours such as fishery harbours and ports of secondary importance are frequently built in comparatively shallow water and sheltered positions. In their construction the principles which have been set out in the foregoing

paragraphs are applicable, mutatis mutandis, Many small upright

t

BREAL—BREASTED

80

wall breakwaters have been constructed in a moderate depth of water on a hard bottom of rock, chalk or boulders, by erecting timber framing in suitable lengths, lining it inside with jute cloth and then depositing concrete below low water in closed hopper skips. The portion of the breakwater above low water is then raised by tide work with mass concrete or masonry. A form of breakwater, frequently adopted in past times for comparatively sheltered positions in no great depth of water where the sea bed consisted of sand or other soft material, is the cribwork pier. This type of structure was commonly formed of two rows of timber piles driven in the sea bed and connected together by ties or bracing, to which were fixed horizontal timber runners with spaces between them. The crib so formed was filled in with large stone rubble. Cost of Breakwaters.—The expense involved in the construction of breakwaters varies within wide limits. The degree of exposure of the site; the depth of water; the facilities for obtaining materials and labour and their cost, vary so much in different cases as to make comparison fallacious. The following figures of the average cost per lineal foot of typical breakwaters illustrate the wide variation. It should be noted that from 50% to 100% must be added to pre-war cost figures to make them comparable with post-war conditions.

Philadelphia (12th, 1912) and Cairo (14th, 1926). A good and well illustrated description in English of earlier Italian breakwaters is L. Luiggi’s Recent Breakwaters in Italy (Int. Maritime Congress, London, 1893). E. Quellennec’s Memoir (I. N. C., Cairo, 1926) is an excellent résumé of modern Continental practice. Complete bibliographic lists are issued periodically (since 1908) by the International Association of Navigation Congresses, Brussels. See also Proceedings

Inst. C.E. and Mémoires, Société des Ingénieurs Civils ENE

BRÉAL,

MICHEL

JULES

His principal works are L’Ftude des origines de la religion Zoroas-

BREAM 7

Average

Type.

Plymouth . Holyhead .

Naples (San Vincenzo) Algiers . . . Bilbao B og Panama (Colon)

‘

pproximate

3 3 3 4

ft. 59 54 8o 42 43 40

£. 290 163 260 I70 125 360

4 3

60 60

415 300

4 2 2 og 3 I

50 go 93 52 63 40

300 120 186 120 203 100

120

560

x 2

Alderney Colombo Madras . . . . Dover, old Admiralty pier Dover, harbour breakwaters . . .. Peterhead, south . . Tyne north pier (reconstruction) os Marseille . . .

A

a e | cost per H. W lineal foot.

Breakwaters built since 1914

Valparaiso, 2nd section

.

Valparaiso, 3rd section . Antofagasta Marseille Palermo .. Naples (Granili) Casablanca

3

3 3 2 3 3 2

170 81 100 125 59 60

760 470 200 310

230

250

Time Occupied in Building Breakwaters.—The construction of most of the breakwaters described in this article has occupied many years; sometimes twenty and even thirty or forty years. An advance of 150 or 200ft. in the course of a season’s work is often regarded as satisfactory. Generally speaking an

increase in the rate of building involves a larger expenditure for a given length of structure. BIBLIOGRAPHY-~—For general principles of design and descriptions of 19th century construction see L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Harbours and Docks (2 vols. Oxford, 1885); T. Stevenson, The Design and Construction of Harbaurs (1886); W. Shield, Harbour Construction (1895) ; Quinette de Rochemont, Cours de Travaux Maritimes (3 vols. 1900); C.,de Cordemoy, Les Ports Modernes (2 vols. 1900); and, particularly for Italian breakwaters, Ports Maritimes de PItalie (Milan, 19043; French and Italian eds.). G. de Joly and C. Laroche, Travaux Maritimes, vols. i. and ii. (1921-22), is a good modern work. Brysson Cunningham, Harbour Engineering (3rd ed, 1928), also contains references to more recent work, The writings of Smeaton, Telford and Sir John Rennie are of: great historical interest in connection with early construction. The Proceedings of the International Navigation Congresses include many important papers on breakwater design and construction, especially those of the congresses at Milan (roth, 1905),

(1832-1015),

trienne (1862); Hercule et Cacus (1863), in which he disputes the principles of the symbolic school in the interpretation of myths; Le Mythe d’Oedipe (1864); Les Tables Eugubines (1875); Mélanges de mythologie et de linguistique (and ed., 1882); Dictionnaire étymologique latin (188); Essai de Sémantique (1897), on the signification of words, translated into English by Mrs. H. Cust, with preface by J. P. Postgate.

Breakwaters built before ror4

Place.

ALFRED

French philologist, was born on March 26 1832, at Landau in Rhenish Bavaria, of French parents, and died in Paris on Nov. 25 to15. After studying at Weissenburg, Metz and Paris, he entered the Ecole Normale in 1852. In 1857 he went to Berlin, where he studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber. On his return to France Bréal entered the department of oriental mss. at the Bibliothéque Impériale. In 1864 he became professor of comparative grammar at the College de France.

\

\

S

N

SNA

hye

EREN OE

A E NbCARIT XY

ae

oat

ORY wh

Ñ

À

rA

Y

T Sess

hood

er,

ae y bn? WPN=

TRIEN AN ABANO

TE Le

ÊA

(Abramis

brama),

a carplike fish with a deep, compressed body and a long anal fin. It is found in the rivers of Europe and northern Asia, in

te

lakes and sluggish streams; the

DSSS-

record weight for England is 17

THE BREAM, A FISH THAT INHABiTs P- A related species, the White SLOW RUNNING RIVERS AND ponps

Bream

(A.

blicca)

is

much

smaller. The name is also given to the Sea Breams (Sparidae) and in the United States to the golden shiner (A. chrysoleucus) and others of the carp family.

BREAST, the term properly confined to the external projecting parts of the thorax in females, which contain the mammary glands (for anatomy, and diseases, see Mammary GLAND); more generally it is used of the external part of the thorax in animals, including man, lying between the neck and the abdomen.

BREASTED,

JAMES

HENRY

(1865-

), American

orientalist and historian, was born at Rockford, Ill, on Aug. 27, 1865. After graduating from North-western college (now North Central college) in 1888 he studied at Chicago theological seminary, Yale university and the University of Berlin. Beginning at the University of Chicago in 1894 as an assistant in Egyptology, he became professor of Egyptology and Oriental history -in 1905, and director of the Oriental museum. He then directed an archaeological expedition in Egypt and the Sudan (1905-07). Meantime, by commission of the royal academies of Germany in 1900, he had been appointed on a mission to the museums of Europe to copy and arrange the Egyptian inscriptions in those museums for the first exhaustive Egyptian dictionary. In 1919, with funds supplied by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., he organized the Oriental institute at the University of Chicago as a scientific laboratory, the first of its kind, for investigating the early career of man and studying the history of ancient civilization. As first director of the institute he led an expedition to the Near East in 1919-20, subsequently organizing a series of five expeditions extending from the Black sea to Upper Egypt, with headquarter buildings in Asia Minor (Hittite expedition), Palestine (Armageddon expedition) and Luxor (Epigraphic expedition). He is editor of the institute’s publications, appearing in three series. As a result of his representations to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., in 1925, the latter authorized him to offer the Egyptian Government the sum of $10,000,000 for establishing an Egyptian museum and an archaeological research institute in Cairo, Although never declined, the acceptance

of this offer was so delayed that it was consequently withdrawn. In 1927 he drew the same donor’s attention to similar needs in Palestine and was authorized to offer the Palestine Government the sum of $2,000,000 for a new archaeological museum at Jerusa-

BREASTPLATE—BRECKINRIDGE lem. This offer was accepted and the gifc was duly made. In 1919 he was elected president of the American Oriental Society, and in 1927 president of the American Historical Association. He has published, among

other works, De Hymnis in Solemn sub

Rege Amenophide IV., Conceptis (1894); A New Chapter in the Life

of Thutmose III. (1900); Ancient Records of Egypt (1906-07); A History of Egypt (1906; also French, German and Russian editions,

and editions for the blind); (1908); Development

The Monuments

of Religion and

(1912; French and German

of Sudanese

Nubia

in Ancient

Egypt

Thought

translations in preparation);

Ancient

Times (1915; also Swedish, Arabic and Malay editions), re-edited as The Conquest of Civilization (1926); Survey of the Ancient World (1919); History of Europe, Ancient and Medieval (with J. H. Robinson, 1920) ; The Oriental Institute—A Beginning and a Program

(1923); Oriental Forerunners of Byzantine Painting (1924); The Conquest of Civilization (1926). See George Ellery Hale, “The Work of an American Orientalist,”

Scribner’s Magazine, vol. lxxiv., p. 392-404 (1923).

BREASTPLATE,

in ancient armour, a plate of iron, steel

or other metal, so fastened to protect the wearer’s chest and front of the body in battle. Breastplates are still worn by the Household Cavalry in full dress, e.g., when on duty at the Horse Guards, London.

BREASTWORK,

in military language, artificial cover from

enemy fire built up of logs, sandbags, etc., above ground level. In

swampy ground or woods it is commonly employed instead of trenches.

BREAUTE, FALKES DE (4d. 1226), military adventurer,

was one of the foreign mercenaries of King John of England, from whom he received in marriage the heiress of the earldom of Devon. On the outbreak of the Barons’ War (1215) the king gave him the sheriffdoms of six midland shires and the custody of many castles. In 1217 he helped the royalist party of Henry III. to win a decisive victory at Lincoln, over Louis, the French

claimant to the throne. But after the death of William Marshal,

earl of Pembroke, Falkes joined the feudal opposition in conspiring against the justiciar, Hubert de Burgh. Deprived in 1223 of most of his honours, he took part in a rebellion in 1223-24. in 1224, he went into exile. He failed to obtain a pardon through the mediation of Pope Honorius III. and died at St. Cyriac in 1226. BrpriocrapHy.—see Shirley, Royal Letters, vol. i.; the Patent and Close Rolls; Pauli, Geschichte von England, vol. 1., p. 540-545.

BRECCIA, in petrology, the name given to rocks consisting of angular fragments embedded in a matrix. They may be composed of any kind of material, and the matrix, which usually corresponds to some extent to the fragments it encloses, may be siliceous, calcareous, argillaceous, etc. The distinctive character of the group is the sharp-edged and unworn shapes of the fragments; in conglomerates the pebbles are rounded and water-worn. Breccias may originate in many ways. Some are formed by ordinary processes of atmospheric erosion; frost, rain and gravity break up exposed surfaces of rock and detach pieces of all sizes; in this way screes are formed at the bases of cliffs, and barren mountain-tops are covered with broken débris. If such accumulations are changed into hard rock by pressure cementation they make typical breccias. Caves, coral reefs and volcanic regions are other frequent sources. Another group of breccias is due to crushing; these are produced in fissures, faults and veins, below the surface, and may be described as “‘crush-breccias” and “friction-breccias.” ‘Very important and well-known examples of this class occur as veinstones, which may be metalliferous or not. A fissure is formed, probably by slight crustal movements, and is subsequently filled with material deposited from solution (quartz, calcite, barytes,

etc.). Very often displacement of the walls again takes place, and the infilling or “veinstone” is torn apart and brecciated. It may then be cemented together by a further introduction of mineral matter, which may be the same as that first deposited or quite different. Other crush-breccias occurring on a much larger scale are due to the folding of strata which have unequal plasticities. Great masses of limestone in the Alps, Scottish highlands, and all regions of intense folding are thus converted into breccias. Cherts frequently also show this structure; igneous rocks less commonly do so; but it is perhaps most common where there have been thin-bedded alternations of rocks of different character, such

BI

as limestone and dolerite, limestone and quartzite, shale or phyllite and sandstone. Fault-breccias closely resemble vein-breccias. A third group of breccias is due to movement in a partly consolidated igneous rock, and may be called “fluxion-breccias.” Lava streams, especially when they consist of rhyolite, dacite and some kinds of andesite, may rapidly solidify, and then become exceedingly brittle. If any part of the mass is still liquid, it may break up the solid crust by pressure from within and the angular frag-

ments are enveloped by the fluid lava. When the whole comes to rest and cools, it forms a typical “volcanic fluxion-breccia.”

(J.S. F.)

BRECHIN,

royal, municipal and police burgh, Forfarshire,

Scotland, on the left bank of the South Esk, 73m. W. of Montrose, a station on the loop line of the L.M.S. Railway from Forfar to Bridge of Dun. Pop. (1931) 6,838. Brechin was the site of a Culdee abbey. The Danes are said to have burned the town in 1012. David I. erected it into a bishopric in 1150, and it is still a see of the Episcopal Church of Scotland. In 1452 the earl of Huntly crushed the insurrection led by the earl of Crawford at the battle of Brechin Muir, and in 1645 the town and castle were harried by the marquess of Montrose. James VI. gave a grant for a hospital; this still supplies funds for charity. No trace remains of the old walls and gates. Ancient structures include a very early two-arched stone bridge, Holy Trinity cathedral (13th century) much altered, and near by a round tower built about A.D. 1000. It is 863ft. high, has at the base a circumference of soft. and a diameter of 16ft., and is capped with a hexagonal spire of 18ft., which was added in the 15th century. This type of structure is common in Ireland, but the only Scottish examples are those at Brechin, Abernethy in Perthshire, and Egilshay in the Orkneys. Brechin castle played a prominent part in the Scottish War of Independence. In 1303 it withstood for 20 days a siege in force by the English under Edward I., surrendering only when its governor, Sir Thomas Maule, had been slain. From the Maule family it descended to the Dalhousies. Its library contains Burns’ correspondence with George Thomson and several cartularies, including those of St. Andrews and Brechin. In the Vennel (alley or small street) are ruins of the maison dieu or hospitium, founded in 1256 by William of Brechin. The industries include linen manufactures and flax-spinning, bleaching, rope-making, distilling, iron-founding and paper-making. Brechin unites with Arbroath, Forfar, Bervie and Montrose to return one member to parliament.

BRECKENRIDGE,

a city of north-eastern Texas, U.S.A.,

trom. W. of Fort Worth; the county seat of Stephens county. It is served by the Cisco and Northeastern, the Wichita Falls and Southern, and the Wichita Falls, Ranger and Fort Worth railways. The population in 1920 was 1,846; in 1930 by the Federal census it was 7,569. It is in the midst of an oil-field which was discovered in 1918. The city was settled in 1876 and incorporated in 1919. BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (1821-1875), American soldier and political leader, was born near Lexington, Ky., on Jan. 2r, 1821. He was a member of a family prominent in the public life of Kentucky and the nation. His grandfather, John Breckinridge (1760-1806), was a United States senator from Kentucky in 1801-05 and attorney-general in President Jefferson’s cabinet in 1805-06. John Cabell Breckinridge graduated in 1838 at Centre college, Danville, Ky., continued his studies at Princeton, and then studied law at Transylvania university, Lexington, Kentucky. He practised law in Frankfort, Ky., in 1840-4z and in Burlington, Ia., from 1841 to 1843, and then returned to Kentucky and followed his profession at Lexington. In 1847 he went to Mexico as major in a volunteer regiment. In 1849 he was elected a Democratic member of the Kentucky legislature; in 1851— 55 he served in the national House of Representatives. In 1856 he was chosen vice-president of the United States on the Buchanan ticket, and although a strong pro-slavery and states rights man, he presided over the Senate with conspicuous fairness and impartiality during the trying years before the Civil War. In r860. he

was nominated for the presidency by the pro-slavery seceders

BRECON—BRECONSHIRE

82

a

from the Democratic national convention, and received a total of 72 electoral votes, As vice-president and presiding officer of the Senate, it was his duty to make the official announcement of the election of his opponent, Lincoln. He succeeded John J. Crittenden as United States senator from Kentucky in March 1861, but having subsequently entered the Confederate service he was expelled from the Senate in Dec, 1861. As brigadier-general he commanded the Confederate reserve at Shiloh, and in Aug. 1862 he became major-general, On Aug. 5 he was repulsed in his attack on Baton Rouge, but he won distinction at Stone River (Dec. 31, 1862—Jan. 2, 1863). He took part in the battle of Chickamauga, defeated Gen. Franz Sigel at Newmarket, Va., on May 15, 1864, and then joined Lee and took part in the battles of Cold Harbor June 1 and 3. In the autumn he operated in the Shenandoah Valley, and with Early was defeated by Sheridan at Winchester on Sept. 19. In Jan. 1865 he became secretary of war for the Confederate States. At the close of the war he escaped to Cuba, and thence to Europe. In 1868 he returned to the United States and resumed the practice of law at Lexington, Ky., where he died on

May 17, 1875.

BRECON o BRECKNOCK (ABERHONDDU), cathedral town, municipal borough and capital of Breconshire, Wales. Population (1931) 5,334, situated at the confluence of the Honddu with the Usk near the centre of the county. Its site commands routes from Builth in the north, Llandovery in the west,

Merthyr and Crickhowell in the south, and Knighton and Hay in the east. About 3m. W. of the town is the famous Roman station

known as “Y Gaer” and as is so often the case, Brecon has con-

tinued the importance of the nodal site selected by the Romans. From the ruins of the Roman Fort, it is said, Bernard de Newmarch built the original Norman Castle in 1092. Its history was a stormy one as was the case with all castles that were outposts near the Welsh Hills. Bernard subsequently founded, near the

castle, the Benedictine priory of St. John, which he endowed and constituted a cell of Battle Abbey. Nothing remains of the original church except portions of the nave walls, but the rebuildings of the first half of the 13th century and of the r4th century gave beautiful Early English and decorated additions and made the edifice one of the finest churches in Wales. In 1923 it was made the cathedral of the newly constituted diocese of Swansea and Brecon. Around the original castle and priory a small mediaeval town grew up, and its inhabitants received a series of charters from the de Bohuns, into which family the castle and lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted by Humphrey, 3rd earl of Hereford. The town became one of the chief centres of trade in South Wales, and a sixteen days’ fair, still held in November. A Dominican friary was established to the south-west of the town and was refounded by Henry VIII. in 1542 as a collegiate church and school, This institution is now known as Christ’s College. The nodal site of the town offered special facilities during Tudor economic developments for establishment of trade

guilds as well as a Guild Hall. The guilds were formerly five in number, the chief industries being cloth and leather manufacture. There are five ancient fairs for stock, and formerly each of them

was preceded by a leather fair. Further charters were granted by Mary in 1536 and again by Elizabeth. Brecon destroyed its castle to preserve its neutrality during the Civil Wars. The subse-

quent centuries were periods of social life and bustle for the now

important capital of the county. The borough came under the Municipal Corporations act in 1835. A college for the training of Congregational Ministers was established in 1860. By a statute of 1535 Brecon elected a member to represent it in parliament, a right it retained until it was merged in the county representation in 1885. It is now (since 1918) merged in the representation of the joint counties of Brecon and Radnor,

BRECONSHIRE

or BRECKNOCKSHIRE,

an inland

county in south Wales, and fourth largest in all Wales, bounded on the north-west by Cardigan, on the north and north-east by Radnor, on the east and south-east by Monmouth, on the south by Glamorgan, and on the west by Carmarthen.

Physical Conformation.—With

the exception of the Vale

of Usk at Crickhowell the county is almost encircled by mountains. To-the north a range of barren hills, known as Mynydd

Eppynt, stretches right across the county in a north-easterly direction towards Builth, beginning with Mynydd Bwlch y Groes (1,450ft.) near Llandovery. These hills are composed of the oldest rocks in the county, the Llandeilo shales, with thei; volcanic outflows (often containing mineral springs, as at Llanwrtyd and Builth) as well as the Bala beds, which, with the succeeding lower and upper Llandovery shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, form the sparsely populated sheep walks of the north part of the county. To the south-east of this region a narrow outcrop of Llandovery, Wenlock, and Ludlow sandstones and

mudstones follows. The remainder and greater part of the county

is occupied by the gently inclined old red sandstone, largely hill country, the highest point of which, north of the Usk, is Pen y Gader (2,624ft.) between Talgarth and Llanthony, where the lower marls and cornstones of the old red sandstone form the much dissected plateau of the Black mountains. The ring of hills is continued south of the Usk by the Brecon Beacons, composed mainly of the conglomeratic upper beds of the old red sandstone, weathered into many escarpments and plateaux. The highest

point is Pen y Fan or Cadair Arthur (Arthur’s Chair) (2,9r0ft.). In the extreme south-west of the county the ring of hills is completed by the Carmarthen Van, the highest point of which, Van

Brycheiniog (2,632ft.), is in the county. The extreme southern boundary is formed by the scarps and moorlands of the carboniferous limestone and millstone grit, while the lowest beds of

the coal measures (much folded) are reached in the upper Tawe

and Neath valleys and near Brynmawr. Drainage System.—The most distinctive feature of the drain-

age system is the valley of the Usk. The river rises in the Carmarthen Van in the west and flows nearly due east, dividing the

county into two nearly equal portions. It also collects numerous streams from the Beacons on the south and the Eppynt in the north. The most important tributary streams are the Tarell and the Honddu. The confluence of the latter with the Usk marks the site of Brecon—the county town. Another river of the eastward drainage is the Wye, which forms the northern boundary of the county from Rhayader to Hay. A portion of the upper Towy, flowing north-east to south-west, following the line of the Eppynt, forms the county boundary on the north-west. The southern section has the upper reaches of the Taff, Neath, and

Tawe, all of which ultimately flow southwards to the Bristol channel as part of the general south and south-westerly drainage system of Wales. There is evidence that the region was heavily glaciated, and much boulder clay is found in the lower valley lands and striated pebbles and boulders occur at a great height on the Black mountains. The porous rocks of Breconshire constitute one of the best water-producing areas in Wales, and many industrial centres are supplied from reservoirs in this county. History—As usual the earliest remains of man are on the high ground. Later the Usk and Wye valleys became especially important as ways through the mountains from the English border. On the spurs of the moorland overlooking the valleys are many hill-top camps. An interesting site is the artificial island in Llangorse lake (Llyn Safaddan) in the east of the county at the foot of the Black mountains, where traces of lake dwellings were discovered in 1869. The conquest of the district by the Romans was effected about 4.p. 75-80. Their main purpose was to keep open valley lines of communication through their fortified nodal sites, such as the one three miles out of the present town of Brecon excavated in 1925-26 by the officers of the National Museum of Wales (see Y Cymmrodor, vol. xxxvii., 1926). Smaller forts were established on roads leading from this fort towards Neath and Crickhowell. On the departure of the Romans, the hill tribes and other raiders seem to have regained possession of the Usk valley under Brychan, who became the ancestor of one of the three chief tribes of hereditary Welsh saints. His territory (named after him Brycheiniog, whence Brecknock) lay wholly east of the Eppynt range, for the lordship of Buallt, corresponding to the modern hundred of Builth,

to the west, remained independent, probably till the Norman

BREDA—BREDOW invasion. Most of the older churches of central Brecknockshire were founded by or dedicated to members of Brychan’s family.

From the middle of the 8th century to the roth, Brycheiniog proper, with its valley-ways open to the English plain, often bore the brunt of Mercian attacks, and many of the castles on its eastern border had their origin in that period. Subsequently, when Bernard de Newmarch and his Norman followers obtained possession of the country in the last quarter of the 11th century, these were converted into regular fortresses. Bernard himself built a castle at Talgarth on the Upper Wye, but in toor he moved southwards and, having defeated Bleddyn Ab Maenarch,

he established himself at Brecon, which he made his caput baroniae. Brycheiniog was then converted into a lordship marcher

and passed to the Fitzwalter, the de Breos, the Bohun, and the Stafford families in succession, remaining unaffected by the statute of Rhuddlan (1282), as it formed part of the marches, and not of the principality of Wales. The Irfon valley, near Builth, was, however, the scene of the

last struggle between the English and Llewelyn, who in 1282 fell in a petty skirmish in that district. Raids from the hills were frequent and Glyndwr (Glendower g.v.), at the head of a band of tribesmen, marched to Brecon in 1403. Upon the attainder of Edward, duke of Buckingham, in 1521, the lordship of Brecon with its dependencies became vested in the Crown. In 1536 it was grouped with a whole series of petty lordships marcher and the lordship of Builth to form the county of Brecknock with Brecon as the county town, and the place for holding the county court. The most important mediaeval monastic house was the priory of St. John the Baptist, founded by Bernard de Newmarch at Brecon in the rrth century. This county became famous for its wool in the later middle ages and attracted large numbers of continental weavers at different times, some of whom were refugees forming part of an intellectual élite. John Penry (1550-03), born at Llangammarch in‘ the north-west of the county, was typical of the spirit of Puritanism

that characterized this region, which developed strong points of view in religion, as is shown by the early importance of the Quakers and later of the Baptists. Later Howell Harris (1714— 73), one of the most fiery leaders of the Methodist revival, was a

83

siastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the county number 70, of which 67 were until 1923 in the diocese of St. David’s but are now in the newly constituted diocese of Swansea and Brecon, the remaining three being in the diocese of Llandaff. Brecon is the site of the new cathedral. The county is not divided for parliamentary purposes and until 1918 returned one member to parliament; since that date its representation is merged with that of the entire county of Radnor.

BREDA,

town, province of North Brabant, Holland, at the

confluence of the canalized rivers Merk and Aa. Pop. (1925) 30,670. Breda was in the rith century a direct fief of the Holy Roman empire, its earliest known lord being Henry I. (1098 1125), in whose family it continued, until Alix, heiress of Philip (d. 1323), sold it to Brabant. It passed ultimately to William I. (1533-84), the first stadtholder of the Netherlands. Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252, but was first surrounded with walls in 1534 by Count Henry of Nassau, who also restored the old castle, originally built by John of Polanen in 1350. It remained until the 19th century the most important of the line of fortresses along the Meuse. Captured by the Spaniards in 1581, in 1590 it fell again into the hands of Maurice of Nassau. Its surrender to the Spaniards (1625) after a siege, is the subject of the famous picture by Velasquez in the Museo del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick Henry of Orange, and in 1648 it was finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of Westphalia. It was the residence, during his exile, of Charles II. of England. In 1696 William, prince of Orange and king of England, built the new castle, now a military academy. During the wars of the French Revolution, it was taken by Dumouriez in 1793, evacuated soon after and retaken by Pichegru in 1795. In 1813, the citizens of Breda again made themselves masters of the town. It has been the scene of various political congresses, e.g., in 1575 a conference was held here between the ambassadors of Spain and those of the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace was signed by England, Holland, France and Denmark; and by the same Powers in 1746-47. The town has a fine quay, town hall and park. The principal Protestant church is a Gothic building

(13th century), with a fine tower, and a choir (1410). BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN (1683-1750), Flemish

native of the county. Industries.—The county’s one-time agricultural prosperity is indicated by an agricultural society dating from 1755, the oldest in Wales. Agriculture is still the chief occupation, and the county is chiefly pastoral. The breeding of cobs and ponies, as in Cardiganshire, is also important. The upper reaches of the Swansea and Neath valleys are important areas on the anthracite coalfield, while bituminous coal is mined in the south-east corner near Brynmawr. There are also limestone, fire clay, and cement works on the outcrop of the carboniferous limestone. Railways and Communications.—The L.M.S.R. from Craven Arms to Swansea and from Hereford to Swansea runs through the county, effecting junctions with the G.W.R. at Builth

painter, son of Alexander van Bredael (d. 1720), also an artist, was born in Antwerp. He imitated the style of Wouwerman and Breughel with much dexterity. He visited England, where he was well employed. There were several other van Bredaels, who won honour as artists—notably Prerer (1622-1719), Alexander’s father, and Jozer (1688-1739). They were formerly known as “Breda,” but this apparently is incorrect, though it occurs as a signature on a picture by Jan Frans in the Amsterdam gallery.

(old Cambrian line), Three Cocks (mid-Wales line), Talyllyn (Merthyr and Newport line), and at Colbren (Neath and Brecon line). Brynmawr in the south-east is connected by L.M.S.R. with Abergavenny and with Pontypool and G.W.R. with Newport. Brecon is also connected with Newport by the Brecknock and Abergavenny canal (35m.), which was completed in 180z. The Swansea canal and that of the Vale of Neath have also their northern terminals in the county, at Ystradgynlais and Abernant respectively. The main roads are probably the best in south Wales,

Netherlands and to resist the expected introduction of the Inqui-

and nodal sites such as Brecon and Builth are coming into prominence in this respect. Area and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 475,224 acres and the administrative county 469,301 acres. The population (1931) was 57,771. The only municipal borough is Brecon, which is the county town, pop. (1931) 5,334. The other urban districts are Brynmawr (7,247), Builth Wells

(1,663), Hay (1,509) and Llanwrtyd (742). The county forms part of the south Wales circuit and the assizes are held at Brecon. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into ten petty sessional divisions. There are 94 civil parishes, while the eccle-

BREDERODE,

HENRY,

Viscounr

oF (1531-1568),

a

descendant of the ancient counts of Holland, was born at Brussels in Dec. 1531, and died at Recklinghausen on Feb. 15, 1568. In 1566 he was one of the founders of the confederacy of nobles who bound themselves to maintain the rights and liberties of the sition by signing a document known as “the compromise.” This document is believed to have been the work of Sante-Aldegonde, with the assistance of Louis of Nassau and Brederode. Brederode was gay and popular, reckless and generous, and one of the principal leaders of the movement. On April 5 of that year 250 confederates assembled at the Hôtel Culemburg and marched to the palace, led by Louis and Brederode, to present to the regent, Margaret of Parma, a petition setting forth their grievances, called “the request.” Refusing, in the following August, to take an oath of loyalty demanded by Margaret of Parma, Brederode made unsuccessful attempts to raise an army at Antwerp and Amsterdam; in April 1567 he fled to Emden, where, on hearing of the appointment of the Duke of Alva, he signed a second compromise with seven other exiles. After his death in 1568, Alva passed a sentence of banishment and confiscation on him. See M. C. Van den Hall, Heinrich von Brederode (1848).

BREDOV,, a shipbuilding district in the Prussian province of Pomerania, lying immediately north of Stettin (g.v.), with which it is incorporated.

BREECH—BREHON

84

BREECH, a covering for the lower part of the body and legs. The word in its proper meaning is used in the plural, and is confined to a garment reaching to the knees only. The meaning of “the hinder part of the body” is later than, and derived from, its first meaning; this sense appears in the “breech” of a gun. The word is also found in “breeches buoy,” a sling life-saving apparatus, consisting of a support of canvas ‘breeches. The “Breeches Bible,” a name for the Geneva Bible of 1560, is so called because “breeches” is used for the aprons of fig-leaves made by Adam and Eve. On the stage the phrase a “breeches” part is used when a woman plays in male costume. “Breeching” is a strap passed round the breech of a harnessed horse and joined to the shafts to allow a vehicle to be backed. In military science the word is used to denote the hinder part of a firearm, containing the projectile and propellent. Up till the middle of the roth century these had to be inserted from the muzzle of the weapon; loading by the breech is universal to-day for guns and all other firearms.

BREEDS AND BREEDING.

A breed of domestic animals

or cultivated plants is a group of individuals which exhibit in common a certain combination of hereditary characters. Breeds have had their origin in the unconscious or accidental selection by man of wild stocks that tolerated the vicinity of man and were useful or attractive to him. Following upon this domestication came the recognition by the pastoralist and husbandman that related individuals maintained under exactly similar conditions differed among themselves, that these variations commonly bred true, and that improvements in husbandry induced a fuller expression of usefulness or attractiveness. The breeder has never possessed the power of invoking the appearance of a new hereditary character, but by guiding the formation of different groupings of these hereditary characters as they presented themselves, he first made the unimproved local breeds of stock and later, as the standards of perfection became more precisely defined and the art of breeding developed, the modern breeds, which differ from local breeds in that inborn dissimilarity among the individuals comprising them is much rarer and less pronounced. Modern improved breeds are commonly classified as “fancy” and “utility.” A fancy breed is one in which the characterization of the ideal type is not directly concerned with economic values, but is one that is attractive. Since the aim of the breeder is to produce individuals that shall win prizes in competitive exhibitions, the standard of the ideal type can be rarely attained, much importance being attached to finer points and shades of characterization. The “fancy” pigeon may or may not be able to fly, but it must have some character, e.g., colour, pattern, size, generally or of local parts, developed to a point that commonly is almost pathological. The “fancy” dog may or may not be useless as a dog, but it must exhibit some hereditary character, e.g., short legs, dished face, hairlessness, developed to its extreme. The utility breeds, on the other hand, are bred for and judged by the productivity and performance of the individuals comprising them. There are milk, beef and draught breeds of cattle, and in addition dual-purpose breeds (milk and beef, or beef and draught) and triple-purpose breeds (milk, beef and draught). There are wool and mutton breeds of sheep, each primarily bred for the production of wool or of mutton, the alternative being regarded more or less as a by-product. There are other breeds of sheep which are dual-purpose breeds. There are the fine-woolled and the long-woolled breeds, each carefully bred and maintained for the production of their own particular kind of fleece in addition to mutton. Of utility rabbits there are “pelt” breeds, bred for their skins, and the Angora bred for its wool. Of utility fowls there are the “egg,” the “flesh” and the dual-purpose breeds. From an economic point of view, it would appear that to keep the “all-round” breed on a large scale is less profitable than to keep several single-purpose breeds on a smaller. Darwin, in his Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868), placed on record a very complete statement of the facts concerning the origin and development of breeds and, moreover,

gave

to these facts a very rational interpretation.

ANIMAL BREEDING; REPRODUCTION; and VARIATION AND SELECTION.

HEREDITY;

See

MENDELISM;

LAWS

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain, sth edn. (1923); J. A. S. Watson and J. A. More, Agriculture: The Science and Practice of British Farming (1924). (F. A. E. C)

BREEZE.

(1) A current of air less than a “wind,” which in

turn is less than a “gale.” (See BEAUFORT SCALE.) The term is qualified in many different ways, e.g., glacial-breeze—a cold breeze blowing down the course of a glacier; lake-breeze—light wind blowing on to the coast of a lake in sunny weather during the mid- . dle of the day; mountain breeze—a mass of air flowing down into the valley during the night; valley breeze—a day breeze blowing up the valleys. The unqualified term is usually applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, sea-breeze, and the counter wind blowing offshore at night, land-breeze. (2) In industry breeze is a name given to small cinders and fine coal used in burning bricks. The term is also applied to small clinker and clinker dust. Used as a matrix with Portland cement,

breeze is now widely employed to make lintels for building, fixing-bricks, and blocks for building cheap partitions. A breeze for such a purpose should be carefully washed and rendered free from sulphur to prevent disintegration after moulding. The cokebreeze fixing-brick is a very useful product, as it saves much labour in fixing door-frames, skirtings, picture-mouldings, etc. The breeze block will hold nails, and its use therefore makes it unnecessary to plug walls where joinery has to be fixed.

BREGENZ, the capital of the Austrian province of Vorarl-

berg, is situated at the south-east corner of Lake Constance. It has an important nodal position commanding routes from southern Germany to the Upper Rhine valley and the Arlberg as well as communications by water with the other towns on the lake shores. The value of the location is proved by its long and disturbed history, admirably recorded in the collections of the Vorarlberger Landesmuseum. The old town, the Brigantium of the Romans, lies on a castle-crowned hill overlooking the modern site. Here, in 1408, the Appenzellers were defeated, while in 1647 during the Thirty Years’ War the town was sacked by the Swedes. The rejuvenation of modern times is in great measure due to its possibilities as a port. The principal exports are cattle and the cotton goods manufactured in Vorarlberg, but an important trade in grain and foodstuffs is also carried on; fostered by growth in commerce the town has grown rapidly during the 2oth century. Pop. 13,100. BREGUET, LOUIS CHARLES (1880j, French engineer, a descendant of the famous watchmaker, Abraham Louis Breguet, was born Jan. 2 1880, in Paris. He received his education at the Lycées Condorcet and Carnot, and graduated in

science. He was from the outset of his career a prominent member of the engineering firm that bears his family name, and eventually became head engineer of its electric service. The Maison Breguet, which came to the front in French aeronautical construction, provided him with ample ground for research; he published a quantity of reports on aerodynamics, on the energy converted by propellers in motion and on the rise of aircraft from the ground. ‘He studied and equipped in 1909 the first helicopter which was able to rise perpendicularly carrying a passenger.

BREHON

LAWS,

more properly called Feinechus, were

the ancient laws of Ireland.

Brehon

(Breitheamh) is the Irish

word for judge. Regular courts and judges existed in Ireland from prehistoric times. The extant remains of these laws are ms. transcripts from earlier copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th century, now preserved with other Gaelic mss. in Trinity college and the

Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, the British Museum, Oxford university, some private collections and several libraries on the continent of Europe. The largest and most important of these

documents is the Senchus Mér, or “Great Old Law Book.” copy of it now existing is complete.

No

What remains of it occupies

the first, second and a portion of the third of the volumes produced by the Brehon Law Commission appointed in 1852. In the Annals of the Four Masters it is said “The age of Christ 438, the tenth year of King Laeghaire (Lairy), the Senchus Mér and Feinechus of Ireland were purified and written” This entry has some historical corroboration.

BREHON The text and earlier commentaries are in the Bearla Feini—the most archaic form of the Gaelic language. Many words, phrases and idioms are now obsolete, and so difficult to translate that the official translations are to some extent confessedly conjectural.

Frequently only the opening words of the original text remain. Wherever the text is whole, it is curt, elliptical and yet rhythmical. The rigorously authentic character of these laws, relating

LAWS

85

bution of land was confined to the joint families next to be described. Fine (finé), originally meaning family, came in course of time to be applied to a group of kindred families or a joint family group of four generations. Even those who adhere to the traditional view of the clan will admit that in course of time a large

and increasing proportion of the good land became limited private property. The area of arable land available for the comtions and a state of society nowhere else revealed to the same mon use of the clansmen was gradually diminished by these enextent, the extreme antiquity both of the provisions and of the croachments. The land belonging to the joint family (finé) was language, and the meagreness of continental material illustra- at intervals liable to redistribution when the joint family broke tive of the same things, endow them with exceptional] archaic, up. In this distribution men might or might not receive again archaeological and philological interest. No man was allowed to their former portions. In the latter case compensation was made act as judge until he had studied the full law course, which occu- for unexhausted improvements. This land could not be sold, pied 20 years, and had passed a rigorous public examination. nor even let except for a season in case of domestic necessity. The course of study for judge and law-agent, respectively, is The holders had no landlord and no rent to pay for this land, carefully laid down. The Brehon was an arbitrator, umpire and and could not be deprived of it except for a crime. They were expounder of the law, rather than a judge in the modern accepta- subject only to public tributes and the ordinary obligations of tion. It appears, without being expressly stated, that the facts free men. The unfenced and unappropriated common lands— of a case were investigated and ascertained by laymen before waste, bog, forest and mountain—all clansmen were free to use submission to a Brehon for legal decision. The complainant promiscuously at will. could select any Brehon he pleased, if there were more than one Tenure of Land.—There was hardly any selling and little in his district. Every king or chief of sufficient territory retained letting of land in ancient times. Nobles and other persons holdan official Brehon, who was provided with free land for his main- ing large areas let to clansmen, not the land, but the grazing of tenance and acted as registrar or assessor in the king’s court. In a number of cattle specified by agreement. They also let cattle ordinary cases the Brehon’s fee was said to have been one-twelfth to a clansman who had none or not enough, and this was the of the amount at stake. most prevalent practice. There were two distinct methods of Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked char- letting and hiring—saer (=free) and daer (=unfree), the condiacteristic of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, dis- tions being fundamentally different. The conditions of saer-tencharged legal, legislative or administrative functions. Most of ure were largely settled by the law, were comparatively easy, the assemblies were annual, some triennial, some lasted only a did not require any security to be given, left the clansman free day or two, others a week and occasionally longer. All originated within the limits of justice to end the connection, left him comin pagan funeral or commemorative rites and continued to be petent in case of dispute to give evidence against that of the held, even in Christian times, in very ancient cemeteries. They noble, and did not impose any liability on the joint family of were called by different names—Feis, Aenach, Ddl, etc. At one the clansmen. By continued use of the same land for some assembly held at Uisneach about a century before Christ a uni- years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it form law of distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted. Each in addition to the ciss or payment as tenant, a clansman became provincial kingdom and each tuath had assemblies of its own. a sub-owner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites There is no provision in these laws for evicting any one. For the of great assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at hire of cattle a usual payment was one beast in seven per annum them is sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. for seven years; after which the cattle that remained became The Clan System.—Tuath, Cinel and Clann were synonyms the property of the hirer. Daer-tenure, whether of cattle or of meaning a small tribe or nation descended from a common an- the right to graze cattle upon land, was subject to a céss-ninsciss cestor. A king and clan being able, subject to certain limitations, (=wearisome tribute), for the payment of which security had to adopt new members or families, or amalgamate with another to be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil rights, if clan, the theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered to. able to find security could become an unfree clansman. A free Kinship with the clan was an essential qualification for holding clansman by becoming an unfree-clansman lowered his own any office or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status and that of his joint family, became incompetent to give status with its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the evidence against that of a noble, and could not end the connecplace of contract and of laws affecting the ownership, disposi- tion until the end of the term except by a large payment. The tion and devolution of property, constituting the clan an or- members of his joint family were liable, in the degree of their ganic, self-contained entity, a political, social and mutual insur- relationship, to make good out of their own property any deance co-partnership. The solidarity of the clan was its most fault in the payments. Hence this tenure could not be legally important and all-pervading characteristic. According to the tra- entered into by a free clansman without the permission of his ditional view the entire territory occupied by a clan was the joint family. Unfree clansmen were also exposed to casual burcommon and absolute property of that clan, a portion being set dens, like that of lodging and feeding soldiers when in their apart for the maintenance of the king. Warriors, statesmen, district. All payments were made in kind. When the particular Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets and even eminent workers kind was not specified by the law or by agreement, the payin the more important arts, were also rewarded with free lands. ments were made according to convenience in horses, cattle, Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction and re- sheep, pigs, wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn, dyesponsibility, was based upon a qualification of kinship and of plants, leather, cloth, articles of use or ornament, etc. property, held by a family for a specified number of generations, People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens together with certain concurrent conditions; and it could be were in a base condition and incompetent to appear in court in lost by loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful suit or defence except through a freeman. The Bothach (=cotconduct. A portion of land called the Cumhal Senorba was de- tier) and the Sen-cléithe (=old dependant) were people who, voted to the support of widows, orphans and old childless people. though living for successive generations attached to the families According to the later and now very generally accepted view of nobles, did not belong to the clan and had no rights of citizenof Prof. Eoin MacNeill there was no communal holding of land ship. Fuidhirs, or manual labourers without property, were the by the clan. Clan itself meant little more than a princely family, lowest section of the population. Some were born in this condilike, say, the Hohenzollerns in Germany. There was no land, tion, some clansmen were depressed into it by crime, consequences blood or personal name common to the people subject to such a of war or other misfortune; and strangers of a low class coming family. Anything in the nature of common holding or redistri- into the territory found their level in it. The fuidhirs also were

to, and dealing with, the actual realities of life, and with institu-

86

BREHON

divided into free and unfree; the former being free by industry

and thrift to acquire some property, after which five of them could club together to acquire rights corresponding to those of one freeman. The unfree fuidhirs were tramps, fugitives, captives, etc.

Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and educated in the families of fellow-clansmen, was prevalent among the wealthy classes. A child in fosterage was reared and educated suitably for the position it was destined to fill in life. There was fosterage for affection, for payment and for a literary education. Fosterage began when the child was a year old and ended when the marriageable age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or crime. Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if necessary, for the old age of foster parents. The affection arising from this relationship was usually greater, and was regarded as more sacred than that of blood relationship.

LAWS and other things seriously affecting the people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, written in the 5th century and prefixed to the Senchus Mér, the sentences “Let every one die who kills a human being,” and “Every living person that inflicts death

shall suffer death,” capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland before or after. The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, retaliation, the punishment of one crime by another, and permitted capital punishment only in the last resort, and in ultimate default of every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision for dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is regarded and treated is essentially different from ours. The

State, for all its elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction

in relation to any crimes except political ones, such as treason or the disturbance of a large assembly. For these it inflicted the severest penalties known to the law—banishment, confiscation of property, death or putting out of eyes. A crime against the person, character or property of an individual or family was reLaw of Contract.—The solidarity of clan and joint family garded as a thing for which reparation should be made, but the in their respective spheres, the provisions of the system, the individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal terms emsimple rural life, and the prevalence of barter and payments in action. This differed from a civil action only in the of the kind, left comparatively little occasion for contracts between in- ployed and the elements used in calculating the amount civil a in as criminal a in judge a of function The reparation. not are contract to relating rules the Consequently dividuals. circumstances, modifying with facts, the that see to was action conNo very numerous. They are, however, sufficiently solemn. tract affecting land was valid unless made with the consent of were fully and truly submitted to him, and then by applying of the joint family. Contracts relating to other kinds of property the law to these facts to ascertain and declare the amount For this are more numerous. When important or involving a considerable compensation that would make a legal adjustment. amount, they had to be made in the presence of a noble or mag- amount the guilty person and in his default his kindred, became istrate. ‘The parties to a contract should be free citizens, of full legally debtor, and the injured person or family became entitled age, sound mind, free to contract and under no legal disability. to recover the amount like a civil debt by distraint. There were “The world would be in a state of confusion if express contracts no police, sheriffs or public prisons. The decisions of the law were not binding.” From the repeated correlative dicta that were executed by the persons concerned, supported by a highly “nothing is due without deserving,” and that a thing done “for organized and disciplined public opinion springing from honour God’s sake,” że., gratis, imposed little obligation, it is clear and interest and inherent in the solidarity of the clan. Prof. that the importance of valuable consideration was fully recog- MacNeill, however, contends that the State took a far more nized. So also was the importance of time. “To be asleep avails active part in enforcing Brehon decisions than that herein deno one”; “Sloth takes away a man’s welfare.” Contracts made scribed, the king in general acting as judge, subject to profesby the following persons were invalid: (1) a servant without his sional advice. There is good reason to believe that the system master’s authority; (2) a monk without authority from his ab- was as effectual in the prevention and punishment of crime and bot or manager of temporalities; (3) a son subject to his father in the redress of wrongs as any other human contrivance has , without the father’s authority; (4) an infant, lunatic, or “one ever been. In calculating the amount of compensation the most characwho had not the full vigilance of reason”; (5) a wife in relation to her husband’s property without his authority. She was free teristic and important element was Enechlann (=honour-price, to hold and deal with property of her own and bind it by con- honour-value), a value attaching to every free person, varying in tract. If a son living with his father entered into a contract with amount from one cow to 30 cows according to rank. It was the his father’s knowledge, the father was held to have ratified the assessed value of status or caput. It was frequently of consecontract unless he promptly repudiated it. “One is held to adopt quence in relation to contracts and other clan affairs; but it what he does not repudiate after knowledge, having the power.” emerges most clearly in connection with crime. By the commisContract of sale or barter with warranty could be dissolved for sion of crime, breach of contract, or other disgraceful or injurious fraud, provided action was taken within a limited time after the conduct, Enechlann was diminished or destroyed, a capitis diminufraud had become known. Treaties and occasional very important tio occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though existing contracts were made “blood covenants” and inviolable by draw- apart from fine, Enechlann was the first element in almost every ing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the con- fine. Dive was the commonest word for fine, whether great or tracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking the small. Eric (=reparation, redemption) was the fine for “separatmixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence were ing body from soul”; but the term was used in lighter cases also. pledges, documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of special im- In capital cases the word sometimes meant Enechlann, sometimes portance the pledges were human beings, “hostage sureties.” coirp-dire (=body-fine), but most correctly the sum of these These were treated as in their own homes according to the rank two. It may be taken that, subject to modifying circumstances, a to which they belonged, and were discharged on the performance person guilty of homicide had to pay (1) coirp-dire for the deof the contract. If the contract was broken they became pris- struction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the honour-value of oners and might be fettered or made to work as slaves until the the victim;, (3) his own honour-value if the deed was unintenobligation was satisfied. Authentic documents were considered tional; and (4) double his own. honour-value if committed with good evidence. A witness was in all cases important, and in some malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases heavy; essential to the validity of a contract. His status affected the heaviest when the parties were wealthy. The amount was reforce of the contract as well as the value of his evidence; and coverable as a debt from the criminal to the extent of his propthe laws appear to imply that by becoming a witness, a man in- erty, and in his default from the members of his joint family in curred liabilities as a surety. The pre-Christian oath might be by sums determined by the degree of relationship; and it was disone or more of the elements, powers or phenomena of nature, tributable among the members of the joint family of a murdered as the sun, moon, water, night, day, sea, land. The Christian person in the same proportions, like a distribution among the oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, a saint’s crozier, relic or next of kin. The joint family `of a murderer could free themselves from liability by giving up the murderer and his goods, other holy thing. Criminal Laws.—These laws recognized crime, but in the or if he escaped, by giving up any goods he had left, depriving same calm and deliberate way in which they recognized contract him of clanship and lodging a pledge against his future mis-

BREISACH—BREITENFELD deeds. In these circumstances the law held the criminal’s life forfeit, and he might be slain or taken as a prisoner or slave. He could escape only by becoming an unfree labourer in some distant territory. When the effect of a crime did not go beyond

an individual, if that individual’s joint family did not make good their claim while the criminal lived, it lapsed on his death. “The crime dies with the criminal.” If an unknown stranger or person without

property

caught

red-handed

in the commission

of a

crime refused to submit to arrest, it was lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the attempted crime. “A person who came to inflict a wound on the body may be safely killed when unknown and without a name, and when there is

no power to arrest him at the time of committing the trespass.” For crimes against property the usual penalty, as in breach of

contract, was generic restitution, the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, being twice the amount taken or destroyed. Law of Distress.—Distress or seizure of property being the universal mode of obtaining satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, non-payment of debt, or any other cause, the law of distress came into operation as the solvent of almost every dispute. Hence it is the most extensive and important branch, if not more than a branch, of these ancient laws. There was no sale, because sale for money was little known. The property in the thing seized, to the amount of the debt and expenses, became legally transferred from the debtor to the creditor, not all at once but in stages fixed by law. A creditor was not at liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils, or any goods the loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering from embarrassment, so long as there was other property which could be seized. A seizure could be made only between sunrise and sunset. “If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him and a fine of five seds.” When a large debt was clearly due, and there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could be seized and compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the debt was paid. When a defendant was of rank superior to that of the plaintiff, distress had to be preceded by troscad (=fasting). This is a legal process unknown elsewhere except in parts of India. The plaintiff having made his demand and waited a certain time without result, went and sat without food before the door of the defendant. To refuse to submit to fasting was considered indelibly disgraceful, and was one of the things which legally degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value. The law said, “he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an evader of all : he who disregards all things shall not be paid by God or man.” If a plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive within a certain time the satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled to distrain as in the case of an ordinary defendant, and to seize double the amount that would have satisfied him in the first instance. If a person fasting in accordance with law died during or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted upon was held guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the debt, giving a

pledge, or submitting to the decision of a Brehon.

A creditor

fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been made to him forfeited his claim. “He who fasts notwithstanding the offer of what should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal right.” BysLiocRaPHy.—Pending the work of a second Brehon Law Commission, the Laws are best studied in the six imperfect volumes (Ancient Laws of Ireland, 1865-1901) produced by the first Commission (ignoring their long and worthless introductions), together with Dr. Whitley Stokes’s Criticism (1903) of Atkinson’s Glossary (1901). The following are important references (kindly supplied by Dr.

Whitley Stokes)

for detailed research:—R.

Dareste, Etudes W histoire

de droit, pp. 356-381 (1889) ; Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet, Etudes sur le droit celtique (2 vols., 1895); Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. i. pp. 168—214 (2 vols, 1903); Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie, iv. 22x (see also vol. 14, p. Iı and vol. 15); the Copenhagen fragments of the Laws (Halle, 1903) ; important letters in The Academy, Nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707 (substantially covered by Stokes’s Criticism); Revue Celtique, xxv. 344; Erių i. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer of the Law tract Crith Gablach), aine’s Early Hist. of Institutions (1875) and Early Law and Custom, Pp. 162, 180 (1883); Hearn’s Aryan Household (1879) and Maclennan’s Studies in Ancient H istory, pp- 453—507 (1876), contain interesting general reference, but the writers were not themselves original

87

students of the laws. L. Ginnell’s Brehon Laws (1894) may also be

consulted. See also A. Ua Clerigh, History of Ireland to the Coming of Henry II., chaps. 14 and 15 (1908); E. MacNeill, Phases of Irish History, chaps. ro and 12 (1919) ; S. Bryant, Liberty, Order and Law under Native Irish Rule (1923); R. Thurneysen, Céic Conara Fugill

(Die funf Wege zum Urteil) (1926); and the article CELT, sections

Language and Literature.

(M. J. R.; A. E. C.)

BREISACH, a town of Germany, in the republic of Baden, standing on a basalt rock 25oft. above the Rhine, rom. W. of Freiburg. Pop. (1925), 3,131. Breisach (Brisiacum), formerly an imperial city and until the 18th century one of the chief fortresses of the empire, is of great antiquity. A stronghold of the Sequani, it was

captured

in the time of Julius Caesar by

Ariovistus and became known as the Mons Brisiacus. Fortified by the emperor Valentinian in 369 to defend the Rhine against the Germans, it remained throughout the middle ages one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the “cushion and key (Kissen und Schliissel) of the German empire.” It gave its name to the district Breisgau. In 939 it was taken by the emperor Otto I., and remained the exclusive possession of the emperors for two centuries. In 1254 and 1262 the bishops of Basle obtained full control over it, but in 1275 it was made an imperial

city by King Rudolph I., and the Habsburgs possessed it from the x4th century. In the Thirty Years’ War Breisach successfully resisted the Swedes, but it was forced to capitulate to the Protestants after a memorable siege in 1638. The French held it from

1648, and it was several times besieged by them after its restoration to Austria in 1697. By the peace of Pressburg (1805) it was finally incorporated with Baden, and the fortifications were razed. Two mediaeval gates, however, remain. It has a fine minster, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, dating from the roth to the 15th centuries; one western tower is 13th century Gothic, the other Romanesque. The interior is remarkable for the woodcarving of the high altar, and for tombs and pictures. There is little industry, but a considerable trade is done in wines and other agricultural produce. On the opposite bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a railway bridge, lies the little town of Neubreisach, built as a fortress by Louis XIV.

BREISGAU,

a district of Germany, in the free state of

Baden. It extends along the right bank of the Rhine from Basle to Kehl, and includes the principal peaks of the southern Black Forest and the Freiburg valley. The Breisgau, at one time a district or gau (Lat. pagus) of the Frankish empire, was ruled during the middle ages by hereditary counts. Of these the earliest

recorded is Birtilo (962—995), ancestor of the counts and dukes of Zähringen.

On the death of Berchthold V. of Zähringen in

1218, his co-heiresses brought parts of the Breisgau to the counts of Urach and Kyburg, while part went to the margraves of Baden. The male Urach line becoming extinct in 1457, an heiress carried to the house of Baden what had not been alienated to the Habsburgs. In the struggle between France and Austria from the 17th century onwards the Breisgau frequently changed masters. In 1801 Austria was forced to cede it to Ercole IJI., duke of Modena, in compensation for the duchy of which Napoleon had deprived him. His successor Ferdinand took the title of duke of Modena-

Breisgau, but on his death in 1805 the Breisgau was divided between Baden and Wiirttemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in 1810. See Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, etc. (Leyden, 1890-93).

BREISLAK, SCIPIONE (1748-1826), Italian geologist of

German parentage, was born at Rome, where he was a professor

in the college of Ragusa, and then in the Collegio Nazareno. The king of Naples invited him to inspect the mines and similar works in that kingdom, and appointed him professor of mineralogy to the royal artillery.

The vast works for the refining of

sulphur in the volcanic district of Solfatara were erected under his direction, His Topografia fisica delle Campania (1798) contains the results of much accurate observation. He was an exile in Paris from 1799 until 1802, when he was appointed inspector

of the saltpetre and powder manufactories near Milan. The mineral Breislakite was named after him. BREITENFELD, a village in Saxony, 54m. N.N.W. of Leipzig, noted in military history. The first battle of Breitenfeld was

BREITENFELD

88

fought on Sept. 17, 1631, between the allied Swedish and Saxon Gustavus during this crossing. Only Pappenheim with some 2,000 armies under Gustavus Adolphus and the imperial forces under cavalry went forward to hinder the advance, but the Scots of the " Count Tilly (see Turrty Years’ War). The latter’s invasion of vanguard, supported by dragoons, drove him back. Gustavus Saxony had driven the Elector to abandon his long-sustained formed his army in two lines and a reserve. On his left was drawn neutrality, and his urgent appeal for aid had brought Gustavus up the Saxon army. By noon the armies were in position and the from the Elbe. On the plain between, but in advance of the battle opened with an artillery duel, in which Torstensson’s guns villages of Seehausen and Breitenfeld, on the crest of a gentle fired three shots to the imperialists’ one. This continued for over slope, Tilly drew up his army in order of battle, covering a front two hours, when the fiery Pappenheim, without awaiting orders, of about two and a half miles. Controversy has raged on many moved his cavalry to the left to outflank the Swedish right, and then swinging round struck at the Swedish flank. The manoeuvring power and flexible formation of the Swedes enabled Gustavus to wheel up his second line cavalry at right angles to the first and so form a defensive flank, which, strengthened by musketeers, proved a rampart on which Pappenheim’s cuirassiers broke themselves to pieces. After seven vain assaults the imperial cavalry fell back discouraged, and, followed up sharply by the Swedes, were driven in

SAXONS IN FLIGHT

flight from the field. Meanwhile critical events had been taking place on the other wing. The imperial cavalry, under Fürstenburg, had fallen on the Saxons, and in a short half hour almost the whole army, infantry and cavalry alike, were in disorderly flight—thus laying bare the flank of the Swedes. Inspired by the rout of the Saxons, Tilly now ordered his centre

LOBERBACH GUNTHERITZ

>

to move to the right and follow in the wake of Fiirstenburg,

PODELWITZ

and by an oblique march brought his heavy infantry “battles” into line on the flank of the Swedes. It was a manoeuvre in which we can perhaps find the germ of Frederick the Great’s famous “oblique order” of attack. But he was meeting an alert, not a supine enemy, and one, moreover, whose flexible formations enabled him to manoeuvre more quickly than Tilly’s unwieldy squares. Horn, commanding the Swedish cavalry on this wing, swung back his first line and wheeled up his second to oppose a new front to this attack in flank, while Gustavus hurried infantry from his second line to reinforce him and prolong the line. With the issue still uncertain, there came a decisive stroke; with his right wing now secure, since Pappenheim’s flight, Gustavus himself, taking a large part of his right wing cavalry, swept round and over Tilly’s original position, where his guns remained, cutting him off from Leipzig. The captured guns were turned to enfilade Tilly’s new left flank, while Torstensson with the Swedish artillery pounded his front, and Gustavus made a general wheel

SWEDES’ ORIGINAL POSITION

Co

|

ENGLAND

otherwise would be a cheaper and more convenient type, and the bridge may have to be erected by cantilevering out, 7.¢., each member is bolted at one end, the other end projecting. The free end is then made secure by another member being added to tie it back to the main structure. This process is repeated until by working from both sides of the opening to be spanned, the members meet in the middle. If there is a central tower the process can be reversed, the work proceeding from the centre of the river or gap shorewards, the only precaution to observe being that the members must be erected so that they balance each other, otherwise the whole structure might overturn. The cantilever type of bridge, by virtue of its shape and design, readily lends itself to this method of erection, which, however, can be applied to other types as well though temporary members have to be added. These usually consist of a mast placed over each abutment with ties from the top down to the shore, where an anchorage can be obtained, and to the projecting ends of the work. Independent and continuous girders and arches have all been erected in this way, though in many cases they have to be specially stiffened to resist. the stresses temporarily set up during erection as they differ from the final stresses. In large structures, the changes of form, due to the stresses and to the temperature, have also to- be taken into-account and. allowed -for. -One disadvantage of this method of erection is that it is difficult to supervise. the men engaged in the work, and readjustments are diffictilé to make once a member is in position. Fig. 32 shows the roadway and railway bridge, over the River Wear at Sunderland, under erection. The work was of a heavy character, the stresses X R kK K A R KA

ft

At a

period of slack water, the whole combination is towed to the site of the bridge and

FRIBOURG.

SWITZERLAND

This bridge was first assembled and then rolled into its final position

in‘the temporary back stays amounting to 1,200 tons, and special hydraulic jacks; capable of exerting a force of 1,600 tons, were

used for adjusting ‘them so that the two halves of the structure

footpaths in addition. It is supported by two main cables, 3o0in. in diameter, there being 18,666 wires laid parallel to each other in each main cable. The clearance above high water is 135tt. The bridge cost, with its approaches but without land, about $25,000,000, the total cost being nearly $35,000,000. It was de-. signed by Ralph Modjeski and erected by a board of engineers under his direction.' The Hudson river bridge, New York city, was begun in 1927 and was at that date by far the largest span bridge ever attempted, having a span of 3,500ft. and a width of about rgoft. It is designed to carry a roadway sft. wide with four railway tracks and two footpaths in addition. The clearance above high water is to be 200ft. The towers will be 63s5ft. high, and are to be of steel with an outer shell of masonry. The final total cost is esti-

mated at about $60,000,000. The Tower bridge, London, was built 1886-94 at a total cost of £830,000.

It has an opening span of 2o0oft. clear between the

were in perfect alignimént and level when they met. ' Rolling Out is a modification of cantilevering out and can Only be-applied to independent and continuous spans. The bridge

two main towers. The side spans are suspended from braced chains, whose pull is taken up by heavy masonry anchorages at

then placed under the completed work or unit, and the whole

The towers are of steel, faced with granite and Portland stone.

is' constructed in’ some *cOnvenient position. Roller wheels are

the shores and bya steel tie concealed in the horizontal girdet that unites the towers at a height of r4r1ft. above high water.

PLATE IX

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1. 2. 3. 4.

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5. 6. 7. &.

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FIG. 5.—MAP SHOWING TERRITORIES (IN BLACK) CEDED BY GREAT BRITAIN FROM THE AMERICAN COLONIES DECLARED THEIR INDEPENDENCE ON JULY 4, 1776, AND NOV. 30, 1782. JAVA, GUIANA, REUNION, PONDICHERRY, HELIGOLAND, ST. PIERRE ' CHANGED AS A RESULT OF VARIOUS TREATIES BOTH POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC

Later in 1922, however, a distinct discrepancy of feeling between the nations of the commonwealth was ‘manifested when Lloyd George asked the dominions to support his Chanak policy. Australia and New Zealand, interested in anything which might affect the security of the Mediterranean sea-route, acquiesced; but Canada and South Africa took the view that, as they had not been effectively consulted on the policy which led to the situation, they could not be expected blindly to pledge themselves to military support. The settlement of the immediate issues removed the

difficulty for the moment; but further questions were raised in March 1923, in connection with the signature of a treaty between Canada and the United States regarding the halibut fisheries. Hitherto, in accordance with the rule laid down by Lord Ripon in 1895 and Sir E. Grey in 1907, any political treaty involving a dominion had been signed not only by a dominion but also by a British representative. Canada now contended that, as the treaty affected Canada only, it should be signed by her representative alone; and after some discussion this contention was accepted. The Irish Treaty.—Meanwhile, the aspect of the British empire as an informal alliance of autonomous states had been empha-

sized by the conclusion of the treaty of 1921 between the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State. The status ofa dominion was by that measure formally granted and the instrument was styled a treaty, although concluded by the British Government merely with representatives of forces in armed rebellion against the Crown. The British Government held that, despite the name, the treaty was not one in the sense of international law, since it did not confer independence but merely dominion status. It therefore maintained the view, contrary to that of the Irish Free State, that the provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations for the registration of treaties did not apply. The new State was admitted in 1923, with the assent of the empire, to membership of the League of Nations. The adoption of a special flag and the enact-

ment of a distinct Irish citizenship marked the assertion of autonomy. Canada in ro2t had similarly defined Canadian nationals; the definition, however, was necessary to distinguish between British subjects in general and Canadian British subjects in particular

g e

ocEA™

1714 TO PRESENT DAY. THE 13 STATES FORMING THIS WAS ACKNOWLEDGED BY GREAT BRITAIN ON AND MIQUELON HAVE BEEN GIVEN UP OR EX-

in considering their eligibility for nomination by Canada to stand as candidates for election to the Permanent Court of International Justice. In South Africa in 1927, after bitter party controversy, a compromise was reached, providing for a special South African flag but also recognizing the Union Jack as denoting South Africa’s membership in the empire. Conference of 1923.—In 1923 the Imperial Conference met again, the Irish Free State being represented for the first time. The chief question affecting inter-imperial relations discussed at this meeting was the treaty question. It was agreed that treaties should normally be negotiated and signed, under full powers granted by the King, by representatives of the part or parts of the empire affected, and that in negotiating any treaty it should be the duty of the Government primarily concerned to secure that any other Government which was affected should be invited to take part in the negotiations; in the case of international conferences the procedure adopted at the Paris Conference should be followed. Ratification of treaties thus negotiated should be expressed under the same conditions—that is, on the request of the Government or Governments concerned. It was understood that in all such international business Great Britain and the dominions would have due regard to each others’ interests and those of the empire as a whole. The conference also discussed foreign policy. It approved the principle of supporting the League of Nations, and reaffirmed the doctrine laid down in 1921, that each part of the empire should make provision for local defence; it also approved the view that the naval forces of the empire should be equal to those of any other power, and that suitable bases should be provided, with special reference to the British Government’s proposals about Singapore. The absolute autonomy of the dominions was, however, stressed, and no pledges of aid in the maintenance of the navy were offered, the decision resting with the dominion parliaments. An unfortunate misunderstanding, however, arose out of the conference. Apparently it was held that the discussions there of the terms of peace to be made with Turkey involved the dominion Governments in responsibility for the Treaty of Lausanne when finally agreed upon by the British representatives, who alone took

184

BRITISH

part in the discussions. When, however, Canada was asked to approve of the ratification of the treaty she made it clear that while she took no exception to ratification, the responsibility for it, and for the obligations which might be imposed on the empire under its terms, must rest with the British Government only. The doctrine was thus established that the dominions would only accept active obligations when they had taken part in the negotiations and agreed to their results. A further representation from Canada resulted in the admission of this principle by the British Govern-

ment in connection with the London Reparations Conference of 1924, though lack of time prevented the adoption there of any other than a makeshift arrangement for the special representation of the dominions. The British Government then proposed that the question of more effective consultation on international subjects should form the subject of a special conference, but its fall from office was followed by an intimation that further experience of the working of existing arrangements was desirable, a view acquiesced in by the dominions. In 1925 the prime minister of the Australian Commonwealth arranged to station in London a liaison officer to keep him fully

EMPIRE

[POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

by the conference and by public opinion in all parts of the empire,

General Hertzog declared himself quite content that South Africa should remain within the empire on these terms. The committee also dealt with some of the forms which no longer corresponded with the facts. To fit the new position of the Trish Free State it recommended that the phrase “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland” should be dropped from the King’s title which should read, “George V., by the Grace of God, of Great

Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King

Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.”

It declared that the

governor-general of a dominion occupies the same position in the dominion as the King in Great Britain, that he is not the representative or agent of the British Government, and that he should not act as the channel of communication between his Government and

the British, but that communications should be in future between Government and Government direct. It further stated that the old customs of “disallowance” or “reservation” of dominion legislation by the King on the advice of his British ministers—customs which had fallen into disuse—were no longer constitutional since the King, being advised on dominion matters by dominion Governments, could not properly be advised against these governments’ views by the British Government. With reference to the survival of those and similar forms in imperial acts of parliament, it was decided to appoint another committee to consider the best means of attaining legislative equality. On the question of the right of appeal from dominion courts to the judicial committee of the Privy Council—a right which was considered in some quarters, specially in the Irish Free State and Canada, as incompatible with equal status—the committee reported that the British Government desired the matter to be settled in accordance with the wishes of the dominions but that, as all parts of the empire were concerned, no change ought to be made without consultation and discussion. Turning to foreign affairs, the committee confirmed and supplemented in detail the agreement of the conference of 1923 on treaties; declared that the major share of the responsibility for foreign policy as for defence must continue for some time to rest with the British Government, but that no dominion could: be committed to

informed on foreign political questions and the views of the British Government; but neither this device nor the alternative suggestion of sending a member of the dominion cabinet to act as minister resident in London received general approval in the dominions, largely because such a minister would inevitably cease to be in effective touch with dominion feeling and would be apt to commit his Government to British views, while, if he merely acted as a channel of information, his employment would hardly serve any useful purpose. Consultation, therefore, was conducted, as before, mainly by telegram in dealing with the Geneva Protocol of 1924 and the Locarno Pact of 1925; and, since no ad hoc conference could be held nor empire delegation formed, a clause was inserted in the Locarno Treaty exempting the dominions from its obligation unless expressly accepted by them. The attitude revealed by these consultations was one of reluctance on the part of the dominions'to take an active part in British foreign policy save in so far as it directly concerned their interests. It was admitted that the dominions might be involved in war by active obligations without its own Government’s consent; and British action, which they could not as matters stood effectively pointed out “the desirability of developing a system of personal control, but it was recognized that it remained for each parliament contact, both in London and in the dominion capitals, to suppleto decide whether in the event of hostilities it would afford aid, ment the present system of inter-communication.” (In 1927 an and, if so, in what manner, to Great Britain. The constitu- official was appointed as agent and intermediary for the British tional position was summed up in Article 49 of the Irish Free Government in New Zealand; and in 1928 in Canada and South State Constitution, which provided that, except in the case of in- Africa.) The report as a whole might have seemed to be more vasion, the State could not be involved actively in war save with concerned with denying inequality than with affirming unity, if it the assent of its own parliament, a doctrine which was also defi- had not contained a passage with which this section may be fitly nitely approved by Canada and accepted by the other dominions. closed. “The British empire is not founded on negations. It deConference of 1926.—The process of assimilation had thus pends essentially, if not formally, on positive ideals. Free institubeen as far as possible completed. In foreign affairs as in all else tions are its life-blood. Free co-operation is its instrument. Peace, the dominions were now equal “in status, though not in stature,” security and progress are among its objects. ... And, though with the older and larger Britain. As an illustration of this fact, every dominion is now, and must always remain, the sole judge the Colonial Office in Downing street was divided in 1925 into of the nature and extent of its co-operation, no common cause ~ two departments so as to distinguish between the dominions and will, in our opinion, be thereby imperilled.” the non-self-governing Crown colonies, and a new office of secrei B. MALTA AND SOUTHERN RHODESIA tary of State for dominion affairs was created. For the time being this new office was held by the colonial secretary, Mr. Amery, conThese two small units of the empire stand in a class by themjointly with his old one. In some quarters, however, and specially selves, with a status between that of a dominion and that of a among the Nationalist Party in South Africa which now, headed by Crown colony. Under the old Crown colony régime the desire of General Hertzog, came into power in alliance with the Labour the Maltese for self-government led to persistent agitation and Party, it was still supposed that the dominions were in some degree even to the suggestion that Malta should be annexed to Italy; but subordinate to Britain. At the conference of 1926, therefore, it in 192r the position was stabilized by the grant of a measure of was decided to attempt a written definition of inter-imperial rela- self-government akin to that introduced in India by the Act of tions, and a committee, with Lord Balfour as chairman, drew up a r919 (see below). Full responsible Government with an elected report which thus defined the “position and mutual relation” of assembly was conceded for the control of all domestic affairs; but Great Britain and the dominions: “They are autonomous Com- the control of external affairs and defence was “reserved” for the munities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way governor and a nominated council. Southern Rhodesia till 1923 subordinaie one to another in any aspect of their domestic or ex- was administered on Crown colony lines by the British South ternal affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown Africa Company; but in that year, after the financial claims of the and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth company had been met by agreement with the British Governof Nations. . . . Every self-governing member of the Empire is ment, the colony was annexed to the Crown and responsible Govmow the master of its destiny. In fact, if not always in form, it ernment instituted. It is not so complete, however, as, e.g., in is subject to no compulsion whatever.” This report was accepted Newfoundland, since the powers of the legislature are limited

“ee Š

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT]

BRITISH

touching the interests of the natives and other matters touching purely local questions, and the right of disallowance by the Crown

is maintained. C. INDIA

The Indian constitution is fully described elsewhere (see INDIA). But a brief statement must be made here to explain the status of India as part of the empire. The services rendered by the people of India in the war and the emphasis laid by the Allied and Asso-

ciated Powers on the principle of self-government made it difficult for the British Government and parliament to reject the demand of Indian politicians for further autonomy. Accordingly the Government of India Act of 1910, with the declared intention of leading up by gradual stages to responsible Government, introduced a constitutional system known as Dyarchy, by which the field of Government in the provinces was divided into “reserved” and

“transferred” subjects, the former to be controlled by the governor and a nominated executive council, the latter by the governor acting with Indian ministers responsible to elected legislative councils. At the same time a mainly elective legislature was created for all

British India; but the all-India executive (the governor-general and council), while acting as far as possible in harmony with this

legislature, was not to be responsible to it but only to the British

Government and parliament. This constitution worked, not without friction, but not unsuccessfully, till in 1927, in accordance with the intentions of 1919, a commission of M.P.s was set up, with Sir John Simon as chairman, to report on what further political progress, if any, could be made. More important for the purpose

of this article is the-external status now accorded to India. Representatives of India were invited, together with the dominion prime ministers, to attend the Imperial War Cabinet and Conference in 1917 and 1918; and like the dominions India became an original member of the League of Nations. Internationally, therefore, India enjoys, in form, the status of a dominion; but, since India

is not wholly self-governing and since, in particular, her foreign policy and defence are controlled by an executive not responsible to an Indian legislature, this position is anomalous and represents the potentialities of the future rather than the realities of the present. At the same time the new status enables the Government of India to seek redress for the grievances of Indians domiciled in the dominions by representation at the Imperial Conference or directly to dominion Governments instead of through the mediation of the British Government. At the conferences of 1921 and 1923 the representatives of India were satisfied with the assurances of all the dominions except South Africa. The dispute with South Africa, where the difficulties arising from the differential treatment of

Indian immigrants had been far more serious than elsewhere, was

settled by agreement in 1926 as the result of commissions from South Africa to India and vice versa. In 1927, a distinguished Indian, Sir S. Shastri, was appointed by the Government of India to act as its agent in South Africa and assist in carrying out the agreement.

D. THE NON-SELF-GOVERNING COLONIES This vast congeries of many diverse units with varying constitutions can be grouped in one political class because none of them énjoys full responsible Government and in all of them (except the Bahamas, Barbados and Bermuda, in which independent legislatures have survived from earlier times) the executive, which is responsible only to the secretary of State for the colonies, can

control the legislature. In some cases the governor alone has power to legislate sometimes because, as at Gibraltar, the colony is little else than a fortress or naval station, but more often

because the population of the colony or protectorate consists almost entirely of politically backward native peoples. In other cases a legislative council or assembly exists, sometimes wholly nominated, sometimes partly elected, but always with a majority of official or nominated members through whom the executive can keep control. Furthermore, the colonial secretary retains the power to control legislation, and especially taxation and expenditure, either by instructions to the governor or by subsequent disallowance.

EMPIRE

185

In this field of the empire, as elsewhere, the war led to political advance. In the West Indies an elective element was introduced into the legislative councils of Trinidad and the Leeward Islands, and an elective majority was established in the Jamaica council, subject to the governor’s power to pass essential legislation by counting only official votes. A commission was appointed in 1927 to consider changes in the constitution of Ceylon. In the West African colonies, the natives of which had served in large numbers and with heavy losses in the African campaigns, mainly as porters, native representatives were included in some of the legislative councils, partly on an elective basis. In East Africa, more especially in Kenya, the problem is complicated by the fact that the climate of the highlands enables white men to make their homes there, with the result that there is a substantial minority

of white settlers. In Kenya the Europeans (mainly British), who numbered 12,529 in 1926, are demanding responsible Government. It is also urged that Kenya should be joined with Uganda, Tanganyika, and Zanzibar in a federal union. In 1927 a commission was appointed, with Sir Hilton Young as chairman, to examine and report on those and allied questions.

The Mandated Territories.—A further innovation in constitutional usage was introduced by the creation of the mandatory

system (see MANDATE), and the allocation by the principal Allied Powers to the British Government of mandates for Mesopotamia, renamed ‘Iraq, Palestine, portions of Togoland and the Cameroons, and German East Africa, renamed Tanganyika Territory; to Australia for German New Guinea; to New Zealand for Western Samoa; to the Union of South Africa for German SouthWest Africa; and to the British empire for the Island of Nauru. The terms of the mandates approved by the League of Nations authorized the administration of Togoland, the Cameroons, New Guinea, Western Samoa, Nauru and South-West Africa as portions of the territory of the mandatory power, subject to the ‘observation of certain principles in the interest of the natives and under obligation to report annually to the League, whose permanent commission on mandates was established to deal with such reports; authority was expressly given for the application to such territories of the customs and immigration laws of the mandatory State. In the case of Tanganyika, Togoland and the Cameroons, further restrictions were imposed, providing for equal treatment of nationals of members of the League. Togoland and the Cameroons were attached for administration to the Gold Coast and Nigeria. Tanganyika was given a constitution of the usual protectorate type. ‘Iraq, which was at first to have been administered directly by Great Britain, was recognized by treaties of 1922-24 as an independent kingdom, and the obligation undertaken as a mandatory power by Great Britain was held by the council of the League to be satisfied by the acceptance of responsibility for the due carrying out of the treaties, which, however, were to lapse if ‘Iraq should be admitted a member of the League before their expiry by lapse of time in four years. This period, however, was extended to 25 years by the treaty of Jan. 13, 1926, in accordance with the recommendation of the League Council of Dec. 16, 1925, for the settlement of the boundary with Turkey. By a further treaty of Dec. 1927 Great Britain formally recognized ‘Iraq an independent State, and agreed to support ‘Iraq for admission to the League of Nations in 1932. It was also decided to negotiate a revision of the existing military and financial agreements. In the case of Palestine the mandate was granted subject to the obligation, voluntarily assumed by Great Britain, of furthering the establishment of a home for the Jews; efforts to carry this out resulted in strong resistance by the Arab majority, which declined to work the constitution conferred in 1922, with the result that all executive and legislative power remains in the hands of the representatives of the mandatory power.

GENERAL A League of Nations —To the student of world-aifairs there is no political community more interesting than the British empire; for it embraces part of every continent and includes sections of all the major races of mankind, with their diversities of colour,

186

BRITISH

EMPIRE

[POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

creed and culture. It is, so to speak, a microcosm of the world; | four successive stages. (1) In 1772, mainly owing to the efforts and consequently all the main problems of world society can be found in operation within it. Thus there is no richer field for the study of the problem of nationality. The British empire can be regarded from one aspect as a vast experiment in international relations. The peoples of the British Isles, to begin with, were long ago confronted with the task of adjusting the relations between the four nationalities which had been implanted therein as the outcome of early race-migrations. As regards the English, Welsh and Scots, the task was accomplished by the fusion of Wales with England under the Tudors and by the union of England and Scotland in 1707. Time has confirmed the success of this achievement; for while the smaller nations, the Welsh and the Scots, are harmoniously united in one State with the English, they retain a lively consciousness of their own distinctive nationalities. The problem as between the British and the Irish took far longer to solve; and the solution attained in 1921 after centuries of tragic conflict was not complete, since the Irish of the northeast, though quite distinct in nationality from the British, remain apart from the rest of Ireland and still closely associated with Britain. The same kind of international problem has been solved or is in process of solution in two of the dominions. The relations between British and French in Canada were finally adjusted in 1867 by federation which leaves the French-Canadians free to control their own national life in their old home in the Province of Quebec, while they take their part in the wider Canadian nation through the Federal Government and parliament. Some disputes may occur from time to time about language or religion owing to the overflow of French-Canadians into mainly British-Canadian provinces; but it is generally recognized that Canada’s destiny is bi-national and that the dominion is the richer for being able to draw upon two of the greatest languages and cultures of the

of Granville Sharp, the status of slavery was declared illegal in England, and the 14,000 slaves, which had been brought into the country by colonial planters, were set free. (2) In 1807, as the result of a long campaign, headed by Wilberforce, the British slave

trade was abolished by Act of parliament; and in 1814-15 the British representatives at the European peace conferences per-

suaded the other maritime powers to accept the principle of abolition. But the application of the principle in practice was only secured by the unceasing efforts of British diplomacy and by the vigilance of the British cruisers stationed off the west coast of Africa to intercept slave-smugglers. (3) In 1833, after long and bitter disputes with the West Indian planters, parliament abolished slavery itself in all British colonies. Over 800,000 slaves were freed, and £20,000,000 was paid by the British taxpayers as compensation to their owners. (4) Between 1860 and 1880, as the result of negotiations with the sultan of Zanzibar and of naval blockade, the Arab slave trade from East Africa to Arabia and Persia was as far as possible suppressed. Thus it may be claimed for the British people that, if they took the chief part in maintaining the African slave trade and slavery they also took the chief part in their destruction. Nevertheless, slavery was not completely eradicated in Africa until the 20th century. So late as 1927 it was discovered—ironically enough—that although there was no slavery in the British colony of Sierra Leone, a state of domestic slavery was still recognized in the protectorate of Sierra Leone, which had originally been founded as a refuge for liberated African slaves. The discovery of this anomaly aroused great indignation, and on Sept. 22 the legislature of the colony and protectorate of Sierra Leone unanimously endorsed the “Ordinance to abolish the legal status of Slavery,” which accordingly came into force on Jan. 1, 1928, and resulted in the technical world. The friction between British and Dutch in South Africa liberation of some 117,000 persons. Slavery once abolished, it was possible for new ideas to develop has lasted longer and has been embittered by war; nor was it possible, owing to the local intermixture of the two peoples, to about the relations of the white and the coloured, the advanced apply the federal solution. None the less, though feeling still and the backward, races; and in course of time these ideas have runs high at times, as In the flag controversy in 1927, it seems taken shape, not only in social or economic or religious matters probable that British and Dutch, aided by intermarriage and a but also in political organization. Here again the empire is a sense of common interests, will ultimately settle their differences great laboratory of political experiment. At the top of the scale in a common sentiment for a united South Africa. And, lastly, is the Government of India and the attempt described above to the dominions and Britain together constitute a unique inter- enable the diverse Indian peoples to acquire by experience the national society. Each is free and independent, but all are will- capacity to govern themselves and so to take their place alongingly associated under one Crown. It is a league of nations more side the dominions in the British commonwealth of nations. The closely bound together than the League of Geneva by common importance of this experiment is manifest; for the position of traditions and sentiments and a preponderance of common blood. India within the British empire constitutes a bridge between East The population of the dominions, with their wide unoccupied and West, and if India can remain contentedly in political associaspaces, will quickly grow more equal to that of Britain and in tion with Britain and the dominions, it will go far to adjust one some cases will eventually surpass it. Whether, with the aid of of the great world-issues of the future—the relations between swifter intercommunication, the union between them will still Europe and Asia. Lower in the scale stands the African question. endure or whether it will break up into wholly separate sovereign In the Union of South Africa, in the mandated territory of Tanstates is a question of the greatest importance to the future of ganyika, and in the wide belt of British colonies and protectorates that stretches across tropical Africa from the Atlantic to the the world. A League of Races.—Again the British empire is the most Indian ocean and from the Zambezi to the Nile, a great congeries fruitful field for the study of the greater and more difficult prob- of native races, mostly negroes or negro stock, presents an unlem which lies behind the problem of international relations—viz., paralleled field of study to the anthropologist, the sociologist, the political scientist and the missionary. As with Asia, so with the problem of interracial relations. It was in the empire, in the first place, that the greatest change Africa. The future relations between Africans and Europeans recorded in all history in the relations between the white and will largely depend on the result of the experiments now in operablack races was first made. Until the third quarter of the 18th tion in these territories. The character of these experiments varies century slavery was accepted by the bulk of European opinion as with local circumstances. In Nigeria, for example, the principle a natural and necessary institution. European plantations in the of the “dual mandate,” which regards the government as trustee tropical or subtropical areas of North and South America and both for the welfare of the natives and for the economic developthe West Indies were cultivated by gangs of slaves, which were ment of their country to meet the needs of the world, can be kidnapped, or purchased for spirits or firearms, by European slave- easily applied because in general the natives themselves own the traders, mainly on the west coast of Central Africa, and trans- land and develop its resources. In Kenya, on the other hand, there ported under horribly cruel conditions across the Atlantic. In the is more difficulty and dispute, since large areas of the land are course of the 18th century this slave trade became the most owned by Europeans. There are similar differences in politics.

In South Africa, the natives of the Cape Province can vote, with an educational and property qualification, alongside with Euroa humanitarian anti-slavery movement, in which the Quakers took peans, for the Union Parliament. In the Transvaal district and a prominent part, developed in England, and, by persistent appeals in Basutoland, they have developed their own system of local to the conscience of the British people, it achieved its object in self-government. In Nigeria native representatives are elected

lucrative of all trades, and the British, as the leading oceanic traders, obtained the largest share of it. Gradually, however,

BRITISH

COMMERCE]

to the legislative council. In Uganda there is an elaborate and old-established quasi-feudal system. In Northern Nigeria there

are native States ruled by Muslim emirs. Other examples might be given; but these are enough to show how wide and variea are the race-problems which are being handled within the British empire. The results of them will form no small part of mankind’s common stock of political, social and economic experience. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. M. Wrong, Charles Buller and Responsible Gov-

ernment (1926). R. L. Borden, Canadian Constitutional Studies, authoritative on the Peace Conference (Toronto, 1922); A. Milner, The Nation and the Empire, speeches illustrating pre-war conception of the empire (1913) ; A. E. Zimmern, The Third British Empire, a brief account of the post-war conception (1926). Among many official publi-

cations special attention should be given to Proceedings of the Imperial Conferences, especially those of 1911, 1917 and 1926. The Journal of the Parliaments of the Empire is a useful record of debates in dominion parliaments. The quarterly Round Table provides the best discussion of imperial problems

and an authoritative account

of cur-

rent politics in the dominions and India. For the economic develop-

ment of the empire as a whole the literature is meagre. L. C. A. Knowles, Economic Development of the British Overseas Empire

(1924) the first volume of a work unfortunately left unfinished, is the

only scientific treatment of the subject yet attempted. Information must be sought in works dealing with local fields, such as A. McPhee, Economic Revolution in British West Africa (1926). Figures may be found in official publications such as Statistical Abstract of the British ‘Oversea Dominions, the Colonial Reports, and the Year Book of each dominion. For the government of native races, especially in Africa, the following may be recommended: M. Evans, Black and White in S.E. Africa (1911); F. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922); J. H. Oldham, Christianity and the Race Problem (1924); E. W. Smith, The Golden Stool (1926). For the abolition of slavery and the slave trade, see R. Coupland, Wilberforce (1923), and W. L. Mathieson, British Slavery and its Abolition (1926). Biographies of the leading figures in empire history are a valuable source of information. (F. L. L.; R. Co.)

TRADE

AND

COMMERCE

EMPIRE

187

increasingly directed to another aspect of empire trade, namely, the growing dependence of Great Britain upon empire countries. The League of Nations, in a memorandum on production and trade, has estimated that world trade in 1925 was 5% above the 1913 volume. Yet in 1925 the volume of British trade was only 76% of the r913 level, and for the latest available period—the

third quarter of 1927—it was only 76.7%. This figure is supported in the import returns of foreign countries where Great Britain is seen to be rapidly losing ground. At the present time the average share held by Great Britain in foreign markets is below 20% while her average share in the imports of empire countries (as later figures will show) is over 40%. GREAT

BRITAIN’S

WITH

THE BRITISH

EMPIRE

Taste I. Total exports of British produce and manufactures and exports to the empire in ten yearly averages 1870-1909, four years’ average r9101913, and the years 1922 to 1926.

Year. 1870-79 1880-89

Total export.

Exports to Empire.

Millions of £.

Milions of £.

. .

28-1

1890-99 .

237°0 333°2 474°2

IgQo-09 IQIO-I3 1922. 1923. 1924. 1925.

63°5

80-0 79°9

230°2

. .

rr5-8 169-6 143°5

361-5

145°2

390°8

398-8

I53°4 160-2 162-7

398-3

1926.

The British empire contains nearly a quarter of the worid’s population, covers one-quarter of the world’s area, and is re-

TRADE

Total Exports.—The extent to which the empire’s share of British exports has increased since 1870 is shown in fig. 6. The actual value of the exports is as follows :—

356-2

(140-6) (141-8) (1503) (156-1) (150-8)

Note r—The Irish Free State which was part of the United Kingdom until 1923 has been omitted from the above figures. Note 2-—The figures given in brackets in the “empire” column show the purchases of the empire as it was in 1913; 7.e., exports to countries such as Palestine, ‘Iraq, etc., which were outside the empire in 1913 have been excluded. Note 3~——In view of the considerable rise in prices, the post-war figures have for comparative purposes been adjusted to 1913 price levels. No very accurate figures can be given because of the change in the composition of the exports.

R Cy

Owing to the coal stoppage in 1926 it has been thought necessary to ignore the British trade figures for that year except for illustrative purposes. The fall in coal exports to Europe had the effect of unduly raising the empire share of British exports. The

|_| “Countess 1

actual increase in the volume of exports to the empire in that year should, however, be noted.

British Exports to Empire Groups.—Empire countries may conveniently be divided into five main groups, the Southern, the Indian, the American, the West African and the East African group. Their respective purchases of British goods for the annual average 1QLI-13 and 1923-25 are shown in Table IT. TABLE

II.

British exports,

FIG. 6.—PROPORTION OF BRITISH EXPORTS EMPIRE COUNTRIES FROM 1870 TO 1926

sponsible for over

SENT

TO

FOREIGN

a quarter of the world’s food supply.

AND

The Southern group The Indian group

Its

.

The American group West African group.

Average % of total British

Annual £1,000 1923—25.

67,003

13°2

110,575

14-8

69,271

14°18

102,540

13°8

6,062

1.24

1I,Q7I

IO

Annual £1,000 1OII~I3.

Empire group.

26,333

5°33

Average

34:155

% of total British

4°59

economic resources are the greatest which have ever come under | East African group. 1,113 -22 3,913 “52 the control of any single political system, and for their develop- ' ment the best brains and energy of the empire are required. For reasons already given, figures of British exports for the Before the World War protagonists of empire trade emphasized year 1926 have been omitted, but for the first nine months of the dependence of empire countries upon Great Britain and the 1927 the Southern group increased their share of British exports

duty of the mother country to assist in the development of her children overseas. Since the war, however, attention has been

to 16-99% of the total, the Indian group showed a rise to 15-8% a figure above the 1913 level, while the American, West African

BRITISH

188

and East African groups held shares of 5-2%, 2-0% and -67% respectively. The first group comprises the three southern dominions— Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Maintaining very close trading connection with the mother country and capable of almost unlimited development, these three countries together constitute Great Britain’s largest empire market. Australia alone is the second largest customer in the world for British goods and her share of the total exports to Great Britain has increased from 6-56% in 1913 to 9-4% for the first nine months of 1927. The Indian group comprises India, Ceylon, Malaya and the Straits Settlements. India takes more goods from Great Britain than any other country in the world. British export trade to the Straits Settlements, Ceylon and to British Malaya, has expanded considerably in recent years. Together they absorbed in 1924 1-8% of the total export, in 1925 their share had increased to 2-54% and in the first nine months of 1927 to 30%. The American group, of which Canada is by far the most important member, includes Newfoundland, the West Indies and British Guiana. Owing to the immense economic influence of the United States of America upon neighbouring countries, this group is somewhat less affected by the imperial aspect of trade than the other groups in the empire. Canada is, however, an important market for Great Britain, buying per head of population eight times the value of British goods purchased by her larger neighbour. The West African colonies base their trade upon the native agriculturalist. In East Africa production has so far developed on the basis of the large estate worked by native and Indian labour. Though British East Africa covers a larger area than West Africa, the development of this group of colonies has not proceeded so far, and the export trade with Great Britain is only a third of that of West Africa. Total Imports.—Fig. 7 shows the trend of empire share in British imports. Since 1870 it has risen from 22% to 27%. Table III. shows the value of imports from the empire 1870~1926. Tasre ITI. Imports of produce and manufactures into the United Kingdom in ten yearly averages 1870-1909, four years’ average 1910-13 and the

years 1922-26.

Total imports.

Imports from Empire.

Millions of £.

Millions of £. 79°5 QI°2

360°5 393°6 435°8 570°3 717°9 659-0 7r2°8

792-4

824°0 846-4

96-8 125°9 179°5 188-3 195°8 217°2 248°8 236°4

ee

(org-6) (244-1) (230-8)

Note r.—The Irish Free State figures have been excluded from the import figures 1923-26. Note z-—The import figures given in brackets in the “Empire” column show the post-war consignments into Great Britain from the empire as it was in 1913, Łe., imports from countries such as Palestine, ‘Traq, etc., have been excluded. Note 3.—Post-war values have been adjusted to the 1913 price level.

COMPLEMENTARY

AND

COMPETITIVE

TRADE

EMPIRE

[COMMERCE

the interchange between Great Britain and those countries which are her industrial rivals. Composition of British

Exports

to

the

(2) Raw materials and articles mainly unmanufactured. (3) Articles wholly or mainly manufactured. Great Britain, as a predominantly manufacturing nation, with

most of her skill and capital locked up in highly specialized in-

FIG. 7.—PROPORTION OF BRITISH COUNTRIES FROM 1870 TO 1926

IMPORTS

FROM

FOREIGN

It should be pointed out that a considerable proportion of the empire imports classed as manufactured consists of semi-manufactured metals, the raw materials of many British industries. The relative importance of empire supplies of certain essential foodstuffs and raw materials is shown in the following figures :— Empire share Value of of imports Empire in 1925. imports 1925.

%

petition in all the markets of the world. As a result, those countries which are to-day taking Great Britain’s manufactures and sending in exchange raw materials for her industries and food-

Wheat and flour Beef Mutton and lamb Butter P :

48-0

@ most important aspect of empire trade is its complementary

x ; : : Fruit (fresh dried and canned) .

Wool . f 7 Hides and skins.

83-0

nature as opposed to the competitive trade which characterizes

AND EMPIRE

dustries, must be especially interested in the extent of markets overseas for the third of these classes. From the standpoint of national social welfare, it is the output of highly manufactured goods requiring the employment of the highest degree of national skill which should be encouraged. In 1925 the empire was responsible for only £5,568,000 or 11% of the total export of coal from Great Britain. Of manufactured goods, however, in this year £284 millions or 46-1% was exported to the empire, and in 1926 empire countries took as much as half of Great Britain’s total manufactured exports. The export trade pillars given herewith, show the value of exports in each of the three classes to empire countries and to foreign countries for the annual average IQII~13 and 1923-25. Composition of British Imports from the Empire.—The pillars shown below give the value and proportion of each class of imports supplied by the empire and by foreign countries for the annual averages 1911—13 and 1923—25.

From the middle of the last century, manufacturing activity became the distinguishing mark of the economic life of a constantly growing number of nations. During and since the World War the output from the world’s factories has been tremendously increased and Great Britain is meeting increasingly serious com-

stuffs for her urban population are essential to her welfare. Thus

Empire.—The

Board of Trade classifies British external trade under three main heads :— (x) Food, drink and tobacco.

56-0

:

f

:

13°I 59°0 25°5

47:0

£ mill. .

BRITISH

COMMERCE] TRADE

The

Southern

OF THE

Group:

OVERSEAS

EMPIRE

Australia.—Australia,

among

the

three dominions in the southern group, maintains the largest volume of imports and exports. The following table shows the extent of Australian trade with empire countries :— AUSTRALIAN

TRADE:

ANNUAL

AVERAGES

IQII-I3

1924—26

South Africa.The following table of South African trade shows that Great Britain holds a slightly larger share of South Africa’s import trade than she does of imports into either Australia or New Zealand. There has been, however, a decline in the volume and proportion of South African exports going to countries within the empire due to a diversion of South African produce from the United Kingdom to European countries, particularly France and Germany.

(o00’s omitted.)|(o00’s omitted.)

£

Imports:

Total imports — .

. .

Imports from Great Britain

Imports from Empire . Exports: Total exports ue Exports to Great Britain Exports to Empire

Pij

total.

189

EMPIRE

SOUTH AFRICAN TRADE:

ANNUAL AVERAGES

£

IQII—IZ

1924-26

(o00’s omitted.)|(o00's omitted.)

74:958 | .- | 149,797

37,729 | 50°4 | 66,165

46,249 | 61-6 | 85,826 79,034 | .. | 143,360 33,842 | 42°6 58,734 47,898 | 60°5 | 74,950

£

Imports:

Total imports HS Imports from Great Britain Imports from Empire .

Exports: Total exports ae Exports to Great Britain

%o of

total.

38,129 .. | 63,407 a 21,754 | 570 | 30,805 | 48-6 25,737 | 67°3 | 39,886 | 63-0 60,699

.- | 74,466

P

55,137 | 91-0 | 45,766 | Or-5 Australia’s trade with empire countries, apart from Great Exports to Empire 55:577 | 91:8 | 59,729 | 805 Britain, amounts to a little over one-tenth of the total. India and New Zealand are the chief participators in this trade. South Africa’s chief exports are gold, wool and diamonds. The Though Great Britain takes about the same proportion of Australian produce as she did in the pre-war years, her share in South African gold output amounts to 50% of the world’s total Australian imports shows a decline. This decline is partly attrib- production and nearly 80% of her export goes to Great Britain. The Indian Group: India.—The following table shows the utable to a post-war increase of non-competitive imports into Australia from the United States of America, such as petrol, but extent of Indian trade before and since the war and the share also to the growth of foreign competition, which is reducing the British share of the import trade of almost every country in the world. It should, however, be remembered that whereas British AVERAGE AVERAGE, 1923-25 19-13 exports are only about 80% of their pre-war volume, the volume FOREIGN of Australian imports from Great Britain is greater than it was before the World War. mare mus The chief Australian exports are wool and wheat, the former FOREIGN 15 300 representing in 1926 40-7% of Great Britain’s total imports of wool. 200 EMPIRES MILLS 200 New Zealand.—Of the three southern dominions, New Zealand, though the volume of her trade is not so great as that of 100 100 either Australia or South Africa, maintains the closest touch with the trade of Great Britain and other empire countries.

F

New ZEALAND TRADE:

ANNUAL AVERAGES

Food, Drink Tobacco = ezza

IQII—-13 1924-26 (o00’s omitted.)|}(o00’s omitted.)

Imports*: Total imports by e tbe Imports from Great Britain Imports from Empire .

£

% of £ % of total. total. 20,933| .. | 50,291 aie 12,533 | 6o-o | 23,868 | 47°5 17,306 | 82-8 | 36,056 | 71-8

Exports: Total exports oe A Exports to Great Britain Exports to Empire

21,26r] .. 51,050} .. 16,708 | 79:0 | 40,405 | 79°0 19,956 | 94°3 | 44,422 | 87-0

Raw Materials

=

Manufactures

=

FIG. 8.—COMPOSITION OF BRITISH EXPORTS TO EMPIRE AND COUNTRIES DURING THE PERIODS 1911-1913 AND 1923-1925

New Zealand is predominant in the empire as butter, mutton and lamb to the British market. are available since 1905 showing the increasing of products derived from the grasslands of the

a supplier of Export figures predominance dominion. In

1905 69-8% of the exports from New Zealand were pastoral in

origin, and in 1924 this proportion had increased to 94-2%.

Though wool is the chief export, yet the development of dairying has been mainly responsible for the marked rise in these percentages. Great Britain now relies upon New Zealand for 20% of her import requirements of butter in comparison with 5-6%

pre-war, and of the total imports into Great Britain of mutton and lamb New Zealand holds 55-5%.

FOREIGN

held by Great Britain and the rest of the empire. The original Indian trade figures have been converted from rupees to £ sterling at the average rate of exchange ruling during each year. InpIAN TRADE: ANNUAL AVERAGES

*Imports are classified according to “Countries of origin” in 1924-26, and according to “Countries of consignment” in 1911~I3.

There can be no doubt that New Zealand trade is considerably greater than in pre-war years. According to figures published by the New Zealand Government, taking 1900 as the base year at 1,000, the volume of New Zealand trade in 1913 was 1,341 and in 1924 1,835. A large proportion of New Zealand’s inter-empire trade is conducted with Australia.

oo,

IQII~I3 (o00’s cmitted.)

Imports: Total imports KENE eae Imports from Great Britain Imports from Empire . Exports: Total exports ae: Exports to Great Britain Exports to Empire

107,203 | .. 67,883 | 63-5 74,623 | 9'9 157,193 | .. | 263,174 39,032 | 24-8 | 59,221 62,839 | 40°0 | 96,792

The extremely close trading connection established India and the home country is thrown into relief if Great share of the imports of another eastern market—namely, is noted. In ro25 Great Britain’s share of Chinese amounted to only 9-8% of the total as compared with the case of Indian imports.

between Britain’s China— imports 51% in

The disproportion between the empire percentage of Indian imports and exports needs some explanation. Indian exports to

BRITISH

190

empire countries, other than Great Britain, are marked by a considerable trade in jute goods to Australia and New Zealand and by a more general trade, of which cotton piece goods form a large proportion, to Mauritius and the Straits Settlements.

[COMMERCE

EMPIRE

Territorial alterations since the World War make any general comparison between pre-war and post-war years difficult, but the

direction of Nigerian trade is indicative of the trade of the other West African colonies.

Australia, in years when there is a failure in the Indian wheat crop, sends consignments of wheat to India.

NIGERIAN TRADE:

Malaya.—One of the most dramatic episodes in the develop-

ment of empire trade has been the growth of tke wealth of Malaya through the introduction (via Kew Gardens) of the para rubber tree from Brazil and the increase of the exports of tin. Per head of her population Malaya is now one of the largest exporting countries in the world. Great Britain shares in the import trade of the Straits Settlements to the extent of less than 10%, but the empire share as a whole is over 50%, India and the Malay States being mainly responsible. The low share held by Great Britain in this market is due to the fact that almost all food for the Straits Settlements has to be imported. The American Group: Canada.—The growth of Canada’s export trade between 1911-13 and 1924-26 as shown by the table below is an unmistakable index to the rapid development of that country. Taking figures for the latter period and adjusting them on the basis of 1913 price levels, Canadian exports have actually doubled in volume. Canada has become the premier wheat exporting country in the world, and the number of motor-cars which she exports is second only to the United States of America.

CANADIAN TRADE: ANNUAL AVERAGES

ANNUAL

AVERAGES

IQLI-13 1924-26 (o00’s omitted.)| (o00°s omitted.)

£

Imports: : ; : Total imports Imports from Great Britain . Imports from Empire. Exports: : ek Total exports Exports to Great Britain . : : Exports to Empire

% of

total. fe: . | 6,437 68-5 . | 4,402 . | 4,820 | 7570 Ss . | 6,277 . | 3,059 | 48:9 53°0 . | 3,326

Nigeria is the only important country in which Great Britain has increased her share of the total imports since pre-war years, The inter-imperial trade of West Africa, apart from that with Great Britain, mainly consists of trade between the several West African colonies. Foreign trade plays quite an insignificant part in West African economic life.

The typical West African exports are oilseed and palm oil,

Practically 50% of the total value of Nigeria’s consignments abroad are accounted for by these two staple articles of export.

During recent years there has been an important development of the cocoa industry especially on the Gold Coast. This colony

1924-26

(ooo’s omitted. || exports nearly half the total cocoa of the world. IQII—I3 East African Group.—Kenya and Uganda, representing the (o00°s omitted.) Year ending bulk of British East African trade, provide the best basis for March 31.)

|%of total. -548,778] £

Imports: tile imports

.

.

.

mports from Great Britain ._ Imports from Empire . Exports: a| Total exports Exports to Great Britaina Exports to Empire

«|

|%of|| total.| 918,385] -£

| 159,585|17°3|| | 22-2 | 121,861 .. | 26-2 | 205,367} 22-3 143,330] .. | 306,765) a| | 149,853 | 49-0

. | 168,130)

55°0|

11,252,194] "eo 450

47-.

comparison between pre-war and post-war years. Since April | 1, 1917, these two colonies have been amalgamated in one customs union and for the purpose of foreign trade are treated as

The trade figures for 1911-13 are given on the a single unit. : same basis. TRADE OF KENYA AnD Ucanpa: : ANNUAL AVERAGES IQTI~13

538,047 | 44°4

1924-26 s omitted.)

The United States is naturally Canada’s chief source of supply.

It is, however, of interest to note that Great Britain holds twice as large a share of the Canadian market as she does of the market

provided by the United States of America. A feature of Canadian trade with the empire during the last few years has been the considerable growth in the exports to and imports from Australia. Since the year ending March 1925 the value of imports from Australia has more than doubled, while Australia has increased her purchases by over 50% West Indies.—The trade between Canada and the West Indies is an important inter-empire development. In June 1920, a recip-

Imports:

Total imports eh ide Imports from Great Britain Imports from Empire . Exports: Total exports ee Exports to Great Britain Exports to Empire

Though close trading connections exist between Great Britain

and East Africa, eastern markets have a considerable influence.

A significant feature of the post-war trade is the immense increase of exports to India. The Indian share of the exports of and in 1926 it had mutual tariff advantages so arranged will lead to Canada be- Kenya and Uganda in 19z1-13 was 42% from a preincreased had India from Imports 17-8%. to risen manufacof supply of source important coming an increasingly 10.2%. of 1926 in share a to 2% than less of share tures and foodstuffs to the West Indies and a valuable market war Uganda is becoming of considerable importance to the empire for their tropical products, chiefly sugar and bananas. Newfoundland.—The import trade of Newfoundland, simi- as a supplier of cotton. The total exports of cotton have inlarly to that of Canada, is greatly affected by the United States creased from 90,000 bales in 1922~23 to 180,000 bales in 1926, In 1926 Kenya coffee represented 30% of the total supplies sent of America. The share of the mother country in Newfoundland imports in 1925 was 31%, but in 1926, probably largely owing to Great Britain and 80% of the empire grown supplies. Irish Free State.—A review of empire trade would be incomto the stoppage of consignments of coal, it had fallen to 21%. without some mention of the new commercial position of plete in Britain Great to went Of the Newfoundland exports 30-4% the Irish Free State and.the extent of the trade of this dominion. 1925 and 23-5% in 1926. Empire supplies (largely from Canada) an independent accounted in 1925 for over 70% of the total, and exports to the From April 1, 1923, Southern Ireland became the fifth most was State Free Irish the 1926 In unit. economic exports empire accounted for 43% of the total. Newfoundland a limited range of products the most important of which are important market for British goods. For the annual average 1924~26, 79-3% of her total imports valued at £64,000,000 were dried fish, cod liver oil and paper pulp. West African Group.—The West African group is composed of British origin and 97-4% of her total exports valued at £45, of the following colonies and protectorates: Gambia, Sierra 000,000 went to Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The great Leone, Gold Coast (which includes British Togoland) and Nigeria bulk of Irish trade thus proceeds through British ports. Owing to the Irish import and export figures showing countries of con(whieh includes British Cameroons).

rocal arrangement was entered into with the West Indies and, in 1925, this agreement was enlarged. It seems probable that the

BRITISH

COMMERCE]

signment rather than of origin or final destination, the extent of her trade with countries accurately estimated.

other than Great Britain cannot

be

SUMMARY OF EMPIRE TRADE POSITION Since 1913 the trade of India and of the great four dominions has, with the exception of that of South Africa, grown in importance in relation to the rest of the world. Their imports and exports as percentages of world imports and exports in 1913 and

1925 were as follows :—

I9I3

i

1925

at Jo

ana

Australia

South Africa New Zealand

f

2:

3:

I-99

2-43

I-37 -54

IIQ -83

10-28 11-88

In 1925 the empire as a whole shared in world exports to the extent of 30% of the total. In the immediate post-war years, the United States of America and Japan made serious inroads into many empire markets but, by 1923, British trade had largely regained the lost ground. During the last three years, however, competition has increased and the United States is substantially increasing its sales. to empire countries. The special importance of empire trade to the dominions and India is shown by the fact that in every case, except Canada, about 50% or over of the total is carried on within the empire.

As to the actual volume of inter-imperial trade—apart from its distribution—statistics indicate that the self-governing dominions and India have suffered from the general depression following the war. In most cases there has been an actual loss of purchasing power and, except in the case of New Zealand and AVERAGE

AVERAGE 19237

IQI

EMPIRE

of primary producers. The consolidation of the economic position of the dominions has not affected the principle of the preferential tariffs granted to British goods entering dominion markets, the average preference given by the dominions being 49% in 1913 and 9% in 1923. It is possible that the next decade will see a growing recognition in Great Britain of the importance of the empire and an increasing prosperity based upon a great development in the purchasing power of the dominions and of such groups of colonies as those in West and East Africa. It must be anticipated that, with the growth of secondary industries in the dominions and India, Great Britain will need to cater to an increasing degree for a demand for more highly manufactured goods. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. H. Schooling, The British Trade Year Book (1908 annual); Sir W. J. Ashley, The Present Commercial and Indusirial Conditions (1911); G. Drage, The Imperial Organisation of Trade (1911); A. P. Newton, The Staple Trade of the Empire (1917); Sir W. J. Ashley, The Tariff Problem (3rd ed., 1920) ; Sir C. MacLeod and A. W. Kirkaldy, Trade, Commerce, and Shipping of the Empire

(1924);

F. L. McDougall,

Sheltered Markets

(1925);

Sir J. R.

Seeley, The Expansion of England (1928); see also Report of Imperial Economic Conference (cmd. 2009 of 1924); Report of Imperial Conference (cmd. 2769 of 1926); Statistical Abstract for the Several British Oversea Dominions and Protectorates in Each Year from 1907-1923 (cmd. 2738 of 1926); Reports of the Imperial Economic Commitiee (cmd. 2493 and 2499 of 1925, cmd. 2658 and 2725 of 1926, and cmd. 2934 of 1927) 3; Survey of Overseas Markets (Stationery Office, 1925); Ammnual Statement of Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions. (F. L. M.)

FINANCE Before considering each dominion by itself, certain broad facts must be stated. Each unit of the empire imposes and collects its own. taxes, and is free to use the proceeds for its own needs. No taxes collected in a dominion or Crown colony come to the British exchequer. A dominion is free to borrow money where it likes, but is encouraged to come to London by the fact that its loans rank as “Trustee Securities” in Great Britain, and so command a better price. A dominion is free to maintain such tariffs as is thought necessary, even against Great Britain. Imperial defence is primarily the burden of the United Kingdom, and while the dominions take their share in it, the apportionment is a matter of informal arrangement rather than rigid law. Canada.—tThe unit of currency is the Canadian dollar, equivalent in value to the U.S. dollar at $4-866 to the pound sterling. British sovereigns are legal tender, but in practice never emerge from the banks. The export of gold was restricted during and after the World War, but has been free since June 30, 1926. The currency in circulation consists of dominion and bank notes. Dominion notes are based on the following support :-— $50,000,000 against a 25% gold reserve. $26,000,000 against securities, including $16,000,000 in certain guaranteed railway securities. Any excess must be mainly against 100% gold reserve, but this provision is modified by the Acts of 1914 and 1923.

Food, Drink, Tobacco = ezza Raw Materials Manufactures

= = coo

FIG. 9.—COMPOSITION OF BRITISH IMPORTS FROM EMPIRE AND COUNTRIES DURING THE PERIODS 1911-1913 AND 1923~1925

Canada, exports alsa have declined.

FOREIGN

Each succeeding year, how-

ever, brings reports of increased trade.

A close analysis of the

inter-empire trade of each empire group yields many encouraging signs.

The period since rgrz has been for the dominions one of consolidation. The closure of many foreign and imperial markets during the war caused attention to be turned upon the internal economic position, and the outcome has been a desire for a better balanced production. This object is being sought by means of tariffs to encourage secondary production and by the organization

The circulation in June 1926 was $175,712,915, or $18.49 per head. Gold reserves amounted to $94,999,481, or 54%, and securities to $80,713,434. Notes are also issued by the leading Canadian banks, but in “normal times” these are not legal tender. A bank may issue notes equal in amount to its paid-up capital without a gold backIng, and during the period of crop movements may issue “excess” fiduciary circulation to the amount of 15% of its combined capital and rest or reserve fund, but must pay 5% interest on this excess. Any further issue must be backed fully by gold or dominion notes deposited in the central gold reserve. The average circulation for 1926 was $168,885,995, against paid-up capital of $116,638,254,

reserves of $125,441,700 and gold and dominion notes amounting

to $5,790,572.

The present banking system originated from the needs of the Montreal traders and has a history of rather more than a century behind it. Unlike the United States, it is based upon the branch banks; the xr chartered banks, most of them possessing their

head offices in the east, between them cover the country.

No

attempt is made to segregate the country into districts, as is done

102

BRITISH

by the Federal reserve system in the States. The Canadian banks have been compared, with some justice, to the Scottish banks. Clearings and general supervision are conducted by the Canadian Bankers’ Association, which has certain statutory powers. Wheat being the country’s most important article of export, the main banking problem is the financing of crop movements during the season and the employment of the surplus funds released during the remainder of the year. As the Canadian money market is relatively small, the bulk of free money is lent on call, not in Toronto or Montreal, but in New York. The ebb and flow of this call money naturally swamps the normal “text-book” influences acting upon the rate of exchange. Geographical influences and the Canadian tariff have led to the investment of large quantities of American capital in Canada, and many industrial undertakings are under American control. The foreign capital invested in Canada in 1926 was estimated to aggregate over $5,000,000,000, in the ratio of three to two as between the United States and Great Britain, all other countries together representing less than 10% of the total. On the other hand there are considerable Canadian investments abroad, in Newfoundland, the West Indies and in Latin America, the income from foreign investments being estimated at from $30,000,000 to $40,000,000 annually. The total estimated national wealth of the country was estimated by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics at Ottawa at $22,482,841,122 in 1920. The gross national public debt for the year ended March 31, 1926, was $2,821,209,462, without deduction of over $440,000,000 represented by active assets, sinking funds, advances to provinces, investments, etc. The greater part of the Dominion, provincial, and municipal securities is held in the Dominion itself, which, as it develops, also shows an increasing ability to finance its own business itself. The total value of the dominion field crops for 1927 was estimated at over $1,000,000,000 (£200,000,000), the value of other farm products being $700,000,000; the corresponding value of the industrial output was estimated at $3,000,000,000. Australia.—The fundamental fact about Australian finance is that it is that of a new and rapidly developing country. While customs and excise are reserved to the Commonwealth Government, the individual States have definite powers with regard to other forms of taxation. Australia is the only country whose income tax is based upon a progressive curve, defined by the incorporation of the principles of the differential calculus in an act of parliament. The currency is the pound sterling, and sovereigns are coined but not put into circulation. The actual currency in use consists of notes issued by the Commonwealth Bank, which are legally convertible. Normally the currency exchanges at par with British currency, but when the gold standard was suspended in Britain after the war, the rate of exchange moved away from

parity and in accordance with trade demands. In actual practice the Commonwealth Bank is the chief buyer and seller of exchange, and so used to fix the rate from time to time. The variation from parity was a source of some inconvenience and loss to traders in both countries, and for a time there was a demand for a unified empire currency; but with the restoration of the gold standard in the United Kingdom, the anomaly ceased and the demand fell in abeyance. The rapid development of Australia, added to its war expendi-

ture, has necessitated the frequent raising of loans and many of these are obtained in the London market. On June 30, 10927, the aggregate debt of the Commonwealth and Federal States was, according ta the Statist, £1,016,000,000, of which £518,000,000 had been borrowed internally, £478,000,000 in London and £20,000,000 in New York. Much of this money is represented by remunerative assets, such as railways, harbours and other

public works, so that the total debt cannot be called excessive nor can it be compared with the national debts of older countries, which represent mainly past and unremunerative expenditure.

Notwithstanding this fact there was during post-war years an impression in London that Australia was over-borrowing.

This

was largely due to the fact that at that date the Commonwealth and.each separate State had independent borrowing powers, with the result that frequently one Australian loan came hard on the

EMPIRE

[FINANC

heels of the last. The obvious remedy was co-ordination, and in 1927 an important practical step was taken in the creation of a Federal Loan Council for the purpose of financial co-operation. It is the duty of this council to ascertain the needs of the con-

stituent members and the amount that can be borrowed without undue disturbance; the Commonwealth and the member States will be rationed accordingly. All future loans are to be issued by the Commonwealth Government, except that the Loan Council can sanction State loans, to be issued under the guarantee of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth has further agreed to take over the State public debts, expected to aggregate £8,635,445 for the financial year 1927. At the end of 1927 the formal adop. tion of the scheme still depended upon an amendment to the Constitution.

Australia is in one sense well provided with banks, but in 1927 the demand for accommodation had outstripped the resources available. Hence, in addition to amalgamations, many of the banks were increasing their capital in order to obtain fresh funds

to meet the demand for loans. This operation was rendered easy by the high return so obtaining on existing bank shares. There are several large banks in the country, and there is no tendency among them to limit their operations to a single State; many of the banks, too, have London offices and are firmly established in New Zealand. New Zealand.—Financially, New Zealand is closely linked with Australia, and the fundamental economic conditions are much the same. As regards currency, bank notes form the chief medium of circulation. These are issued by the two New Zealand banks and also by the four Australian banks who carry on business in the country. Notes must be backed to at least one-third in gold held in New Zealand, while the remaining two-thirds can be covered in British, Australian or New Zealand securities. The unit is the pound sterling, and while the export of gold is permitted, the notes are inconvertible inside New Zealand. The fact that Australian banks operate in New Zealand means that the banking relations between the two countries are very close, and they may be studied together. The ‘banker’s problem is that of the banker in every pastoral and agricultural country, namely, how to finance the farmer through the season and how to employ the surplus funds during the rest of the year. In 1926 the Bank of New Zealand was concerning itself with the problem of long-term loans on mortgage to agriculture. Like the other dominions, New Zealand is a familiar figure m the London loan market. In 1925, her obligations were £118,000,ooo borrowed in London and £104,000,000 raised internally. Since that time the national public debt has enlarged somewhat, but as an offset to it the Dominion Government owns revenue-producing assets valued at above £200,000,000.

South Africa.—From the standpoint of pure finance South Africa stands out in sharp distinction from the rest of the empire. From the fact that the bulk of the world’s gold is produced here, gold circulates to some extent inside the Union and gold shipments therefore possess a different significance; gold, in fact, must be regarded as one of the staple products of the country, and its relation to the money and exchange markets judged accordingly. Possibly the most important event in South Africa’s financial history since the union is the foundation of the South African Reserve Bank which was set up in 1921. It resembles in many respects an American Federal Reserve Bank, is principally a bank of ‘issue and possesses the sole right to issue notes, this right expiring in 1946. It has a capital of £1,000,000, of which £300,ooo is held by other South African banks, each of whom is bound to hold shares to an amount equal to 5% of their own paid-up capital. Its dividends are limited to 10%, and any surplus profits have to be allocated to reserve. When the reserve fund equals the paid-up capital of the bank, all surplus profits go to the State. The board of directors consists of representatives of the Government, and of banking, industry, commerce and agriculture. Its reserve regulations are also modelled on the Federal reserve system. The note issue must be covered as to 40%

in gold, and as to the remainder in approved “commercial paper” or bills of exchange representing genuine trade transactions.

BRITISH

FINANCE]

deposits lodged with a bill payable by the bank must also be covered by 40% in gold. Finally, every South African bank is bound to carry a balance at the reserve bank equivalent to 13% of its own demand deposits and 3% of its time deposits.

The

Union Government does its own banking business through the reserve bank. The unit of currency is the pound sterling, and since the resto-

ration of the gold standard in Great Britain, the exchange has been at par. Even before the foundation of the reserve bank, banking in the Union was well developed. Possibly the leading

bank is the Standard Bank of South Africa, whose head office is in London. This was founded in 1862 and now operates all over

the Union, holding in Like the in London,

and also in east, central and west Africa; it also has a the Bank of British West Africa. other colonies South Africa is a well-known borrower where South African loans command a high reputation.

At the end of March 1927 the national public debt stood at £231,476,000; but of this total 77% may be classed as productive, being investment in State railways and other revenue producing enterprises. Of the total debt £147,810,000 has been raised externally (which means almost exclusively in London), leaving nearly £84,000,000 held internally. A different class of security, even more familiar on the London Stock Exchange, are South African mining shares. London stock-brokers are many of them more conversant with labour and other working conditions on the Rand than with similar conditions at home. The gold from the Rand reached a new peak of production in 1927 with 10,130,630 0z.; taking the price of gold at 85s. per oz. this represents a value of

£43,055,178.

India.—Financial conditions in India are governed by several imponderable factors. The first is the fact that India is not one homogeneous nation, but consists of 20 or 30 peoples. Another is that gold and silver are the traditional form of wealth, and their accumulation is stimulated by definite religious beliefs and ceremonies; hence the absorption of the precious metals by the Indian population. Superimposed on these is the influence of London as the chief financial and trading link between India and the outer world. Thus in India the modern complexities of trade and exchange exist side by side with the most primitive methods, and the banking, currency and financial system has to take account of both. The unit of currency is the rupee, consisting of 165 grains of fine silver. Until 1893 its exchange rate was fixed by the price of silver, and in effect it represented nothing more or less than this definite weight of silver. The trend of silver values and other forces led, however, to a gradual but marked modification of the currency system. First the “silver exchange” was replaced by the gold “exchange standard.” Silver could no longer be tendered by the public, to be coined into rupees, and the British sovereign

and half sovereign were made legal tender at the rate of R.15 to the pound sterling. Also the Government undertook to sell “council drafts,” drawn upon its balance in India, at a maximum rate of 1s. 44d. per rupee, and in case of need “reverse councils” drawn on London if and when the exchange rate fell below 1s. 323d. Thus by law and practice the rupee was valued at 1s. 4d,; if it began to vary from this point the Government could contract credit by selling “reverse councils” which had to be paid for in rupees, or expand credit by selling “councils” and so releasing rupees. Furthermore, the Government managed to educate the people to the point where it could get notes into circulation; these notes were convertible and had a definite backing behind them in the “paper currency reserve.” The World War upset this system because it temporarily made the bullion value of the rupee greater than 1s. 4d., and so made it a paying proposition to melt rupees down, and because the Government found they had not enough rupees at their disposal

to meet the public demand for councils. After the armistice an attempt was made to fix the rupee at R.1o to the gold sovereign, but this broke down almost at once owing to world-wide deflation and the temporary dislocation of Indian trade. In 1926, a definite gold standard was adopted. The par of exchange was fixed at ts. 6d, to the rupee, and the Government is bound to buy or sell

193

EMPIRE

gold or gold exchange at this rate, save that it cannot be made to deal in less quantities of gold than 1,065 tolas. The present exchange system is much the same as that ruling in England to-day.

Banking in India is also a complicated matter.

On the one

hand there are many small native banks, often differing very little from the money-lender or money-changer of time immemorial, while on the other hand there are the big exchange and other well-known banks, centred in Bombay, Madras or Calcutta, but by no means confining their activities to those cities. First among these come the Imperial Bank of India, established by law in 1920 to take over the business of the three former Presidency banks; it has over 150 branches, acts as the banker of the Government, and performs most of the functions of a central bank. In particular its rate of discount sets the financial tone for the whole of India. It has no note issue. In 1927 the supremacy of the Imperial bank was threatened by the proposal to establish a new reserve bank, to become the official and de facto central bank, and to buy and sell gold and gold exchange in the place of the Government, which now performs this function. The proposal failed to become law. Dealings in foreign exchange are conducted mainly by the big eastern exchange banks, who virtually form the Bombay, Madras and Calcutta markets. Foreign trade is mainly financed through London, either by sterling bills, or by rupee bills covered by an appropriate purchase or sale of sterling in London. Much of the trade with America is financed by rupee bills, and dollar bills are few and far between. Originally, most of India’s capital needs were provided for in London, and Indian Government loans and railway stock still maintains a leading place on the London Stock Exchange, and command a high degree of confidence; like other empire securities, they also possess special facilities to qualify as “trustee stocks.” But with the growth of industry India is now also beginning to provide for her own capital needs. At March 31, 1926, the national public debt was £342,000,000 held in Great Britain and R. 5,112,700,000 internal debt. Crown Colonies, etc.—The finance of the Crown colonies, dependencies and other portions of the British empire, though of less importance than that of the dominions, is not without interest. To remove a misapprehension fairly general in some quarters, it should be said at once that each colony runs its own finance, collects its own taxation and pays it into its own exchequer, and so long as it pays its way, is financially independent of the British treasury. To quote what is perhaps the leading example, the proceeds of the export duties upon rubber, imposed as the effective instrument in the Stevenson restriction scheme, go to swell the revenues of the Crown colonies concerned, and not those of Great Britain. As regards currency, too, each unit is independent: Singapore and Hong Kong have each their own dollars; Tanganyika has its shilling, and so on. Kenya, in particular, has had a chequered currency history. Immediately after the war the Indian rupee was in circulation, and so Kenya shared in the attempt to raise the rupee from 15 to the pound to 10 to the gold sovereign. Next, a florin was introduced, and held at xo to the pound even after the new rupee parity had been tacitly abandoned. For a time this gave rise to serious inequities, and it is only with the general currency stabilization of the past few years that an equilibrium has been established. Most of the Crown colonies are too small to need a central

bank of their own, and to a large extent they are served by branches or subsidiaries of banks domiciled in Great Britain or one of the dominions. Instances of this are the Standard Bank of South Africa and the Bank of British West Africa, as cited above; while the Far Eastern colonies, such as Hong Kong and Singapore,

are served by the big eastern exchange banks.

(N. E. C.)

COMMUNICATIONS

The first line of communication of the empire is by sea. Until the outbreak of the World War the great majority of the ships serving empire ports were owned by companies operating from the British Isles, but during the war and immediate post-war periods,

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the dominions, notably Canada and Australia, developed mercantile marines which largely operate on empire routes. About 400,ooo gross tons of shipping engaged in overseas trade were actually owned by these dominion Governments in 1925, but whilst they assisted trade development they were also a cause of substantial losses. The losses have become so serious that efforts are being made in some cases to dispose of the fleets. These governmentowned fleets had at first an advantage in immunity from taxation,

but at the Imperial Conference of 1923 it was agreed that liability to taxation should be the same as for privately owned vessels. Liner routes steadily increased after 1910, and in 1926 there were 560 such routes from the British Isles. Not all were empire routes, but there was at least one, and frequently more than one, liner route connecting Great Britain with each of the dominions and colonies, whilst there was a marked development in the organization of lines working directly between the overseas dominions. An effect of this was to give greater stability to freight rates, but also to make them less flexible. Sea carriage remained the cheapest form of transport. In 1925 it cost only rd. to bring 2 lb. of meat from Australia to Great Britain; 4d. per quarter for wheat from Canada or $d. from Australia, and 3/2o0d. per Ib. for rice from Rangoon. Freights are, however, subject to considerable variation, due to changes in the balance of cargoes on the routes at different times and seasons. The serious drop in coal exports from Great Britain during the post-war period caused British shipping to be less remunerative and kept up freights for the carriage of raw products to Great Britain. The Australian trade is, from a shipping standpoint, unusually well balanced. The worst balanced route is that across the Atlantic to Canada and Newfoundland, for the United Kingdom exports to Canada and Newfoundland mainly manufactured goods, occupying moderate cargo space in relation to their value, and imports grain, timber, pulp, flour, and other comparatively bulky goods. A notable development, particularly after the war, was the growth of direct trade of the dominions or colonies with one another. The Imperial shipping committee, founded in 1920, has materially assisted in the co-ordination and standardization of practice within the empire. British ships of 8,000 tons and upwards increased from 214 at the end of r913 to 395 at the end of 1925, whilst the records of 1926 show that 46.9% of the British tonnage consists of such ships. With the growth in the size of ships the need for deep water ports and for dock equipment which would provide for a rapid turn round of the ship was emphasized. ‘The outcome was a marked tendency for the traffic to pass through a limited number of ports. Though the Board of Trade publish returns for over 100 ports in Great Britain, the bulk of the traffic passes through 14 or 15 of them, while London and Liverpool together handle over 50% of the total. Taken as a whole, the Empire is well provided with ports with a depth of water of 35ft. upwards, or with ports which can readily be deepened as soon as the necessity arises. The tendency, however, has been to develop a large number of ports, and this often compels ships to call at several to ensure a full cargo. New Zealand perhaps suffers from this more than any other part of the empire, which accounts for freights being relatively high. A new development is the institution of “‘cabin-class” steamers. The White Star Line and the Canadian Pacific are running a number of these steamers. The fares are about $ the usual first-class fares. Already a large increase in the number of people exchanging visits between Great Britain and Canada has resulted.

Railways.—The railway systems of the various parts of the

empire differ very much in their adequacy. In the majority of cases they are in the hands of the state, and, whilst in some cases they are worked to cover all expenses, in others there is an annual deficiency incurred for national development. With the growing

belief that such a deficiency should not continue indefinitely, the

plan of transferring the railways to a state company, or having a railway budget independent of the national budget, has won an increasing amount of support. The Union of South Africa led the way, whilst Canada followed in 1917 when the Canadian National Railways Co. was created; and India in 1925, when the recom-

EMPIRE mendations

[EDUCATION

of the Acworth

commission

were

adopted.

These

changes should make for a more even and economic development of railways in the dominions, with material advantages to trade, Iy

India they are leading to more rapid developments also. Lack of standardization seriously hindered the development of railway communication in Australia, each state having decided its railway gauge without regard to its neighbours, but steps are being taken to remedy this. In the Crown colonies the prospects of improving the supplies of raw materials within the empire largely depend upon railway development. Roads,—The rapid strides made in motor vehicles are increasing the importance of road transport. Due to the development of six-wheeled and trackless vehicles, it is possible also to carry on

transport for moderate distances over tracks and earth roads, By opening up country at distances from the railway, these vehicles are speeding up development, enabling the railways to become paying concerns more quickly, and so make extensions. Air and Wireless Services——In the speeding up of transport, the biggest prospect comes from the development of air transport, In 1925 its possibilities were limited, particularly by the difficulties of night flying. For communication with Great Britain, its uses were restricted to the carrying of passengers or mails fora terminal] stage of the journey. A day, for instance, might be gained on the

India mail by use of the aeroplane service to Paris and Marseille,

and a saving of 15 days made by the air service from Cairo to Baghdad for the London mails. If airship services should develop, the times necessary for mails to reach the East or Australia would be cut about two-thirds. In 1925 the only direct wireless service of an empire character was that between the United Kingdom and Canada, which had been in existence since 1907, though a limited service with India was maintained by way of Egypt. The

first suggestion for an empire wireless scheme was made in rgrr, and had it not been for the war this would probably have been put into operation. Afterwards a question arose whether the Marconi company or the Government should carry out the scheme in Great Britain. Eventually a decision in favour of the Post Office ownership and operation was reached, though the Marconi company was employed for the construction of the high power station at Hillmorton, near Rugby, which was opened on Jan. 30, 1926. This station is used for broadcasting the Government bulletin and other purposes, but is no longer part of the general imperial scheme, now carried out on the short-wave beam system. This system is now working directly with Australia, Canada, India and South Africa, with such success that the charges for messages have been heavily reduced. In spite of great improvements made by the cable companies, the latter are losing ground. To avoid cut-throat competition, a fusion of interests has been agreed upon. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. J. Sargent, Seaways af the Empire (1918); L. C. A. Knowles, Economic Develapment of the British Overseas Empire (1924). See also Reports of Daminions Royal Commission, Interim Report 1912-17, Final Report (ed. 8462, 1917); Reports of Imperial Economic Conferences and Imperial Shipping Committee (1921, etc.); Report on Railways, Harbours, Home, Dominion, and: Colonial Governments;

Docks, Shipping, by E. Lewin, The com-

EDUCATION Conference.—In

1907 a number af

munications of the Overseas British Empire; Publications of the Imperial Motor Transport Conferences (1913 and 1927); J. S. Mills, The Press and Communications of the Empire (1924); Sir C. Bright, Inter-imperial communications. (W. T. Sr.)

Imperial Education

educational administrators from parts of the British empire, who

were attending in London an educational congress convened by the League of the Empire, met representatives of the home Government and suggested that an official Imperial Education Conference should be convened periodically by the British Government. The Government of the day adopted this suggestion and through

the Board of Education convened the first such Conference in rgrz. The delegates were nominated by the several Governments of the Empire, being either heads of education departments or persons officially connected with their educational administration. The Conference recommended that meetings should be held at intervals of four years, but the war caused the second meeting to be postponed to 1923; the third was held in 1927.

BRITISH

EDUCATION]

The first Conference had 51 members and met for a week; the second had 62 members and met for a fortnight; the third had 95

members and took three weeks to complete its business. On each occasion there were delegates from the self-governing Dominions, India, the Crown Colonies, Dependencies, etc. In 1927 the Mandated Territories were also represented.

The work of the Conference may be divided into two parts. Firstly the movements of teachers and students about the Empire give rise to a number of rather technical problems best solved after personal discussion between responsible officials. Thus when a teacher migrates it is necessary to determine his professional status, his salary, etc., in his new country. Migrant students bring

with them problems as to the equivalence of examinations for the purpose of admission to training colleges, universities and other institutions for higher education. The Conferences have endeavoured to devise principles to be applied in the solution of such problems. Their recommendations have resulted in legislation

directed to the facilitation of movement and thus to the promotion of imperial unity. Secondly, attention is given at each meeting to educational problems of the moment on which the experiences of each country are likely to be helpful to all. Thus in 1923 a description of the correspondence tuition methods

by which the Australian

education

departments reach children in remote homesteads led to the adoption of similar methods in other parts of the Empire. The 1927 Conference discussed the use of wireless broadcasting in education, while in both 1923 and 1927 the educational possibilities of the cinema were explored.

The torr Conference established an Advisory Committee to carry on its work between successive Conferences. It consists of the accredited agents in London of the several Governments concerned, presided over by the secretary of the Board of Education, and has made the arrangements for the later Conferences and advised on questions referred to it by the education departments at home and overseas. It conducted, for example, certain inquiries into the working of the scheme for the temporary exchange of teaching posts at home and in the Dominions, and investigated the possibility of a common form for the display of the fundamental statistics of public education in all the countries of the Empire. An official report of the proceedings at each Conference is published by H.M. Stationery Office. (J. H. Bu.) `

AUSTRALIA Education in Australia is administered and controlled separately

by the six States; only in the territories of central and northern Australia and in the Federal capital area of Yass-Canberra is the Federal Government responsible. Education in the Northern and Central territory is organized with the help of the Queensland Education Department, whilst New South Wales takes charge of Canberra on behalf of the Federal Government. In every State one of the foremost problems is that of the “outback” children, the families of settlers in sparsely populated districts living miles from any school or any railway connecting them with a school. Various efforts have been made to meet their needs. Itinerant teachers have been sent out to visit each family four times a year and enable the children to pursue home studies with such help as their families can give. This method, however, is gradually being abandoned as transport facilities improve and State grants enable the children to travel to the nearest school or

board in hostels. Further, a successful system of correspondence tuition, even for young children, is developing. Correspondence pupils win scholarships and are able to continue their education beyond the primary course. There are also “provisional schools” with a very small attendance, where the building must be provided locally. Another expedient for the rural child is the “subsidized school” where two or more families join to engage the teacher, and the Government makes a grant of £5 per pupil towards the salary. South Australia takes the palm in the provision for rural needs, for there a school may be established where only six children are gathered together. G. S. Browne (Education in Australia) stresses the value of a highly centralized system of administration in a

young country with a vast hinterland. It ensures that the chil-

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1Q5

dren of the rural pioneer receive as good an education as the children of the banker or artisan in the city.” That is, indeed, hardly possible, but clearly more local autonomy can come only as the population increases and localities become equal to the greater burden.

Primary Education.—Education in all Australian States is

free and compulsory. As in England, it was originally left to the voluntary efforts of the Churches, and there are still a number of denominational schools of all grades unaided by the State. The most important denominational endowed schools closely correspond in character to the English public schools. In New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland, education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14, in South Australia between 7 and 13, and in Tasmania between 7 and 14. In some cases pupils may leave earlier if they reach the requisite standard. In Victoria children are admitted at four and a half and in Queensland at five. In some infant schools kindergarten (g.v.) and Montessori (q.v.) methods are used. Victoria is the only State using Montessori apparatus for mental defectives. In South Australia the Government makes grants to the free kindergartens of the Kindergarten Union, which have adopted Montessori methods; there are also Montessori-kindergarten classes in the State schools for children under six. Western Australia has no State infant schools, but there are free kindergartens established by the Free Kindergarten Union. There are also “opportunity classes” for backward children set up jointly by several schools. In all six States school medical and dental services are developing. Religion and the Schools.—The relation of the State to private Church schools varies somewhat from State to State. In New South Wales State aid to other than State schools was abolished in 1883. By the Act of 1916 private schools may enjoy State inspection and recognition, and they may then receive pupils holding State bursaries, which are many and generous under the Bursary Endowment Act of 1912. In State schools there is “general religious instruction as distinguished from dogmatical and polemical theology,” subject to a conscience clause. Recognized religious teachers may enter the schools to instruct children of their own denomination. The registration of private schools is compulsory in Victoria and Tasmania. Non-sectarian religious instruction is given in State schools in all six States. Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania allow denominational imstruction before or after school hours by ministers and accredited religious teachers to children of their own faith. Secondary Education.—As an agricultural country, and one which is likewise developing its own industries, Australia has devoted attention to agricultural and technical education as well as to the more academic secondary course. She has also made special provision for the children who will not stay at school beyond the age of r5 or 16. The very liberal system of State bursaries and scholarships makes it possible for the majority of children to receive at least some secondary education, and for those of more than average ability to climb the educational ladder from the primary school upwards to courses at the universities. This is also a means of securing the efficiency of schools not under State control, for they may, with the approval of the Minister, be registered and thus enable their pupils to hold State bursaries and scholarships. Unregistered schools do not receive grants from the State.

All the States maintain high schools; fees have been abolished in New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland and Western

Australia. In New South Wales there are “superior public schools” for twenty or more pupils who are prepared to take a two years’ post-primary day continuation course. Victoria has supplemen-

tary courses at primary schools for children from r2 to 15, and in the metropolitan areas central schools with a two years’ high school syllabus. There are domestic arts schools for girls from 124 to 14, and junior technical schools admitting to a three years’ course at 12. Both continue the general cultural education of the pupils. Some schools have experimented with the Dalton system (g.v.), some with marked success, and with school councils where the children perform certain functions of self-government. Class A schools have béen allowed to substitute internal tests (with cer-

ra

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BRITISH

tain safeguards) for the usual external examinations, and these tests are recognized by the university. South Australia has central schools with a domestic, technical and commercial course in addition to continued general education. The more gifted pupils may proceed at 15 or 16 to the upper divisions of the high school. In z921 higher primary schools were started in the small towns. The secondary course is four years, or five in the largest schools.

The Technical Education of Apprentices Act makes three years’ attendance at a trade school for half a day and one evening per week compulsory for apprentices in most skilled trades in “‘proclaimed areas.” Queensland has secondary departments to primary schools, known as “topped schools.” The State is in process of taking over the technical colleges and transforming them into technical high schools, where technical and general education are combined. Attendance at technical classes is compulsory for apprentices. Western Australia has central schools with a two years’ course, vocational and cultural. In 1918 post-primary correspondence classes were started for children “outback.” Some schools have adopted the Dalton plan. In Tasmania pupils may pass at 13 from the primary school to a high school or technical school with a four or five years’ course, and thence to the university. There are junior technical schools on the Victorian model, and trade technical schools for apprentices with a four years’ course. There is a strong movement towards abolishing the pupil teacher system and making a minimum standard of secondary education the condition of admission to the teachers’ training colleges. In Victoria and Western Australia would-be teachers serve aS monitors or junior teachers before entering the college in order to test their suitability for the work. The outlying country schools have suffered from insufficiently trained teachers, but some States are making a term of service in the country a condition of promotion in the city schools. The registration of teachers is compulsory in Victoria and Tasmania. Higher Education.—The universities of Sydney and Melbourne (see also UNiIversiries) stand very high among the universities of the empire and have faculties of world-wide reputation. They have considerable endowments and receive like the universities in each of the other Australian States governmental aid but without control. The universities are in the main nonresidential, but there are attached hostels which are usually established and managed by various religious denominations. Each State supports agricultural colleges with experimental farms and South Australia has a school of mining with a high reputation. The Workers’ Educational Association (g.v.) is active in Australia, on lines similar to those in Great Britain, receiving State grants

and co-operating with the Universities.

(M. M. G.; A. P. N.)

See G. S. Browne, Education in Australia the Commonwealth of Australia.

(1928);

Year Book

of

CANADA

By sẹc. 93 of the British North America Act (1867), the control of education in the Dominion was exclusively entrusted to the provinces and a special safeguard was added that no law passed should prejudicially affect any right or privilege with respect to denominational schools that was legally possessed by

any class of persons in the provinces at the time of confederation. The safeguard involved a principle of great importance, for Canadian educational systems derive from two separate ancestries and there is much opportunity for difference over religious matters. The undenominational system of English-speaking Canada has been founded on English and Scottish precedents modified by American experience, while the system of the Roman Catholic Church, in which religious instruction, according to its tenets, forms a vital part, prevails in French-speaking Quebec. The beginnings of education in Quebec date back to the efforts of the missionaries under the French régime, when certain religious communities established schools, but there was no definite organization, and it was not until 1836 that assistance was first granted by. the State. In 1841 a Department of Education was set up for the. united provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and in 1846 an act was passed by the provincial legislature establishing the basis. of the modera school system. The supreme education author-

EMPIRE

[EDUCATION

ity for the province of Quebec is a council of public instruction with two sides supervising the Roman Catholic and Protestant schools respectively. The Catholic committee includes the bishops and vicars apostolic of the province, with 15 laymen nominated by the provincial ministry. The Protestant committee is composed of 15 clergy or laymen who are similarly appointed. Each committee has independent jurisdiction over the schools of its own faith, but questions of common interest are decided by the council as a whole. Each committee is assisted by co-opted associate members who are chosen for their special educational experience

and represent the interests of the teachers, Subject to the general approval of the provincial Government, each committee makes regulations for the organization, administration and discipline of the schools, their inspection and examination and the training of ' teachers. The superintendent of public instruction, who is ez officto president of the council, is assisted by two deputy heads, called the French and English secretaries of the department, who are responsible for their respective sides. Save in the cities of Montreal and Quebec the province is divided into school districts in each of which there is a school board elected by the local ratepayers and serving for three years. Where there is a religious minority, they may establish schools of their own governed by elected trustees. The cost of education is defrayed from three sources: provincial grants, local rates assessed on all property within the school district and fees paid by parents having children of school age. In Montreal there are appointed school boards and the rates assessable are fixed by the provincial legislature. In the Protestant and Jewish elementary schools of Montreal there are no fees, but in the Roman Catholic schools, as elsewhere throughout the province, fees are charged and are collected with other school rates. The teaching in the Catholic schools is mostly

conducted in French, and the methods differ considerably from

those of the Protestant schools, which are similar to those of the English-speaking elementary schools in the rest of Canada. A

considerable amount of the teaching in the Catholic schools is

entrusted to members of religious communities, and the Church

exercises a close control. Most of the teachers in the Protestant schools receive a professional training in normal schools, or in the departments of education at McGill university, or the Anglican Bishops’ college at Lennoxville. Secondary education in the province of Quebec is divided upon even more sharply marked denominational lines than primary. The most distinctive institutions on the French side are the residential classical colleges with almost wholly clerical staffs. Boys enter them between

12 and 14 and receive a classical training

on traditional lines until they have taken their baccalauréat and pass on to the professional schools at Laval or Montreal university. There are also various “independent schools” for boys and girls, carried on by communities of friars and nuns respectively, but all are subject to inspection by the Catholic committee of the council of public instruction. The number of Roman Catholic non-residential secondary schools provided by local school boards is increasing and they are supported by government grants, local rates and fees In the same way as the primary schools. The most ancient educational institution in the province is Laval university, in the city of Quebec, which has developed from the seminary for education for the priesthood, founded in the middle of the 17th century. An affiliated institution has in recent years been well endowed and has become the university of Montreal. In each of these universities the courses are organized on professional lines and the methods of instruction derive from the precedents of the ancient university of Paris.

The educational system of English-speaking Canada finds its fullest development in Ontario, but in its essentials it is the same in all the provinces. In each there is a Department of Education presided over by a provincial minister, but the routine administration is in the hands of permanent officials of the civil service. At their head stands a deputy minister or superintendent, who has & large share of responsibility for educational efficiency throughout his province. There are inspectors appointed and paid by the Government, but in Ontario those in charge of the primary oF “public” schools are appointed locally. The settled parts of the

BRITISH

EDUCATION]

provinces are divided into school districts, each with a board of trustees charged with the duty of equipping and maintaining both primary and secondary or “high” schools. The primary and Manitoba schools are mainly undenominational, but in Ontario the Roman Catholic minority is permitted to maintain separate

schools. Religious teaching of a simple kind is permitted in the undenominational schools, with the safeguard of a “conscience

clause.” In the past there has been considerable political difficulty in certain provinces over the questions of religious and language teaching, and on more than one occasion the “schools question” has led to cases before the courts which have been carried to the judicial committee of the privy council, on appeal, for an

interpretation of the constitutionality of certain acts passed by

the provincial legislature. The primary schools are organized in “grades” corresponding roughly to English “standards,” and education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of eight and 14. In Ontario either full or part-time attendance is now required up to 16, and in some cases up to 18, a requirement that has greatly increased the attendance in the secondary schools of the province. Increasing attention is being paid to technical and vocational work for the older pupils who do not pass on to the university. In the larger cities, industrial, technical and art schools have seen a great development in recent years, and everywhere throughout Canada great attention is paid to agricultural education in schools

and colleges, ranging upwards from farm schools to elaborately equipped and staffed agricultural colleges with experimental farms attached. Certain of the Canadian agricultural colleges rank among the best in the world. Secondary education in Governmentaided schools is free throughout English-speaking Canada, but there are, in addition, certain boarding schools of high reputation modelled on the lines of an English public school. Of these the most celebrated is Upper Canada college at Kingston, where generations of those who have proved to be the leaders in Canadian life have been educated. In Western Canada an acute and pressing difficulty faces the provincial Governments in providing for the education and assimilation of the many immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe who have come to settle since the beginning of the 2oth century. The problem of providing schools and teachers for these immigrants has been a great burden on the Prairie provinces, and

it cannot be said that it has yet been satisfactorily solved. The universities of Canada have been greatly influenced by the vast developments that have taken place in the universities of the United States within the last 50 years. The two leading insti-

tutions—Toronto

and McGill

(Montreal), represent different

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English as its language-medium: education for cultivators and artisans is necessarily in the mother-tongue, and India’s millions

speak in many vernaculars. Further, higher education is relatively widespread and advanced, while something like nine-tenths of the whole population remain illiterate. Yet another difficulty comes from ancient prejudice against the education of women. It is no longer true that figures for female education are negligible,

but custom and prejudice still seriously obstruct every effort to advance the education of India’s womanhood. Nevertheless, the sum total of organized education is very considerable. There are now 14 universities in British India, without counting Rangoon, Mysore and Osmania. All aspire to be teaching as well as examining universities: in some there are the promising beginnings of research, the most extensive organization for the purpose being found in Calcutta. Studies have approximately the same scope and range as those of European universities, but in most cases a faulty examination standard detracts from their efficacy. English is, for the most part, the medium of instruction; imperfect mastery of this medium is a great stumbling-block. University students in 1926 numbered 37,589, some 1,500 of these being women. Secondary education is widely diffused and the demand for it does not slacken: but far too much of this education Is narrow

in aim, dull and mechanical in method. The true use and value of the school as an institution are imperfectly recognized. Even among High English schools, which lead to the universities, there are few in which school life is as full and vivid as it may be. The school aim has been unduly restricted: these schools do not educate for life, but prepare candidates for university matriculation. It is, however, fair to recognize that strenuous efforts have been, and are being, made in the right direction. There is also now a tendency towards the substitution of the vernacular for English in teaching. In 1926 the total number of Secondary schools, higher and lower, Vernacular and English, was nearly eleven thousand. The number of pupils was not far short of two millions, all but 174,000 being boys. Pupils in primary schools in 1926 numbered nearly eight millions. Yet this is only about a fifth of the number of children who might have been at school, and there is small ground for contentment with the advance made in recent years, though that has been substantial. This

failure does not come from want of recognition of the greatness of the need. It has been affirmed again and again in Government declarations of policy. The hindering causes have been, the absence of any popular demand, scarcity of teachers, want of money, unwillingness to impose special taxation to provide it.

These hindrances remain: nevertheless, opinion is moving defi-

types in the organization of their finances, the first being supported by public funds like the State universities in the republic,

nitely towards making elementary education compulsory, and at the same time free: practical steps in this direction are being and the second depending upon its endowments like the British taken in many places. Much may be hoped from the delegation universities. They differ little, however, in their academic organ- of the responsibility for primary education to local authorities— ization or curricula. To the first type belong the new universi- municipalities for towns, and district boards for rural areas. Technical education is backward, but efforts to make good ties of the West: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, while in the East most of the universities belong to deficiencies are unremitting, the recent development of training the second type, the best known of them being Queen’s (Kings- schools for railway employees being one significant advance. Proton, Ontario), and Dalhousie (Halifax, Nova Scotia). Laval fessional education is fairly well developed. For teaching, zealous (Quebec) and the University of Montreal have already been men- and successful work is being done in training colleges and normal tioned as differing considerably from other Canadian universities schools. Law colleges are amply provided. Medical education is in organization and curricula. (See UNIVERSITIES.) increasing, but is still very inadequate to the needs of the comFor statistical details reference may be made to the official Canada munity; engineering progresses but slowly; notable success attends Year Book, published annually (Ottawa) and to the Annual Survey the School of Forestry at Dehra Dun; veterinary colleges are of Education in Canada, prepared in the Education Statistics Branch doing useful work. of the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Brief accounts of the history The machinery of education is variously controlled. The uniof Canadian education may be found in Sixty Vears of Canadian Progress (Ottawa, 1928), and A. P. Newton, The Universities and versities are self-governing, but receive some financial help from Educational Systems of the Empire (1922). For current information Government. High school education is at present controlled concerning Canadian universities, see The Universities’ Year Book, mainly by the universities, but there is a movement for placing published by the Universities’ Bureau of the Empire. (A. P. N.) high schools under the control of boards set up for the purpose. INDIA Primary and secondary education are both under the supervision

_ The problems of education in India are immense with the

immensity of that vast peninsula. There is, moreover, this plexity, that, whereas in most countries education is linked tinuously through all grades and stages, in India a deep divides higher education from primary. Higher education

perconrift uses

of Government inspectors, Schools are staffed and equipped by missionary agency or private enterprise, largely with the help of grants-in-aid. Government also maintains and manages directly a few schools of all types, to set the standard. In every province there has been since 1854 a highly organized education depart-

198

BRITISH

ment, the activities of which touch every branch and kind of education. The total spent on education in 1926 from public sources was over £9,000,000. There is considerable expenditure from missionary, municipal, and private funds, in addition; and some from endowments. History.—For about 40 years after Warren Hastings founded the Calcutta Madrasa (1781), British interest in Indian education was confined to the encouragement of the traditional Islamic and Hindu learning, and the funds first assigned to education in 1813 were devoted to that purpose. A definite change of policy came in 1835, tbe date of Lord William Bentinck’s “Resolution” and Macaulay’s “Minute,” which together determined that from that time on the main line of educational advance should be through “English education.” But the beginnings of English education go back zo years earlier, and came, in effect, in answer to a popular demand, and out of the belief that a true revival of learning in India could most effectually be brought about by means of the English language. The Hindu College, Calcutta, was founded in 1817 under the inspiration of this belief. In 1854 the despatch of Sir Charles Wood formulated a comprehensive scheme of education for all India, the groundwork of the present system. Progress since that time has been continuous. There have been three principal epochs, each following the appointment of an Educational Commission. The first of these was in 1882 and resulted in an immense extension of high school and college education. The second, the Universities Commission of 1902, was occupied with university reform, at that time much needed. The third, in 1917, remembered as the Sadler Commission, dealt exhaustively with the problems of higher education in Bengal, including schools. Its recommendations embody sound educational principles, but, so far, it has only been found possible to apply some of them practically, and these not in Calcutta University. Quite recently (May 1928), an “auxiliary committee” in connection with the Simon committee has been appointed to inquire into the growth of education in India. Retrospect and Outlook.—The aims of the education fostered under British control in India were from the first philanthropic, looking to the hope of intellectual and moral renewal. They have been criticized as too narrowly practical—the training of useful subordinates for the public services. They have also been criticized as misdirected and unpractical. To the diffusion of western learning through English there was reasoned opposition from the first, and there has been intermittent criticism sincé, because of the inevitable conflict between modern thought and Indian life and tradition. The bitterest and most damaging attacks on the educational system have come from men who owe the effectiveness of their weapons largely to the system which they denounce. For these critics the ground of quarrel is that English education in India demoralizes and denationalizes. Whatever truth be in these criticisms it remains beyond dispute that educational experiment launched by the Despatch of well-intentioned, and that its results have been on

there may the great 1854 was the whole

EMPIRE

[EDUCATION

for all who reflect and reason acknowledge that the new political

ideals

in India

education.

depend

for their

progressive

realization oy

(H. R. Ja.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—India in 1926~27, prepared for the Government oj India by J. Coatman, chap. viii. pp. 315-333 (Calcutta, 1928); Syed Mahmoud, A History of English Education in India, 1781-189; (1895); F. Andrews, The Renaissance in India (1912); J. Ghosh,

Higher Education in Bengal under Britisk Rule (Calcutta, 1926). NEW ZEALAND

The first mission school in New Zealand was established in I816. An ordinance of 1847, recognized and allotted financial assistance to religious schools for both whites and Maoris, but this remained inoperative as regards whites. The Act of 1871 estab-

lished village Maori schools with local committees on which both races might serve. The Act of 1877 made education free, compulsory, and secular, This statute is the keystone of the present system. Though edu-

cation is secular, the door is opened to religious instruction for those who desire it by the fact that permission may be given to use school buildings for other purposes out of school hours, Under this act the country was divided into districts, each with an education board to administer grants, establish and maintain schools and training colleges, and appoint teachers. School committees for small areas are elected by the householders, and these committees in turn elect the boards, besides managing their own schools under the board. Each secondary school, however, is managed by its own governing body. The whole system is placed under the control of a central department of education, over

which the minister of education, a member of the cabinet, presides. Later acts have made the registration of private schools compulsory, set up a teachers’ register, and obliged all teachers, in public and private schools, to take the oath of allegiance.

Primary Education.—New Zealand, like the other dominions, has its problem of the isolated rural child, and provides correspondence classes as well as free conveyance to school. Itinerant and organizing teachers are sometimes employed to staff the small “back-block” schools, while of recent years the consolidated school has become popular wherever established. The Act of to14 fixes the age of compulsory schooling from 7 to 14. In addition to primary schools proper there are so-called district high schools, established where there are not enough children for

a separate secondary school, and these unite primary and postprimary departments. In 1926 there was approximately one primary school to every 500 of the European community. In sparsely populated areas there are part-time schools, so that one teacher can take charge of two schools.

Schools are shared by whites and Maoris, but where the Maoris are still living a primitive, tribal life they have their own village schools or attend mission schools. The Government also reserves free places for Maoris at certain denominational boarding schools, Its aim is to assimilate the Maoris to the life of the white popula-

tion. The Health Act of x920 gives authority for the medical inspection of primary school children. Dental clinics are being

beneficent. One striking result has been the attainment by the Indian peoples of a common language in which to express their

provided. Secondary Education.—Government secondary schools were set up under the Act of 1914, but there were at that time already

tem of education to favourable judgment is that it has been the effective cause and motive power of a true Indian renascence. This revival permeates Indian society very widely. It takes three main forms: (1) the revival of vernacular literatures and of Indian art; (2) social reform; (3) political developments. One of the political developments is that the control and guidance of educational policy is passing from British into Indian hands; and

certain first-rate endowed secondary schools modelled on English public and grammar school lines. District schools, as already stated, combine primary and secondary departments. Under the act of 1903 free places were provided in endowment secondary schools and district high schools. Indeed New Zealand is re

political aspirations.

But the strongest title of the existing sys-

this is the really salient feature of the present time.

`

Tt is early yet to estimate the effects of this transfer of education to Indian ministers. In their political aspects, these are the subject of the enquiry of the auxiliary committee mentioned above. The stumbling block since 1919 has been the financial stringency; but there has been a quickening of public interest in education, which may have far-reaching results. There is, however, the danger that educational interests may suffer eclipse amid the excitements of party politics. This would be a great misfortune,

markably generous in this matter. At the end of 1925 96% of the scholars in Government secondary schools held free places.

Technical high schools are recognized as being of secondary grade. The Act of 1924 established junior high schools for children unable to stay at school for the full secondary course.

Adult Education.—The University of New Zealand was recognized in 1876 as an examining body with affiliated colleges in the University of Otogo (Dunedin), Canterbury college (Christchurch). Victoria college (Wallington) and Auckland were added later. In 1925 a royal commission on university education was appointed, and some of its recommendations were incor

EMPIRE

BRITISH

EDUCATION]

199

a

Throughout the Union undenominational religious teaching is given, subject to a conscience clause, but only in the Cape is

porated in the Act of 1926, which made the university a teaching body embracing its four affliated colleges (see also UNIVERSIvies). The Workers’ Educational Association (g.v.) co-operates with the university and receives a Government grant. Teachers’ training colleges in New Zealand provide a two

denominational teaching allowed in State schools under certain

years’ course, or one year for university graduates. The depart-

conditions. Like Australia, South Africa has its problems of children living in such isolation that school attendance is impossible. The Government makes grants to “farm schools,” that is, groups of children gathered at a farm under the guidance of a governess or

1925, the numbers at school and college were :—

tutor.

ment keeps a graded register of certificated teachers. With a total white population of 1,346,076 on December 31, Primary Gecondary Technical neecid

> . . Ss J

+ +

© + + + + © + + a a aa

+ +

+ 248,248 + + 23,829 + o 12,966 o a a :

.

See New Zealand Year Book. SOUTH

+ +

|

?

AFRICA

The history of education in South Africa has been a chequered one owing to the long political troubles that delayed union. In Cape Colony and Natal English precedents were generally followed, while in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal the educational system was largely influenced by the pastors of the Dutch

Secondary Education.—In the Transvaal and Orange Free State secondary education is free in the State schools; in Natal only bursars and the dependants of those on active service are admitted free. Grants are made to private secondary schools. The needs of the country children are met by attaching secondary standards to some of the primary schools and providing hostels and transport. There are plentiful bursaries and scholarships. South Africa has universities at Capetown, Stellenbosch and Witwatersrand, besides the University of South Africa consisting of six constituent colleges with headquarters at Pretoria, and six technical colleges (see also UNIVERSITIES). Native Education.—Native education is largely in the hands of religious bodies, receiving State grants. In the Transvaal the Smuts Act of 1907 provided for separate native schools, and in the Orange Free State progress has been made with the provision of native schools. Natal, likewise, has special schools for native coloured and East-Indian children, and does not admit them to the schools for whites. The South African Native college was founded in rg15. It is maintained by Government grants, denominational funds, and fees, and it presents students as external candidates for the examinations of the University of South Africa.

Reformed Church. Since 1902, however, the systems of primary education have approximated more closely and development in alt four provinces of the Union has proceeded on parallel lines. Since the white population of South Africa is bi-lingual, the language difficulty in the schools has sometimes been acute. The questions raised by the education of the native and coloured population differ widely, from those in connection with the education of the white population and are separately considered (see section, Native Education, above). The South African Act of 1909 made higher education a matter See E. G. Malherbe, Education in South Africa, 1652-1922 (Capefor the Union Government, which might subsequently take over town, i 1925); The South African Year Book. other branches left, for the time being, under the provincial BerLocrarny.—General: A. P. Newton, The University and Educagovernments. The Union Government did, in fact, take over tional Systems of the British Empire (1924); Report of the Imperial technical and vocational education in 1925, including the industrial Education Conference (1927); Colonial and Dominions Office List (M. M. G.; A. P. N.) schools for neglected and indigent children and those removed from (1927). pregive schools trade the and These surroundings. undesirable NATIVE PEOPLES apprenticeship training in skilled trades, and, in the words of the of the subject peoples of the development and well-being The report of the Secretary for Education, the Hon. Dr. D. F. Malan Canada, Australia and New India, outside (who, empire British culture general and education civic of standard (1925) “a suitable a systematic, purposive demands 68,000,000) number Zealand, . must be aimed at.” Incomplete statistics (1926) The report of the Education Administration commission of 1923 education by means of schools. enrolled in 52,000 instimade some important recommendations, including greater co- show about 1,800,000 non-Europeans to university colordination under the Union Government. It advocated free pri- tutions (ranging from simple village schools in similar institutions mary education; those who could not pay should be admitted free leges) in British Africa, and 800,000 territories. Christian to Government secondary schools, and ability to learn, not to pay, throughout dependencies and mandated missionary societies have been the pioneers of native education. should be the sole test of admission to those schools. Only in Natal is educational administration centralized. In the In 1917 Dr. Charles T. Loram could say: “It is entirely due to of South Africa Cape there are local school boards with a majority elected by the efforts of the missionaries that the Natives the ratepayers and a minority appointed by the Government. The have received any education at all, and to this day all but three Smuts Act of 1907 set up local school boards and school com- of the several thousand native schools are conducted by missionmittees in the Transvaal. In the Orange Free State the Hertzog ary agencies.” Apart from the 28,900 Mohammedan schools in Act of 1908 established local committees elected by the parents, Nigeria this is true of nine-tenths of the educational institutions which in turn elect district boards. Afrikaans (z.¢., South African throughout British Africa. In recent years more general interest Dutch) and English are equally recognized. Children are taught has been taken in the subject, particularly as regards Africa, owat the outset in their mother tongue, but learn the second lan- ing to a fuller realization of (1) the implications of Trusteeship, (2) the necessity of arresting the disintegration of social life guage at a later stage.

consequent upon the impact of western civilization, and (3) the need of training the natives to co-operate with Europeans in developing the rich resources of the country and in other important activities. In Africa great developments followed the tours of the two Phelps-Stokes commissions (1920, 1924). While cordially acregulations were condemned by the 1923 commission, which knowledging the value of what the missions had done the commispointed out that the brightest children, who would profit most by sions criticized some of their methods. The Cape of Good Hope mission prolonged schaoling, were deprived of it early, whilst slow and dull had, since the time of Sir George Grey (1854), assisted s, administration other the of most but grants-in-aid, with schools efforts profitless making juniors, pupils remained, a drag on their or little done had will, of lack not if funds of lack to reach the required standard. The commission recommended through that no child should leave before 15, and that the slower children nothing for education. These now listened readily to sane and disshould be allowed to remain in the primary school till 16 and interested men who urged that education was the key to the welcomplete the primary course. All four provinces have school fare of the Africans. Since 1924 they have thrown considerable energy into the task. medical services. Primary Education.—Primary education is separately managed in the four provinces and is everywhere free. In the Cape and the Orange Free State it is compulsory for white children from 7 to 16, in Natal and the Transvaal from 7 to 15. But there are regulations allowing children to leave younger if they have completed standard VI. and are in regular employment. These

200

BRITISH

EMPIRE

EXHIBITION—BRITISH

In 1923 an advisory committee on native education in tropical Africa was set up by the British Colonial Office. Its scope was afterwards extended to include other dependencies. The committee formulated principles which the Imperial Government accepted as the basis of future action. In brief, the policy is one of collaboration with the missionary societies. The general direction of educational policy and the supervision of all schools are reserved to the administrations. Advisory boards, representative of both parties (and in some cases, of settlers) have been set up, new codes adopted, directors of education appointed, and an earnest effort is being made to raise the standard of education. In particular great attention is given to the training of teachers, including “Jeanes” supervisory teachers on the American model. In addition to opening more schools of their own the administrations in tropical Africa have greatly increased their grants-in-aid. Their expenditure on native education grew from £250,000 in 1921 to £650,000 in 1926. In the latter years the Governments in British Africa (including the Union) spent £1,250,000 in this way; those in dependencies outside Africa spent about £800,000. This does not include the £500,000 devoted to the Prince of Wales College at Achimota on the Gold Coast. Crude as it might be in the absence of schools and books, pagan Africans and other peoples had their own system of training the young to take their place in the tribe. The new education too, in Africa especially, is conceived and planned with direct and conscious reference to the needs of the community. The aim is to produce, not imitation Europeans but better Africans, by foster-

ing the growth of a culture suited to the African genius and reflecting the African spirit. The advisory committee declared that “education should be adapted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and healthy elements in the fabric of their social life; adapting them where necessary to changed circumstances and progressive ideas, as an agent of natural growth and evolution.” Such an education further implies, as Sir G. Guggisheim has pointed out (Franco-British Congress, July 1928), the enabling of the native to “make full economic use of the lands,

products and industries of the country.” It should therefore pay careful attention to African music, art, folklore and history as the basis and groundwork of the whole, and also to the vernacular, both as a subject and a medium of instruction. The multiplicity of languages raises a problem of enormous difficulty, especially in the provision of literature. The difficulty is partly met by employing, for educational purposes, certain expansive languages such as Swahili in East Africa. Technical and vocational training is given largely in Government workshops and offices. Handwork is taught in schools as an essential part of education and as a - means of improving the conditions of native life. Stress is laid on agriculture and hygiene, for it is recognized that schools offer a first class instrument for promoting the health and prosperity of the community. In everything it is chiefly the formation of character that is aimed at. The inflooding of civilization has tended to the decay of old sanctions of morality, the sapping of old loyalties. Governments agree with missions that if education is to be formative it must be religious. In Mohammedan areas provision is made for the teaching of Islam; in pagan areas definite encouragement is given to Christian teaching. Breriocrapry.—C. T. Loram, The Education of the South African Native (1917) ; Education in Africa (1922), Education in East Africa

(1925), reports of the Phelps-Stokes Commissions (Phelps-Stokes Fund, ror Park avenue, New York), indispensable for study of the subject; E. W. Smith, The Golden Stool, chap. xi. (1927) E W. S{.) (E.

BRITISH EMPIRE EXHIBITION: see EXHIBITION AND

TRADE FAI.

BRITISH HONDURAS, formerly called Belize, or Balize, a

British crown colony, bounded N. and N.W. by the Mexican Territory of Quintana Roo, N.E, and E. by the Bay of Honduras; S. and W. by Guatemala. Area 8,600sq.m., including about 212sq.m. of cays. The frontier, defined by conventions of 2859 and 1893 with Guatemala, ascends the Sarstoon from the Bay of Hon-

duras for about 25m. as far as the rapids of Gracias 4 Dios, and thence, turning northward, runs in a straight line to Garbuitt’s

HONDURAS

rapids on the Belize. From this point it proceeds due north to the

Mexican frontier, where it follows the Hondo to its mouth in Che. tumal bay.

Approach to the coast is through the islets known as cays, and through coral reefs, and is both difficult and dangerous. For some miles inland the ground is low and swampy, with mangroves and tropical jungle. Next succeeds a belt of rich alluvial land, seldom more than a mile in width, beyond which, and parallel to the rivers, are extensive tracts of sandy, arid land called “pine ridges,” from the trees (Pinus cubensis) with which they are clothed. Further inland comes the less elevated “broken ridge” country, of mixed scrub. These tracts are intersected by what is called “Cahoon

ridges,” with a deep rich soil covered with myriads of palm trees and broad savannas, studded with clumps of trees which are threaded by streams from the mountains. The latter rise in a succession of ridges parallel to the coast. Nearest to Belize (the capital) are the Manatee hills, from 800 to 1,o0oft. high; beyond these the Cockscomb mountains rise to 3,680ft. Sixteen streams, large enough to be called rivers, descend from these mountains to the sea, between the Hondo and the Sarstoon. The uninhabited country between Garbutt’s rapids and the coast south of the Cockscomb mountains consists of pine ridge and open grasslands,

with fine pasturage in the west and valuable forests in the east. Its elevation varies from 1,200 to 3,300ft. Auriferous quartz and traces of other minerals have been discovered, but not in workable quantity. The geology, fauna, and flora resemble those of Central America (g.v.). Although within the tropics, the climate is subtropical, The highest shade temperature recorded is 98°F., the lowest 50°. Easterly sea-winds prevail most of the year. The dry season lasts from mid-Feb. to mid-May; rain occurs at intervals during the other months, and almost continuously in October, November, and December. The annual rainfall averages about 8r4in., but rises in some districts to 150in. or more. Malaria fever is endemic and other tropical diseases occur sporadically, but the country is not unhealthy in comparison with the West Indies or Central American states. Inhabitants.—British Honduras is a little larger than Wales, and has a population of about 47,900 (estimated 1927). Pure-bred white inhabitants number less than 1 in 25; the remainder are of mixed descent. The majority are hybrids of negro slaves, native Indians, and white settlers. There are (1) Maya Indians, chiefly in forest villages in the west ‘and north, away from the sea; (2) descendants of English buccaneers, mixed with Scottish and German traders; (3) the woodcutting class known as “Belize creoles,” of more or less pure descent from African slaves or labourers, from the West Indies; (4) the Caribs of the south, descendants of the population deported in 1796 from St. Vincent, of mixed African and Carib origin; (5) in the south, a Spanish-Indian population, from Guatemala and Honduras; and (6) in the north, a Spanish-Indian group which came from Yucatan in 1848. The population increases steadily; about 45% of the births are illegitimate and males are more numerous than females. Many tracts of uninhabited land and forest were once thickly populated. The country abounds in ruins of the ancient Maya civilization. The most important, at Lubaantun, are (1927) being systematically explored on behalf of the British Museum. Natural Products—British Honduras has long depended on timber, especially mahogany, logwood, cedar, and dye-woods and cabinet woods, such as lignum-vitae, fustic, bullet-wood, santamaria, ironwood, rosewood, etc. The coloured inhabitants are unsurpassed as woodmen and neglectful of agriculture, so that there are less than 50,000ac. of tilled land. Sugar-cane, coconut palms bananas, plantains, and citrus fruits are cultivated; vanilla, sarsaparilla, sapodilla or chewing-gum, rubber, and the cahoon or coyol palm, valuable for its oil, grow wild. The government has established a forest department, administered by a board of trustees,

with a view to conserving and replanting the most valuable kinds of timber. Most encouraging results have attended the experimental treatment of a defined reserve. A concession has been granted

for the exploitation of about 300sq.m. of Crown pine-forest by means of the bleeding of turpentine and preparation of lumber for export.

BRITISH Chief Towns and Communications.—Belize,

INDUSTRIES pop. (1927)

est. 12,600, the capital and principal seaport, is described in a sep-

arate article. Other towns are Stann Creek (2,500), Corosal (6,736), Orange Walk (1,200), Punta Gorda (926), the Cayo (soo), Monkey River, and Mullins River. All these are administered by local boards. Telegraph and telephone lines connect the capital with Orange Walk and Corosal in the north, the Cayo on the west-

ern frontier, and Punta Gorda in the south. There is a light railway for about 25m. up the Stann expense for a banana trade which roads except in or close to the road from Belize to the northern

Creek river valley, built at public has failed. There are no metalled principal towns. A graded earth district is under construction. The

principal means of communication are the steamers which ply along the coast and motor boats on the navigable rivers. Mail

steamers from New Orleans, Liverpool, Colon, and Puerto Cortes in Honduras, regularly visit Belize. Commerce and Finance.—The average annual value of imports (chiefly cotton goods, breadstuffs, hardware, beer, wines,

spirits, and groceries) for five years to 1925 was £775,185, of which £614,815 was entered for home consumption, £160,370 for re-export. The average annual value of exports during the same period was £657,220, of which £305,760 was colony produce and £351,460 transit trade and re-exports. Forest products make up 78% of the domestic exports (mahogany and cedar £196,915, chewing gum £34,780, logwood £5,000). Agricultural products made up 20% (coconuts £32,540, bananas £25,000). In 1894 the American gold dollar was adopted as the standard coin. Government notes are issued to the value of 1, 2, 5, 10, 50, and roo dollars, and there is a local currency of one cent bronze pieces, and of 5, 10, 25 and so cent silver pieces. The British sovereign and half-sovereign are

legal tender. There is a government savings bank in Belize, with branches in the principal towns; and in 1903 the British Bank of Honduras was established at Belize. The average of the revenue received in the five years ending in 1926 was £201,440—about £90,000 from customs duties. The expenditure, in which the cost of police and education are important items, averaged £230,864 during the same period. The public debt amounted in 1926 to £309,310. In 1927 the colony received a bequest under the will of Baron Bliss, who died at Belize, which provides an income of about £3,000 a year for public improvements and works of development. Constitution and Administration.—From 1638 to 1786 the colonists were completely independent and their customs were codified as “Burnaby’s laws,” after the visit of Admiral Sir W. Burnaby in 1756, and recognized by the Crown. In 1786 a superintendent was appointed by the Crown, and although this office was vacant from 1790 to 1797, it was revived until 1862. An executive council was established in 1839, and a legislative assembly of three nominated and 18 elected members in 1853. British Honduras was declared a colony in 1862, with a lieutenant-governor, subject to the governor of Jamaica, as its chief magistrate. In 1870 the legislative assembly was abolished andalegislative council substituted, which now consists of five official and seven nominated unofficial members. In 1884 the lieutenant-governor was created governor and commander-in-chief and the colony rendered independent of Jamaica. The governor is assisted by an executive council of three official and three unofficial members. There are six administrative districts—Belize, Corosal, Orange Walk, the Cayo, Stann Creek, and Toledo. The capital of the last named is Punta Gorda; the others take the names of towns. English common law is valid throughout British Honduras, subject to modification by local enactments, and to the operation of the Consolidated Laws of British Honduras. Appeals may be carried before the privy council or the supreme court of Jamaica. Religion. and Education.—The churches represented are Roman Catholic, Anglican, Wesleyan, Baptist and Presbyterian; ut none of them receives assistance from public funds. The

bishopric of British Honduras is part of the West Indian province of the Church of England. Almost all schools are denominational. ool fees are charged, and grants-in-aid are made to elementary

schools. Most of these, since 1894, have been under the control of a board, on which the religious bodies managing the schools are represented.

FAIR

201

See Hummel and Gibbs, Report on the Forests of British Honduras;

Dunlop, Handbook of British Honduras (W. I. Committee, 1925); Gann, Mystery Cities (1925 and 1926); Joyce, Lubaantun o à

HISTORY British settlement in Honduras, the scene of the ancient: Maya civilization, begins with the coming of shipwrecked sailors or buccaneers in 1638. The first regular establishment followed in 1662, when settlers were attracted from Jamaica by the logwood and mahogany which soon became an important product of the bay. The woodcutters covered an area wider than Honduras, but

for a century Spain did not admit their title, and English settlers tended to concentrate more and more on the Belize river, which gave an alternative name to the colony. In the 18th century they increased greatly in number, and African slaves were Imported.

The hostility of their Spanish rivals was keen and not unprovoked; and it was only after resisting formidable attacks that the English “baymen” were recognized by the treaty of Paris in 1763. and gained Spanish consent, at the price of destroying their fortifications, “not to be disturbed or molested, under any pretext whatever, in their said places of cutting and loading logwood.” This agreement did not lead to friendly relations, and in 1779 the Spaniards made a grand attack which destroyed the settlement

at Belize, the inhabitants being taken to Yucatan and Havana, where most of them died. In 1783 the survivors returned with new adventurers and resumed the cutting of timber; and by the treaties made in that year and in 1786 between England and Spain, they were recognized as having the right to cut both logwood and mahogany in the northern half of what later became British Honduras; but they were not to erect fortifications. In compensation, England gave up her claims to the Mosquito coast. When war broke out again the Spaniards prepared another great attack on Belize, but this was repulsed, and after 1798 the British were left in peace. The successful resistance to Spain has been regarded as establishing British sovereignty over Honduras; but it is probably more correct to attribute the title to undisturbed possession than to conquest, as Spanish sovereignty appears to have been tacitly admitted in 1814, when the provisions of the earlier treaty were revived. With the break-up of Spanish power in Central America, any rights she might have were inherited by Mexico and Guatemala. The provisions of 1786 relating to this “settlement, for certain purposes, under the protection of his Majesty” were incorporated In a treaty with Mexico in 1826, and in the drafts of other treaties; and British authority over the greater area claimed in 1836 was later confirmed by the exception of Belize from the

provision of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (1850) which forbade the contracting nations to fortify points on the Central American mainland; and by the boundary settlement with Guatemala (1859).

The

country progressed peacefully under British rule,

although the northern borders were

occasionally attacked by

rebel bands in the second half of the century.

In 1849 an influx

of Spaniards in flight from the Indians of Yucatan did much to populate the desert areas of the colony. While the status of British Honduras was in dispute, government was by public meeting of the free inhabitants, who elected an unpaid magistracy of about seven, one being superintendent. The Crown granted a similar constitution in 1765. From this time gradual modifications were introduced, until in 1862 British Honduras became a colony with a leutenant-governor under the governor of Jamaica. In 1872 it became a Crown colony and was separated from Jamaica in 1884. In 1890-92 a dispute, in which the minority of unofficial members resigned from the council, led to the reconstitution of that body, with a majority of unofficial members, the historical outcome of the colony’s democratic origin. BrsriocrapHy.—The Handbook of British Honduras; J. A. Burdon, Brief Sketch of Brit. Honduras (1927), 43 pp. and works therein cited; Sir Eric Swayne, “Brit. Honduras,” Geographical Journal, vol. 50, pp. 161~79; annual reports to the Colonial Office. (G. H.G.)

BRITISH INDUSTRIES

FAIR.

The British Industries

Fair owes its inception to the conditions brought about in 1914 by the sources of supply of many articles hitherto imported in large quantities by British firms being cut off as a result of the war.

202

BRITISH

ISLES—BRITISH

To assist British manufacturers in undertaking the supply, a series of sample exhibitions, known as exchange meetings, were organized by the Board of Trade. The logical sequel was the first British Industries Fair, held at the,Royal Agricultural Hall in 1915, with a view to making the new British products known to the trade buyers. Some 600 exhibitors took part in it and the exhibits occupied an area of about 89,000 square feet. It was so successful that the Government was urged by the exhibitors to make it an annual event. During the war years which followed the Fair was held under great difficulties, all suitable halls being needed for military purposes, and all trades capable of manufacturing munitions being necessarily debarred from participation. Nevertheless the fairs of 1916 and 1917, held at the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Imperial Institute, and of 1918 and rọrọ, held in large sheds at the London docks, were as successful as could be expected. In 1920 the Fair had commenced to take its place in the commercial life of the country and, owing partly to the trade boom of that year and partly to the re-admission of the trades excluded during the war, it became necessary to move to the Crystal Palace, where 1,167 exhibitors took space. The success of the Fair had resulted in the meantime in the organization of subsidiary sections at Glasgow and Birmingham, and, as exhibitors were classified on the basis of trades and no overlapping was permitted, the addition of these new sections raised important questions of policy. In 1920 a Board of Trade committee under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Warner, K.B.E., recommended that the Fair-should be maintained on an annual basis with one section in London and one in Birmingham, and that the Glasgow section should be discontinued. London and Birmingham Sections.—The Fair has continued to be held annually on the lines recommended by the committee, the London section being organized at the White City by the Department of Overseas Trade, and the Birmingham section at the Castle Bromwich aerodrome by the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, under the auspices of the Birmingham Corporation, with the exception of the year 1925, when the London section of the fair was not held because of the British Empire Exhibition. In 1925 the Government made a grant of £25,000 to defray the cost of publicity, with the result that the Fair of 1926 achieved a success which, coupled with a second grant for publicity, caused the Fair of 1927 to be, in its turn, yet more successful. As a result of

MUSIC

SOCIETY

the circulation abroad, a month before the opening of the Fair of an advance edition of the catalogue. With the exception of the grant for publicity, the fair is oy. ganized upon a self-supporting basis. The London section, bej organized by the Department of Overseas Trade, is financed oy of the vote for that department, the receipts from exhibitors bei balanced against the expenditure. The Birmingham section is alsg self-supporting, the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce making themselves responsible for the finance of the enterprise. (C. Ta)

BRITISH ISLES: see GREAT BRITAIN; IRELAND; SCOTLAND: WALES;

etc.

BRITISH LEGION. The British Legion was established in 1921, under the late Field-Marshal Earl Haig, its frst president, for the purpose of uniting in one national organization the various existing associations of ex-service men. These were the Comrades of the Great War, the National Association of Discharged Sailors and Soldiers, the National Federation of Discharged and Demobi-

lized Sailors and Soldiers, and the Officers’ Association. In April 1925 the Legion was incorporated by royal charter.

The principles and policy of the Legion are non-political and non-sectarian, and its membership is open to all British or naturalized British men and women who have served with the forces of the Crown, including men and women of the Red Cross and similar organizations. The activities of the Legion are administered through various departments dealing with legal and financial aid, appointments and employment, assistance of various kinds to families, including educational assistance and the after-care of children, as well asa business branch for setting up ex-service men in business. A Legion industrial village. settlement has been established at Preston Hall, near Aylesford, Kent, where tubercular cases are received. It comprises a sanatorium with park grounds and cottages covering in all 450ac., where the patients, who in some cases have their families with them, when fit to work, are taught to pursue a great variety of suitable occupations, including car pentry, printing, fibre and leather case manufacture, etc. With

the aid of the National (Prince of Wales’) Relief Fund, as well as through private generosity, the Legion has also acquired a factory fully equipped for the manufacture of handwoven Welsh tweeds by disabled ex-service men, and in the Ex-service Industries, Ltd., at Warminster, has financed another similar undertaking for the manufacture of furniture.

` Another of the Legion’s practical activities is the poppy factory, where over 200 disabled men are employed all the year round making the “Flanders” poppies and wreaths in anticipation of the and amounted in all to some 420,000 square feet. The British Industries Fair, being an official organization for the demands for Remembrance Day (Nov. 11). The sale of these increase of British trade, only permits the exhibition of British poppies throughout the country on that day has been recognized goods. It also restricts participation to manufacturing firms, or as constituting a special appeal in aid of the funds of the Legion, firms taking the whole output of a factory, so ensuring that, as and the total contribution from all sources made on “Poppy Day” any article can only be shown once and then only by its maker, is now the main source of income for its work, and in 1927 realized trade buyers are able to inspect the exhibits and do their business the sum of £513,000. The co-ordination of this and other appeals in the most convenient manner. In both these points the British and funds, such as the United Services, the British Red Cross Industries Fair differs materially from the many fairs organized in and others, for the relief of distress among ex-service men and Europe since the war. Another important point is the strict classi- their families, is made through the national executive council fication and clear division of the participating trades between the Further a representative of the Legion serves on every committee sections in London and Birmingham. AS no overlapping is per- in the country that has to do with pensions. The organization of the Legion, whose headquarters are in Lonmitted the buyer knows that the whole of the exhibits in any particular trade will be found in either London or Birmingham. don, is based on the establishment of over 2,600 branches throughout the country, as well as a number of branches abroad, including Practically all trades are eligible for participation, the machinery, hardware and allied trades forming the Birmingham schedule, Geneva, Lima, Mexico city, etc. The branches are grouped into while the remainder, mainly consisting of the “small goods” in- administrative areas, each with its own elected council, the national dustries, such as silver and plate, cutlery, china, glass, musical executive council being also elected annually at the conference of instruments, leather goods, sports goods, wireless, and the textile, branch delegates. Through its membership of the British Empire Services League and association with the Fédération Interalliée food and chemical industries are shown in London. In addition to publicity in the press and by an elaborate sys- des Anciens Combatiants, the British Legion also maintains its tem of correspondence direct with over 50,000 trade buyers in all contact, and serves as a connecting link, with the other ex-service

the good business at the previous two years the space booked by exhibitors for the Fair of 1928 again increased very considerably

parts of the world, the Government’s commercial, diplomatic and organizations of the British Dominions and allied nations in the consular services, and the trade commissioners and imperial World War. BRITISH MUSIC SOCIETY. This is a body which was trade correspondents within the British empire work successfully to make the Fair widely known in their respective districts. Active formed in 1918, on the initiation of Dr. Eaglefield Hull and under support is also given by British chambers of commerce both at the presidency of Lord Howard de Walden, to further the interests home and abroad. An important feature of the propaganda is of British music and of music in general in Great Britain. The

BRITISH

NATIONAL

OPERA

of the nation, alike by existing organizations the agency of its varithroughout the coun-

A determined rebellion broke out in Matabeleland in March 1896 and was immediately followed by a rising of most of the tribes in Mashonaland. In both provinces a large number of isolated settlers were trapped and murdered in cold blood. In Matabele-

try. At the same time, in virtue of its relations with the International Society for Contemporary Music, of which it constitutes the British section, the society is in close touch with Continental music. BRITISH NATIONAL OPERA CO., THE, came into existence in 1922 when it was formed on so-called “common-

land, after some months of indecisive fighting, Rhodes, with great courage, went almost alone into the rebel stronghold and arranged terms of peace with the leaders. In Mashonaland the hostilities were more protracted, but were finally brought to an end by the

society aims at stimulating the musical life developing and co-ordinating the work of and by its own activities carried on through ous provincial centres and local branches

wealth,” or profit sharing, lines by some of the leading artists who had found their occupation gone on the cessation of Sir Thomas

Beecham’s managerial activities, a company of notable strength and efficiency resulting.

The company’s activities are confined

mainly to the provinces, but it has also given seasons in London.

Operas of all schools, including several modern British works, are

CO.—BRITISH

20%

surrender of the rebels in Oct. 1897. Thenceforward the record of the country is one of unbroken progress. A legislative council was instituted and the principle of popular representagion was introduced, agricultural industries established, and mining for gold and other minerals actively carried on. Rhodes successfully financed the construction of a trunk line of railway connecting the Cape system with the north, and Mashonaland with the more convenient port of Beira in Portuguese East

century saw that, unless Great Britain bestirred herself, large tracts of valuable country ruled by savage native chiefs in the

Africa. The Chartered Company was thus the parent of the Rhodesia railway system, which now extends from Vryburg in Bechuanaland to the borders of the Belgian Congo, and from Bulawayo to the east coast of Africa—some 2,500 miles of railway line in all. The whole expense of the Chartered Company’s operations, in-

interior of Africa would pass into the hand of the continental Powers then engaged in a scramble for new colonies. The reports

borne by its shareholders without assistance from the British

comprised in its repertory. BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, THE. This company owes its existence mainly to the creative genius of the

late Mr. Cecil Rhodes, who in the early ’eighties of the last

of explorers had convinced him that the high lands north and south of the Zambesi river not only provided favourable fields for colonization and agricultural development but contained the promise of great mineral wealth. Upon these tracts the eyes of Transvaal Boers and Germans were already fixed, while Portugal, after centuries of apathy, was beginning to assert historical claims

to their ownership. Rhodes first tackled the problem of acquiring a foothold in the

cluding the cost of quelling the various native disturbances, was taxpayers.

Southern Rhodesia and Self-Government.—In

1923 the

settlers of Southern Rhodesia felt themselves strong enough to demand self-government. An alternative proposal that the terri-

tory should become incorporated in the Union of South Africa was submitted to a referendum and rejected by a large majority.

Southern Rhodesia was granted self-government in 1923, and in the following year the territories lying north of the Zambesi were given the status of a protectorate of the Crown. In both cases

Matabele and Mashona country, and with that object secured the despatch to King Lobengula of a diplomatic mission to establish the company was relieved of the administrative obligations which an understanding between him and the Government of Queen it had faithfully carried out for 33 years. During that period, Victoria. This, being successful, was followed in 1888 by a more besides developing the agricultural and mineral resources of the special mission which succeeded in obtaining from Lobengula a countries embraced within its charter, the company succeeded in concession of mineral rights over the whole of what is now South- completely eradicating the slave trade, which from time immeern Rhodesia. Other financial groups which claimed to have morial had been carried on by many of the native chiefs ensecured local mineral concessions and trading rights were per- couraged by Arabs from Zanzibar and other parts of East Africa; suaded to throw in their lot with Rhodes, and he was thus enabled it had strangled the traffic in alcoholic liquor, prohibiting its sale to approach the British Government with a petition for a charter to the natives under the most rigid penalties; it had established authorizing him to undertake the development and administra- a system of native education and had set aside reserves whereon tion of all that part of the interior of south Central Africa not the natives could continue to live under tribal conditions, and had given facilities to Christian missionaries of all creeds to carry on definitely appropriated by Belgians, Germans, and Portuguese. Royal Charter, 1889.—The Royal charter was granted on their civilizing work in every part of the territory. At the termination of the Chartered Company’s administration Oct. 29, 1889. By adroit handling Lobengula was next induced to permit the entry of an expedition composed of settlers and the Imperial Government arranged to refund to it a portion of police. This arrived on Sept. 12, 1890, at the site of the modern the heavy expenditure which it had incurred in discharging the town of Salisbury, which thereafter became the headquarters of obligations of the charter, and the Southern Rhodesia Government the Chartered Company’s government and the focus of its activi- assumed its share of this expenditure as a public debt. The ties. Simultaneously Rhodes despatched expeditions to various Chartered Company was also allowed to retain such areas of Jand regions north of the Zambesi and obtained land and mineral con- as it had appropriated for agricultural and ranching purposes and cessions over Barotseland, and, in concert with the late Sir Harry the benefit of extensive land concessions in Northern Rhodesia Johnston, over a great part of the territory lying between Lakes and Nyasaland. It retains also the mineral rights originally acNyasa, Tanganyika, Mweru, and Bangweulu, which districts were quired from native chiefs, which cover the whole of Rhodesia afterwards administered by the British South Africa Company north and south. As holding the great majority of the shares in under the names of north-western and north-eastern Rhodesia the companies operating the various sections of the railways it is virtually the proprietor of the whole system. respectively, During the period of administration the financial burdens imDuring the years immediately following the occupation of Mashonaland the European settlers, as was almost inevitable, had posed upon the company were too heavy to permit of any return to encounter opposition from the savage Matabele on their bor- to the shareholders, but within a year of being relieved of these ders, who were loth to abandon their traditional practice of raid- burdens the directors were able to refund 5s. ọn every £x share, ng and plundering the weaker tribes whom the company had and since that date dividends have also been regularly paid. The taken under their protection. To this cause was due the Matabele capital of the company, originally £1,000,000, has hy successive War of 1893, which resulted in the defeat of Lobengula’s army increases been raised to £6,750,000. The president of the comby a small body of the settlers headed by the Company’s admin- pany is Six Henry Birchenough, Bt., K.C.M.G., who is also chair-

istrator, Dr. L. S. Jameson, and the flight, followed by the death, of the chief himself. The Crown then consented to extend the administration of the Chartered Company over Matabeleland and

gave effect to this by an Order in Council dated July 1894. For some years the fortunes of the new settlements fluctuated.

man of the companies controlling the Rhodesia railway system.

Brusrr0GRAPHY.—Annual Reports issued by the British South Africa Company; F. C. Selous, Travel and Adventures in South East Africa (1893); P. F. Hone, Southern Rhodesia (1909) ; Basil Williams, Cecil Rhodes (1921); Ian Colvin, Life of Jameson (1922); H. Marshall Hole, The Making of Rhodesia (1926).

204

BRITISH

THERMAL

UNIT— BRITTANY

HISTORY The earliest inhabitants of whom we have a record were Celtic tribes, probably mixed with remnants of the earlier race whos BRITOMARTIS, “sweet maiden,” an old Cretan goddess, monuments are the cromlechs and stone circles. The Roman name later identified with Artemis, whose favourite companion she is of the country—Armorica—is Celtic. Caesar invaded it in 56 3, said to have been. Being pursued by Minos, king of Crete, who and the Bretons took part in the unsuccessful rising against him was enamoured of her, she sprang from a rock into the sea, but in 52—51 B.C. Roman rule then lasted till the sth century a. was saved from drowning by falling into some fishermen’s nets. After the withdrawal of the Romans, there came, in the sth Made a goddess by Artemis as Dictynna (dixrvov, net), she and 6th centuries, a considerable immigration of the Celts of was the patroness of hunters, fishermen and sailors, and also a Britain, taking refuge among their continental kinsmen from the goddess of*birth and health. The centre of her worship was Saxon invasion. Till then, the rural population had still been Cydonia, whence it extended to Sparta and Aegina (where she mostly pagan, but now for 300 years Breton history and tradition was known as Aphaea) and the islands of the Mediterranean. By are largely occupied with records and legends of the Celtic mis. some she is considered to have been a moon-goddess, her flight sionaries from Britain and Ireland, who gradually converted the from Minos and her leap into the sea signifying the revolution whole country and gave their names to towns and villages (such and disappearance of the moon. as St. Malo, St. Brieuc, St. Tugdual, and St. Pol). Until a national BRITON-FERRY, urban district, Glamorganshire, Wales, hero, Nominoé, united its people against the Norse raiders of the oth century, Brittany was divided into a number of petty lordeast bank, estuary of Neath river in Swansea bay. Population (1921) 09,165. The name La Brittone was given by the Norman ships. Nominoé accepted the suzerainty of the French king, Louis settlers of the 12th century to its ferry across the estuary of the the Pious, but revolted in 846 against Charles the Bald, and reNeath, but the Welsh name of the town, at least from the 16th stored Breton independence. century, has been Llansawel. The district was formerly celebrated The raids of the Norsemen continued into the roth century. for its scenery, but this has been marred by industrial develop- In its second half, Conan of Rennes became paramount in Britments. The Vale of Neath canal built in 1797 has its terminus at tany. His son Geoffrey took the title of duke. Breton adventurers

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT, the amount of heat required

to raise one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit, denoted by the abbreviation B.T.U. (See Units, PHySICAL.)

Briton-Ferry, which became the port for the rapidly developing Neath valley. The construction in 1861 of a large dock by the G.W.R. and the opening up about the same time of the mining districts of Glyncorrwg and Maesteg by means of the South Wales Mineral railway made the town a leading exporting centre of the coal field. The development of metallurgical industries in the south Wales coast towns brought further prosperity to BritonFerry. Steel, tin-plate and galvanized goods are manufactured on a large scale. Trade depression since 1918 has severely affected all aspects of the town’s trade. The town has stations on the G.W.R.

main = and on the old Rhondda and Swansea Bay line (now G.W.R.).

BRITTANY

or BRITANNY,

an ancient province and

duchy of France (Fr. Bretagne), known as Armorica (q.v.) until the influx of Celts from Britain. It consists of the northwest peninsula, nearly corresponding to the departments of Finistère, Côtesdu-Nord, Morbihan, Ille-et-Vilaine and Lower Loire. It is popularly divided into Upper or Western, and Lower or Eastern Brittany. Its greatest length between the English channel and the Atlantic ocean is 250 km. (about 155 English miles), and its superficial extent is 30,000 sq. km. (about 18,630 English sq. m.). It comprises two distinct zones, a maritime zone and an inland zone. In the centre there are two plateaus, partly covered with landes, unproductive moorland; the southern plateau is continued by the Montagnes Noires, and the northern is dominated by the Monts d’Arrée. The waterways of Brittany are for the most part of little value owing to their torrent-like character. The only river basin of any importance is BY COURTESY OF “LE VOYAGEUR EN FRANCE, that of the Vilaine, which flows INC.” through Rennes. The coast is OLD WOMEN OF QUIMPER, IN

very much indented, especially BRITTANY along the English channel, and is rocky and lined with reefs and islets. The mouths of the rivers form deep estuaries. In the roth century the development of new means of communications drew Brittany from its isolation, and agriculture developed in a remarkable manner. Many of the landes were cleared and converted into excellent pasturage, and on the coast market-gardening made great

progress. In the fertile districts cereals are cultivated. Industrial

pursuits, except in a few seaport towns, which are rather French than Breton, have hitherto received but little attention. The €eltic language is still spoken in Lower Brittany. Four dialects are clearly marked (see Breton LANGUAGE). . (X.)

fought under William of Normandy at Hastings, but the Breton dukes successfully opposed his attempts to add their country to

his conquests. The line of Conan ended in the 12th century. Duke Conan IV., hard pressed by rebellious nobles, sought the help of Henry II. of England and gave his daughter Constance in marriage to Henry’s son, Geoffrey Plantagenet, who succeeded to the dukedom. His heir, Arthur, was murdered by John Lackland, but Arthur’s sister married a French noble, Pierre de Dreux, who became duke of Brittany in 1212. A line of French dukes ruled at Rennes until, on the death of the childless Jean III. in 1341, civil war began between the partisans of two indirect heirs, Jean de Montfort and Charles de Blois. The defeat ‘and death of Charles at Auray (1364) secured the Dukedom for the house of Montfort. The Breton hero, Bertrand Duguesclin, won his first honours in this “war of succession.” Later, as constable of France, he fought against the English invaders. Tales of his prowess in battle and tourney are traditional in Brittany. Brittany’s independence practically ended in 1491, when Duke Francis I. died without a son, and his daughter, the duchess Anne, married Charles VIII. of France. Her daughter, Claude, became the queen of Francis I., under whom the treaty of 1532 was concluded, annexing Brittany to France, with guarantees for its local liberties. Until the revolution this provincial autonomy survived, local patriotism opposing the attempts at centralization made by Bourbon absolutism. The mass of the people had remained unaffected by the reformation. During the war of the league there were conflicts with the Huguenots. The peace of 1593 was followed by local troubles arising from the duke de Mercoeur's attempt to make himself duke of Brittany. The province then had a long period of peace interrupted only by an unsuccessful rising in 1675 against new taxation—the “revolt of the stamped paper.” Many Bretons distinguished themselves in seafaring enterprise— men like Cartier, the maker of French Canada, and the naval heroes, Surcouf and Duguay Trouin. The revolution at its outset found support in Brittany, but the abolition of the monarchy and the new church laws led to risings, which began in the winter of 1792. The last shots were fired in 1799. The disembarkation of an emigré force at Quiberon in 1795 ended in tragic disaster, t,000 disarmed royalists being massacred by the republicans. The last stage of the resistance was the guerilla warfare of the “Chouans.” Brittany was long after royalist, republicanism being associated with memories of these tragic years and of the anti-religious cam paign of the Jacobins. Later there has been a notable movement towards conservative republicanism. In the World War Breton regiments were among the best soldiers of France, and the Breton

Admiral Ronarc’h, in the critical autumn’battles of 1914, held a position on the Yser hardly less vital than Ypres itself.

BRITTLE

STARS—BRIZEUX

BrsuiocRaPHy.—Bertrand d’Argentré, Histoire de Bretagne (1586); Dom Lobineau, Histoire de Bretagne (1702) ; Dom Morice, Histoire de

Bretagne (1742-56); T. A. Trollope, A Summer in Brittany (1840); A. du Chatellier, L’Agriculture et les classes agricoles de la Bretugne (1862); F. M. Luzel, Légendes chrétiennes de la Basse-Bretagne (1881) and Veillées bretonnes

(1879); A. Dupuy, La Réunion de la

Bretagne & la France (1880) and Etudes sur Padministration munici-

pale en Bretagne au XVIIIe siècle (1891); J. Loth, L’Emigration bretonne en Armorique du Ve au VIIe siècle (Rennes, 1883) ; Arthur de

la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne (Rennes, 1896 seq.) ; J. Lemoine, La

Révolte du papier timbré ou des bonnets rouges en Bretagne en 1675 (1898); M. Marion, La Bretagne et le duc @ Aiguillon (1898); B.

Pocquet, Le Duc d'Aiguillon et la Chalotais

(1900-02);

Anatole le

Braz, Vieilles Histoires du pays breton (1897) and La Légende de la mort (1902) ; Ernest Lavisse, Histoire de France, vol. i. (1903) ; Henri

Sée, Étude sur les classes rurales en Bretagne au moyen age (1896) and

Les Classes rurales en Bretagne du XVIe siècle à la Révolution (1906) ; . H.A.) Leslie Richardson, Brittany and the Loire (1927).

BRITTLE STARS, the popular name for star-fish (g.v.) of

the class Ophiuroidea (see ECHINODERMA). The name refers to the habit of these animals of breaking off their arms (autotomy,

q.v.) when alarmed. BRITTON, JOHN (1771-1857), English antiquary, was born

on July 7, 1771, at Kington-St.-Michael, near Chippenham, Wilts. Along with his friend Edward Wedlake Brayley, Britton produced The Beauties of Wiltshire, 2 vols. (1801; a third added in

1825), the first of the series The Beauties of England and Wales,

nine volumes of which Britton and his friend wrote. Britton created the taste for popular books on topography. His numerous works include: Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 9 vols. (1805-1814); and: Cathedral Antiquities of England, 14 vols. (1814-1835). He died in London on Jan. 1, 1857. His Autobiography, which brings the account of his life down to about 1825, was published in 1850. The best notice of Britton is by Digby Wyatt, Papers of the Royal Institute of British Architects

(1856-57).

205

printed in 1640, corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition of it, with an English translation, was published at the University Press, Ozford, 1865, by F. M. Nichol. An English translation of the work without the Latin text had been previously published by R. Kelham in 1762. a town of BRIVE or BRIVES-LA-GAILLARDE, France, capital of an arrondissement, department of Corréze, 62m. S.S.E. of Limoges on the main line of the Orleans railway from Paris to Montauban. Pop. (1926) 20,299. It lies on the left bank of the Corréze in a fertile plain where important roads and railways meet, and where the high Plateau Central grades down to the south-western plain. Rock caves give local evidence of man in early prehistoric times and great stone monuments show later occupation. Known to the Romans as Briva Curretiae (bridge of the Corréze), in the middle ages it was the capital of lower Limousin, and St. Anthony of Padua founded a Franciscan monastery here in 1226. The enceinte which formerly surrounded the town has been replaced by boulevards. Outside the boulevards lie the modern quarters. A fine bridge leads over the Corrèze to suburbs on its right bank. The church of St. Martin in the heart of the old town is a building of the 12th century in the Roman-

esque style of Limousin, with three narrow naves of almost equal height. The ecclesiastical seminary occupies a graceful mansion of the 16th century, with movable facade, staircase and fireplaces. Brive’s position makes it a market of importance with large trade in the early vegetables, nuts and fruit of the Corréze valley, and in live stock, liqueurs and truffles. Table delicacies, paper, wooden shoes, hats, candles, and earthenware are made, and

there are slate and millstone workings and dye works.

Brive is

the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, and a school of industry.

BRIXEN (town, North Italy): see BRESSANONE. BRIXHAM, seaport and urban district, Devonshire, England,

), American 33m. S. of Exeter, on a branch of the G.W. railway. Pop. (1931) BRITTON, NATHANIEL LORD (1859built on the cliffs to the south of botanist, was born at New Dorp, Staten Island, New York, on 8.147. The town is irregularly by a breakwater. Early in the sheltered is harbour its and Torbay, university Columbia at 1879 in graduated Jan. 15, 1859. He barracks on Berry Head. fortified important had it century roth from which in 188r he received the degree of doctor of phils, having also osophy. After serving as instructor in geology in 1879-87 and as It is the headquarters of the Devonshire sea-fisherie life boat stations. » and coastguard and trade coasting large a instructor and adjunct professor of botany in 1886-91, he was e of ropes, paint and oils are made professor of botany in Columbia university. He occupied Shipbuilding and the manufactur is in favour as a seaside resort. St. Mary’s, Brixham on. carried the of ief director-in-ch became he when 1896 until chair this century font and New York Botanical Garden, created as the result of his efforts the ancient parish church, has an elaborate 14th Seamen’s Orphans’ British the At interest. of monuments some and which under his guidance became one of the leading instituapprentices for the tions for the advancement of botanical science. He early became Home boys are fed, clothed and trained as the landing, in 1688, tes commemora statue A service. merchant a keen student of plants and rose to front rank among American systematic botanists, specializing in the North American flora, of William of Orange. Brixham Cave, called also Windmill Hill Cavern, is a wellnotably in the Crassulaceae, Cactaceae and Cyperaceae, and in ossiferous cave situated near Brixham, with a fauna closely known the flora of the West Indies, Bolivia and Paraguay. Besides writthat of Kent’s Hole. The implements are of a roughlyresembling the of Bulletin the editing and papers botanical ing numerous The formation of the cave was carried on simultype. chipped Torrey Botanical Club, 1888-97, he was the author of important the excavation of the valley; the small streams, with taneously botanical works among which are: Jilustrated Flora of the Norththe valley, entered the ern United States and Canada, with Addison Brown (1896-98, flowing down the upper ramifications of the fissures in the traversing and cave, the of opening western and ed., 1913); Flora of Bermuda (1918); The Bahama Flora, limestones, escaped by the lower openings in the chief valley.

with C. F. Milispaugh (1920); Monograph of the Cactus Family, with J, N. Rose (1919-20), and various portions of the monumental North American Flora (1910_—=).

BRIXTON,

a district with railway station (S.R.) in the

south of London, England, included in the metropolitan borough 74,536. BRITTON, the title of the first great treatise of the law of of Lambeth (g.v.). Pop. of parl, district (1931) (1803PELAGE E AUGUST JULIEN X, BRIZEU England in the French tongue, which purports to have been written by command of King Edward I. The author is probably either 1858), French poet, was born at Lorient (Morbihan). In 1827 John le Breton, a justice for the county of Norfolk, or a royal he produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act verse comedy, clerk of the same name. The probable date of the book is 1291- Racine, in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. Brizeux’s second 92. It was based upon the treatise of Henry de Bracton (g.v.); visit to Italy in 1834 resulted in the publication of a complete which it brought up to date. The work is entitled in an early ms. translation of the Divina Commedia in terza rima (1841). of the 14th century, which was once in the possession of Selden, With Primel el Nola (1852) he included poems written under and isnow in the Cambridge university library, Summa de legibus Italian influence, entitled Les Ternatres (1841), but in the rustic country life; in Les Anglie que vocatur Bretone; and it is described as “a book called idyll of Marie (1836) he turned to Breton in the folk-lore and Bretoun” in the will of Andrew Horn, the learned chamberlain Bretons (1845) he found his inspiration of the City of London, who bequeathed it to the chamber of the legends of his native province, and in Telen-Aroor (1844) he a in 1329, together with another book called Mirroir des used the Breton dialect. His Histoires Poétiques (1855) was crowned by the French Academy. His work is small in bulk but ces. Britton was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without | is characterized by simplicity and sincerity. See C. Lecigne, Brizeux, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1898). a date, probably about the year 1530. Another edition of it was

BRIZO—BROADCASTING

206

BRIZO, an ancient goddess, long worshipped in Delos.

She

delivered oracles in dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring.

The women of Delos offered her presents

consisting of little boats filled with all kinds of fish) in order to obtain her protection for those sea. BRNO (Ger. Briinn), the capital of Moravia, is situated at the confluence of the Svratka and

eatables (except engaged on the Czechoslovakia, the Svitava. be-

tween two hills, one of which, the Spielberg (o4sft.), is crowned

by a fortress now used as a barracks but which formerly was an Austrian political prison. In this capacity it was rendered famous by the narrative of Silvio Pellico who was confined there from 1822 to 1830.

On the lower hill lies the cathedral of St.

Peter dominating the old town, which, though small and traversed by narrow, crooked streets, contains most of the important civic and ecclesiastic buildings, many of them, e.g. the Rathaus (rs711r), and the rsth century church of St. Jacob, rich in interesting an-

tiquities. Around the old town fine gardens and well-built streets

have replaced the fortifications and connect old and new; oth century Brno gives place here to the busy manufacturing sub-

urbs of the roth and 2oth centuries. The town is the headquarters of the Czechoslovak cloth and woollen manufactures which, as

well as the manufacture of machinery, are based upon the neigh-

bouring Rosice-Oslavany coalfield.

Brewing, distilling, milling

sugar-refining, etc., reflect the fertility of the territory in hich Brno lies. It is now the seat of the Supreme Court and the establishment of the Masarykova University (1918) revives the spirit of its mediaeval predecessor and enables Brno once more to make its full contribution to civilization. Pop. (1921) 2214 58, of

whom 70% are Czechs and 25% German. Í BROACH or BHARUCH, an ancient city and modern district of British India, in the northern division of Bombay. The

city is on the right bank of the Nerbudda, about 30m. from the

~

sea, and 203m. N. of Bombay. The area, including suburbs. occypies 24 square miles. Pop. (1921) 42,648. The sea-borne trade is confined to a few coasting vessels. There is a considerable cotton industry; flour milling and handicrafts are also carried on. The fort containing the civil courts, the gaol, church, municipal offices etc., stands on a hill above the river. Broach is the Barakacheva of the Chinese traveller Hsiian Tsang and the Barygaza of Ptolemy and Arrian. Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the Mohammedans and the formation of the State of that name, Broach formed part of the new kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1570 it was annexed to the Mogul empire and governed by a nawab. The Mahrattas became its masters in 1685, from which period it was held in subordination to the Peshwa until 1772, when it was

captured by a force under Gen. Wedderburn, who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it was ceded by the British to Sindhia in ac-

knowledgment of certain services, but was stormed in 1803 by a

detachment commanded by Col. Woodington, and finally ceded to the East India Company by Sindhia. The District of Broach contains an area of 1,468 square miles. Consisting chiefly of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the river Nerbudda, the land is rich and highly cultivated, and though it is without forests it is not wanting in trees. The district is well supplied with rivers, having in addition to the Nerbudda the Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. Pop. (1921) 307,745 comprises several distinct races or castes, who, while speaking a

surface inserted in the corners of a square or cube to make the upper face an octagon, especially at the junction of a square tower and an octagonal spire, in which case, the slope of the broached surface is usually less than that of the spire sides. The word also is used for any means of adjusting a polygonal spire to a square base and even, loosely, as synonymous with squinch

(g.v.).

BROADBENT, SIR WILLIAM HENRY, tst Baronzr, (cr. 1893) (1835-1907), English physician, was born at Lindley, near Huddersfield, on Jan. 23, 1835, the son of a woollen manvfacturer.

He studied at Owens

College, Manchester, and Man.

chester Royal School of Medicine, and then in Paris under Trousseau, Ricord, Reyer and others. He became resident med. ical officer of St. Mary’s Hospital, London, in 1859, and in 1869, pathologist and lecturer on physiology and zoology in the medical school there. From 1860~—79 he was physician at the London Fever Hospital, but he retained his association with St. Mary’s Hospital in various capacities until 1896, and after that date remained an honorary consulting physician. He attended the Duke of Clarence (1892) during his fatal illness, and in that year became physician in ordinary to the Prince of Wales (Edward VII.), and in 1896 physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria, He was physician in ordinary to King Edward VII. and the Prince of Wales (George V.). Broadbent did much important work in connection with paralysis and his name is associated with “Broadbent’s hypothesis” explaining its unequal distribution in various parts of the body in the ordinary form of hemiplegia. His memoir “On the Cerebral Mechanism of Speech and Thought” (Trans, Roy. Med. Chir. Soc., 1872) and later papers, are important contributions to the literature on the brain, Many of his papers on clinical questions

were collected by his son, Dr. Walter Broadbent (1908). Broadbent

held

many

offices

in connection

with medical

societies, and took an active part in public health work, particularly in promoting (1899) the National Association for the Prevention of Consumption, and in the organization (1901) of the British Congress on Tuberculosis, and received many aca demic honours; he was elected F.R.S. in 1897. He died in London on July 10, 1907. BROAD-BOTTOM MINISTRY, in English political history a term applied to the wide Coalition Ministry formed after the fall of Carteret in 1744, between the existing Ministry under the Pelhams and the Opposition led by Lord Chesterfield. The name is said to have been first coined at the formation of the Ministry of 1742; but it was universally applied to the Ministry of 1744, which has since been always known to history as the Broad-Bottom Administration. Chesterfield was its real leader, and the nickname receives an extra significance from the fact that he had recently published a series of letters in the Constiutional Journal under the pseudonym of “Jeffrey Broadbottom.” The opposition of the king at first excluded Pitt; but early in 1746 he was admitted to a subordinate post. With some changes the Ministry survived until the death of Henry Pelham in 1754.

Broadcasting, as distinct from wire BROADCASTING. less communication, may be said to have come into being abou

1920.

It may be defined as the systematic diffusion, by radio

telephony, of music, lectures, drama, humour, news and informa-

common dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate villages. The principal

tion bulletins, speeches and ceremonies, pictures and other mattet susceptible of appreciation by a scattered audience, individually

crops are cotton, millet and pulse. There is extensive dealing in

or in groups, with appropriate receiving apparatus.

cotton, the dealers being organized in a gwid. Besides the cotton mills in Broach city there are several factories for ginning and

sion “appropriate apparatus” must be taken as applying not only to technical and artistic suitability but to qualities such as cheap

pressing cotton, some of them on a very large scale. The district is traversed by the Bombay and Bareda railway, which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach city on an iron-girder bridge of

The expres

ness and ease of management,

GENERAL EDROPEAN

SYSTEMS

67 spans.

Whether broadcasting is conducted as a public service as in BROACH, 2 word used for any one of many forms of pointed Great Britain and several other countries, or also as a means instruments, such as bodkins, wooden needles used in tapestry of attracting commercial goodwill as in the United States of roasting spits and even the tools (also called “trimers” or America and elsewhere, the results tend to become unexpectedly “veamers”’) employed for enlarging or smoothing holes. Hence comes the expression “to broach” for “to tap” a cask. In architecture, the term is used specifically to designate a triangular

similar, and the material that is acceptable from the point of vier

of commercial goodwill differs only by fine shades frora what is suitable from the point of view of the non-commercial broad

207

BROADCASTING MIXING ROOM WIRELESS RECEIVING

CENTRAL CONTROL ROOM CONTAINING B AMPLIFIERS STATION

LOCAL TRANSMITTER

EFFECTS

Eee




Y

PERI `

FIG.

aN SS

NY

wat eSTwig

of cotton fabrics of simple structure and consisting of one series each of warp and weft threads, as distinct from compound struc-

SY

NOR

uring of gold and silver threads that were “broched,” “‘pricked” or “stitched” into the woven fabric in order to develop a raised or embossed pattern, in the style of embroidery. (See BROCADE.) The type of fabrics generally described as “cotton brocades,” as produced by modern powerlooms (of which a typical model

S

SELINA GSO AG SWS g D VIENNA W N YSN `

FRENCH

BROCADE

OF

THE

LATE

17TH

CENTURY

Of fantastic and mainly floral design, this beautiful material is woven in coloured silks and silver gilt thread, on a cream-coloured silk ground

ing the 17th century, Genoa, Florence and Lyons vied with each other in making brocades. Fig. 4 is of a piece of French brocade of Jate r7th century, and fig. 5 is from a more simply composed

MK

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This siik brocade

ee

OF THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

on a pale blue ribbed

=

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MUSEUM

BROCADE OF 3RD QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY is woven

ia

ground, with a pattern

_ of roses and other fiowers 45 in. by 1914 Inches

désign, in which the brocading is done with coloured silks only. During the 18th century Spitalfields competed with Lyons in manufacturing many sorts of brocades, specified in a collection of designs preserved in the. art library of the Victoria and Albert

BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. HACKING AND COMPANY, LTD, FIG. 1.—LANCASHIRE MODERN POWER LOOM, ACTING JACQUARD BROCADE FABRICS

MACHINE

AND

FIGURING

EQUIPPED HARNESS

WITH

DOUBLE-

FOR

COTTON 1

is illustrated in. fig. 1), are embellished with Jacquard figuring developed by causing either warp, weft, or both series of threads to “float,” or lie more or less freely, in the figure portions of the

225

BROCCHI—BROCK design, usually on a neutral ground texture of the plain calico or

“tabby” weave, or other suitable weave structure, in order to develop an effect in contrast with that of the figuring. Cotton brocades constitute one of the largest classes of woven fabrics that are employed for an infinite variety of domestic

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FIG. 2.—COTTON BROCADE WITH ALL-WEFT FIGURING ON A NEUTRAL GROUND TEXTURE OF THE CALICO WEAVE

purposes, as, for example, bed counterpanes, hangings, curtains, table covers, and similar household articles; whilst those of lighter texture are used as ladies’ and children’s dress fabrics. Cotton brocade fabrics may

be broadly classified under the following chief modifications, Viz. 1. With all-weft figuring on a neutral ground texture of the calico weave, as in the example illustrated in fig. 2. 2. With all-warp figuring on a neutral ground texture. 3. With all-weft figuring on an all-warp ground texture, as in the example illustrated in fig. 3. 4. With all-warp figuring on an all-weft ground texture. 5. With warp and weft figuring on a neutral ground texture. 6. With warp and weft figuring on a diapered ground texture, as in the example illustrated in fig. 4.

Reversible Fabrics.—In addition to these chief modifications, the brocade principle of weaving

FIG. 3.—COTTON BROCADE WITH ALL-WEFT FIGURING ON ALL-WARP

permits of endless combinations SRCUND TEXTURE

(RRRA ERY. |SapxsopemMu.. KRES -tuS

direction than in the other. For the purpose of hangings and curtains in which both sides of the fabric are exposed to view, the FIG. 4.—COTTON

BROCADE, WITH

when in use. See H. Nisbet, Grammar of Textile Design (1927).

(H. N.)

(1772-1826), Ital-

BROCCOLI,

a large green vegetable resembling the cauli-

flower in appearance, and the cabbage in flavour. Botanically it is a variety of cabbage (Brassica oleracea Var. italica). The centre containing the curds of buds is less compact than that of the cauliflower and the leaves are smaller than those of the cabbage. Broccoli is used extensively in Italian cookery. If boiled and then allowed to simmer in olive-oil to which garlic has been added, it is especially delicious.

BROCHANTITE,

a mineral species consisting of a basic

copper sulphate (Cu,LOH],SO,), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. The crystals are usually small and are prismatic or acicular in habit; they have a perfect cleavage in one direction. They are transparent to translucent, with a vitreous lustre; and are of an emerald-green to blackish-green colour. Specific gravity 3-907; hardness 34-4. The mineral has been found associated with malachite, etc., In copper mines at several places. A microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona proves brochantite to be of extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite, which effectually masks its presence. (L. J. S.)

SIR ISAAC

(1769-1812), British soldier and ad-

ministrator, was born at St. Peter Port, Guernsey, on Oct. 6, 17609. Joining the army at the age of 15 as an ensign of the 8th regiment, he became a lieutenant-colonel in 1797, after less than 13 years’ service. From 1802 to 1805 he was with his regiment in Canada, returning thither in 1806 in view of the imminence of war between Great Britain and the United States. From Sept. 1806 till Aug. 1810 he was in charge of the garrison at Quebec; in the latter year he assumed the command of the troops In Upper Canada, and then took over the civil administration of that province as provisional heutenant-governor. On the outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock had to defend Upper Canada against invasion by the United States. In the face of many difficulties and not a little disatffection, he organized the militia of the province, drove back the invaders, and on Aug. 16 1812, with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded by their chief Tecumseh, compelled the American force of 2,500 men under General William Hull (17531825) to surrender at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a knighthood of the Bath and the popular title of “the hero of Upper Canada.” From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on Oct. 13 was killed at the battle of Queenston Heights. His Life and Correspondence by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock Tupper (2nd ed., 1847), still remains the best; later lives are by D. R. Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (x905).

BROCK,

disparity in the counts, quality, WARP AND WEFT FIGURING ON A ; amount of warp PIAPERFP G ROUND TEXTURE and the relative and weft, may be less pronounced than for dress materials and furnishing fabrics, of which one side only will be exposed to view,

BATTISTA

dom of Italy. His most important work is the Conchiologia fossile subapennina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennini, e sul suolo adiacente (Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of the Structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils of the Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species. In his Dello stato fisico del suolo di Roma (1820) he corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, who conceived that Rome occupies the site of a volcano, to which he ascribed the volcanic materials that cover the seven hills. Brocchi died at Khartum while on a geological expedition to the Sudan.

BROCK,

of the above-named variations. It will be apparent, therefore, that brocade textures are virtually reversible in respect of the general design, but not in respect of colour where warp and weft threads are of different colour. Brocade fabrics are made either one-sided or reversible, according to the particular purpose for which they are intended. If they are not reversible they are usu-

ally produced with warp and weft of widely different counts and quality, and also with a greater number of threads per inch in one

BROCCHI, GIOVANNI

ian mineralogist and geologist, was born at Bassano, His treatise on the iron mines of Mella, Trattato mineralogico e chemico sulle miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Melia (1808), procured him the office of inspector of mines in the recently established king-

SIR THOMAS

(1847-1922), English sculptor,

was the chief pupil of Foley, and later became influenced by the new romantic movement. His group “The Moment of Peril” was followed by “The Genius of Poetry,” “Eve,” and other ideal works that mark his development. His busts, such as those of Lord Leighton and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as “Sir Richard Owen” and “Dr. Philpott, bishop of Worcester”; his sepulchral monuments, such as that to Lord Leighton in St. Paul’s cathedral, a work of singular significance, refinement, and beauty; and his memorial statues of Queen Victoria, at Hove and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a portraitist, sympathetic in

feeling, sound and restrained in executien, and dignified and decorative in arrangement. The colossal equestrian statue of “Edward

226

BROCK DORFF-RANTZAU—BROCKTON

the Black Prince” was set up in the City Square in Leeds in 1901, the year in which the sculptor was awarded the commission to

execute the vast Imperial Memorial to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace. Brock was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1883 and full member in 1891. Among his later works were: busts of King Edward VII. (1911), Lord Lister (1913, for the Royal College of Surgeons, London) and Edwin Abbey,

R.A. (1917, for the British School in Rome); statues of Captain Cook (1014, in the Mall, London) and of Lord Sydenham (1915, in Bombay). In 1911 he was created K.C.B. He died in London Aug. 22, 1922. BROCKDORFF-RANTZAU, ULRICH, Count von (1869-1928), German diplomatist, was born in Slesvig Nord, May 29 1869. He entered the diplomatic service in 1894. From 1909 to 1912 he was consul-general at Budapest, and from 1912 to 1918 German minister at Copenhagen. On Dec. 20 1918, he was appointed secretary of State for foreign affairs, in which capacity he led the German delegation at the Peace Conference at Versailles in April 1919. Unwilling to advise the German Government to accept the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, he resigned on June 20. In 1922 he was appointed German ambassador in Moscow. He died while on leave in Berlin on Sept. 8, 1928.

BROCKEN, a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the highest point (3,733ft.) of the Harz, and indeed of north Germany. Its huge, granite-strewn dome commands magnificent views in all directions; to Magdeburg and the Elbe, Leipzig and the Thuringian forest. A mountain railway (12m.) gives access to the summit. In the folk-lore of north Germany the Brocken holds an important place, and long after the introduction of Christianity traditional rites continued to be enacted here annually on Walpurgis night (May 1). In literature it is represented in the famous “Brocken scene” in Goethe’s Faust.

BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE (so named from having

been first observed in 1780 on the Brocken), an enormously magnified shadow of an observer cast upon a bank of cloud in high mountain regions when the sun is low. The shadow, often accompanied by coloured bands, reproduces every motion of the observer in the form of a gigantic but misty image of himself. BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH (1680-1747), German poet, was born at Hamburg on Sept. 22, 1680. He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after extensive travels in Italy, France and Holland, settled in his native town in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate, and entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from 1735 to 1741) he spent as Amtmann (magistrate) at Ritzebiittel. He died in Hamburg Jan. 16, 1747. Brocke’s poetic works were published in a series of nine volumes under the fantastic title Zrdisches Vergnügen in Gott (1721-48); he also translated Marini’s La Strage degli innocenti (1715), Pope’s Essay on Man (1740), and Thomson’s Seasons (1745). He was one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic imitations of Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple diction. His verses, artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential attitude towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which was new to German poetry, Brockes’ autobiography was published by J. M. Lappenberg in the Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburger Geschichte, ti. (1847). See also A. Brandl, B. H. Brockes (1878), and D. F. Strauss, Brockes und H.S. Reimarus (Gesammelte Schriften, ii.).

BROCKET, the name given to a yearling stag of the red deer (qg.v.), and hence to several South American deer whose simple horns resemble those of a stag a year old. BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823), German publisher, was born at Dortmund, on May 4, 1772. He devoted two years at Leipzig to the study of modern languages and literature, after which he set up an emporium for English goods. In r805 he began business as a publisher. About 1808 Brockhaus purchased the copyright of the Konversations-Lexikon,

which was started in 1796, and in 18to~-1r he completed the first edition of this encyclopaedia (17th ed. 1908-10; new impression 1920); a second edition under his own editorship was

begun in 1812. His business extended rapidly, and in t88 Brockhaus removed to Leipzig, where he established a large printing-house. Among the more extensive of his many lite undertakings were the critical periodicals—Hermes, the Liter. arisches Konversationsblatt (afterwards the Bldtier fiir literar. ische Unterhaltung), and the Zeitgenossen, and some large his-

torical and bibliographical works, such as Raumer’s Geschichte der Hohenstaufen, and Ebert’s Allgemeines btbliographisches Lexikon. F. A. Brockhaus died at Leipzig on Aug. 20, 1823. The business was carried on by his sons, Friedrich (1800-65), who retired in 1850, and Heinrich (1804—74), under whom it was cop. siderably extended. In the years 1842—48, Heinrich Brockhaus represented Leipzig in the Saxon second chamber, was made honorary citizen of that city in 1872, and died there on Nov. 15, 1874. He was succeeded by his sons Eduard (1829-1914), and Rudolf

(1838-98). Eduard was a member of the Reichstag (1871-78), and one of the accepted leaders of the book trade in Germany. The business was continued by members of the family. See H. E. Brockhaus, Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und Wirken nach Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen (Leipzig, 1872-81), and Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begründung bis zum hundertjährigen Jubiläum 1805-1905 (Leipzig, 1905)

Another of Friedrich’s sons, Hermann BrocxHaus (1806~ 1877), German Orientalist, was born at Amsterdam on Jan, 28, 1806. He was appointed extraordinary professor in Jena in 1838, and in 1841 at Leipzig, where in 1848 he was made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. He died at Leipzig on Jan. 5, 1877. His most important work was the editio princeps (1839) of the Kathã-sarit-sãgara, “The Ocean of the Streams of Story,” the large collection of Sanskrit stories made by Soma Deva in the rath century.

BROCKLESBY,

RICHARD

(1722-1797), English phy-

sician, was born at Minehead, Somersetshire, on Aug. 11, 1722. He was educated at Ballitore, in Ireland, where Edmund Burke was one of his schoolfellows, studied medicine at Edinburgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. Appointed physician to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during part of the Seven Years’ War, and on his return settled down to practise in London. In 1764 he published Economical and Medical Observations, which contained suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. He was warmly attached to Dr. Johnson, to whom about 1784 he offered an annuity of £100 for life, and whom he attended on his death-bed, while in 1788 he presented Burke with £1,000, and offered to repeat the gift “every year until your merit is rewarded as it ought to be at court.” He died on Dec. 11, 1797, leaving his house and part of his fortune to his grand-nephew, Dr. ‘Thomas Young. '

BROCKTON,

a city of Plymouth county (Mass.), United

States, about 20m. S. of Boston; served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Its area is 21-4 sq. miles. Its population in 1920 was 66,254, of whom 17,124 were foreign-born whites, and in 1930, Federal census, was 63,797. The manufacture of men’s shoes has long been the dominating

industry.

In 1927 there were 6o shoe factories, with a yearly

output valued at $100,000,000; four last factories, making over 1,000,000 pairs of lasts annually; and numerous other industries producing articles used by the shoe manufacturers, such as patterns, trimmings, rands, blackings and stains (for which the water supply is especially suited), machinery and tools. Brockton is the trading centre for a large population, and is headquarters of the county farm bureau. An annual fair, with an attendance in recent years of over 215,000, has been held since 1873, to promote the agricultural, industrial and educational interests of the city and the county. No dividends are paid, the directors serve without salary, and the profits are used for such purposes as providing scholarships for boys and girls of the county. The savings banks of the city in 1926 carried 51,058 accounts, with deposits aggregating $20,772,741. The assessed valuation of property was $72,610,050. The city spends annually nearly $1,000,000 on public schools and libraries, and nearly $300,000 on sanitation and the conservation of health. For three succes

sive years it won the state award for the best milk supply @

227

BROCK VILLE—BROGLIE Massachusetts. trial city.

Its death rate is exceptionally low for an indus-

Brockton was a part of Bridgewater until 1821, when it was incorporated as the town of North Bridgewater. Its present name was adopted in 1874, and the city was chartered in 1881. The population*was 8,007 in 1870; 13,608 in 1880; 27,294 in 1890; 40,063 in 1900; and 56,878 in 1910. It was the first city in

Massachusetts to abolish all grade crossings (1896): and was a pioneer in using electricity for lighting the streets and operating the street railway system.

BROCKVILLE, port of entry, Ontario, Canada, capital of Leeds county, named

after General

Sir Isaac Brock, situated

rrom. S.W. of Montreal, on the left bank of the St. Lawrence,

and Canadian National railway, with a branch to the Canadian Pacific.

Steamers

go to St. Lawrence

and Lake Ontario ports,

and it is a summer resort. Hardware, furnaces, agricultural implements, automobiles, motor boats and chemicals are made. It is an important dairy-centre, and ships large quantities of cheese and butter. Pop. (1931) 9,736. BROD, MAX (1884), German writer, was born in

Prague on May 27, 1884 of Jewish parents. He received his edu-

cation in Prague, and afterwards worked there, first as a Government official, and later on the staff of the Prager Tagblatt. Brod’s work is strongly steeped in that peculiar compound of the Jewish, Czech and German national spirits which makes the German literature of Prague a thing apart—fantastic, mystic, with flashes of violent realism, strongly erotic, intellectually acute and abnormally sensitive to atmosphere. Brod’s own work is further characterized by exceptional narrative skill and limpidity of style. His chief works are: Schloss Nornepygge (1908), Jiidinnen (1900), Weiberwirtschaft (1913), Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott (1916: English tr. Tycho Brahe’s Redemption, 1928), Reubeni (1928),

Die Frau, nach der man sich sehnt (1927).

BROD, 2 rural town of Yugoslavia, on the left bank of the

river Sava. Pop. (1921) 10,621. The railway from Zagreb to Belgrade crosses the river here; and Brod is the junction for the principal Bosnian line, to Sarajevo, Mostar and the Adriatic. Its slight economic value will be increased when the tunnelling which is to

replace the funicular section has been completed. Brod has a con-

siderable transit trade in cereals, wines, spirits, prunes and wood. Tis chief industries are plum-growing and pig-rearing. It has also a distillery and Government showrooms for agricultural implements. It is sometimes called Slavonisch-Brod to distinguish it from Bosnisch-Brod across the river. The town owes its name to a ford (Serbian brod) of the Sava, and dates at least from the t5th century. Brod was frequently captured and recaptured in the wars between Turkey and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army mustered in 1870 for the occupation of Bosnia.

BRODERIP,

WILLIAM

JOHN

(1789-1859),

English

naturalist, was born in Bristol and became a metropolitan police magistrate, first at the Thames police court and then at Westminster. He was one of the founders of the Zoological Society of London, and his collection of shells was ultimately bought by the British Museum. His works are Zoological Recreations

(1848) and Leaves from the Note-book of a Naturalist (1852). BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, ist Bart. (1783-

1862), English physiologist and surgeon, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire. He was assistant surgeon at St. George’s hospital for over 30 years.

In 1810 he was elected a fellow of

the Royal Society. Probably his most important work is Patho-

logical and Surgical Observations on the Diseases of the Joints, wh which he attempts to trace the beginnings of disease in the different tissues that form a joint, and to give an exact value to

the symptom of pain as evidence of organic disease. This volume

led to the adoption by surgeons of measures of a conservative nature in the treatment of diseases of the joints, with consequent reduction in the number of amputations and the saving of many limbs and lives. In 1854 he published anonymously a volume of Psychological inquiries; to a second volume which appeared in

1862 his name was attached. He received many honours during his career, was created a baronet in 1834, and was the first presi-

dent of the General Medical council. He died at Broome Park,

Surrey, Oct. 21, 1862. His collected works, with autobiography, were published in 1865 under the editorship of Charles Hawkins. His eldest son, Str BENJAMIN CoLiins Bropie, 2nd Bart. (1817-80), was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865, and is chiefly known for his investigations on the allotropic states of carbon and for his discovery of graphitic acid.

BRODIE,

PETER

BELLINGER

(1815-18097), English

geologist, was born in London, and studied at Emmanuel college, Cambridge, where he came under the spell of Sedgwick. Entering the church in 1838, he held various preferments, but all his leisure time was devoted to geology. In the Vale of Wardour he discovered in Purbeck Beds the isopod named by Milne-Edwards Archaeoniscus Brodiei. Fossil insects formed the subject of his special studies (History of the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England, 1845), and many of his published papers relate to them. See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in Geological Magazine, 1897.

BROEKHUIZEN,

JAN

VAN

(Janus Brouxuusts),

(1649-1707), Dutch classical scholar and poet, was born at Amsterdam. He entered the army, and in 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the fleet under Admiral de Ruyter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 1678 he was sent to the garrison at Utrecht, where he became the friend of Graevius.

Later he became a captain of one of the companies then at Amsterdam. After the Peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company was disbanded and he retired on a pension. His Dutch poems, in which he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were first published in 1677; a later edition, with a biography by D. van Hoogstraten, appeared in 1712; the last edition, 1883, was

edited by R. A. Kollewijn.

His classical reputation rests on his editions

of Propertius (1702) and Tibullus (1707). His Latin poems (Carmina) appeared in 1684; a later edition (Poemata) by D. van Hoogstraten

appeared in 1711. The Select Letters (Jani Browkhusit Epistolae Selectae, 1889 and 1893) were edited by J. A. Worp, who also wrote his biography (1891).

BROENDSTED,

PETER

OLUF

(1780-1842),

Danish

archaeologist and traveller, was born at Fruering in Jutland. After a visit to Italy, he spent three years (1810-13) in research and excavation in Greece; later (1820-21), while envoy at the papal court, he visited Sicily and the Ionian Islands for the same purpose. In 1832 he returned to Copenhagen as director of the museum; he was made rector in 1842 and died in the same year. His principal work was the Travels and Archaeological Researches im Greece (in German and French, 1826-30), of which only two volumes were published, dealing with the island of Ceos and the metopes of the Parthenon. A volume of his

letters (Memoirer og Breve) was published at Copenhagen in 1926.

BROGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER (r851- ž ), Norwegian geologist, born in Christiania (Oslo) on Nov. ro, 1851, and educated in that city. He was professor of mineralogy and geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of Stockholm, and from 1890 in the university of Christiania, of which he later became Rector. His observations on the igneous rocks of south Tirol compared with those of Christiania afford much information on the relations of the granitic and basic rocks. The subject of the differentiation of rock-types in the process of solidification as plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular magma received much attention from him. He dealt also with the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway, and with the late glacial and post-glacial changes of level in the Christiania region.

BROGLIE, DE, the name of a noble French family which,

originally Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643. The head of the family, Francors Marm (1611-56), then took the title of comte de Broglie. He had already distinguished himself as a soldier, and died, as a lieutenant-general, at the siege of Valenza on July 2, 1656. His son, Vicror Maurice, COMTE DE BRoGLiE (1647-1727), served under Condé, Turenne and other great commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming maréckal de camp in 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally marshal of France in 1724.

The eldest son of Victor Maurice, Francois Marre, afterwards Duc pE BROGLIE (1671-1748), served continuously in the War of

228

BROGLIE

the Spanish Succession and was present at Malplaquet. The war in Italy called him into the field again in 1733, and in the following year he was made marshal of France. In the campaign of 1734 he fought the battles of Parma and Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow personal escape when his quarters on the Secchia were raided by the enemy on the night of Sept. 14, 1734. In 1735 he directed a war of positions with credit, but he was soon replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general of Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strasbourg (1740). In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the French army in Germany, but such powers as he had possessed were failing him, and he had always been the “man of small means,” safe and cautious, but lacking in elasticity and daring. The only success obtained was in the action of Sahay (May 25, 1742), for which he was made a duke. His son, Victor Francois, Duc bE Brocrm (1718-1804), served with his father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734 obtained a colonelcy. In the German War he took part in the storming of Prague in 1742, and was made a brigadier. In 1744 and 1745 he saw further service on the Rhine, and in 1756 he was made maréchal de camp. He subsequently served with Marshal Saxe in the low countries, and was present at Roucoux, Val and Maastricht. At the end of the war he was made a lieutenantgeneral. During the Seven Years’ War he served successively under d’Estrées, Soubise and Contades, being present at all the battles from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory over Prince Ferdinand at Bergen (1759) won him the rank of marshal of France from his own sovereign and that of prince of the empire from the emperor Francis I. In 1760 he won an action at Corbach, but was defeated at Vellinghausen in 1761. After the war he was in disgrace until 1778, when he was given command of the troops designed to operate against England. He opposed the Revolution with determination, and after his emigration, com-

manded the “army of the princes” for a short time (1792). He died at Miinster in 1804. Another son of the first duke, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, COMTE DE Brochie (1719-1781), is chiefly remembered in connection with the Secret du Roi, the private, as distinct from the official, diplomatic service of Louis XV. of which he was the ablest and most

Palmerston, the July monarchy would have been completely iso. lated in Europe;

and this sympathy

the aggressive policy of

France in Belgium and on the Mediterranean coast of Africa had

been in danger of alienating. The Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the two powers were concerned, before de Broglie took

office; but the concerted military and naval action for the coer.

cion of the Dutch, which led to the French occupation of Ant.

werp, was carried out under his auspices. The good understanding of which this was the symbol characterized also the relations of de Broglie and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war of

Mehemet Ali (qg.v.) with the Porte, and in the affairs of the Spanish peninsula their common sympathy with constitutional liberty led to the treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France, Spain and Portugal, signed at London on April 22, 1834. De Broglie had retired from office in the February preceding, and did not return to power till March of the following year, when he became head of the cabinet. In 1836, on the defeat of the government, he once more resigned, and never returned to official life. He had found France isolated and Europe full of the rumours of war; he left her strong in the English alliance and the respect of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless apprehensions which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of Thiers in the Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the “Spanish marriages.” From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held almost completely aloof from politics. The revolution of 1848 was a great blow to him. He took his seat, however, in the

republican National Assembly and in the Convention of 1848,

and, as a member of the section known as the “‘Burgraves,” did his best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the reaction in favour of autocracy which he foresaw. He shared with his colleagues the indignity of the coup d’état of Dec. 2, 1851, and remained for the remainder of his life one of the bitterest enemies of the imperial régime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit for which he was famous, that the empire was “the government which the poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved.” The last twenty years of his life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary pursuits. Besides his Souvenirs, in 4 vols. (1885-88), the duc de Broglie's

published works include Ecrits et discours (3 vols., 1863); Le Libre Échange et l'impôt (1879); Vues sur le gouvernement de la France

important member. (1861). This last was confiscated before publication by the imperial The son of Victor François, VICTOR CLAUDE, PRINCE DE BROG- government. See Guizot, Le Duc de Broglie (1870), and Mémoires LIE (1757—1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of maré- (1858-67); and the histories of Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de chal de camp. He served with Lafayette and Rochambeau in Hauranne. America, was a member of the Jacobin Club, and sat in the Jacques VICTOR ALBERT, Duc pe BrocLire (1821-1901), his Constituent Assembly, constantly voting on the Liberal side. He eldest son, was born at Paris on June 13, 1821. After a brief served as chief of the staff to the Republican army on the Rhine; diplomatic career at Madrid and Rome, the revolution of 1848 but in the Terror he was denounced, arrested and executed at caused him to withdraw from public life. He had already pubParis on June 27, 1794. His dying admonition to bis little son was lished a translation of the religious system of Leibnitz (1846). to remain faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however His contributions to the Revue des deux Mondes and the Orunjust and ungrateful. leanist and clerical organ Le Correspondant, were afterwards colACHILLE CHartEs LEONCE Victor, Duc pe Broctim (1785— lected under the titles of Etudes morales et littéraires (1853) and 1870), statesman and diplomatist, son of the last-named, was Questions de religion et d’histoire (1860). These were suppleborn in Paris on Nov. 28, 1785, and died in Paris, Jan. 25, 1870. mented in 1869 by a volume of Nouvelles études de littérature et In 1809, he was added to the Council of State, over which Na- de morale. His L’Eglise et empire romain au IV® siécle (1856poleon presided in person; and was sent by the emperor on diplo- 66) brought him a seat in the Academy in 1862. In 1870 he suc matic missions, as attaché, to various countries. He received, in ceeded his father in the dukedom. In the following year he was June, 1814, a summons from Louis XVIII. to the Chamber of elected to the National Assembly for the department of the Eure, Peers. There, after the Hundred Days, he distinguished himself and a few days later (on Feb. 19) was appointed ambassador m by his courageous defence of Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, London; but in March 1872, in consequence of criticisms upo alone of all the peers, both spoke and voted. On Feb. 15, 1816, he his negotiations concerning the commercial treaties between was married at Leghorn to the daughter of Madame de Staél. He England and France, he resigned his post and took his seat in the returned to Paris at the end of the year, but took no part in poli- National Assembly, where he became the leading spirit of the tics until the elections of Sept. 1817 broke the power of the “ultra- monarchical campaign against Thiers. On the replacement of the royalists” and substituted for the Chambre introuvable a moder- latter by Marshal MacMahon, the duc de Broglie became pres ate assembly. During the last critical years of Charles X.’s reign, dent of the council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873) de Broglie identified himself with the docirinaires, among whom but in the reconstruction of the ministry on Nov. 26 transferred Royer-Collard and Guizot were the most prominent. After the himself to the ministry of the interior. His tenure of office was July revolution he was minister of education for a few months. marked by an extreme conservatism, which roused the bitter

After the insurrection of June 1832, de Broglie took office once

hatred of the Republicans, while he alienated the Legitimist party

foreign office was; coincident with a very critical period in inter-

by his friendly relations with the Bonapartists, and the Bon partists by an attempt to effect a compromise between the rival

national relations. But for the-sympathy of Great Britain under

claimants to the monarchy. The result was the fall of the cabinet

more as minister for foreign affairs (Oct. rr). His tenure of the

Ma

BROGUE—BROKEN on May 18, 1874. Three years later (May 16, 1877) he was entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet, with the object of

appealing to the country and securing a new chamber more

favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had been. The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The duc de Broglie was defeated in his own district, and resigned

oface on Nov. 20. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned

politics for historical work. He died in Paris on Jan. 19, rgo1. Besides editing the Souvenirs of his father (1886, etc.), the Mémoires of Talleyrand (1891, etc.) and the Letters of the Duchess Albertine de Broglie (1896), he published Le Secret du roi, Corres-

pondance secréte de Louis XV. avec ses agents diplomatiques, 1752—74 (1878) ; Frédéric II. et Marie Thérése (1883) ; Frédéric II. et Louis XV.

(1885) ; Marie Thérèse Impératrice (1888); Le Père Lacordaire Paix (1889); Maurice de Saxe et le marquis d’Argenson (1891); La a’Aix-la-Chapelle (1892); L’Alliance autrichienne (1895); La Mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron a Berlin (1896); Voltaire avanti et pendant lo Guerre de Sept Ans (1898) ; Saint Ambroise, translated by Margaret Maitland in the series of “The Saints” (1899).

BROGUE.

(1) A rough shoe of raw leather (Gael. brog, a

shoe) worn in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, and

applied generally to shoes intended for country wear.

(2) A

dialectical accent, especially used of the Irish accent in speaking

English. (1807-1887), SUSANNE AUGUSTINE BROHAN, French actress, was born in Paris on Jan. 22 1807 and died on Aug. 16 1887. She made her first Paris appearance at the Odéon in 1832 as Dorine in Tartuffe. She appeared at the Comédie Française, Feb. 1834, as Madelon in Les Précieuses ridicules, and Suzanne in Le Mariage de Figaro, and continued to act until 1842. Her elder daughter, JOSEPHINE FÉLICITÉ AUGUSTINE- BROHAN

(1824-1893), made her début at the Comédie Française on May 19, 1841, as Dorine in Tartuffe, and Lise in Rivaux d’eux-mémes. She retired in 1866. Susanne Brohan’s second daughter, ÉMILIE MADELEINE BROHAN (1833-1900), made her début at the Comédie Française in a new comedy by Scribe and Legouvé, Les Contes de la reine de Navarre (Sept. 1, 1850). Her name is especially associated with Le Monde où l'on s'ennuie, Par droit de conquête, Les Deux Veuves, and Le Lion amoureux, in which, as the Marquise de Maupas, she had one of her greatest successes. She retired in 1886. (d. 1563), English BROKE or BROOKE, ARTHUR

author, wrote the first English version of the story of Romeo and Juliet. The Tragicall Historye of Romeus and Julieit (1562) is a rhymed account of the story, taken, not directly from Bandello’s collection of novels (1554), but from the French translation (Histoires tragiques) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau, surnamed Launay, and François de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the story as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes which are not known to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted by Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet, there is no reasonable doubt that it may be regarded as the main source of the play. Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way from Newhaven to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in France. See, for a close comparison of Shakespeare’s play with Broke’s version, the reprint of the poem edited by P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespeare Society (1875).

HILL

229

increased the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being shot away, the American frigate drifted foul of the “Shannon.” Broke sprang on board with some 60 of his men following him. After a brief struggle the fight was over. Within 15 minutes of the firing of the first shot, the “Chesapeake” struck her flag, but Broke himself was seriously wounded. For his services he was rewarded with a baronetcy, and subsequently was made a K.C.B.

His exploit cap-

tivated the public fancy, and his popular title of “Brave Broke” gives the standard by which his action was judged. Its true significance, however, lies deeper. Broke’s victory was due not so much to courage as to forethought. His wound incapacitated him for further service. He died in London on Jan. 2 1841.

BROKEN

HILL

(Willyama),

a famous

mining city in

Yancowinna county in the central west of New South Wales, 35

m. from the South Australian border. It lies at an elevation of 1,000 ft. on the east flank of the Barrier range, some 200 m. from Spencer’s gulf and 550 from the east sea-board. The region is sub-arid, hot in summer, cool (with frosts) in winter; mean annual temperatures: 78°-51° F; absolute extremes: 115-9°28-5° F; average annual rainfall c. ro in., but erratic—3-6-17-6; average annual evaporation: c. 7 ft. 6 in. Heavy dust-storms are frequent. The mulga, bluebush and salt-bush hills and plains, richly grassed after rains, form rather poor pastoral country where not bared by the mining settlements. The highly compressed and tilted sedimentary (pre-Cambrian) rocks (with igneous intrusions and quartz reefs) of the Barrier range had a “replacement” lode which outcropped as two connected arcs over a distance of c. 3 m. with a width varying from 200 to 3 ft. The outcrop originally appeared as a manganiferous ironstone (gossan) ridge and was first mined (1883-84) for tin, though silver and lead mines of some value had previously been worked in the area, notably at Silverton. Secondary enrichment, due partly to the arid climate, had led to ores (native silver, chlorides, etc., and further down, lead carbonates) of extraordinary richness in the upper parts. Below these the ores became lead-zinc-silver sulphides of lower but more uniform value. By 1924 workings had reached a depth of 1,800 ft.; some 35,000,000 tons of ore had been removed (1925) anda further 13,000,000 tons, with uncalculated reserves beyond, were available. The value of the total output (to end of 1925) was £127,500,000 and £28,000,000 had been paid in dividends. ‘The maximum output was in 1913—1,750,000 tons; thereafter the average has been c. 1,250,000 tons, though 1919 and 1920 were years of strikes, low prices and very low production. Ore-treatment methods have changed along with the type of ore and the growth of technical knowledge. To-day the zinc-lead-silver sulphides are uniformly dealt with by the “flotation” (eucalyptus oil) process. Smelting and concentrating, formerly conducted on the field, were progressively transferred to Port Pirie (South Australia) on Spencer’s gulf (254 m. by rail) where fuel, fluxes and transport are more readily available. The zinc residues were for long used as filling or accumulated as enormous dumps. In 1913 c. 500,000 tons of zinc concentrates yielding some 200,000 tons

of zinc or + of the world’s supply, were shipped abroad from

Broken Hill, only s5—7,000 tons zinc were produced at Port Pirie. In 1918, after experimental work, zinc production was started on a BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, Barr. (1776- large scale (roo tons per diem) at Risdon (Hobart, Tasmania), 1841) was born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, England, entered where water-power is available for the electrolytic process. Conare the navy in 1792, and rose rapidly in the service. In 1813 he was siderable quantities of zinc concentrates (1925: 226,500 tons) in command of the “Shannon,” which was then cruising off Bos- still exported (United Kingdom, Europe and japan) but Risdon ton, watching the “Chesapeake,” an American frigate of the same takes increasing quantities and amongst its by-products produces nominal force but heavier armament. On June x Broke, finding sulphuric acid valuable in the manufacture of superphosphates. The lead ores are now smelted almost entirely at Port Pirie. his water supply getting low, wrote to Lawrence, the commander of the “Chesapeake,” asking for a meeting between the two ships, Broken Hill is the third city of New South Wales. Its population Stating the “Shannon’s” force, and guaranteeing that no other shows the fluctuations natural to a mining centre (1914: C. 35,000; British ship should take part in the engagement. Before this 1926: c. 24,000). It is substantially built and well equipped. ‘The letter could be delivered, however, the “Chesapeake,” under full difficulty of water supply has been met by the construction of two the consail, ran out of Boston harbour, crowds of pleasure boats accom- large dams, ro and 19 miles distant respectively, and under consideration in was reservoirs additional two of struction “Chesapeake” the As engagement. the witness to her panying rounded to on the “Shannon’s” weather quarter, at a distance of 1928. Broken Hill is 335 m. by rail from Adelaide and its main about so yards, the British frigate received her with a broadside. economic and business relations are with South Australia. Recently A, hundred of the “Chesapeake’s” crew were struck down at once, the line to Sydney (703 m.) has been completed and forms a posLawrence himself being mortally wounded. A second broadside sible alternative route from Adelaide to Sydney.

230

BROKEN

HILL

PROPRIETARY

BROKEN HILL PROPRIETARY COMPANY LIMITED. This company was formed in Aug., 1885, to develop

CO—BROKER

44,000 inhabitants.

The wages bill amounts, under normal cop.

ditions, to £1,750,000 per year. The original capital in 1885 was £304,000. The authorized capital in 1927 was £3,000,000, of which £2,687,708 had been paid up; the debentures outstanding stood at £1,518,600, the reserve fund at £1,535,000. (L.C. M.)

seven mining leases at Broken Hill, New South Wales, on the now famous Barrier Range. On account of the great size of the lode it was soon found that the ordinary system of mining was inadequate, and, consequently, the “square set” system of BROKER. In the primary sense of the word a broker % timbering was adopted. This was, as work progressed, supple- a mercantile agent, of the class known as general agents, whose mented at a later date by the “open cut,” which was applied to office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers and make the whole length of the mine for about 25oft. in depth. Open a contract between them, for a remuneration called brokerage stoping with filling was carried out in the hard sulphide ore. or commission; e.g., cotton brokers, wool brokers, or produce The development of the lode was phenomenal, the width of the brokers. Originally the only contracts negotiated by brokers oxidized ore, in places, being no less than 3ooft. The extraor- were for the sale or purchase of commodities; but the word in its dinary variety of the ores from the mine, many of these be- present use includes other classes of mercantile agents, such as ing refractory ores, raised many unusual problems. At first, stock brokers, insurance brokers, ship brokers, or bill brokers direct smelting in a reduction plant, situated at Broken Hill on Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper sense of the word: the property, was adopted. Later, when silicious ores came into they deal as principals and do not act as agents. In discussing view, chloridizing plants as well as an amalgamating plant were the chief questions of modern legal interest in connection with installed to deal with them. brokers we shall deal with them, first in the original sense of With the advent of sulphide ores the method of treatment agents for the purchase and sale of goods. was considerably modified and water concentration took place by Relations Between Broker and Principal—tIn English tables and jigs. The flotation of zinc concentrates was success- law, a broker has not, like a factor, possession of his principal's fully accomplished at this mine for the first time in the world. goods, and unless expressly authorized cannot buy or sell in As time went on the process has been varied, and with the in- his own name; his business is to bring into privity of contract vention, by the company’s officers, of differential flotation (Brad- his principal and the third party. When the contract is made, ford process), separate concentrates were made of the zinc and ordinarily he drops out altogether. Brokers very frequently act lead contents. as factors also, but, when they do so their rights and duties as Smelting.—The first reduction plant was constructed at factors must be distinguished from their rights and duties as Broken Hill in 1886. Additions to the plant were made, until it brokers. It is a broker’s duty to carry out his principal’s in included 15 furnaces of 80 ton capacity each. At this time, the structions with diligence, skill and perfect good faith. He must products of the mine were shipped to Europe as silver-lead bul- see that the terms of the bargain accord with his principal’s orders lion. In 1880, however, the company decided to establish its from a commercial point of view; e.g., as to quality, quantity and own refinery, and this was brought into being at Port Pirie in price; he must ensure that the contract of sale effected by him south Australia. The resultant lead was sold in the markets of be legally enforceable by his principal against the third party; England, Europe, and the East, as well as supplying the require- and he must not accept any commission from the third party, or ments of the Australian States, and nearly the whole of the put himself in any position in which his own interest may besilver was sold to China and India. Part of the output of zinc come opposed to his principal’s. As soon as he has made the conconcentrates went for production of spelter, the balance being tract which he was employed to make, in most respects his duty shipped overseas. In 1898, it was decided to close down the to, and his authority from, his principal alike cease; and cor smelters at Broken Hill and to concentrate smelting operations sequently the law of brokers relates principally to the forma. at Port Pirie. In 1915, the works at Port Pirie were sold. The tion of contracts by them. total amount of mineral produced at this mine, to May 1927, was: The most important formality in English law, in making contracts for the sale of goods, with which a broker must comply, Silver . 183,600,000 0z. Lead 1,365,000 tons in order to make the contract legally enforceable by his principal Zinc 564,000 tons against the third party is contained in Sec. 4 of the Sale of Goods Iron and Steel Works.—The leases of the company having Act, 1893, which (in substance re-enacting Sec. 17 of the developed large quantities of iron ore, the question of its utili- Statute of Frauds) provides as follows:—‘‘A contract for the zation for the production of iron and steel was seriously consid- sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards shall nat ered, and after exhaustive enquiries a decision was arrived at be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of to embark on this new enterprise. As a result of this decision, the goods as sold, and actually receive the same or give something an iron and steel works was built at Newcastle, N.S.W., close in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or umes to coal supplies, and about room. N. of Sydney. Operations some note or memorandum in writing of the contract be made here are conducted on the most modern lines. The ore is quar- and signed by the party to be charged or his agent in that behalf." From the reign of James I. till 1884, brokers in London were ried in South Australia, from the side of the mountain, hauled 35 miles, loaded by belt-conveyors into the company’s own ships admitted and licenced by the corporation, and regulated by statute; and it was common to employ one broker only, whe and conveyed to Newcastle. _ The plant in 1927 comprised 224 by-product coke ovens; four acted as intermediary between, and was the agent of both buyet blast furnaces of a total capacity of 10,000 tons per week; nine and seller. When the Statute of Frauds was passed in th basic open hearth furnaces capable of producing 10,000 tons of reign of Charles IIL., it became the practice for the broker acting steel per week, a 35in. blooming mill, 28in. rail mill, 18in., r2in. for both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the purpos, and 8in, merchant mills, and a continuous rod mill. Associated a memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign suck with these are a large electric power station, a steel foundry, memorandum on behalf of both parties, in order that there might be a written memorandum of the contract of sale, signed by the and a direct metal foundry and large machine shop. ‘The production figures from the inception of the steel works agent of the parties as required by the statute. He would thet send to the buyer a copy of this memorandum, called the “bought toa May 31, 1937, were:— note,” and to the seller a “sold note,” which would run as fot Steel t : 2,500,000 tons lows :— Pig Iron 2,500,000 tons

‘The works supply a large proportion of the railway material required by the various governments of Australia, as well as weeting the demands of engineering workshops throughout Australia. The population of the district immediately surrounding the works has increased since their inception by no less than

“I have this day bought for you from A B [or, ‘my principal’]. .. . (signed) ‘M, Broker’ “I have this day sold for you to A B [or, ‘my principal’]. ... (signed) ‘M, Broker ”

There was in the earlier part of the roth century considerable discussion in the courts as to whether the entry in a broket

BROKER book, or the bought and sold notes (singly or together), constituted the statutory memorandum; and judicial opinion was not ynanimous on the point. But brokers are no longer regulated by

statute either in London or elsewhere, and keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a private book kept by the broker for another purpose, even if signed, would probably not be regarded as a memorandum signed by the agent of the parties in that þehalf, the old discussion is now of little practical interest. Contract Notes.—Under modern conditions of business the

written memorandum

of the contract of sale effected by the

broker is usually to be found in a “contract note”; but the question whether, in the particular circumstances of each case, the

contract note affords a sufficient memorandum in writing depends upon a variety of considerations—e.g., whether the transaction is effected through one or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered by one broker only, or by both; and if the latter, whether exchanged between the brokers or rendered by each broker to his own client; for under present practice any one of these methods may obtain, according to the trade in which the transaction is effected, and the nature of the particular transaction. Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and buyer, bought and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the necessary memorandum of the contract. Where two brokers are employed, one by the seller and one by the buyer, sometimes one drops out as soon as the terms are negotiated, and the other makes out, signs and sends to the parties the bought and sold notes. The latter then becomes the agent of both parties for the purpose of signing the statutory memorandum, and the position is the same as if one broker only had been employed. On the other hand if one broker does not drop out of the transaction, each broker remains to the end the agent of his own principal only, and neither becomes the agent of the other party for the purpose of signing the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual practice for the buyer’s broker to send to the seller’s broker a note of the contract—“I, acting on account of A.B. [or, ‘of my principal’] have this day bought from you, acting on account of C. D. [or, ‘of your principal’ ]”—and to receive a corresponding note from the seller’s broker. Thus each of the parties receives through his own agent a memorandum signed by the other party’s agent. These contract notes are usually known as, and serve the purpose of, “bought” and “sold” notes. In all the above three cases the broker’s duty of and compliance with all formalities necessary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is performed, and both parties obtain a written memorandum of the contract upon which they can sue.

The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the terms upon which he is employed, is entitled to be paid his “brokerage.” This usually takes the form of a percentage, varying according to the nature and conditions of the business, upon the total price of the goods bought or sold through him. When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, he is said to be employed upon del credere terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the selling broker to receive payment from the buyer or his broker; and in such case it Is his duty to account to his principal for the purchase money. A broker who properly expends money or incurs liability on his principal’s behalf in the course of his employment, is en-

titled to be reimbursed the money and indemnified against the liability. Not having, like a factor, possession of the goods, a

broker has no lien by which to enforce his rights against his principal. If he fails to perform his duty, he loses his right to remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity, and further becomes

liable to an action for damages and breach of his contract of employment at the suit of his principal. Relations Between

Broker

and Third

Party.—A

broker

who signs a contract note as broker on behalf of a principal, whether named or not, is not personally liable on the contract to the third party. But if he makes the contract in such a way as to make himself a party to it, the third party may sue either the broker or his principal, subject to the limitation that the third party, by his election to treat one as the party to the contract,

231

may preclude himself from suing the other. In this respect the ordinary rules of the law of agency apply to a broker. Generally, a broker has not authority to receive payment, but in trades in which it is customary for him to do so, if the buyer pays the seller’s broker, and is then sued by the seller for the price by reason of the broker having become insolvent or absconded, he may set up the payment to the broker as a defence to the action by the broker’s principal. Brokers may render themselves liable for damages in tort for the conversion of the goods at the suit of the true owner if they negotiate a sale of the goods for a selling principal who has no title to the goods. The Influence of Exchanges—The relations between brokers and their principals, and also between brokers and third

parties as above defined, have been to some extent modified in practice by the institution since the middle of the 19th century in important commercial centres of “exchanges,” where persons interested in a particular trade, whether as merchants or as brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the contract of membership of the association in whose hands is vested the control of the exchange, every person on becoming a member agrees to be bound by the rules of the association, and to make his contracts on the market in accordance with them. A governing body or committee elected by the members enforces observance of the rules, and members who fail to meet their engagements on the market, or to conform to the rules, are liable to suspension or expulsion by the committee. All disputes between members on their contracts are submitted to an arbitration tribunal composed of members; and the arbitrators in deciding the questions submitted to them are guided by the rules. A printed book of

rules is available for reference; and various printed forms of contract suited to the various requirements of the business are specified by the rules and supplied by the association for the use of members. In order to simplify the settlement of accounts between members, particularly in respect of “futures”; t.e., contracts for future delivery, a weekly or other periodical settlement, is on some exchanges effected by means of a clearing house; each member paying or receiving in respect of all his contracts which are still open, the balance of his weekly “differences”; 7.¢., the difference between the contract price and the market price fixed for the settlement, or between the last and the present settlement prices. As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules it follows that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities attached by law, the ordinary law is modified. The most important modification in the position of brokers effected by membership of such an exchange is due to the rule that as between themselves, all members are principals, on the market no agents are recognized; a broker employed by a non-member to buy for him on the market is treated by the rules as buying for himself, and is, therefore, personally liable on the contract. If it be a contract in futures, he is required to conform to the weekly settlement rules. If his principal fails to take delivery the engagement is his and he is required to make good to the member who sold to him any difference between the contract and market price at the date of delivery. But whilst this practice alters directly the relations of the broker to the third party, it also affects or tends to affect indirectly the relations of the broker to his own principal. The terms of the contract of employment being a matter of negotiation and agreement between them, it is open to a broker, if he chooses, to stipulate for particular terms; and it is the usual practice of exchanges to supply printed contract forms for the use of members in their dealings with non-members who employ them as brokers, containing a stipulation that the contract is made subject to the rules of the exchange; and frequently also a clause that the contract is made with the broker as principal. In addition to these express terms, there is in the contract of employment the term. implied by Jaw in all trade contracts, that the parties consent to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with the express terms of the contract, and reasonable. On executing an order the broker sends to his client a contract-note either in the form of

sold for you, the old bought and sold notes, “I have this day bought

33

BROKER

222

or when the principal clause is inserted, “I have this day sold to ` you.” These are not bought and sold notes proper, bought from for the broker is not the agent of the third party for the purpose

of signing them as statutory memoranda of the sale. But they purport to record the terms of the contract of employment, and the principal may treat himself as bound by their provisions.

Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable form, known as “the client’s return contract note” to be filled in, signed and returned by the client; but even the “client’s return contract note” is retained by the client’s own broker, and is only a memorandum of the terms of employment. The following is a form of contract note rendered by a broker to his client for American cotton bought on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange for future delivery. The client’s contract note is attached to it, and is in precisely corresponding form. AMERICAN COTTON Delivery Contract Note LIVERPOOL We have this day

to Fom

to maintain this position in practice without disturbing the funda. mental relations of broker and client.

Stockbrokets.—A stockbroker is a broker who contracts for the sale of stocks and shares.

Stockbrokers differ from brokers

proper chiefly in that stocks and shares are not “goods,” and the requirement of a memorandum in writing enacted by the Sale of Goods Act, 1893, does not apply. Hence actions may be brought by the principals to a contract for the sale of stocks and shares al. though no memorandum in writing exists. For instance, the jobber, on failing to recover from the buyer’s broker the price of shares sold, by reason of the broker having failed and been declared a defaulter, may sue the buyer whose “‘name was passed” by the broker. The employment of a stockbroker is subject to the rules and customs of the stock exchange, in accordance with the principles discussed above, which apply to the employment of brokers proper. A custom which is illegal, such as the stock ex. change practice of disregarding Leeman’s Act, 1867, which enacts that contracts for the sale of joint-stock bank shares shall be void unless the registered numbers of the shares are stated therein, is not binding on the client to the extent of making the contract

of sale valid. But if a client choose to instruct his broker to buy

bank shares in accordance with that practice, the broker is enyou, to be Delivered ex

Marenoue in Liverpool during b. AMERICAN COTTON

net weight to be contained in AMERICAN BALES, more or less, on the basis per lb. for he Se The Contract, of which this is a note, is made between ourselves and yourselves and not by or with any person whether disclosed or not on whose instructions or for whose benefit the same may have been entered into. This Contract is on “Settlement Terms” and is therefore subject to Weekly Payments as provided for in the Rules. This Contract is subject to the Rules of the Liverpool Cotton Association, Ltd., in force at the date of this contract which provide (amongst other things) for the Settlement of differences by Arbitration, and in case of any difference the matter shall be settled in accordance with the Rules. This Contract shall not be cancelled on any ground. The Contract, of which the above is a note, was made on the date specified within the business hours fixed in the Rules.

Yours faithfully,

The above form of contract note illustrates the tendency of exchanges to alter the relations between the broker and his principal. The object of inserting in the printed form the provision that the contract is made subject to the rules of the Liverpool Cotton Association is to make those rules binding upon the principal, and if he employs his broker upon the basis of the printed form, he does bind himself to any modification of the relations between himself and his broker which those rules may effect. The object of the principal clause in the above and similar printed forms is apparently to entitle the broker to sell to or buy from his principal on his own account and not as agent at all, thus disregarding the duty incumbent upon him as broker of making for his principal a contract with a third party. Decisions of the court in recent years have tended to support the exchanges in imposing their own rules and usages on nonmembers doing business on the exchange, but the court would not support a provision in a contract which purported to entitle a broker to disregard his fundamental duties, as an agent, even although provided that both parties were principals. Arbitration clauses are, of course, also regularly supported by the courts, though the parties cannot oust the jurisdiction of the courts altogether; the provisions of the Arbitration Act enable a point of law to be brought before the courts by special case; and no agreement of the parties can deprive the court of its discretion under Sec. 4 of the act. The tendency for the parties to contract as principals is prevalent on most exchanges, particularly in the case of contracts for the purchase and sale of goods for future delivery. This practice has many advantages because the parties to a contract know with

whom they are dealing and are not affected by the subsequent disclosure of a principal. And it is generally found that it is possible

titled to be indemnified by his client for money which he pays on his behalf, even though the contract of sale so made is unen-

forceable.

(See Stock ExcHANGE and STOCKBROKER.)

Insurance Brokers.—An insurance broker is an agent whose

business is to effect policies of insurance, including insurance treaties. He is employed by the person who has an interest to in-

sure, pays the premium to the underwriter or insurance company, takes up the policy and almost invariably receives from the underwriter or company, payment in the event of a loss under the policy. By a custom which is invariable at Lloyd’s, and practically so in the case of the companies, the broker is by custom responsible to the ‘underwriter for payment of premium. The broker, although he is employed by the assured, is remunerated by a commission which the underwriter or company permits him to deduct from the premium. Insurances at Lloyd’s can only be effected by brokers who are members of Lloyd’s. It is an established practice for brokers to keep a current account with the underwriter or company; and premiums, losses and the broker’s commission are dealt with in account. The broker usually conducts correspondence and negotiations on behalf of the assured, seeking to establish a right to recover a loss under the policy, but in the event of litigation the broker drops out, and the assured sues the underwriter or company direct. Agents, whether they effect life, fire, marine or other policies are known as insurance brokers if they

are free agents and not bound in any way to one particular insurance. Lloyd’s brokers are entitled by custom to 1% on the amount of the loss collected under marine policies. Ship-Brokers.—These are first “commission agents,” and sectondly, very often also ships’ managers. Their office is to act as agents for owners of ships to procure purchasers for ships, of ships for intending purchasers, in precisely the same manner a house agents act in respect of houses. They also act as agents for ship-owners in finding charterers for their ships, or for charterers in finding ships available for charter, and in either case they effect the charter-party. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.) Chartering brokers are customarily paid by the ship-ownet, when the charter-party is effected, whether originally employed by him or by the charterer. Charter-parties effected through brokers often contain a provision, “24% on estimated amount of freight

be paid to A B, broker, on the signing of this charter-party, and the ship to be consigned to him for ship’s business at the port of X [inserting the name of the port where A B carries on business].”

The broker cannot sue on the charter-party contract because he i not a party to it, but the insertion of the clause practically pre

vents his right from being disputed by the ship-owner. When the broker does the ship’s business in port, it is his duty to clear her at the customs and generally to act as “ship’s husband.” Bill-Brokers.—See¢ BILL-BROKER.

United States Practice ——The practice, and particularly th

law, with respect to brokers in the United States coincide roughly

BROMBERG—BROMIDE with the British conditions just described. There are some differences. Outside of New York agreements to arbitrate possible future disputes are not legally binding in the United States, and

the highly developed arbitration feature of the British exchanges

is not found, as yet. Neither is it common in the United States for the broker even on an exchange, to occupy, or undertake to occupy, the position of a principal with respect to his customer. Hence the accepted doctrine is that a broker cannot effectively, for his own account, sell to or purchase from his principal— subject always to the principal’s knowledge and consent in any particular transaction. The rules of an exchange commonly and lawfully provide, however, that the same broker may act for a buyer and a seller in the same transaction, receiving a commission from each, provided that he first offer the sale publicly on the exchange at a fraction higher than his own prospective bid, and

find no taker. Leeman’s Act on sale of bank shares (of stock) is not law in the United States; on the other hand, in most States, and under the widely adopted Uniform Sales Act, a

signed memorandum is as essential to the enforceability of the

contract where the sale is of stocks or bonds as where it is of merchandise. Bill-brokers are practically unknown in the United States; their general analogue is the note-broker. But the latter, instead of buying the paper of country banks and disposing of it in the metropolis, serves primarily as a retailer of paper to country banks, especially at times when the small bank’s local demand for credit is not large. Typically the broker buys the notes, breaking the transaction up into a set of notes in round figures, so as to be able to reach the smaller banks; the notes run to the customer’s own order and are blank endorsed, so as to be negotiable without endorsement by and obligation on the broker. Real Estate Brokers——Of considerable importance in both law and practice are also the real estate brokers. They commonly function differently from an agent, in that they do not themselves conclude the contract for their principal, but serve merely as negotiators who find another person willing to buy or sell, as the case may be, and persuade to the closing of a contract. Such a broker—who is commonly employed and paid by the seller —has earned his commission when he has produced a purchaser ready, willing and able to buy on the agreed terms, whether or not his principal sells to that purchaser. But prior sale by the principal or through another broker will defeat the broker’s claim. Hence the present practice of brokers refusing to handle real estate unless they are given the exclusive agency or sale. Perhaps because of disputes as to the fact or terms of employment when a seller has met a purchaser in the presence of a broker, many states have passed statutes barring collection of a commission by a real estate broker unless he holds a contract of employment signed by his principal. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Story, Commentaries on the Law of Agency (Boston, 1882); Brodhurst, Law and Practice of the Stock Exchange (1897); Gow, Handbook of Marine Insurance (1900); J. R. Dos Passos, Law of Stock-Brokers and Stock Exchanges (1905); A. P. Poley, The History, Law, and Practice of the Stock Exchange, 3rd

ed. (1920); W. Boustead, Law of Agency, th ed. (1924); Arnould,

On Marine Insurance, 11th ed. edit. by E. de Hart and R. J. Simey

(1924); Mechem on Agency, 2nd ed. (1914); Goldman, Stock Ex-

change Law (1923).

(L. Se.)

BROMBERG (Polish Bydgoszcz), a town of Poland, province

ists and against the Rump.

233 He published in 1661 Songs and

other Poems, containing songs on various subjects, followed by a series of political songs, ballads, epistles, elegies and epitaphs, epigrams and translations. Izaak Walton wrote an introductory eclogue for this volume in praise of the writer, and his gaiety

and wit won for him the title of the “English Anacreon” in Edward Phillips’s Theatrum Poetarum. Brome published in 1666 a translation of Horace, by himself and others, and was the author of a comedy entitled Tke Cunning Lovers (1654). He also edited two volumes of Richard Brome’s plays.

BROME, RICHARD

(d. 1652), English dramatist, was orig-

inally a servant of Ben Jonson, and owed much to his master.

The development of his plots, the strongly marked characters, and the amount of curious information to be found in his work, all show Jonson’s influence. The relation of master and servant developed into friendship, and our knowledge of Brome’s personal character is chiefly drawn from Ben Jonson’s sonnet to “my old faithful servant and by his continued virtue my loving friend, Mr. Richard Brome,” prefixed to The Northern Lasse (1632), the play which made Brome’s reputation. The relation of master and servant did not necessarily imply Jack of education on Brome’s part; since Jonson expected his servant (see Epigram CI.) to read “a piece of Virgil, Tacitus, Livy or some better book to his friends at supper.” Brome’s genius lay entirely in comedy. He has left 15 pieces, Five New Playes (ed. by Alex. Brome, 1653) contained Madd Couple Well Maicht (acted 1639?); Novella (acted 1632); Court Begger (acted 1632); City Witt; The Damoiselle or the New Ordinary. Five New Playes (1659) included The English Moor, or The Mock Marriage; The Love-Sick: Court, or The Ambitious Politique; Covent Garden Weeded; The New Academy, or The New Exchange; and The Queen and Concubine. The Antipodes (acted 1638, pr. 1640); The Sparagus Garden (acted 1635, pr. 1640); A Joviall Crew, or the Merry Beggars (acted 1641, pr. 1652, revised in 1731 as an “opera”), and The Queenes Exchange (pr. 1657), were published separately. He collaborated with Thomas Heywood in The late Lancashire Witches (pr. 1634). A Joviall Crew is generally considered the best of these. Brome’s beggars have the true vagabond touch and the love of the road. It was the last play to be acted before the theatres were closed down in 1642 by order of the parliament. See A. W. Ward, History of English Dramatic Literature, vol. iil. pp. 125-131 (1899), the articlė by Rev. Ronald Bayne in Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. vi., where there is an admirable account of Brome’s work; and E. K. R. Faust, Rickerd Brome (Halle, ne The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome . . . were reprinted

in 1873.

BROMELIACEAE, in botany, a family of Monocotyledons, confined to tropical and sub-tropical America; it consists of about 65 genera and 850 species. It includes the pineapple (q.v.) and also the so-called Spanish moss, a rootless plant, which hangs in long grey lichen-like festoons from the branches of trees, a native of Mexico and the southern United States; the water required is absorbed from the moisture in the air by peculiar hairs which cover the surface of the shoots. The plants are generally herbs with a shortened stem bearing a rosette of leaves and a spike or panicle of flowers. They are dry-country plants (xerophytes); the narrow leaves are protected by a thick cuticle, and have a sheath which embraces the stem and forms, with the sheaths of the other leaves of the rosette, a basin in which water collects, with fragments of rotting leaves and the like. Peculiar hairs are developed on the inner surface of the sheath by which the water and dissolved substances are absorbed. The leaf-margins are often spiny, and the leaf-spines of Puya chilensis are used by the natives as fish-hooks. Several species are grown as hot-house plants for the bright colour of their flowers or flower-bracts, ¢.g.,

of Poznan, 7m. from the Vistula, the centre of an important network of railways. Pop. (1900), 52,082; (1921), 87,800. The Bromberg canal connects the Brahe with the Notec, and thus establishes communication between the Vistula and Oder. The town has an active trade in agricultural products and is the chief centre of the Polish timber industries. Originally a border town between Poland and Pomerania, it suffered from the raids of the Teutonic knights. Restored by Casimir the Great in 1346, its commerce species of Tillandsia, Billbergia, Aechmea. See illus. overleaf. flourished, but declined in the 17th century. By the Treaty of BROMIDE, chemically, a compound of bromine with an eleTilsit it became part of the grand duchy of Warsaw. In 1873 it ment or an organic radical, or a salt of hydrobromic acid, such as was occupied by the Prussians, and was held by Prussia from sodium bromide. Various bromides are of value in medicine, especially potassium bromide which is extensively used as a car1815 to 1978. BROME, ALEXANDER (1620-66), English poet, wrote diac and cerebral depressant. From the application of the term tgny drinking songs and satirical verses in favour of the Royal- bromide in the sense of a nerve sedative has arisen the colloquial

234

BROMINE

meaning of a bromide as a platitude; a person whose inane conversation bores excessively is called bromidic. BROMINE, a deep red, liquid, non-metallic element of the halogen group, which takes its name from its pungent unpleasant smell

(Bpôpos, a stench).

It was first recognized as an element

and isolated by A. J. Balard in 1826 from the salts in the waters of the Mediterranean. It has the symbol Br, the atomic number

the chief impurities present in it being chlorine, hydrobromi acid, and bromoform. It is usually purified by repeated shaki with potassium, calcium or ferrous bromide, and subsequent

redistillation, a process which removes the chlorine and a par of the other impurities. Properties.—Bromine at ordinary temperatures is a mobile liquid of fine red colour, which appears almost black in thick layers. It boils at 59°C., forming a deep red vapour, which exerts an irritating and directly poisonous action on the res.

piratory organs. It solidifies to a dark brown solid which melts at —7-3°C. Its specific gravity is 3-18828 (9°), latent heat of fusion 16-185 calories, latent heat of vaporization 45-6 calories,

specific heat o-1071. Its properties are altered to a remarkable degree by prolonged drying; a specimen which had been dried for eight years melted at —4-5°C. and boiled at 118°C., a rise of 6o degrees (H. B. Baker) (see DRYNESS, CHEMICAL). Bromine is soluble in water, to the extent of 3-226 grammes of bromine per 100 grammes of solution at 15°C., the solubility being slightly increased by the presence of potassium bromide. The solution is of an orange-red colour, and is quite permanent in the dark, but on exposure to light, gradually becomes colourless, owing to decomposition into hydrobromic acid and oxygen. By cooling the aqueous solution, hyacinth-red octahedra of a crystalline

hydrate of composition Brz-10H.O are obtained (Bakhuis Roozeboom). Bromine is soluble in chloroform, alcohol and ether. Its chemical properties are in general intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine; thus it requires the presence of a catalytic agent, a fairly high temperature, or actinic light to bring about its union with hydrogen. It does not combine directly with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon. With the other elements it unites to form bromides, often with explosive violence; phos-

phorus detonates in liquid bromine and inflames in the vapour; iron is occasionally used to absorb bromine vapour, potassium reacts energetically, but sodium requires to be heated to 200°C, The chief use of bromine in analytical chemistry is based upoa

the oxidizing action of bromine water. Bromine and bromine water both bleach organic colouring matters. Bromine is used extensively in organic chemistry as a substituting and oxidizing agent, and also for the preparation of addition compounds. It is used in the liquid form, in vapour, in solution, and in the presence of the so-called “bromine carriers” (see below). The solvents in which bromine is employed are usually ether, chloroform, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, carbon bisulphide or water. FROM “CURTIS* BOTANICAL MAGAZINE,” BY PERMISSION OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURE SOCIETY SLENDER HANGING BRANCHES OF SPANISH MOSS, A PERCHING PLANT WHICH HANGS IN FESTOONS FROM TREES IN THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES AND TROPICAL AMERICA. (SEE PREVIOUS PAGE)

35, and the atomic weight 79-92. Bromine does not occur in nature in the uncombined condition, but in combination with various metals is very widely but sparingly distributed. Potassium, sodium and magnesium bromides are found in mineral waters, in river and sea-water, and occasionally in marine plants and animals. Its chief commercial sources are the salt deposits at Stassfurt in Prussian Saxony, in which magnesium bromide is found associated with various chlorides, and the brines of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, U.S.A.; a scheme is

The choice of solvent and of other conditions is important, for the velocity of the reaction and the nature of the product may vary according to the solvent used, or according to whether the reaction is conducted in sunlight or not. The action of bromine is sometimes accelerated by the use of compounds which behave catalytically, the more important of these “carriers” being iodine, iron, ferric chloride, ferric bromide, aluminium bromide and phosphorus. For oxidizing purposes bromine is generally employed m

aqueous and in alkaline solutions, one of its most important applications being by Emil Fischer, in his researches on the sugars. The most important determinations of the atomic weight of bromine are those of G. P. Baxter based on the ratios Ag:

AgBr, and AgCl:AgBr; and of P. A. Guye and E. Moles, based

being developed for the extraction of bromides from the Dead Sea (1927).

on the density of hydrogen bromide.

Manufacture.—The chief centres of the bromine industry are Stassfurt and the central district of Michigan. It is manufactured from the magnesium bromide contained in “bittern” (the mother liquor of the salt industry), by two processes, the continuous and the periodic. The continuous process depends upon the decomposition of the bromide by chlorine, which is generated in special stills. A regular current of chlorine mixed with steam is led in at the bottom of a tall tower filled with broken bricks,

hydrogen and bromine, is in many respects similar to hydrochlorit acid, but is rather less stable. It may be prepared by passing hydrogen gas and bromine vapour through a tube containing a heated platinum spiral. It cannot be prepared with any degree of purity by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid om

and there meets a descending stream of hot bittern: bromine is liberated and is swept out of the tower together with some chlorine, by the current of steam, and then condensed in a worm. Apy unacondensed bromine vapour is absorbed by moist iron berings, and the resulting iron bromide is used for the manufacture of potassium bromide. Commercial bromine is rarely pure,

in dropping bromine on to a mixture of amorphous phosphorus

Hydrobromic Acid.—This acid, HBr, the only compound of

bromides, since secondary reactions take place, leading to the liberation of free bromine and formation of sulphur dioxide. The usual method employed for the preparation of the gas consists and water, when a violent reaction takes place and the gas 8 rapidly liberated; an aqueous solution may be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through bromine water. At ordinary temperatures hydrobromic acid is a colourless gas which fumes

strongly in moist air, and has an acid taste and reaction. It cd

BROMLEY—BROMSGROVE be condensed to a liquid, which boils at —68-7°C. (under a pressure of 760 mm.), and, by still further cooling, gives colourless

crystals which melt at —88-5°C.

It is readily soluble in water,

forming the aqueous acid, which when saturated at o°C. has a specific gravity of 1-78 and contains 82-02% HBr. When boiled,

the aqueous acid loses either acid or water until a solution of

constant boiling point is obtained, containing 48% of the acid and boiling at 126°C. under atmospheric pressure; should the

pressure, however, vary, the strength of the solution boiling at a constant temperature varies also.

Hydrobromic acid is one of

the “strong” acids, being ionized to a very large extent even in concentrated solution, as shown

by the molecular

conductivity

increasing by only a small amount over a wide range of dilution. Bromides.—Hydrobromic acid reacts with metallic oxides,

hydroxides and carbonates to form bromides, which can in many cases be obtained also by the direct union of the metals with bromine. As a class, the metallic bromides are solids at ordinary temperatures, which fuse readily and volatilize on heating. The majority are soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver,

mercurous, palladous and lead bromides; the last is, however, soluble in hot water. They are decomposed by chlorine, with liberation of bromine and formation of metallic chlorides; concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes them, with formation

of a metallic sulphate and liberation of bromine and sulphur dioxide. The non-metallic bromides are usually liquids, which are readily decomposed by water. Hydrobromic acid and its salts can be readily detected by the addition of chlorine water to their aqueous solutions, when bromine is liberated; or by warming with concentrated sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide, the same result being obtained. Silver nitrate in the presence of nitric acid gives with bromides a pale yellow precipitate of silver

bromide, AgBr, which is sparingly soluble in ammonia. quantitative determination

For their

they are precipitated in nitric acid

235

hypnotic, as the standard anaphrodisiac, as a sedative in mania and all forms of morbid mental excitement, and in hyperaesthesia of all kinds. Its most striking success is in epilepsy, for which it is the specific remedy. It may be given in doses of from 10

to 50 grains or more, and may be continued without ill effect for long periods in grave cases of epilepsy (grand mal). Of the three bromides in common use the potassium salt is the most rapid and certain in its action, but may depress the heart in morbid states of that organ; in such cases the sodium salt (of which the base is inert) may be employed. In whooping-cough, when a sedative is required but a stimulant is also indicated, ammonium bromide is often invaluable, The conditions in which bromides are most frequently used are insomnia, epilepsy, whooping-cough, delirium tremens, asthma, migraine, laryngismus stridulus, the symptoms often attendant upon the climacteric in women, hysteria, neuralgia, certain nervous disorders of the heart, strychnine poisoning, nymphomania and spermatorrhoea. Hydrobromic acid is often used to relieve or prevent the headache and singing in the ears that may follow the administration of quinine and of salicylic acid or salicylates.

BROMLEY,

SIR THOMAS

(1530-1587), English judge

born in Staffordshire in 1530, was educated at Oxford and called to the bar at the Middle Temple. Through family influence and the patronage of the lord keeper, Bacon, he made way in his profession, becoming recorder of London in- 1566, and solicitor-general (1569). He sat in parliament successively for Bridgnorth, Wigan and Guildford. In 1579 he was made lord chancellor. As an equity judge he showed profound knowledge; Shelley’s case

(g.v.) is a landmark in English law. He presided at the trial of

Mary, queen of Scots (1586), but the strain proved too much for his strength, and he died on April 12, 1587, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. See Foss, Lives of the Judges (1848-64) ; J. Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors.

solution by means of silver nitrate, and the silver bromide is well washed, dried and weighed. Acids.—No oxides of bromine have been isolated, but three oxy-acids are known, viz., hypobromous acid, HBrO, bromous acid, HBrO., and bromic acid HBrO; Hypobromous acid is obtained by shaking together bromine water and precipitated mercuric oxide, followed by distillation of the dilute solution in vacuo at low temperature (about 40°C.). It is a very unstable compound, breaking up, on heating, into bromine and oxygen. The aqueous solution is light yellow in colour, and possesses strong bleaching properties. Bromic acid is obtained by the addition of the calculated amount of sulphuric acid (previously diluted with water) to the barium salt; by the action of bromine on the silver salt, in the presence of water, sAgBrO,+3Br.+3H,0 = sAgBr-+6HBrO3, or by passing chlorine through a solution of bromine in water. The acid is only known in the form of its aqueous solution; this is, however, very unstable, decomposing on being heated to 100°C. in water, oxygen and bromine. By reducing agents such, for example, as sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide, it is rapidly converted into hydrobromic acid. Hydrobromic acid decomposes it according to the equation HBrO, +sSHBr=3H.0+3Br.. Its salts are known as bromates, and

45,348. It lies on high ground north of the small River Ravensbourne in a well-wooded district, and has become a favourite residential locality for those whose business lies in London. The former palace of the bishops of Rochester (now a school) was erected in 1777 in place of an older structure. The manor belonged to this see as early as the reign of Ethelbert. In the gardens is a chalybeate spring known as St. Blaize’s Well, which was in high repute before the Reformation. The church of St. Peter and St. Paul, mainly Perpendicular, retains a Norman font and other remains of an earlier building. Bromley college was founded by Bishop Warner in 1666 for “twenty poor widows of loyal and orthodox clergymen.” In the vicinity of Bromley, Bickley is a similar residential township, and Hayes Common a favourite place of excursion. ` Bromley was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 4,697 acres.

are as a general rule with difficulty soluble in water, and decomposed by heat, with evolution of oxygen. Bromine forms com-

in the south-east

pounds with fluorine (BrF2) and iodine (IBr), but only a series of mixed crystals with chlorine.

Applications.—The salts of bromine are widely used in pho-

tography, especially bromide of silver. In medicine it is largely employed in the form of bromides of potassium, sodium and ammonium, as well as in combination with alkaloids and other substances.

Medicinal Use.—Bromide of potassium is the safest and most generally applicable sedative of the nervous system.

Whilst very

weak, its action is perfectly balanced throughout all nervous tissue, so much so that Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton has suggested

its action to he due to its replacement of sodium chloride (common salt) in the fluids of the nervous system. Hence bromide of potassium (or bromide of sodium, which is possibly somewhat safer still though not quite so certain in its action) is used as a

BROMLEY, municipal borough of Kent, England, r0} m. S.E. by S. of London by the Southern railway. Pop. (1931)

The parliamentary borough of Bromley includes the urban districts of Beckenham and Penge, and had a population of 94,681 in 1921.

BROMPTON, a south-western district of London, England, of the metropolitan borough of Kensington.

Brompton road, leading south-west from Knightsbridge, is continued as Old Brompton road and Richmond road, to join Lillie road, at which point are the Metropolitan District and Southern Railway stations of West Brompton. Brompton Oratory, the Imperial institute, the Victoria and Albert museum, the Imperial College of Art, the Natural History museum, the Imperial Science museum, the Imperial College of Science and Technology, the offices of the University of London, the Brompton consumption hospital and the West London or Brompton cemetery are included in this district, which is mainly occupied by residences. (See KENSINGTON.) BROMSGROVE, urban district, Worcestershire, England, ram. N.N.E. of Worcester, with a station 1m. from the town on the Bristo]-Birmingham L.M.S. line. Pop. (z93r) 9,520, It lies in an undulating district near the foot of the Lickey hills. The railway towards Birmingham here ascends for 2m. one of

BRONCHIECTASIS—BRONCHITIS

236

the steepest gradients in England over such a distance. There remain several picturesque half-timbered houses dating from 1572 and later. The church of St. John, mainly Perpendicular in date, is placed above the town. There is a well-known grammar school,

laboured, the nostrils dilating with each effort, and evidence of impending suffocation appears. The surface of the body is pale or dusky, the lips are livid, while breathing becomes increasingly difficult, and is attended with suffocative paroxysms which render

founded by Edward VI. Birmingham sanatorium stands in the parish. Bromsgrove is a market town, but there are manufactures, e.g. of nails and buttons. The river Salwarpe works a

the recumbent posture impossible. Unless speedy relief is obtained somnolence and delirium set in and death ensues.

number of mills in the neighbourhood. Near the town are L.M.S.

ailment. It is pre-eminently dangerous at the extremes of life and it is one of the most fatal diseases of those periods. Bronchitis is often very severe in alcoholic persons, in those who suffer from any disease affecting directly or indirectly the respiratory functions, such as consumption or heart disease, and in children who are or have been suffering from measles andj whooping-cough. One source of danger in bronchitis is collapse of the lung, Occasionally a branch of a bronchial tube becomes plugged with secretion, and the area of the lung to which this branch conducts ceases to be inflated on inspiration. The small quantity of air imprisoned in the portion of lung gradually is absorbed, but no fresh air enters, and the part collapses and becomes solid. Increased difficulty of breathing is the result, and where a large portion of lung is affected by the plugging of a large bronchus, a fatal result may rapidly follow, especially in children. Treatment.—In mild cases warmth, light diet and diluent drinks alone are necessary. In severer cases expectorants, perhaps with the addition of a little opiate if pain be severe, may be required. In children, however, opium must be given with the greatest caution because of their extreme sensitiveness to this drug. Not a few “soothing mixtures” contain opium in quantity sufficient to be dangerous when administered to children. In addition fomentations and inhalations are often of use. When the bronchitis is of the capillary form, the great object is to maintain the patient’s strength, and secure expulsion of the morbid secretion from the fine bronchi. In addition to other remedies stimulants are called for from the first, and should the cough be ineffectual in relieving the bronchial tubes, the administration of an emetic dose of sulphate of zinc may produce a good effect. It may be necessary to administer oxygen. During the whole course of any attack of bronchitis attention must be paid to nourishment of the patient; and during the subsequent convalescence, particularly in elderly persons, tonics and stimulants may have to be prescribed. Chronic bronchitis may arise as the result of repeated attacks of the acute form, or it may exist altogether independently. It occurs more frequently among persons advanced in life than among the young, although no age is exempt from it. The usual history of this form of bronchitis is that of a cough recurring during the colder seasons of the year, and in its earlier stages, departing entirely in summer, so that it is frequently called “winter cough.” In many persons subject to it, however, attacks are apt to be excited at any time by very slight causes, such as changes in the weather; and in advanced cases of the disease the cough is seldom altogether absent. The symptoms and auscultatory signs of chronic bronchitis are on the whole similar to those pertaining to the acute form, except that the febrile disturbance and pain are much less marked. The cough is usually more troublesome in the morning than during the day. There is free and copious expectoration, and occasionally this is so abundant as to constitute bronchorrhoea. Chronic bronchitis leads to alterations of structure in the affected bronchial tubes, their mucous membrane becoming thickened or even ulcerated, while occasionally permanent dilatation of the bronchi takes place, often accompanied with profuse foetid expectoration. In long-standing cases the nutrition of the lungs becomes impaired, and dilatation of the air-tubes (emphysems) and other complications result, giving rise to breathlessness. ``

railway carriage works.

BRONCHIECTASIS

(see also Respiratory System, Dis-

EASES OF), dilatation of the bronchi, a condition occurring in many diseases of the lungs. Bronchitis, both acute and chronic, chronic pneumonia and phthisis, acute pneumonia and broncho-pneumonia, may all leave after them a bronchiectasis whose position is determined by the primary lesion. Other causes are tracheal and bronchial obstruction, as from the pressure of an aneurism, new growth, etc. It is chiefly a disease of middle age, but may occur in debilitated children after measles, whooping cough, etc. The dilatation is cylindrical or saccular, and the medium and smaller sized tubes are generally affected, except where the cause is mechanical. The affection is usually of one lung only. Emphysema is a very common accompaniment. Cough is paroxysmal, and though severe is intermittent, the patient being entirely free for many hours at a time. The effect of posture is great. If the patient lie on the affected side, he may be free from cough the whole night, but if he turn to the sound side, or if he rise and bend forward, he brings up large quantities of foetid bronchial secretion. Where the dilatation is saccular it may come up in such quantities and with so much suddenness as to gush from the mouth. When the disease has lasted long, clubbing of fingers and toes is common. The diagnosis between this condition and a tuberculous cavity in the lung is often very difficult. Often the patient’s condition can be greatly alleviated. Creosote vapour baths are eminently satisfactory. A mechanical treatment much recommended by some of the German physicians is that of forced

expiration and, more recently, surgical drainage of the cavities has been adopted.

BRONCHITIS,

the name given to inflammation of the

mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes (see RESPIRATORY SysTEM). Two main varieties occur, specific and non-specific. The bronchitis met with in typhoid fever and diphtheria, influenza, measles, pneumonia, due to the micro-organisms causing these diseases, is specific; that which results from extension from above, or from chemical or mechanical irritation, is non-specific. It is convenient to describe it, however, under the clinical divisions of acute and chrontc bronchitis. Acute bronchitis generally arises as the result of exposure to cold, particularly if accompanied with damp, or of sudden change from a heated to a cool atmosphere. The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack, 7.e., according tothe extent to which the inflammatory action spreads in the bronchial tubes. The disease usually manifests itself at first as a common cold with feverishness and general constitutional disturbance. A short, painful, dry cough, rapid and wheezing respiration, a feeling of rawness and pain in the throat and behind the breast bone, and of oppression or tightness throughout the chest, mark the early stages of the disease. If the smaller bronchi are involved extensively, dyspnoea is severe. After a few days expectoration accompanies the cough, at first scanty and viscid or frothy, but soon becoming copious and mucopurulent. In general, after free expectoration has been established the more urgent and painful symptoms abate; and though the cough may persist for three or four weeks, the patient is ultimately restored to health. The case is very different when the inflammation spreads into, or primarily affects, the minute ramifications of the bronchial tubes in immediate relation to the air-cells of the lungs, giving

|

vise te capillary bronchitis or broncho-pneumonia (see RESPIRATORY System and PNEUMONIA). When this takes place the symptoms already detailed are greatly intensified, and the patient’s life is-in danger. The feverishness and restlessness increase, the cough becomes incessant, the respiration extremely rapid and

Acute bronchitis must at all times be looked upon asa serioys

Chronic bronchitis may arise secondarily to some other alment, especially Bright’s disease and heart disease. The influent of occupation is seen in the frequency in which persons follow ing certain employments suffer from chronic bronchitis. Th

inhalation of vegetable dust is very liable to produce bronchitis

through the irritation produced by the dust particles and the

BRONCHOTOMY—BRONTE growth of organisms carried in with the dust.

Consequently,

millers and grain-shovellers are especially liable to it, while next

in order come weavers and workers in cotton factories.

The treatment to be adopted in chronic bronchitis depends

upon the severity of the case, the age of the patient and the pres-

ence or absence of complications. Tonics with cod-liver oil will be found advantageous. In those aggravated forms where the slightest exposure to cold air brings on fresh attacks, confinement to a warm room or removal to a more genial climate during the winter months is indicated.

BRONCHOTOMY, a medical term used for a surgical in-

cision into the throat; now superseded by the terms laryngotomy,

thyrotomy and tracheotomy, which indicate more accurately the place of incision.

BRONCO, usually incorrectly spelt BroncHo (Spanish for

rough), an untamed horse, especially in the United States, a mustang.

BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE (1801-1876), French botanist, son of the geologist Alexandre born in Paris. In 1831 he became assistant to R. at the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, and two years him as professor, a position he continued to hold

Brongniart, was L. Desfontaines later succeeded until his death.

Brongniart’s paper on the classification and distribution of

fossil plants (1822) was followed by others bearing chiefly upon the relation between extinct and existing forms. His important “Prodrome” (contributed to the Grand Dictionnaire d’Hist. Nat., 1828, t.lvii.) brought order into chaos by a classification in which the fossil plants were arranged, with remarkably correct

insight, along with their nearest living allies, and which forms the basis of all subsequent progress in this direction. It is of especial botanical interest, because, in accordance with Robert Brown’s discoveries, the Cycadeae and Coniferae were placed in the new

group Phanérogames gymnospermes. In this book attention was also directed to the succession of forms in the various geological periods. His great Histoire des végétaux fossiles, which itself was not destined to be more than a colossal fragment, was published in successive parts from 1828 to 1837. His other important palaeontological contributions are his observations on the structure of Sigillaria (Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. i., 1839) and his researches on fossil seeds, of which a full account was published posthumously in 1880. His memoir “Sur la génération et le développement de lembryon des Phanérogames” (Ann. Sci. Nat. xii., 1827) is interesting as containing the first valuable account of the development of the pollen; as also a description of the structure of tbe pollen-grain, the confirmation of G. B. Amici’s (1823) discovery of the pollen-tube, the confirmation of R. Brown’s views as to the structure of the unimpregnated ovule (with the introduction of the term “sac embryonnaire”). It shows how nearly Brongniart anticipated Amici’s subsequent (1846) discovery of the entrance of the pollen-tube into the micropyle, fertilizing the female cell. His systematic work is represented by a large number of papers and monographs, many of which relate to the flora of New Cale-

donia; and by his Enumération des genres de plantes cultivées au Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris (1843), which is a landmark in the history of classification in that it forms the startingpoint of the system, modified successively by A. Braun, A. W. Eichler and A. Engler, which is now adopted in Germany. With J. V. Audouin and J. B. A. Dumas, his future brothers-in-law,

he established the Annales des Sciences Naturelles in 1824; he also founded the Société Botanique de France in 1854, and was its first president. For accounts of his life and work see Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France

(1876), and La Nature (1876) ; the Bulletin de la Soc. Bot. de France

for 1876, vol. xxiii. contains a list of his works.

BRONGNIART,

ALEXANDRE

(1770-1847),

French

mineralogist and geologist, son of the eminent architect who de-

signed the Bourse and other public buildings of Paris, was born in that city, and became professor of natural history in the Collège

des Quatre Nations. In 1800 he was made director of the Sèvres

porcelain factory, a post which he retained to his death. In his

hands Sèvres became the leading factory in Europe, and the re-

237

searches of an able band of assistants enabled him to lay the foundations of ceramic chemistry.

He succeeded Haüy as pro-

fessor of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History; but he did not confine himself to mineralogy, for it is to him that we owe the division of reptiles into the four orders of Saurians, Batrachians, Chelonians and Ophidians; and fossil as well as living animals engaged his attention. His Traité des arts céramiques (1844) is a classic. Brongniart was also the coadjutor of Cuvier in the admirable Essai sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris (1811), originally published in Aun. Mus. Hist. Nat. (1808), xi.

BRONN,

HEINRICH

GEORG

(1800-1862),

German

geologist, was born on March 3, 1800, at Ziegelhausen near Heidelberg. He took his degree as doctor of medicine at Heidelberg in 1821, and in the following year was appointed professor of natural history. His great work, Lethaea Geognostica (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1834-38; 3rd ed., with F. Römer, 3 vols., 1851—56), has been regarded as one of the foundations of German stratigraphical geology. Of his Handbuch einer Geschichte der Natur (1841 seq.), the third part included his famous Zndex Palaeontologicus. He died at Heidelberg on July 5, 1862. BRONSART VON SCHELLENDORF, PAUL (18321891), Prussian general, was born at Danzig on Jan. 25, 1832. He entered the Prussian Guards in 1849. During the war of 1870 he was chief of a section on the Great General Staff, and conducted the preliminary negotiations for the surrender of the

French at Sedan. As minister for war (1883-89) he carried out

many important reforms in the Prussian army, in particular the introduction of the magazine rifle. He was appointed in 1889 to command the Ist Army Corps at Königsberg. He died on June 23, 1891, at his estate near Braunsberg. Bronsart’s military writings include two important works: Ein Rückblick auf dte taktischen

Rückblicke (2nd ed., 1870), a pamphlet written in reply to Captain May’s Tactical Retrospect of 1866; and Der Dienst des Gen-

eralstabes im Frieden und im Kriege (1st ed., 1876; 3rd ed., revised by General Meckel, 1893; new ed. by the author’s son, Major Bronsart von Schellendorf, 1904), a comprehensive treatise on the duties of the general staff. The edition of 1893 was translated into English and issued officially to the British army as The Duties of the General Staff. Major Bronsart’s new edition of 1904 was re-issued in English by the general staff, under the same title, in 1905. BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855), EMILY (18181848) and ANNE (1820-1849), English novelists, were the children of Patrick Bronté, an Irishman, who was born at Emsdale, Co. Down, on March 17, 1777. His paternal name was Brunty, but this he changed when he came to England. Although the son of humble parents, he had saved sufficient by the age of 25 to support him at Cambridge, and he entered St. John’s college in 1802; then, on taking his degree four years later, he became curate of Wethersfield, Essex. At Hartshead-cum-Clifton, Yorkshire, where he had afterwards accepted a curacy, he married Maria, daughter of Thomas Branwell of Penzance, in 1812. She was a woman of delicate constitution, and died of cancer on Sept. 15, 1821, the mother of six children. Hartshead was the birthplace of her elder daughters, Maria (1813-1825) and Elizabeth

(1814-1825); then when the family had moved to Thornton in the same county, Charlotte was born on April 21, 1816, Patrick Branwell in 1817, Emily Jane in August, 1818, and Anne in March 1820. Three months after Anne’s birth, her father accepted the living of Haworth nine miles from Bradford, where he remained as rector for the rest of his life. On the death of Mrs. Bronté, her husband invited his sister-inlaw, Elizabeth Branwell, to live with his family at Haworth and to care for the children. She taught them the simple arts, but took her meals apart and had but slight intercourse with them. Branwell was educated by his father, but the latter, again, was of eccentric personality. A man of more than average intelligence (he was the author of two volumes of verse and other works) and undoubtedly fond of his six children, yet he was unsocial in his habits, living, even taking his meals alone, in his study. Thus the children were left very much to themselves in the bleak moor-

238 land rectory.

BRONTE Most

of their time was spent in reading and in

composition, varied with walks over the moors; and their output of youthful literature was enormous. In the course of 15 months, before she was 15 years of age, Charlotte was responsible for 23 “novels” alone, and in these writings, though they are of no intrinsic value, there is ample evidence of the astonishing precocity displayed by the young family. The children were educated, during their early life, at home, except for a single year which Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte and Emily spent in the Clergy Daughters’ school at Cowan’s Bridge. Here the fees were extremely low, and the food was correspondingly bad, while the discipline was unpardonably harsh. The horrors experienced at Cowan’s Bridge were afterwards depicted by Charlotte in Jane Eyre, the name of the school being disguised as “Lowood”; but in this terrible picture it is necessary to allow for some exaggeration. In 1831 Charlotte was sent to Miss Margaret Wooler’s school at Roe Head, Dewsbury, where she improved her drawing, French and composition; a year later, she returned home to assist in the instruction of her sisters. Although her shyness and reserve, her ignorance in some directions and her precocity in others, were noted by her school companions at Roe Head, this year of her life was a happy one, and bore fruit in the lasting friendships which she made with Mary Taylor and Ellen Nussey; her correspondence with Miss Nussey, indeed, which continued until her death, has provided much of what we

know of her life. The next three years at Haworth, varied with visits to one or other of these two friends, were spent in reading and composition; but financial considerations, and especially the cost of supporting Branwell, persuaded her in 1835 to become governess with Miss Wooler, whose school, a year later, was removed to Dewsbury. Emily, accompanying her as a pupil, suffered from home-sickness and remained only three months; her place was then taken by Anne. When Charlotte returned, on account of ill-health, to Haworth in 1838, she received an offer of marriage from Ellen Nussey’s brother Henry, who was a clergyman, but this proposal, and a second one from a curate named Bryce, she refused. Her opinion

of curates, whom in one place she describes as “a self-seeking, vain and empty race,” was singularly embittered especially in view of her marriage later on. At this time her literary endeavours were somewhat damped by a letter which she received from Southey; she had sent him some manuscripts for his opinion,

and his reply discouraged her. It was necessary to supplement the family income, and Charlotte made

new

plans.

After serving

for some months as nursery governess to the Sidgwicks of Stonegappe and to the Whites of Rawdon, Yorkshire, it occurred to her

that she might attain to a greater independence if she herself possessed a school. Her aunt agreed to finance this experiment, and Charlotte proposed to visit the Continent in order to acquire a more thorough knowledge of modern languages; early in 1842 she went with Emily to Brussels as pupil in the Pensionnat Héger.

The talent displayed by both his English students brought them to the special notice of the principal teacher, Constantin Héger, who was a man of unusual perception, and in whose hands they rapidly acquired a mastery of the language. After eight months, however, their studies were abruptly cut short by the death of their aunt on Oct. 29, 1842, and they both returned to England. Charlotte was on the whole happy in Brussels, but Emily pined for home and for the wild moorland air. Yet it seems clear that in Brussels, reserved as she was, Emily was better appreciated than Charlotte. Her passionate nature was more easily understood than Charlotte’s decorous temperament. Elizabeth Branwell bequeathed to her nieces a sum which carried a certain independence with it, and, discardmg the plan to found a school outside, the sisters now decided to take pupils at their father’s house. Charlotte, however, in order to perfect her knowledge of French,

accepted an invitation from M. Héger to return as instructress to Brussels, and the whole of 1843 she spent abroad. This year was not a happy one.for her. She was lonely and grew depressed, her

hardly be questioned. Certainly the letters which Charlotte gen her master after she had left Brussels finally, indicate a profoyng and moving attachment to him, but on the other hand there is not the slightest reason to suppose that M. Héger felt anything beyond friendliness and admiration for his pupil’s talents. Char. lotte returned to Haworth on Jan. 2, 1844.

The events which followed were not calculated to dissipate he

gloom.

Prospectuses were issued of the school which they pr.

posed to found at the vicarage, but to that distant village no pupils were attracted. Worse than this disappointment was the moral collapse of Branwell, who about this time became a cop. firmed drunkard. He had been a lad of great promise, and it was hoped that he would become an artist; but his fondness for drink and for questionable companions, besides a more general feeble. ness of character, had manifested themselves early in his life and

with disastrous results. From his youth onwards, his life was a series of disgraces. He squandered his parent’s money in futile efforts to become a painter, and turned at last to private tuition as a means of earning his living. A short period of employment with the Leeds and Manchester railway terminated with his dismissal in 1842 on account of culpable negligence, and his career closed in 1845 when he was turned out of Mr. Robinson’s house at Thorp Green, justly charged with making love to his employer's

wife. The last years of his life were spent at Haworth, where he loafed at the village inn, shocked his sisters by his excesses, and finally died in delirium tremens. In 1845 Charlotte came across

some

poems

by Emily, and

this led to the discovery that all three had written verse. A year later was published jointly a volume of poems by “Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell,” the initials of these pseudonyms being those of the sisters; but the book was issued at their own expense, and only two copies were sold. Yet lack of notice did not deter them from further efforts. Each had a novel completed, for which they

persevered in their endeavours to find a publisher. After a long and discouraging series of refusals, Charlotte was rewarded in 1847 by a polite letter from the firm of Smith and Elder, whose reader, while rejecting her novel The Professor, expressed himself very willing to examine the three-volume romance which she had mentioned to him. This was Jane Eyre, then in process of completion. Written in a period of sadness consequent upon Branwell’s collapse, upon the growing blindness of her father, and upon the now manifest ill-health of her sisters, it was a work of incomparably greater power than The Professor. When she sent it to Smith and Elder, their reader, W. S. Williams, was so excited that he sat up all night reading it; and on its publication in Aug. 1847, success was immediate. “Currer Bell’’ at once became a famous name. Although the book was full of improbabilities and often displayed a naive ignorance of the world, its characterization was so sure and its passion so overwhelming, that its faults were easily forgotten. Charlotte’s extreme shyness induced her to keep her name secret for some time after the appearance of Jame Eyre, but when she visited London in 1848, to see her publishers her real name could no longer be concealed from them. Her stay in London was very brief, and on her retum to Haworth, fresh misfortunes were awaiting her to dissipate whatever elation she may have felt. Branwell died on Sept. 24, and hardly had Charlotte recovered from the breakdown which fol

lowed this shock than Emily’s health began rapidly to fail. She had been ill for some time, but now her breathing became difficult, and she suffered great pain. Yet it was only two hours before her death on Dec. 19, after she had struggled from her bed and

dressed herself, that she would allow a doctor to be called. This

stoicism was characteristic of her whole life. With her death the most enigmatical and perhaps the greatest of the Brontés passed away. Our record of her life is extremely meagre, for she was

silent and reserved, and left no correspondence of interest, while

her single novel, Wuthering Heights, darkens rather than solve the mystery of her spiritual existence. This book had been a cepted early in 1847 by J. Cautley Newby, of London, but ms

strong religious convictions were upset in a Roman Catholic coun-

publication was delayed until after the appearance of Jane Eyre

try, while there is reason to believe that Mme. Héger became jealous of her. That the latter was unjust in her suspicions can

Its greatness was not soon recognized, and many years ela before anything beyond a clumsiness of construction and a sa¥

BRONTE— BRONX agery .of mood were generally perceived in it. So difficult is the book to “place,” and so charged with a significance which it is difficult to explain, that doubts of all kinds have grown up round

it. At first it was widely regarded as an early work of “Currer Bell,” and later on as a creation of Branwell’s; but there is no reason for rejecting Charlotte’s statement that the novel was

239

The bare recital of the Bronté story can give no idea of its

undying interest, its exceeding pathos. Their life as told by their

biographer Mrs. Gaskell is as interesting as any novel. achievement, however, will stand on its own merits.

Their Anne

Bronté’s two novels, it is true, though constantly reprinted, survive principally through the exceeding vitality of the Brontë

tradition. Emily is great alike as a novelist and as a poet. Her “Old Stoic” and “Last Lines” are among the finest achievement he claimed at least a share of the authorship, but this was no of poetry that any woman has given to English literature. Wuthmore, probably, than the idle boast of a drunkard. Emily’s poems ering Heights stands alone as a monument of intensity owing (she alone of the sisters possessed a true poetic gift) throw most nothing to tradition, nothing to the achievement of earlier writers. light upon her mind and heart. From them we learn of her It was a thing apart, passionately sincere, unforgettable, hauntstoicism, her deism and of her passion for the moors which almost ing in its grimness, its grey melancholy. Emily Bronté has a amounted to “nature worship”; and there are also passages which sure and certain place in English literature. As a poet or maker plainly indicate that she had had mystical experiences. Besides of verse Charlotte Bronté is undistinguished, but there are the poems, which give some idea of her personality, there is an passages of pure poetry of great magnificence in her four novels, idealized portrait of Emily in the heroine of Charlotte Bronté’s and particularly in Villette. The novels Jane Eyre and Villette Shirley; but of external biographical material little that is of value will always command attention whatever the future of English fiction, by virtue of their intensity, their independence, their has been preserved. rough individuality. It is essential to realize the early Victorian where Scarborough, at died Anne year next the of 26 On May atmosphere in which Emily and Charlotte Bronté wrote their she had gone for the sake of her health. Gentle, open and submissive, she was in many respects the antithesis of Emily, but novels if the greatness of their achievement is to be realized. she was nevertheless the deepest in her confidence. Along with They shocked their contemporaries by showing their heroines Wuthering Heights, she had submitted a novel to Newby, and consumed by naked passion, and made a breach in the then conthis, Agnes Grey, was also accepted. Both books were published ventional theory that woman was merely the loved and not the in Dec. 1847, but Anne’s novel achieved no more success than lover. The problem that has tormented all their biographers, and her sister’s. Agnes Grey was succeeded by The Tenant of Wildfell critics is how they learned to know passion as they did when Hall, which was issued by the same publisher in the following their lives were spent in the Haworth parsonage so familiar to all June; but no outstanding merit can be claimed for either of their readers. Their world was built up in their own imagination, Anne’s novels, though they have perhaps suffered mainly by com- and it is this which makes its truth and its universal appeal.

by her sister, while there is good evidence in Branwell’s writings for not crediting him with so great a book as this. It is true that

parison with the work of her greater sisters. Her verses were

graceful and often expressed with considerable beauty the pathos and gentleness of her personality, while some of her hymns are sung to this day.

In the interval between the death of Branwell and of Emily, Charlotte had been engaged upon a new novel—Shirley. Twothirds were written, but the story was then laid aside while its author was nursing her sister Anne. She completed the book after Anne’s death, and it was published in Oct. 1849. The following winter she visited London as the guest of her publisher, Mr.

The Life of Charlotte Bronté, by Mrs. Gaskell, was first published in 1857. Owing to the many controversial questions it araused, as to

the identity of Lowood in Jane Eyre with Cowan Bridge school, as to the relations of Branwell Bronté with his employer’s wife, as to

the supposed peculiarities of Mr. Bronté, and certain other minor points, the third edition was considerably changed. The Life has been many times reprinted, but may be read in its most satisfactory form in the Haworth edition (1902), issued by the original publishers, Smith, Elder and Co. Tio this edition are attached a great number of letters written by Charlotte Bronté to her publisher, George Smith. The first new material supplied to supplement Mrs, Gaskell’s Lzfe was contained in Charlotte Bronté; a Monograph, by T. Wemyss Reid (1877). This book inspired A. C. Swinburne to issue separately a forcible essay on Charlotte and Emily Bronté, under the title of A Note on Charlotte Brontë (1877). A further collection of letters written by Charlotte Bronté was contained in Charlotte Bronté and

George Smith, and was introduced to Thackeray, to whom she had dedicated Jane Eyre. The following year she repeated the visit, sat for her portrait to George Richmond, and was considerCircle, by Clement Shorter (1896), and interesting details can be ably lionized by a host of admirers. In Aug. 1850 she visited the Her gathered from the Life of Charlotte Bronté, by Augustine Birrell English lakes as the guest of Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, and (1887). The Brontés in Ireland, by William Wright (1893), Charlotte met Mrs. Gaskell, Miss Martineau, Matthew Arnold and other Bronté and Her Sisters, by Clement Shorter (1906), and the Bronte interesting men and women. During this period her publishers Society publications, edited by Butler Wood (1895-1907). A. M. F. assiduously lent her books, and her criticisms of them contained Robinson (Mme. Duclaux) wrote a separate biography of Emily Brontë in 1883, and an essay in her Grands Ecrivains d’outre-Manche. in many letters to Mr. George Smith and Mr. Smith Willams The Bronté’s Life and Letters, by Clement Shorter (1907) contains make very interesting reading, though she could never separate the whole of C. Bronté’s letters in chronological order. Four additional artistic and moral values. In 1851 she received a third offer of letters, addressed by Charlotte to M. Héger in 1844-45, show the depths of Charlotte’s attachment. The most important of the later marriage, this time from Mr. James Taylor, who was in the emon the Brontë sisters are May Sinclair, Tke Three Brontés; E. ployment of her publishers. A visit to Miss Martineau at Amble- studies Dimnet, Les Soeurs Bronté (1910; E. trans. The Bronié Sisters, 1927) ; side, Westmorland and also to London to the Great Exhibition Romer Wilson, All Alone: the life of Emily Brontë (1928); Rosamade up the events of this year. On her way home she visited monde Langbridge, Charlotte Bronté, a psyckological study (1929);

Manchester and spent two days with Mrs. Gaskell. During the year 1852 she worked hard on Villette, which was published in Jan. of 1853. In Sept. of that year she received a visit from Mrs. Gaskell at Haworth; in May 1854 she returned it, remaining three days at Manchester, and planning with her hostess the details of her marriage with her father’s curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls (1817-1906), who had long been a pertinacious suitor

but had been discouraged by Mr. Bronté. The marriage took place in Haworth church on June 29, 1854. Charlotte and her

husband spent their honeymoon in Ireland returning to Haworth, where they made their home with Mr. Bronté, Mr. Nicholls hav-

ing pledged himself to continue in his position as curate to his father-in-law. After less than a year of married life, however, Charlotte Nicholls died of an illness following on childbirth, on

March 31, 1855. She was buried in Haworth church by the side of her mother, Branwell and Emily. The father died in 1861, and then her husband returned to Ireland, surviving until 1906.

Charles Simpson, Emily Brontë (1930).

BRONTE, province of Catania, Sicily, on the western slopes of Mt. Etna, 24m. N.N.W. of Catania direct, and 34m. by rail. Pop. (1921), 17,790 (town); 20,014 (commune). The town was founded by Charles V., with an estate originally belonging to the monastery of Maniacium (Maniace), and was granted to Nelson by Ferdinand IV. of Naples im 1799 as a dukedom, which is still held by a member of the Hood family.

BRONTOSAURUS,

a gigantic vegetarian Dinosaur, allied

to Diplodocus (g.v.), but somewhat larger, reaching a length of 70 feet. Brontosaurus occurs in the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming. The neck and tail were immensely long and it is probable that the

animal was semi-aquatic.

(See REPTILES; DINOSAURS.)

BRONX, THE, a borough of New York city (g.v.) since

1898; formerly a district comprising several towns in Westchester county. 1,265,258.

Area,

42

square

miles,

population

(1930)

BRONZE

24.0 BRONZE,

an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and

tin in variable proportions. The word has been etymologically connected with the same root as appears in “brown,” but according to M. P. E. Berthelot (La Chimie au moyen âge) it is a placename derived from ces Brundusianum (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxiii. ch. ix. $45, “specula optima apud maiores fuerunt Brundusiana, stanno et aere mixtis”). A Greek ms. of about the 11th century in the library of St. Mark’s, Venice, contains the form Bpovrjc.ov and gives the composition of the alloy as 1 lb. of copper with 2 oz. of tin. The product obtained by adding tin to copper is more fusible than copper and thus better suited for casting; it is also harder and less malleable. A soft bronze or gun-metal is formed with 16 parts of copper to I of tin, and a harder gun-metal, such as was used for bronze ordnance, when the proportion of tin is about doubled. The steel bronze of Colonel Franz Uchatius (r8xz-81r) consisted of copper alloyed with 8% of tin, the tenacity and hardness being increased by cold-rolling. Bronze containing about 7 parts of copper to 1 of tin is hard, brittle and sonorous, and can be tempered to take a fine edge. Bell-metal varies considerably in composition, from about 3 to 5 parts of copper to I of tin. In speculum metal there are 2 to 24 parts of copper to I of tin. Statuary bronze may contain from 80 to 9o% of copper, the residue being tin, or tin with zinc and lead in various proportions. The bronze used for the British and French copper coinage consists of 95% copper, 4% tin and 1% zinc. Many copper-tin alloys ernployed for machinery bearings contain a small proportion of zinc, which gives increased hardness. “Anti-friction metals,” also used in bearings, are copper-tin alloys in which the amount of copper is small and there is antimony in addition. Of this class an example is “Babbitt’s metal,” invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799-1862); it originally consisted of 24 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper, but in later compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is often considerably higher. Phosphor Bronze.—Bronze is improved in quality and strength when fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and known as phosphor bronze, may contain only about 1% of phosphorus in the ingot, reduced to a mere trace after casting but their value is nevertheless enhanced for purposes in which a hard strong metal is required, as for pump plungers, valves, the bushes of bearings, etc. Bronze again is improved by the presence of manganese in small quantity, and various grades of manganese bronze, in some of which there is little or no tin but a considerable percentage of zinc, are used in mechanical engineering. Alloys of copper with aluminium, though often nearly or completely destitute of tin, are known as aluminium bronze, and are valuable for their strength and the resistance they offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small quantity of silicon the tensile strength of copper is much increased; a sample of such silicon bronze, used for telegraph wires, on analysis was found to consist of 99.94% of copper, 0.03% of tin, and traces of iron and silicon. The bronze (Gr. yadxdés, Lat., aes) of classical antiquity consisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or more of the metals, zinc, tin, lead and silver, in proportions that varied as times changed, or according to the purposes for which the alloy was

required. Among bronze remains the copper is found to vary from 67 to 95%.

From the analysis of coins it appears that for

their. bronze coins the Greeks adhered to an alloy of copper and tin till 400 B.c., after which time they used also lead with increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins. The Romans

also used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins, but gradually reduced the quantity, and, under Caligula, Nero, Vespasian, and

Domitian, coined pure copper coins; afterwards they reverted to the mixture of lead. So far the words yadxés and aes may be translated as bronze. Originally, no doubt, yaAxés was the name

474) where he describes Hephaestus as throwing into his furnace

copper, tin, silver and gold to make the shield of Achilles, so that it is not always possible to know whether when he uses the worg xadxés he means copper pure or alloyed. Still more difficult is it to make this distinction when we read of the mythical Dactyls of Ida in Crete or the Telchines or Cyclopes being acquainted with the smelting of xadxés, It is not, however, likely that later Greek writers, who knew bronze in its true sense, and called i xXaNKés, would have employed this word without qualification for objects which they had seen unless they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias (iii. 17. 6) speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen of this material, made of separate pieces fastened together with nails, we understand him to mean literally bronze, the more readily since there exist very early figures and utensils of bronze so made. For the use of bronze in art, see METAL-WORK.

BRONZE AGE: see ARCHAEOLOGY. BRONZE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

WORK,

The use of bronze dates from remote antiquity. This important metal is an alloy composed of copper and tin, in proportions which vary slightly, but may be normally considered as nine parts of copper to one of tin. Other ingredients which are occasionally found are more or less accidental. The result is a metal of a rich golden brown colour, capable of being worked by

casting—a process little applicable to its component parts, but peculiarly successful with bronze, the density and hardness of the metal allowing it to take any impression of a mould, howev delicate. This process is known as cire perdue, and is the most primitive and most commonly employed through the centuries, having been described by the monk Theophilus, and also by Benvenuto Cellini. Briefly, it is as follows: A core, roughly representing the size and form of the object to be produced, is made of pounded brick, plaster or other similar substance and thoroughly dried. Upon this the artist overlays his wax, which he models to the degree required in his finished work. Passing from the core through the wax and projecting beyond are metal rods. The modelling being completed, the outer covering which will form the mould has to be applied; this is a liquid formed of clay and plaster sufficiently thin to find its way into every detail of the wax model, Further coatings of liquid are applied, so that there is, when dry, a solid outer coating and a solid inner core held together by the metal rods, with the work of art modelled in wax between. Heat is applied and the wax melts and runs out, and the molten metal is poured in and occupies every detail which the wax had filled. When cool, the outer casing is carefully broken away, the core raked out as far as possible, the projecting rods are removed and the object modelled in wax appears in bronze. If further finish is

required it is obtained by tooling. GREEK

AND

(W. W. W.) ROMAN

Copper came into use in the Aegean area towards the end of the predynastic age of Egypt about 3500 B.C. The earliest known implement is a flat celt, which was found on a neolithic house-floor in the central court of the palace of Knossos in Crete, and is regarded as an Egyptian product. Bronze was not generally used until a thousand years or more later. Its frst appearance is probably in the celts and dagger-blades of the Second City of Troy, where it is already the standard alloy of

10% tin. It was not established in Crete until the beginning of

the Middle Minoan age (M.ML.I., c. 2000 B.c.). The Copper age began in northern Greece and Italy c. 2500 B.C., much later than in Crete and Anatolia, and the mature Italian Bronze age of Terremare culture coincided in time with the Late Aegean

(Mycenaean) civilization (1600-1000 B.c.). The original sources

both of tin and copper in these regions are unknown. Earliest Implements and Utensils.—Tools and weapons, fer pure copper, It is so employed by Homer, who calls it épvlpés (red), atfup (glittering), éaevvds (shining), terms which chisels and axe-heads, spearheads or dagger-blades, are the only apply only to copper. But instead of its following from this surviving artifacts of the Copper age, and do not show artistic that ‘the process of alloying. copper with other metals was not treatment. But some Early Minoan pottery forms are plainly practised in the time of the poet, or was unknown to him, the copied from metal prototypes, cups and jugs of simple construc contrary would seem to be the case from the passage (Jed xviii. tion and rather elaborate design. The cups are conical and some

BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL

peni >

BY COURTESY OF (3, 3) METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF ART,

(2, 4, 5, 6) THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

BRONZE

Restoration of a bronze dagger of the later Minoan period (about 1600— 00 8.C.) from a grave shaft at Mycenae. It is inlaid with gold and niello

ce a floral design. In the original (National Museum, Athens) only the Th e is preserved. 2. Reproduction of Mycenaean dagger similar to fig. 1. e design on the blade represents cats hunting marble with bronze fittings found at Boscoreale,

3. Table of variegated birds. near Pompeii; the bronze rim

WORK

PrareI

e S E EEEE ETABETI a ee ERR PE TAE. ETE ees or

MUSEUM

FROM around niello;

1600 B. C. TO

A. D. 400

the top has palmetto and A.D. century first the

rosette ornaments inlaid with silver and 4. Hellenistic statuette of negro boy on

pedestal; about 200 B.C. 5. Greek bronze helmet found at Salonika, executed about 500 B.C. 6 Handle of Greek amphora (Pourtales vase) with silver inlay; 500 B.C.

PL A TE II

WORK ORNAMENTAL BRASS AND BRONZE

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THE

TRUSTEES

AND

OF

THE

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1. Greek mirror of polished bronze. 5th century B.C. The figure forming the stand probably represents Aphrodite. On each side of the attachment

3. An

BRITISH

MUSEUM;

PHOTOGRAPH,

(5)

ALINARI

BRONZE Italic bronze mirror of the 4th to the 3rd century B.C. As in less common mirrors of this period, found chiefly at Praeneste, the handle Is

connecting the handle with the disk is a flying Eros, and along the edge of the disk are two hounds pursuing a fox and a rabbit

cast in one piece with the disk. The back of the disk is decorated with an engraved scene showing the Dioscuri with two women

2. Etruscan vase from Capua on a tripod of the 5th century B.C. Figures of horsemen decorate the rim of the vase, with a goddess in the centre. The

4+ Tripod of simple open-work construction from Cyprus. Late Mycenaean (1000-800 B.C.). Rim is engraved with figures of lions pursuing stags

tripod is an Etruscan imitation of lonic Greek work

5. Tripod of three satyrs from Herculaneum.

In the Museo Nazionale, Naples

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WORK ORNAMENTAL BRASS AND BRONZE PLATE VII

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

24.3

in the working of bronze, which was destined to flourish for at least four centuries. Bronze was the metal beloved of the Italian craftsman; in that metal he produced objects for every conceivacentury. Byzantii; from the time when Constantine made it the seat ble purpose, great or small, from a door-knob to the mighty doors of empire, in the early part of the 4th century, was for 1,000 years by Lorenzo Ghiberti at Florence, of which Michael Angelo rerenowned for its work in metal. Its position as a trade centre marked that they would stand well at the gates of Paradise. between East and West attracted all the finest work provided by Niccolo, Giovanni and Andrea Pisano, Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Donathe artistic skill of craftsmen from Syria, Egypt, Persia, Asia tello, Verrocchio, Cellini, Michael Angelo, Giovanni da Bologna— Minor and the northern shores of the Black sea, and for 400 these and many others produced great works in bronze. Benedetto years, until the beginning of the Iconoclastic period in the first da Rovezzano came to England in 1524 to execute a tomb for Carhalf of the 8th century, its output was enormous. Several Italian dinal Wolsey, part of which, after many vicissitudes, is now in the churches still retain bronze doors cast in Constantinople in the crypt of St. Paul’s cathedral. Pietro Torregiano of Florence exelater days of the Eastern empire, such as those presented by the cuted the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. Alessandro members of the Pantaleone family, in the latter half of the rzth Leopardi, at the beginning of the r6th century, completed the century, to the churches at Amalfi, Monte Cassino, Atrani and three admirable sockets for flag-staffs which still adorn the piazza Monte Gargano. Similar doors are at Salerno; and St. Mark’s, of St. Mark’s, Venice. A further development showed itself in Venice, also has doors of Greek origin. the production of portrait medals in bronze, which reached a high The period of the Iconoclasts fortunately synchronized with degree of perfection and engaged the attention of many celebrated artists. Bronze plaquettes for the decoration of large objects exthe reign of Charlemagne, whose power was felt throughout western Europe. The craftsmen who were forced to leave Byzan- hibit a fine sense of design and composition. Of smaller objects, tium were welcomed by him in his capitals of Cologne and Aix- for church and domestic use, the number was legion. Among the la-Chapelle and their influence was also felt in France. Another former may be mentioned crucifixes, shrines, altar and paschal stream passed by way of the Mediterranean to Italy, where the candlesticks, such as the elaborate examples at the Certosa, Pavia; old classical art had decayed owing to the many national calami- for secular use, mortars, inkstands, candlesticks and a large numties, and here it brought about a revival. In the Rhineland the ber of splendid door-knockers and handles, all executed with conterms “Rhenish-Byzantine” and “Romanesque,” applied to archi- summate skill and perfection of finish. Work of this kind contecture and works of art generally, testify to the provenance of tinued to be made throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. the style of this and the succeeding period. The bronze doors of France.—Wars and internal troubles must account for the disthe cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle are of classic design and date appearance of work in bronze; it is hardly likely that a nation with probably from Charlemagne’s time. All through the Middle Ages so many schools of fine craftsmen in the various metals could the use of bronze continued on a great scale, particularly in the have failed to work in bronze. The great bronze seven-branched t1th and 12th centuries. Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim, a great candlestick in Milan cathedral has a base and lower part decorated patron of the arts, had bronze doors made for St. Nicholas’ church with intricately-designed ornament which is considered by many to (afterwards removed to the cathedral) which were set up in 1015; be French work of the 13th century; the upper part with the Nationale, Paris, appears to be a Roman bronze curule chair, with

hack and part of the arms added by the abbot Suger in the rath

great doors were made for Augsburg somewhere between 1o60 and

branches was added in the second half of the 16th century. A por-

1065, and for Mainz shortly after the year 1000. A prominent feature on several of these doors is seen in finely-modelled lion heads, with conventional manes and with rings hanging from their jaws. These have their counterpart in France and Scandinavia as well as in England, where they are represented by the so-called sanctuary knocker at Durham cathedral. Provision of elaborate tomb monuments and of church furniture gave much work to the German founder, the former largely in the nature of sculpture. Mention may be made of the seven-branch candlestick at Essen cathedral made for the abbess Matilda about the year rooo, and another at Brunswick completed in 1223; also of the remarkable font of the 13th century made for Hildesheim cathedral at the charge of Wilbernus, a canon of the cathedral. Other fonts are found at Brandenburg and Wurzburg. Of smaller objects such as ewers, holy-water vessels, reliquaries and candelabra, a vast number were produced. Most of the finest work of the rsth century

tion of a foot of a similar object, showing the same intricate decoration, existed formerly at Reims, but was unfortunately destroyed during the World War. In the 16th century the names of Germain Pilon and Jean Goujon are sufficient evidence of the ability to work in bronze. A great outburst of artistic energy is seen from the beginning of the t7th century, when works in ormolu or gilt bronze were produced in huge quantities. The craftsmanship is magnificent and of the highest quality, the designs at first refined and symmetrical; but later, under the influence of the rococo style, introduced in 1723, aiming only at gorgeous magnificence. It was all in keeping with the spirit of the age, and in their own sumptuous setting these fine candelabra, sconces, vases, clocks and rich mountings of furniture are entirely harmonious. The “‘ciseleur” and the “‘fondeur,” such as Gouthiére and Caffieri, associated themselves with the makers of fine furniture and of delicate Sévres porcelain, the result being extreme richness and handsome effect. The style was succeeded after the Revolution by a stiff, classical manner which, although having a charm of its own, lacks the life and freedom of earlier work. In London the styles may be studied in the Wallace collection, Manchester square, and at the Victoria and Albert museum, South Kensington; in New York at the Metropolitan museum. England.—Casting in bronze reached high perfection in England, where a number of monuments yet remain. William Torel, goldsmith and citizen of London, made the bronze effigy of Henry III., and later that of Queen Eleanor for their tombs in Westminster Abbey; the effigy of Edward IIT. was probably the work of one of his pupils. No bronze fonts are found in English churches, but a number of processional crucifixes have survived from the 15th century, all following the same design and of crude execution. Sanctuary rings or knockers exist at Norwich, Glou-

was executed for the Church., The end of the Gothic period in Germany found the great craftsman, Peter Vischer of Nuremberg, and his sons, working on the bronze shrine to contain the reliquary of St. Sebald, a finely-conceived monument of architectural form, with rich details of ornament and figures; among the latter appearing the artist in his working dress. The shrine was completed and set up in the year 1516. This great craftsman executed other great works at Magdeburg, Romhild and Breslau. Reference should be made to the colossal monument at Innsbruck, the tomb

of the emperor Maximilian I., with its 28 bronze than life size. Large fountains in which bronze ployed were set up, such as those at Munich and tendency was to use this metal for large works of

statues of more was freely emAugsburg, The an architectural

or sculpturesque nature; while at the same time smaller objects

were produced for domestic purposes.

Italy.—By the rath century the Italian craftsmen had devel-

oped a style of their own, as may be seen in the bronze doors of S. Zeno, Verona (which are made of hammered and not cast

cester and elsewhere; the most remarkable is that on the north

door of the nave of Durham cathedral which has sufficient char-

bronze), Ravello, Trani and Monreale. Bonnano da Pisa made a acter of its own to differentiate it from its Continental brothers series of doors for the duomo of that city, one pair of which remains. The rath century witnessed the birth of a great revival

and to suggest a Northern origin. The Gloucester candlestick in the Victoria and Albert museum, South Kensington, displays the

244

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

power and imagination of the designer as well as an extraordinary manipulative skill on the part of the founder. According to an inscription on the object, this candlestick, which stands some 2ft. high and is made of an alloy allied to bronze, was made for Abbot Peter who ruled from 1109 to 1112. While the outline is carefully preserved, the ornament consists of a mass of figures of monsters, birds and men, mixed and intertwined to the verge of confusion. As a piece of casting it is a triumph of technical ability. For secular use the mortar was one of the commonest of objects in England as on the Continent; early examples of Gothic design are of great beauty. In later examples a mixture of styles is found in the bands of Gothic and Renaissance ornament, which are freely used in combination. Bronze ewers must have been common; of the more ornate kind two may be seen, one at South Kensington and a second at the British Museum. These are large vessels of about 2ft. in height, with shields of arms and inscriptions in bell-founders’ lettering. Many objects for domestic use, such as mortars, skillets, etc., were produced in later centuries. Bells.—In northern Europe, France, Germany, England and the Netherlands bell-founding has been an enormous industry since the early part of the Middle Ages. Unfortunately a large number of mediaeval bells have been melted down and recast, and in times of warfare many were seized to be cast into guns. Early bells are of graceful outline, and often have simple but well-designed ornaments and very decorative inscriptions; for the latter a separate stamp or die was used for each letter or for a short group of letters. In every country bell-founders were an important group of the community; in England a great many of their names are known and the special character of their work is recognizable. Old bells exist in the French cathedrals of Amiens, Beauvais, Chartres and elsewhere; in Germany at Erfurt, Co-

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

fled to Huy, Namur, Middelburg, Tournai and Bruges, where their

work was continued. The earliest piece of work in brass from the Meuse district is the font at St. Bartholomew’s church

Liège, a marvellous vessel resting on oxen, the outside of the bowl cast in high relief with groups of figures engaged in baptis. mal ceremonies; it was executed between 1113 and 1118 by Renier of Huy, the maker of a beautiful censer in the museum

of Lille. From this time onward a long series of magnificent

works were executed for churches and cathedrals in the form of fonts, lecterns, paschal and altar candlesticks, tabernacles ang chandeliers; fonts of simple outline have rich covers frequently adorned with figure subjects; lecterns are usually surmounted by

an eagle of conventional form, but sometimes by a pelican: a

griffin surmounts the lectern at Andenne. The stands which support these birds are sometimes of rich Gothic tracery work, with

figures, and rest upon lions; later forms show a shaft of cylindrical form, with mouldings at intervals, and splayed out to a wide base. A number are found in Germany in the Cologne district, which may be of local manufacture; some remain in Venice churches. About a score have been noted in English churches, as

at Norwich, St. Albans, Croydon and elsewhere. For the most part they follow the same model, and were probably imported from Belgium; fine brass chandeliers exist, at the Temple church, Bristol, at. St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall, and in North Wales, The lecterns must have set the fashion in England for this type of object; for several centuries they are found, as at St. George’s chapel, Windsor, King’s college chapel, Cambridge, St. Paul’s

cathedral and some London churches. In the region of Cologne much brass-work was produced and still remains in the churches;

mention must be made of the handsome screen in the church of

very large amount of ornamentation, and the metal has the merit

Xanten, the work, it is said, of a craftsman of Maestricht, Holland, at the beginning of the 16th century. Holland, Norway and Sweden also produced chandeliers, many of great size: the 16th and 17th-century type is the well known “spider,” large numbers of which were also made in England and still hang in many London and provincial churches. Holland also showed a great liking for hammered work, and produced alarge number of lecterns, altar candlesticks and the like in that method. The large dishes embossed with Adam and Eve and similar sub-

of pleasant appearance and considerable durability. Brass.—Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc, usually for sheet metal, and casting in the proportion of seven parts of the former to three of the latter. Such a combination secures a good, brilliant colour. There are, however, varieties of tone ranging from a pale lemon colour to a deep golden brown, which depends upon a smaller or greater amount of zinc. In early times this metal seems to have been sparingly employed, but from the Middle Ages onward the industry in brass was a very important one, carried out on a vast scale and applied in widely different directions. The term “latten,” which is frequently met with in old documents, is rather loosely employed, and is sometimes used for objects made of bronze; its true application is to the alloy we call brass. In Europe its use for artistic purposes centred largely in the region of the Meuse valley in south-east Belgium, together

jects are probably of Dutch origin. These differ considerably from the brass dishes in which the central subject—the Annwnciation, St. George, St. Christopher, the Agnus Dei, a mermaid or flowers—is surrounded by a band of letters, which frequently have no significance beyond that of ornamentation; the rims are stamped with a repeating pattern of small designs. This latter type of dish was probably the work of Nuremberg or Augsburg craftsmen, and it should be noticed that the whole of the ornament is produced by hammering into dies or by the use of stamps; they are purely mechanical pieces. Brass was widely used for smaller objects in churches and for domestic use. Flemish and German pictures show candlesticks, holy-water stoups, reflectors, censers and vessels for washing the hands as used in churches. The inventories of Church goods in England made at the time of the Reformation disclose a very

logne and Halberstadt. The bell-founding industry has continued

all through the centuries, one of its later achievements being the casting of “Big Ben” at Westminster, in 1858, a bell of between 13

and 14 tons in weight, In recent years bronze has to some extent replaced iron for tailings, balconies and staircases, in connection with architecture; the style adopted is stiffly classical, which does not call for a

with north-eastern France, parts of Holland and the Rhenish provinces of which Cologne was the centre. As far back as the Irth century the inhabitants of the towns of Huy and Dinant are found working in this metal; zinc they found in their own coun-

try, while for copper they went to Cologne and Dortmund, and later to the mines of the Harz mountains. Much work was produced both by casting and repoussé, but it was in the former process that they excelled. Within a very short time the term “‘dinanderie” was coined to designate the work in brass which emanated from the foundries of Dinant and other towns in the neighbourhood.

Their productions found their way to France,

Spain, England and Germany. In London the Dinant merchants, encouraged by Edward III., established a “Hall” in 1329 which

existed until the end of the 16th century; in France they traded at Rouen, Calais, Paris and elsewhere. The industry flourished for several centuries, but was weakened by quarrels with their rivals at the neighbouring town of Bouvignes; in 1466 the town was sacked and destroyed by Charles the Bold. The brass-founders

large number of objects in latten which were probably made in the country. In general use was an attractive vessel known 4s the aquamanile; this is a water-vessel usually in the form of a standing lion, with a spout projecting from his mouth; on the top of the head is an opening for filling the vessel, and a lizard-shaped

handle joins the back of the head with the tail. Others are in the form of a horse or ram; a few are in the form of a human bust, and some represent a mounted warrior. They were produced from

the 12th to the rsth century. Of domestic objects the number was legion: mortars, small candlesticks, warming pans, trivets, fenders; these date mainly from the ryth and 18th centuries, when brass ornamentation was also frequently applied to clockdials, large and small. Two English developments during the 17th century call for special notice. The first was an attempt to use enamel with brass, a difficult matter, as brass is a bad medium for enamel. A number of objects exist in the form of fire-dogs candlesticks, plaques and vases, the body of which is of brass roughly cast with a design in relief; the hollow spaces between the

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ORNAMENTAL

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BRASS

English brass lock characteristic of the elaborate open-work style introduced in the 17th century. The case is cast in a graceful pattern of bird forms, animals’ heads, cherubs and foliage

2. 17th century enamelled fire-dogs believed to have been made for James

LOCK

AND

FIRE-DOGS

l. of England. They consist of the royal arms of the house of Stuart supported by two nude mate figures separated by a conventional floral ornament and resting on convex discs. The enamel is in blue, green and white, with touches of red in the royal coat and supporters

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DIRECTOR

OF

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VICTORIA

GERMAN Brass

inscribed

to the memory

AND

ALBERT

Oskens,

Cologne,

is in the centre; S. Peter stands to the left, carrying patron saint, the Emperor S. Henry, In full armour.

me made while he was

living, pray for him.

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of Henricus

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BRASS 1535.

OF

THE

16TH

CENTURY

The Blessed Virgin, surrounded

by an aureole of flames and rays,

the key of heaven for the deceased, who is kneeling, while behind him Is his The inscription reads: “Henry Oskens, Chanter and Canon of this church, had

he died 1535,

on the last day of November”

BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL

PHOTOGRAPH,

WORK

Prate X

ALINARI

VENETIAN

BRONZE

KNOCKER

OF

THE

16TH

CENTURY

This bronze knocker, from the Palazzo Trevisan, Venice, has a design that occurs frequently, palace knockers of the period. Neptune, brandishing his trident, stands upon two sea-horses. him

in elaborate foliation, while they paw the sea foam

tn the shall at the base of the knocker.

with

variations,

among

Their tails are thrown The artist is unknown

Venetian up behind

§ BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL WORK

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BY COURTESY

OF

(1)

B. C. CLAYTON,

(2, 3,

4)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

ENGLISH 1. The

sanctuary

knocker

on the north

door of the nave

of Durham

cathe-

dral, England (1133-40), probably the most ancient knocker extant. The design suggests Scandinavian origin.

2. An English aquamanile in the form of a standing lion. A spout projects from the mouth, and the opening for filling is on the top of the head.

This type of vessel was

middle ages for handwashing

commonly

at table

used with

basin

during

the

MUSEUM

BRONZES 3. 14th-century

English flagon of cast bronze

from

a manor

house

in Nor-

folk. It is decorated with the old royal arms of England and an inscription in Gothic letters: ‘‘Goddes grace be to this place. Amen.

Stand utter (stand away) from the fyre and lat onjust (let one just) come nere 4. Round

hammered

scene, letters.

brass dish

representing

of the 16th

the Annunciation,

The rim is stamped

or 17th

century.

is surrounded

with a pattern of small

The centre

by a band of

designs

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

lines of the design are filled in with patches of white, black, blue

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

245

appear to have been enthusiastic amateurs and collectors of bronzes, and up to the present day it is this very enthusiasm which

or red enamel, with very pleasing result. The nearest analogy is found in the small enamelled brass plaques and icons produced in has seemed to prevent a scientific attitude among Chinese antiRussia in the 17th and 18th centuries. The second use of brass is quarians when the question of the dating of old bronzes is confound in a group of locks of intricate mechanism, the cases of cerned. Many volumes have been written in Chinese and Euwhich are of brass cast in openwork with a delicate pattern of ropean languages, but the authoritative work has not as yet scrollwork and bird forms sometimes engraved. A further devel- appeared. There are so many factors beside artistic merit which opment shows solid brass cases covered with richly engraved de- enter into the consideration of a bronze that facts have been signs. The Victoria and Albert museum, London, contains a fine collected and various theories advanced without arriving at any group of these locks; others are a situ at Hampton Court Palace definite knowledge. and in country mansions. The bronzes in the Chinese collections may be divided roughly During the 18th century brass was largely used in the produc- into two classes: (1) those whose surface has been worked over tion of objects for domestic use; the manufacture of large hang- and (2) those which remain in the same condition as when they ing chandeliers also continued, together with wall-sconces and were first excavated. Those bronzes which have been for many other lighting apparatus. In the latter half of the roth century years in famous Chinese collections have in most cases been there came an increasing demand for ecclesiastical work in Eng- worked over and vastly improved in appearance. Bronzes, as land; lecterns, alms dishes, processional crosses and altar furni-

ture were made of brass; the designs were for the greater part

adaptations of older work and without any great originality.

first excavated, should prove the most reliable documents, but

scientific excavation is as yet hardly established in China, and

it is difficult to ascertain the true facts concerning the finding Monumental Brasses.—The working of memorial brasses is of any piece which may come upon the market. Even though generally considered to have originated in north-western Ger- a perfectly reliable eye witness may testify to having been many, at least one centre being Cologne, where were manufactured present at the excavation of a bronze, the chances are that he is the latten or “Cullen” plates for local use and for exportation. not a trained archaeologist, and is unable to interpret correctly But it is certain that from mediaeval times there was an equal the conditions under which the bronze has been found. So far, we production in the towns of Belgium, when brass was the favoured know of only one important excavation of bronzes which may be metal for other purposes. Continental brasses were of rectangular dated with any approximation of certainty, Remarkably fine sheets of metal on which the figure of the deceased was repre- specimens of bronzes exist in the collections of China, Korea, sented, up to life-size, by deeply incised lines, frequently filled Japan, Europe and America, and the history of some of the pieces with mastic or enamel-like substance; the background of the fig- in the Chinese collections is known for several hundred years, for ures was covered with an architectural setting, or with ornament illustrated catalogues of bronzes were compiled during the Sung of foliage and figures, and an inscription, In England, possibly dynasty (A.D. 960-1279), and have come down to us together because the metal was less plentiful, the figures are usually ac- with Jater and more copious works, some in many volumes. They cessories, being cut out of the metal and inserted in the matrices include: a famous work called the Ting Lu, written in the 6th of stone or marble slabs which form part of the tomb; architec- century by Yu Li, and another in 20 volumes called the San Li Tu tural canopies, inscriptions and shields of arms are affixed in the written in the roth century by Nieh Tsung-yi. Both of these, same way. Thus the stone or marble background takes the place however, have relied too much on imagination to be considered of the decorated brass background of the Continental example. reliable. The most important early catalogue is in 30 volumes The early method of filling in the incisions has suggested some and dates from the Sung dynasty; its title is Hsiian Ho Po Ku connection with the methods of the Limoges enamellers of the T’ou Lu, and it was written in the 12th century by Wang Pu; it 13th century. The art was introduced into England from the has been often reprinted. The most famous of all the catalogues Low Countries, and speedily attained a high degree of excellence. is one in 42 volumes, compiled for the Emperor Ch’ien Lung and For many centuries it remained very popular, and a large number printed in 1751. It illustrates his splendid collection of bronzes in of brasses still remain to witness to a very beautiful department the Peking palace and is called Hsi Ch’ing Ku Chien. There are of artistic working. many others of which a number are devoted to a discussion of The earliest existing brass is that of Bishop Ysowilpe at Verden, inscriptions on bronzes. in Germany, which dates from 1231 and is on the model of an Treatises on bronzes were written during the Chou dynast incised stone, as if by an artist accustomed to work in that mate- {1122-255 B.c.) and from one of these we get our first informarial. In England the oldest example is at Stoke D’Abernon church, tion about their manufacture. Indeed, so great is the respect for in Surrey, to the memory of Sir John D’Abernon, who died in ancient bronzes in China that in the year 116 B.C., when an old 1277. Numerous brasses are to be found in Belgium, and some bronze zzmg was found in the bank of a river in Shensi, the name in France and Holland. Apart from their artistic attractiveness, of the reign was changed in honour of the event. The reverential these ornamental brasses are of the utmost value in faithfully attitude of the Chinese towards antiquity, the permanent nature depicting the costumes of the period, ecclesiastical, civil or mili- of the metal alloy, and the fact that the earliest important bronzes tary; they furnish also appropriate inscriptions in beautiful are all of a ceremonial or sacrificial mature have combined to lettering. place them high in the esteem of Chinese connoisseurs from the Brstiocrapay—Sir M. Digby Wyatt, Metalwork of the Middle Ages (1849); C. Drury E. Fortnum, Bronzes (1877); H. Lueer and . Creutz, Geschichte der Metallkunst (1904); J. Destrée, “Les Dinanderies,” L’Art flamand et hollandais (1905); W. Bode, The Italian Bronze Statueites of the Renaissance (1907) ; Paris, Musée des Arts décoratifs, Le Métal (1909); J. T. Perry, Dinanderie (1910) ; E. Hessling, Appliques en bronze dans les styles Louis XIV. et Louis XV. (1911); E. Dumonthier,

Les bronzes du Mobilier National

(1911);

H. W. Macklin, Monumental Brasses (1913); Königsliche Museen, Berlin, Die italienische

Bronzen

der Renaissance

und

des Barock

(1914); Victoria and Albert Museum, List of Rubbings of Brasses (1915); M. Stephenson, A List of Monumental

Isles (1926).

Brasses in the British

(W. W. W.)

CHINESE BRONZE History.—The bronze products of China have been from the

carliest times of so high a degree of excellence, both artistic and technical, that they may truly be classed among the fine arts. So

early as any reliance can be placed upon records the Chinese

earliest times,

A Chinese collector will not hesitate to date an old bronze a full dynasty earlier than would a cautious European or American collector. Thus we are told that in many Chinese collections a considerable proportion of the bronzes were made in the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 B.c.) when such an attribution would seem to be based merely upon a pious hope. Since with some degree of certainty bronzes have been established as dating from the sth century B.C., and are of accomplished workmanship, they are doubtless of more recent date than many others with which collectors are familiar, but there are few trained archaeologists outside China who will venture to state that any known bronze is definitely of the Shang dynasty. Within the next few years it may be possible, from dated excavations yet to be made, to determine the types of manufacture sufficiently to attribute bronzes to

the early or the late Chou dynasty (1122-255 3.c.). That is, however, at present beyond the bounds of our knowledge. From

BRONZE

24.6

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

Han times (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) we are on a somewhat firmer footing, and the recent excavations of Kozlov, in Mongolia, have shed a great deal of light upon Han civilization enabling us to place in the Han dynasty, with some assurance, bronzes that would otherwise have received a much later dating. Dated bronzes of the Six dynasties (a.p. 265-589) and the T’ang dynasty (618-907) exist, but during the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1279) the taste for reproducing old bronzes arose, and the manufacture was carried on side by side with contemporary designs, so a state of confusion has resulted. It is highly probable that many of the socalled ancient bronzes are comparatively modern copies of the Sung period. In such pieces anachronisms are noticeable in the type and use of decorative motives rather than in the appearance of the objects as a whole. We know a good deal about the porcelain of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), many pieces of which are dated, and a fairly good way of determining Ming bronzes is to compare them with Ming porcelains, which were often based upon bronze forms; some of them were undoubtedly copied from early bronzes, but anachronisms are bound to creep in. Except for deliberate forgeries, of which quantities exist, there is little danger of confusing a modern bronze with an ancient one, for little of the exquisite technique of the early bronze founders has survived. This is due rather to cheapness of production and careless slipshod methods, than to any loss of knowledge of the processes. Bronze

Composition

and Manufacture.—Bronze

was used

at a very early date for both ceremonial and utilitarian purposes and doubtless the ceremonial use was the later development. It must first have been cast in single stone moulds, then in piece moulds, and finally by the lost wax process, to which complicated method we owe the earliest bronzes now known to us. The simple piece moulds were used for coins, spear-heads, halberds, swords, and such objects, where the forms were simple and flat. Large basins were also cast by this method and Voretzsch believes that it is often possible to tell from examining the surface of a bronze how many pieces had previously been cast in the same mould. The ceremonial vessels varied greatly in form, some being very complicated, with elaborately modelled handles and surface decoration in several different planes. While the earliest of these are cast by the lost wax process, and are technically superb, it is interesting to note that-from the Han dynasty onwards we find an increasing number of bronzes whose component parts were separately cast and afterwards assembled by welding. So proficient were the workers in the craft of bronze founding, that bronzes of the good periods seem to have come from the mould so cleanly and sharply defined that very little work was necessary to finish them with chisel and file. The fact that a bronze was cast in one piece does not necessarily indicate that it is old, but a bronze cast in several parts and welded together could hardly antedate the Christian era, and would probably be of much later date. There have been several series of experiments conducted to determine the composition of early bronzes. One of the most complete has recently been published by Prof. M. Chikashigé, a Japanese, who analysed chemically and physically a number of mirrors. It has been stated in a work pertaining to the Chou dynasty, but possibly of later date, the K’ao Kung Chi, that the proportions of copper and tin were definitely established for the making of bronzes for specific purposes. It is certain, however, that neither these metals nor any others were available to the Chinese in a form at all pure, so in all the alloys there are other metals present such as lead, zinc, antimony, iron and silver. Some of the early bronzes have a beautiful golden colour under the patina, and there are dealers who have not hesitated to state that this was due to the presence of large quantities of gold in the alloy. Chemical analyses show no gold. The proportions used in the Chou dynasty, according to the K’ao Kung Chi, are as follows: 5 parts copper, x part tin for bells, gongs, kettles, ceremonial vessels and measures of capacity. 4

4» ys 2 |

3.

» »

»

To» I oy Lo

ssgy »9, azes and hatchets. balberd-heads and tridents. a4, two-edged swords, spades, hoes and

similar agricultural implements. 1Voretzsch, Alichinesische Bronzen, pp. 35, 39 (1924).

WORK

3 parts copper, 2 parts tin for arrowpoints and knives used as styluge for writing. I part copper, 1 part tin for mirrors.

The varying proportions of metals in the alloy would of course affect the colour, and we have, in consequence, a range from a cop. pery red colour through lighter reds and golden yellow to the

nearly pure silver colour of the mirrors.

The surface of mog

ancient bronzes, when cleaned from deposits and patina, has a du

silvery colour due to mercury. This is said by some to be the rest of the accidental presence of mercury in the alloy, which has worked to the surface during long years of burial. It is mor probable, however, that the mercury was used deliberately to coat the surface of the bronze and thereby produce a silver-coloured plating in cases where the alloy itself was not white. The colours produced by age and careful manipulation, now so highly valued,

were of no interest to the Chinese of early ages who preferred the bronzes to be of a steely colour. Forms and Uses.—The uses of the bronze ceremonial vessels are largely conjectural. Our information is gained from works based upon the researches of the archaeologists of the § dynasty, who undoubtedly had material not available to us, but whose deductions and theories would hardly be called scientitir, It is believed that the sacrificial forms were based upon idealizations of vessels in common use; that some held liquids such as wine and water, and others, cereals and prepared meats. Some of them may have been used only for commemorative purposes, A man raised to high rank would cause a bronze vessel to be made in honour of the occasion, and would inscribe it, sometimes to his

ancestors, to whom he believed his preferment was due, sometimes to himself. It is not known whether or not such vessels

were used in family sacrifices or religious ceremonies. Since Shang bronzes are still problematic it may be well to consider briefly the forms of ceremonial bronzes most widely used during the Chou dynasty. All Chou bronzes can be characterized as dignified and massive in proportion. Whether they be large or small there is always an appearance of strength and solidity; and although not essentially clumsy, there is as yet little charm of contour such as would have been so essential to the Greeks. The few exceptions are in the profiles of some of the simpler ¢swn, and these are as sensitive in line as any works of art that have ever been made. So keenly was the line felt in such instances that the slenderness or sturdiness of the ¢tsum was perfectly expressed in the quality of the profile, re gardless of bulk. There is crudity perhaps in the conception of some of the decorative motives, but it is the crudeness of concep tion of the Romanesque period, without any traces of its awkward ness of execution.

Chief among early bronze forms is the ting (fi). Originally a tripod cooking pot, it assumed a great variety of shapes, some clumsy and topheavy, and others refined, but always sturdy. There is at present in the Buckingham collection in the Art Institute ol Chicago, an unusually fine example of an early but refined type. It was formerly in the Tuan Fang collection. The patina is 4 beautiful tea-dust green, and has evidently been hand-polished for generations.

The Asien (RR) is generally a three-legged vessel the bottom section of which is covered by a perforated and sometimes hinged

lid; it was a steamer often made in two parts, occasionally separable, and is really an archaic version of a cooking utensil

well known in Chinese kitchens. It is always clumsy in form, &

compared with other bronze forms, which may be another indication of its early origin. The yu (#4) is a covered bucket-like utensil with a swinging

bale. It has a bulbous body, always elliptical in section, and the cover fits closely down over the neck.

In some cases the swinging

handle is so arranged that it moves through a limited distance, allowing only sufficient room for the easy removal of the lid. The function of the yu was the storage and transportation of sacrificial °

wine, 7 or possibly of wine for less solemn occasions.. x a : inderiike The żsun (Œ) which, in its simplest form, is a cylinder

beaker with concave sides, goes through a variety of changes in form without change of name. Some of the most beautiful of al =

BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL WORK = "= 50

FROM THE WORCESTER (MASS.) ART MUSEUM CHINESE

BRONZE

INCENSE

BURNER

Chinese bronze incense burner of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280) in the form of a water buffalo upon which is riding Lao-tse, the philosopher who founded the Taoist religion. The water buffalo, being one of the most dangerous and difficult beasts te tame, is chosen as a symbol of the power of the gentle thought of the philosopher. The casting of this piece Is paper-thin

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

the ancient bronzes are tsuz. These beakers were used to contain

liquids.

The yi ($F) is a wide cup, generally with two handles, though some handsome variants are known with four. The handles are sturdy, with animal heads at the top and a rectangular pendant at the bottom. This form must originally have had significance, but its origin is lost. A few specimens have been found mounted upon a square hollow base, cast all in one piece, from under the top of which depends a loop.

Some Chinese archaeologists claim

that a bell originally hung from this loop, which rang when the yi was lifted. Although the bell is of very ancient origin in China it was without a clapper for some centuries after the yz in question were made, so it seems hardly possible that a voiceless bell should have hung there. Bells were struck with a wooden mallet

on the outer surface, and a person who held a heavy yz aloft in hoth hands could certainly not have struck a bell hanging beneath. The use of the loop remains therefore still problematical, and would not have been mentioned here were it not that it furnishes an excellent

example

of the

fantastic

speculations which

passed current in China as archaeology.

have

The +z was used for

offerings of grain.

Another form called yi, but differently written (RE), is some-

times the most fantastic of all the sacrificial vessels. These yi are often animal forms conventionalized into containers for sacrificial wine, and generally of a deliberately ugly or menacing aspect. The animals are usually not recognizable as members of any known species, but are extremely convincing, nevertheless.

A form called the iu (@#) became very popular during the Han dynasty. It is a round-bellied jar with a spreading cylindrical neck, and a cylindrical foot. It has two ring handles suspended from flat tiger masks on the shoulders, and was used as a container for wine or water. Three of the finest of these examples are in the Buckingham collection. One bears engraved upon the neck four characters reading “Number seven eastern palace.” Another of these jars approximately the same size and shape has the entire surface covered with an engraved pattern consisting of geometrical ornament and dragon-headed interlacing scroll patterns. Both these jars are of reddish bronze with a heavy gold plating, but the decorated jar has the pattern relieved in silver colour evidently obtained by painting the gold surface with mercury. The masks which support the handles of this jar are very crisply chiselled, and there can be little doubt that it is an imperial piece. The third of these jars is inlaid with a metal now much decomposed, but probably copper. A pattern of sprightly animals, facing each other in pairs, and in different registers, alternating with spirals gives vigorous decoration over the entire surface. The form of the jar is extremely simple, but .it is saved from monotony and raised toa high degree of beauty by the unusual vitality of the decorating shapes. Bells and mirrors deserve special mention. Fine bronze bells of the early periods have long been highly esteemed by Chinese collectors, particularly when they bear inscriptions, and an inscribed bell was always considered superior to an uninscribed one of greater artistic merit. The forms of early bells are all more or less alike, and they may be generally considered as representing one class, although there is a great variety in proportion and in the surface decoration. Most of the bells have projecting bosses, sometimes called nipples, arranged in regular pattern on the surface, and these have given rise to some amazing specu-

lations among Chinese amateurs. Perhaps the most amusing is that they are the survival of tuning pegs, such as are used at present in harps and pianos. It is claimed that strings or wires were stretched between them and that the bells were tuned to various musical pitches. A simpler solution of the problem would be that they represent rivets which in early times fastened plates of metal together in bell forms before bronze could be easily

cast. The bells are all flat in section, like pointed ellipses, and this form could easily develop from metal plates, Mirrors were probably introduced from the West, as highly artistic metal mirrors were in use in Greece some time before they seem to have appeared in China and crude earlier Scythian examples are known. With one or two possible exceptions the

WORK

247

earliest Chinese mirrors we know date from the Han dynasty. The earliest examples are circular and very simple. The reflecting

surface is as a rule slightly convex, and the back is decorated with concentric bands of geometrical patterns. Ritualistic mirrors sometimes had concave reflecting surfaces. Sometimes there are birds or beasts in raised outline, and sometimes characters and signs of the zodiac in the feld inside the bands. A boss in the exact centre, pierced from side to side, allowed the passage of a cord which was twisted into a tassel and used as a handle for the mirror. Some of the finest mirrors date from the T’ang dynasty. The backs are covered in high relief with intertwining patterns of vines, leaves, birds and running animals, and are reminiscent of Persian taste as well as the repoussé silver work done in Asia Minor from Hellenistic times. Caravans were passing continually between China and the West, and, from the time of the Han dynasty, outside influences become a distinct factor in the development of all the crafts of China. Much has been said about the style of the Ch’in dynasty, a period of less than so years between the Chou and the Han, filled with uproar and confusion. There is little doubt that many practices of the Chou dynasty came to a rather abrupt end, but styles do not end with one dynasty nor begin with another, and it is doubtful if such a thing actually exists as a Ch'in style. The use of bronze became more widespread among the people during the Han dynasty, and from that time its uses multiply. There are splendid representations of animals, generally on a very small scale, singly, and in fantastic groupings. These occur from Han to T’ang. During the Six dynasties it became the custom to cast votive figures in gilt bronze, and the monasterles seem to have made a practice of keeping large numbers of these on hand, ready for dedication by the pious. It is from the inscriptions engraved on the bases at the time of such dedications that we have gained much of our information on sculptural characteristics and religious practices of the Wei and T’ang dynasties. From the end of the Chou period there is a tendency to sirnplify bronze forms and rely upon engraved or inlaid patterns in place of the early decorations in relief. During the Sung dynasty the keen delight in archaeological research prompted the manufacture of exact counterparts of early forms, as well as all sorts of archaistic approximations. Very few Ming bronzes have much to recommend them as works of art. They are generally the products of the virtuosity of mediocre craftsmen, produced at a time when lavish decoration had taken the place of purity of form. Inscriptions.—In the identification of ancient bronzes the Chinese lay great stress upon inscriptions. There is still some doubt as to the meaning of certain of the ancient characters, but most of the inscriptions can be read. They vary in length from one character to several hundred, and often give accounts of historical events and the names of personages, but without dates, and without sufficient detail to make attributions to definite times or places anything more than conjectural. One of the longest on record is in the South Kensington museum, London. The shorter inscriptions read: ““To the venerable father,” “I have dedicated this bronze to my father Ting,” “Serviceable for sons and grandsons,” etc. There are also single marks, more or less pictographic,

some of which represent animals, birds or men. The meaning of others is not at all clear. As bronzes with inscriptions bring higher prices, many dealers have felt it their duty to see that all bronzes in their possession bore the right, or wrong type of inscription. Many bronzes, perfectly genuine, excellent specimens artistically, have had

inscriptions added at a later date, in characters sometimes meaningless. In the ancient bronzes the inscriptions were cast m the surface

like the ornament,

and it is practically

impossible

to

imitate a cast inscription by means of engraved characters, so a microscope, and even the eye alone will detect the added inscription. This is not, however, a practice of recent origin, and some

very fine bronzes of the Chou dynasty bear inscriptions in Shang or Chou characters which were added to them several hundred years later.

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

gi

oeae hee

See, ae p e Sür:

ined 14 ong ZS

a Ne Eaaa

ENa Drepa

Mth we pe ay ee,

ee We

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m dat a!i yoy

GEE aiMarkee ie~

FROM

ALBERT

J.

KOOP'S

“EARLY

CHINESE

BRONZES”;

(LEFT

TO

RIGHT,

TOP

ROW)

PLATES

XX,

Il,

Xi;

(LOWER

ROW)

PLATES

IV,

X-A,

LIII.

EARLY CHINESE BRONZES

Decoration.—The religion of the Shang and Chou dynasties still uncertain what the T’ao-t’ieh represents, but his representawas animistic, and the decorations on the early bronzes have tion is always easily identified. Animal heads are often used as ornamental bosses in the centre been interpreted as representations of the forces of nature, sometimes in demoniac form. Almost all decorations consist of two of a band of decoration, and as handle ends on the swinging parts, an arrangement of forms of animistic or zodmorphic origin bales of the yu. Some of the heads are horned and some are not. in rather high relief, strongly modelled, and a pattern of thin Some have spreading mouselike ears. They are variously identilines, closely spaced, in sharp relief, either outlining the stronger fied, but none of them seem closely patterned after nature. They forms, or in an all-over pattern of spirals, completely filling the are abstractions based upon animals rather than animal porground. These lines are extraordinarily crisp in execution, and traits. In considering the decorative zodmorphic motives on Choe unvarying in thickness throughout the pattern, and were carved in the surface of the original model, from which they were cast bronzes and those of similar design it might be safe to say thata in the bronze. Later bronzes often have patterns of this type i recognizable animal always argues a comparatively late date. We applied by means of stamps to the mould, with the result that the can see bird-like, and animal-like forms, and even very close likecharacter is entirely different, the crispness of execution being nesses of the cicada, which lends itself easily to geometrical com totally lacking, and the relief much shallower. These line motives ventionalization, but as soon as elephants, or other recognizable are of the well-known and wide-spread key or fret design and animals appear we realize that the piece is later in date or eves are generally known as the “thunder” pattern. Very delicate single archaistic. Very noticeable as decorative forms are the projecting flange lines in relief, often form bands around zsum, yu, and other vessels. They are extremely regular, but careful inspection will detect on the corners of square bronzes, or dividing the surface of the slight variations in direction, showing that they were not mechan- round bronzes into vertical panels. It is one of the favourite ically done. The Chinese call them “bowstrings.” Other linear motives of the Chou dynasty. As will be noticed in the ilustre motives are found of intersecting lozenge or diamond patterns tions they are usually cut and perforated into decorative forms. In some cases they are so fantastic as to detract from the beauty on the handles of vessels. Of the non-geometrical decorative forms of the Chou dynasty of the piece. the T’ao-t’ieh, or ogre’s head is the favourite. Often it is repreOne sees no reason to doubt that their origin was the project: sented only by a pair of eyes—hemispherical bosses with an ing “fins” which are always left in castings from piece moulds, incised centre. Sometimes the upper part of a face is indicated, and that long after the piece moulds had ceased to be used fot but the lower jaw is never shown, so it appears, even in its most fine bronzes, the decorative descendants of their “‘fins” were cast, complete form, as a sort of mask. It is abstract, but nevertheless as ornamental motives. In the Han dynasty, and later, there is a great deal of inlaythere is something intense about it which has an awe-inspiring effect even upon the uninitiated. In late Chou bronzes, zodmorphic ing in gold lines of the most elaborate patterns. Evidently a ne# forms are sometimes arranged in opposition so as to form parts flood of folk-lore from outside sources was pouring over Chim of a T’ao-t’ieh. In spite of many and ingenious theories it is at that time, and all sorts of animals and warlocks chase ead

BRONZE

(2, 3) BY COURTESY

OF

THE

ART

INSTITUTE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

PLATE XII

OF CHICAGO

CHINESE Ll. Gilt-bronze altar group of Buddha and attendant divinities, six dynasties (A.D. 386-589), in a private collection in the United States

BRONZES 2. Covered ceremonial dish, Chou dynasty (1125-255 B.C.) 3. Gilt-bronze ceremonial

jar, Han dynasty

(206 B.C. to A.D. 220)

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL WORK

PumXIV

perme rer ret et

ee i

enei ee eeaM meee

=

pale hat a ty

pae an)

BY COURTESY OF (6) THE GEORGE

(1, 2, 4) THE ARTY INSTITUTE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLECTION;

OF CHICAGO, PHOTOGRAPH,

CHINESE

(3) BARON SUMITOMO, (8) THE METROPOLITAN (5) COLLECTION ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES

BRONZES

OF THE

l Ceremonial jar (Hu) of bronze inlaid with copper, Han dynasty, 206 B.C. From the Art Institute of Chicago Ceremonial vessel (Yi), Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C. From the Art institute of Chicago oe vase (Tsun), Chou dynasty.

From the Sumitomo

Collection,

AND

OF

HAN

ART,

NEW

YORK;

FROM

(7,

tripod

(Ting), Chou dynasty.

From

the Art Institute of

9)

THE

DAVID

WEILL

COLLECTION,

DYNASTIES

5. Elephant, Han dynasty or earlier. From the Louvre, Paris 6. Ceremonia! wine jar (Yu), Chou dynasty. In the Eumorfopoulos Collection

7. Double lock, Chou dynasty or later.

From the David Weill Collection,

Paris

8. Bronze altar table with ceremonial vessels.

apan

Ceremonial Chicago

CHOU

MUSEUM

Chou dynasty. From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 9. Double-headed animal, Han dynasty. From the David Wey Collection

Prate XV

BRONZE

AND

}

e

BRASS

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

a

EG

e

terde hamd y

~

t

Se

BY COURTESY OF (5, 9) THE DIRECTOR OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT INDIA, (I, 3, 4, 7, 8) A XK. COOMARASWAMY

INDIAN

METALWORK

MUSEUM,

OF

(6) THE MUSEUM

THE

1. Tinned copper ware from Kashmir. 18th and 129th century. 2. Gilt copper relief representing a kinnari, from the temple at Srisailam. 3. Silver inlaid copper box (killetaya) for chewing-lime. Ceylon, 18th century. 4. Three brass surahis for carrying Ganges water, 1Sth—19th century. 5. Brass vessels from Kashmir showing Persian influence. 6. Copper lamp. South India, about 17ih century. At the back, seated,

6TH

OF FINE ARTS,

TO

THE

BOSTON;

19TH

PHOTOGRAPHS, (2) THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

SURVEY OF

CENTURY

Gaja-Laksmi, framed by a makara-torana. 7. Bronze-coated iron plummet from Bengal, 6th century. &. Copper ewer (kKendiya) engraved and set with gems. Ceylon, 18th century. 9. Two temple hand lamps of brass from Travancore, early 19th century. All of these objects are of various alloys, ranging from copper and brass to bronze

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

other through mountains and clouds. There was then a breaking away from the heavy and sombre traditions of the Chou dynasty and a tremendous expression of energy. Many of these inlaid old bronzes have recently come to light and have been ably discussed by Rostovtseff in his book “Inlaid Bronzes of the Han Dynasty.” The animals or spirits, or whatever the forms represent, were in most cases animals not seen or known—heard of

perhaps in wild tales of barbarian tribes, or copied from foreign animal motives

imperfectly

understood;

imagined,

or evolved

as personifications of the forces of nature. During the Han dynasty the tale of the Kun-lung mountains

with their peachtree on which grew the peaches of longevity was

popular, and the “hill” type of incense burner came into being.

Though prevalent in Han pottery, in bronze it is hardly met before the Six dynasties, and then, although the conical cover moulded to resemble mountain peaks hardly changed its shape, the cylindrical base most common in pottery was replaced by forms of

greater fancy and grace. Coiling dragons of strength and vigour often supported the censer in their Jaws.

Dragons were not very common as bronze decorations before the Han dynasty. It has been proved that they were a compara-

tively late importation

from the west, but from T’ang times

onwards they are the commonest of all decorative motives. Taoist figures become popular in Sung and Ming times, such as Lao Tzu,

riding upon an ox and in the following centuries bronze has

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

249

all dirt which can be made to cling to the surface. Many European collectors wax and polish the surfaces of their bronzes, but the practice is not followed in America. Unscrupulous dealers have not hesitated to apply artificial patinas to genuine old bronzes to increase their saleability, and this is done in a variety of ways The simplest method is to paint them. Watercolour paints will wash off in water, and turpentine or naphtha will act as a solvent to oil colours, so these methods of falsification are easily detected. Sodium silicate, which is very slow to dissolve, is often used and in Japan exceedingly clever work is done with coloured lacquers. Waxes are used also. There is, unfortunately, no way to be absolutely certain that a bronze is genuine, but there are many ways of finding out when they are not genuine. A true patina is not easily damaged. Boiling a few hours in water, and washing with paint and varnish solvents will easily remove the more recent traces of antiquity. The lacquer does not come off so easily, but where lacquer, or a silicate, has been applied, the surface beneath is generally roughened so that if a small bit of the surface is exposed, the artificial roughening can be seen. The true patina has actually eaten into the surface and cannot in most cases be easily removed. Where the process of patination has gone far the entire bronze shell is sometimes changed in composition, and if genuine fragments of ancient bronzes are examined it will be seen that the patina penetrates deep below the surface, sometimes leaving only a slight core of the original bronze which, too, has changed in composition, if not in colour, and has become extremely brittle. On the other hand under different conditions the strength, the toughness and even the appearance of old bronzes have been little affected. Some very careful forgeries have been made by applying fragments of true malachite to the surface of the bronze with lacquer. Some types of bronze patina are actually like malachite in structure, appearance, and chemical composition, but forgeries of this type may be detected under the magnifying glass by observing the stratifications of the colour layers which will not harmonize with each other.

been the medium for comparatively trivial ideas. The majesty of the early days is gone forever. A conspicuous exception, however, is the set of large bronze astronomical instruments cast in 1279 for the observatory on the walls of Peking. The Ming emperors sought dignity on an enormous scale, and huge bronze vessels and dragons were cast for use in the palace and the palace grounds, but few of them were successful and most were extremely awkward and ungainly. The walls of early bronze vessels, except for the basin-like ones, are generally thick, and the walls of later bronzes are always comparatively thin. The early bronzes show a tenseness of conception, BrpriocrapHY.—S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art (1904); J. C. Ferguson, the later ones a suavity of line and simplicity of mass that tends “An Examination of Chinese Bronzes,” Annual Report of Smithsonian to become insipid. All the handles and other freestanding parts Institution (1914); M. Toyoda, Sumitomo Part II., “Ancient Mirrors” of early bronzes seem so perfectly suited to their function and (x921) ; Takeuchi Kimpei, “Ancient Chinese Bronze Mirrors” Burlingthe needs of the design that they appear inevitable. The handles ton Magasine (Sept. 1911); A. J. Koop, Early Chinese Bronzes (1924) ; on Ming and Ching bronze jars are frequently monstrosities, Hamada Kosaku, Explanatory Notes on Sen-oku sei-sho (The Collecof Old Bronses of Baron Sumitomo) Part I., “Bronze Vases,” etc. violating all design canons. The decoration on early bronzes tion (1921); R. Petrucci, “L’Epigraphie des Bronzes rituels de la Chine seems always produced with the particular piece in mind, but in ancienne” in Jour. Asiatique (1916); M. Rostovtzeff, Iranians and the later bronzes it is simply a matter of stock patterns applied Greeks in South Russia (1922); M. Rostovtzeff, Inlaid Bronszes of the Han Dynasty in the Collection of C. T. Loo (Brussels, 1927); E. A. with dies and stamps. Patina.—Inasmuch as an interesting patina will to-day bring Voretzsch, Altchinesische Bronzen (Berlin, 1924); W. P. Yetts, “Bronzes,” Burlington Magazine Monograph (1925); Otto Kümmel, a high price for a bronze of little or no artistic merit some discus- Chinesische Bronzen aus der Abteilung fiir Ostasiatische Kunst an den sion of patinas may be useful here. True patination is produced Staatlichen Museen, Berlin (1928). (C.F. K.) by chemical changes brought about by the action on the bronze INDIAN AND INDONESIAN of chemicals in the soil in which it is buried, hastened more or less by the amount of moisture present. Some bronzes have been Copper, Brass and Bronze.—The founding of copper, brass found in water, which produces a distinctive effect, and some are and bronze by the cire perdue process is universal in India, and thought never to have been buried. Europeans and Americans of high antiquity; but it may be remarked that the use of bronze prefer a green patina, and the Chinese consider that a velvety is comparatively rare in the case of images, most of the so-called black is the best. Good patinas are very appealing in colour and Indian bronzes being made of pure copper. After finishing, the texture, particularly if they have received careful grinding and casting is usually gilded by the mercury process. In the case of polishing for generations, so it is not surprising to find bronzes Nepalese copper figures, and occasionally in Jaina brass figures, a in many museums which have absolutely no merit beyond the acci- decoration with inlaid gems may be added. Small images are cast dental one of colour. When a bronze is excavated its surface is solid; much larger images were cast by the same process, but on naturally covered with dirt and incrustations more or less thick, an earthy core composed of clay, sand, charcoal and rice-husks, underneath which is the patina caused by the disintegration of burnt to a cinder-like consistency. The colossal copper Buddha the metal surface and its combination with elements which sur- from Sultanganj, of Gupta date, now in the Birmingham museum round it. If the patina is thick and its colour good it may be care- and art gallery, was cast in this manner, but in several sections; fully ground down and polished away until the resultant bronze the same process is widely employed in Farther India, and is is actually the handiwork of a more recent craftsman who has especially characteristic of the later Siamese “bronzes.” carved out of the heavy patinated surface the original form of In the case of utensils such as water-vessels and ceremonial the bronze. The favourite Chinese method is to polish with the vases, lamps, etc., the same process is employed, but the casting bare hand, relying on the oils of the skin for the sole lubrication. is finished by turning on a lathe and polishing. Vessels of copper, Generations of such polishing by hosts of patient servants has brass or bell-metal were formerly made exclusively for domestic liven to many famous bronzes their charm of colour. At the and religious use, but more highly ornamented types are now present time many bronzes are coming on the market just as they made largely for sale to tourists, in Benares, Madras and Ceylon. have been excavated, and there is an evident attempt to preserve Amongst the standard forms may be mentioned water-vessels for

250

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

hand use (Jofd), those with long necks (swradhi) used for carrying Ganges water to great distances for ritual purposes, and the vessels for specifically religious use in worship, such as the arghya-patra for consecrated water. Spouted vessels are used for drinking water, not from the spout by direct contact, but as a continuous stream poured directly into the throat (see DRINKING VESSELS). A special form of vessel formerly in use by Brahmanical and Buddhist ascetics was the kamandalu or kundikd, usually of earthenware, but sometimes of bronze, in which the long neck formed the true spout, and a lateral opening served for filling; this form passed with Buddhism to China and Korea. The cire perdue process is also employed in the making of peasant jewellery in base metal. A very interesting variety of this technique is practised at Bindi in Rajputana, where the flexible anklets called samt are cast in one piece.

A composition of wax,

resin and oil is prepared in a long string, which is then twisted spirally round a stick of the diameter of the intended links; one

cut along the stick separates the links, which are then interlaced every one into two others, and joined up by the application of a hot knife. When 60 or 70 rings have been thus united, the ends of the chain are joined, and the whole gently manipulated until it forms a perfectly flexible model of the future anklet. This is then dipped into a paste of clay and cowdung, and finally enclosed in an outer layer of clay. When dry the mould thus prepared is scraped until a small piece of each link is just visible, then a wax leading line is attached all round, and the whole again covered with clay. Two such moulds being placed side by side, the wax leading lines are led into a hollow at the top of the mould; this hollow cup is filled with metal and borax, and covered with clay, leaving only a blow-hole. The whole is then placed in the furnace, the wax melts, and the metal takes its place. When the mould is opened it is only necessary to remove the leading lines and file down irregularities, to have a pair of flexible anklets ready for use. Small images and toys are often made in a similar fashion from prepared wax, all the ornament being applied in the shape of the wax string; brassware similarly decorated always retains an appliqué effect in the finished product. Some of the finest examples of Indian metal-work are afforded by temple bells, and standing and hanging lamps and Jamp-chains. The bells range from those used in the hand to the great bell cast for King Bawdawpaya in Burma in 1790, the second largest in the world, and weighing over 80 tons. Lamps for burning oil are cupped for one or more wicks; those made in candelabra form, like a tree of which the branches bear innumerable lights, are especially beautiful. Brass or copper vessels may be decorated by chased or engraved ornament or by inlay or encrustation of some other metal, according to the method already described in the case of iron. Brass inlaid with silver and copper is often very effective. Silver is applied to copper with specially good effect in the case of the huqqa covers of Purnea, Bengal. More rarely a copper vessel may be decorated with inset gems, like goldsmith’s work. The characteristic brass ware of Moradabad, still extensively produced, is engraved with minute designs, relieved against a background of coloured lac, which is filled into the excavated ground by means of heat; in some of the best examples the ground colour is all black, producing a sort of imitation didri, in others red and green are also used. True enamel seems to be applied only to gold and silver, niello (¢.v.) only to silver. The excellent tinned copper ware of Kashmir and the Punjab is mainly used by Mohammedans for domestic purposes, and is of Persian origin. Bidri.—One of the most distinctive of Indian metal wares is that known as dbidri, from the chief and, perhaps, original place of manufacture at Bidar in Hyderabad. Another main source of production, both in the 18th century and at the present day, is Lucknow. The objects made are for domestic use (PI. xvii, figs. I, 2,3). The alloy is composed mainly of tin or zinc, with smaller proportions of lead and copper. After casting, and shaping on the lathe, the surface is then engraved for the application of silver inlay; finally the surface is polished and darkened by the application of a sal ammoniac and saltpetre paste mixed with oil. The designs

are geometrical and floral and in the best taste (except in some

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

modern examples, where the effect is too thin), standin Oy! brightly in silver on the dead black ground colour of the a, alloy (See also ARMS AND ARMOUR;

COPPER;

CIRE PERDUE: §ILVER.

SMITH’S AND GOLDSMITH’S WORK; PEWTER; MEDALS AN D Cons ,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—B. H. Baden-Powell, Handbook oj the Economi Products, Art and Manufactures of the Punjab (1868-72) : W, Egerton

Illustrated Handbook

of Indian Arms

TE made a TS A aee gri e a

(1880); Sir G. Bir vat

kth a

Industrial Arts of India (1880) ; C. E. de Ujfalvy, Les Cuivres Ancien:

au Cachemire et au Petit-Thibet (1883); L’Art des Cuivres Ande dans l'Himalaya occidental (1884) ; T. N. Mukharji, Art Manufactum,

of India (Calcutta, 1888), Brass and Copper Manufactures of Bengy, (Calcutta, 1894); A. K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Sinhalese An (1908), History of Indian and Indonesian Art (Leipzig, 1927): $ Hadaway, INustrations of Metal Work in Brass and Copper, most South Indian (Madras, 1913); G. Mukhopādhyäya, Surgical Instr. ` ments of the Hindus (Calcutta, 1913, 1914) ; O. C. Gangoly (Ardhendry Kumara Gangopadhyaya), Nepalese Incense Burners (Rupam, 1921). See also articles by E. A. Gait, J. Griffiths, E. B. Havell, J. 1, Kipling and Mrs. Rivett-Carnac in Journal of Indian Art, vols. i, iii, vii, ix (1886, etc.) ; B. H. Baden-Powell, “Indian Arms and Armour,” Joum, Ind. Art., vol. vi. (1896) ; O. C. Gangoly, “South Indian Lamps,” By. lington Magazine (1916); G. Groslier, “Objects Cultuels en bronze,” Arts et Archéologie Khmérs, vol. i. (1923). For the manufacture an history of iron and steel in India see I. E. Lester, Indian Iron (Stow. { bridge, 1912) ; P. Neogi, Iron in Ancient India (Calcutta, 1914): W, |

nine noe eee

Rpt we aes

eater Neate ai Leah en

Belck, “Die

Erfinder

der Eisentechnik,”

Zeitschrift fir Ethnologie

(rg10) ; trans. in Ann, Rep., Smithsonian Inst. (1911); Sir R. Hadfield, “Sinhalese Iron and Steel of Ancient Origin,” Journ. Iron and Steel Ins. (1912), and Proc. Royal Soc., A., vol. Ixxxvi. (1912). (A.K. C)

CORROSION

AND

RESTORATION

The art of fabricating metal objects such as spearheads, daggers, ` urns, vases, statues, bracelets, etc., dates back many thousands of years. There are on exhibit to-day in all of the important museums of the world many precious spẹcimens, often of rare beauty of design, that bear witness to the highly developed skill of the | ancient metal workers and artists of Egypt, Greece, Etruria and i|

other countries.

These metal objects when unearthed to-day are `

at times in a very well-preserved condition. This applies, fo example, to most of the bronze, silver and other metal articles found in the tomb of Tutankhamen. This tomb may be looked upon as an “ideal location” in view of the fact that corroding influences such as moisture, salts and acids were practically absent throughout the countless days of seclusion. On the other hand, there have been many old graves uncovered in which the metal implements and jewellery were found to be completely disintegrated, no vestige of the original metal or alloy remaining. The corroding agents, ever present in most soils, had converted the copper, tin, iron and lead back into mineral compounds such as oxides, chlorides and carbonates.

Between these two limits—complete preservation and complete

disintegration—there are many intermediate stages. Very often a statue or a coin reveals upon examination a distinct metal core, the outer incrustation being composed of minerals formed from the original metal or metals. The process of restoration, briefly outlined below, and discovered and developed a few years ago

(C. G. Fink and C. H. Eldridge, Report, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1925), applies in particular to art objects 0 bronze and of other alloys which have suffered partial or complete

disintegration while being buried or being otherwise exposed ti corroding influences.

The Process of Corrosion.—It is now conceded by mo

authorities that the process of corrosion of a metal or an alloy!

due to electro-chemical action. One or many “‘cells” are formei between the more noble or “positive” areas or components, and the less noble or “negative” areas of the metal. Very often there

is a distinct plating out of pure silver due to disintegration silver-copper alloys.

In the case of the bronzes the products af

corrosion are the oxides of tin and copper besides the pretty gre!

(malachite) and blue (azurite) basic carbonates of copper. | times chlorides and sulphur compounds of copper are likewise present. Silver, when not alloyed, is found either as metal or a

ebony-black sulphide. Gold almost invariably occurs as metal. either pure or alloyed with copper or silver. Certain salts such as chlorides, sulphates and nitrates preset! in rain and in moist soil greatly hasten the process of corrosid!:

There are, however, other active agents, for example, acids ani

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BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL

WORK

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2,

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6, 7,

(14) THE W. E. COX COLLECTION

12,

13)

A.

K

COOMARASWAMY,

(3,

8)

THE

DIRECTOR

INDIAN

1. Bidri vase, of damascened silver. 2. Bidri-worker 20th century. 3. Bidri hugga vase, of damascened

making a hugga silver and gold,

OF

THE

VICTORIA

aA

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AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

(9,

10,

11)

THE

MUSEUM

OF

FINE

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ARTS,

BOSTON,

FROM

METAL-WORK vase, 17th

South Indian (varandala),

brass lamp ornament, 18th century. 10. Bronze ritual tray of Nepal, probably 18th century. 11. Bronze reliquary of

century. 4. Kris from Bali, probably 15th century. 5. Areca-mix slicer, damascened iron, silver and gold, of Ceylon. 6. Top of a cast brass table

Nepal, probably 17th century. 13. Copper

(serak-kale} of Ceylon, 18th century A.D. 8. South Indian

centuries.

century. 7. Iren pillar of Delhi, 4th brass comb, 17th and 18th centuries. 9.

14. Nepalese

century. 12. Bidri box of damascened silver, L7th betel box (killotaya), of Ceylon, 17th and 18th

brass water vessel, 17th and 18th centuries

Prae XVI

WORK

ORNAMENTAL

BRASS

AND

BRONZE

el tee

Ld

A A LL

|

5 (i, 2) FROM THE WARREN E. COX COLLECTION, ARCHIVES PHOTOGRAPHIQUES

BY COURTESY

INDIAN

OF

(3)

THE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

METALWORK

OF

THE

SURVEY

OF

10TH

INDIA,

TO

(6) THE MUSEUM

OF

THE

CENTURY

19TH

FINE

ARTS,

BOSTON;

PHOTOGRAPH,

(5) COLLECTION

1. 17th century shrine from Darjeeling. Finials and feet are cast, the rest is repoussé, with pierced work in the canopy. The surface is covered with a green patina, probably due to weather rather than burial

4. Javanese copper bell of the 1Oth century 5. Carved steel elephant goad (ankusa) from Tanjore, 17th century 6. Copper sacrificial spoon. Cambodian, about the 10th century

2. Brass lamp, heavily cast and chased.

All of these objects are of various alloys ranging from copper and brass to bronze

Nepal, 1Sth—19th

3. Brass shrine from Jaina, 14th~1L5th century

century

BRONZE

AND

BRASS

salts of crganic origin, notably carbonic acid, which serve as electrolytes and tend to hasten the decomposition of the metal or alloy. Of prime importance in this process of corrosion is the presence

of water or moisture. In completely dry locations corrosion does not occur. Water, present merely as moisture in the soil in which the bronze lies buried, is sufficient to bring about mineralization

of the surface of the bronze and eventually of its entire body. The author’s examination of the cross-section of a number of

metal objects which were in the last stages of complete mineralization revealed some interesting facts:

The cross-section of a

Greek bronze bracelet showed a small residual metallic core, around this a 4 in. thick layer of copper oxide (cuprite) and stannite and outside of this a layer of green basic carbonate of copper (malachite). The cross-section of another bracelet showed a metallic core composed primarily of copper and silver, then but

a short space from the surface of this core, a ring of pure silver and then beyond this a layer of malachite. It might be well to recall at this point that of the various copper minerals occurring in the earth’s crust, malachite is one of the most stable, in particular, under those conditions of the atmosphere and

the soil of the localities in which the human race has lived prospered. Malachite is a decomposition product of other stable copper minerals such as the sulphide, chalcocite, or chloride, atacamite, or the sulphate, brochantite. During

and less the the process of corrosion of a bronze there are, as a rule, undoubtedly unstable compounds of copper first formed which are eventually transformed into the basic carbonate or malachite.

The Older Processes

of Restoration.—In

the past, metal

objects of art had been found in dry locations, in a good state of preservation, and these needed very little preparation or cleaning before being submitted to museums or collections. On the other hand, when the metal article was covered with an earthy crust of appreciable thickness—and usually unsightly in appearance—various “‘radical’’ measures were resorted to by dealers and others. Old bronzes showed fresh chisel marks, indicating plainly that the method of removing the crust or hard outer layers was of a very crude mechanical sort. Other ‘‘restored” bronzes showed all the pit marks of strong acid cleaning. Those who have resorted to these radical chisel or acid methods of “restoration” in the past overlooked one very important fact—a fact which was only brought to light a few years ago in the course of our own researches. The fact is this: During the process of corrosion of an art bronze the detail of design is “held” or “preserved” in the crust but not on the surface of the metal core. The core of a badly corroded bronze is almost invariably deeply pitted and ugly in appearance. The New Process of Restoration.—Conceding that the corrosion of metals and alloys was an electrolytic one, it was evident that if this electrolytic process of corrosion could be reversed, a method might be devised whereby the metal compounds in the crust would be reduced back to metal. After a series of experiments, expectations were fully realized, and this record, with the illustrations herewith, is the restoration process as finally worked out by the writer.

Without any preliminary cleaning, the corroded bronze object to be restored is hung as a cathode in a 2% caustic soda solution (room temperature) and low amperage direct current applied. The object is suspended with soft copper wires and is completely immersed in the solution. When there is danger that the object might not hold together during the process of reduction or restoration, it is advisable to pack the whole object in clean white sand, after making proper electrical connections, and then hiling the containers with the caustic soda solution. Two or more anodes are hung up near the edge of the container. Iron, duriron and platinum anodes have been used with success. A rectangular glass battery jar of one litre capacity serves well as a container for the treatment of small bronzes.

For large objects, stoneware

tanks may be employed and there is no objection to the use of

large sheet-iron tanks welded at the joints. A very low current density is essential. In general, the more completely mineralized the object, the lower should be the current density. From one

ORNAMENTAL

WORK

eet

to five amperes per square foot of exposed cathode crust surface is usually suitable, but even lower current densities are to be

resorted to when the gassing at the cathode is too vigorous. It must be understood that violent gassing will cause serious injury to a soft crust, especially during the first stages of reduction. Upon first closing the electrical circuit it often happens that no appreciable current passes through the cell, due to the poor contact between the copper wire and the crust. However, this is only a temporary phenomenon and after a short time the entire crust becomes conducting. An important requisite for success is the allowance of ample time. The heavier the crust the longer the time. Bronzes with crusts of $ to 4 in. in thickness usually require three to six months continuous electrolytic treatment. The metal compounds in the crust are slowly reduced back to metal and after further electrolysis the finely divided metal becomes more and more compact. Very often it is not essential to proceed to this very last stage. By careful handling and drying the finely divided metal can be conveniently compacted by means of a good grade of shellac. This latter procedure is particularly useful where detail of design is of first importance and where the object treated will be kept in a glass case. Silver alloy objects which have been badly decomposed while buried in the soil usually contain a layer of pure silver within the crust, as mentioned above. Now it is a very fortunate circumstance that the details of design of the original silver-alloy bracelet or other article are faithfully reproduced in this layer of pure silver, the product of the decuprification of the alloy. Accordingly, when restoring articles of this alloy by the electrolytic method, we reduce the malachite and other copper compounds in the crust outside of the silver. A layer composed largely of metallic copper is produced on top of the silver. In order to expose the silver underneath the article in question, at the completion of the electrolytic treatment, it is carefully dipped alternately in dilute nitric acid (109%) and in warm water until all of the copper is removed. For the removal of the last traces of copper deposited on the silver it is safer to use formic acid instead of nitric and thus avoid any possible etching of the silver surface. Among the Greeks and Romans, and likewise among the ancient Chinese, it was often customary to apply hammered goldleaf to the surface of bronze objects. Take, for example, the author’s investigation of a decorated Roman bronze plaque which had been used for architectural purposes. The original plaque was of solid bronze, and to the surface was applied gold-leaf about z in. thick (the human hair is about zin. in diameter). During the process of corrosion the copper and tin salts passed through the pores of the gold-leaf and formed a heavy green crust. To remove the crust by one of the older methods of restoration, such as the chisel method or the acid method, would have resulted in complete failure, since the bronze proper was entirely mineralized and the gold-leaf had no mechanical strength, although it was tightly embedded or anchored in the red-green crust. By applying the electrolytic method of restoration, a “restored” plaque, composed of an upper and lower layer of metallic copper and in between the layer of gold-leaf was obtained. By very careful manipulation, the upper layer of the copper was dissolved and the gold underneath exposed. Preserving the Restored Bronzes and Other Alloys.—In the case of the ordinary copper-tin and copper-tin-lead bronzes, the surface obtained by the electrolytic restoration method was coppery in colour, very much like the surface of freshly cast high copper alloys. This appearance of “newness” is usually an objection from an artistic point of view. Nearly all ancient and many modern bronzes on exhibit to-day have coats of patina either naturally formed or artificially applied. One of the commonest reagents used for patinating bronzes is salammoniac (NH,C1). However, we can not too strongly warn against the use of this salt as it will often give rise to that treacherous “bronze diseasr’” more fully described below. Examining a large number of natural patinas, in particular those formed in Egypt, Greece and ancient Rome, a number of different shades were found: There is the beautiful red of cuprous oxide, the green of malachite and the blue of azurite. In this investigation it was evident that the

|

252

BRONZING—BRONZINO

closer the approach to the natural conditions under which the patinas are formed, the more beautiful and artistic would be the results. Accordingly, such methods as applying solutions with a brush or cloth were eliminated at the start. The final procedure as now used consists in exposing the bronze to carbon dioxide gas after a preliminary exposure to fumes of ammonia or acetic acid or both. Beautiful shades of blues and greens are produced in irregular patches. In our American and European climates the greens are the most stable, the blue shades turning to green after some months. To produce the red shades of patina is decidedly more difficult. Artistic effects can be produced by submerging the bronze in a suspension of precipitated chalk to which has been added alittle iodine, as tincture of iodine. This treatment had best precede the carbonic acid treatment described above. After the bronze object has been patinated, it is then carefully dried in an oven (232° F) and upon partially cooling it is sprayed with a dilute solution of bees-wax in benzol. There is left behind an unbroken film of bees-wax more lasting and protective than most of the lacquer preparations commonly used to-day. Silver objects of art are usually kept in the bright polished condition, although a few collectors prefer the black sulphide patina. Accordingly, in the case of the silver articles restored by our process these are, after restoration, carefully dried in an electric oven (gas ovens tarnish the silver) kept at a temperature slightly above the boiling point of water. Thereupon, the bees-wax coat is applied as described for the bronzes. Gold or gold alloy objects seldom require a protective coating. However, if the gold is present merely as a thin leaf or film, it is better to apply the wax coating as for bronzes, in order to protect the base metal underneath the gold-leaf. But even this wax film is not an absolute protection against the destructive action of the contaminated atmosphere of a modern city. All metal objects of art’ should be kept in glass cases. ,The atmosphere within the case can be “corrected” by placing within the show case small open containers filled with sticks of caustic soda or caustic potash. As soon as these sticks turn to a thick liquid paste the containers should be cleaned out, dried and filled with fresh caustic. The less frequently a case is opened and the better it is sealed, the longer will the caustic remain effective. The Bronze Disease.—The term “bronze disease” or “collector’s plague” as usually applied, refers to a highly localized and usually accelerated form of corrosion. A bronze vase covered with a beautiful shiny patina may suddenly show a dull, light green spot, often not bigger than the head of a pin. If neglected, this spot grows in size more or less rapidly, depending to a large extent upon the composition of the surrounding atmosphere. The “bronze disease” has been known for many years. The “disease” may at times break. out as an epidemic and nearly every bronze in a collection be affected. A “healthy” bronze may be inoculated by a mere touch of fingers which have been handling sick bronze. The immediate cause of this localized infection is difficult to determine and many have been the conjectures proffered. Our own researches indicate that one of the most frequent causes of the “bronze disease” is a grain of ammonium or other chloride or sulphate which in the presence of a little moisture reacts with the copper in the bronze to form a complex copper chloride or sulphate. This latter chloride or sulphate is unstable, however, in the presence of carbonic acid and moisture of the atmosphere and is soon converted to a basic carbonate such as malachite. The hydrochloric or sulphuric acid thus liberated is free to act upon further areas of the bronze. Bronzes saturated with chlorides that had shown no signs of the disease as long as they remained in a comparative dry location, at once developed the disease upon

being transferred to a moist climate. Samples of atacamite, the natural basic eopper chloride mineral, and samples of brochantite, a natural basic copper sulphate, occurring in the arid regions of Chile, upon being shipped to New York and there exposed to the air immediately underwent decomposition resulting in a final copper carbonate compound. Bronzes infected with the disease should be washed in repeated changes of boiling distilled water. In case the disease is deeply rooted the only safe procedure is to make the bronze object b

| a cathode in a 2% sodium hydrate solution and electrolyze «| in the case of the restoration process described above. Dy, |

electrolysis the chloride, sulphate and other acid radicals an the iron anode

there reacting

to form basic iron salts maa

a! precipitate out of solution. Detection of Frauds.—The manufacture of “antiques” i... | industry of increasingly large proportions and it has Beconiea. l

and more difñcult to determine whether or not a certain biei genuine or “faked.” In the case of oil paintings, chemical anal :| the microscope and the X-ray have been of inestimable

a.

with very few exceptions conclusive answers are obtained. Tnth |

case of bronzes and other metal art objects, the detection a

frauds is considerably more difficult.

However, the folloniy

procedure in the examination of a doubtful specimen has hes| found most satisfactory and reliable: (1) microscopic examinati |

of the patina or crust; (2) chemical analysis of the patina y| crust; (3) metallographic examination of the metal core andth |

metal in direct contact with the patina or crust; (4) chemig| analysis of the metal (or metals). In the examination of tk i

patina we may find distinct crystalline growths of malachite y | azurite, the tiny crystals partially imbedded in the underlyių| oxide film. Such crystalline growths are most difficult to imitat| and patinas of recent origin are almost always amorphous or non. crystalline. Nevertheless, the patina may be recently formed y; applied and yet the bronze may be genuine—in fact, very man Í of the genuine bronzes exhibited nowadays have patinas of recer

or artificial formation. Accordingly, if the microstructure of th’ malachite or azurite particles in the crust or in the patinais dè, tinctly crystalline and interlaced with the copper oxide layer, tly: bronze is very likely genuine. But an amorphous malachite depos: ' does not necessarily imply that the underlying bronze isog|

genuine. Under the outermost coating of malachite or azurite w ' clayey material there usually is found, in the case of genum: bronzes, a layer of copper oxide, reddish-brown to reddish-blak in colour. This layer is usually of considerable thickness andis not readily applied by any rapid artificial process. In the metal

lographic examination of the bronze we find additional proof a:

to whether or not the bronze is genuine. Taking a very fine slic» of metal from some inconspicuous part of the bronze, and pre: paring this by polishing and etching for microscopical examination : we note in the case of a genuine bronze that there is a gradu: change in structure as we pass to the outer exposed edge of tht bronze; furthermore, we will sometimes note changes that at! brought about by a very slow process of “annealing.” We have | referred to the process of decuperification above. Chemical anal | sis must be carried out with great care. We can support th: findings of our metallographic investigation by determining chem: : cally that the main body or interior of the bronze has a decided ` different composition from the layers under the outer oxides:

patina surface.

BRONZING,

(C. G.F.)

a process by which a bronze-like surfacet

imparted to objects of metal, plaster, wood, etc. On metas: ' green bronze colour is sometimes produced by the action of sud ‘ substances as vinegar, dilute nitric acid and sal-ammoniac. 1; antique appearance may be given to new bronze articles by brust: ing over the clean bright metal with a solution of sal-ammonitt ;

and salt of sorrel in vinegar, and rubbing the surface dry, th}

operation being repeated as often as necessary. Another solutia | for the same purpose is made with sal-ammoniac, cream of tartu. ; common

salt and silver nitrate.

With a solution of platinic chlo $

ride almost any colour can be produced on copper, iron, bras | or new bronze, according to the dilution and the number ofappl : cations. Articles of plaster and wood may be bronzed by coal | them with size and then covering them with a bronze powder such as Dutch metal, beaten into fine leaves and powdered. Tht bronzing of gun-barrels may be effected by the use of a strom

solution of antimony trichloride.

A surface of copper orbas}

may be given an “oxidized” finish by treatment with a solution uy a sulphide or an arsenical salt.

Í

BRONZINO, IL, the name given to ANGELO ALLORI (150% §

1572), Florentine painter. Bronzino was born at Monticelli, ned i Florence, on Nov. 17, 1503, and studied under Raffaellino © | Pal

BRONZE AND BRASS ORNAMENTAL WORK = ™st8XVUI

10 BY COURTESY

OF

(1-5,

8-10)

THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF

ART,

NEW

ELECTROLYTIC

YORK,

(6,

7}

THE

CLEVELAND

TREATMENT

OF

MUSEUM

OF

ART

ANCIENT

BRONZES

l and 2. Front views of a copper plate about 6 in. (15 cm.) in diameter, before and after treatment. !t was badly corroded and covered with a thick green crust, which was successfully reduced revealing the form of the plate and the almost complete design engraved on it 3 and 4. Satyr’s head in repoussé from a Greek bronze mirror, end of the 5th century B.C., before and after restoration. The tip of the nose had been broken off previous to treatment

6 and 7. Roman bronze head, probably of the Augustan period, before and after treatment. It had been badly marred in the process of excavation and the surface was much corroded. A new surface of blue-green patina was evolved on the restored bronze by electro-chemical action 8. Bronze statuette shown in fig. 5, after a treatment of 21 days. Following the treatment, it was washed in warm water and patinated by submitting it to fumes of ammonia and acetic acid

3. Egyptian

9 and 10. Cat with

bronze statuette of the goddess Isis holding the child Horus

kittens,

an

Egyptian

bronze

group

statuette

of the

(early Ptolemaic period, 300—200 B.C.), before treatment. The white spots are ‘diseased’ regions of copper carbonate plus chloride. The left hand was corroded. A hard green

early Ptolemaic period (300—200 B.C.), before and after treatment. The surface was badiy corroded and covered with a grey-green crust. The heads of two of the kittens had long

crust covered the rest of the body

ago been broken

off

BRONZITE—BROOKE

253

Garbo and Jacopo da Pontormo. He was influenced by Michael Angelo and worked in Florence, where he was court portrait

the reign of James I. was a valued supporter of the king’s party, although in 1615 he advocated the summoning of a parlia-

painter to Cosmo I., Duke of Tuscany. With the exception of Andrea del Sarto, he was the greatest portrait painter produced by Florence in the 16th century. He also painted sacred and decorative subjects, good examples of which are the “Venus,

ment.

Cupid, Folly, and Time” in the National Gallery, London, and

the “Limbo or the Descent of Christ into Hades,” painted in 1552, in the Uffizi at Florence. The “St. Julian,” and the “Judith and Holofernes,” in the Pitti Palace, are among his most famous works. Of the latter there are many copies in different galleries.

He painted portraits of some of the famous men of his day, including Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.

His three fine paintings

of Eleonora di Toledo, grand duchess of Tuscany, are in the Uffizi, the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin, and the Wallace collection, London. He was a poet as well as a painter and a member of the

Florentine academy. He died in Florence on Nov. 23, 1572. BRONZITE, in mineralogy, a member of the pyroxene group that crystallizes in rhombic system (see PyroxeNEe). The name was originally applied to the members of the series exhibiting a hronzelike lustre, due to the presence of regularly arranged inclusions. These inclusions appear in most cases to be ilmenite arranged in plates parallel to the crystallographic plane (100). They

In 1618 he became commissioner of the Treasury, and in

162r he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Brooke, a title which had belonged to the family of his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Willoughby. He received from James I. the grant of Warwick castle, in the restoration of which he is said to have spent £20,000. He died on Sept. 30 1628. His only works published during his lifetime were four poems, one of which is the elegy on Sidney which appeared in The Phoenix Nest (1593), and the Tragedy of Mustapha. A volume of his works appeared in 1633, another of Remains in 1670, and his biography of Sidney in 1652. He wrote two tragedies on the Senecan model, Alakam and Mustapha. Brooke left no sons, and his barony passed to his cousin, ROBERT GREVILLE (c. 1608—1643), who thus became 2nd Lord Brooke. This nobleman was an active member of the parliamentary party, and defeated the Royalists in a skirmish at Kineton in Aug. 1642. He was killed at Lichfield on March 2 1643. Brooke, who is eulogized as a friend of toleration by Milton, wrote on philosophical, theological and current political topics. In 1746 his descendant, Francis Greville, the 8th baron (1719-1773), Was created earl of Warwick, a title still in his family.

are probably, as in the similar case of diallage (q.v.), products of

Dr. A. B. Grosart edited the complete works of Fulke Greville for

unmixing, separating from solid solution in the pyroxene on fall of

the Fuller Worthies Library in 1870, and made a small selection, published in the Elizabethan Library (1894). The life of Sidney was reprinted by Sir S. Egerton Brydges in 1816, and with an introduction by N. Smith in the “Tudor and Stuart Library” in 1907; Caelica was reprinted in M. F. Crow’s “Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles” in 1898. See also an essay in Mrs. C. C. Stopes’s Shakespeare’s Warwickshire

temperature.

BROOCH

or BROACH,

originally an awl or bodkin, de-

notes a clasp or fastener for ihe dress, provided with a pin, having 2 hinge or spring at one end and a catch or loop at the other. Brooches of the safety-pin type (fibulae) were extensively used in antiquity, but the place of origin cannot as yet be exactly determined; it would seem to have been in central Europe, towards the close of the Bronze age, somewhat before 1000 B.c. The earli-

est form is little more than a pin, bent round for security, with the point caught against the head, but from the third century or thereabout, brooches have developed into works of art, many of which are exquisitely decorated and ingeniously constructed. (See JEWELLERY.)

BROOKE,

FRANCES

(1724-89),

English novelist and

dramatist, whose maiden name was Moore, wrote novels popular in their day. The most important were The History of Lady Julia Mandeville (1763), Emily Montague (1769) and The Excursion (1777). Her dramatic pieces and translations from the French are now forgotten.

BROOKE,

FULKE

GREVILLE,

ist

Baron

(1554-

1628), English poet, only son of Sir Fulke Greville, was born at Beauchamp Court, Warwickshire. He was sent in 1564, on the same day as his life-long friend, Philip Sidney, to Shrewsbury school. He matriculated at Jesus college, Cambridge, in 1568. Sir Henry Sidney, president of Wales, gave him in 1576 a post connected with the court of the Marches, but he resigned it in 1577 to go to court with Philip Sidney. Young Greville became a great favourite with Queen Elizabeth, who treated him with less than her usual caprice, but he was more than once disgraced for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip Sidney, Sir Edward Dyer and Greville were members of the “Areopagus,” the literary clique which, under the leadership of Gabriel Harvey, supported the introduction of classical metres into English verse. Sidney and Greville arranged to sail with Sir Francis Drake in 1585 in his expedition against the Spanish West Indies, but Elizabeth peremptorily forbade Drake to take them with him, and also refused Greville’s request to be allowed to join Leicester’s army in the

Netherlands. Philip Sidney, who took part in the campaign, was killed on Oct. 17, 1586, and Greville shared with Dyer the legacy of his books, while in his Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney

Contemporaries (1907).

BROOKE, HENRY

(c. 1703-1783), Irish author, of county

Cavan, studied at Trinity college, Dublin, and then went to London to study law. He wrote a philosophical poem in six books entitled Universal Beauty (1735), translated the first and second books of Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata (1738), and produced a tragedy, Gustavas Vasa, the Deliverer of his Country (1739). This play had been rehearsed for five weeks at Drury Lane, but at the last moment the performance was forbidden, on account of a supposed portrait of Sir Robert Walpole in the part of Trollio. The piece was printed and sold largely, being afterwards put on the Irish stage under the title of The Patriot. This affair provoked a satirical pamphlet from Samuel Johnson. He then returned to Ireland. During the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 Brooke issued his Farmer’s Six Letters to the Protestants of Ireland (collected 1746), the form of which was suggested by Swift’s Drapier’s Letters. For this service he received the post of barrack-master at Mullingar, which he held till his death. About 1760 he entered into negotiations with leading Roman Catholics, and in 1761 he wrote a pamphlet advocating alleviation of the penal laws against them. His best-known work is the novel entitled The Fool of

Quality; or the History af Henry Earl of Moreland (1765-1770). The characters of this book, which relates the education of an

ideal nobleman by an ideal merchant-prince, are gifted with a “passionate and tearful sensibility,” and reflect the real humour and tenderness of the writer. Brooke’s religious and philanthropic temper recommended the book to John Wesley, who edited (1780) an abridged edition, and to Charles Kingsley, who published it with a eulogistic notice in 1859. He died at Dublin in a state of mental infirmity on Oct. 10, 1783. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—His

daughter,

Charlotte

Brooke,

published

The

Poetical Works of Henry Brooke in 1792, but was able to supply very little biographical material. Other sources for Brooke’s biography are C. H. Wilson, Brookiana (1804), and a biographical preface by E. A.

ecame secretary to the principality of Wales, and he represented

Baker prefixed to a new edition (1906) of The Fool of Quality. Brooke’s other works include several tragedies, only some of which were actually staged. He also wrote: Jack the Giant Queller (1748), an operatic satire, the repetition of which was forbidden on account of its political allusions; “Constantia, or the Man of Lawe’s Tale” (1741), contributed to George Ogle’s Canterbury Tales Modernized; Juliet Grenville; or the History of the Human Heart (1773), a novel; and some fables contributed to Edward Moore’s Fables for the Female

Warwickshire in parliament in 1592-93, 1597, 1601 and 1620. In

Sex (1744).

1398 he was made treasurer of the navy. In 1614 he became chancellor and under-treasurer of the exchequer, and throughout

eller and rajah of Sarawak, was born at Coombe Grove near Bath.

he raised an enduring monument to his friend’s memory. About 1591 Greville served for a short time in Normandy under Henry of Navarre. This was his last experience of war. In 1583 he

BROOKE, SIR JAMES

(1803-1868), English soldier, trav-

254

BROOKE

He entered the service of the East India Company, and was sent out to India about 1825. On the outbreak of the Burmese War he was despatched with his regiment to the valley of the Brahmaputra; he was dangerously wounded in an engagement near Rungpore and was compelled to return home (1826). In 1830 he made a voyage to China, and during his passage among the islands of the Indian archipelago he conceived the great design of rescuing them from barbarism. On the death of his father he succeeded to a large property and bought and equipped the “Royalist,” sailing in 1838 on his great adventure. On reaching Borneo he found the rajah Muda Hassim, uncle of the reigning sultan, engaged in war in the province of Sarawak with several of the Dyak tribes, who had revolted against the sultan. He offered his aid to the rajah, and the insurgents were defeated. For his services the title of rajah of Sarawak was conferred on him by Muda Hassim, but it was not until 1841 that the sultan of Borneo confirmed his title. For the next few years Brooke devoted himself to preparing a code of laws and developing commerce, at the same time stamping out the piracy which made all shipping unsafe among the islands. In his various expeditions against the raiders he was assisted by Sir Harry Keppel and other commanders of British ships of war. The capital of the sultan of Borneo was stormed and the sultan routed with his army. In 1847 Brooke returned to England and the Corporation of London conferred on him the freedom of the City. He was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of the island of Labuan with its dependencies (made a British colony after purchase from the sultan of Borneo). He was also made consul-general of Borneo. In 1849 he led an expedition against the Seribas and Sakuran Dyaks, who still persisted in piracy. He visited twice the capital of the sultan of Sala and concluded a treaty with him, which had for one of its objects the expulsion of the sea-gipsies and other tribes from his dominions. In 1851 grave charges with respect to the operations in Borneo were brought against Sir James Brooke in the House of Commons by Joseph Hume and other members, especially as to the “head-money” received. To meet these accusations and to vindicate his proceedings, he went to England. The evidence adduced was so conflicting that the matter was at length referred to a royal commission, which sat at Singapore. As the result of its investigation the charges were declared to be “not proven.” Sir James, however, was soon after deprived of the governorship of Labuan and the head-money was abolished. In 1867 his house in Sarawak was attacked and burnt by Chinese pirates and he had to fly from the capital, Kuching. With a small force he attacked the Chinese and recovered the town. In the following year he returned to England, and remained there for three years. During that time he was attacked by paralysis, a public subscription was raised, and an estate in Devonshire was bought and presented to him. He made two more visits to Sarawak, and on each occasion had a rebellion to suppress. He spent his last days on his estate at Burrator in Devonshire, and on his death was succeeded, as rajah of Sarawak, by his nephew. Sir James Brooke was a man of the highest personal character, and he displayed unusual courage both in his conflicts in the East and

under the charges advanced against him in England. His Private Letters (1838 to 1853) were published in 1853. Portions of his Journal were edited by Captains Munday and Keppel (see also SARAWAK).

BROOKE,

RUPERT

(1887-1915), English poet, son of

William Parker Brooke and Mary Cotterill, was born at Rugby on Aug. 3, 1887, and educated in his father’s House at Rugby school. After winning poetry prizes and playing cricket and football for the school, he went to King’s college, Cambridge, with a scholarship in 1906. He played a leading part in university life, helped to found the Marlowe Dramatic Society, became President of the Fabians, and took a second in Classics; and here, as throughout his life, the charm of his personality, in which his remarkable good looks were only one element, gained him innumerable friends. For the next three years he lived mainly at Grantchester, writing poetry and studying the Elizabethan drama, and paid long visits to Munich and Florence in rorz, and Berlin in 1912. His Poems were published in December 1911. He won

a fellowship in 1913 with a dissertation on John Webster. In Ma 1913 he started on a year of travel in America and th © SSouth: : : seas. In September 1914 he received a commission in the Royi Naval Division, with which he took part in the Antwerp Expe. tion and sailed for the Dardanelles. He died of blood-poisoni, in Scyros on April 23, 1915. He had ambitions for play-writing; though too much must notbe built on his only attempt, the one-act melodrama Lithuania, hie sense of the theatre, combined with that “sympathetic imagin, tion for everybody and everything” which he called “the artiy’ one duty,” were a good equipment. As for prose, his dissertation on Webster shows critical power and industrious scholarship, The

Letters from America, full of observation and humour, have many | passages of great beauty; and a word must be said of the cham | of his intimate letters. In the earlier Poems (1905-08) he is gij . a boy. He writes with gusto, and a sense of verbal and metricy beauty, neither quite under control; he is too lavish with th token-coins of poetry; and though there is hardly a poem wit. out some memorable phrase or passage, the general effectis little turgid. The later section (1908-11) shows a great advance Though both in his rapture and his disillusion there is still ay immaturity of exuberance and bravado, and a few poems a provocatively disgusting, the beauties are more abundant. Th| Human Body (in which the influence of his favourite poet Dom ` shows most clearly) and two or three sonnets are completely successful; and Diningroom Tea, with its curiously concrete rendering of an elusive experience, is one of his finest pieces, Ney came Grantchester (1912). This lovely poem, in its combination of tenderness and whimsicality, both steeped in the essence oi poetry, is the first perfect example of that mingling of humo and beauty which is perhaps his chief distinguishing mak i

Written in Germany, it is also the first expression of his deep love for England. In the best of the poems written on his travel he steps out as a master of his craft; the sonnets Clouds and Psychical Research, with the exquisite Tiare Tahiti, mark th highest level of his accomplishment. The publication of rors, almost coinciding with the news of his death, won him immediate fame. Written in the chivalrous ardour of the first moment, th sonnets are in strong contrast with the later poetry of trench. warfare; and nothing better has been said about their historic aspect than the words of Winston Churchill: “A voice bad be come audible, a note had been struck, more true, more thrilling more able to do justice to the nobility of our youth in arms than any other—more able to express their thoughts of self-surrender, and carry comfort to those who watched them so intently fror afar.” Finally, the fragments written on his last voyage, in ther union of profound feeling with the perfection of phrase an

movement, hold more surely than anything else he wrote th

promise of a great poet. (E. M) BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832-1916), Ens

lish divine and man of letters, born at Letterkenny, Doneg! Ireland, was educated at Trinity college, Dublin. He was ordaine in the Church of England in 1857, and held various charges! London. From 1863 to 1865 he was chaplain to the Emprë Frederick in Berlin, and in 1872 he became chaplain in ordinar

to Queen Victoria. But in 1880 he seceded from the church, bem no longer able to accept its leading dogmas, and officiated as Unitarian minister for some years at Bedford chapel, Bloomsbur Bedford chapel was pulled down about 1894, and from that tm he had no church of his own, but his eloquence and power!

religious personality continued to make themselves felt ame

a wide circle. He died at Ewhurst, Surrey, on March 18, 1916.

He published in 1865 his Life and Letters of F. W. Robertson |

Brighton), and in 1876 wrote an admirable primer of English Lite ture (new and revised ed., 1900), followed in 1892 by The History Early English Literature (2 vols., 1892) down to the accession Alfred, and English Literature from the Beginnings to the Norm Conquest (1808). His other works include various volumes sermons; Theology in the English Poets—Cowper, Coleridge, Wor

worth, Burns (1874) ; Poems (1888) ; Dove Cottage (1890); oot

his Art and Relation to Modern Life (1894); The Poetry of Ro Browning (1902) ; On Ten Plays of Shakespeare (1905); and The

Superlative (1906). Brooke (1917).

See L. P. Jacks, Life and Letters of Stop!

BROOK

FARM-—BROOKITE

255

BROOK FARM (1841-47), an institute of agriculture and | community—or “Phalanx” as it was called after 1844—which had education, situated on 160 ac. at West Roxbury (Mass.), 9m. from i begun with the original farmhouse and a small building known as Boston, was organized in the summer of 1841 by the Rev. George

the school, had grown to include four houses, work rooms, and

Ripley, a former Unitarian minister, an editor of The Dial, a

dormitories. Then, though financing had been a constant difficulty,

critical literary monthly, and a leader in the Transcendentalists club, an informal gathering of the intellectuals of the period and vicinity. He was aided by his wife, Sophia Dana Ripley, a woman of wide culture and academic experience. According to the articles

it of necessity put all available funds into the construction of a large central building to be known as the Phalanstery, and the leaders were still optimistic of the permanence of their venture when on the night of March 2, 1846, while they celebrated with a dance the completion of the new building, the alarm was given that it was on fire. It burned to the ground, and though the colony struggled on for a while, “the enterprise faded, flickered, died down, and expired,” and the land and buildings were sold at auction on April 13, 1849.

aoY Set

See John Thomas

Codman,

Brook

Farm

(Boston,

1894); Linday

Swift, Brook Farm (1900) ; and Morris Hillquit's History of Socialism in the United States (1903). adag Rosy

ath

oe

Cr

D

Aegean (see THRACE), and her relations with her neighbours were left in a state of tension by the question of the Bulgarian minorities in Thrace, Dobruja and Macedonia. The Refugee Question.—The Treaties of Bucharest (1913) and Neuilly had left large numbers of Bulgars under foreign

rule, which was in most cases extremely harsh and unjust. While those who remained in their homes complained of oppression, large numbers took refuge in Bulgaria, while others were brought in under the exchange of population scheme with Greece. Since 1918 alone 260,000 refugees had entered Bulgaria, mostly from Macedonia and Thrace; and most of these were landless, destitute, and resentful, while the Bulgarian State, with its shattered finances, could do little to relieve their miseries. A large proportion of the population of Bulgaria, refugee or otherwise, was of Macedonian origin, and the powerful and ruthless Internal Organization of the Macedonians, under their capable and terrible leader, Todor Alexandrov (g.v.), gained general sympathy in its fight for Macedonian autonomy, and thus formed an underground factor of the first importance in Bulgarian politics. While the Bulgarian delegates to the League of Nations (which Bulgaria joined on Dec. 16, 1920) voiced at every opportunity the grievances of the Bulgarian minorities in Macedonia, Thrace and the Dobruja, the refugee organizations, particularly the Macedonians, raided the territory of Bulgaria’s neighbours from their fastnesses in the Bulgarian mountains, and thus helped to perpetuate a state of discord between Bulgaria and her neighbours. The Bulgarian Government was not the least of the sufferers from the situation;

and an agreement concluded by Stambolisky with the Yugoslav Government at Nish (March 1923) was believed to contain 4 clause directed against the Macedonian Committee. Upon this the Macedonians combined with the Bulgarian Nationalists and those of the officers and bourgeoisie who had suffered most from

Stambolisky’s arbitrary rule. A coup-d’etat in the night of June

8/9, 1923, overthrew the Agrarian Government.

Stambolisky was

killed, most of his ministers imprisoned, and his Orange Guards dispersed.

BULGARIA

HISTORY]

367

The Tsankov Government, 1923-25.—Professor Tsankov now took office at the head of a government subsequently strength-

cruited, whose incessant frontier raids so troubled Bulgaria’s rela-

ened by the fusion of all political parties, except the Liberals, Communists and Agrarians, into the single “Democratic Entente.”

the Bank of England on Aug. 26 advanced £400,000 for immediate work, which was at once set on foot. An arrangement with the bond-holders of Bulgaria’s pre-War debt was signed on Dec. 11 and the loan, for £2,400,000 nominal in England and $4,500,000 in the United States of America, was floated very successfully

For some time Bulgaria was on the verge of civil war. The Agrarian refugees migrated in large numbers to Yugoslavia, where the Government gave them shelter, and allied themselves with the Communists, who with support from Moscow, attempted to bring about a revolution.

Tsankov

repressed

these movements

with

great severity. In September several thousand persons were killed, and others imprisoned for long periods without trial. Meanwhile the Comitadjt warfare on the frontier continued. Relations with Greece, especially, became particularly difficult on account of the severe reprisals taken by that country for an attempted rising in the Maritsa valley in 1923, and an incident at Tarlis on July 26/27, 1924, where a Greek post arrested 70 Bulgars and murdered several of their prisoners. A protocol signed at Geneva between Greece and Bulgaria, on Sept. 29, 1924, which had promised a settlement, was repudiated by Greece at the instance

of Yugoslavia. Meanwhile acute dissensions broke out within the Macedonian organization itself, one group of which wanted autonomy for Macedonia, the other a federative scheme. There was a further disagreement as to how far the help of Moscow ought to be accepted. On Aug. 31, 1924 Alexandrov was murdered, and the subsequent reprisals deprived the organization of most of its coherence and moral justification. The Agraro-Communist

agitation, too, continued unabated.

There were some 200 assas-

sinations in 1924; on April 14, 1925 an attempt was made on the

life of King Boris, and General Gheorghiev was killed the next day. At his funeral, which was held on April 16 in the cathedral of Sveta Nedelia, Sofia, a bomb was exploded killing 123 persons and wounding 323. The Government proclaimed martial law. Five persons were later hanged publicly for the crime, but a large number were either shot summarily or imprisoned. To maintain order, the Government obtained the permission of the Conference of Ambassadors for a temporary increase in its armed forces of 10,000 men; and in fact, its extreme energy prevented any general rising. The Tsankov Government also successfully survived a fresh frontier incident with Greece, which occurred on Oct. 19, when Greek troops occupied 70 square miles of Bulgarian territory near Petritch. The matter was settled by the League of Nations (g.v.) on appeal from Bulgaria. The repressive measures which Tsankov had felt obliged to take had, however, been more fitted for emergencies than for ordinary times, and as the Agraro-Communist agitation seemed much sobered by the dreadful events of the spring of 1925, Tsankov resigned on Jan. 2, 1926 in favour of a more conciliatory government under Liapchev, a leader of the Democratic party. On Feb. 4 the Liapchev Government promulgated an amnesty for political offenders, J which affected 6,325 persons. BULGARIAN PEASANT The Liapchev Government and the GIRL WEARING HER HAIR

Refugee

Loan.—The

effects

of

this BRAIDED

AND

ORNA-

change were most beneficial. The Agra- MENTED WITH COINS tans were allowed to reconstitute their party in Bulgaria, and the 2.000 or so emigrés who remained in Yugoslavia soon lost credit. The Social Democrats were less fortunate, but even here hostility gradually grew less as Moscow ceased to finance the extreme Communists so liberally.

„On June 11, 1926, the Council of the League of Nations de-

cided that the state of Bulgaria warranted the grant of a loan, for which application had first been made 18 months previously, for the settlement of the destitute Bulgarian refugees. The question was of supreme importance for Bulgaria, both financially and politically, for it was from among these refugees, with whom the whole population sympathized, that the comitadjis were re-

tions with her neighbours.

on Dec. 26.

Following the decision of the League.

Bulgaria’s neighbours had shown an unjustifiable

apprehension regarding the application of the Loan funds, and had made fresh outbursts of comitadji activity in the summer of 1926 the occasion of a joint note to the Bulgarian Government

demanding

the dissolution

of the revolutionary

organizations

(Aug. 27). This was, indeed, more easy to demand than to fulfil; but there seemed little doubt that Liapchev’s Government was sincerely anxious to restrain the Macedonian and other committees. Bulgaria had been politically almost isolated for more than a decade; a treaty of friendship signed with Turkey on Oct. 18, 1925 was no compensation for continual tension with Yugoslavia, Greece and Rumania. Yet even here there were signs of an improvement, especially after the Treaty of Tirana between Italy and Albania (see ALBANIA), concluded on Nov. 27, 1926, revived in Yugoslavia the old feeling of Balkan solidarity. The time for a real rapprochement was not yet come, especially as whenever relations between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia grew cordial, the Macedonians proceeded to fresh outrages; those of Sept. 1927, when a bomb was exploded in a hotel at Ghevgheli, a train blown up near the same town, and the Serb general Kovačević murdered, were particularly shocking. The exchange of populations was, however, gradually decreasing the causes of friction, and making Bulgaria’s aspirations for a recovery of her lost territory more impracticable. It remained for Bulgaria’s more fortunate neighbours to show a justice tempered with generosity, and Bulgaria, a cheerful resignation to her hard fate. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—History: C. J. Jireček, Geschichte der Bulgaren (Prague, 1876); Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887); A. G. Drander, Événements politiques en Bulgarie (1896); Le P. Gúerin Songeon, Histoire de la Bulgarie (1913); I. Guešov, The Balkan League (1915); R. W. SetonWatson, Rise of Nationality in the Balkans (1917); Geschichte der Bulgaren (Bulgarische Bibliothek) vol. ii. Prof. Stanev (Leipzig, 1917) and vol. i, Prof. Slatarski (Leipzig, 1918); N. Buxton and C. L. Leese, Balkan Problems and European Peace (1919); L. Lamouche, La question Macédonienne et la Paix; Le Traité de Paix avec la Bulgarie (1919); M. Bogitevic, Causes of the War, with Special Reference to Serbia and Russia (1920); Diplomaticheski Dokumenti bo Nameshchatana Bulgaria v evropei S. Rava voina, vol. i., 1913-15 (1920); A. V. Nekludov, Diplomatic Reminiscences, 1911—17 (1920) ; Bulgaria, “Nations of To-day” Series (1921); P. Gentizon, Le drame bulgare (1924); E. C. Corti, Alexander von Battenberg and ed. (1928); Reports on the Bulgarian Refugee Settlement (League of Nations, Geneva, 1926 ff.). Travels and Economics: C. J. Jireček, Das Fiirstenthum Bulgarien (Prague, 1891); Cesty po Bulharsku (Travels in Bulgaria) (Prague, 1888); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, Die Volkswirtschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgariens (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz, Donau—Bulgarien und der Batkan (Leipzig, 1882); A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren (Leipzig, 1898); A. Tuma, Die östliche Balkanhalbinsel (1886); La Bulgarie contemporaine (issued by the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture) (1905); Publications Plumon, La Bulgarie, la vie technique et ztndustrielle (1921). Literature: L. A. H. Dozon, Ckansons populaires bulgares inédites (with French trans.) (1875); A. Strausz, Bulgarische Volksdìichtungen (trans. with a preface and notes) (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, Légendes religieuses bulgares (1896); Pypin and Spasovich, History of the Slavonic Literature (in Russian, 1879) (French trans., 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, Bulgarian Chrestomathy (Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, Blgarska Literatura (Philippopolis, 1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, etc. by the brothers Miladinov (Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882), Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Tliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveikov (Sofia, 1899). (E. F. B. G.)

BULGARIA,

EASTERN,

formerly a powerful kingdom

which existed from the 5th to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and North Astrakhan, perhaps extending also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzaf, surrounded by numerous graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made, occupies the site of one of the cities—perhaps the capital— of that extinct kingdom. The history, Tarikh Bulgar, said to have been written in the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city

368

BULGARIAN

LANGUAGE—BULGARIAN

Bolgari, has not yet been discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the kingdom, beginning with the roth century, have left descriptions of it. The Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the sth century they attacked the Russians in the Black sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle

breeding. Trade with Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation, their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod (Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the 15th century Bolgari became part of the Kazafi kingdom

LITERATURE

The Work of Vasov.—Ivan Vasov is the most typical, m s é 3 > Most popular and most productive of the Bulgarian writers who } their lives and works linked together the two epochs which respen

tively preceded and followed the revolution. He is known far be

yond the frontiers of Bulgaria. His best novel, Under the Foke

has been translated into almost every European language. Duris 50 years of literary activity (he lived 72 years, 18 50-1922)

Vasov excelled in every branch of literature. His immense output reflects every aspect of his nation’s life. From his first poem The Pine, which appeared in 1870, a few years before the Liberation down to his last collection of verse, My Lilac’s Fragrance, which appeared in 1920, Vasov’s lyrics are made up of an infinite varie

of tones; echoes of the sorrows and the joys of a people’s soy Vasov hardly lived a life of his own. He feels his personality mel

in the collective griefs and life of his nation.

Thus social aspira-

tion is an essential and characteristic feature of his lyric poetry.

Vasov’s epic work—stories, poems, sketches, novels—is immense in quantity and embraces Bulgarian national life in all its manifestations and in every age. His most characteristic novels, which show both his literary qualities and his creative tendencies, are Under the Yoke, New Land and The Queen of Kazalar. The syb.

ject matter of these novels represents the three most important

and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazafi. (P. A. K.) BULGARIAN LANGUAGE: see SLAVONIC LANGUAGES

moments

and OLD SLAVONIC. BULGARIAN LITERATURE. Literature, in the sense of free artistic creation, dates in Bulgaria from the second half of the roth century. During the first half of the rọth century and part of the second hałf, a considerable number of writers and publicists devoted their lives and their works to the ideal of national re-birth. Of these, four stand out, in virtue of the quality of their literary work, of their practical activities, and of the importance of their achievements, which far transcended the narrow bounds of their time. Both as poets and as publicists, they laid the foundations of Bulgaria’s national life, and later, after the liberation of Bulgaria, they became figures of popular veneration. These four men were G. S. Rakovski, L. Karavelov, G. Botev (g.v.) and P. R. Slaveikov. The influence of the social and political conditions of their day, with its absence of any personal or national liberty, combined with that of certain Russian ideological tendencies, taught these writers to believe that literature should be subordinated and adapted to the needs of social life. Thus their poems and dramas, with very few exceptions, attack a definite social problem. Their inner lives and the technique of their poetical work were, for them, of secondary importance. Karavelov laid the foundations of Bulgarian narrative prose. His genius created types which have excited the admiration of readers from the Liberation down to the present day, and are still imitated by later writers. Botev, one of the most brilliant of Bulgarian poets, set the Bulgarian nation the example of the most sublime devotion in the name of love of liberty and of his native soil. Of all the Bulgarian poets (“bards”), it was he who produced the best and the most fiery revolutionary songs; of all the revolutionary poets he accomplished the most noble and glorious feat: at the head of an armed band he crossed the Danube, after seizing

pressive picture of the struggle of the Bulgars against the Turk

the Austrian ship “Radetzky”; then he marched to the mountains

of Vratsa to die there fighting against Turkish troops. P. R. Slaveikov enriched Bulgarian literature with the treasures of national poetry, whose wealth he first revealed. His works were based on popular tradition and folk-lore. He was the father of the Bulgarian epic. The liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 undoubtedly altered political and social conditions, and created an atmosphere infinitely more favourable to literary production than the era of Turkish domination had afforded. Towards the end of the second half of the century, Bulgaria had achieved complete stability as a State. At this time the country contained a considerable intellectual class, fitted

for special work in every branch of intellectual and political life. Writers felt themselves released from their former duty of keeping literature the handmaid of civic training: they began to devote themselves to pure poetic meditation.

in the history of the Bulgarian people’s political ang

spiritual life. Under the Yoke gives us a vivid, attractive and im.

The principal hero of the novel is an intellectual and fevolutionary, who devotes his life to the supreme end of lighting the torch of insurrection in the soul of the people. Under the Yoke is both a work of art and a faithful picture of the political situation, of social and family life, in Bulgaria at the most decisive moment of its history. Vasov’s second and third novels, which are considered

his best, thus illustrate the three successive stages of modem Bulgarian history. The few details of Bulgarian life not depicted in them are represented in his numerous short stories, poems and sketches.

Vasov understood, however, that the aim which he had

set himself, of reproducing a picture of Bulgarian life in its en. tirety, could not be achieved if he confined his writings to modem times. He therefore delved into tradition and resurrected the past of Bulgaria, before the coming of the Turk, in a series of dramas, While his primary aim was to present all Bulgarian history in his dramas, he set himself at the same time to teach the present a lesson through the past. Throughout his work, Vasov pursued the practical goal of showing a moral, social and national example. In this respect he maintained the tradition of national poetry bequeathed by the age which preceded the Liberation. The best known

of his dramas

are

Towards

the Abyss,

Borisslav and

F vailo. 5, Michailovsky, who died in 1927, was Vasov’s contemporary and spiritual brother. Without equalling the other’s versatile genius or his imaginative power, Michailovsky was yet distinguished by remarkable insight, depth and wealth of thought, through which he expressed the ambitions of his ardent nature. He was Vasov’s spiritual brother in so far as he, too, if ina different literary manner, devoted his talents to raising Bulgaria’

spiritual life. Michailovsky in his satires scourged vice to show nobility and virtue rising triumphant. Educated in France, he was master of the subtleties of French literature and philosophy. His knowledge of French 17th and 18th century rationalism may have influenced his mind, which was often troubled by doubt. Towards the end of his life, this led to a Christian mysticism. His lay sermons are the product of this latest phase. Among his most important works are Novissima Verba, The Book of the Bulgarian

People, and To-day Hammer,

To-morrow

Anvil.

Among the

other notable contemporaries of Vasov and Michailovsky may be

mentioned Aleko Constantinov, author of a well-known and most

humorous work, Bat Gagno, depicting the typical Bulgaran peasant, and Constantine Velitchkov, who, through his transla tions of Dante, Petrarch, Silvio Pellico and others, opened up to the intellectual world of Bulgaria the wealth of Latin and Italan

poetry. An Artistic Revival.—As was said above, from the ’90s of

the past century, Bulgarian literature shows two tendencies. Fist

BULGARUS

369

we have writers like Vasov, who have their roots in the literary | proud solitude. In 1902, at the moment when his great popularity tendencies of the pre-Liberation period; then the younger school, had been sealed by solemn critical appreciation, Yavorov, like inspired by a burning desire to make a clean sweep of this slavery, i Botev, to whom he shows close affinities, bore his distracted to create work unencumbered by any moral, political or social ten-

dencies. In the short story, Anton Strachimirov, P. U. Todorov, G. Stamatov and Eline-Peline have attained considerable success. Strachimirov studies the intimate life of certain

social groups

(artisans and peasants), analyses their relations to social evolution

asa whole, and thus shows us persons leading a more or less indi-

vidual life with their daily cares and daily joys. This writer later

began to work on a broader scale, and gave us some novels which are considered, and rightly, to be among the better contemporary Bulgarian works. The national catastrophe resulting from the World War brought a certain disarray into his fiery soul, which was evidenced by the hurried novels which he produced after it. 4 Strachimirov also produced several dramas which showed in-

contestable artistic qualities. The best known of his works are: Autumn Days, A Meeting, Mother-in-Law, Beyond and The Vampire. Eline-Peline has chosen to display his talents in a still nar-

rower field: that of peasant life. He shows us characters which are at the same time true to life and softened by their creator’s deep love for them. His latest work, which is of indisputable importance, is his story Te Earth; both in subject and treatment this work is more local than universal. In his later period Eline-~Peline has written chiefly children’s songs and stories. He is considered to-day the most popular writer in this field. P. U. Todorov is at

once the originator and the master of the Bulgarian short idyll. He borrowed his subjects from popular legends, but made them turn

round psychological and human conflicts of interest to all. He also wrote numerous charming symbolical dramas, which were based on ancient, popular myths. Apart from the delicacy of his poetic touch, the chief characteristic of his work is his feeling for harmony and rhythm. He died young, before his talent had fully developed. His chief works are: Jdylis (collected), The Dragons Marriage and The First. Georgi Stamatov is an original psychologist and a realist with clearly marked leanings towards naturalism. In his numerous short stories he exposes vice with unusual power. The problem of sex occupies his mind particularly. His style charms us by an indefinable quality which ranges from light humour to the most biting irony. The first aim of these four writers in their artistic output was to express, above all things, truth and pure “poetry”—pure, that is, and unencumbered by any extraneous matter. This is the particular quality which distinguished them from Vasov. In lyric poetry, Pentcho Slaveikov, son of the P. R. Slaveikov mentioned above, set out to conquer the Liberation—spiritually speaking—by works of the most perfect technique. Some years before his death in 1912 foreign admirers were already considering his work with a view to the possible award of the Nobel prize. His poems are works of art sublimely woven on a canvas either profoundly national or simply human (see his Ralitsa and his Boiko), or universal moral conflicts, as Chelli, Symphonies of Despair, Consoled, etc. His greatest work, which achieves a degree of magic unapproached in Bulgarian literature, is his poem called A Song of Blood. This is the artistic expression of the most dramatic moment in Bulgarian history. Slaveikov is the first and the most powerful of the Bulgarian poets who in their poetry have truly followed a path emancipated from

any influence of social tendencies. He was neither directly lyrical to an exaggerated degree nor exclusively individualist. His themes are always treated with a feeling as deep as it is fanatical for

poetry and beauty, whether they are drawn from the eternal problems which perplex the human soul, or whether they spring from

those born of national life. Slaveikov died in Italy in 1912. His chief works are: “Dream

of

Happiness,

In the Island of the

Blessed, Epic Songs and A Song of Blood. Poetry of the New Age—P. K. Yavorov, one of the most

brilliant Bulgarian lyric poets, was a younger contemporary of Slaveikov. His eyes remained fixed for ever on the life of his own

soul, where the purest, but also the most violent, emotions mingled,

Aving birth to sublime suffering. The increasing intensity of his ‘piritual development can be clearly traced in his work. He began with humanitarian pity of his fellow-men to end in stormy and

dreams to the mountains of Macedonia, to sacrifice his work, his thoughts and his emotions on the altar of the Macedonian revo-

lutionary movement. The wealth of his lyric motifs, the depth of his feeling, the sincerity and moving force of his expression make him the lyricist of the new age, and also its best loved poet. In a mystic longing towards union beyond the grave with the soul of her who, first in life, and then in death, drew him irresistibly to her, Yavorov ended his life at the beginning of 1914. His chief works are: Poems, Waking Nights, and In the Shadow of the Clouds; At the Foot of Vitos and When the Thunder Growls (dramas)

ir I ERE OAT eee RG

and A Heyduk’s

Hopes

(sketches

of comitadji

life).

Cyril Christoc, a contemporary of Slaveikov, is a lyric poet who, owing to a weak heart, has been forced to live outside Bulgaria. He is master of sentimental, light and frivolous verse. The glorification of gay and careless life sings through his rhymes. His style is technically admirable for its suppleness, its vivacity and its lightness. His works include Shadows of the Evening, Vibrations, Songs and Sighs, etc. In more recent times a great number of writers and poets have been working with enthusiasm in the fields of lyric poetry, the short story and the novel, and revealing not only a new sense of literature, but also new forms. To-day the doors have been thrown wide open to the influence of the literatures of Western Europe. This influence is particularly apparent in the work of some of the younger lyric poets of Bulgaria. Under it a special school of the lyric has been developed with success by Nicolai Liliev, Todor Trainavov, Dimtcho Debelianov and Ludmil Stoyanov. Since about 1915 or 1920 these four poets, each with his particular qualities and potentialities, have represented the advance-guard of Bulgarian poetry. The work of this group of lyricists is marked by a purely individual sensibility, which sometimes gives rise to awkward and bizarre forms, new colours, new, assonances and new groupings of words in the verse, new rhymeschemes, and in general, new motifs, in opposition to the tradition. In the work of two young Bulgarian women, Dora Gabe and Elisabeth Beltcheva, we find simplicity in the artistic sense of the word; that is to say, an absence of any searching or straining after artificial importance in choice of subject; originality in form; limpidity and sincerity pushed to the point of candour. A whole group of young poets, among whom we may mention Stoubel, Pantaleyev, Raztzvetnicov and others, are following in the footsteps of the writers whom we have already mentioned. Among the most talented writers of fiction, we should mention Jordan Yovcov, Dobre Nemirov, Georgi Ratchev, Nicolai Rainov and C. Constantinov. Rainov is a visionary by nature, and his work shows leanings toward mystic fantasy, and Ratchev sketches for choice the rare mental situations, which give his tales a naturalistic and sardonic character; the other three pursue a path of artistic realism. They portray scenes drawn from simple everyday life. Of the very young prose writers whose talent is undeniable, we should mention A. Karailyatchev and V. Polianov. (J. Br.)

BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna. He was sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous “Four Doctors” of the law school of the University of Bologna, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of the gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the “Golden Mouth.” He died in a.p. 1166, at a very advanced age. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of imperial Rome, Martinus being at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents styled the equity of “the purse” (aequitas bursalis), while Bulgarus adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus ultimately prevailed, and it numbered among its adherents Joannes Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus took the leading part among the Four Doctors at the Diet of Roncaglia in 1158 and was one of the most trusted advisers of the Emperor Fred-

BULL, GEORGE—BULL

370

erick I. His most celebrated work is his commentary De Regulis Iuris, which was at one time printed among the writings of Placentius, but has been properly reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the pen of Placentius.

went to Cassel, on a visit to Spohr, who, however, gave him

ture. His other works include: Harmonia Apostolica (1670), Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae (1694), and Primitiva et Apostolica

Bull never sought to play serious music, but he delighted a} hearers by his brilliant rendering of the virtuoso works in whic he excelled and also by his expressive playing of national airs, See Sarah E. Bull, Ole Bull, a Memoir (1886). BULL. (1) The male of animals belonging to the section Bovina of the family Bovidae (q.v.), particularly the uncastrated male of the domestic ox. (See CATTLE.) The word is aly used of the males of other large animals such as the elephant, whale, etc. The O.E. diminutive form bulluc, a young bull

encouragement.

After a brief period of study at Göttingen =

a visit to Norway during which he played at many concerts,he went to Paris. There he heard Paganini play and began a coy =

of hard work in the hope of rivalling his virtuosity. Although fy

(1634-1710), English divine, was born at

had been largely self-taught he acquired a wonderful tech BULL, GEORGE Wells and educated at Tiverton school and Exeter college, Oxford. | and speedily achieved world-wide fame by his brilliant it He had to leave Oxford in 1649 as he refused to take the oath | of his own pieces and arrangements. His first visit to the Unites of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained privately States lasted from 1843 to 1845, and on his return to Norway he by Bishop Skinner in 1655, and, after holding various prefer- formed a scheme for the establishment of a Norse theatre in ments, became in 1705 bishop of St. David’s. During the time of Bergen. This became an accomplished fact in 1850; but in conthe Commonwealth he adhered to the forms of the Church of sequence of harassing business complications he went again to England, and under James II. preached strenuously against America. During this visit (1852-57) he bought 125,000 acres in Roman Catholicism. His Defensio Fidei Nicenae (1685) tries to Potter county (Penn.), for a Norwegian colony, which was to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the ante-Nicene have been called Oleana after his name, but his title turned oy fathers of the church, and retains its value as a thorough-going to be faulty and the troubles which resulted seriously affected his examination of all the pertinent passages in early church litera- health. He died at Lys6, near Bergen, on August 17, 1880, Ole

Traditio (1710).

The best edition of Bull’s works is that in 7 vols. published at Oxford by the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This contains the Life by Robert Nelson. The Harmonia, Defensio and Judicium are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (1842-55).

BULL, JOHN

(c. 1562-1628), English composer and organ-

ist, was born of a Somersetshire family about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he joined the Chapel Royal in 153s and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of Oxford. In rsg1 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth’s chapel in succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education. In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge university; and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham college, London. As he was unable to lecture in „Latin according to the foundation-rules of that college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his favour by permitting him to lecture in English. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and Germany, and was everywhere

received with the respect due to his talents. Anthony Wood tells

an impossible story of how at St. Omer Bull performed the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors’ Company in 1606. He played upon a small pair of organs before King James I. on July 16, 1607, in the hall of the company, and he seems to have been appointed one of the

king’s organists in that year. In the same year he resigned his Gresham professorship, and married Elizabeth Walter. In 1613 he again went to the continent on account of his health, obtaining a post as one of the organists in the archduke’s chapel at Brussels. In 1617 he was appointed organist to the cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and he died in that city on March 12, 1628. Little of his music has been published, and the opinions of critics differ much as to its merits (see Dr. Willibald Nagel’s Geschichte der Musik in England, ii. (1897), p. 155, etc., and Dr. Seiffert’s Geschichte der Klaviermusik (1899), p. 54 etc.). Contemporary writers speak in the highest terms of Bull’s skill as a performer on the organ and the virginals, and there is no doubt that he contributed much to the development of harpsichord music. Jan Sweelinck (1562-1621), the great organist of Amsterdam, did not regard his work on composition as complete without placing in it a canon by John Bull. For the ascription to Bull of the British national anthem, see NATIONAL ANTHEMS. Most of John Bull’s work which has been preserved is still in ms., but some of his compositions appear in Leighton’s Teares or Lamentacions (1614), and in the Fitewilliam Vuirginal Book

(Breitkopf and Hartel, Leipzig, 1899). BULL, JOHN: see Joun Buti.

BULL,

OLE

BORNEMANN

(1810-1880),

Norwegian

Violinist, was born in Bergen, Norway, on Feb. 5, 1810. He was sent to Christiania (now Oslo) to study theology, but his time was given instead to music and to political agitation. In 1829 he

survives in bullock, now confined to a young

castrated male ox

kept for slaughter. The term “bull’s eye” is applied to many circular objects and

particularly to the boss or protuberance left in the centre of 4 sheet of blown glass, which was formerly used for windows in small leaded panes (cf. French wil de beuf, a circular window}, Other circular objects to which the word is applied are the centre

of a target, a plano-convex lens in a microscope, a lantern with a convex glass, a thick circular glass let into the deck or side of a ship for lighting, a ring-shaped block grooved round the outer edge, with a hole through which a rope can be passed, and a small lurid cloud which in certain latitudes presages a hurricane. (2) The use of the word “bull,” for a verbal blunder, involving | a contradiction in terms, is of doubtful origin. It is used with a possible punning reference to papal bulls in Miltons Trw Religion, “and whereas the Papist boasts himself to be a Romm Catholick, it is a mere contradiction, one of the Pope’s Bulk. as if he should say a universal particular, a Catholick schis matick.” Although modern associations connect this type of blunder with the Irish, the early quotations show that in the 17th century, no special country was credited with them. (3) Bulla (Lat. for “bubble”) was the term used by thr Romans for any boss or stud, such as those on doors, sword-belts shields, and boxes. It was applied, more particularly, to a roun or heart-shaped box, generally of gold, containing an amulet. worn suspended from the neck by children of noble birth until they assumed the toga virilis, when it was hung up and dedicated to the household gods (see Costume: Etruscan). The custom wearing the bulla as a charm against sickness and the evil at was of Etruscan origin. After the Second Punic War all children of free birth were permitted to wear it. Its use was only pr mitted to grown-up men in the case of generals who celebrateda triumph. Young girls and even favourite animals also wore 8. (See Ficoroni, La Bolla d’Oro, 1732; Yates Archaeologici

Journal, vi., 1849; viii, 1851.)

In ecclesiastical and mediaev?

Latin, bulla denotes the seal of oval or circular form, bearing

the name and generally the image of its owner, which ws The best-known instances i attached to official documents. the papal bullae, which have given their name to the document:

(bulls) to which they are attached.

CURIA Romana; GOLDEN BULL.)

(See DIPLOMATIC; SEAS

(4) “Bull” is also a term used in speculative markets, such a the Stock Exchange, to describe a speculator who buys in the hope of a rise in prices. The term is usually applied, not te those who buy and pay for stock but to those who buy for the account” in the hope that a rise will take place before the settle

BULLA

REGIA—BULLER

371

ment, so that they can sell out at a profit without actually paying| 1870 he became captain, and went on the Red River expedition, for their purchase. Thus, on the London Stock Exchange, where where he was first associated with Colonel (afterwards Lord) the settlements are fortnightly, this involves speculating for a Wolseley. In 1873-74 he accompanied the latter in the Ashantee rise Within the fortnight, and when settling day comes the “bull” campaign as head of the intelligence department. He served in the nas either to sell, taking his marginal profit or meeting his Kaffir War of 1878-79 and the Zulu War of 1879, and in the marginal loss, or pay a rate for continuation into another fort- retreat at Inhlobane (March 28, 1879) he earned the V.C. In the nightly account. (See STOCK EXCHANGE; SETTLEMENT; CoN- Boer War of 188z he served as Sir Evelyn Wood’s chief of staff. 7

0.

NeeLA REGIA,

In 1882 he was head of the field intelligence department in Egypt. In 1884 he commanded an infantry brigade in the Sudan under Sir Gerald Graham, and was at the battles of El Teb and Tamai, being promoted major-general for distinguished service. In the Sudan campaign of 1884-85 he was Lord Wolseley’s chief of staff, and commanded the desert column when Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded. He distinguished himself by his conduct of the retreat from Gubat to Gakdul, and by his victory at Abu

ancient city of Numidia, near modern

Souk-el-Arba, on the railway between Tunis and the Algerian frontier. It was formerly the residence of the kings of Numidia.

Under the Roman empire it was on the road from Carthage to

Hippo Regius, and received benefits from various emperors, no-

tably Hadrian. A theatre, a temple of Apollo facing on to a large courtyard, and some well-preserved houses have been found. See A. Merlin, Le Temple d'Apollon à Bulla Regia (1908).

), American (:861LEE ROBERT BULLARD, soldier, was born at Youngsboro, Ala., on Jan. 15, 1861. He graduated from West Point military academy in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892. He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War, and in the Philippines from 1902 to 1904. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator for the U.S. Provisional Government in Cuba, and the following year was superintendent of public instruction there. In 1911 he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadiergeneral. He commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Division of the American Expeditionary Force in France in 1917, and was made major-general, National Army. From the middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July 1918 he commanded the rst Division; and from Oct. 1918 to the following July the II. Army. In Nov. 1918 he was appointed major-general in the regular army. At the

opening of the second battle of the Marne, July 1918, which marked the turning-point of the war, Bullard wrote the message concluding with the words, “we are going to counter-attack.” In 1925 he retired from active service. Besides numerous articles in magazines and military journals he wrote Personalities and Reminiscences of the War (1925). BULLEN, ARTHUR HENRY (1857-1920), British man

of letters, was born in London on Feb. 9, 1857 and educated at the City of London school and Balliol college, Oxford. He was the son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the printed books at the British Museum. He was an authority on 16th and 17th century literature, and discovered many lost poems of the period in the Bodleian and Christ Church libraries at Oxford; his greatest achievement was the rediscovery of Thomas Campion (g.v.) in 1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see CAMPION, THOMAS). For several years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence and Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare Head Press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which was sold to B. H. Blackwell of Oxford after his death. He died at Stratfordon-Avon on Feb. 29, 1920.

BULLER, CHARLES

(1806-1848), English politician, born

in Calcutta on Aug. 6, 1806; was educated at Harrow, then privately in Edinburgh by Thomas Carlyle, and afterwards at Trinity college, Cambridge. He sat in parliament from 1830 until his death in London on Nov. 29, 1848. An eager reformer and a friend of John Stuart Mill, Buller went to Canada with Lord Durham in 1838 as private secretary, and was for a long time supposed to have written Lord Durham’s famous Report om the Affairs of

British North America.

It certainly shows signs of his influence.

Buller was made judge-advocate-general in 1846 and became chief commissioner of the Poor Law about a year before his death. Buller was witty, popular, and generous, and is described by Carlyle as “the genialest radical I have ever met.” See T. Carlyle, Reminiscences (1881); S. J. Reid, Life and Letters

of the rst earl of Durham (1906).

BULLER, SIR REDVERS

HENRY

(1839-1908), British

general, was born on Dec. 7, 1839, at Downes, Crediton, Devon,

of a family settled in Cornwall for three centuries. He was educated at Eton, entered the army in 1858, and served with the

6oth (King’s Royal Rifles) in the China campaign of 1860.

In

Klea (Feb. 16-17) and he was created K.C.B. In 1886 he was sent to Ireland to inquire into the “moonlighting” outrages, and for a short time he acted as under-secretary for Ireland; but he was too much in sympathy with the Irish peasants to find the position tolerable, and on Oct. 15, 1887 he was appointed quartermaster-general at the war office. In 1896 he was made a full general. From 1890 to 1897 he held the office of adjutant-general, being made lieutenant-general in 1891. In 1898 he took command of the troops at Aldershot, and when the Boer War broke out in 1899 he was selected to command the South African field force (see TRANSVAAL), and landed at Cape Town on Oct. 31. Owing to the Boer investment of Ladysmith and the consequent gravity of the military situation in Natal, he left Methuen to relieve Kimberley, French and Gatacre to cover Cape Colony, and went to Natal himself. On Dec. 15 his first attempt to cross the Tugela at Colenso was repulsed. The Government, alarmed at the situation and the pessimistic tone of Buller’s messages, sent out Lord Roberts to supersede him in the chief command, Sir Redvers being left in subordinate command of the Natal force. His second attempt to relieve Ladysmith (Jan. 1027) proved another failure, the result of the operations at Spion Kop (Jan. 24), where Sir Charles Warren was in command, causing consternation in England. Responsibility was divided, and there was some argument. Buller’s despatch was censored, and only appeared in full in 1902. A third attempt (Vaalkrantz, Feb. s—7) was unsuccessful, but the Natal army finally accomplished its task in the series of actions which culminated in the victory of Pieter’s Hill and the relief of Ladysmith on Feb. 27. Sir Redvers Buller remained in command of the Natal army till Oct. 1900,

when he returned to England (being created G.C.M.G.), having

in the meanwhile done a great deal of hard work in driving the Boers from the Biggarsberg (May 15), forcing Lang’s Nek (June 12), and occupying Lydenburg (Sept. 6). But though these latter operations had done much to re-establish his reputation for dogged determination, and he had never lost the confidence of his own men, his capacity for an important command in delicate and difficult operations was now seriously questioned. The continuance, therefore, in 1901 of his appointment to the important Aldershot command met with a vigorous Press criticism, in which the detailed objections taken to his conduct of the operations before Ladysmith (and particularly to a message to Sir George White in which he provided for the contingency of surrender) were given new prominence. On Oct. 10, 1901, at a luncheon in London, Sir Redvers Buller made a speech in answer to these criticisms in terms which were held to be a breach of discipline, and he was placed on half-pay a few days later. A motion (July 17, 1902) by Sir Edward Grey in the House of Commons censuring government action in this case was defeated. For the remaining years of his life Buller lived as a country gentleman, accepting in dignified silence the prolonged attacks on his failures in South Africa; among the public generally, and particularly in his own county, he never lost his popularity. He died on June 2, 1908. He had married in 1882 Lady Audrey, daughter of the 4th Marquess Townshend, who survived him with one daughter. See South African Despatches (1901), and Royal Comm. on the war in South Africa, Evidence ii., 169-223 and appendix J (1904); also a brief Memoir, by Captain Lewis Butler of Buller’s own regiment (1909).

BULLET—BULL-FIGHTING

374 BULLET

(Fr. boulet, diminutive of boule, ball). The original

meaning (a “small ball”) has, since the end of the 16th century, been narrowed down to the special case of the projectile used with small arms of all kinds, irrespective of its size or shape. (For details see AMMUNITION;

SMALL ARMS, DEVELOPMENT OF.)

BULL-FIGHTING,

the national Spanish sport. The Span-

ish name is tauromaquia (Gr. radpos, bull, and wax, combat). Combats with bulls were common in ancient Thessaly as well as in the amphitheatres of imperial Rome, but probably partook more of the nature of worrying than fighting, like the bullbaiting formerly common in England. The Moors of Africa also possessed a sport of this kind, and it is probable that they introduced it into Andalusia when they conquered that province. It is certain that they held bull-fights in the half-ruined Roman amphitheatres of Merida, Cordova, Tarragona, Toledo and other places, and that these constituted the favourite sport of the

Moorish chieftains. Although patriotic tradition names the great Cid himself as the original Spanish butl-fighter, it is probable that the first Spaniard to kill a bull in the arena was Don Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, who about 1040, employing the lance, which remained for centuries the chief weapon used in the sport, proved himself superior to the flower of the Moorish knights. A spirited rivalry in the art between the Christian and Moorish warriors

resulted, in which even the kings of Castile and other Spanish princes took an ardent interest. After the Moors were driven from Spain by Ferdinand II., bull-fighting continued to be the favourite sport of the aristocracy, the method of fighting being on horseback with the lance. At the time of the accession of the house of Austria it had become an indispensable accessory of every court function, and Charles V. ensured his popularity with the people by killing a bull with his own lance on the birthday of his son, Philip II. Philip IV. is also known to have taken a personal part in bull-fights. During this period the lance was discarded in favour of the short spear (rejoncillo), and the leg armour still worn by the picadores was introduced. The accession of the house of Bourbon witnessed a radical transformation in the character of the bull-fight, which the aristocracy began gradually to neglect, admitting to the combats professional subordinates who, by the end of the ryth century, had become the only active participants in the bull-ring. The first great professional espada (i.e., swordsman, the chief bull-fighter, who actually kills the bull) was Francisco Romero, of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who introduced the estoque, the sword still used to kill the bull, and the muleta, the red flag carried by the espada (see below), the spear falling into complete disuse. The cruelty of the sport has prevented its taking root in France and Italy. In Portugal a kind of bull-baiting is practised, in which neither man nor beast is much hurt, the bulls having their horns truncated and padded and never being killed. Before the introduction of railways there were few bull-rings (plazas de toros) in Spain, but these have largely multiplied in recent years in both Spain and Spanish America. At the present day nearly every larger town and city in Spain has its plaza de toros (about 225 altogether), built in the form of the Roman circuses. The plazas de toros are of all sizes, from that of Madrid, which holds 12,000 spectators, down to those seating only two thousand. The bulls used for fighting are invariably of well-known lineage and are reared in special establishments (vacddas), the most celebrated of which is now that of the duke of Veragua in Andalusia. When quite young they are branded with the emblems of their owners, and later are put to a test of their courage, only those that show a fighting spirit being trained further. When full grown, the health, colour, weight, character of horns, and action in attack are all objects of the keenest observation and study. The best bulls are worth from £40 to £60. About 1,300 bulls are killed annually in Spain. Bull-fighters proper, most of whom are Andalusians, consist of espadas (or matadores), banderilleros and picadores, in addition to whom there are numbers of assistants (chulos), drivers and other servants. For each bullfight two or three espadas are engaged, each providing his own quadrille (cuadrilla), composed of several banderilleros and picadores. Six bulis are usually killed during one corrida (bull-fight),

the espadas engaged taking them in turn. The espada must hay passed through a trying novitiate in the art at the royal chal of bull-fighting, after which he is given his alternativa, or licence

The bull-fight begins with a grand entry of all the bull-fighter with alguaciles, municipal officers in ancient costume, at the head followed, in three rows, by the espadas, banderilleros, picadores

chulos, and the richly caparisoned triple mule-team used to drag from the arena the carcasses of the slain bulls and horses. The greatest possible brilliance of costume and accoutrements is aime; at, and the picture presented is one of dazzling colour. Th

espadas and banderilleros wear short jackets and small-clothes

of satin richly embroidered in gold and silver, with light si

stockings and heelless shoes; the picadores (pikemen on hors. back) usually wear yellow, and their legs are enclosed in stee armour covered with leather as a protection against the hors of the bull.

The fight is divided into three divisions (suertes). When th opening procession has passed round the arena the president of the corrida, usually some person of rank, throws down to one of the alguaciles, the key to the toril, or bull-cells. As soon a the supernumeraries have left the ring, and the picadores mounted upon blindfolded horses in wretched condition, have taken their places against the barrier, the door of the tori i

opened, and the bull, which has been goaded into fury by th affixing to his shoulder of an iron pin with streamers of th

colours of his breeder attached, enters the ring. Then begins the suerte de picar, or division of lancing. The bull at once attacks the mounted picadores, ripping up and wounding the horses, often to the point of complete disembowelment. As the byl | attacks the horse, the picador, who is armed with a short-pointed,

stout pike (garrocha), thrusts this into the bull’s back with al his force, with the usual result that the bull turns its attention to another picador. Not infrequently, however, the rush of the bull and the blow dealt to the horse is of such force as to overthrow both animal and rider, but the latter is usually rescued from danger by the chulos and banderilleros, who, by means of their red cloaks (capas), divert the bull from the fallen picador, who either escapes from the ring or mounts a fresh horse. The number of horses killed in this manner is one of the chief feature of the fight, a bull’s prowess being reckoned accordingly. About 6,000 horses are killed every year in Spain. At the sound ofa trumpet the picadores retire from the ring, the dead horses are dragged out, and the second division of the fight, the suerte de banderillear, or planting the darts, begins. The banderillas ate barbed darts about 18in. long, ornamented with coloured paper. one being held in each hand of the bull-fighter, who, standing 20 or 30yds. from the bull, draws its attention to him by means of violent gestures. As the bull charges, the banderillero steps towards him, dexterously plants both darts in the beast’s neck, and draws aside in the nick of time to avoid its horns. Fow pairs of banderillas are planted in this way, rendering the bul mad with rage and pain. Should the animal prove of a cowardl nature and refuse to attack repeatedly, banderillas de fuego (üre) are used.

These are furnished with fulminating crackers, which

explode with terrific noise as the bull careers about the ring During this division numerous manoeuvres are sometimes in dulged in for the purpose of tiring the bull out, such as leaping between his horns, vaulting over his back with the garrochke sà he charges, and inviting his rushes by means of elaborate flaunt-

ings of the cloak (floréos, flourishes). Another trumpet-call gives the signal tor the final division

of the fight, the suerte de matár (killing). This is carried oi by the espada alone, his assistants being present only in the cast

of emergency or to get the bull back to the proper part of the

ring, should he bolt to a distance. The espada, taking his stand

before the box of the president, holds aloft in his left hand sword and muleta and in his right his hat, and in set phrases formally dedicates (brinde) the death of the bull to the presdent or some other personage of rank, finishing by tossing bis hat behind his back and proceeding bareheaded to the work of killing the bull. This is a process accompanied by much for

mality.

The espada, armed with the estoque, a sword with3

BULLFINCH—BULLION heavy flat blade, brings the bull into the proper

position by

means of passes with the muleta, a small red silk flag mounted on a short staff, and then essays to kill him with a single thrust,

delivered through the back of the neck close to the head and downward into the heart. This stroke is a most difficult one,

requiring long practice as well as great natural dexterity, and very frequently fails of its object, the killing of the bull often requiring repeated thrusts. The stroke (estocada) is usually given à volapié (half running), the espada delivering the thrust while stepping forward, the bull usually standing still. Another method is recibiéndo (receiving), the espada receiving the onset of the bull upon the point of his sword. Should the bull need

a coup de grâce, it is given by a chulo, called puntilléro, with a dagger which pierces the spinal marrow. The dead beast is then dragged out of the ring by the triple mule-team, while the espada makes a tour of honour, being acclaimed, in the case of a favour-

ite, with the most extravagant enthusiasm. The ring is then raked over, a second bull is introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Upon great occasions, such as a coronation, a corrida in the ancient style is given by amateurs, who are clad in gala costumes without armour of any kind, and mounted upon steeds of good breed and condition. They are armed with sharp lances, with which they essay to kill the bull while protecting themselves and their steeds from his horns. As the bulls in these encounters have not been weakened by many wounds and tired out by much running, the performances of the amateur fighters are remarkable for dexterity. In 1927 there was a strong movement in Spain for protecting the horses used in the bullring, and several kinds of armour have been invented for this purpose. See L. de Moratin, Origen y Progreso de las Fiestas de Toros; E. Bedoya, Historia del Toreo; J. S. Lozano, Manual de Tauromaquia

(1882); A. Chapman and W. T. Buck, Wild Spain (1893); Ella Bourne, “Ancient Bull-Fights,” Art and Archaeology, vol. v., pp. 142153 (1917); Nicholas Rangel, Historia del toro en Mexico, epoca colonial, 1529-1821 (1924); and Hermann Handke, Spanische Stierkämpfe (Braunschweig, 1928).

BULLFINCH, a finch of the genus Pyrrhula, especially the common European (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), bluish-grey and black above, and generally of a bright tile-red beneath, the female having its underparts chocolate-brown. It is a shy bird and frequents wellwooded districts. In May it builds a shallow nest of twigs lined with fibrous roots on low trees or thick underwood, and lays four or five bluish-white eggs speckled and streaked with purple. The young remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring. In spring and summer they feed on the buds of trees and bushes, thus doing considerable injury to orchards and gardens. In autumn and winter they feed on wild fruits and on seeds. The note of the bullfinch, in the wild state, is soft and pleasant, but low; it possesses great powers of imitation, and can be taught to whistle tunes. The bullfinch breeds in northern Europe, occurring in southern parts only as a winter visitor. It rarely breeds in captivity. Black plumage can be induced by feeding solely with hemp-seed. Other species are found in eastern

Europe and Asia, and one which is native to southern and eastern Siberia (P. cassini) sometimes migrates to Alaska.

BULLFROG

(Rana catesbiana), the largest frog (q.v.) of

North America, where it ranges from Mexico to Canada, being absent, however, from the west of the continent. In full grown specimens the body, which is green or greenish-brown above and white beneath, attains a length of 8in., and the spotted or barred hind legs, a length of ro inches. It feeds on any living animal matter which it can swallow, and is in its turn devoured by snakes, fishes, herons, alligators, etc., besides being caught in large ee for the table. The name is also applied to other large rogs,

373

series) outcrop along this coast between Wollongong and Clifton (Coal cliff), being c. 1,000 ft. thick at Bulli; they represent the southern outcrop of the rim of the Sydney coal basin. Reserves of c. 500,000,000 tons of workable coal exist in the area (120 sq.m.) but of the seven existing seams only the top (Bulli) seam has been worked to any extent. The coal crops out on the scarp behind Bulli at c. 300 ft. It can be worked by horizontal adits; the coal trucks run down by gravity to the coast directly on to the wharves. The Bulli seam is 6 ft. thick and is good steam coal, nearly smokeless, and useful for naval, as well as for metallurgical purposes. The output of the southern field as a whole is normally about 2,000,000 tons per annum. The harbour is exposed to gales

but, since 1901, Port Kembla (near Wollongong, 11 m. farther south) has been used as an exporting centre. The coal is conveyed by colliers to Sydney and to Queensland ports but is partly converted into coke on the fields and will doubtless be increasingly consumed in the growing industries of Port Kembla. Bulli lies on the coastal railway which runs from Sydney (59 m. by rail) south as far as Nowra.

BULLINGER,

HEINRICH

(1504-1575), Swiss reformer,

son of Dean Heinrich Bullinger by his wife Anna, was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, July 18, 1504. He studied at Emmerich and Cologne, where the teaching of Peter Lombard led him, through Augustine and Chrysostom, to first-hand study of the Bible; he then began to read the writings of Luther and Melanchthon. Appointed teacher (1522) in the cloister school of Cappel, he lectured on Melanchthon’s Loci Communes (1521). He heard Zwingli at Ziirich In 1527 and in 1528 accompanied him to the disputation at Berne. He was made pastor of Bremgarten in 1529, and married Anna Adlischweiler, a nun, by whom he had 11 children. After the battle of Cappel (Oct. 11, 1531), in which Zwingli fell, he left Bremgarten, and on Dec. 9 he was chosen to succeed Zwingli as chief pastor of Ziirich. A strong writer and thinker, his spirit was essentially unifying and sympathetic, in an age when these qualities won little sympathy. His controversies on the Lord’s Supper with Luther, and his correspondence with Lelio Sozini (see Socrnus), exhibit, in different connections, his admirable mixture of dignity and tenderness. With Calvin he concluded (1549) the Consensus Tigurinus on the Lord’s Supper. The (second) Helvetic Confession (1566), adopted in Switzerland, Hungary, Bohemia, and elsewhere, was his work. The volumes of the Zürich Letters, published by the Parker Society, testify to bis influence on the English reformation in later stages. Many of his sermons were translated into English (reprinted, 1849). His works, mainly expository and polemical, have not been collected. See Carl Pestalozzi, Leben (1858); Raget Christoffel, H. Bullinger (1875); Justus Heer, in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopädie ey (A.

BULLION,

Go.

the name given to gold and silver considered

solely as merchandise. When coin and specie are treated as bullion it is their weight and fineness which are reckoned, not their face value. Bullion thus means the gold and silver of the mines brought to a standard of purity. The word appears in an English act of 1336 in the French form “puissent sauvement porter à les exchanges ou bullion ... argent en plate, vessel d’argent, etc.”; and apparently it is connected with bouillon, the

sense of “boiling” being transferred in English to the melting of metal, so that bullion in the passage quoted meant “melting-house” or “mint.” The first recorded instance of the use of the word for precious metal as such in the mass is in an act of 1451. From the use of gold and silver as a medium of exchange, it followed that they should approximate in all nations to a common degree of fineness; and though this is not uniform even in coins, yet the proportion of alloy in silver, and of carats alloy to carats BULLHEAD: see Mrter’s THUMB. fine in gold, has been reduced to infinitesimal differences in the BULLI, one of a number of small coal-mining towns of the bullion of commerce, and is a prime element of value even in Illawarra district, New South Wales, Australia. It is situated some gold and silver plate, jewellery, and other articles of manufacture. 40 m. S. of Sidney on a narrow coastal platform at the base of Bullion, whether in the form of coins, or of bars and ingots the abrupt scarp of the Illawarra coast “range” (plateau) across stamped, is subject, as a general rule of the London market, not which a road leads through fine scenery via Bulli pass (c. 1,000 ft. only to weight but to assay, and receives a corresponding value. high, Sublime point 1,330 ft.). Permo-Carboniferous rocks The work of weighing and assaying bullion is undertaken by the (Upper or Newcastle-Bulli Coal Measures and Upper Marine bullion brokers, who have to deal with parcels of very variable

BULL

374

MOOSE—BULL

shape, for bullion may be bar-gold, or gold-dust, or coins of many different degrees of fineness.

BULL MOOSE, the symbol of the Progressive Party in the

American presidential election of 1912. The bull moose is the male of the large, ungainly branch of the deer family inhabiting forested parts of Canada and north-eastern United States. It is closely allied to the European elk, standing over seven feet high, and often weighing over 1,000 pounds. The origin of the term as

a symbol probably lies in the remark of ex-president Roosevelt: «Į feel as ft as a bull moose.”

forces under McDowell and the Confederates under Gens. Josepk

E. Johnston! and Beauregard.

Both armies were newly raised and

almost untrained. After a slight action on the 18th at Blackburn's

ford, the two armies prepared for a battle. The Confederates were posted along Bull Run, guarding all the passages from the stone bridge down to the railway bridge. McDowells forces concentrated around Centreville, and both commanders, sensible of the

temper of their troops, planned a battle for the 21st. On his part

The cartoonists seized the remark,

and the animal quickly became the emblem of the Roosevelt forces, and then of the Progressive Party, popularly known as the

“Bull Moose Party.” When the Progressive Republicans declared themselves

RUN

opposed to the renomination

of President Taft and

ENGLISH MILES

0

1

Unfinished

Railway #Pai

brought about a three-cornered election, the bull moose became a very useful symbol as opposed to the elephant of the regular

Republicans and the donkey of the Democrats. BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740), English actor, “of great glee and much comic vivacity,” was Clincher in Farquhar’s Constant Couple (1699), The Beaux’ Stratagem (1707), and Sir Francis Pavener’s Artful Wife (1717). He played at all theatres of his time, and in the summer at a booth

mew

Fair.

He had three sons, all actors.

the original Boniface in Courtall in the London at Bartholo-

Christopher

created

a few original parts in comedies and farces of which he was the author or adapter:—A Woman’s Revenge (1715); Slip; Adventures of Half an Hour (1716); The Cobbler of Preston; Woman’s

a Riddle; The Perjurer (1717), and The Traitor (1718).

BULLROARER, the English name for an instrument made

of a small flat slip of wood, through a hole in one end of which a string is passed; swung round rapidly it makes a booming, humming noise. Though treated as a toy by Europeans, the bullroarer has the highest mystic significance and sanctity among primitive people. In Australia it figures in the initiation ceremonies and is regarded with the utmost awe by the “blackfellows.” Their bull-

roarers, or sacred “tunduns,” are of two types, the “grandfather” or “man tundun,” distinguished by its deep tone, and the “woman tundun,” which, being smaller, gives forth a weaker, shriller note. Women or girls, and boys before initiation, are never allowed to see the tundun. At the Bora, or initiation ceremonies, the bullroarer’s hum is believed to be the voice of the “Great Spirit,” and on hearing it the women hide in terror. A Maori bullroarer is preserved in the British Museum, and in Africa it is known and held sacred. Thus among the Yoruba the principal sign of the Oro secret society is a bullroarer. The sanctity of the bullroarer was very widespread. The rhombus (Gr. 66u80s) which was whirled at the Greek mysteries was one. Among North American Indians it was common. At certain Moqui ceremonies the procession of dancers was led by a priest who whirled a bullroarer. The instrument has been traced among the Tusayan, Apache and Navaho

Indians (J. G. Bourke, Ninth Annual Report of Bureau of Amer. Eihnol. 1892), among the Koskimo of British Columbia (Fr. Boas, “Social Organization, etc., of the Kwakiutl Indians,” Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1895), and in Central Brazil. In

New Guinea, in some of the islands of the Torres Straits it is

swung as 2 fishing charm. In Ceylon it is used as a toy and figures as a sacred instrument at Buddhist festivals. In Sumatra it is

used to induce the demons to carry off the soul of a woman, and so drive her mad. Sometimes, as among the Minangkabos of Sumatra, it is made of the frontal bone of a man renowned for his bravery. With the Ao Nagas, it is apt to bring sickness, while elsewhere in Assam it drives or keeps sickness away.

Brstiocrapuy.—See A. Lang, Custom and Myth (1884); J. D. E. Schmeltz, Das Schwirrhole (Hamburg, 1896); A. C. Haddon, The Siudy of Man, and in-the Journ. Anthrop, Instit. xix. (1890) ; G. M.C. Theal, Kafir Folk-Lore; R. C. Codrington, The Melanesians (1891) ; A. B. Ellis, Yoruba-Speaking Peoples (1894); N. W. Thomas, TimneSpeaking Peoples (1916); P. A. Talbot, The Peoples of Southern Nigeria, vol. iii, (1926); J. P. Mills, The Ao Nagas (1926).

BULL RUN, a small river in Virginia, U.S.A., which gave the name to two famous battles in the American Civil War. (1) The first battle of Bull Run (called by the Confederates Manassas) was fought on July 21, 1861, between the Union

.

BULL

RUN,

SCENE

OF

TWO

7

BATTLES

?

DURING

A

THE

AMERICAN

The first battle was fought on July 21, 1861, the second of August, 1862

CIVIL WAR

on the last days

McDowell ordered one of his four divisions to attack the stone bridge, two to make a turning movement via Sudley ford, 2m. dis.

tant; the remaining division (which had astiffening of regular troops) was to be in reserve and to watch the lower fords. The

local Confederate commander, Beauregard, had also planned a turning movement by the lower fords against the Federal left, but Johnston, who arrived by rail on the evening of the 2oth with reinforcements, now assumed command of the whole force. The change in control caused delay, orders miscarried, and the Federal attack opened before the movement had begun. Johnston and Beauregard then decided to fight a defensive battle, and hurried up troops to support the single demi-brigade of Evans which held the stone bridge. Thus there was no serious fighting at the lower fords of Bull Run throughout the day. The Federal staff was equally inexperienced, and the divisions engaged in the turning movement were two hours late at Sudley ford. At 6 a.m., when the troops, told off for the frontal attack, appeared before the stone bridge, the turning movement was by no means well advanced.

Evans had time to move rr of his 15

companies to Matthews hill, covering Sudley springs, leaving the rest to hold the stone bridge, and he was promptly supported by the brigades of Bee, Bartow and T. J. Jackson. About 9:30 the leading Federal brigade from Sudley springs came into action; two hours later a flank threat by two other brigades, which had crossed at an intermediate ford, drove Evans, Bee and Bartow trom Matthews hill in considerable confusion. But on the Henry House hill Jackson’s brigade stood, as Gen. Bee said to his men, “likea stone wall,” and the defenders rallied, though the Federals were continually reinforced. The fighting on the Henry House hill was very severe, but McDowell, who dared not halt to re-form his enthusiastic volunteers, continued to throw in piecemeal attacks. About 1:30 p.m. he brought up two regular batteries to the fighting line; but a Confederate regiment, being mistaken for friendly troops and allowed to approach, silenced the guns by close rife fire, and the Federal attack, despite repeated efforts, made no further headway. By 4 P.M. some more of Beauregard’s troops came up; Jackson’s brigade charged with the bayonet, and at the same time the Federals were assailed in flank by the last brigade of Johnston’s army, which arrived at the critical moment from

the railway. They gave way at once, melting away slowly to the rear, the handful of regulars alone keeping their order. But whet, 1fm this and other American Civil War articles the names of Cor federate generals, statesmen, and ships are given in italics,

BULLY—BULOM

375

at the bridge over the Cub Run, they came under shell fire the | Reynolds’ division were available to attack Jackson before noon retreat became a panic flight to the Potomac. The victors were too exhausted to pursue, and the U.S. regulars of the reserve division formed a strong and steady rearguard. The losses were:

Federals, 2,896 men out of about 18,500 engaged; Confederates, 1,982 men out of 18,000. (X.) The second battle was fought (Aug. 29-30, 1862) between the

Army of Northern Virginia under R. E. Lee and a Federal force commanded by Pope, who had been recently appointed to command a new army consisting of three corps, which had been conducting independent and unsuccessful operations against Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. When Halleck, the newly appointed General-in-Chief, decided to withdraw McClellan’s army from the Peninsula, it became Pope’s duty to cover Washington until

a junction of the two armies could be effected for a fresh cam-

paign against Richmond. Pope retired from the Rapidan behind the Rappahannock (Aug. 19), followed by Lee from Gordons-

ville. As Halleck had directed that McClellan’s troops should disembark at Aquia Creek, Pope was instructed to hold on to the line of the Rappahannock and prevent Lee from crossing. Pope had only 45,000 against Lee’s 55,000, but aided by a sudden

freshet in the river he was able to hold Lee in check till the 25th, when, screened by Stwart’s cavalry, Jackson started his famous

flank march round Pope’s right flank. Passing through Thoroughfare Gap he marched som. in two days, reaching the railway at Bristoe before sunset (Aug. 26) and capturing Manassas Junction, Pope’s supply depot, by midnight. Having rested and refreshed

his troops (Aug. 27) he set fire to the depot in the night and withdrew his force north of the Warrenton turnpike, where by noon (Aug. 28) his three divisions were hidden in the woods, his

right within 12m. of Thoroughfare Gap, and an alternative line of retreat open behind him to Aldie Gap. Federal signallers had early detected Jackson’s march, but at first Pope believed that he was most probably bound for the Valley. When next day Jackson was reported coming through Thoroughfare Gap, Pope in the evening ordered a general concentration about Warrenton (Aug. 26). He had just been reinforced by two corps from the Army of the Potomac and had now fully 70,000 men under his command. But on hearing that his railway communications had been interrupted, later in the night he ordered a concentration of his right wing at Gainesville with three divisions in support at Greenwich, and sent Hooker’s division up the railway to reopen communications with Alexandria. When Hooker’s encounter with

(Aug. 29). Sigel made two ineffectual attacks in the morning. Then Pope arrived from Centreville with four divisions. These

made three more attacks on Jackson’s left, but from lack of coordination they all failed. Jackson held a strong position; his front line occupied the embankment of an unfinished railway; his artillery was posted on a ridge sooyd. in the rear; as his line was only 3,000yd. long, he could hold half of his 18,000 infantry in reserve and, when Longstreet came upon the field, draw troops from his

own right to aid his hard-pressed left. All five Federal attacks had been directed against Hills division, because on its front a belt of wood extended south of the railway cutting and afforded cover for the assailants. Reynolds’ division on the left, which would have had to attack over open ground, was held in check by artillery fire. Pope had expected that while he was attacking Jackson’s left Porter’s and McDowell’s corps would fall upon the enemy’s right flank and rear. But these troops encountered Longstreet.

The latter had marched through the Gap at sunrise

(Aug. 29) and by noon had drawn up his line of battle across the turnpike. Jones’s division he placed across the Manassas Gap R.R. to hold off any force advancing from Manassas. Thrice Lee urged him to attack down the pike. But Longstreet in Anderson’s absence would only send late in the evening Hood’s division to make a reconnaissance in force. Porter and McDowell were marching from Manassas to Gainesville, when they encountered Jones’s division. It was plain that Pope when writing his “‘JointOrder” at Centreville had entirely misread the situation. McDowell withdrew his corps and marched to join Pope on the turnpike, where King’s division encountered Hood and was driven back some distance. Porter remained on Longstreet’s front until dark, when he retired to Manassas. Lee did not intend to assume the offensive next day. Three divisions from Richmond had crossed the Rappahannock and till their arrival he would leave Pope the initiative. Pope believing that the enemy was retreating, at noon (Aug. 30) ordered a general pursuit under McDowell’s charge. McDowell soon realized his commander’s mistake’ and, whilst organizing an attack against Jackson, endeavoured to secure his exposed flank by occupying in force the Bald and Henry House Hills. Porter’s corps and King’s division attacked with such determination that Jackson signalled to Lee for help. Longstreet brought up more batteries on his left, and their fire enfilading the Federal lines quickly stopped the attack. At 4 p.m. Lee launched his counterstroke. Longstreet with all his five divisions bore down upon the Federal left, which he already overlapped. But the attack was made too late for Lee to achieve a complete

Ewell on Broad Run in the afternoon (Aug. 27) showed that Jackson’s whole force was at Manassas, he ordered a general concentration on that place, expecting next morning to find Jack- victory. Bald Hill, only held by one brigade, because Pope had son holding the entrenchments. At noon (Aug. 28) he reached withdrawn Reynolds’s division to take position in Porter’s rear, Manassas and found that Jackson had disappeared, but at 4:15 was captured and all attempts to recapture it failed, and Jackson P.M. hearing that A. P. Hills division had been seen at Centre- pressed the Federal right back towards the turnpike. But Sykes’s ville (Hill had marched there from Manassas and then recrossed two brigades of regulars and other troops held the Henry House Bull Run at the Stone Bridge) he ordered his whole army to Hill against all assaults, and in the gathering darkness Pope withmarch on Centreville. McDowell on his own initiative sent Rick- drew his beaten army across Bull Run and retreated to Centreett’s division to hold Thoroughfare Gap, but Pope had entirely ville, where Franklin’s corps from Alexandria had just arrived. left Longstreet out of his calculations. Lee with Longstreet’s Lee resorted to another outflanking movement and Jackson had wing (less Anderson’s division left at Waterloo Bridge) followed a sharp but indecisive encounter at Chantilly (Sept. 1) with two Jackson (Aug. 26) but at nightfall (Aug. 27) was still west of the Federal divisions sent by Pope to protect his retreat against a mountains. The next afternoon his advanced guard encountered flank attack. Though reinforced at Centreville by Sumner’s corps Ricketts in the Gap. The Federals held their ground, but after and still considerably outnumbering Lee in spite of the latter’s dark retired to Gainesville. About 5:30 p.m. (Aug. 28) King’s reinforcements, Pope had lost heart and sought safety in the fortidivision of McDowell’s corps was marching along the turnpike fications of Washington (Sept. 2). His losses from Aug. 28 to towards Centreville, when it was attacked by two of Jackson's Sept. 1 amounted to over 14,000 men and 30 guns; Lee’s were divisions near Groveton. A fierce but indecisive engagement en- between 9,000 and 10,000. CW. B. Wo.) sued. Jackson had deliberately revealed his position in order to BULLY, originally a fine, swaggering fellow, as in “Bully lure Pope back into Lee’s clutches. He supposed that Pope was Bottom” in A Midsummer Night's Dream; later an overbearing in full retreat, and sought to prevent him getting behind Bull ruffian, especially a coward who abuses his strength by ill-treating Run, where he could take a strong defensive position and await the weak; more technically a souteneur, a man who lives on the reinforcements. Pope fell into the trap. Believing that Jackson earnings of a prostitute. The term in its early use of “fine” or was retreating but had been intercepted by McDowell’s corps, “splendid” survives in American slang. he ordered his forces to assemble on the Warrenton pike and atBULOM, a people similar to the Timne, whose language is tack Jackson next morning. But he had now lost touch with sev- more nearly related to that of the Krim and the Kissi, living in eral of his units. During the night King and Ricketts withdrew the district between Freetown and Sherbro in Sierra Leone. to Manassas and Bristoe respectively. Only Sigel’s corps and See N. W. Thomas, Anthropological Report on Sierra Leone (1916).

BÜLOW

376 BULOW,

BERNHARD,

Prince

von

(1849-1929),

was

born at Flottbek on the lower Elbe on May 3, 1849, of a distinguished family. His father, Bernhard Ernst von Biilow, had begun his career in the service of Denmark, of which State Holstein at that time still formed part. He represented the king of Denmark in his capacity of duke of Holstein in the Federal Diet at Frankfurt. Here he came into close contact with Bismarck, at that time Prussian representative, who formed a high opinion of his colleague’s abilities. Later, he became minister president of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and afterwards plenipotentiary for Mecklenburg in the Federal Diet; finally he was invited by Bismarck to enter the service of the German empire, and appointed secretary of State for foreign affairs in 1873. He died on Oct. 20, 1879. The prince’s mother came of a Hamburg merchant family of the name of Riicker. Early Years and Upbringing.—Biilow passed his early youth at Flottbek and Frankfurt-am-Main, attended the gymnasium there and in Neustrelitz, and completed his school years at Halle, where he passed his final examinations. He then studied law in Leipzig, Berlin and Lausanne. He fought as a volunteer in the Franco-German War of 1870. On his return he graduated at the bar and was then employed for a short time in Metz, at first in the Landgericht and afterwards in an administrative capacity. In 1874 Biilow determined to enter diplomacy. His first appointment was as attaché to the Embassy in Rome, under Herr von Keudell. After gaining first experience for his future career here and in St. Petersburg, he was transferred in 1877 to Vienna as second secretary. During the great eastern crisis of that year he acted for a time as Charge d’Affaires in Athens and took part in the negotiations at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. In the following year he became second secretary to the Embassy in Paris. Here he remained six years, being transferred to St. Petersburg in 1885 as councillor of Embassy. Here he married a lady of a noble Italian family, a Princess Camporeale by birth, “whose mother had contracted a second marriage with the Italian minister, Minghetti. Three years later Biilow received his first independent diplomatic post as minister in Bucharest. In 1894 he was transferred from this modest sphere to the Embassy in Rome, one of the most important posts of German diplomacy. His connections with Italy through his wife seemed to fit him particularly well to represent Germany there. He remained, however, only three years in this post, being appointed in July 1897

acting head of the Foreign Office in Berlin.| Since Bismarck’s dismissal, Freiherr von Marschall had been in charge of the Foreign Office. He was not a professional diplomat, and was hardly equal to the difficult situation which confronted him after Bismarck’s departure. In 1897 he exchanged his post for that of German Ambassador in Constantinople. A substitute for him had to be found, and Baron von Holstein, at that time the most influential figure in the Foreign Office, drew the attention of the chancellor, Prince Hohenlohe, to Bülow. He had been acquainted with him personally for some time and believed him to be the man best fitted by his polished manners, his tact, and his brain to cope with the difficult task of handling the emperor. Besides this, he certainly hoped that his own personal relations with Bülow would keep his influence predominant during the latter’s tenure of office. Btilow’s Personality.—In the autumn of 1897, Bulow was definitely appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. Three years later, in 1900, he also became imperial chancellor, and thus assumed the position previously held by Bismarck. He always looked on that great statesman, whom he had known personally and revered from his youth upwards, as his model, and often said so in his speeches and writings. He found the essence of his political theory in the doctrine that a state should be guided only by its own interests, and at times went so far as to deny altogether the applicability of any ethical standard in politics, e.g., in his judgment of the Boer War. But, however truly he remained Bismarck’s pupil in his general ideas, between him and his great

predecessor lay a profound difference, which was inherent in the innermost depths of his personality. Bülow was undoubtedly an

acute and dispassionate

observer

and a man

of extraordina

diplomatic skill in the conduct of negotiations, both with the representatives of foreign Powers

and with the party leaders in

Germany itself; he was a brilliant parliamentary speaker, not sg

powerful and enthralling as Bismarck, but always subtle, cult. vated, and witty. What he lacked, however, was the deep political

passion which animated Bismarck.

He was always, primarily

the cool, imperturbable man of the world, rather sceptical, rather

ironical, an artist in treating of the most difficult matters in light, conversational tone; but he lacked the strength to stake his whole personality at the critical moment for the course which he saw to be right. If his amiable character and the charm of his cultivated and adaptable nature enabled him to maintain his ip. fluence over the emperor for a decade, his confidence in the yltimate effect of these qualities also led him to avoid a definite de. cision when he feared that it would go against him, in the ho

that by appearing to yield he would be able to get his way afte; all, gradually

and almost

imperceptibly.

He

was

an excellent

diplomat, but too essentially a diplomat to be a really great states. man. In questions of domestic politics, particularly, he always relied on his skill in temporizing and compromising without hold. ing a definite and individual attitude towards the great questions of statecraft.

Situations and Problems on Assumption of Office.—The

situation as Bülow found it on assuming office was as follows: After Bismarck’s successor, Caprivi, had refused to renew the

“reinsurance treaty” with Russia, the Russo-French treaty had been concluded; this threatened Germany with the potential danger of a simultaneous war on two fronts, the east and the west.

Caprivi and Marschall had believed the best safeguard against this danger to lie in the expansion and the maintenance at all costs of the Triple Alliance. They had, however, endeavoured at

the same time to cultivate good relations between the Triple Alliance and England.

In this they had been unsuccessful, since

the British Government of that time was averse to making any

treaty commitments in their foreign policy. Relations with England had actually grown worse, partly owing to colonial disputes, and at the time of the Jameson raid in the Transvaal and the Krüger telegram there had even been danger of a breach of diplo-

matic relations.

At this period the emperor had become finally

convinced that Germany needed a strong battle fleet if she was to keep her colonial empire and defend her coasts and her commerce in an emergency against England. Admiral von Tirpitz had been appointed head of the imperial naval ministry for tbis purpose about the same time as Bülow took over the Foreign Office. Tirpitz proposed to create so strong a battle fleet as to make war with Germany a very risky matter, even for England, the leading sea power. The emperor embraced this idea with enthusiasm. It became one of the few absolutely unalterable principles of his foreign policy. The great question was whether it would be possible to attain this end without forcing England into the camp of Germany’s opponents. If this happened, if England adhered in any form to the Russo-French alliance, then the danger of the international situation must increase enormously for Germany. Biilow himself was never convinced of Germany’s need

for a strong navy; he would have preferred to concentrate on improved coast defence and on submarines. But he could nol ignore the fact that the emperor thought otherwise, and that he would be unable to prevent the execution of this programme. Under the circumstances, he felt it his duty to carry on the policy of maintaining and strengthening the Triple Alliance and to set that Germany’s naval programme did not injure relations with

England. He was always convinced that Germany needed peace, in the interests of her economic development, and had nothing to gain from a war. It was the more important to preserve the good relations with England on which the maintenance of peace depended.

Biilow and the Negotiations for a Treaty with England

——In the spring of 1898 an attempt was made by England to reach

a closer understanding with Germany. It was prompted by the situation of the British Empire at that time; its principal author was Joseph Chamberlain, the colonial secretary in Lord Salis

BULOW bury’s cabinet. Chamberlain became more and more convinced that England could not remain in her present isolation; that in view of the increased tension with Russia in the Far East and the absorption for a considerable period of all her own forces by the

Boer War, she must seek the support of other Powers. He wished

to begin by attempting an understanding with Germany, but from the first envisaged the possibility of a rapprochement with France

and Russia even at the cost of some sacrifices should the German

alliance prove impracticable. The first tentative suggestions in Berlin crystallized later into a proposal that a defensive alliance

should be concluded which should come into force if either Germany or Great Britain were attacked by two great Powers. Biilow was now confronted with a decision of extraordinary difficulty. The whole tendency of his policy would have favoured acceptance of this suggestion, and an attempt, at least, to see whether peace

could not be permanently ensured by this method without sacrifice of Germany’s interest. The emperor was also at first very much inclined to agree to the English rapprochement. The last decision in this important question was taken by Baron von Holstein, for whose judgment Bulow had the greatest possible respect.

Holstein entertained the strongest mistrust of England’s intentions. He believed that England was only interested in involving Germany in a struggle with Russia, thus to be quit of this dangerous opponent without risk to herself. He also thought that the advantages would be too unequal because Germany would have to help in defending the whole British Empire in all quarters of the globe, while England would only have to cover the much smaller and less threatened area of German possessions. Finally, he thought that England would not feel herself bound to support Germany in virtue of such an alliance if Germany found herself compelled, in virtue of her alliance with Austria-Hungary, to declare war on Russia in the event of a Russian attack against the Danube monarchy. For these reasons he found the proposal unacceptable in its existing form and thought it necessary to demand that Austria be included in the alliance and that its permanent validity should be ensured by ratification through the British Parliament. It is impossible to say whether Biilow entertained

similar doubts from the first, or whether they were only evoked in him by Holstein’s representations. It is only certain that he ended by adopting this chain of reasoning completely and basing his policy accordingly. It was probably due again to Holstein’s advice that he conceived the plan of taking advantage of England’s desire for a rapprochement to extract certain colonial concessions for Germany. He did not, therefore, reject the English offer unconditionally, but temporized, letting England hope that the plan might come to something after all. The negotiations dragged on for over two years. When, however, the British Government saw that Germany would not renounce her conditions, in particular the inclusion of Austria, they gave up the plan as hopeless and began to attempt to reach an understanding with Russia and France. The course of these negotiations was of decisive importance, not only for relations between England and Germany, but for the whole development of international relationships during the next decades. For the consequence of the

rapprochement of England with France and Russia which now began was the conclusion of the entente between those three States and therewith the genesis of the situation which ended in the World War. Bülow and Holstein did not indeed foresee that tbeir attitude would have such results. They believed that an English understanding with France and Russia would be wholly

impossible, on account of the profoundly different views on international politics entertained by these States; they hoped that when England had seen the impossibility of such an enterprise she would approach Germany afresh and then be ready to accept

her conditions. This misapprehension of the actual situation shows that they lacked that eye for the true relative relations of the different Powers which is so absolutely essential for any successful policy. Bülow and the Morocco Question (1905).—Even after the failure of the negotiations for an Anglo-German alliance and the conclusion of the treaty between England and France in the

spring of 1904, defining their respective spheres of influence in

377

Africa, the situation for Germany was not so unfavourable as it was ten years later. Relations between England and France were still far from close, and acute differences still existed between England and Russia.

It was only Germany’s attitude during the

first Morocco crisis of 1905 that altered the situation to her disadvantage. Under the above-mentioned Franco-British agreement, Morocco had been assigned to the French sphere of influence and the French began immediately to pave the way for the gradual subjection of Morocco to their suzerainty. As this grew more and more apparent during the first months of 1905 Bilow determined to intervene. The decisive advice again came from Baron von Holstein. In his opinion, Germany, in the interests of her international prestige, should not permit the partition of hitherto independent territories between the other colonial Powers without receiving compensation. Biilow, who but a short time before had declared that Germany had no political interests of her own in Morocco, let himself be persuaded by Holstein to oppose France’s action. The moment seemed propitious; the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in the Far East had wholly engaged the forces of France’s ally, Russia, for a considerable time, and the domestic situation in France at the moment was extremely difficult. Bülow persuaded the emperor to land in Tangier in April 1905 in the course of his Mediterranean cruise and there to declare in an address to the representatives of the Sultan of Morocco that he looked on Morocco as an entirely independent country, in which no European power enjoyed special rights of any sort. ‘The emperor only took this step with great reluctance,

and afterwards repeatedly declared that he had done so only at Biilow’s urgent desire. The first result of this step was that France approached Germany with a request to formulate her counter-demands in return for leaving Morocco to France. It is doubtful whether an agreement could have been reached on this basis. Germany, however, was not so much interested in herself acquiring a part of Morocco or compensation in the French colonial area, as in preventing France from effecting this increase of her African possessions. Bülow therefore refused to negotiate on this basis and demanded the dismissal of Delcassé, the French foreign minister, who was supposed to be particularly anti-German, and also the convocation of an international conference to regulate the Moroccan question on the basis of political independence for Morocco and complete equality cf footing in economic matters for all European Powers. France agreed to these demands with the greatest reluctance and felt herself deeply humiliated. ‘These incidents also further damaged Germany’s relations with England. England felt bound, having expressly recognized Morocco as within the French sphere of influence, to support France should she become involved in a conflict with Germany over this question. Although no definite offer of military assistance was made by England at that time, it can hardly be doubted that England would have taken France’s side had war broken out then. And as it was probable that similar conflicts would again arise over the Moroccan question, it was agreed, on the initiative of the French Government, that representatives of the British and French military and naval general staffs should meet and discuss methods of co-operation between the two Powers in the event of a possible conflict with Germany. The result was that, although no treaty change was made, the ties between the two western Powers were drawn much closer than previously. The conference met in Algeciras at the beginning of 1906 but took quite a different course from that expected by Bülow. With the help of England and Russia, France secured the grant to herself of extensive privileges both in the organization of the Moroccan police and in financial and economic respects in the territory in question, although the nominal independence of Morocco was upheld. Germany was obliged to accept these resolutions, unless she were willing to accept the sole blame in the eyes of Europe for a breakdown of the conference, with all the disastrous consequences to which this might have given rise. The grave failure

of the German policy led to the dismissal of Baron Holstein; he remained, however, in close relations with Bülow, who often consulted him.

378

BULOW

Bülow and the Treaty of Bjérk6 (1905).—While the Morocco negotiations were still in progress, the great war in the Far East had come to an end. Russia had been completely defeated. When the Tsar met Emperor William IT. in Finland in July 1905, he was so broken down by this failure that he agreed to a proposal of the German emperor which he had rejected, on the advice of his ministers, in the previous autumn. The German emperor felt that the victory of the Japanese, who were England’s allies, had increased the power of Great Britain to such an extent as to necessitate a coalition of all great Powers on the continent of Europe against her. The idea of such a continental league had been broached by him before and, strangely enough, had been approved by Biilow. It is hard to see how it could have been ef-

fected, in view of the existing tension between Germany and France. Starting with this idea, the emperor laid a draft treaty

interest than had been the case for some decades to Balkan prob

lems.

In particular, she encouraged Serbia’s efforts to found :

great southern Slav State to embrace Bosnia and the Herzegovin, As these ambitions could not be realized without a conflict with Austria, new and grave complications were to be foreseen here

The outbreak of the conflict was accelerated by the Young Tur revolution in the summer of 1908, which threatened to Shatter the whole frame-work of the Ottoman empire. The prince of By.

garia took advantage of this opportunity to repudiate the suzer. ainty of Turkey and declare himself independent, and at the same time Austria formally incorporated Bosnia and the Herzegovina into her dominions, these two provinces having previously bee,

legally part of the Ottoman empire, occupied by Austria in yir.

before the Tsar in Björkö which provided as a first step for a close offensive and defensive alliance between Germany and Russia, the Tsar undertaking further to attempt to persuade France to adhere to this alliance. Bülow agreed with this move of the emperor’s and had even transmitted toʻhim by wire the text of the first proposed draft. After the Tsar had signed the treaty, however, Bülow utilized the pretext that the emperor had changed

tue of the decisions of the Congress of Berlin. These two events aroused the most violent excitement in Serbia, and for a time jt looked as though it would come to war between Austria ang

a few words in the text transmitted to him to declare that he could no longer assume responsibility for the conduct of German policy if the emperor took decisions in important questions without previously consulting him. The emperor, who looked on the fact that he had persuaded the Tsar to sign the treaty of Björkö as a great success and a great personal achievement of his own, was absolutely disconcerted by Bülow’s totally unexpected threat of resignation. He begged him to remain in office and not to desert him. Biilow remained, after exacting from the emperor a promise to take no important political decision in the future without consulting him. The treaty of Björkö itself remained without serious consequences, because the Tsar, when enlightened by his ministers on his return to St. Petersburg as to the extent of the obligations he had undertaken, refused to acknowledge it as binding. Yet this incident had its importance as casting a vivid light on Búlow’s relations with the emperor. In the first years of his chancellorship, Bülow had often had to temporize; but now he obviously felt that the time was come when he would be able to restrict the emperor’s influence in politics within much narrower limits. He took advantage of an incident, unimportant in itself, to raise the question of confidence and demand an assurance from the emperor. The success which he had scored by this action was, however, only temporary. In reality, his position after this incident was less safe than before. The emperor, who had hitherto felt a personal attachment to this always pleasant-mannered and (on the surface) very accommodating diplomat, now began to look on him

Entente and the Triple Alliance. If this was averted, it was due

as a secret enemy of his imperial authority and to turn away from him in his heart. After the failure of the continental league, it was no longer possible to prevent Russia from becoming a party to the AngloFrench entente. Defeated in Asia, Russia was in any case obliged to give up her hopes of extending her power in North China and Central Asia; this left the way clear for an understanding with England and a delimitation of the rival spheres of influence in Asia. This was effected by the treaty of Aug. 31, 1907. From this time on the combination of France, England and Russia in a closely-allied group of Powers was complete, while through the

Anglo-Japanese alliance the group enjoyed further special support outside Europe. Bülow followed this development with the gravest concern. He

Serbia. As Russia felt that her prestige among the Balkan peo.

ples obliged her to support the cause of Serbia, the crisis might

easily have led to a conflict between Austria and Russia, which would most probably have resulted in war between the Triple solely to the fact that Russia, after her severe defeat in the Far East, combined with the internal unrest which had followed it. was not ready for war at that moment. Bulow gave the Russian Government clearly to understand that Germany would throw her whole forces on the side of Austria if such a war broke out. and summoned Russia to recognize without reservation Austria’s

annexation of Bosnia.

Russia was forced to give the required

declaration, but felt the humiliation deeply, and was much offended by the interference of the German Government. It would

indeed have been wiser to leave Russia to find out for herself an acceptable form of withdrawal, since in any case she would have had to withdraw. As it was, the Russian Government was able to advance the pretext to the world at large that they had to submit to the German group. Thus, although this crisis ended with an apparent victory for Germany and Austria, it made the general situation still more acute and brought grist to the mills of the growing anti-German party in Russia. During this Balkan crisis, when there seemed a danger of a European war, the enperor insisted that at least the points of friction with France should be reduced to a minimum. Largely at his wish, Bülow consented to conclude a new Morocco agreement with France on Feb. 9, 1909, expressly recognizing France’s political rights in Morocco. One may, indeed, doubt whether this concession would have kept France from intervention if war had broken out at the time. Bulow and England.—Biilow was quite aware that the situztion would become extremely dangerous as soon as Russia had recovered from the consequences of her defeat and had regained

sufficient strength to participate in a war. He therefore consid: ered his most important task to be the re-establishment of better relations with England. Meanwhile, however, the expansion of the German navy according to Admiral Tirpitz’s programme had begun, and had awakened much concern in England. As England had, in 1906, introduced a new type of battleship far superior in fighting force to any earlier models, all old ships seemed to have lost their value, and the fighting force of a fleet now depended, apparently, solely on its strength in these new great battleships. The superiority of Great Britain’s fighting fleet, hitherto unquestioned, thus became doubtful; her lead over the other Powers in the construction of these new

battleships being comparatively

small. She feared that if Germany expanded her fleet according to Tirpitz’s programme she would in a few years have a fleet alvolved a grave danger for the peace of the world, since any con- most as large as the British, unless Britain made enormous efforts flict between two members of the group must draw in their allies, to expand her own fleet much more quickly than had been in and might easily develop into a trial of strength between the rival tended. These considerations were responsible for several sugges: coalitions. He had already discussed the danger of an encircle- tions from British quarters that Britain and Germany might ment of Germany in his speech before the Reichstag on Nov. 5, possibly be able to reach an understanding on the number af 1906. Events were soon to occur which cast a vivid light on the battleships to be built by each State during the course of the next difficulties of the new situation. few years,

saw that this division of Europe into two groups of Powers, the Entente on the one hand, the Triple Alliance on the other, in-

> Ra R ee

Bulow and Russia; Balkan Questions.—After abandoni

her policy of expansion agai devoted mors her policy of in the Far East, exp ast, Russia Russia again

bar PS a

379

BULOW was A great difference of opinion soon arose on this question be- |In this field there

only one

broad

principle which

he

to establish. His latter years of office were notable for tween the emperor and Tirpitz on the one hand and Biilow on the | attempted bring about a new and permanent grouping of the to effort his | other. The emperor and Tirpitz held that Germany’s naval | parties. The steadily increasing hostility between the social demoarmaments must be determined exclusively by her own needs and |crats on the one hand and the parties of the right (conservatives these in interests, and that any interference by foreign Powers national liberals) on the other, had in recent years resulted uestions should be categorically repudiated. Biilow, on the other | and

party of the centre. hand, was inclined to accept an arrangement such as that sug- | in giving increasing influence to the catholic sell its consent to to position this of advantage took centre The | navy gested and in certain circumstances to modify the German concessions in for return in measures various t’s Governmen law. conditional on a political rapprochement between Great | the al Britain and Germany, to be expressed in a treaty guaranteeing to | ecclesiastic

or educational

questions,

or personal

advantages.

Bülow had long chafed under this situation. When the centre deGermany Britain’s neutrality in case of a war with France. A | Government’s budget for colonial development in the very violent dispute took place between Biilow and the em- | feated the because in ils opinion catholic interests were 1906-7, of winter | office resign must he peror, who sent word to the chancellor that in colonial policy, Biilow dissolved the considered sufficiently not unless he declared openly for the principle that no modification | of the new Reichstag after the elecn of the German naval programme was admissible in any circum- | Reichstag. The compositio elements outside the centre and the all unite to him enabled tions | the of view in stances. Bülow hesitated to insist on his opinion, as it was

in a coalition. This “Bülow bloc,” possible consequences, preferring to make a declaration satisfac- | social democrats included not only the old cartel parties of Biscalled, commonly | with accordance full in not y indubitabl but to the emperor, tory

conservatives and national liberals) but also his own views. Hereby he put himself in a false position. The | marck’s day (the and democrats united in the progressive peoliberals desire to extricate himself was perhaps not without its effect in | the left-wing to find in this coalition a firm support hoped Biilow party. ple’s | the caused and afterwards ly the event which followed immediate This hope proved, however, delusive. The

greatest sensation throughout the world. Bulow and the “Daily Telegraph” Interview

for his whole policy. (1908).— | incompatibility of views between the right and left wings of the

was much too great; this was apparent for example, in the On Oct. 27, 1908, the Daily Telegraph printed an interview by | bloc attitude of the conservatives and the progressives different | latter’s Col. Stuart Worseley with the emperor, secured during the the question of the extension of the Prussian franchise. recent visit to England. According to the paper, the emperor had | towards himself had no definite programme in domestic policy Biilow As | and England; towards laid especial stress on his friendly feelings unite the parties of his bloc this loose coalition was to which on | adthe among the various proofs which he adduced, he included breaking up every moment, and incessant wearisome of danger in appear might It War. Boer the during given had vice which he necessary to keep it together after a fashion. were ns negotiatio | only was it that impression as though he wished to arouse the over the question of fiscal reform. up broke finally It | by following this advice that Great Britain had carried the war Budget brought in by the Government in ion—The Resignat subwas article this of t manuscrip to a successful close. The a number of indirect taxes, an imperial besides included, 1909 | by and emperor, mitted by its author before publication to the ves declared against the latter, conservati The duty. him to the German foreign office for approval. The chancellor | succession to some of the indirect taxes. Bülow objected liberals the while | by but him, to on forwarded was it and was away at Norderney, conservatives that he would resign if they threw out an oversight (as he afterwards declared) he failed to read it; | informed the broke up the bloc by rejecting the succession and consequently no objections were raised, and it was allowed to | the budget, it none the less, and Bülow handed in his rejected They duty. | England, in n indignatio great evoked appear. As its appearance accepted by the emperor on July 14, 1909. was which , resignation | to interview the question as to the responsibility for allowing the in Bülow had long been shaken, and he confidence be published was raised in Germany. A question was asked in the | William II.’s leave office. Biilow himself felt it imhim see to sorry not was | made were attacks violent debate Reichstag, and in the ensuing if he could reckon neither on the chancellor remain to possible | Biilow on the emperor for his personal interference in politics. secure majority in the Reichstag. a on nor confidence excused his conduct as stated above, but at the same time ten- monarch’s an end. He retired altogether at seemed career public Biilow’s emperor the after only withdrew dered his resignation, which he an opinion in public reexpressed never and life, private into | imhad repeated his promise not to take any step of political questions. He departed from this rule political current garding | always emperor The advice. s chancellor’ the portance without publishers of Deutschland unter Kaiser Wilbelieved that Bülow had actually read the article and allowed it | only once when the n by various hands, to be published in comcompilatio a II., helm | to be published with the deliberate intention of exploiting the

25th year of William II.’s reign, asked him to public excitement, which he foresaw, to put pressure on his master, | memoration of the foreign policy for this book. This he did, of account the write . submission into whom he had attempted by this means to force on in book form under the

At all events, after this incident Biilow felt his position secure enough to join issue with Tirpitz on the naval programme and relations with England. On Nov. 30, 1908, he asked Tirpitz officially whether he considered Germany’s defensive prepara-

afterwards reprinting his contributi title Deutsche Politik. In it he concerned himself chiefly with justifying his own conduct of foreign policy, but was of course obliged to speak with great reserve, as all diplomatic details of

review were still kept strictly secret. His actions against possible attack from Great Britain to be sufficient. | the period under s but little to our real knowledge of contribute therefore count | reason very Tirpitz replied that they were not, and that was*his

considering the construction of as strong a navy as possible to

events.

for The War.—Quite unexpectedly, Prince Bülow was brought be indispensable. He added that he could not take the responsipublic life once more on the outbreak of the World War. into | resignability for retarding the programme, and must offer his in the summer of 1914. Although not tion were this attempted. Bülow again abandoned the execution | Italy preserved neutrality under the terms of the Triple Alliobligation any g recognizin | German the from reports the because of his idea, partly perhaps Austria, neither did she immediately and Germany join to ance | ambassador in London had not given him sufficient assurance that As the German GovernBritain would accord the desired political rapprochement in return make common cause with the Entente. the possibility that she with reckon to obliged always was ment | Neverthe. programme naval for a modification of the German

Bülow to take over less, he never abandoned the idea of bringing about such a rap- | would yet do so, it determined to beg Prince he had already

r in Rome, which prochement so long as he remained chancellor; it is impossible | the post of German ambassado over Italy after all to the side bring to attempt and once, held to to say whether he would have come nearer than his successor Rome in Dec. 1914. He

its practical realization had he remained longer in office.

of the Central Powers.

Biilow went to

to cede the Trentino to Italy. Domestic Politics—In domestic politics Bulow was deficient | hoped to persuade Austria to agree the enemy camp. It took joining from Italy prevent thus and | individual in exact knowledge on economic questions and of the statesmen to consent to Austrian the persuade to however, long, | forin interested mainly was He tion. administra the branches of at last, it was too late. so, did they when and : concession this | elgn policy; domestic questions he generally left to his colleagues.

BÜLOW

380

The impression was prevalent in Rome that Austria, under pressure from Germany, would in her hour of need give the promise but would make difficulties about fulfilling it after the Central Powers had proved victorious. In spite of all his efforts, Prince Bulow was unable to dispel Italy’s mistrust of the sincerity of Austrian policy, or to prevent her entering the ranks of Austria’s and Germany’s enemies in May 1915. He probably doubted from the first whether anything could be achieved in Rome, but thought it his duty not to refuse his services for the last attempt. After the War.—After the summer of 1915 Prince Billow lived in quiet retirement, mostly in Klein-Flottbek; his public utterances were very few indeed. The most interesting of them was his letter to the editor of the Hamburger Fremdenblatt, printed in that journal on Aug. 4, 1919. Here Bülow expressed his views on the policy of his successor, Bethmann-Hollweg, and on the events which led up to the World War. He was concerned particularly to defend himself against the statement made by BethmannHollweg in his recollections that the international situation in the summer of 1909, when he succeeded Biilow, was already so involved that no issue could be found, and that the World War had thus really been already inevitable. Bülow protested, and certainly rightly, against this “theory of fatality,” as he called it. It is, however, undeniable that Prince Biilow’s policy was largely responsible for bringing about the difficult situation in which Germany found herself in the decade preceding the World War. He died at Rome on Oct. 28, 1929. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Bernhard von Bilow, Deutsche Politik, Eng. trans. (1916); M. A. Lewenz, Imperial Germany (1916); First Bilows Reden, ed. J. Penzler and O. Hotzch (1907-10); “Sammlung der diplomatischen Akten des Auswärtigen Amtes 1897~1909” in Die Grosse Politik der Europäischen Kabinette, ed. J. Lipsius, A. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, and F. Thimme (1924-25); A. Tardieu, Le Prince de Bülow (1909); S. Münz, Von Bismarck bis Bülow (1912); E. von Reventlow, Deutschlands auswärtige Politik 1888—-rorg (1915); W. Spickernagel, Furst Biilow (1921) ; J. Haller, Die Aera Bülow (1922) ; E. Brandenburg, Von Bismarck zum Weltkriege, and ed. (1926, Eng. edit. 1927). (E. BRA.)

BULOW,

BERNHARD

ERNST von (1815—1879), Dan-

ish and German statesman, was the son of Adolf von Biilow, a Danish official, and was born at Cismar, Holstein, on Aug. 2, 1815. He studied law at Berlin, Gottingen and Kiel, and began his political career in the service of Denmark, in the chancery of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg at Copenhagen, and afterwards in the foreign office. In 1842 he became councillor of legation, and

in 1847 Danish chargé d’affaires in the Hanse towns. In 1850 he was sent to represent the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein at the restored federal diet of Frankfort. Here he came into intimate touch with Bismarck, who admired his statesmanlike handling of the growing complications of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. With the radical “Eider-Dane” party he was utterly out of sympathy; and when, in 1862, this party gained the upper hand, he was recalled from Frankfort. He now entered the service of the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and remained at the head of the grand-ducal government until 1867, when he became plenipotentiary for the two Mecklenburg duchies in the council of the German Confederation (Bundesrat), where he defended the mediaeval constitution of the duchies against Liberal attacks. In 1873 Bismarck persuaded him to enter the service of Prussia as secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1875 he was appointed Prussian plenipotentiary in the Bundesrat; in 1877 he became Bismarck’s lieutenant in the secretaryship for foreign affairs of the Empire; and in 1878 he was, with Bismarck and Hohenlohe, Prussian plenipotentiary at the congress of Berlin. He died at Frankfort on Oct. 20, 1879. Of his six sons the eldest, Bernhard Heinrich Karl (see above), became chancellor of the Empire.

BULOW, DIETRICH HEINRICH, Frernerr vow (17571807), Prussian soldier and military writer, and brother of General Count F. W. Biilow; entered the Prussian army in 1773 and remained in the service for 16 years. He wrote Geist des Neueren Kriegssystems (Hamburg, 1799; revised ed., 1805) and Der

Feldzug z800 (1801), Lehrsätze des Neueren Kriegs (1805), Geschichte des Prinzen Heinrich von Preussen (1805), Neue Taktik der Neuern wie sie sein sollte (1805), and Der Feldzug 1805

(1806). He also edited, with G. H. von Behrenhorst (1733—187 )

and others, Annalen des Krieges (1806). These brilliant but ii

orthodox works, distinguished by an open contempt of the Prus-

sian system, cosmopolitanism hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a disappointed man brought upon Bülow the enmity of the official classes and of the Government.

He was arrested as insane, but medical examination

proved him sane and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Colberg, where he was harshly treated, though Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his condition. Thence he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga in 1807, probably as a result of ill-treatment. Bülow has often been styled the “father of Modern tactics” His early training had shown him merely the pedantic minutiae of Frederick’s methods, and, in the absence of any troops capable of illustrating the real linear tactics, he became an enthusiastic

supporter of the methods, which (more of necessity than from judgment) the French revolutionary generals had adopted, of fighting in small columns covered by skirmishers. Battles, he maintained, were won by skirmishers. “We must organize dis. order,” he said; indeed, every argument of writers of the modem “extended order” school is to be found mutatis mutandis in Bülow

whose system acquired great prominence in view of the mechan. ical improvements in armament. But his tactics, like his strategy were vitiated by his absence of “friction,” and their dependence

on the realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.

See von Voss, H. von Bülow (Köln, 1806) ; P. von Biilow, Familien. buch der v. Bülow (1859); Ed. von Bülow, Aus dem Leben Dietrichs v. Bülow, also Vermischte Schriften aus dem Nachlass von Behrenhorst (1845); Ed. von Bülow and von Rüstow, Militärische und vermischte Schriften von Heinrich Dietrich v. Bulow (1853).

BULOW,

FRIEDRICH

WILHELM,

FREIHERR voy,

count of Dennewitz (1755-1816), Prussian general, was bom on Feb. 16, 1755, at Falkenberg in the Altmark; he was the elder brother of D. H. Bülow (g.v.). He entered the Prussian army in 1768. In 1792 he was made military instructor to the young prince Louis Ferdinand, and accompanied the prince in the campaigns of 1792-93-94 on the Rhine. The disasters of the campaign against Napoleon in 1806 aroused his energies. He did excellent service under Lestocq’s command in the latter part of the war, was wounded in action, and finally designated for a brigade command in Blücher’s force. He was governor-general of East and West Prussia in 1812, and defended the marches in 1813, fought at Mockern, took Halle, and defended Berlin against Oudinot by his victory at Liickau. In the summer of 1813 he was placed under the command of Bernadotte, crown prince of Sweden. Bulow commanded a corps in the battle of Grossbeeren, defeated Ney at Dennewitz, played a part in the overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, and was then entrusted with the task of evicting the French from Holland and Belgium. He won a signal victory at Hoogstraaten, and in the campaign of 1814 he invaded France from the north-west, joined Bliicher, and took part in the brilliant victory of Laon in March. He was next made general of infantry and received the title of Count Bülow von Dennewitz. In the short peace of 1814—15 he was at Königsberg as commander-inchief in Prussia proper. He was soon called to the field again, and in the Waterloo*campaign commanded the IV. corps of Bliicher's army. He was not present at Ligny, but his corps headed the flank attack upon Napoleon at Waterloo, and bore the heaviest part in the fighting of the Prussian troops. He took part in the invasion of France, but died suddenly on Feb. 25, 1816, a month after his return to the Königsberg command. See General Graf Bülow von Dennewitz, 1813—14

(Leipzig, 1843);

Varnhagen von Ense, Leben des G. Grajen B. von D. (Berlin, 1854); Biographie, vol. iii. (Leipzig, 1876), and “Behrenhorst und Biilow” (Historische Zeitschrift, 1861, vi.) ; Max Jahns, Geschichte der Kriegs-

wissenschaften, vol. ili., pp. 2133-2145 (Munich, 1891); General von Kammerer (transl. Donat), Development of Strategical Science (1905).

BULOW,

HANS

von

(1830-1894),

German

pianist and

conductor, was born at Dresden on Jan. 8, 1830, the son of Eduard von Bülow (1803-1858), a well-known author. He received his first lessons in pianoforte-playing from Friederich Wieck, the father of Clara Schumann, but there was no intention of his adopting music as a profession, and in due course he became 4

BULOW—BUNBURY

381

bw student at Leipzig, though he continued his musical studies, rows, and a tall stem ending in a cylindrical spike, half to one sorking at counterpoint under Moritz Hauptmann. In 1848 he foot long, of closely packed male (above) and female (below)

was already an enthusiast for Wagner’s work, and in 1849 was

flowers. The familiar brown spike is a dense mass of minute one-

his legal studies) articles in support of his music and that of Liszt.

seeded fruits, each on a long hair-like stalk and covered with long downy hairs, which render the fruits very light and readily carried

contributing to the Abendpost in Berlin (where he was continuing In the years 1850-51 he studied in Zürich the art of conducting under Wagner himself.

He then returned to Weimar to work

st the pianoforte under Liszt, of whose style and school of play-

ing he became in due course one of the leading exponents. In 1857 he married Liszt’s brilliant daughter, Cosima. In the mean-

time, after two years at Weimar, he began to play in the chief musical centres in Central Europe. He then spent nine years (1855-64) in Berlin as professor of pianoforte playing at the Stern conservatorium, working also as a conductor and writing on

musical subjects. In 1864, Wagner helped him to secure the po-

sitions of Hofkapellmezster to Louis II. of Bavaria and director of

the royal school of music at Munich. There he conducted the historic first performances of Tristan and the Meistersinger. His intimacy with Wagner was now broken by the desertion of his

wife Cosima, who left him to marry the composer, but his admiration and enthusiasm for Wagner’s work remained unchanged in spite of the severance of their personal relations. After a long concert tour, Billow settled as conductor at Hanover (1877~ 80), and then at Meiningen (1880-85). At Meiningen, where he made the orchestra one of the first in Europe, he married, in 1882, Marie Schanzer. From 1885 onwards he conducted in many centres in Russia, in Germany, and in England, and gave classes in pianoforte-playing at the Raff conservatorium in Frankfurt and the Klindworth school in Berlin. He went to live in Ham-

burg in 1888, though he still conducted the Philharmonic concerts in Berlin, and that year he made his last appearance in England. He died in Cairo on Feb. 13, 1894.

by the wind. The name bulrush is more correctly applied to Scirpus lacustris, a member of a different family (Cyperaceae), a common plant in wet places, with tall spongy, usually leafless stems, bearing a tuft of many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, etc. In the United States the name bulrush is commonly given to species of Scripus, especially S. validus, while species of Typha are usually called cat-tail. The bulrush of Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was Cyperus Papyrus, which was abundant in the Nile.

BULSTRODE,

SIR

RICHARD

(1610-1711),

English

author and soldier, is chiefly known by his Memoirs and Reflections upon the Reign and Government of King Charles I. and King Charles II., published in 1721 after his death. He also wrote Life : James II, and Original Letters written to the Earl of Arlington

1712). His second son, WHITELOCKE BuLstTRODE (1650-1724), published A Discourse of Natural Philosophy, and was a prominent Protestant controversialist.

BULWARK, a barricade of beams, earth, etc. (possibly from bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work; Ger. Bollwerk), a 15th and 16th century fortifications designed to mount (see BOULEVARD). The term is used of the woodwork round the ship above the level of the deck. Figuratively anything serving as a defence.

BUMBLEBEE

or HUMBLEBEE,

work in artillery running it means

the common name for

bees (g.v.), of the genus Bombus, which have a thick hairy body, often banded with bright colours. There are numerous species, Bulow was a great artist, with complete intellectual mastery of found generally throughout the world except the Australian region, the music he played or conducted. As a conductor he was per- where, however, they have been introduced as their presence is haps greatest in Beethoven, but he was also a great exponent of necessary to fertilize some of the cultivated species of clover (see contemporary music, of Wagner, Liszt, Tchaikovski and Brahms. SOCIAL INSECTS, HYMENOPTERA). He had a remarkable musical memory, and had by heart pracBUMBOAT, a small boat which carries vegetables, provitically all the pianoforte works of the great composers. His sions, etc., to ships lying in port or off the shore. The word is mastery of the content of the works of the masters made his probably connected with the Dutch bumboaé or boomboot, a broad editions, especially of the pianoforte works of Beethoven, of great Dutch fishing-boat, the derivation of which is either from boom, value to students, though they have been criticized by some in cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, or from bon, a place in which fish is kept respect of their arbitrariness and even inaccuracy. His own music alive, and boot, a boat. It appears first in English in the Trinity has not lived, but among his more ambitious productions may be House by-laws of 1685 regulating the scavenging boats attending mentioned an orchestral work Nirwana, incidental music to Julius ships lying in the Thames. Caesar, and Vier Charaktersticke fur Orchester. BUMBULUM, BOMBULUM or BUNIBULUM, a BrstiocRaPHy.—Briefe Biilows und ausgewdahlie Schriften (vols. i. musical instrument described in an apocryphal letter of St. and ii. were translated into English by Constance Bache) ; see monographs by A. Steiner (1906), H. Riemann (1908), and R. du Moulin- Jerome to Dardanus. There is no evidence at all of such an instrument—described as consisting of an angular frame from Eckart (1922). which metal plates and small bells depended—having ever existed.

BULOW, KARL

von

(1846-1921), German soldier, was

born in Berlin March 24, 1846. Commissioned to the 2nd Guards

BUMPERS: see BUFFERS. BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In Scotland the

tegiment in 1864, he served in the campaign of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After a distinguished career, he was placed in charge of the II. Army on the outbreak of the World War, and was at the head of the invasion of Belgium. During the subsequent advance into France, von Kluck’s I. Amy was also placed under his direction, a faulty arrangement soon abandoned, but not replaced by effective control from German headquarters. From this time the two armies were repeatedly taking divergent action, a confusion which ended in the retreat from the Marne. The responsibility for this strategical disaster was the subject of acute controversy, and public opinion in Germany was induced to fix the blame on von Bülow. But

word is used for a very rich spiced type of cake and in the north of Ireland for a round loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate bread marked with a cross (possibly in allusion to the four quarters of the moon) at public sacrifices, such bread being usually purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them—a custom alluded to by St. Paul in I. Cor. x. 28. The cross-bread was eaten by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eoster, their goddess of light. The Mexicans and Peruvians are shown to have had a similar custom. The custom, in fact, was practically universal, and the early Church adroitly adopted the pagan practice, grafting it on to the Eucharist and so giving us the “hot-cross bun.”

te field-marshal in Jan. rọ1rs, and post-war knowledge has con-

caricaturist, second son of Sir William Bunbury, sth baronet, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, was educated at Westminster School and St.

the view of the Supreme Army Command was shown by their placing von Kluck on the retired list and promoting von Bülow

firmed this verdict. In June 1916 von Billow was, at his own request, placed on the retired list. He died in Berlin Aug. 31 1921.

LRUSH, a name given in England to Typha latifolia, the reed-mace or club-rush, a plant growing in lakes, by edges of "vers and similar localities, with a creeping underground stem,

BUNBURY,

HENRY

WILLIAM

(1750-1811), English

Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for draw-

ing, and especially for humorous subjects. His caricatures are as famous as those of his contemporaries Rowlandson and Gillray, good examples being his “Country Club” (1788), “Barber’s Shop” narrow, nearly flat leaves, 3 to 6ft. long, arranged in opposite | (1811) and “A Long Story” (1782). He was colonel of the West

`

BUNBURY—BUNDI

382

Suffolk Militia, and was appointed equerry to the duke of York in 1787. His son Srr Henry Epwarp BUNBURY, Bart. (1778-1860), was a, distinguished soldier, and rose to be a lieutenant-general; he was an active member of parliament, a pioneer of the volunteer movement and the author of several historical works of value, notably Narrative of certain Passages in the late war with France (1852), valuable for the light thrown on internal history just before the Peninsular War. His second son, SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY (1811-95), also a member of parliament, was well known as a geographer and archaeologist, and author of a History of Ancient Geography (1879) and a Memoir (1868) of his father.

BUNBURY,

seaport and municipal town (Pop. about 5,000)

situated on the south-west coast of Western Australia 90 m. S. of Fremantle and 115 m. (by rail) from Perth. The climate is equable and bracing (mean ann. temp.: 68°-54° F; av. ann. rainfall: about 38 in., mainly in winter). The bay (Koombana) on which it stands is open to the sea and the harbour is liable to silting. A granite mole and a timber jetty afford 5,000 ft. berthing space with railway facilities and depths of 15-27 ft. The hinterland of Bunbury is noted for its timber (mainly jarrah). The supplies of this are diminishing, but wheat, wool and fruit (mainly apples) are grown. Bunbury is also an outlet for a good deal of coal from the Collie field (40 m. by rail). It is the second port of Western Australia and has a considerable, but fluctuating, export trade in timber (about 150,000 tons per ann.), wheat, coal, wool and fruit amounting to about 280,000~290,000 tons (£1,000,000£1,500,000) carried in about 320,000 tons of shipping.

BUNCOMBE

or BUNKUM

(from Buncombe county, N.C.,

U.S.A.), a term used for insincere political action or speaking to gain support or the favour of a constituency, and so any humbug or clap-trap. The phrase “to talk for (or to) Buncombe” arose in 1820, during the debate on the Missouri compromise in the U.S. Congress; the member for the district containing Buncombe county confessed that his long and much interrupted speech was only made because his electors expected it, and that he was “speaking for Buncombe.”

BUNCRANA, market town and urban district of Co. Done-

gal, Ireland, on the Londonderry and Lough Swilly railway. Pop. (1926), 2,309. There is a trade in agricultural produce, a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and a manufacture of linen. The town is flanked on the east and south by hills exceeding 1,cooft. The square keep of an ancient castle remains, but the present Buncrana Castle is a residence erected in 1717.

BUNDABERG,

a municipal town and river port of Cook

county, Queensland, Australia, 10,m. from the mouth of the river Burnett. Pop. (1926), 10,000. It lies on both sides of the river, and connection between the two ports is maintained by road and railway bridges. There are saw-mills, breweries, brickfields and distilleries in the town, and numerous sugar factories in the vicinity. The staple exports are sugar, golden-syrup and timber.

BUNDELKHAND,

a tract of country in Central India,

lying between the United and the Central Provinces. Historically it includes the British districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi and Banda, which now compose the Jhansi division of the United Provinces, but politically it is restricted to a collection of Indian States, under the Bundelkhand agency. There are nine States, the most important of which are Orchha, Panna, Samthar, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Bijawar and Ajaigarh: there are also 13 small estates in the agency, and a pargana (Alampur) belonging to Indore. A garrison of all arms is stationed at Nowgong. The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the north-east part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines. There are three ranges of hills, the Bindhachal, Panna and Bander chains, the highest elevation not exceeding 2,000 feet. The country is further diversified by isolated hills rising abruptly from a common level, and presenting from their steep and nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles and strongholds, whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand have frequently set at defiance the most powerful of the Indian States. The general slope of the country is towards the north-east, as indicated by the course of the rivers which traverse or bound the territory, and finally dis-

charge themselves into the Jumna. The chief streams enumer ating them from the western boundary, are the Sind, Betwa Ke l a Baighin, Paisuni, Tons, Pahuj and Dhasan. They flow in

ravine-fringed channels and are of little use for irrigation: though

the waters of the Betwa have been impounded for an importas canal. The main sources of irrigation are numerous artificial lakes, formed centuries ago by throwing massive embankment: across drainage lines. Many of them, like Barwa Sagar E

Jhansi, which is 2$m. in diameter, are set in surroundings gi singular natural beauty, and enhance the picturesque variety oj the Bundelkhand landscape. The people are almost as picturesque as their country. The

true Bundela—the race which gives its name to the land—is ger. erally impoverished and in debt; but he has an inextinguishahl, pride in his descent and a great aversion to hard work. In his raiment he displays an attractive sense of colour; and a touch g the swashbuckler is added to his mien by the velvet-sheatheg talwar or other mediaeval weapon which he generally carries about with him. He is a keen sportsman, and the low jungle with which the country is covered abounds

in game, tiger, leopard,

hyena, wild boar, nilgai and antelope.

Diamonds are found over a considerable area of country, bu particularly near Panna. The output in Akbar’s time is said tọ have been worth £roo,000 a year: and some fine specimens were obtained: a magnificent jewel from the Gadasia mine was among the treasures in Kalinjar fort. Though the quality is good, the

size of the finds is now small. The diamonds lodge in a conglom-

erate, not unlike the diamondiferous rock of South Africa, but close to the surface, and they are worked in shallow irregular pits,

The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled in Bundelkhand were the Gaharwars, who were succeeded by the Parihars. About

A.D. 800 the Parihars are said to have been ousted by the Chandels,

whose chief, Dangha Varma, appears to have established the ear-

liest paramount power in Bundelkhand towards the close of the roth century A.D. Under his dynasty the country attained its greatest splendour in the early part of the 11th century, when its rajah, whose dominions extended from the Jumna to the Nerbudda, marched at the head of 36,000 horse and 54,000 foot, with 640 elephants, to oppose the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by Prithwi Raj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi, after which the country remained in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas, who are supposed to be a left-handed branch of either the Gaharwars or the Chandels, established themselves on the right bank of the Jumna. One of these took possession of Orchha by treacherously poisoning its chief; and his successor it was who assassinated the celebrated Abul Fazl, the prime minister and historian of Akbar. The struggles of the Bundelas for independence resulted in the withdrawal of the royal troops, and the admission of several petty States as feudatories of the empire on condition of military service. On the occasion of a Mohammedan invasion in 1732, Chhatar Sal asked and obtained the assistance of the Mahratta peshwa, whom he adopted as his son, giving him 4 third of his dominions. The Mahrattas gradually extended thei influence over Bundelkhand, and in 1792 the peshwa was atknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Mahratta power was, however, on the decline; and by the treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British Government, the districts oi Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. In 1809 Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In 181), by the Treaty of Poona, the British Government acquired from the peshwa all his rights, interests and pretensions, feudal, termtorial or pecuniary, in Bundelkhand.

In carrying out the provi

sions of the treaty, an assurance was given by the British Gov ernment that the rights of those interested in the transfer should be scrupulously respected, and the host of petty principalitiesm

the province is the best proof of the sincerity and good faith with which this clause has been carried out.

,

BUNDI, an Indian State in the Rajputana agency, lying ™

the north-east of the river Chambal, in a hilly tract historically known as Haraoti. It has an area of 2,220 sq. miles. Many pat

BUNER—BUNKER of the State are wild and hilly, inhabited by a large Mina popuition, formerly notorious as a race of robbers. Two rivers, the Chambal and the Mej, water the State. In 1921 the population was 187,008. The town of Bundi had a population in 192r of 19.313. A school for boys of high rank was opened in 1897. The State of Bundi was founded about a.p. 1342 by the Chan-

wan rajput chief, Rao Dewa or Deoraj, who captured the town irom the Minas. Its importance, however, dates from the time

HILL

|

383

Bunin'’s poetry is mainly descriptive—not lyric—impassive, of classic simplicity and harmony, of jewelled perfection, minute observation and vivid perception of colour. He ranks highest, however, as a prose writer. The best known among his novels, tales and short stories are The Village, A Gentleman from San Francisco, Suchodol, An Evening in the Spring. The first two have been translated into English. as also Dreams

Chang and other Stories.

of

There is much affinity in his novels

af Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in 1554 and by ‘browing in his lot with the Mohammedan emperors of Delhi (1569) received a considerable accession of territory. In the

with Turgeniev and Chekhov—but he might be best described as the Russian Flaubert. He is a great master of classic prose.

raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played by him

fluid on the metatarsal joint of the big toe, or, more rarely, of the little toe. This may be accompanied by corns or suppuration. The cause is prolonged compression of the toes in a narrow and pointed boot so that the great toe is deflected outwards instead of pointing directly forwards. Use of sufficiently wide footwear and palliative treatment by dressings, etc., are usually effective, but in obstinate cases a surgical operation may be considered.

ith century their power was curtailed by the division of Haraoti into the two States of Kotah and Bundi; but the title of maharao

in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I. after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.

In 1804 the maharao raja, Bishan

Singh, gave valuable assistance to Col. Monson in his disastrous

retreat before Holkar, and in 1818, by a treaty concluded with

Bishan Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection. In r821 Bishan Singh was succeeded by his son, Ram Singh, who ruled till 1889, and was known as “the most conservative prince in conservative Rajputana.” His rule was popular and beneficent; and his son, the present maharao raja, continues the same traditions. He enjoys a salute of 17 guns.

|i aie D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, Modern Russian Literature, p. 96. 1925).

BUNION, an inflamed swelling of the sac containing synovial

BUNKER HILL, the name of a small hill in Charlestown,

Boston (Mass.), U.S.A., famous as the scene of the first considerable engagement June 17, 1775, in the American Revolution (qg.v.). Bunker Hill (rroft.) was connected by a ridge with BUNER, a valley on the Peshawar border of the North-west Breed’s Hill (75ft.), both being on a narrow peninsula a short frontier province of India. It is a small mountain valley, dotted distance to the north of Boston, joined by a causeway with the with villages and divided into seven sub-divisions. The Mora hills mainland. Since the affair of Lexington (April 19, 1775) General and the Ilam range divide it from Swat, the Sinawar range from Gage, who commanded the British forces, had remained inactive Yusafzai, the Guru mountains from the Chamla valley, and the at Boston awaiting reinforcements from England. The headDuma range from the Puran valley. It is inhabited by the quarters of the Americans were at Cambridge, with advanced Niaszai and Malizai divisions of the Pathan tribe of Yusafzais, posts occupying much of the 4m. separating Cambridge from who are called after their country the Bunerwals. They are a Bunker Hill. When Gage received his reinforcements at the end powerful and warlike tribe, numbering 27,000 fighting men. The of May, he determined to repair his strange neglect by which Umbeyla expedition of 1863, under Sir Neville Chamberlain, was the hills on the peninsula had been allowed to remain unoccupied occasioned by the Bunerwals siding with the Hindustani fanatics, and unfortified. As soon as the Americans became aware of who had settled down at Malka in their territory. In the end the Gage’s intention they determined to frustrate it, and accordingly, Bunerwals were subdued by a force of 9,000 British troops, and on the night of June 16, a force of about 1,200 men, under Malka was destroyed, but they made so fierce a resistance, in Colonel William Prescott and Maj.-General Israel Putnam, with particular in their attack upon the “Crag” picket, that the Indian some engineers and a few field-guns, occupied Breed’s Hill (to medal with a clasp for “Umbeyla” was granted in 1869 to the which the name Bunker Hill is itself now popularly applied). troops taking part. The government of India refrained from When daylight disclosed their presence to the British they had interfering with the tribe again until the Buner campaign of 1897 already strongly entrenched their position. Gage lost no time in under Sir Bindon Blood. Many Bunerwals took part in the attack sending troops across from Boston with orders to assault. The of the Swatis on the Malakand fort, and a force of 3,000 British British force, between 2,000 and 3,000 strong, under (Sir) William troops was sent to punish them; but the tribe speedily handed in Howe, supported by artillery and by the guns of men-of-war and the arms demanded of them and made complete submission. floating batteries stationed in the anchorage on either side of the BUNGALOW, the Anglo-Indian form of the vernacular peninsula, were fresh and well disciplined. The American force name of the typical one-storied house lived in by Europeans in consisted for the most part of inexperienced volunteers, numberIndia. It is now generally used for houses of one story, or of low ing about 1,500 men. The village of Charlestown, from which design giving this effect. A dak bungalow is a rest house pro- a galling musketry fire was directed against the British, was by vided in India by the public authorities for the use of travellers. General Howe’s orders almost totally destroyed by hot shot durBUNGAY, urban district of East Suffolk, England; 113m. ing the attack. Instead of attempting to cut off the Americans N.E. of London on a branch of the L.N.E.R. from Beccles. Pop. by occupying the neck to the rear of their position, Gage ordered (1931) 3,098. It is placed in a deep bend of the river Waveney, the advance to be made up the steep and difficult ascent facing the boundary with Norfolk. The parish church of St. Mary has a the works on the hill. Whether or not in obedience (as tradition hne Perpendicular tower, and that of Holy Trinity a round tower asserts) to an order to reserve fire until they could see the whites of which the lower part is Norman. St. Mary’s was attached to a of their assailants’ eyes, the American volunteers with admirable Benedictine nunnery found in 1160. The castle, of which massive steadiness waited till the attack was on the point of being driven ruins remain, was a stronghold of the powerful family of Bigod, home, when they delivered a fire so sustained and deadly that the being granted to Roger Bigod, a Norman follower of the Con- British line broke in disorder. A second assault, made like the queror, in 1075. A grammar school was founded in 1592. There first, with the precision and discipline of the parade-ground met are large printing-works, and a considerable carrying trade on the the same fate, but Gage’s troops had still spirit enough for a Waveney, in corn, flour and lime. third assault, and this time they carried the position with the BUNIN, IVAN ALEXEYEVICH (1870_), Russian bayonet, capturing five pieces of ordnance and putting the enemy poet and novelist, was born Oct. 10, 1870, of noble family in to flight. The loss of the British was 1,054 men killed and Voronesh. His first poems were published in 1889. His poems wounded, among whom were 89 commissioned officers; while the were awarded the Pushkin prize, the highest academic distinc- American casualties amounted to 420 killed and wounded, includtion in Russia, and the same distinction was awarded to his ing General Joseph Warren, and 30 prisoners. translation of Longfellow’s “Hiawatha.” His other masterly The significance of the battle of Bunker Hill is not, however, to translations from English poets include those of Byron’s “Man- be gauged by the losses on either side, heavy as they were in fred” and “Cain,” and of Tennyson’s “Lady Godiva.” In 1909 proportion to the numbers engaged, nor by its purely military he was elected a member of the Russian Academy. results, but by its moral effect. “It roused at once the fierce

BUNKERING

384

OF

SHIPS

instinct of combat in America . . . and dispelled . . . the almost superstitious belief in the impossibility of encountering regular troops with hastily levied volunteers. . . . No one questioned the conspicuous gallantry with which the provincial troops had supported a long fire from the ships and awaited the charge of the

where general cargo is principally handled, water-borne coal}

order before their fire.”!

typical example—about 30% of the coal is still loaded by manyi

enemy, and British soldiers: had been twice driven back in disThe pride which Americans naturally

almost exclusively used for bunkering purposes, because the

space is too valuable for the provision of coal hoists, The a

is unloaded into barges, and then transferred by manual labour mechanical devices into the bunkers of the steamers. P

At the Victoria and Albert docks—which may be taken as 4

felt in such an achievement, and the self-confidence which it inspired, were increased when they learnt that the small force on Bunker Hill had not been properly reinforced, and that their ammunition was running short before they were dislodged from

their position.2

Had the character of the fighting on that day

been other than it was; had the American volunteers been easily, and at the first assault, driven from their fortified position by the troops of George III., it is not impossible that the resistance to the British Government would have died out in the North American colonies through lack of confidence in their own power on the part of the colonists. Bunker Hill, whatever it may have to teach the student of war, taught the American colonists in 1775 that the odds against them in the enterprise in which they had embarked were not so overwhelming as to deny them all prospect of ultimate success. See R. Frothingham, The Centennial: Battle of Bunker Hill (Boston, 1895), and Life and Times of Joseph Warren (Boston, 1865) ; Boston City Council, Celebration of Centen. Aniv. of Battle of Bunker Hill (Boston, 1878); G. E. Ellis, Hist. of Battle of Bunkers (Breed’s) Hill (Boston, 1875); S. Sweet, Who was the Commander at Bunker Hill? (Boston, 1850) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. iii. (1883); Sir George O. Trevelyan, The American Revolution (1899) ; Fortescue, Hist. of the Brit. Army, vol. iii. (1902). (C:

BUNKERING

OF SHIPS.

Coal bunkering has naturally

been in use ever since steamships came into existence. In the early days it was performed by hand, which was an extremely slow process. It is no uncommon sight to see, even to-day, gangs of from so to 150 men and women, carrying baskets of coal and handing them up the ship’s side, see fig. 1; the output is 3 to 4 tons per carrier per day. Apart from the economic aspect, hand bunkering was not so bad when the loading and unloading of vessels was slow, but with modern devices for handling cargo, coal bunkering becomes a more important proposition. Before discussing the different methods and devices in use, it must be mentioned that there are fundamental differences,

FIG.

2.—DIAGRAM

SHOWING

THE

‘‘DE

MAYO”’

SYSTEM

OF

BUNKERING

This device discharges coal from barges through the intake port hole either direct or, as shown, by conveyor to the bunkers

labour, while about 70% process is performed by method. An average of be transferred by a gang

is mechanically bunkered. The former winch barges by the “whip and skip’ roo tons per day of 8 hours can thus of 9 men.

Mechanical Bunkering Plants may be divided under two heads :— A.—Portable loading devices, self-contained, but with no sup porting structure. They are attached temporarily to the ship to be coaled; and B.—Floating loading devices mounted on pontoons. A. The “De Mayo” bunkering device, which is more partic ularly used in America, is a completely enclosed bucket elevator, suspended singly, or in series, from ships’ tackle or from the boom of a coaling barge; it discharges coal from barges alongside, both nn REYoxij in and off shore, and at the intake port-hole. With this system, x Sr A Lf portable conveyors are sometimes employed for trimming the SUED 7 ITANAE coal in the bunkers, or for loading through deck hatches in cor aN nection with an adjustable portable elevator. Such a combination is shown in fig. 2. This device is used in the Panama Canal for Hf Tuai bunkering vessels which do not touch at the piers. The “Michener” coaling elevator (see fig. 3) consists of a spe FIG. 1.—NATIVE MEN AND WOMEN COALING A SHIP AT ST. LUCIA, B.W.I. cial type of bucket elevator, suspended from the side of th The coal is carried in baskets and tallied at the foot of the gangway by vessel, with the feeding end in the coal barge and the delivery the coaling agent and a ship’s officer end reaching right into the bunker port of the vessel. By = depending upon the particular port concerned, its traffic, and ingenious device the elevator can be dipped farther into the barge the nature of the fuel employed. as the coal is unloaded, without altering the position of the de» At the Welsh ports, at Liverpool and at ports on the Tyne and livery end. The receiving terminal revolves in the opposite direc Humber, the coal loaded is almost exclusively cargo; it is all rail- tion to that usual in elevators; it is, therefore, termed under-fet borne, and is transferred from the sidings by huge steel struc- After a vertical run, beginning at the lower terminal, the chai tures on the quayside, known as coal hoists. By raising the trucks forms a bight, negotiates the guide idler G, and assumes an esse individually and tipping them, the coal is loaded by means of tially horizontal position towards the power-driven sprocket a telescopic chute. These coal hoists are also occasionally used During this short run the coal leaves the buckets, dropping W at these ports for bunkering vessels. On the other hand, at ports a slightly hoppered, bifurcated receptacle, from which it 1s led,

DAT PAN FAY

W.

n

E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century,

l. 428.

2General Gage’s despatch. D- 132.

American Remembrancer 1776, part II.,

by means of telescopic chutes, into the bunkers.

The averat

capacity of one unit is 125 tons per hour, with an expenditure of ro hop.

BUNKERING B. The “Temperley” transporter is used either slung from the ship's tackle or from special coaling barges. It is self-contained and consists essentially of an I-shaped boom having a traveller running on the lower flange. The boom is triced up to the mov-

able framework or shear legs and the traveller is worked by two ropes engaging with the two drums of a double-barreled winch. The boom is so arranged as to reach athwart the coaling barge in and the vessel to be bunkered,

which coal can be dumped at any number of predetermined points.

a

C.L. UPPER END SPROCKETS

ras

The “Suisted” bunkering eleyator (see fig. 4) consists essen-

tially of a bucket elevator and

band conveyor, mounted on two pontoons with room between for the coal barges; one of the pontoons contains the generating plant for power and light, while in

g

the other is provided accommo-

)



here,

oboa pie ioce thea

ng aga

aaie

Made, Tph pW, 2

BY COURTESY

OF

(1,

4)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

ak

VICTORIA

AND

BYZANTINE 1. Carved

ivory casket Known as the Veroli

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

(7)

DECORATIVE

casket.

LOth~—11th

THE

ART

centuries

2. The Urn of Saint Rinaldo in the cathedral, Ravenna 3. 4th century carved ivory panels representing Adam in the Garden Eden and St. Paul with other figures. Museo Nazionale, Florence A

Eth

vnantisws

dinduah

aê

h ma

oe ORE

LPL

’

TRUSTEES

OF 5.

of

OF

THE

THE Ivory

BRITISH

>

MUSEUM;

4TH-11TH panel

carved

a

vin

PHOTOGRAPHS,

ES r

x

(2,

=

3,

5)

ALINARI,

=

(6)

GIRAUDON

CENTURIES in

bas-relief,

from

the

throne

of Saint

(6th century) in the cathedral, Ravenna 6. Ivory panel depicting Romanus I!. and his wife, Eudocia. 945. From the Cabinet des Médailles, Parts

Maximian

About A.D.

BYZANTINE ages. From 726 to 842, with interludes, not only was the making of images a punishable offence, but existing images were destroyed or covered with whitewash. The seated Virgin in the apse of S.

Sophia at Salonika is believed to have been executed in one of

the pauses in the iconoclastic

struggle under Irene

(787-797).

If this dating is correct, a decorative system, the rth century examples of which are numerous and well known, had been mas-

tered before the 8th was over.

The semi-dome of the apse is

covered with a gold ground, on which stands out alone the figure

of Our Lady holding the Child. Here again, the Byzantines let simple surfaces play their reasoned part in the composition of interiors. The Decorative Arts.—Perhaps because the supply of tusks was cut off from Constantinople by the Arab wars, very few carv-

ings survived that can be assigned to the 8th or oth century. A group that takes its name from the Veroli casket (P1. II., fig. 1) in

the Victoria and Albert museum, London, is by some supposed to be of this period, but more likely dates from the roth and Irth centuries. Few painted manuscripts can be attributed to this period; these show the same style of fantastic animal decoration met with on slabs and in textiles, but in coarse, washy colours. Among the very numerous manuscripts of the Carolingian age in the West, there are in all probability types which represent imitations of Eastern originals now lost. The origins of the cloisonné enamelling technique so much

used by the later Byzantines are lost. Descriptions of the altar

given by Justinian to S, Sophia appear to refer to such enamels,

and a small panel at Poitiers may be the central part of a reliquary sent by Justin II. about 569 to S. Radegonde. The Beresford-

Hope cross in the Victoria and Albert museum and a cross-shaped

box in the Vatican have translucent enamels of brilliant colour and quality. In them the designs made by the cloisons are clumsy, and there are stylistic and iconographical reasons for assigning to them an early date, perhaps the 7th century. They are surely earlier than the highly accomplished convex enamels on the ewer

of Charlemagne at S. Maurice d’Agaune, which tradition and style agree in dating somewhere about 800. In the Camara Santa at Oviedo there is a cross with enamels not unlike those in the ewer, but perhaps earlier. No outstanding Byzantine plate or jewellery is certainly of this period. Western treasures which contain Carolingian goldsmith’s work, ivories and illuminated manuscripts in plenty preserve many Byzantine textiles and a few enamels. We know that the

West could not weave silk, and was unable to produce enamels of the quality attained by Eastern artists, but it appears to have been satisfied with its own ivory carving, goldsmith’s work and illumination. THE

LATER

PERIODS

After the fantastic creatures and ornament of the 8th and goth centuries, and without any transition, comes the art, at once refined and realistic, of the Macedonian revival. The old Greek taste for representation again prevails. A series of ivory carvings, Manuscripts and enamels, which there is solid ground for dating, presents a small, gentle world in which every grade of the celestial and terrestrial hierarchies has its place.

Examples of the Later Style.—A suggestion of this change

may be caught on one of the coins of Basil I. (867-886) and the new style is clearly seen on a few pages bound into the cele.brated Gregory of Naziansus manuscript in the Bibliothèque Natonale, Paris. Here, the imperial portraits can be dated between 879 and 886. These paintings and a sketch revealed by flaking

ART

its appearance.

491 It is covered with figures of Our Lord, Our Lady,

the apostles and other saints in a great variety of costume, imperial, military, ecclesiastical and monastic; a precisely defined hierarchy like that described in the contemporary writings of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. As may be seen in the Romanus ivory, features and limbs are delicate and in correct proportion, unlike those of the 6th century carvings, which are somewhat burly. Where there is exaggeration it is in attenuation and elongation: an almost effeminate elegance. This style in metal-work may be seen in a gilt bronze triptych in the Victoria and Albert museum and in a beautiful bronze relief in the museum at Philippopoli in Bulgaria, as well as on an enamelled reliquary at Limburg-on-the-Lahn (probably between 948 and 959), showing a composition similar to those in the ivories. Of the few illuminated manuscripts that can be assigned to the roth century, Grec 7o in the Bibliothéque Nationale has paintings

in much

the same

spirit.

The

famous

‘“Parisinus,”

Grec 139, in the same library, is characterized by pseudo-antique style. A marvellous collection of hard stone vases, glass and rockcrystal vessels, the mounts of some of them adorned with enamels (Pl. I., fig. 8) or with rich and delicate filigree tracery, a great deal of which is probably of the roth century, exists in the treasure of St. Mark’s at Venice. No roth century mosaics are known except the floral decoration in the Mihrab of the Mosque at Cordova, executed by Greeks imported for the purpose by Abd-er-Rahman III. (929-961). Numerous marble slabs, used in galleries, choir enclosures and even in windows and fountains out of doors, survive, mostly reemployed in later buildings in Constantinople, Athens, Salonika, Mt. Athos and Venice. Some continue the animal decoration of an earlier period, but the animals have become tame, round and gentle. Most of these slabs, however, are ornamented with interlaced strap-work and rosettes carved in a peculiar $-shaped profile. Figure sculpture is rare, but a marble roundel set in

the wall of a house in the Campiello Angaran in Venice bears a relief of an emperor, about half life-size, who may be of this period. Basil I.’s famous church, the Nea, has vanished, and surviving architecture of the gth and roth centuries is on a humble scale. A superb porphyry head in the round on the parapet over the west porch of S. Mark’s is certainly Byzantine, and very probably late roth century. Some magnificent silk textiles, several of which are happily dated by woven inscriptions, show much the same change as that seen on the slabs. Animals, birds and monsters are still represented,

but in another

spirit, more

often

passant than rampant and their ferocity is rather that of menagerie beasts behind bars. The weaving is finer and the colours more delicate. The art of the ryth century iş richer than that of the roth, Here again, the change comes out in a coin; the gold nomisma of Constantine VIII. (1025-28), The portrait of this monarch on the Exultet roll at Bari (PI. I., fig. 9} shows an aggressive personage far removed from the benign and decorous court represented

on the ivories discussed above. Figures are no longer small, delicately proportioned, and nicely arranged against a spacious background, but tend to spread out over the field. Heads grow too big for their bodies. There is a suggestion of high living about these fleshly shapes, to be expected in the somewhat scandalous court of Constantine VIII., his daughter Zoe and her numerous husbands. Towards the end of the century, attenuated figures

on one of the pages have delicacy and distinction. There are few

again become fashionable. Mosaics.—After 400 years for which only enough scraps of mosaics are left to show that the art did not die out, we come, in the rith century, to a rich series. The greatest uncertainty pre-

all and represents both divine and worldly persons.

vails as to their chronological order. However, S. Sophia at Kieff, which still contains important mosaics, was founded in 1037 or 1038, and its decoration was probably not much later. The wellpreserved cycle at S. Luke in Phocis is very near the Kieff examples in style; those at Daphni near Athens are probably later. In the Greek Islands and in Asia Minor there are less

datable monuments between these pages and the Romanus and Eudocia ivory panel in the Cabinet des Medailles (Pl. II., fig. 6) which has recently been shown to represent Romanus II. and his frst wife, who died 949, and not Romanus IV. (1067-1071). Thus one of the few dated ivory carvings is the most beautiful of Many ivories

are closely related to the Romanus panel in style, but few ap-

proach it in quality. The triptych, such as the Harhaville ivory in the Louvre and the Borradaile in the British Museum, makes

extensive remains. Greek artists also worked in Venetia and at Trieste. An instance is the praying Virgin in the apse of Murano cathedral, which is a characteristic 11th century composition, the

492

single figure on its ground of gold peppered with red and black cubes standing in the exact axis of the church as the point of focus for the eyes of the congregation. Church pavements, such as those of Venice and Murano, are rich, and more complicated and heterogeneous than those of the 6th century, containing, besides stone mosaic and opus sectile, reemployed marble slabs. A few low reliefs representing the praying

Virgin, which doubtless once decorated the walls of churches, have recently come to light. The most beautiful of these was discovered at Salonika (Plate I., fig. 3).

The Decorative Arts.—The arts of the goldsmith and the enameller continue to flourish in the 11th century. At a period not easily determined, perhaps only in the 12th century, the designs of the cloisons become rectilinear and perfunctory. Here, as in the apses, the figure is backed by a flat gold ground. The colours are: a brilliant translucent green never equalled in Western work, a sub-translucent marine blue and opaque but rather nacreous whites, yellows and reds. The purples common in earlier work become rare. In painted manuscripts also gold grounds occur frequently, and an elaborate head-piece in brilliant colours almost suggesting enamel is common. These head-pieces are usually found in books of the Gospels, opposite full-page portraits of the Evangelists. Psalters such as one in the British Museum dated 1066 are abundantly illuminated with small marginal paintings, some of them illustrating scenes of everyday life. Profane subjects, treated with evident enjoyment, are frequently found in other religious manuscripts, as well as in treatises on the chase and histories. Textile designs tend to grow more mechanical and conventional than in paintings. There still remain examples of the best of the rare late Byzantine examples of tapestry weaving. Ivory carving dies out: no example of the first quality can well be attributed to the later r1th or r2th centuries, but carved steatite panels come into favour. The 12th to the 15th Centuries.—The 12th century produces no new movement of importance; it is significant that the imperial gold coinage, which had set a standard for the world since the time of Augustus, becomes corrupt as early as the reign of Michael VII. (1071-78) and never recovers. Even silver is debased, and the artistic merit of coins deteriorates. The 13th century, broken by the Latin occupation of Constantinople, is obscure and poverty-stricken. For the 14th we have the dated mosaics of Kahrié Djami at Constantinople, which mark a definite breach with the principles of Byzantine monumental decoration. Their picturesque qualities have led some to see in them Italian influence. The same may be said of numerous frescoes at Mistra and throughout the Balkans, and of the small portable mosaics, composed of cubes of solid gold and semi-precious stones, of which a few brilliant examples survive in Western museums. The only monuments left of any interest by the 15th century are a few manuscripts with imperial portraits in which velvety but coarse reds enliven mediocre drawings. The later arts of the Orthodox countries have kept Byzantine iconography alive to the present day, but they lie outside the scope

|

MUSIC

BYZANTINE

of the present article. (See also PERIODS OF ART.) | (H. Pe., R. T.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Cohen, Description historique des monnaies frappées sons PEmpire Romain (and ed. 1880-92) ; The Basilica of S. Mark in Venice (ed. by C. Boito, trans. by W. Scott, publ. by F. Ongania, 1888) ; N. Kondakov, Les Emaux Byzantins (1892); W. R. Lethaby and H. Swainson, Sancta Sophia, Constantinople (1894); R. Cattaneo, Architecture în Italy from the 6th to the rith century (trans. by I. Curtis-Cholmeley, 1896); G. Schlumberger, L’épopée byzantine a la fin du dixième siècle 3 pt. (1896-1905) ; A. van Millingen,

Byzantine Constantinople (1899); A. Riegl, Die spätrömische Kunst-

Industrie nach den Funden in Österreich-Ungarn, Oesterreichisches Archäologische Institut (Vienna, vol. i. īgor; vol. ii. 1923); A. Venturi, Storia dell’arte italiana (Milan, 1901-13); A. Choisy, L’Art de Batir chez les Byzantins (and ed. 1904); G. Millet, “L’Art Byzantin”; chap. ili, and bibl. in A. Michel, Histoire de Art, 15 vol. (1905-25); W. Wroth, Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum (1908); J. Maurice, Numismatique Constantinienne, 3 vol. (1908-12) ; G. T. Rivoira, Lombardic Architecture: its origin, development and derivatives (trans. by G. McN. Rushforth, 1910); O.. M. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology (1911), and East Christian

Art

(1925);

Handbuch

O. Wulff, “Altchristliche

Strzygowski,

“Die Baukunst

und Byzantinische Kunst” in

(vol. i. 1914;

der Kunsiwissenchaft

der Armenier

vol. ii, 1978);

und Europa” in Arbeiten

des Kunsthistorischen Instituts der Universitat von Wien, Bas, 9 and ro (Vienna, 1918) and The Origin of Christian Church Art (trans

by O. M. Dalton and H. J. Braunholtz, Oxford, 1923) ; O. von Falke Kunstgeschichte der Seidenweberet (1921); J. Ebersott, Les Ans Somptuaires de Byzance (1923) and La Miniature Byzantine (1926). C. Diehl, Manuel d’art byzantin (2nd ed., rev. 1925). i

BYZANTINE MUSIC. The name Byzantine is usually given to the music of the mediaeval Greek Orthodox Church. Our knowledge of it rests partly on the writings of theorists partly on the hymns themselves preserved in liturgical manuscripts. The earlier musical signs or neumes have survived from the roth century A.D., but their exact interpretation is not yet possible. In the 13th century the Round or Hagiopolitan notation was invented, which can be deciphered. The signs expressed intervals; the initial signature showed the Mode and gave the starting-note. Byzantine music was vocal and was sung by a professional cantor or by a trained choir in unison. No instruments were used in the Greek Church; but at the Palace of the Emperors at Constantinople there were two organs in the rsth century; and they were always used to accompany the choir on state occasions. St. John of Damascus, in the 8th century, is said to have given Byzantine musical theory a definite form. Possibly he fixed more accurately the eight mediaeval modes, which were common to the Eastern and Western churches, and exemplified them in his own compositions. It is likely that many of the simpler melodies, which have come to us in the Round notation, had been handed down with slight variations from the time when most of the hymns were written—the poet being also the composer—that is, from the 8th, 9th and roth centuries. We cannot say with certainty from what sources the Easter

Church derived her music before the 8th century. It is usually assumed that the prevalent Graeco-Roman type of melody formed

the basis in early Christian times, with a free inclusion of Hebrew tunes, borrowed along with the Psalms and Canticles. But the other branches of the Christian church in the East, particularly the Syrian and, later, the Armenian, probably contributed something also. After the conversion of the East Slavonic races, their churches took over the Byzantine musical system. Byzantine music had no fixed rhythm or regular division into

bars or measures.

The tune follows the words according to the

stress accents, ignoring the ancient quantities of the vowels, and as the text is nearly always rhythmical prose (like the Psalms in O,

Df

a

i

Y

Oav=-

TY

Sa

“Gees

2

TL

Ta- Tav

Ly

U

9a-Aacoy

HYMN

ZN

we

A-ow-pev

Soe GREEK

==

ys

o-oo?

kv-pt - œ.» To Bu-OLÔv- va-pw- ha-pa- w

KAY IO

. E-TTL-

YL-KL-0OY Q)

MUSIC

man

a’ or"

—— WITH

U

TS

IN THE

Y

U

=

VBNGTWO“

Syv- O-TL

ROUND

EV

SYSTEM

§e-SoZactat-

OF NOTATION

As no instruments were used in the Greek Church, Byzantine music was entirely vocal. lt had no fixed rhythm or regular division into measures

both the Greek and English Bibles) the total effect is .a rather lively and melodious recitative rather than a tune in the modern sense. The Modes are numbered in a different order from the Gregorian, which they otherwise resemble, and exhibit several byforms. The classification as Authentic and Plagal had more theoretical than practical value. The normal types require the fol-

lowing initial and final notes. Authentic—Mode I., a or d; Mode

II., b or g, Finalis e; Mode III., c’ or a, Finalis f; Mode IV.,

theoretically d’, but usually g. Plagal—Mode I., d; Mode II., Pl.,

e; Mode III., PI. (also called Barys or Grave Mode) f, rarely low B-flat; Mode IV., PI. g. All these seem to have used the diatonic vocal scale with Just Intonation.

BYZANTIUM In the r5sth century Byzantine music becomes more ornate and florid, while the notation adopts many subsidiary signs, as guides

to execution and expression.

Some of these had already been

invented by the famous singer John Cucuzeles about 1300; and this ornate notation is often called Cucuzelian. In the 16th and early 17th centuries the art declined; and the notation was only known to a few precentors. A revival took place about 1670, the work of a school of composers, whose centre was the Patriarchal church at Constantinople. These musicians were accustomed to Oriental music, and some of them composed Turkish songs. Consequently, though the notation does not differ

greatly from the 15th century, the spirit of the music is decidedly Eastern; and the Turkish scales, with their irrational intervals, were probably employed, at any rate in new compositions. This Graeco-Oriental school lasted until 1821, when Chrysanthus, an Archimandrite, introduced a simplified notation, also consisting of interval-signs, in which the music could be printed. Although Chrysanthus had studied Western theory, he accepted the Oriental scales and invented symbols to describe them. His

principles seem to have been too complicated for general use; and complete uniformity of rendering was not secured. The Chrysanthine notation is still in use; and the traditional manner

of

singing, often painfully nasal, with a drone or holding-note kept by one or two voices, may be heard in most of the smaller Greek churches and monasteries. It is a common mistake to believe that this modern system is the same aS mediaeval Byzantine music. Since 1870 some of the larger city Churches have introduced four-part unaccompanied

singing, perhaps under Russian influence. But more recently there has been a set-back in favour of the Chrysanthine usage. Example of a mediaeval Byzantine hymn (about 1400 A.D.), viz. :— First Ode of a Canon from ms. No. 1165, at Trinity College, Cambridge. Mode III. Plagal (Barys or Grave) from f, Finalis f.

wa-cav tiv Sb-va- pw (3)Pa-pa-® A

NN fe Lee een

Fe

nee fl ena

|e

Jn nf

&

ba--do-oy

|

|

(4)€-ae-vi-x-ov œ- ýr (5) ë -re

de -

O6€ - ao - Tat,

Translation. “Let us sing unto the Lord, who sank all the might of Pharaoh in the sea, a song of victory, for He hath triumphed gloriously.” BrsLiocrapary.—(z) For the Modern or Chrysanthine System: W. Christ and M. Paranikas, Anthologia graeca carminum Christianorum; E. Bourgault-Ducoudray, Etudes sur la musique ecclés grecque; J. M. Neale and S. G. Hatherly, Hymns of the Eastern Church with Music; P. Rebours, Fraité de Psaltique. (2) Chiefly for the Mediaeval Systems: O. Fleischer, Neumenstudien, T. 3.; Am. Gastoué, Introd. a la Paléographie mus. byzantine; H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine Music and

Hymnography; E. Wellesz, Byzantinische Musik.

(H. J. W. T.)

BYZANTIUM, a Greek city on the shores of the Bosporus, occupying the most easterly of the seven hills of modern Constantinople. It was founded by Megarians and Argives under Byzas about 657 B.c., but destroyed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes by the satrap Otanes; it was recolonized by the Spartan Pausanias (479 B.c.). Its situation was remarkable for beauty and security. It controlled the Euxine grain trade; the depth of its harbour rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large burden; while

493

the fisheries were so lucrative that the curved inlet near which it stood became known as the Golden Horn. The population was partly Lacedaemonian and partly Athenian; it was thus a subject of dispute between these States, and was alternately in the possession of each, till it fell into the hands of the Macedonians. About seven years after its second colonization, the Athenian Cimon wrested it from the Lacedaemonians; but in 440 B.c. it returned to its former allegiance. Alcibiades, after a severe blockade (408 B.Cc.), gained possession of the city through the treachery of the Athenian party; in 405 B.c. it was retaken by Lysander and placed under a Spartan harmost. It was under the Lacedaemonians when the Ten Thousand, exasperated by the conduct of the governor, made themselves masters of the city, and would have pillaged it but for the eloquence of Xenophon. In 390 B.c. Thrasybulus expelled the Lacedaemonian oligarchy, and restored democracy and the Athenian influence. Byzantium joined with Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Mausolus, king of Caria, in throwing off the yoke of Athens, but sought Athenian assistance when Philip of Macedon advanced against it. The Athenians under Chares suffered a severe defeat from Amyntas, the Macedonian admiral, but in the following year gained a decisive victory under Phocion and compelled Philip to raise the siege. ‘The deliverance of the besieged from a surprise, by means of a flash of light which revealed the advancing Macedonian army, has rendered this siege memorable. As a memorial of the miraculous interference, the Byzantines erected an altar to Torch-bearing Hecate, and stamped a crescent on their coins, a device which is retained by the Turks to this day. During the reign of Alexander, Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge the Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of the Macedonian power it regained its independence, but suffered from the incursions of the Scythians. The losses which they sustained by land roused the Byzantines to indemnify themselves from the vessels which crowded the harbour, and the merchantmen which cleared the straits; but this had the effect of provoking a war with the neighbouring naval Powers. The exchequer being drained to buy off the Gauls about 279 B.c., and by the imposition of an annual tribute of 80 talents, they were compelled to exact a toll on all the ships which passed the Bosporus—a measure which the Rhodians avenged by a war wherein the Byzantines were defeated. During the first years of its alliance with Rome, Byzantium held the rank of a free confederate city; but, having sought arbitration on some of its domestic disputes, it was subjected to the imperial jurisdiction, and gradually stripped of its privileges. The Emperor Claudius remitted the heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; but the last remnant of its independence was taken away by Vespasian, who taunted the inhabitants with having “forgotten to be free.” The city was besieged and taken (A.D. 196) by Severus, who destroyed it, demolished the famous wall, and put the principal inhabitants to the sword. This overthrow of Byzantium was a great loss to the empire, since it might have served as a'protection against the Goths, who afterwards sailed past it into the Mediterranean. Severus afterwards relented, and, rebuilding a large portion of the town, gave it the name of Augusta Antonina. It had scarcely begun to recover its former position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, the inhabitants were once more put to the sword and the town was | pillaged. From this disaster the inhabitants recovered so far as to be able to give an effectual check to an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius IT., and the fortifications were strengthened during the civil wars which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Diocletian had resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, struck with the advantages which the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to build a new city there on the

site of the old and transfer the seat of government to it (AD. 330). (See CONSTANTINOPLE.)

4.94

:

lf

C—CAB

/

the third letter of the alphabet, corresponds to | alphabet, was used for the corresponding unvoiced sound. An early

Semitic ~J gimel, and Greek [". forms were [~ , r N ki>tS>ts>s.

stop, represented in English by the “hard” g. In the Latin alphabet it came to represent the unvoiced velar stop, and was for some time, it appears,

French orthographists in the 12th century to represent the sound ¢s in English, and this sound developed into the simpler sibilant s. Gradually the use of the letter c to represent the velar before front vowels (for example in the Middle English cyng)

used for both the voiced and unvoiced sounds. This change must in all probability be due to Etruscan influence, for the voiced stops

NAME OF FORM

APPROXIMATE DATE

PHOENICIAN

BC. 1.200

CRETAN

1,100 -900

THERAEAN

700 - 600

FORM E ORM OF OF LETTER

N

>

accidentals, the “natural scale.” Thus on the pianoforte it consists entirely of white notes and hence has come to be regarded as the simplest and most fundamental of all keys. C is further one of the three notes (F and G being the others) which have served for centuries, in conjunction with the appropriate signs, to indicate the clefs. (See CLEF.)

a

CORINTHIAN. CHALCIDIAN

CAB.

IONIC

ROMAN

PTT

aea aT

FALISCAN

|

but further invented for it the terms “four-wheeler” and “growler.”

P RE-

CLASSICAL AND CLASSICAL TIMES

The fashionable horse-cab, however, was the “hansom,” a one-

horsed form, with two big wheels, of very uncertain equilibrium and dangerous character, in which the driver was perched in a dicky placed high up at the back of the vehicle and took his

OSCAN

instructions through a small trap-door in the roof. It was difficult

UMBRIAN

to enter a hansom without soiling one’s clothes. As originally invented by J. A. Hansom in 1834, however, it was a compara-

` CLASSICAL LATIN AND ONWARDS DEVELOPMENT FORM

OF THE

A colloquial abbreviation of the French cabriolet,

originally a passenger-vehicle drawn by two or four horses. It was introduced into London from Paris in 1820, London not only turned “cabriolet” into “cab” (a word which became officially enshrined in an act of Parliament, the London Cab act of 1896)

COLONIAL

URBAN et

in which s would represent a voiced sibilant (identical with the

sound af z), and in words such as practice merely as a means of grammatical distinction. Before & the letter is often redundant (e.g., in thick, clock,

occupied a peculiarly distinctive position, in that it is the key note of what used to be called, from the fact that it contains no

LATIN

Tr

ROMAN

gave way to that of k, ambiguity being thus as far as possible avoided. Ç takes the place of s in words such as mice, advice,

bet, this note being at the same time one which has always

ATTIC ON

The letter ¢ was applied by

etc.). The combination ch represents a double unvoiced palatal (¢§), as in church. In music, C is the name of the third note of the musical alpha-

RS

ARCHAIC

cases (except before 4) the velar (e.g., call, come, clear, crumb,

LETTER

C FROM

ITS EARLIEST

tively safe vehicle, with the driver placed at the side. Horse-cabs TO

ITS PRESENT

quickly became obsolete in great cities with the appearance of the taxicab, a licensed motor vehicle fitted with a taximeter.

Cabs

apparently did not exist in the Etruscan language, with the result | plying publicly for hire are in all countries subject to local licensthat the third letter of the alphabet, as taken over by the Etruscans ing laws and official fare determinations which are constantly

in Asia Minor from a source which was also that of the Greek | under review. +t

(See TAXIMETER.)

CABAL—-CABBAGE CABAL, 2 private organization or party engaged in secret

intrigues, and applied also to the intrigues themselves (through the Fr. cabale, from the Cabbala or Kabbalah, the theosophical inter-

pretation of the Hebrew scriptures). In England the word had heen jealously used throughout the 17th century, with the alter-

native junto or cabinet (q.v.), to describe any secret and extra-

legal council of the king, more particularly the foreign committee of the Privy Council. The invidious meaning attached to the term was stereotyped by the coincidence that the initial letters of the

names of Charles II.’s ministers, Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley and Lauderdale, spelled cabal.

CABALETTA,

a musical term which is really a modified

form of cavatinetta (It.), and therefore means strictly a small cavatina (g.v.), but in practice it has come to be applied to the quick concluding section or final phrases of a vocal number. CABALLERO, FERNAN (1796-1877), the pseudonym adopted by the Spanish novelist Cecilia Francisca Josefa Bohl de

Faber. Born at Morges in Switzerland, she was the daughter of Johan Nikolas Bohl von Faber, a Hamburg merchant, known to the students of Spanish literature as the editor of the Floresta de rimas antiguas castellanas (1821-25), and the Teatro espanol anterior á Lope de Vega (1832). Educated principally at Ham-

burg, she visited Spain in 1815, married and settled there, and in

1849 became famous as the author of La Gaviota.

She had

already published in German an anonymous romance, Sola (1840), and curiously enough the original draft of La Gaviota was written in French. This novel was translated into most European languages, and, though it scarcely seems to deserve the intense enthusiasm which it excited, it is the best of its author’s works, with the possible exception of La Familia de Alvareda

(which was written, first of all, in German).

Less successful at-

tempts are Lady Virginia and Clemencia; but the short stories

entitled Cuadros de Costumbres (1862) are interesting in matter and form, and Una en otra and Elia 6 la Espana treinta anos ha are excellent specimens of picturesque narration. It would be dificult to maintain that Fernán Caballero was a great literary artist, but it is certain that she was a born teller of stories and that she has a graceful style very suitable to her purpose. She came into Spain at a most happy moment, before the new order had perceptibly disturbed the old, and she brought to bear not alone 4 fine natural gift of observation, but a fréshness of vision, undulled by long familiarity. She combined the advantages of being both a foreigner and a native. In later publications she insisted too emphatically upon thé moral lesson, and lost much of her primitive simplicity and charm; but though she oc¢asionally idealized circumstances, she was conscientious in choosing for her themes subjects which had occurred in her own experience. Hence she may be regarded as a pioneer in the realistic field, and this historical fact adds to her positive importance. See M. A. Morel-Fatio, Études sur PEspagñe (1904), iil., pp. 279-

370, (J .F.-K.) CABANATUAN, a municipality (with administration centre and eight barrios or districts) and capital of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands; and one of the chief commercial centres of the province. Pop. (1918) 15,286, of whom 14 were whites.

It is well situated on the Manila-Dagupan

railway and on the Pampanga river and has excellent roads. In 1918 it had 33 household industry establishments, with output valued at 12,600 pesos; four rice mills, with by-products valued at 199,000 pesos; and 17 manufacturing establishments, with output valued at 94,500 pesos. It has ten schools (nine public). Pampango and other languages are spoken. CABANEL, ALEXANDRE (1823~1889), French painter,

was born at Montpellier on Sept. 28 1823, and died in Paris on Jan. 23 1889. He studied under Picot, and gained the Prix de Rome in 1845. As director of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under Napoleon ITI. he exercised some influence. His subject pictures were enormously popular in their day—an example is the “Birth of Venus” in the Luxembourg—but he is now remembered only for some of his portraits. CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE (1757-1808), French physiologist, was born at Cosnac (Corréze), and was the

495

son of Jean Baptiste Cabanis (1723-86), a lawyer and agronomist. In 1789 his Observations sur les hôpitaux procured him an appointment as administrator of hospitals in Paris, and in 1795 he became professor of hygiene at the medical school of Paris, a post which he exchanged for the chair of legal medicine and the history of medicine in 1799. He acted as physician to Mirabeau, and wrote the four papers on public education which were found among the papers of Mirabeau at his déath. Cabanis was a member of the Council of Five Hundred and then of the conservative Senate, but his political career ended with the triumph of Napoleon. His principal work, Rapports du physique et du moral de homme, consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. He adopted at first a purely materialistic view, but went over to the vitalistic school of G. E. Stahl, and in the posthumous work,

Letire sur les causes premiéres (1824), the consequences of this opinion became clear.

CABARRUS,

FRANCOIS

(1752-1810),

French-Spanish

financier, was born at Bayonne in 1752 and died at Seville on April 27, 1810. He settled in Madrid as a soap manufacturer and presently became one of the financial advisers of Charles III. He

devoted his corisiderable financial talents to the organization of a bank, to the formation of a company to trade with the Philippine Islands, and to a reformation of the currency and taxation.

But

these financial measures were hindered by the death of Charles III. in 1788. There was no place in the reactionary Government of Charles IV. for the group of reformers. Cabarrus spent two years in prison on a charge of embezzlement. He was presently restored to some degree of favour and was nominated Spanish ambassador to Paris, but the Directory raised objection to his appointment on the grounds of his French birth. Cabarrus took no part in the intrigues by which Charles IV. was compelled to abdicate and his son deprived of the succession in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, but he became minister of finance under Joseph’s Government and held that post until his death. His daughter, Thérése, became well known as Madame Tallien, afterwards princess of Chimay.

CABASILAS,

NICOLAUS

(d. 1371), Byzantine mystic

and theologian. In 1355 he succeeded his uncle Nilus like himself, a.determined opponent of the union of and Latin churches, as archbishop of Thessalonica. In chast controversy he took the side of the monks of refused to agree to the theory of the uncreated light.

Cabasilas, the Greek the HesyAthos but His chief

work is his Hep rijs év Xpror@ Cwijs (ed.pr. of the Greek text with copious introduction, by W. Gass, 1849; new ed. by M. Heinze, t899), in which he declares that union with Christ is effected by three great mysteries of baptism, confirmation, and the eucharist. He also wrote homilies on various subjects and a speech against usurers, printed in Migne, Patrol. Graeca. See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897), and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.

CABATUAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 56 barrios or districts) of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Suague river, 15 m. N. of Iloilo,

the capital, and a few miles from the railway.

Pop.

(1918)

14,816, of whom none were white. The climate is healthful and the surrounding fertile country produces rice, corn, tobacco,, sugar, coffee and many fruits. In 1918 it had 608 household industry establishments with an output'valued at 126,400 pesos, and 9 sugar-mills. Of the 26 schools, 11 were public. The language

spoken is a dialect of Bisayan. CABBAGE, a table vegetable and fodder plant whose various

forms are supposed to have been developed by long cultivation from the wild or sea cabbage (Brassica oleracea), a plant found near the sea coast of various parts of England and continental

Europe. The cultivated varieties, however, have departed widely from the original type, and they present marked and striking dissimilarities among themselves. The wild cabbage is a comparatively insignificant plant, growing 1 to 2ft. high, in appearance similar to charlock (Sinapis alba) but having smooth leaves. The wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated

496

CABEIRI

seed-pod, and seeds with conduplicate cotyledons. Notwithstanding the fact that the cultivated forms differ in habit so widely, the flower, seed-pods and seeds present no appreciable difference. John Lindley proposed the following classification for the various forms: (1) All the leaf-buds active and open, as in wild cabbage and kail or greens; (2) all the leaf-buds active, but forming heads, as in Brussels sprouts; (3) terminal leaf-bud alone active, forming a head, as in common

the leaf-buds active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in sprouting broccoli. The last variety bears the same relation to common broccoli as Brussels sprouts do to the common cabbage. Of all these forms there are numerous gardeners’ varieties. Under Lindley’s first class, common or Scotch kail or borecole (Brassica oleracea, form ROBBINS, “BOTANY OF CROP PLANTS” acephala), includes several vari- FROM FIG. 1.—KALE (BRASSICA OLEReties which are amongst the har- ACEA ACEPHALA), SHOWING THE diest of our esculents, and yield BRANCHED AND LEAFY STEM REwinter greens. They require well- SEMBLING WILD CABBAGE enriched soil, and sufficient space for full exposure to air; and they should also be sown early, so as to be well established and hardened before winter. The plants send up a stout central stem, growing upright to a height of about 2ft., with close-set, large, thick, plain leaves of a light red or purplish hue. The lower leaves are stripped off as the plants grow up, and used for the prepara-

tion of broth or “Scotch kail,” a dish at one time in great repute in north-eastern Scotland. A remarkable variety of open-leaved cabbage is cultivated in the Channel Islands under the name of the Jersey or branching cabbage. It commonly grows to a height of 8ft., but it has been known to attain double that height. It throws out branches from the central stem, which is sufficiently firm and woody to be fashioned into walking-sticks; and the stems are used by the islanders as rafters for bearing the thatch on their cottage-roofs. Several varieties are cultivated as ornamental plants on account of their beautifully coloured, frizzed and laciniated leaves. Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea, form gemmifera) are miniature cabbage-heads, about an inch in diameter, which form ‘In the axils of the leaves. The third class is chiefly represented by the common or drum- FROM ROBBINS, “BOTANY

head cabbages (Brassica oleracea, Fig.

2.—BRUSSELS OF

SPROUTS

CROP

PLANTS”

capitata), the varieties of (BRASSICA OLERACEA GEMMIFERA),

which are distinguished by size, SHOWING form

and

colour.

In

Germany

The red cabbage (Brassica oleracea, form capitatg rubra), of

which the Dutch red is the most commonly grown, is much used for pickling. The dwarf red and Utrecht red are smaller.

Cauliflower, the chief representative of class 4, consists of the

inflorescence of the plant modified to form a compact succulent white mass or head. The cauliflower (Brassica oleracea, form

botrytis cauliflora) is said to have been introduced from Cyprus

It is one of the most delicately flavoured of vegetables, the dense cluster formed by its incipient succulent flower-buds being the

cabbage, savoys, etc.; (4) terminal leaf-bud alone active and open, with most of the flowers abortive and succulent, as in cauliflower and broccoli; (5) all

form

value apart from their salt and vitamin content is therefor e small

LEAVES

FROM

MODIFICATION

WILD

CABBAGE

OF

TYPE

it is converted into Sauerkraut by placing in a tub alternate layers

of salt and cabbage. An acid fermentation sets in, which after a few days is complete, when the vessel is tightly covered over and the product kept for use with animal food. , The savoy (B. oleracea, form subanda) is a hardy green variety, characterized by its wrinkled leaves. Cabbages contain a very small percentage of nitrogenous compounds as compared with most other articles of food. Their food-

edible portion. Broccoli is merely a variety of cauliflower, differing in the form and colour of its inflorescence and its hardiness. The

broccoli (Brassica oleracea, form botrytis) succeeds best in loamy soil, somewhat firm in texture. Broccoli sprouts, the representative of the fifth class, consist of flowering sprouts springing from the axils of the leaves. The purple-leaved variety is very hardy and much-esteemed. Kohl-rabi (Brassica oleracea, form

gongylodes

or caulorapa)

is a peculiar

variety in which the stem, just above the ground, swells into a fleshy turnip-like mass. It is much cultivated in certain dis-

ROBBINS, PLANTS"

FROM

CROP

“BOTANY

oF

FIG. 3.—COMMON HEAD CABBAGE KNOWN AS BALL HEAD

tricts as a food for stock, for which purpose the drumhead cab-

bage and the thousand-headed kail are also largely used. Kohlrabi is exceedingly hardy, withstanding both severe frosts and drought. It is not much grown in English gardens. Several species of palm, from the fact of yielding large sapid central buds which are cooked as vegetables, are known as cab-

bage-palms. The principal of these is Oreodoxa oleracea, but other species such as the cocopalm and the royal palm (Oreodoxa regia) yield similar edible leaf-buds. For further details see J. Percival,

Agricultural

Botany

(London,

1926); W. W. Robbins, Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1926).

CABEIRI,

an

important

group of deities, perhaps of Phrygian origin, worshipped over a large part of Asia Minor, on the islands near by, particularly Lemnos and Samothrace, and in Macedonia and northern and central Greece, especially Boeotia.

(xaBerpor, in Boeotian

x&Brpor,

is commonly identified with Phoen. Qabirim, “mighty ones,” cf. their common Gr. and Lat. appellation “great gods”; but this is seriously doubted by several scholars, who take it to be an Anatolian word of unknown mean-

ing).

They

were

underworld

powers of fertility, perhaps origi-

nally indefinite in number;

FROM

ROBBINS,

“BOTANY

OF

CROP

PLANTS"

FIG. 4.—-KOHL-RABI (BRASSICA OLERACEA CAULORAPA), SHOWING TURNIP-LIKE STEM WHICH STANDS

in MOSTLY ABOVE THE GROUND

classical times there appear to have been two male deities, Axiocersus and his son and attendant Cadmilus or Casmilus, and a less important female pair, Axierus and Axiocersa (meaning of names unknown). These were variously identified by the Greeks with gods of their own pantheon (Hephaestus, Dionysus, Demeter and Kore, the Dioscuri, etc.). The cult included worship of the power of fertility, symbolized by the male organ of generation;

there were also, as usual in mysteries such as these

were, rites of purification, which seem ultimately at least to have included insistence on moral purity; also initiation, presumably

CABELL—CABET into the favour and intimacy of the gods. An obscure legend preserved by ecclesiastical writers says that there were three male Cabeiri, of whom two killed and beheaded the third.

They are often called the Samothracian gods, from the fame of their cult at Samothrace. There, as early as the sth century B.C., their mysteries attracted great attention, and initiation was looked upon as a general safeguard against all misfortune, particularly

against shipwreck.

497

ing in the direction directly opposite to the “tosser.” Tossing the caber is usually considered to be a distinctly Scottish sport, although “casting the bar,” an exercise evidently similar in character, was popular in England in the 16th century but afterwards died out. The caber is the heavy trunk of a tree from 16 to 20 ft. long. It is often brought upon the field heavier than can be thrown

and then

cut to suit the contestants,

although

But it was in the period after the death of

sometimes cabers of different sizes are kept, each contestant tak-

Alexander the Great that their cult reached its height, and initiaHon was sought, not only by large numbers of pilgrims, but by persons of distinction. The island possessed the right of asylum or sanctuary, for which purpose it

ing his choice. The toss is made after a run, the caber being set up perpendicularly with the heavy end up by assistants on

was used by Arsinoé, wife and

sister of Ptolemy Ceraunus, who, to show her gratitude, afterwards caused a monument to be erected there, the ruins of which were explored in 1874 by an Austrian In expedition. archaeological 1888 interesting details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained by the excavations of their temple in the neighbour-

hood of Thebes, conducted by the German archaeological insti- FROM ROBBINS, “BOTANY OF CROP PLANTS” tute. The two male deities wor- FIG. 5.—CAULIFLOWER (BRASSICA shipped were Cabeirus and a boy OLERACEA BOTRYTIS) (probably Axiocersus and Cad- A. The entire plant B. A portion of the “head” consistmilus). The Cabeirus resembles ing of the fleshy stalks of inflorescence with small Dionysus. The Cabeiri were held flowers and buds (enlarged) in even greater esteem by the Romans, who, claiming Trojan descent, identified them with the Penates publict (see PENATES). See Preller-Robert, i. p. 847 ff.; W. H. Roscher, Lexikon der Mythologie (s.v.) “Megalio Theoi”; F. Lenormant in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiquités; O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. “Kabeiros und Kabeiroi.”

CABELL,

JAMES

BRANCH

(1879~-

+), American

author, was born at Richmond (Va.), April 14 1879. He was instructor in French and Greek at William and Mary College in 1896-97, graduating with the degree of B.A. in 1898. He began newspaper work at Richmond and was on the staff of the New York Herald in 1899-1901. He later engaged in coal mining in West Virginia, contributed short stories to magazines, and interested himself in genealogical and historical research. His work has a distinct individuality, presenting a central conception of human life fitted chiefly to an imaginary mediaeval country, Poictesme, in which the principal actions take place, its inhabitants being ancestors of the other characters in his novels. _ His various volumes fit into what he called the “Biography” In approximately the following order: Beyond Life (1919); Figures of Earth (1921); The Silver Stallion (1926); Domnei (1920); revised edition of The Soul of Melicent (1913); Chivalry (1909); Jurgen (1919); The Line of Love (1905); The High Place (1923) Gallantry (1907); The Certain Hour (1916); The Cords of Vanity (1909); From the Hidden Way (1916), verse; The Rivet in Grandfather’s Neck (1915); The Eagle’s Shadow (1904); The Cream of the Jest (1917); Straws and PrayerBooks (1924); Something About Eve (1929); and The Way of Ecben (1929). An ironic romancer whose professed object was

“to write perfectly of beautiful happenings,” Cabell had to wait

for the suppression of Jurgen to win him a wide reputation, although he early secured a small, devoted following. See Carl Van Doren, James Branch Cabell (1925), and Guy Holt, A Bibliography of the Writings of James Branch Cabell (1924), which contains valuable references.

CABER TOSSING, a Scottish athletic game which con-

sists in throwing a section of a trunk of a tree, called the “caber” (Gaelic cabar, a pole or beam), in such a manner that it shall turn over in the air and fall on the ground with its small end point-

the spot indicated by the tosser, who sets one foot against it, grasps it with both hands, and, as soon as he feels it properly balanced, gives the word to the assistants to let go their hold. He

then raises the caber and gets both hands underneath the lower end. “A practised hand, having freed the caber from the ground, and got his hands underneath the end, raises it till the lower end is nearly on a level with his elbows, then advances for several yards, gradually increasing his speed till he is sometimes at a smart run before he gives the toss. Just before doing this he allows the caber to leave his shoulder, and as the heavy top end begins to fall forward, he throws the end he has in his hands upwards with all his strength, and, if successful, after the heavy end strikes the ground the small end continues its upward motion till perpendicular, when it falls forward, and the caber lies in a straight line with the tosser” (W. M. Smith). The winner is he who tosses with the best and easiest style, according to old Highland traditions, and whose caber falls straightest in a direct line from him. The champion caber tossers of Scotland were E. W. Currie and Wm. Perrie and Dr. C. Ross; their performances included tosses of 4o to 42 ft., made during 1880-95. In America a style called the Scottish-American prevails at Caledonian games. In this the object is distance alone, the same caber being used by all contestants and the toss being measured from the tosser’s foot to the spot where the small end strikes the ground. This style is repudiated in Scotland. Donald Dinnie, born in 1837 and still a champion in 1890, was the best tosser of modern times. Caber tossing is usually held annually under the auspices of the New York Caledonian Club and included in the programme of track and field sports, although the game is not as popular in America as it used to be. James Cumming, born in Scotland, is the record-holder in America. See W. M. Smith, Athletics and Athletic Sports in Scotland (1891).

CABET, ETIENNE (1788-1856), French Socialist, was born at Dijon in 1788, the son of a cooper. He practised at the bar in Dijon until 1820, and then settled in Paris, where he became director of the “Vente Supréme,” the local association of Carbonari. After the revolution of 1830, he was made procureurgénéral in Corsica; but was dismissed for an attack on the Government in his Histoire de la révolution de 1830. Elected for Dijon to the chamber of deputies, he was prosecuted for his bitter criticism of the Government, and went into exile in England in 1834, where he became an ardent disciple of Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839 he returned to France, and wrote his Histoire de la Révolution francaise (1840), and published his Voyage en Icarie (1840), which he had written-in London after reading the Utopia of Sir Thomas More. The Voyage en Icarie contains his theories on progressive taxation, on compulsion to work, old age pensions, and the division of the products of industry. Like Owen, he sought to realize his ideas in practice. By negotiations in England favoured by Owen, he bought a tract of land on the Red river, Texas, and drew up a scheme for the intended colony, community of property being the distinctive principle of the society. In 1848 an expedition of 1,500 “Icarians” sailed to America; but unexpected difficulties arose and the complaints of the disenchanted settlers soon reached Europe. Cabet went out in

1849, but on his arrival, finding that the Mormons had been expelled from their city Nauvoo, in Illinois, he transferred his settlement there. With where he returned to tribunals he remained at After a time dissensions community left Nauvoo

the exception of a journey to France, defend himself successfully before the Nauvoo, the dictator of his little society. arose and Cabet, with some 200 of the to form a new settlement. He died at

498

CABIN—CABINET

St. Louis (Mo.), on Nov. 8, 1856. He placed his Socialism on a | only—and

sometimes not even that—being left to the p

religious basis, and wrote a book entitled Le vrai christianisme de Jésus Christ (1846).

Council.

See Nordhoff, Communistic Societies of the United States (1875) ; Félix Bonnaud, Cabet et son œuvre, appel à tous les socialistes (1900) ; J. Prudhommeaux, Icaria and its Founder, Étienne Cabet (1907).

is usually known as Temple’s scheme to reduce the size of the

CABIN,

originally a small, roughly built hut or shelter; it

is particularly applied to the thatched mud cottages of the negroes of the southern states of the United States of America, or of the poverty-stricken peasantry of Ireland or the crofter districts of Scotland. In a special sense it is used of the small rooms or compartments on board a vessel used for sleeping, eating or other

accommodation.

CABINDA: see ANcoLA. CABINET, THE. The word “cabinet,” like most British

constitutional terms, is of foreign extraction, and originally signified a small room (compare the 18th century use of the word “closet”). Hence cabinet counsel came to mean secret counsel and cabinet council the body of persons that gave such counsel. Thus Bacon, in a famous passage, discussing the disadvantages of large councils, writes that “the doctrine of Italy and practice of France, in some kings’ times, hath introduced cabinet councils,

a remedy worse than the disease, ... that is... councils of

gracious persons recommended chiefly by flattery and affection.” Organically, the cabinet derived from the Privy Council. Even in Tudor times, owing to the large number of counsellors and to facilitate the subdivision of labour, there were appointed many standing and temporary ad hoc committees of the council; and the practice was continued under the Stuarts. James I., it is true, preferred the advice of individual favourites, and the same may ‘ be said of Charles I. at the beginning of his reign. But, after the murder of Buckingham, one of these committees, usually called

the foreign committee, gradually developed outstanding importance. On it sat the king’s most intimate advisers and debated the

most serious affairs of State, as well domestic as foreign, decisions being frequently taken in this committee before the subject of the decision had even been broached before the Privy Council, the functions of which were thus to a large extent usurped. Contemporary opinion strongly disapproved of such procedure; the Grand Remonstrance, presented to the king on Dec. 1, 1641, refers to the grievance in clause 59, and the Commons returned to the

charge more explicitly in an address of Feb. 1642. “Reproachfully” and “enviously,” to use Clarendon’s expressions, such committees were called “junctos,” “cabals” or “cabinet councils.”

Fhe Committee for Foreign Affairs—At the Restoration, under the auspices of Clarendon, who had survived the deluge, the practice was revived with “that secret committee with the chancellor, which under the notion of foreign affairs, was appointed by the king to consult all his affairs before they came to public debate.” On Clarendon’s fall, the precedent was followed by a standing committee of the Privy Council, called the committee for foreign affairs, which committee, owing to the coincidence of the initial letters of the names of some of the members (Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale), has passed into history as the Cabal, and, even under Danby, although opposition forced the king to greater circumspection, similar caballing in committee unofficially went on. The position then up to 1679, when, owing to the revelations of

Titus Oates and the consequent triumph of the country party,

Charles was obliged to submit to conciliar reform, was as follows. There existed, first, a privy council of some 47 members, among whom the highest officials formed the effective nucleus; secondly, many standing and temporary ad hoc committees of the Privy Council, limited in membership, on all of which committees the greatest officials sat ex officio (from time to time certain other individuals were by royal favour appointed to all committees); and, thirdly, a committee for foreign affairs, sometimes, but not always, a properly constituted formal standing committee of council, variously termed by contemporaries a cabal, juncto or cabinet, and mainly, though not exclusively, composed of persons

holding high political office, on which committee domestic, as

well as foreign, affairs were debated and settled, formal decision

Ny

The Committee of Intelligence.—It was the object of what

Privy Council and to include in its membership representatives of

every shade of parliamentary opinion. The new council thus con. tained enemies, as well as friends, of the king, as did also its

committees, the most important of which was “a Committee of

Intelligence for the opening and considering all Advices as wel] foreign as domestic.” Here, at last, was an official committee of council, legally empowered to undertake all those labours (except the short-circuiting of the Privy Council) hitherto extra-legally

performed by the foreign committee.

Since, however, it was com-

posed of enemies as well as friends, Charles, in spite of recent promises to cease caballing, began at once to consult informally in his cabinet with those members of the committee who were of the court party, occasionally summoning to such discussions other individual friends, who were not members of the committee at all There were thus a formal committee of intelligence, composed of friends and enemies, and an informal cabinet, composed of the friendly members of the committee reinforced by a friend or two

from without.

It was not long before the Opposition representa-

tives on council and committees came to realize that their membership was a farce, since Charles did not take them into his confidence: Gradually they forbore attendance. By Feb. 1681 they had ceased to attend. The vacancies thus occasioned on the com-

mittee of intelligence left room for the inclusion of those members of the cabinet who had not hitherto been members of the committee. On the other hand, with the defection of the opposition

members of the Privy Council, Temple’s scheme might be said to have broken down. If the experiment had failed, if the Privy

Council had reverted to its former constitution, what authority for its continued existence had the committee of intelligence, which owed its origin to that experiment? This doubt may account for the fact that, with the disappearance of the country

party members from the council, the committee of intelligence ceases to call itself by that name, ceases in fact to exist, and is replaced, or rather continued, under the older and more familiar title of “the committee for foreign affairs.” A year or so later, dropping all prefix and suffix, it becomes known simply as “the committee,” partly, no doubt, because, being by far the most important committee of council, it ran no danger of confusion with the others, and partly, perhaps, because all the other com-

mittees of the Privy Council were at this time in process of being opened up to all members of the council, and the committee was thus the only one to retain limited membership. Routine.—The routine of “committee” and “cabinet” survived the Catholic caballing of James II. and the idiosyncrasies of William III., who understood ministers but not ministries, to become under Anne the accepted, if still unpopular, machinery of executive government. The committee, meeting as often as necessary throughout the week in the office of the senior secretary of State at the Cockpit in Whitehall, deliberated upon all business of government and prepared it for the sovereign. Once a week (unless emergency dictated an extra meeting), the lords of the committee attended the sovereign in her cabinet, where the business prepared in committee would be brought to the royal notice

and final decisions would be taken.

By this time, only formal

business would be transacted at meetings of the Privy Council,

discussion and debate there being prohibited, although it might

still be a wise precaution, in view of the possibility of later

enquiries, for ministers to bring their most controversial measures

before the board for formal ratification.

As long as the sovereign

continued to attend the meetings of the cabinet, the system of separate meetings of the committee at the Cockpit and of the cabinet in the royal palace possessed certain obvious advantages. But

when George I., who had no English, from 1717 onwards ceased

to attend, those advantages disappeared. Less and less frequently in the succeeding years did the lords of the committee come to the palace to wait upon a king who never turned up. Their business, whether preparative or decisive, could now equally well be

dealt with at the Cockpit. Nor was there any longer need for two

CABINET

499

titles whereby to describe what was now one and the same body. The designation, “the committee,” is dropped. It is as “the cabinet,” since that had been the title of the decisive body, that

that date the entire cabinet was only summoned on formal occa-

the executive is in future known; and, gradually, as its presiding

become “a nominal cabinet”; and by 1783, when the younger Pitt

officer, to take the place of an absentee sovereign, there evolves a prime minister.

Personnel.—Even in the early 17th century, before the for-

eign committee had begun to usurp the functions of the Privy

Council, the main work of the latter was done by a small number of the most important officials, who alone were constant in their attendance. These included the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord chancellor, the lord treasurer, the lord president (when there was one), the lord privy seal, the two secretaries, and a number

of household officials (all the royal ministers were, of course, originally household seryants), of whom the most important were

the lord steward and the lord chamberlain.

These again formed

the nucleus of the committees of council, and, although it would not be true to say that the foreign committee normally contained

these officials, or indeed the majority ef them, yet it is a fact that, in proportion as the foreign committee and its descendants

of the Treasury, was admitted on an independent footing. sions

for the transaction

formed his administration, ceased to exist.

of formal

business;

by

1775

it had to all intents and

By

it had

purposes

Until the middle of the 19th century, the small, efficient cabinet suffered practically no greater increase in membership than can be accounted for by the creation of additional secretaries of State. From then on, however, the total rose rapidly. In 1867 it stood at 16; in 1900 at 20; during the World War it reached 23; and since then all efforts to keep it below a score have failed, This increase is due, not, as in the 18th century, to the accretion

of “inefficient” members, but to the creation of new and important governmental departments, each with a responsible ministerial chief, to administrate the ever-swelling bulk of social legislation. The concentration of the control of policy into the hands of a small, inner group—a proposal advocated by many as the best solution to the problem of an overgrown executive—is not, therefore, so easy a matter as it was two centuries ago. Neverthe-

developed into the recognized executive of the nation, so did it less, something of the sort did develop during the war, although tend to be composed more and more exclusively of the greatest again in contradistinction to the inner cabinet of the 18th

political officials, for the simple reason that their collaboration,

and their collaboration alone, was necessary to the conduct of government. When the cabinet and committee system emerges

towards the close of Charles II.’s reign, these bodies possess only from six to seven

members;

in William ITII.’s reign there are

sometimes nine; under Anne, ten or 12. Now we cannot call even a dozen an excessive total for the great officers of State or for the proper conduct of business, But later, under the Hanoverians, there was a constant tendency, difficult to check, towards an in-

crease of membership by the inclusion of individuals, either (2) holding offices which, although of no great political weight, had occasionally, in the past, carried cabinet rank, or (2) possessing great political connections and borough interests which it might

be necessary to placate, or (3) personally dear to the sovereign,

Thus by 1740 the cabinet had from 16 to 17 members, by 1745 20, and in 1761, when the high water mark of 21 was reached, we read that cabinet councillor is “a rank that will soon become indistinct from that of privy councillor by growing as numerous,” “The Inner Cabinet.”—Not unnaturally the more “efficient” members had begun to concert business privately. As long as the sovereign continued to preside at cabinet meetings, such informal gatherings, of course, would not be tolerated, nor indeed for a decade after his abstention did the cabinet swell to such a size as would necessitate or justify such a proceeding. It is during Walpole’s long administration that the practice originates and develops into a regular habit. From 1727 to 1729 we hear of “select lords who are usually consulted in foreign affairs”; by 1738 this reference of foreign negotiations to a select few has become “the usual practice.” From 1735 we begin to hear of

“private meetings at Sir Robert Walpole’s.” All this is informal, But from 1739-1741, as a result of war, of the absence of the king

abroad and of the greater need in consequence both of secrecy

and of formality of communication with the sovereign, there emerges a recognized group of five officials, the first lord of the Treasury (who was also chancellor of the exchequer), the lord chancellor, the lord president and the two secretaries of State, virtually in sole charge of affairs. This group deals with the most Important business of every kind. It meets frequently, as occasion demands. It keeps minutes. It communicates directly with the sovereign and not via the cabinet. It meets at Walpole’s house, whereas the cabinet sits at Whitehall. Its membership is definitely approved by the king, and the responsibility of members of this Inner ring is recognized as greater than that of other cabinet Ministers, But it could not actually supplant the cabinet, until it had expanded to include all the really efficient members of the

cabinet. This was effected in the course of the next quarter of a century, In 1752 the first lord of the admiralty was added to the inner group, -in 1755 the lord privy seal, and in 1766 the chancellor of the exchequer, an office that since the Treasury had

eh put into commission, had usually been held by the first lord

century the war cabinet was at times composed, not of the greatest office-holders, but on the contrary to a large extent of ministers without portfolio, deliberately so chosen, in order that, free from departmental duties, they might devote the whole of their time to

general policy, After the World War there were further rumours of an informal inner ring of ministers, and one writer on the subject (Carthill, Rods and Axes, 1928) declares that: “A practice has sprung up of constituting an inner cabinet within the cabinet. This is not a true managing committee, nor is it a true regulator; it is an informal council of close political friends of the premier, and its existence is not formally recognized.”

Principles of Cabinet Government.—Functionally, the cabi-

net may be described as a committee of privy councillors, with

seats in parliament, united by political principle and professing unanimity in public, under the leadership of the acknowledged head of the party commanding a majority in the House of Commons, by whom, with the sovereign’s assent, they have been appointed to the control of the principal government, departments, to act through him as the sovereign’s sole advisers, and to be severally and jointly responsible to the sovereign, the prime minister, parliament and the people, for their individual and collective actions, so long as they are supported by a majority of the House of Commons. The principles of cabinet government set forth in this definition have achieved recognition as the result of nearly three centuries of ministerial and party conflict. There is, of course, no law compelling ministers to be members of parliament. On the contrary, for two centuries, through fear, at first

of the influence of the Crown, and later of ministerial corruption, repeated efforts were made to exclude all placemen from the House of Commons. It was only when with the carriage of ‘“economical” reform by the Rockingham administration of 1782 and with the passage of the Reform bill of 1832 the dangers of a bought majority had been removed, that the advantages of the presence of the executive in the legislature were fully understood. During the 18th century, the majority of cabinet ministers were

peers; in the 19th and 20th centuries, commoners; but each of the chief departments has usually a ministerial representative in either house. That ministers should be united by political principle was a doctrine first, and prematurely, enforced on his cabinet by Walpole. Later, it was enunciated as the official Whig doctrine, in opposition to the personal government of George ITI. and Chat-

ham’s dogma of “men not measures,’”’ by Burke in his “Thoughts an the Causes of the Present Discontents” (1770), and, with the fall of personal government, may be said to have triumphed, although even to this day coalition governments occasionally

violate the principle. Unanimity in public is an obvious corollary, The principle is summed up in Lord Melbourne’s dictum “I don’t care what we say, but we’d better all say the same thing.” Since

then independent action, contrary to the policy of the Government, has always been followed by the resignation of the individual

CABINET

5 OO 4

concerned, for instance Lord Palmerston’s congratulation of Napoleon ITI. on the coup d’étét of 1851 and E. Montagu’s publi-

cation of a protest of the Indian Government against the treaty with Turkey in 1922. The principles governing the relations between the cabinet and its chief belong to the story of the evolution of the office of prime minister (g.v.); that the latter should be the head of the party commanding a majority in the lower house is the natural outcome of the Reform bills of the 19th century, although, even to this day, if there are more than two parties in existence, none of which commands an absolute majority, it is possible for the head of a minority to be in power, e.g., J. Ramsay MacDonald and the Labour Government of 1924. The sovereign’s assent to ministerial appointments made by the prime minister is the residue of the former unfettered powers of the council to appoint what ministers it pleased; but the statement that members of the cabinet are in control of the principal government departments needs some qualification. In the 18th century there were several instances of cabinet ministers without portfolio (Pulteney in 1742, Hardwicke in 1757, Conway in 1770 and Camden in 1798); during the World War, at one period, of a war cabinet of seven, four ministers held no departmental office; and, among the offices which habitually carry cabinet rank, there are several, as, for instance, the lord president and the lord privy seal, which nowadays involve no departmental duties. The doctrine that the king should be advised solely by his ministers was slow in achieving recognition. It may properly be said to have done so during the younger

Pitt’s administration (1783~1801).

As regards the minor house-

hold posts, the controversy revived for a moment with the Bedchamber Question of 1839, but was finally settled with the queen’s surrender on Peel’s assumption of office in 1841. The cabinet it has been said, is responsible to the sovereign, to the prime minister, to parliament and to the people; but the nature of the responsibility varies in each case. The sovereign must be kept fully informed, his advice taken and his consent obtained. Between Crown and cabinet the prime minister ordinarily acts as intermediary, but it is always possible for the sovereign to reprimand a minister who has failed in respect or duty, as did Queen Victoria in her famous memorandum to Lord Palmerston in 1850. The responsibility of the cabinet to the prime minister is twofold; collective, in that, when he resigns the whole cabinet follows suit, a practice first (without prearrangement) adopted on the dismissal of the Pelhams in 1746, though not finally established till much later; and individual in that the prime minister appoints each member of the cabinet to his post and can

at any time demand his resignation. As regards parliament, the responsibility is in the main collective, since the individual action of each is usually covered by the collective responsibility of all. ‘Each minister acts in his own department as the recognized agent of his colleagues in that particular department, subject, however, to enquiry and control by the whole body.” And, if an individual minister takes publicly an independent line, either contrary to, or without consulting, the general opinion of his colleagues, it is usual, as has been shown above, for the prime minister to demand his resignation. But there have been cases when such individual or improper action, having been passed over by the prime minister, has been taken notice of by parliament in such a way, however, as not to involve the resignation of the cabinet. Thus in 1855 Lord John Russell resigned when Bulwer Lytton gave notice of a motion of censure on “the minister charged with negotiations at Vienna,” and in 1865 Lord Westbury was forced to resign as a result of a motion of censure carefully worded so as to confine responsibility to the chancellor alone. Lastly, in speaking of the responsibility of the cabinet to the people, we mean something more than the continuous modification of policy by public opinion, something more than the increasing tendency of ministers in their parliamentary utterances to address the nation at large at least as much as their immediate hearers. The responsibility is greater and more direct than that, and is best illustrated by the practice, which in the last 100 years has become common, of dissolving parliament instead of resigning, on defeat, thus appealing from parliament to the people, and by that other practice now

generally followed of accepting the verdict of the electorate as (F. L. B.) final and resigning on defeat at the polls. Twentieth

Century

Developments.—In

July

1914 the

cabinet system proved unequal to the demands imposed upon it by the diplomatic strain that led up to the declaration of war In 1916 it had completely broken down. One of the salient char. acteristics of cabinet government was the secrecy of its discussions. The privacy of its meetings had been rigidly observed, No secretary was present, no minutes of proceedings were kept, On

rare occasions a document called a “minute of the cabinet” wag

drawn up, the names of the ministers approving or disapproving were attached, and the record was placed in the archives of the sovereign. The prime minister was in the habit of writing to the sovereign after the cabinet meetings a short precis of its decisions in the form of a confidential letter. Many of these letters ae

preserved in the royal archives, but they are not used for purposes

of reference. Recent biographies and published correspondence of ministers show that important cabinet decisions were sometimes not acted upon through misunderstanding or forgetfulness, So archaic was the system, so unsatisfactory its results, that in Aug. 1914 H. H. Asquith instituted a change in cabinet procedure, Some years before the war he had been provided with a secretariat for the purposes of the committee of imperial defence, over which as prime minister he presided. The services of this secretariat he adapted to the use of the prime minister himself and his cabinet in 1914. Up to that time the prime minister had not possessed a departmental staff, and no “office,” other than a few private secretaries. Downing street contained no records. The evolution of the secretariat of the committee of imperial defence into the secre-

tariat of the cabinet was, under the stress of the World War,

natural minister of four gradual

and easy. When in 1916 D. Lloyd George became prime and superposed upon the cabinet of 23 the war cabinet or five, the cabinet secretariat was strengthened. By processes inevitably arising out of the immense business

accumulating in the hands of the head of the cabinet, owing to the closer relations with the dominions, by the ramifications of imperial defence which, as the war showed, affect every department of State, and by the growth of centralized Government, the institution of a “cabinet office” or prime minister’s department was found to be and has remained an essential condition of directing the business of the nation. i As he was at its inception, so at the present time (1928) Sir Maurice Hankey is the head of the cabinet office and also of the defence committee secretariat. Suggestions have been made that the functions should be separated, but so far the opinion of those best qualified to judge is that the service to the prime minister would be less efficiently rendered if the present plan of one permanent civil servant in control of both secretariats were changed.

Since 1916, records of cabinet proceedings have been preserved. They are the property of the sovereign, their secrecy is safeguarded by the privy councillor’s oath, and they are under the constitutional guardianship of the ministry for the time being. No public use can be made of them except. by leave of the sovereign acting on the advice of the prime minister. In normal times the tendency had been for the numbers of

cabinet ministers to increase, until in 1914 there were 23 holders of cabinet office.

In times of national difficulty and peril when

legislative and departmental questions are subordinate to rapid decisions and executive action, the tendency has been to restrict the cabinet to the smallest possible number. It is impossible to predict the future of cabinet government, but those who have studied with care the tendencies of popular government in England incline to the view that the authority of the prime minister 1s more likely to be enhanced than shared by his cabinet colleagues. Tt does not seem probable that any serious attempt will bemade

to revert to the methods of conducting cabinet business which

prevailed before 1916.

The cabinet meetings are held in Sir Robert Walpole’s house,

to Downing street, which he bequeathed to the nation, and which prime ministers continue to occupy to this day. For tables of the cabinets and ministers of the English Crown, see MNR

501

CABINET UNITED

STATES

In the United States the president’s cabinet is composed of the heads of the ten co-ordinate executive departments. But this is a matter of custom rather than of law, for the cabinet, as a collective body, has no legal existence or power.

The Constitution

contains no provision for a cabinet and makes only incidental reference to heads of departments, from whom the president may ask

opinions. Neither did Congress, in creating the first three departments in 1789, recognize in any way the possibility of a cabinet council composed of the department heads. In fact, as the Constitution would seem to indicate, the Senate was then regarded as

the real executive

council on account of its powers

to ratify

treaties and confirm appointments.

Whatever may have been the views of the framers of the Constitution and of Congress, a cabinet, based on usage alone, early became a recognized part of the executive policy. Washington re-

garded the heads of the three executive departments and the at-

torney-general, who was not made the head of a department until later, as his confidential advisers, though the term cabinet was not immediately applied to them. He also exercised his constitutional power of requiring opinions from the chief executive officials, and took them into his confidence in all important matters of State. By this gradual process, he welded the department heads into an executive council, and by 1793 the term cabinet was generally applied to this group of presidential advisers. Gradually, as the administrative duties increased with the expanding nation, new executive departments were created by Congress and their heads

became cabinet members.

The three departments—State, Treas-

ury and War—were established by the first session of Congress.

The offices of attorney-general and postmaster-general, which were also created in 1789, did not rank as regular departments until 1870 and 1874, respectively, but the attorney-general, from the beginning, was considered a member of the cabinet and, upon the invitation of President Jackson, the postmaster-general became

a member in 1829. Other. department heads became members of the cabinet as follows: the Navy, in 1798, the Interior, in 1849, Agriculture, in 1889, Commerce and Labor, in 1903; however, the

latter department was divided in 1913 into two separate departments, that of Commerce and that of Labor, with separate heads. As Prof. Munro points out in his book The Government of the United States, there is nothing done with the cabinet’s consent which could not be done without its approval if the president should so decide. Yet it now meets regularly at stated times (usually once each week) fixed by the president. The meetings are not public, and no record is kept of transactions. Discussion is confined to whatever the president may see fit to lay before it, usually matters of importance relative to the general policy of the administration or any important piece of legislation desired by the president or by a cabinet member, and about to be submitted to Congress. (See GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.) The cabinet is the president’s council in a very peculiar sense, in that its members are usually his personal selection. While the cabinet officers’ nominations must be confirmed by the Senate, as a matter of practice, confirmation is given promptly and without objections. Department heads are appointed for the term of the administration; however, the president may dismiss any member at pleasure. In reality, dismissals are rare but individual resignations, due to the lack of harmony, are frequent. Congressional control over the various departments is limited to its powers to create and abolish executive offices; to give or withhold appropriations; to require reports and information; and to impeachment. Between the English and American cabinets there is hardly a point of similarity. Members of the English cabinet must be members of one or the other branch of parliament; in America the members of the cabinet cannot be members of either house of Congress, nor can they be heard from the floor. In England the

cabinet assumes the function of legislative leadership; this does not belong to the cabinet in the United States. In England the cabinet is responsible to the House of Commons, while in the United States the cabinet is responsible to the president alone. There follows a list of U. S. cabinets since the beginning. Owing to the slow evolution of the British cabinet (see above) from the old King’s council corresponding British lists from 1603 are given under MINISTRY.

Secretaries of State

; Presidents

Ap5 aed edl|

Washington | John Jay* . . 3 ‘| Thomas Jefferson 3 Edmund Randolph j

Adams

5 Jefferson Madison

Timothy Pickering

5

. | John Marshall . . | James Madison . . | Robert Smith

; Presidents

ApBernie

T Tyler. . | 1789 TEN . | 1794 || Polk . 1795

Abel P. Upshur . John C. Calhoun James Buchanan

Taylor

Jobn M. Clayton

1800 z 1801 Pierce 1809 |} Buchanan. | .| y 1811

Edward Everett William L. Marcy Lewis Cass... Jeremiah S. Black

1797 || Fillmore

James Monroe . ” .| Monroe . | Jobn Quincy Adams . | 1817 || Lincoln J.Q. Adams | Henry Clay . . | 1825 || Johnson Jackson N

» n

Martin Van Buren . | Edward Livingston

. | Louis McLane . | John Forsyth

.

Van Buren b ; Harrison . | Daniel Webster . Tyler .

”

a

:

Hugh S. Legaré .

. | 1829 || Grant as . | 1831

1833 || Hayes 1834 || Garfield

1837 || Arthur 1841 ‘3 1841

Daniel Webster .

1849

McKinley. | John Sherman

1852 1853 1857 1860

ins . | John Hay . Roosevelt . 9 A 5 . | Elihu Root. i Robert Bacon

1850

Elihu B. Washburne. | 1869 Hamilton Fish . 1869

B. Harrison | James G. Blaine

. | 1877 || Harding 1881 Coolidge

Secretaries of War Peter B. Porter .

. | 1885

” » Adams ?

Timothy Pickering James McHenry f . | Samuel Dexter .

. | 1795 || Jackson John H. Eaton . 1829 1796 i Lewis Cass... . | 1831 1797 j . | Benjamin F. Butler . | 1837 1800 || Van Buren | Joel R. Poinsett 1837

Madison

. | William Eustis .

» n

. | John Armstrong . | James Monroe .

»

Monroe 3

1813 || . | 18rq4

‘,, a

William H. Crawford | 1815 || Polk .

Geo. Graham (ad.in) | 1817 || Taylor . | John C. Calhoun 1817 || Fillmore

J.Q. Adams | James Barbour .

Pierce

. | John Bell

.

John C. Spencer

James M. Porter William Wilkins

William L. Marcy

George W. Crawford Charles M. Conrad

Jefferson Davis

. | William R. Day

. | 18092 . | 1893 1895

.

1897

.

1898 IQOI I9Q05 . | r909

Philander C. Knox William J. Bryan Robert Lansing . Bainbridge Colby

1898

. | 1909 I9I3

Charles E. Hughes $5

Frank B. Kellogg Henry L. Stimson

IQIS 1920

1921 1923

1925 1929

1889

. | 1789 || J. Q. Adams]

ror || Harrison

F yke,

a . | 188r i . | FE. T. Frelinghuysen . | 188r || Hoover

Cleveland. | Thomas F. Bayard

1809 || Tyler

i

Wiliam H. Seward . | 1861r || Taft j . | 1865 || Wilson

Wiliam M. Evarts James G. Blaine

A pained

1843 || B. Harrison | John W. Foster. 1844 |; Cleveland Walter Q. Gresham . | Richard Olney . y 1845

Washington | Henry Knox

Jefferson . | Henry Dearborn

Presidents

1828 || Buchanan | John B. Floyd

184r

on Lincoln já Johnson

3

1841 || Grant

1843 . | 1844

. | 1845

» j)

3>

1849 5 1850 || Hayes

.

1857

Joseph Holt Simon Cameron Edwin M. Stanton U. S. Grant (ad. in) .

1861 1861 1862 1867

John A. Rawlins

1869

Alphonso Taft .

1876

John M. Schofield

William T. Sherman Wiliam W. Belknap

1868

1869 1869

James Don. Cameron | x876 George W. McCrary 1877

Alexander Ramsey

"John Jay was Secretary for Foreign Affairs under the Confederation, and continued to act, at the President’s request, until Jefferson returned from Europe March 21, 1790.

502

CABINET Secretaries of War—Continued Ap-

Presidents ener

point ed

alenee ameter

| oa

|

a

Cleveland ;

McKinley.

È a

McKinley.

Robert T. Lincoln

Arthur Cleveland B. Harrison

Ap-

point ed

Presidents | |o

Roosevelt .

William C. Endicott `

73

Redfield Proctor

Stephen B. Elkins Daniel S. Lamont Russell A. Alger

Taft. N 7?

neste

mme

Se

Elihu Root

Wilson

William H. Taft

Harding Coolidge

Luke E. Wright Jacob M. Dickinson l Henry L. Stimson

Ap-

Presidents

a Lindley M. Garrison

aa Gd meaa

Pointed sree,

IQI3

Newton D, Baker John W. Weeks

1916 Ig21 1923 1925

Dwight F. Davis

gaea W. Good

Hoover

1929 TQ2y

atrick J. Hurley

3

Secretaries of the Treasury Washington | Alexander Hamilton Oliver Wolcott, Jr. 33 Adams |

39

Jefferson

.

2)

Madison

.

3? 73) 72

Monroe . J. Q. Adams Jackson 7?

2? 2?

Van.Buren Harrison . Tyler

Samuel Dexter

‘

Albert Gallatin . George W, Campbell Alexander J. Dallas . William H. Crawford Richard Rush

Samuel D. Ingham

Louis McLane . Wiliam J. Duane Roger B. Taney Levi Woodbury

,

33

George M. Bibb Robert J. Walker

William M. Meredith

Pierce Buchanan 3?

James Guthrie

Howell Cobb

Lincoln 2? 33

Johnson Grant 99 9? 9?

Hayes Garfield

1841

Arthur

1843 1844 1845 1849

Cleveland ,

1850

.

1853 1857

.

Philip F. Thomas

John A. Dix.

3?

1841 1841

29

$

Thomas Corwin

1833 1833 1834 1837

Thomas Ewing .

Walter Forward Jobn C. Spencer

Tyler

1789 1795 1797 1801 1801 1801 1809 1814 1814 1816 1817 1825 1829 1831

Salmon P. Chase

William P. Fessenden

Hugh McCulloch

George S. Boutwell ` Wm. A. Richardson .

Benjamin H. Bristow Lot M. Morrill

John Sherman William Windom

1860 1861 1861

B. Harrison

Cleveland .

McKinley

Roosevelt .

1864

1865 1865 1869

1873 1874" 1876

William Windom Charles J. Folger Walter Q. Gresham . Hugh McCulloch Daniel Manning Charles S. Fairchild . Wiliam Windom Charles Foster . John G. Carlisle Lyman J. Gage . 3

.

Leslie M. Shaw .

73

George B. Cortelyou Franklin MacVeagh .

Taft” ; Wilson

William G. McAdoo. Carter Glass . David F. Houston . Andrew W. Mellon .

1

Harding Coolidge

1877 1881

Hoover

1843 1844 1844 1845

Arthur. Cleveland . B. Harrison Cleveland .

1849

Roosevelt .

39 3?

1881 a 188 7884 1885 1887 1889 1891

1893 1897 IQOX 1902 1907 1909 1913 1919

1920

1Q21 1923 1929

Secretaries of the Navy Adams Jefferson

. | Benjamin Stoddert

27

Robert Smith

.

Paul Hamilton

William Jones

.

22

Madison

Monroe

B. W. Crowninshield

.s

7)

3

è

J. Q. Adams Jackson 7) 33

Van Buren

Harrison Tyler

.

33

Washington

.

33 39

Madison

.

3 33

Monroe

J. Q. Adams Jackson 33

Van Buren 3)

Tyler

Samuel L. Southard :

John Branch Levi Woodbury Mahlon Dickerson

i

72

Johnson

James C, Dobbin Isaac Toucey Gideon Welles

1834

Grant

Adolph E. Borie

Abel P. Upshur :

1841 1841 r84r

Edmund Randolph

Levi Lincoln 3 John Breckinridge Caesar A. Rodney

William ‘Pinkney Richard Rush .

William Wirt

1789 1794. 1795 1797 gor 1805 1807 1809

David Henshaw Thomas W. Gilmer

33 33

Polk

.

Taylor Fillmore 33

39

Hayes

Garfield Arthur

|| || || || ||

John Y. Mason . George Bancroft John Y. Mason . William B. Preston . William A. Graham . John P. Kennedy

George Richard Nathan Wiliam

3?

1817 3 1817 || Johnson 1825 a 1829 p

1831 || Grant

Edwin M. Stanton Edward Bates James Speed 5 : Henry Stanbery

Wiliam M. Evarts

Ebenezer R, Hoar

1846

1850 1852

1833 § 1837 ie 1838 33 1840 A 184r || Hayes 1841 || Garfield 1841 || Arthur

1789 || Jefferson

1791 || Madison

L795 i 1797 || Monroe

r8or

9

Posimasters-General . | Gideon Grander

j

1861 1865 1869 1869

1877

1881 1881 1881

1843 1845 1846 1848 1849 1850 1853 1857 1860 1861 1864 1865 . | 1866 . | 1868

John D. Long

McKinley

Taft . Wilson Harding Coolidge

Edwin Denby

Hoover

Curtis D. Wilbur Charles Francis Adams

Arthur . Cleveland . B. Harrison Cleveland .

Benjamin H, Brewster Augustus H, Garland William H. H. Miller Richard Olney .

33

Judson Harmon Joseph McKenna Jobn W, Griggs Philander C. Knox

McKinley `

1801

. | x18209

1823

; .

Roosevelt :

William H. Moody . Charles J. Bonaparte Geo. W. Wickersham James C. McReynolds Thomas W. Gregory

93

Taft. f Wilson

A. M. Palmer : Harry M. Daugherty Harlan F. Stone

John G. Sargent Wiliam D. Mitchell.

3?

a?

f

IQOI 1902 1904 1905 1906 1908 1909 1913 1921 1923 1924 1929

1881 1885

1889

1893 1895

1897

1898 IQOI IQỌI 1904 1906 1909 1913 1914 1919 1921 1923 1924 1925 1929

O

J.Q. Adams Jackson Van Buren

1882 1885 1889 1893

1897

William H. Moody . Paul Morton Charles J. Bonaparte Victor H. Metcalf Truman H. Newberry George von L. Meyer Josephus Daniels

1869

Return J. Meigs, Jr.. | 31814 a . | 1817

John McLean

William E. Chandler William C. Whitney. Benjamin F. Tracy . Hilary A. Herbert

1853 1857

M. Robeson , W. Thompson Gof, Jr. H. Hunt

Atiorneys-General Tyler. John Nelson . Polk Jobn Y. Mason . a Nathan Clifford ai Isaac Toucey Taylor Reverdy Johnson Fillmore John J. Crittenden Pierce Caleb Cushing . Buchanan | Jeremiah S. Black

1811 3 1814 || Lincoln

.

Amos T. Akerman . | 1870 Harding George H. Williams . | 1871 Coolidge Felix Grundy f Edwards Pierrepont . | 1875 2) Henry D. Gilpin Alphonso Taft . . | 1876 72 John J. Crittenden ` Charles Devens . 1877 Hoover Wayne MacVeagh 1881 Hugh S. Legaré 3 I8$I Or Oe aaa aeaa À

Washington | Samuel Osgood... Timothy Pickering 33 Joseph Habersham 77 Adams .. Jefferson .

Pierce Buchanan Lincoln

James K. Paulding .

George E. Badger

Tyler.

1798 IOI 1802 1809 1813 1814 1817 1818 1823 1825 1829 1831

1837 1838

John McP. Berrien . Roger B. Taney Benjamin F. Butler i

2)

Harrison

Smith Thompson

William Bradford Charles Lee

?

Adams Jefferson

.

s

John McLean William T. Barry Amos Kendall

John M, Niles ,

1825 1829

1835

1837 1840

CABINET

593

Posimasters-General*—Continued Ap-

pointed

Presidents e

Harrison Tyler E

; Presidents

John A. J. Creswell . | 1869 |} Cleveland. | William L. Wilson

Cave Johnson

1845

1849

.

. | James W. Marshall

. | Marshall Jewell

”

- | James N. Tyner

7

Horace Maynard

Jacob Collamer

3 Pierce

Samuel D. Hubbard. | 1852 || Garfield 1853 || Arthur James Campbell

Nathan K. Hall

. | 1850

1857

Buchanan | Aaron V. Brown

Joseph Holt

09

E

Lincoln 5 Johnson 3

Horatio King

1859

i

1861

1874

jy

Thomas L. James j

1881 1881

_ A

:

i

1880

Arthur

. | Frank Hatton

Montgomery Blair r86r || Cleveland. William Dennison 1864 » | . | x865 || B. Harrison 7 Alexander W. Randall | 1866 || Cleveland.

| Wiliam F. Vilas | Don M. Dickinson | John Wanamaker | Wilson S. Bissel

1884

a

1807

Henry C. Payne

Robert J. Wynne

IQOI 1902

1904

1905 George B. Cortelyou George von L. Meyer | 1907

Taft

. | 188x

. | 1895 .

Charles Emory Smith | 1898

Roosevelt .

1876

. | Walter Q. Gresham . | 1883 || Wilson

»

James A. Gary .

i

1877

. | Timothy O. Howe

”

. | 1874 || McKinley

Key

David McK.

Hayes

Taylor

Fillmore

A ra poi

Presidents ai

:

1841 || Grant . | Francis Granger »3 ot | 842 » Charles A. Wickliffe . | 1841 5

Polk .

Ap- g| Saint

.

Harding

. | 1885 S . | 1888 +f 1889 || Coolidge 1893 || Hoover

Frank H. Hitchcock

1909

Will H. Hays

IQ2I

Albert S. Burleson

Hubert Work . | Harry S. New ; j . `- | Walter F. Brown

1913

1922 1923 1923 1929

*The Postmaster-general was not a member of the Cabinet until 1829.

Taylor Fillmore E

Thomas Ewing. .| Thos. M.T.McKennan} Alexander H. H. Stuart}

Pierce

Robert McClelland

Buchanan | Jacob Thompson Lincoln Caleb B. Smith . 5 John P. Usher . Johnson

5 E Grant 3

5

Secretaries of the Interior Zachariah Chandler . | 1875 || Roosevelt. | Ethan A. Hitchcock . Carl Schurz . . | 3877 3 James R. Garfield Samuel J. Kirkwood 1881 Taft . Richard A. Ballinger

1849 || Grant 1850 || Hayes xr850 || Garfeld

. | 1853 |} Arthur

ss.

1881

soe

we

1857 j . | Henry M. Teller 1882 || Wilson r86r || Cleveland. | Lucius Q. C. Lamar. | 1885 j 1863 » . - | Wiliam F. Vilas 1888 || Harding

i

1865 || B. Harrison | John W. Noble .

James Harlan ._ . | x865 || Cleveland. | Hoke Smith Orville H. Browning 1866 23 . | David R. Francis Jacob D. Cox 1865 || McKinley | Cornelius N. Bliss Columbus Delano 1870 S Ethan A. Hitchcock .

1889

s

IQOI IGOQ

Harding Coolidge

1893 || Coolidge 1896 $5 1897 || Hoover

Walter L. Fisher

IQOI 1907 1909 IQII

Franklin K. Lane Jobn B. Payne . Albert B. Fall

IQ13 1920 IQ2I

Hubert Work

1023

Henry C. Wallace Howard M. Gore

1921 1924

Arthur M. Hyde

1020

e . | 1923 Roy O. West . . 1928 Ray Lyman Wilbur . 1929

Secretaries of Agriculture Cleveland. Norman J. Colman B. Harrison | Jeremiah M. Rusk

.

Cleveland . | J. Sterling Morton

McKinley | James L. Wilson

1889 || Roosevelt . | James Wilson 1889 || Taft . n

1893 || Wilson 1897

David F. Houston

Şi

pointed

Roosevelt . | George B. Cortelyou y Victor H. Metca i Oscar S. Straus . Taft . Charles Nagel

š

Presidents

1903 || Wilson 1904 s 1906 || Harding 190g | Coolidge

William C. Redfield Josh. W. Alexander . | Herbert C. Hoover . bs William F. Whiting Robert P. Lamont

CABINET, a word with various applications which may be

A “cabinet”

edition of a literary work is one of somewhat small size, and

bound in such a way as would suit a tasteful collection. The term

is applied also to a size of photograph of a larger size than the carte de visite but smaller than the “panel.”

Early Cabinets—The artificer who constructs furniture is

still called a “cabinet-maker,” although the manufacture of cabMets, properly so called, is now a very occasional part of his

work. Cabinets can be divided into a very large number of classes according to their shape, style, period and country of origin; but their usual characteristic is that they are supported upon a stand, and that they contain a series of drawers and pigeon-holes. The hame is, however, now given to many pieces of furniture for the or exhibition

of valuable

objects,

which

answer very little to the old conception of a cabinet. The represented an evolution brought about by the necessities venience, and it appealed to so many tastes and needs

1925

Ap-

Presidents

traced to two principal meanings, (1) a small private chamber, and (2) an article of furniture containing compartments formed of drawers, shelves, etc. The word is a diminutive of “cabin” and therefore properly means a small hut or shelter. From the use both of the article of furniture and of a small chamber for the safe-keeping of a collection of valuable prints, pictures, medals or other objects, the word is frequently applied to such a collection or to objects fit for such safe-keeping. The name of Cabinet du Rot was given to the collection of prints prepared by the best

artists of the 17th century by order of Louis XIV.

W. M. Jardine .

Secretaries of Labor

.

Hoover

Safe-keeping

‘

1920 || Hoover

Secretaries of Commerce Ap-

Presidents

1913

Edw. T. Meredith

Secretaries of Commerce and Labor :

i

. | . | .| . |

rtọr3 xrgrọ 1921 1923 1928 1929

|| || || ||

Wilson Harding Coolidge . Hoover.

pointed William B. Wilson James J. Davis . a ; i

IQI3 1921 1923 1929

rapidly became universal in the housés of the gentle classes, and in great measure took the impress of the peoples who adopted it. It would appear to have originated in Italy, probably at the very beginning of the 16th century. In its rudimentary form it was little more than an oblong box, with or without feet, small enough to stand upon a table or chair, filled with drawers and closed with doors. In this early form its restricted dimensions permitted of its use only for the safeguard of jewels, precious stones and money. Developments.—As the Renaissance became general these early forms gave place to larger, more elaborate and more architectural efforts, until the cabinet became one of the most sumptuous of household adornments. It was natural that the countries which were earliest and most deeply touched by the Renaissance should excel in the designing of these noble and costly pieces of furniture. The cabinets of Italy, France and the Netherlands were especially rich and monumental. Those of Italy and Flanders are often of great magnificence and of real artistic skill, though like all other furniture their style was often grievously debased, and their details incongruous and bizarre. Flanders and Burgundy were, indeed, their lands of adoption, and

Antwerp added to its renown as a metropolis of art by developing consummate skill in their manufacture and adornment. The cost and importance of the finer types have ensured the preservareally tion of innumerable examples of all but the very earliest periods; cabinet and the student never ceases to be impressed by the extraordinary of con- variety of the work of the 16th and ryth centuries, and very that it often of the 18th also. The basis of the cabinet has always been >

504

CABINET-MAKER-—-CABLE

wood, carved, polished or inlaid; but lavish use has been made of ivory, tortoise-shell, and those cut and polished precious stones which the Italians call petra dura. In the great Flemish period of the 17th century the doors and drawers of cabinets were often painted with classical or mythological scenes. Many French and Florentine cabinets were also painted.

In many classes the drawers and pigeon-holes are enclosed by folding doors, carved or inlaid, and often painted on the inner sides. Perhaps the most favourite type during a great part of the r6th and 17th centuries—a type which grew so common that it became cosmopolitan—was characterized by a conceit which acquired astonishing popularity. When the folding doors are opened there is disclosed in the centre of the cabinet a tiny but palatial interior. Floored with alternate squares of ebony and ivory to imitate a black and white marble pavement, adorned with Corinthian columns or pilasters, and surrounded by mirrors, the effect, if occasionally affected and artificial, is quite as often

exquisite. Although cabinets have been produced in England in considerable variety, and sometimes of very elegant and graceful form, the foreign makers on the whole produced the most elaborate and monumental examples. As we have said, Italy and the Netherlands acquired especial distinction in this kind of work. In France, which has always enjoyed a peculiar genius for assimilating modes in furniture, Flemish cabinets were so greatly in demand that Henry IV. determined to establish the industry in his own dominions. He therefore sent French workmen to the Low Countries to acquire the art of making cabinets, and especially those which were largely constructed of ebony and ivory. Among these workmen were Jean Macé and Pierre Boulle, a member of a family which was destined to acquire something approaching immortality. Many of the Flemish cabinets, so-called, which were in such high favour in France and also in England,

were

armoires

(g.v.) consisting of two bodies superimposed,

drawers are often lined with stamped gold or silver paper, o

marbled ones somewhat similar to the “end papers” of old bok,

The great English cabinet-makers of the 18th century were very

various in their cabinets, which did not always answer strictly ty their name; but as a rule they will not bear comparison with the

native work of the preceding century, which was most common} executed in richly marked walnut, frequently enriched with ack lent marquetry of woods. Mahogany was the dominating timber in English furniture from the accession of George IT. almost io the time of the Napoleonic wars; but many cabinets were made in lacquer or in the bright-hued foreign woods which did so much to give lightness and grace to the British style. The glass-fronted cabinet for China or glass was in high favour in the Georgian period, and for pieces of that type, for which massiveness would

have been inappropriate, satin and tulip woods, and other timbers with a handsome grain taking a high polish were much used.

CABINET-MAKER,

(J. P.-B. one skilled in furniture-making a

interior wood-work finish. (See FURNITURE MANUFACTURE,) CABINET

NOIR, the name given in France to the office

where the letters of suspected persons were opened and read by public officials before being forwarded to their destination. This practice had been in vogue since the establishment of posts, but it was not until the reign of Louis XV. that a separate office was created for the purpose, called the cabinet du secret des postes or more popularly the cabinet noir. Although denounced at the

time of the Revolution, it was used both by the revolutionary

leaders and by N apoleon. The cabinet noir as such has disappeared, but the right to open letters in cases of emergency and especially in time of war is exercised in all civilized countries. In

England this power was confirmed by the Post Office Act of 1837;

its most famous use being the opening of Mazzini’s letters in 1844, (See ESPIONAGE and CENSORSHIP.)

whereas the cabinet proper does not reach to the floor. Pillared CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844-192 5), Ameriand fluted, with panelled sides, and front elaborately carved with can author, was born in New Orleans, La., on Oct. I2, 1844. The masks and human figures, these pieces which were most often in son of a Virginia father and a New England mother, he became oak were exceedingly harmonious and balanced. Long before this, a clerk at 15, fought two years for the Confederacy as a cavalryhowever, France had its own school of makers of cabinets, and man, engaged in surveying and newspaper work, and then entered some of their carved work was of the most admirable character. the counting-room of a cotton house. But all this time he was At a somewhat later date André Charles Boulle (g.v.) made many absorbing the charm of the Crescent City. Like his contemporary, pieces to which the name of cabinet has been more or less loosely Lafcadio Hearn, he pored over yellowed records, wandered in the given. They were usually of massive proportions and of extreme old French quarter, studied alike the great creole families and the elaboration of marquetry. The North Italian cabinets, and espe- picturesque types of the levee. His tales, based on this life, apcially those which were made or influenced by the Florentine peared first in Scribner’s Monthly ; then, in 1879, were collected in school, were grandiose and often gloomy. Conceived on a palatial book form under the title, Old Creole Days. With the possible scale, painted or carved, or incrusted with marble and pietra dura, exception of Madame Delphine (1881), Cable’s art reached its they were intended for the adornment of galleries and lofty bare highest point in this first volume. The delicacy of his portrayal apartments where they were not felt to be overpowering. These of the exotic background of the southland, the deftness of his diaNorth Italian cabinets were often covered with intarsia or mar- logue, the bewitching grace and dignified gallantry of his characquetry, which by its subdued gaiety retrieved somewhat their ters all rank the tales high in the local colour movement of the heavy stateliness of form. later 19th century. Strange True Stories of Louisiana also Mingled Styles.—It is, however, often difficult to ascribe a partakes of this charm, which in the best of his novels (1889) The Granparticular fashion of shape or of workmanship to a given country, dissimes (1880) is darkened and deepened by the shadow of slavsince the interchange of ideas and the imports of actual pieces ery. Old feuds between haughty clans dating back to the early caused a rapid assimilation which destroyed frontiers. The close days of settlement, shifting glimpses of voodoo rites and carnival connection of centuries between Spain and the N etherlands, for balls, of thick canebrakes and the French market, of feverish instance, led to the production north and south of work that was gambling and busy commerce, a gallery of characters, make the not definitely characteristic of either. Spain, however, was more book almost an epitome of Louisiana history. But as a romancer closely influenced than the Low Countries, and contains to this Cable fails somewhat in constructive power, this fault being even day numbers of cabinets which are not easily to be distinguished more prominent in two of his other early and somewhat distinfrom the characteristic ebony, ivory and tortoise-shell work of the guished novels, Dr. Sevier (1885), a study of the Civil War period, craftsmen whose skill was so rapidly acquired by the emissaries and Bonaventure (1888), a pastoral chronicle of outlying Louiof Henry IV. The cabinets of southern Germany were much in- siana and the “Cajun” descendants of the refugees from Grandfluenced by the models of northern Italy, but retained to a late Pré. Although Cable continued writing until his death in St. date some of the characteristics of domestic Gothic work such as Petersburg, Fla., on Jan. 31, 192s, his later fiction is distinctly elaborately fashioned wrought-iron handles and polished steel inferior to his first books; and his studies belonging more specifhinges. Often, indeed, 17th-century south Germany work is a cally to the field of social history such as The Creoles of Louisiana curious blend of Flemish and Italian ideas executed in oak and (1884) and The Negro Question (1890) are not outstanding. AfHungarian ash. Such work, however interesting, necessarily lacks ter 1885 Cable made his home in Northampton, Mass., occupying simplicity and repose. himself with home culture clubs and with giving many readings A curious little detail of Flemish and Italian, and sometimes of from his works. It is not, however, as teacher or reformer, but as French later 17th-century cabinets, is that the interiors of the chronicler of the Crescent City, of the sluggish bayous and sunlit

CABLE—CABLE meadows of the lower Mississippi, and as portrayer of the descendants of the early French and Spanish inhabitants that his reputation is secure. CABLE, a large rope or chain, used generally with ships, but often employed for other purposes; the term “cable” is also used for minor varieties of similar engineering or other attachments, and in the case of “electric cables” for the grouped and sheathed

TRANSFERS

595

by the ship swinging round her anchor. If a ship two anchors, the cables are secured to a mooring which prevents a “foul hawse,” ż.e., the cables round each other. The cable is generally hove

is moored with swivel (fig. 2), being entwined in by either a

power-driven capstan or windlass (see CAPsTAN). Ships in the British navy used to ride by a compressor, a long steel arm, pivoted under the forecastle so that it can be swung across the deck pipe and jam the cable (fig. 3), but modern warships are fitted with slips just below the cable holder for this purpose. The cable-holder is used for checking cable running out. When a ship has been given the necessary cable, the compressor is “‘bowsed to” PAD-PIECE DECK PIPE LINK NIPPED BY LEVER AGAINST PAD-PIECE

FIG.

1.—TWO

LENGTHS

OF

CHAIN

CABLE

COUPLED

BY

A

LEVER

“JOINING

SHACKLE”

The end links (C) are made without studs in order to take the shackle. The adjacent links (B) are made larger to take the big studless links. The shackle (D) is shown. The bolt of the shackle is secured by a steel pin and lead pellet

wires by which telegraphic

and telephonic messages

BOLT HINGING LEVER

PLAN

are trans-

mitted. See TELEGRAPH and TELEPHONE. The cables by which ships ride at anchor are made of chain.

DECK

Prior to 1811 only hempen cables were supplied to ships of the

British navy; but in that year chain cables were supplied, as less liable to foul or be cut by rocks, or to be injured by enemy’s

|

shot. They are also handier and cleaner. The first patent for chain cables was by Philip White in 1634; twisted links were suggested in 1813 by Captain Brown; studs were introduced in 1816. In manufacturing chain cables, the bars are cut to the required

FUS

length of link, at an angle for forming the welds

and, after

heating, are bent by machinery and welded by smiths, each link being inserted in the previous one before welding. Cables for the British navy and mercantile marine are supplied in 124-fathom and 15-fathom lengths respectively, connected together by “joining shackles,” D (fig. 1). Each length is “marked” by pieces of iron wire being twisted round the studs of the links; the wire is placed on the first studs, on each side of the first shackle, on the second studs on each side of the second shackle, and so on; thus indicating the number of lengths of cable that is out.

In joining

the lengths together, the round end of the shackle is placed towards the anchor. The end

PIPE

DECK

eeu

PAD-PIECE LINK LEVER

BOLT HINGING LEVER

SECTION FROM “MANUAL OF SEAMANSHIP” FIG.

3.—PLAN

AND

BY PERMISSION OF CONTROLLER OF H.M, STATIONERY OFTICE SECTION

OF

A

COMPRESSOR

SHOWING

PARTS

Older ships of the British Navy are fitted to ride by a compressor but in more modern British men-o’-war a Blake slip stopper, fitted just below the cable holder, takes the place of this contrivance

or the slip put on, and the brake of the cable-holder is eased up. Small vessels of the mercantile marine ride by turns round the windlass; in larger or more modern vessels fitted with a steam windlass, the friction brakes take the strain, aided, when required in bad weather, by the bitts, compressor or controller. FIG. 2.—MOORING SWIVEL, PUT IN THE CABLES OF A WARSHIP WHEN SHE IS RIDING BY TWO ANCHORS, TO PREVENT THE CABLES FOULING EACH OTHER AS THE SHIP SWINGS. MOORING SWIVELS. ARE SELDOM USED IN THE MERCANTILE MARINE

links of each length (C.C.) are made without studs in order to take the shackle; but as studs increase the strength of a link, in a studless or open link the iron is of greater diameter. The next links

(B.B.) have to be enlarged, in order to take the increased size of the links C.C. In the joining shackle (D), the bolt is oval, its greater diameter being in the direction of the strain. The bolt of a shackle, which attaches the cable to the anchor (called an “anchor shackle” to distinguish it from a joining shackle) projects and is secured by a forelock; but since any projection in a joining shackle would be liable to be injured when the cable is Tunning out or when passing round a capstan, the bolts are made as shown (in D), and are secured by a smaller pin. The inboard ends of cables are secured by a “slip” which prevents the cable’s inner end from running overboard, and also enables the cable to be “slipped,” or let go, in case of emergency. In the British navy, swivel pieces are fitted in the first and last lengths of cable, to prevent turns getting into the cable, caused

See the Admiralty Manual of Seamanship, vol. i. (H.M. Stationery Office, London).

| CABLE-HOLDER: see Carstan. CABLE MOULDING (sometimes called Rope Movtpinc),

in architecture, a convex moulding, spirally carved, so that it resembles a rope. Its most common use is as one of the mouldings decorating recessed doorways of the Romanesque and Gothic periods. The word “cabling” designates a convex moulding sunk in the flutes of a classical column, usually in the lower portion of the shaft; this is also known as “reeding.”

CABLE

TRANSFERS,

the immediate transfer of money

from one country to another by the use of cablegram.

A person

in New York for instance, wishing to put in the hands of a person in London a certain sum of money at once, can do so by procuring a cable transfer from a foreign exchange banker. Upon the deposit by the transferor of the proper amount of money the New York bank will cable its London branch or correspondent to pay the designated sum at once to the payee in that city. The payee is notified, generally by the London agent, occasionally by cable by the New York bank, as to where and when to call for his funds. The cable rate of exchange is so arranged as to be sufficient to enable the bank to procure the necessary funds and also to allow a slight profit on the transaction. It is higher than the cheque or time rate because the bank selling the cable transfer

CABOCHE—CABOT

506

expects its correspondent to pay it at once, whereas, in the case of a cheque transfer or time transfer it may still have the use of its foreign funds for some time after the transfer is sold. Cable transfers are payable upon the arrival of the cable; between the United States and England, owing to difference in time and the interim necessary for notifying the payee, they are usually paid on the day after the sale.

CABOCHE, SIMON, Simon Lecoustellier, called “Caboche,”

a skinner of the Paris Boucherie. He was prominent in the seditious disturbances which broke out in Paris in April and May, 1413. When the butchers had made themselves masters of Paris,

Caboche became bailiff (kuissier d’armes) and warden of the bridge of Charenton. After the fall of the Cabochien party on Aug. 4, he fled to Burgundy. See Colville, Les Cabochiens et Vordonnance de 1413 (1888).

CABOT, GEORGE

(1751-1823), American political leader,

was born in Salem, Mass., on Dec. 16, 1751. He studied at Harvard from 1766 to 1768, when he went to sea as a cabin boy. He gradually rose to become a shipowner and a successful merchant, retiring from business in 1794. Throughout his life he was much interested in politics, and exercised, as a contributor to the press and through his friendships, a powerful political influence, especially in New England. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779-80, of the State senate in 1782-83, of the convention which in 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, and from 1791 to 1796 of the U.S. Senate. Among the bills introduced by him in the Senate was the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. Upon the establishment of the navy department in 1798, he was appointed and confirmed: as its secretary, but he never performed the duties of the office. In 1814-15 Cabot was the president of the Hartford Convention, and as such was then and afterwards acrimoniously attacked by the Republicans throughout the country. He died in Boston on April 18, 1823. i Henry Cabot Lodge, Life and Letters of George Cabot (Boston,

I

è

CABOT, JOHN

(Grovannr Casoto) (1450-1498), Italian

navigator and explorer of North America, was born in Genoa, but in 1461 went to live in Venice, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1476. During one of his trading voyages to the eastern Mediterranean, Cabot visited Mecca, then the greatest mart in the world for the exchange of the goods of the East for those of the West. Filled with the idea that it would be shorter and quicker to bring these goods to Europe by sea, if a route could be found, Cabot, about 1484, removed with his family to London. His plans were explained to the leading merchants of Bristol, from which port an extensive trade was already carried on with Iceland. It was decided that an attempt should be made to reach the “island of Brazil” or that of the “Seven Cities,” placed on mediaeval maps to the west of Ireland, as the first halting-places on the route to Asia by the west. To find these islands vessels were despatched from Bristol during several years, when in 1493 news reached England that another Genoese, Christopher: Columbus, had reached the Indies. It was decided to forego further search for the islands and to push straight on to Asia, and letters patent for the purpose were issued on March 5, 1496 by Henry VIL., granting to his “well-beloved John Cabot, citizen of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian and Santius, sonnes of the said John, full and free authority, leave and power upon theyr own proper costs and charges, to seeke out, discover and finde ‘whatsoever isles, countries, regions or provinces of the heathen and infidels, which before this time have been unknown to all Christians.” Merchandise from the countries visited was to be entered at Bristol free of duty, but one-fifth of the net gains was to go to the king. Armed with these powers, Cabot set sail from Bristol on Tuesday, May 2, 1497, on board a ship called the “Mathew,” manned by 18 men. Rounding Ireland, they headed first north and then west. After being 52 days at sea, at five o’clock on Saturday morning, June 24, they reached the northern extremity of Cape Breton island. The royal banner was unfurled, and Cabot took possession of the country in the name of King Henry VII. The soil being found fertile and the climate temperate, Cabot was

convinced he had reached the north-eastern coast of Asia, whence

came the silks and precious stones he had seen at Mecca. Ca North was named Cape Discovery, and as the day was the festival of St. John the Baptist, St. Paul island, which lies opposite was called the island of St. John.

Sailing north, Cabot named Cape

Ray, St. George’s Cape, and christened St. Pierre and Miquelon

which then with Langley formed three separate islands the

Trinity group. Cape Race, the last land seen, was named Eny. land’s Cape. On Sunday, Aug. 6, the “Mathew” dropped anchor

once more in Bristol harbour. On Aug. to Cabot received from the king £10 for having “found the new isle.” He reported that 700 leagues beyond Ireland he had reached the country of the Grand Khan. He intended on his next voyage to follow the coast southward as far as Cipangu or Japan, then placed near the

equator. Once Cipangu had been reached London would become a greater centre for spices than Alexandria. Henry VII. granted Cabot a pension of £20, and promised him in the spring a fleet of ten ships with which to sail to Cipangu. On Feb. 3, 1498, fresh letters patent were issued. Henry VII

himself also advanced considerable sums of money to various members of the expedition.

In the spring Cabot visited Lisbon

and Seville, to secure the services of men who had sailed along

the African

Columbus.

coast with Cam

and Diaz or to the Indies with

At Lisbon he met a certain João Fernandes, called

Llavrador, who about the year 1492 appears to have made his way from Iceland to Greenland. Cabot, on learning from Fernandes that part of Asia, as they supposed Greenland to be, lay so near Iceland, determined to return by way of this country. On reaching Bristol he laid his plans accordingly. Early in May . the expedition, which consisted of two ships and 300 men, left Bristol. Several vessels in the habit of trading to Iceland accom-

panied them. Off Ireland a storm forced one of these to return, but the rest of the fleet proceeded on its way along the parallel

of 58°. Each day the ships were carried northward by the Gulf Stream. Early in June Cabot reached the east coast of Greenland, and as Fernandes was the first who had told him of this country he named it the Labrador’s Land. In the hope of finding a passage Cabot proceeded northward along the coast. As he advanced, the cold became more intense and the icebergs thicker and larger. It was also noticed that the land trended eastward. On June 11, in lat. 67° 30’ the crews mutinied, and refused to proceed farther in that direction. Cabot had no alternative but to put his ships about. Rounding Cape Farewell, he explored the southern coast of Greenland and then made his way a certain distance up the west coast. Here again his progress was checked by icebergs, whereupon a course was

set towards the west. Crossing Davis strait, Cabot reached our modern Baffin Land in 66°. Judging this to be the Asiatic mainland, he set off southward in search of Cipangu. South of Hudson strait a little bartering was done with the Indians, but these could offer nothing in exchange but furs. Our strait of Belle Isle was mistaken for an ordinary bay, and Newfoundland was regarded by Cabot as the main shore itself. Rounding Cape Race, he visited the region explored before and then followed the coast as far south as the 38th parallel, when the absence of all signs of eastern civilization and the low state of his stores forced him to abandon all hope of reaching Cipangu on this voyage. Ac-

cordingly, a course was set for England, where they arrived

safely late in the autumn of 1498. Not long after his return John Cabot died. His son, SEBASTIAN CABOT (c. 1476-1557), is not independently

heard of until May 1512, when he was paid 2o shillings “for making a carde of Gascoigne and Guyenne,” whither he accompanied the English army sent that year by Henry VIII. to aid his fatherin-law Ferdinand of Aragon against the French. Sebastian was questioned about the Newfoundland coast by Ferdinand’s councillors, and as a result was appointed a captain in the navy at 4 salary of 50,000 maravedis a year. Preparations were madefor

him to set sail in March 1516; but the death of the king n January of that year put an end to the undertaking. His services were retained by Charles V., and on Feb. 5, 1518, Cabot was named Pilot Major and official examiner of pilots.

CABOTAGE—CA’ In the winter of 1520-21 Sebastian Cabot returned to England, and while there was offered by Wolsey the command of five yessels which Henry VIII. intended to despatch to Newfoundland. Being reproached by a fellow Venetian with having done nothing for his own

country,

Cabot

refused,

and

on reaching

Spain secretly negotiated with the Council of Ten at Venice. On March 4, 1525 he was appointed commander

of an expedition

fitted out at Seville, “to discover the Moluccas, Tarsis, Ophir, Cipango and Cathay.” The three vessels set sail in April, and by June were off the coast of Brazil and on their way to the Straits of Magellan. Near the La Plata river Cabot found three Spaniards who had formed part of the De Solis expedition of 1515. These men gave such glowing accounts of the riches of the country that Cabot was induced to forego the search for Tarsis and Ophir and to enter the La Plata, which was reached in Feb. 1527. On reaching Seville in Aug. 1530, Cabot was condemned to four years’ banishment to Oran in Africa, but in June 1533 he was once more reinstated in his former post of Pilot Major, which he continued to fill until

he again removed to England.

As early as 1538 Cabot tried to obtain employment under Henry VIII., and it is possible he was the Sevillian pilot who was brought to London by the king in 1541. Soon after the ac-

cession of Edward VI., however, his friends induced the Privy Council to advance money for his removal to England, and on Jan. 5, 1549 the king granted him a pension of £166.13s.4d. Two applications from Spain (in 1550 and 1553), for his repatriation were refused, the first by the privy council and the second by Queen Mary herself. On June 26, 1550 Cabot received £200 “by waie of the kinges

Majesties rewarde,” but it is not clear whether this was for his services in putting down the privileges of the German Merchants

of the Steelyard or for founding the company of Merchant Adventurers incorporated on Dec. 18, 1551. Of this company Cabot was made governor for life. Three ships were sent out in May 1553 to search for a passage to the East by the north-east. Two of the vessels were caught in the ice near Arzina and the crews frozen to death. Chancellor’s vessel alone reached the White Sea, whence her captain made his way overland to Moscow. He returned to England in the summer of 1554 and was the means of opening up a very considerable trade with Russia. Vessels were again despatched to Russia in 1555 and 1556. On the arrival of King Philip IT. in England Cabot’s pension was stopped on May 26, 1557, but three days later Mary had it renewed. The date of Cabot’s death has not been definitely discovered. It is supposed that he died within the year.

CANNY

CABRERA,

RAMON

507 (1806-1877),

Carlist general, was

born at Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain, on Dec. 27, 1806. He took minor orders, but the bishop refused to ordain him as a priest, telling him that the army, not the church, was his vocation. Cabrera took part in Carlist conspiracies on the death of Ferdinand VII. The authorities exiled him, and he absconded to Morella to join the forces of the pretender Don Carlos. In a very short time he rose by sheer daring, fanaticism and ferocity to the front rank among the Carlist chiefs who led the bands of Don Carlos in Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia. He was many times wounded in the brilliant fights in which he again and again defeated the generals of Queen Isabella. He sullied his victories by acts of cruelty, shooting prisoners of war whose lives he had promised to spare, and not respecting the lives and property of non-combatants. The queen’s generals seized his mother as a hostage, whereupon Cabrera shot several mayors and officers. Gen. Nogueras unfortunately caused the mother of Cabrera to be shot, and the Carlist leader then started upon a policy of reprisals so merciless that the people nicknamed him “The Tiger of the Maeztrazgo.” He shot 1,110 prisoners of war, 10o officers, and many civilians, including the wives of four leading Isabellinos, to avenge his mother. When Marshal Espartero inducéd the Carlists of the north-western provinces, with Maroto at their head, to submit in accordance with the Convention of Vergara, which secured the recognition of the rank and titles of 1,000 Carlist officers, Cabrera held out in Central Spain for nearly a year. Marshals Espartero and O’Donnell, with the bulk of the Isabellino armies, had to conduct a long and bloody campaign against Cabrera before they succeeded in driving him into French territory in July 1840. The government of Louis Philippe incarcerated him for some months and then allowed him to go to England, where he quarrelled with the pretender, disapproving of his abdication in favour of the count of Montemolin. In 1848 Cabrera reappeared in the mountains of Catalonia at the

head of Carlist bands. These were soon dispersed and he again fied to France. He did not take a very active part in the subsequent risings of the Carlists, who, however, continued to consult him. In March 1875 Cabrera presented to Don Carlos a manifesto in which he called upon the adherents of the pretender to follow his own example and submit to the restored monarchy of Alphonso XII. Cabrera, who was ever afterwards regarded with contempt and execration by the Carlists, died in London on May 24, 1877. CABRILLO NATIONAL MONUMENT, atract of 1 ac. in the southern part of California, U.S.A., set apart as a Government reservation in 1913. It was at or near this point that Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo first saw the California mainland on Sept. 28, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Harrisse, Jean et Sebastian Cabot, vol. i. of Recueil de Voyages (1882) ; John Cabot and Sebastian his son (1806) ; 1542. The reservation is administered by the War Department.

C. R. Markham in Geographical Journal (1897); Proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada, vol. iii. (1897); G. P. Winship, Cabot Bibliography, with an Introductory Essay on the Careers of the Cabots (1900) ; H. P. Biggar, ““The Voyages of the Cabots,” in Revue Hispanique, vol. x. (1903); J. E. Olson and E. G. Bourne eds., The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503 (1906) ; and A. P. Newton, “An Early Grant to Sebastian Cabot,” English Hist. Rev., vol. xxxvii.,

two-wheel, horse-drawn vehicle with a hood, for gentleman’s driving. In America, a name given to a horse-drawn vehicle with a coachman’s seat over a panel framework (in distinction from a victoria which is similar, but of iron skeleton construction). It

CABOTAGE, the French term for coasting-trade, a coast-

had a seat behind at a lower level with a collapsible leather hood and was a fashionable vehicle for ladies. See Cas.

P. 564-565 (1922).

pilotage. It is probably derived from cabot, a small boat, with which the name Cabot may be connected; the conjecture that the word comes from cabo, the Spanish for cape, and means “sailing from cape to cape,” has little foundation.

CABRIOLET,

CA’? CANNY.

originally, a name given by the English to a

Ca’ canny (or “Go canny”) is by origin a

Scottish phrase meaning to go cautiously, or warily, or, by a slight change of meaning, to go slow. Thus, in John Galt’s The Provost,

we read “We maun ca’ canny many a day yet before we think of dignities,” and, in the same writer’s The Entail, “But, Charlie dova, 28m. S.E. of Cordova, on the Jaén-Málaga railway. It is and Bill, ca’ canny.” In modern times, the phrase has acquired built on the river Cabra‘in the fertile valley between the Sierra a special meaning in relation to industrial strife. To “ca’ canny” de Cabra and the Sierra de Montilla. Pop. (1920) 14,951. Cabra is to work slowly, in order to draw attention to a workshop has a ruined Moorish castle and a parish church which was origi- grievance, or bring pressure to bear upon an employer. It appears nally a mosque, and later a cathedral, when for several centuries to have been first used in this sense in a dispute at the Glasgow Cabra was an episcopal see. There are marble quarries near the docks in 1889, when the dockers had struck for a rise in wages. town, which makes bricks and pottery, coarse cloth and felt, and Agricultural labourers were introduced as blacklegs, and the ls the market for local grain, wine, olive oil and fruit. Cabra employers expressed themselves as highly satisfied with their (Roman Baebro or Aegabro) was delivered from the Moors by work. When the dockers had to go back on the old terms, their Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1244 and entrusted to the Order of leader adjured them, since the blacklegs had given satisfaction, Calatrava. Recaptured by the Muslims in 1331, it was finally to work like them, to ca’ canny. During the following years the reunited to Christian Spain a century later. phrase caught on, and a pamphlet recommending it as a policy

CABRA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cor-

508

CACCINI—CACHAR

to trade unionists was published in 1895. Later, the phrase was taken up by the French Syndicalists, and identified by them with

the less violent forms of sabotage (g.v.). (See E. Pouget, Le Sabotage [n.d].) Ca’ canny, as the term is used in Great Britain, is essentially an occasional practice. It is not authorized by any important trade union, but is sometimes adopted spontaneously by a group of workers in some particular factory as a means of securing redress for a felt grievance. Thus, if the men think the management is unduly speeding up the pace of work, they may make a concerted

effort to “speed down”; if they think piecework prices are too low they may deliberately restrict production in order to draw attention to their grievance, or they may ca’ canny temporarily because of some dispute about the arrangement of work, workshop discipline, or the like. The more deliberate kind of ca’ canny is sometimes known by the name of the “stay-in strike,” in which the men, by a concerted arrangement, remain at work, but do as little as possible. A variant of this is the “working to rule” policy,

found especially on the railways, where the men sometimes, in furtherance of a grievance, tangle up the traffic by strict obedience to all the rules laid down for them, well knowing that these are not literally workable without entire disorganization. The term ca’ canny is also known in the United States, where it has much the same sense as in Great Britain. It appears, however, to be used more often in order to describe a systematic policy, whereas the occasional practice of “go slow” methods is, in America, commonly known as “striking on the job.” As an organized practice, ca’ canny is not very common. It occurs, apart from short-lived and purely spontaneous movements arising out of a particular workshop grievance, mainly where there is a long-standing bad relationship between employers and workers. It appears to have been far commoner in France, during the Syndicalist activity before the World War, and to have been also widespread in Italy. In Germany there is little sign of it. Save as an occasional method of expressing a local grievance, it is important mainly as a part of the deliberate policy of revolutionary Syndicalism in France and Italy, and industrial unionism in the English-speaking countries. Apart from industrial disputes, the name “ca’ canny” is sometimes applied to a deliberate and systematic slowing down of the pace of production, either in order to make the work last longer, or to create additional employment, or to express a general dissatisfaction with the economic system. While “going slow” may be justified as a purely temporary expedient for calling attention to a particular grievance, its systematic use is obviously more likely, by increasing the cost of production, to create unemployment than employment. (G. D. E. C.)

CACCINI, GIULIO

(1558—1615?), Italian composer, also

known as Giulio Romano, but to be distinguished from the painter of that name, was born at Rome about 1558, and in 1578 entered the service of the grand duke of Tuscany at Florence. He collaborated with J. Peri in the early attempts at musical drama which were the ancestors of modern opera (Dafne, 1594, and Euridice, 1600), produced at Florence by the circle of musicians and amateurs which met at the houses of G. Bardi and Corsi. He also published in 1601 Le nuove musiche, a collection of songs which is of great importance in the history of the art as one of the earliest essays in monodic music. He was a lyric composer rather than a dramatist like Peri, and the genuine beauty of his works makes them acceptable even to-day.

Almonte on the south. The climate is temperate except in summer, when hot east winds prevail. Droughts are common in many districts and forests are confined to the north, where the cork oak is important. Much of the province is covered with thin pasture. The region north of the Tagus is more fertile than that to the south and produces fair crops of cereals, olives, peas

and fruit, but agriculture everywhere is backward.

As 4 stock.

breeding province Caceres ranks second only to Badajoz. Ty 1924

it possessed many pigs, over 1,000,000 sheep and more goats than any other province.

It is famous

for the wool, ham and red

sausages, called embutidos, which it exports.

Its mineral wealth

is small but it produces all the phosphates mined in Spain (1924 about 5,000 tons) and small quantities of zinc, lead and tin,

Leather, coarse woollen and cork goods are produced in many towns, but owing to the general poverty, the scattered population

the lack of good roads and the backwardness of education, there

is no real industrial development. The North Madrid-Lishon railway which crosses the province from east to west is joined at Plasencia by a line from Salamanca and at Arroyo bya branch through Caceres, the capital, to Mérida in Badajoz on the South

Madrid—Lisbon line. The principal towns: Caceres, pop. (1920) 23,563; Valencia de Alcantara, 12,024; Trujillo, 11,476; Plasencia, 10,002; and Alcantara, 3,954, are described in separate articles

Other towns are: Arroyo del Puerco, 8,402: Majadas, 6,782: Logrosan, 6,033; Garrovillas, 6,008; and Brozas, 5,424. (See

also ESTREMADURA.)

CACERES, capital of the Spanish province described above, about 14m. S. of the river Tagus, on a branch railway from

Arroyo de Malpartida, on the North Madrid-Lisbon line, to Mérida on the south line. Pop. (1920) 23,563. Caceres, built on a conspicuous eminence on a low east-west ridge, consists of two towns, an old and a new. The old, upper town, with its mediaeval palaces, turrets and massive walls, half Roman and half Arab, is dominated by the lofty tower of the Gothic church of San Mateo. The once famous monastery and college of the Jesuits is now a hospital. Steep steps lead down through four gates to the lower, modern town containing the law courts, town hall, schools and the palace of the bishops of Céria (pop. 3,152), a town on the river Alagon. Caceres makes cork and leather goods, pottery and cloth, and exports grain, oil, live-stock, wool, sausages and phosphates from the neighbouring mines. Caceres, of Roman origin, probably occupies the site of ‘““Norba Caesarina.”

CACHALOT, a name for Physeter catodon, the sperm-whale

(g.v.). CACHAR or KACHAR, a district of British India, in the province of Assam. It occupies the upper basin of the Surma or Barak river, and is bounded on three sides by lofty hills. Its area is 3,654 sq. miles. Pop. (1921) 527,228. It is divided naturally between the plain and hills. The scenery is beautiful, the hills generally rising steeply and being clothed with forests, while the plain is relieved of monotony by small isolated undulations and by its rich vegetation. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the Sonai and Dhaleswari. Several extensive fens, notably that of Chatla, which become lakes in time of flood, are characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of rice, next to which in importance is tea. The industry connected with the latter crop employs large numbers; the tea garden population was 137,733 in 1921, when there were 59,0008C.

under tea, with an output of nearly 21 million pounds. An oil CACERES, a province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of field at Badarpur is worked by the Burma Oil company; over four

districts taken from Estremddura. It is bounded on the north by Salamanca and Avila, on the east by Toledo, on the south by Badajoz, and on the west by Portugal. Pop. (1920) 410,032; area, 7,667 sq. miles. Caceres is the largest of the Spanish provinces, after Badajoz, and one of the most thinly peopled. It consists mainly of a broad, undulating plain, rising to the Sierra de Gata and Sierra de Grédos in the north, and to lower ranges in the south and south-east. All the province, except a small area on the south-east, is drained by the river Tagus, which flows through it from east to west, and is joined by several tributaries, notably the Alagén and Tietar on the north and the Salor and

and one-quarter million gallons of crude oil were extracted in 1925. Manufacturing industries are otherwise slight. Reserved forests extend over nearly 1,200 sq. miles. Elephants abound in

the North Cachar hills. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the district, including the headquarters town of Silchar. The plain is the most thickly-populated part of the district; in the North Cachar hills the population is sparse (16 per sq. tnile). The district takes its name from the former rulers of the Kachari tribe, who settled here early in the 18th century. About the close of that century the Burmans threatened to expel the Kachari rajah

and annex his territory; the British, however, intervened to pre-

CACHE—CACTUS vent this, and on the death of the last rajah without heir, in 1830, they obtained the territory under treaty. A separate principality, which had been established in the North Cachar hills earlier in the century by a servant of the rajah, was taken over by the British in 1854, owing to the misconduct of its rulers.

The south-

ern part of the district was raided several times in the rgth century by the turbulent Lushai. CACHE, a store or hiding place, generally a hole dug in the

high colouring.

509 In one group, represented by Cereus and related

genera, they consist of a tube, elongated, on the outer surface of which, towards the base, are developed small and at first incon-

spicuous scales, which gradually increase in size upwards length become crowded, numerous and petaloid, forming a shaped blossom, the beauty of which is much enhanced multitude of conspicuous stamens which with the pistil

and at funnelby the occupy

ground for concealing provisions, etc.; also the goods so hidden. A series of caches is sometimes laid on long expeditions, as in

Arctic exploration, to provide stores for the return journey. CACHIN, MARCEL (1869), French politician, one of the principal leaders of the French Communist Party, was born at Paimpol, Brittany,

and adopted

teaching

as a profession.

He

was a master in a Bordeaux lycée when he joined the Socialist movement. His party, thanks to common action between the reactionaries and the socialists against the moderate republicans,

captured the municipal government of the city, and Cachin was nominated adjoint to the mayor. Later, he settled in Paris, and was elected to the municipal council of the city. In May 1914 he became one of the deputies for Paris in the Chamber, in which he sat continuously from that time forward.

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For many years he was

one of the most moderate members of the Socialist group, and during the World War showed a patriotic spirit. In Dec. 1918 he accompanied Poincaré and Clemenceau to Metz and Strasbourg.

But shortly his attitude underwent a sudden change. Having become director of the paper Humanité, he went to Moscow, and

became a convert to Bolshevism. He is the principal leader in the Chamber of the Communist Party. In 1927 he was condemned to some months’ imprisonment for inciting soldiers and sailors to revolt, and was incarcerated in the Santé prison with other deputies and Communist agitators sentenced for similar offences. (P. B.)

CACHOEIRA, an inland commercial centre of the State of

Bahia, Brazil. It lies on the Paraguassú river, about 40 m. from its mouth at the head of the Bahia (or Bay) Todos os Santos, from which the town and State of Bahia take their name. Cachoeira has a population (1920) of about 9,000. The products

FIG.

1.—CACTUS

FENCES

IN SOUTHERN

MEXICO

the centre. In another group, represented by Opuntia, the flowers are rotate; ż.e., the long tube is replaced by a very short one. At the base of the tube, in both groups, the ovary develops into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the Opuntias being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig. Genera with long-tubed flowers include Echinocactus, Echinopsis, Cereus, Epiphyllum, Cephalocereus and many others, while

of the countryside are rice, cereals and tobacco. The town has a meat-preserving plant, cotton and cigar factories and potteries. It is reached by steamer from Bahia, about 48 m. distant. It is the terminus of a short railway (28 m.) north to Feira de Santa Ana, and from Sao Felix, opposite Cachoeira across the Paraguassu river, another railway runs westward to Machado Portella, 161m., both lines being portions of the Bahia Central railway system.

CACIQUE, the name adopted by the Spaniards at the time of the discovery of America for a native chief or ruler. It is sometimes also applied to a bird, Cassicus, of the icterine family (see ICTERUS).

CACODYL, a colourless liquid which is spontaneously inflam-

mable in air, has an intolerable smell and belongs to the group of

organo-arsenical compounds (see ARSENIC: Organic Derivatives). CACTUS. This word, applied by the ancient Greeks to some prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus as the name of a group of curious succulent or fleshy-stemrned plants, most of them prickly and leafless, some of which produce beautiful flowers, and are now popular in gardens. As applied by Linnaeus, the name Cactus is almost conterminous with what is now the family Cactaceae. The Cacti may be described in general terms as plants having a woody axis, or skeleton, overlaid with thick masses of cellular tissue forming the fleshy stems. These are extremely various in character and form, being globose, cylindrical, columnar or flattened into leafy expansions of thick joint-like divisions, the surface being either ribbed like a melon, or developed into nipple-like protuberances, or variously angular, or smooth, but in the greater number of species furnished copiously with tufts of horny spines, some of which are exceedingly keen and powerful. These tufts

show the position of buds, of which, however, comparatively few

are developed. The leaves, if present, are generally much reduced. In Pereskia, however, the stems are less succulent, and the leaves, though fleshy, are developed in the usual form. The flowers are frequently large and showy, and are often attractive from their

FIG.

2.—PRICKLY

PEAR

CACTUS

The illustration shows the flattened branch of swollen water and spiny leaves which reduce transpiration

stem which

stores

up

those with short-tubed flowers are Rhipsalis, Opuntia, Pereskia and several of minor importance. Cactaceae belong to the New World; but some of the Opunitias have been long distributed on the shores of the Mediterranean and the volcanic soil of Italy and several species of Rhipsalis occur in tropical Asia and Africa. They mostly affect the hot, dry regions of tropical America, the aridity of which they are enabled to withstand in consequence of the thickness of their cuticle and the fewness and “sunk” condition of the stomata with which they are furnished. The thick

510

CACTUS

fleshy stems and branches contain a store of water. The succulent fruits of some kinds are not only edible but agreeable, and in fevers are freely administered as a cooling drink. The SpanishAmericans plant the Opuntias and others around their houses, where they serve as impenetrable fences. Cactus (fig. 1), the genus of melon-thistle or Turk’s cap cactuses, contains about 18 species, which are found in the West indies, Mexico, Venezuela and Colombia. The typical species, Cactus melocactus, of Jamaica, forms a succulent mass of ovoid form, from x to aft. high, the surface divided into numerous furrows like the ribs of a melon, with projecting angles, which are set with a regular series of stellated spines—each bundle consisting of about five larger spines, accompanied by smaller but sharp bristles—and the top of the plant being surmounted by a cylindrical crown 3 to sin. high, composed of reddish-brown, needlelike bristles, closely packed with cottony wool. At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red or pink, elongated berries. These plants usually grow in rocky places with little or no earth to support them. The fruit of this and related species, which has an agreeably acid flavour, is eaten in the West Indies. The group is distinguished by the distinct cephalum or crown which bears the flowers. Disocactus, a related genus, consists of about 7 species native to Brazil and Paraguay. ECHINOCACTUS (fig. 3) is the genus bearing the popular name of hedgehog cactus. It comprises nine species, native of the southwestern United States and Mexico. They have the fleshy stems characteristic of the family, these being either globose, oblong or cylindrical, and ribbed as in Melocactus, and armed with stiff Cm’ ae a sharp spines, set in little woolly SAVE Ed. Nana

cushions occupying the place of

the buds. The flowers, produced near the top of the plant, are large and showy, yellow and rose being the prevailing colours. They are succeeded by succulent fruits, which are exserted, and scaly, in which respects this

genus

differs from

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STAGES 1. Napier’s

rods, 1617, for multiplying,

by 6; other calculations

possible

IN THE showing

by reading

DEVELOPMENT

method

for multiplying

diagonally

across strips

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3 and 4. Thomas

machine,

1820,

the first complete

by hand lever, showing portion of mechanism

calculator

below;

operated

OF

CALCULATING

MACHINES

5 and 6. Brunsviga calculator, 1892, showing revolving mechanism of early machine

7. Brunsviga machine, 1927 &. Comptometer, 1927 model.

Addition

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other

readily performed by this compact type of calculator 9. Large modern calculator, electrically operated. Burroughs duplex adding and listing machine, printing results

operations 17-column

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MACHINES

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adding

AND calculating and

SLIDE machine,

multiplying,

RULES 1925.

The

performed

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calculating

; machine,

1927,

with

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machine performs multiplication by repeated addition

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,

United listing multiplying machine, 1927, performs automatic multiplication and lists or prints the totals on strip of paper , Slide rules: (a) Mannheim type; (b) Dunlop & Jackson’s log-log slide rule;

(c)

Percy’s

log-log slide rule

CALCULATING accounting and book-keeping machines.

These are designed to

deal with such work as the preparation of invoices, reports, busi-

ness forms and allied documents, where typewriting is combined with arithmetical computations and recording. The first practical machine of this type was the Moon-Hopkins billing machine, in-

vented by Hubert Hopkins. This machine, which embodies a direct multiplication mechanism of the Bollée and Millionaire

type, is the only example in this series equipped for direct

multiplication.

In accordance with this broad classification, the groups into which the many machines made in the United States at the present time would fall are indicated in the following list (the larger

MACHINES

997

driving crank is turned once; and during the second quarter of each turn the carriage is automatically “stepped” to the left. The mechanism includes nine parallel toothed racks, the ends of which are in line successively with either the tens or the units group of the tongues of a tongue plate. During each rotation of the crank the tongue plates are twice thrust against the ends of the racks; during the first thrust the tens tongues operate, and the units tongues during the second thrust. In the machines as now made the slot-markers have been replaced by a keyboard. Mercedes-Euklid Calculating Machine.—This machine (Pl.

II., fig. 3) was designed by Ch. Hamann and marketed in rgro.

Externally, in the general disposition’ of its main parts, it resembles the Thomas machine, but internally there are many invarious capacities): Add-Index (a), Allen-Wales (a, b, c), Barrett novations. The Leibniz wheel is replaced by a series of ten paral(a), Burroughs (a, b, c, d, e), Corona (a), Dalton (a, b, c, d, e), lel racks, actuated from the driving handle by means of a connectElliott-Fisher (e), Ellis (a, c, d, e), Federal (a, b), Gardner ing rod and proportion lever. The carriage with its mechanism (a, b, c, d), Hayes (a), National (e), Peters (a), Remington (e), slides on rollers along guides in the frame of the machine, and Sundstrand (a, b, c, ¢), Underwood (é), Victor (a). can be “stepped” longitudinally without the lifting which is necesIn r916 the design and construction of the American type of sary in machines of the Thomas type. The pushing of the carmachine was also taken up in Germany, where it is being consider- riage to the right stretches a spiral spring, the contraction of. which ably developed. Amongst these machines, made in various styles supplies the force for “stepping,” which is controlled by the deand capacities, are the Continental (1916), Adma (1919), Goerz pression of a key. The left-hand member of the pair of levers (1921), Astra (1922), Naumann (1922), Votam (1922); Tim- at the top left-hand corner is placed at the bottom of its slot and Add (1923). Typewriters with adding mechanism are represented the right-hand member at the top. The handle is now turned until by the Urania-Vega (1920) and the Mercedes-Elektra (1924). it locks, which is the signal for revérsal of the levers; the handle There are also several adding mechanisms made for use in combi- is turned again until it locks, when the levers are again reversed. This cycle of operations is repeated until the carriage has returned nation with a standard typewriter. Cash Registers.—Of all the different types of machines em- to its normal position, when the quotient is given in the front bodying adding mechanisms, the cash register, used in most retail row and the remainder in the middle row of figures. Multiplicastores, is the most familiar to the general public. Up to the present tion is performed as with the Thomas machine, starting with the time some three million examples of the “National” cash register carriage to the extreme right. In more recent examples the slot markers are replaced by a have been made since 1883 by the pioneer firm of Patterson Brothers in Dayton, Ohio. Standard cash registers of the same keyboard, and both multiplication and division can be performed general design and principle of action are made by the American, automatically. Madas Calculating Machine.—This machine (PI. II., fig. 2), Federal, Remington and other firms. Though its original object was the prevention of dishonesty in first introduced by Hans W. Egli in 1908, resembles the Thomas retail stores, the machine has been developed so as to provide type. The operations of addition, multiplication and subtraction also, in many of its forms, an automatic record of cash trans- are performed in the usual way, but there is additional mechanism actions, together with the issue of duplicate receipts to customers. which enables division to be performed quite automatically, after In the most highly developed model of the “National,” 29 indi- setting the dividend and divisor. The ringing of a bell announces vidual totals, corresponding with the sales of each clerk or each that the quotient and remainder are recorded (PI. II., fig. 4). Monroe Calculating Machine.—This was introduced in 1911 class of object, may be accumulated, as well as three grand totals. The machine has also been adapted for the purposes of accounting by Jay R. Monroe and Frank S. Baldwin. It embodies a keyboard setting mechanism, combined with a slide at the back for “stepand book-keeping. Since 1919 a combination type of cash register has been devel- ping,” in the operations of multiplication and division. The slide contains wheels, which are actuated by a crank handle oped, in which a cash drawer is combined with an adding and listing machine. This possesses the advantage that the latter can turned in a clockwise direction for addition or multiplication, be used independently when required for general purposes. When and in the reverse direction for subtraction and division, as in used in combination, provision is made for the automatic opening machines of the Odhner type. The wheels for adding are made in two co-axial parts, one with five equal teeth and the other with of the drawer as each item is dealt with. Direct Multiplication Machines.—Attempts to transform four, arranged in steps. The setting of a particular figure adNapier’s rods into mechanically operative form were made in justs the two parts towards each other so as to enable 1,2, .. .9 teeth to gear with the counting wheel when the handle is turned. the United States by Edmund D. Barbour (1872) and Ramon Verea (1878), who patented their devices, which, however, never Division is by repeated subtraction in the ordinary way, but is went beyond the first model stage. The first machine to perform rendered semi-automatic by the ringing of a bell when each “won’tmultiplication successfully by a direct method, and not by re- go” stage is reached; the handle is then turned once forward, and peated addition, was invented by Léon Bollée in 1887. The es- the slide is moved one step. In the “full automatic” motor-driven model introduced resential feature of the mechanism is the multiplying piece, which consists of a series of tongued plates, representing in relief the cently, division is quite automatic, ahd multiplication is automatic ordinary multiplication table up to “nine times.” Though ex- to the extent that only successive depression of keys on the cellent in action, few of these machines were made, chiefly because secondary keyboard is required, corresponding with each digit of the inventor soon became fully occupied with his work in connec- the multiplier. Tabulating and Sorting Machines.—In corinection ' with tion with automobilism. The “Millionaire” machine (PL. I., fig. 1), patented by Otto the U.S. Census Bureau, an automatic system (known as the Steiger in 1893, was first made and marketed by Egli in 1899. It Hollerith system) was invented for dealing analytically and staembodies the mechanical multiplication table invented by Bollée, tistically with the enormous mass of information obtained. This by the operation of which only one turn of the driving handle is system, which was also applied to the results of thé British census required for each figure of the multiplier. The carriage, or “re- of 1911, has been modified and developed to meet the needs of corder,” being moved to the extreme right, the multiplication lever large commercial firms. By this system, many operations which, IS set successively to one of its positions o to g in accordance if performed by the ordinary mental and manual methods, would with the figures of the multiplier, starting with the figure of the be economically impracticable, are carried dut quickly and ac! highest order. At each setting of the multiplication lever, the eurately by automatic machines. firms make

both hand

and electrically operated machines,

in

552

CALCULATING

The basis of the system is a Jacquard card, in which each fact or item is indicated by a hole punched in a certain position. These cards, which are printed with vertical columns of figures from o to 9 or o to 12, are prepared by means of a special punching machine; as many holes may be punched as are required to register every detail of each item. The cards are of two forms, dual and single; the former bearing written information corresponding with the punched-hole record, the latter bearing only punchedhole records corresponding with information recorded separately in some other form. In the Hollerith sorting and tabulating machines the principle of electrical contacts is adopted, circuits being closed when steel

brushes pass the holes in the cards. The controls are set by means of wires plugged into a switchboard in such a manner as to connect each punched position on the cards with a column in the counting register, or a sector of the printing mechanism. Changes in the circuit arrangements may be made by the operator in accordance with the particular sorting or tabulating which is being dealt with. The vertical sorting machine will sort at the rate of about 250 cards a minute; in a later horizontal model the rate is as high as 350 to 400 a minute. The sorting and tabulating machines are electrically driven and the latter are of two main types, in one of which the results are indicated by counters, while the other

gives also a printed record. Jacquard cards are used in a similar manner in the Powers tabulating and sorting machines, which, however, function mechanically by means of pins passing through the holes in the cards. Progress towards the completely automatic calculating machine for rapidly performing with equal facility all the ordinary operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division once the numbers have been set, is at an interesting stage. The application of the electric motor drive to many machines, replacing the turning of a handle, has been an important development during the last 20 years. From the advantage which it gives of greater rapidity in setting the figures to be operated on, the keyboard is gradually replacing the slideboard in machines of the Thomas, Odhner and other types designed primarily for multiplication and division —speeding up also the operations of addition and subtraction on such machines. In the Comptometer, and in the other key-driven non-printing adding machines of the same type introduced in more recent years (Burroughs Calculator, Mechanical Accountant) addition is extremely rapid and quite automatic. Multiplication and division are also performed with great rapidity, but in the absence of a slide, greater mental strain is nvolved and greater dexterity in operation is required. In key-set motor-driven adding and listing machines of the Burroughs and allied types, automatic control is made as complete as possible by the provision of various auxiliary keys (add, non-add, subtract, repeat, sub-total, total, nonprint, etc.). Automatic multiplication was almost completely attained in the Bollée and Millionaire machines, but the figures of the multiplier have to be applied successively. The same has resulted in recent years, so far as automatic control is concerned, in certain machines (Fournier-Mang, Monroe, Marchant, Ensign (PI. II., fig. 5), Peerless, Record, Kuhrt) which perform multiplication by repeated addition. By depressing one of an additional row of keys (usually termed a secondary or auxiliary keyboard) to the left or right of the main keyboard, the number set on the main keyboard is rapidly added one to nine times according to the number on the key depressed. | In 1910-1912 Alexander Rechnitzer of Vienna patented a machine in which after the two numbers to be multiplied or divided had been set up, operation was performed automatically. In 1920 Torres exhibited and designed an electrical arrangement which

provided complete automatic control of the operations of multiplication, or division performed by a machine of the Thomas type, after the numbers had been set up ọn a typewriter. Neither of these machines has taken commercial'form. The only machine on the market which performs both multiplication and division entirely automatically, once the figures are set, is the MercedesEuklid. | i fae ai ip A motor-driven multiplying machine (Pl. IL, fig. 6), “United

MACHINES accounting machine,” made in St. Louis, Michigan, U.S.A., is being

marketed which claims to perform multiplication automatically,

The keyboard is in two equal portions, the multiplicand being set on the left and the multiplier on the right. On depressing the motor-bar, the result is both obtained and printed in three seconds. The carrying of tens in this machine is not by one unit at a time but any number of units up to nine may be carried simultaneously from one column to the other. In the “Barbel” system, developed by M. Barr and R. A. Bel the rapid counting of small steel balls introduced a new feature into the design of electrically-controlled

calculating machines.

Though machines with this particular feature have not yet reached the commercial stage, it would be unwise to assume that development in the future will be confined to improvement and elaboration of existing types of machine. Invention and construction in the calculating machine industry are very much alive at the pres-

ent time, especially in the United States and in Germany. Difference and Analytical Engines.—In 1812, Charles Bab-

bage (1792—1871) conceived the idea of a calculating machine of a different type from those previously described. The object of the machine was to calculate and print mathematical tables such as tables of logarithms. The machine worked on the method of differences and was known as a “difference engine.” The principle underlying the method may be understood by taking a table such as the table of cubes of successive numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., and sub-

tracting each tabular number from the following one, obtaining another column of figures, called the first order of differences. Treating the numbers in this column in the same way, a column of second differences is obtained; on differencing a third time (in this particular case) a constant difference (6) is obtained. By reversal of the process, knowing the constant third difference and the numbers shown at the top of the columns, it is possible to obtain all the rest of the numbers by simple addition. It is the function of a difference engine to effect these additions successively in the proper order so as to obtain the desired series of tabular numbers automatically, once the initial numbers are set. Babbage’s difference engine was commenced in 1823 by authority and at the cost of the Government. The work was suspended in 1833, and in 1842 the Government decided to abandon the machine on the ground of the estimated expense of its completion. The whole engine was intended to have 20 places of figures and six orders of differences. In 1833 a large part of the engine had been made and a small portion had been assembled in order to show the action of the mechanism. From 1833 Babbage devoted his energies and resources to the design and construction of an “analytical engine,” the object of which was to evaluate automatically any mathematical formula. Features of the difference engine were to be embodied in this new engine and the various operations were to be controlled by punched

cards of the Jacquard type. The scheme proved to be too ambi- : tious, and the machine was left unfinished when Babbage died.

Portions of the machine, with all his notes, drawings and notations are preserved in the Science Museum. . From 1834 to 1853 George Scheutz of Stockholm and his son

Edward designed another difference engine, the first complete example being constructed by C. W. Bergström. It was exhibited in operation in Paris and London, and finally purchased for the Dudley Observatory, Albany, U.S.A. A second example was made by Bryan Donkin in 1858 for the General Register Office, Somerset House, and used during the next few years for computations in connection with the preparation of the English life tables. Dr. Farr, the author of this book, states: “This volume is the result; and thus—if I may use the expression—the soul of

the machine is exhibited in a series of tables which are submitted to the criticism of the consummate judges of this kind of work

in England and in the world.” Other engines of this type were designed and made by Martin Wiberg in Sweden, and G. B. Grant in the United States; others were designed by Léon Bollée in France, and Percy E. Ludgate in Ireland, but were not constructed.

Slide Rules.—In all the machines previously described the

arithmetical results obtained are correct to the last figure indicated

CALCULI on the dials. There are many calculations in engineering, physics, etc., where an approximate result, desirable, and the logarithmic slide ment in a very efficient manner. The invention of logarithms in chiston, and the computation and

rapidly obtained, is frequently rule provides for this require-

1614 by John Napier of Mer-

publication of tables of logarithms, made it possible to effect multiplication and division by

the more simple operations of addition and subtraction. (See LocaritHms.) In 1620 Edmund Gunter plotted logarithms on a two-foot straight line.

With such scales, multiplication and divi-

sion were performed by addition and subtraction of lengths by a

pair of dividers.

William Oughtred, according to his own statement (1633) constructed and used as early as 1621, two of these Gunter’s lines sliding by each other so as to do away with the need for dividers. The lines were used in both the straight and circular forms. In the former the scales were held against one another by the hands; in the latter, dividers were replaced by an “opening index”—+really

a pair of dividers fixed centrally on the circular scale. Richard Delamain in 1630 gave the first published description of a circular slide rule, both in the flat and cylindrical forms. Thomas Brown introduced the spiral logarithmic line in 1633. The first known slide rule in which the slide worked between parts of a fixed stock was made by Robert Bissaker in 1654. Others were due to the enterprise of Seth Partridge (1657), Henry Coggeshall (1677)—a slide in a 2ft. folding rule adapted to timber measure, and Thomas Everard (1683) for gauging purposes. The one for gauging purposes, approximated in dimensions and arrangement of scales, to the present-day roin. slide rule, and many thousands were made and sold during the period 1683 to 1705. The usefulness of the slide rule for rapid calculation became increasingly recognized, especially in England, during the 18th century, and the instrument was made in considerable numbers, with slight modifications. Improvements in the direction of increased accuracy in graduation, etc., were initiated by Boulton and Watt from about 1779 in connection with calculations in the design of steam engines at their works at Soho, Birmingham. The rule evolved, which was the first designed for engineers, became known as the “Soho” rule. It was made by W. and S. Jones, Rooker, Bate and Nairne and Blunt.

The runner or cursor, though its advantages had been pointed out by Robertson (1778) and Nicholson (1787), was not added by

instrument makers until Tavernier-Gravet introduced the Mann-

heim type of slide rule in 1850. This slide rule was much used in France and since about 1880 was imported in large numbers into other countries. Up to this period the rule had been constructed usually of boxwood and occasionally of brass or ivory, but a great improvement was introduced in 1886 by Dennert and Pape in Germany by dividing the scales on white celluloid, which gave a much greater distinctness in reading. This material is now almost universally adopted, and the slide rule made by such firms as Nestler, Faber (Germany), Keuffel and Esser (U.S.A.), TavernierGravet (France) and Davis (England) attain a high degree of perfection. The disposition of the scales in the Mannheim rule (PL II., fig. 7a) is the arrangement still adopted in the great majority of rules

made at the present time. The A and B scales are double lines as

in the Everard, Coggeshall and Soho rules, but the C and D scales are single lines like the D scale of the Soho rule. At the back of the slider are scales giving the sine and tangent scales and a scale of equal parts. Applied in conjunction with the scales on the face of the stock these are used for reading the values of sines, tangents

= logarithms respectively, and in computations involving these actors.

To secure an additional significant figure, the length of the logarithmic scale has to be increased ten times. To keep the dimensions of a slide rule bearing such a scale within reasonable limits four different types of design have been evolved:—(a) The flat

spiral form. Examples have been made at various times since the

mvention of the slide rule, but this type has never been much

used. (b) The cylindrical helix. Fuller’s slide rule, originally de-

553

signed in 1878, has been in considerable use up to the present time. Amongst other rules of this type are the Otis King calculator (1922) and the R.HLS. calculator. (c) The flat gridiron type, in which the scale is cut up into strips mounted parallel to each other; examples designed by Everett (1866), Scherer (1892), Hannyington, Rieger (1920), Gladstone and others have been in considerable use. (d) The cylindrical gridiron type. The parallel strips are arranged longitudinally on the surface of a cylinder; examples made and in use at the present time are those of E. Thacher (1881) and the Rouleau calculator. In 1815 Dr. Peter M. Roget invented his “log-log” slide rule for performing the involution and evolution of numbers. The fixed scale, instead of being divided logarithmically, is divided into lengths which are proportional to the logarithm of the logarithm of the numbers indicated on the scale; the sliding scale is divided logarithmically. By employing this new method of graduation, the value of any expression of the form y” may be obtained by the same mechanical process as that by which yx is obtained in

the ordinary

slide

rule.

Since log (y*)=x

log y, log

(og

y*) =log x+log (log y). Hence if division 1 on the slider be set opposite y on the fixed scale, the value of y7 will be read off on the fixed scale opposite x on the slider. All problems such as those of compound interest, increase of population, etc., are solved in this manner by mere. inspection. ‘The lower log-log scale on the stock is numbered 1-0024 to 1-25, and the upper log-log scale is numbered 1-25 to ro! The log-log scale was reinvented and applied to the slide rule by Captain J. H. Thomson in 1881, and

by Prof. John Perry in 1902. In Perry’s log-log slide rule (P1. II., fig. 7c) there are two log-log lines, one above and the other below the four scales of the ordinary Ioin. slide rule. The upper scale reads (left to right) from 1-r to 10,000, and the lower one the reverse way from o-ooor to 0.91. The scales, which are reciprocal with each other, are used in conjunction with the B scale on the slider. Lieut.-Col. H. G. Dunlop and C. S. Jackson arranged the log-log lines on a spare slider (PL. IL., fig. 7b) used with the D scale of an ordinary slide rule. BeLIocRAaPaY.—H. P. Babbage, Babbage’s Calculating Engines (1889), brings together information from various sources, relating to the calculating machines of Charles Babbage; R. Mehmke, “Numerisches Rechnen,” in Encyklopddie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. i., part 2; pp. 952-978; 1,053-1,065 (1900-04); M. d’Ocagne, Le Calcul Simplifié, 2nd ed. (1905); F. Cajori, A History of the Logarithmic Slide Rule, with full bibliography from 1620-1909 (1909); L. Jacob, Le Calcul Mécanique (1911); E. M. Horsburgh, Handbook of the Exhibition at the Napier Tercentenary Celebration (1914); Bulletin de la Sociéte d’Encouragement pour VIndustrie Nationale

(Sept.Oct. 1920), vol. cxx. No. 5, commemorating the centenary of the invention of the Thomas de Colmar calculating machine, and including papers by M. d’Ocagne, Paul Toulon, M. L. Torres y Quevedo; bibliographies by L. Malassis, E. Lemaire and R. Grelet; reprints of important papers in previous numbers (1822-95) relating to the machines of Thomas de Colmar, Bollée, etc.; illustrated catalogue of the early and modern machines in the exhibition held in Paris (June 1920) in connection with the centenary. J. A. V. Turck, Origin of Modern Calculating Machines (Chicago, 1921), deals more particularly with the evolution and development of keyboard adding machines of the Comptometer and Burroughs types; E. M. Horsburgh, ‘“‘Calculating Machines,” Glazebrook’s Dictionary of Applied Physics (1923); E. Martin, Die Rechenmaschinen und ihre Entwicklungsgeschichte (Pappenheim, 1925) (all types of calculating machines, described in order of date of introduction) ; D. Baxandall, Mathematics I., Calculating Machines and Instruments (H. M. Stationery Office, 1926); a catalogue of the calculating machines and instruments exhibited in the Science Museum, South Kensington, with descriptive and historical notes and illustrations; L. J. Comrie, “On the Application of the Brunsviga-Dupla Calculating Machine to double Summation with finite Differences,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom. Soc., vol. Ixxxviili. (1928), pp. 447-459. (D. B.)

CALCULI or STONES may occur in any hollow organ in which there is stagnation of the fluid contents together with an excess of some particular substance in solution: they»may also occur in the ducts leading from glands from: the same cause (see Plate). The chief places where stones occur are in the urinary system and in the gall-bladder. Urinary Calculi.—Calculi may be found in almost any part of the urinary system from the collecting tubules in the kidney where they are microscopic in size, to the bladder where they are known as sand, gravel or stones, according to size. In the

CALCULI

554

kidney calculi are usually composed of a mixture of uric acid and water, and occasionally of calcium oxalate. There is evidence that minute concretions of these substances may form in the collecting tubules of the kidney, and pass down to the renal pelvis where they become the nucleus for the further deposit of material to form larger stones. Numerous small stones may be found in the renal pelvis, or a single large branching calculus may be formed, filling up the entire pelvis of the kidney. A small calculus may pass down

the ureter into the bladder and there increase to a

considerable size; in passing down the ureter, it gives rise to renal colic (see Corrc). If the calculus becomes impacted, usually at the upper end of the ureter, the condition known as hydronephrosis occurs and this is likely to be followed by an infective inflammation going on to suppuration and ulceration. Calculi in the bladder may have their origin in the kidney, as already stated, or in the bladder itself; in the latter case they may occasionally form around foreign bodies introduced into the bladder, but in the majority of cases this is not so and the exact method of formation de nova is not yet fully understood, but may be due to the deposition of crystals on organic débris, or on a small focus of organisms. The exact nature of the crystalline material forming the stone depends almost entirely upon the chemical constituents of the urine in which they are formed. In many cases a stone is formed over a period of years, and as the urine may alter its character frequently in this time, a stone is often composed of layers very different in colour, chemical composition and hardness. Calculi may grow to a great size without causing any symptoms, if smooth, but as they are usually angular or rough on the surface, bleeding generally occurs. Sometimes a calculus composed almost entirely of one substance is found, the substances which give rise to such a stone being uric acid, calcium oxalate, xanthin, cystin or calcium phosphate. More commonly one of these substances forms the nucleus of a larger stone, the outer layers of which may be formed of several different substances such as carbonates and phosphates. The nature of calculi varies according to their composition; uric acid calculi are hard, smooth and oval or rounded when found in the bladder, or moulded to the cavity when found in the renal

pelvis. Pure calcium oxalate stones are rare, but mixed stones in which this substance forms a considerable part are common. Such stones are often formed around a nucleus of uric acid or urates and are distinguished by their dark brown colour and very rough, jagged exterior. Further deposition of other substances may convert the jagged stone into a smooth one. Phosphatic calculi are formed when the bladder is inflamed and are usually rough and often crumble easily. Cystine calculi are very rare;

when they occur they are rather soft and may reach the size of a hen’s egg. Santhin calculi also are extremely rare, only a few isolated specimens having been described in medical literature. The effect of a large calculus is obstruction: so long as the stone remains loose the obstruction will be intermittent and may largely depend upon the posture of the patient. If the stone becomes impacted or large, obstruction will become complete. Biliary Calculi or Gall-stones are formed from the constituents of the bile together with a certain amount of organic material, and their formation largely depends upon stagnation of bile in the gall-bladder. Their composition and shape vary in the same

manner

as urinary

calculi, the chief

constituents

being

cholesterol, bile pigments and lime salts. There is usually a nucleus which is commonly almost pure cholesterol. Occasionally a stone is composed of almost pure cholesterol and is quite clear and pale yellow in colour: these stones are usually oval and solitary, lying loose in the neck of the gall-bladder. More often they are covered by a coloured secondary deposit. The commonest type by far is the mixed calcium-bilirubin-cholesterol stone; these may occur as single large stones or multiple smaller ones numbering many hundreds in a single case. The large single ones are oval, and the smaller multiple ones facetted. The colour varies from pure white through yellow and green to black. All gali-stones contain a considerable quantity of organic matter and may contain ‘living bacteria. Gall-stones, either single or multiple, may cause no symptoms

and are often not discovered during life; on the other hand they

may give rise to serious effects, partly mechanical and partly inflammatory

in character.

The

inflammatory

effects

cause in-

flammation of the gall-bladder or cholecystitis. A large stone may become impacted in the neck or the duct of the gall-bladder

and cause great distension, a smaller gall-stone may pass out of the gall-bladder and become impacted lower down the common bile duct giving rise to biliary colic and jaundice. In more chronic cases with a subsequent acute inflammation, a gall-stone may ulcerate through either into the peritoneal cavity or into some portion of the gut. In the former case, peritonitis will set in, and in the latter the stone may be small enough to pass right through the bowel or may become impacted and give rise to acute intestinal obstruction. This may also be the result when the stone passes down the duct from the gall-bladder into the gut. Subsequent to passage of a gall-stone through the common bile duct or coincident with the presence of a gall-stone in the gallbladder, localized carcinoma may develop. Pancreatic Calculi are rare. They form in the pancreatic duct and are composed mainly of calcium carbonate and phosphate: they are usually small in size and may be numerous. In shape they are rounded or oval, and in colour whitish. If they he. come impacted in the duct obstruction will follow and bacteria may gain a foothold and set up an acute inflammation. When some pancreatic juice can escape the duct becomes distended, Salivary Calculi may occur in the ducts of the salivary glands, probably from the depositions of salts on inspissated mucus. They are uncommon, but when they occur they are rough, irregular and white: they consist chiefly of calcium phosphate and

carbonate,

They may occlude the duct partially or completely,

causing inflammation and dilatation of the duct and atrophy of the gland. Dentists refer to tartar on teeth as salivary calculus. Intestinal Calculi always have a nucleus of some indigestible material; in countries where oatmeal is largely eaten they are not infrequent. They may cause little or no symptoms, but if large may cause intestinal obstruction. In animals such as the horse and cow they are of relatively common occurrence and may attain to many pounds in weight; they occur chiefly in the stomach and have a nucleus of hair. Another type of concretion found in the intestine is called Intestinal Sand and is probably formed in the upper part of the large intestine. Preputial Calculi are sometimes formed by the deposition of urinary salts upon the accumulated smegma under a prepuce

that cannot be retracted. Prostatic Caleuli occur chiefly in the lateral lobes by the deposition of salts on the normal corpora amylacea.

They may

reach a considerable size and obstruct the outflow of urine. Nasal Calculi or Rhinoliths occur around nasal secretions or blood clots, but most frequently around foreign bodies introduced into the nasal cavities; they contain a considerable amount of organic matter. Mammary Calculi are sometimes formed in the lactiferous ducts of the breast causing a similar condition in the gland to salivary calculi.

Lung Calculi are occasionally found in the bronchi, They

may be formed in the same manner as calculi in other sites, or as the result of a piece of calcified lung tissue becoming separated through suppuration. If the obstruction be complete collapse of that portion of the lung behind the obstruction follows, if incomplete the result is bronchiectasis. Uterine Calculi or Womb Stones sometimes occur, usually. as the result of calcareous degeneration of a tumour; occasionally

a foetus may die in utero and later become encapsuled and calcified, forming a large calcified mass in the cavity of the uterus known. as a lithopaedion. A considerable amount of work of different kinds has been done

on calculi, especially the commoner ones. Their chemical com position is known moderately accurately; gall-stones, as has been stated, may be formed round a nucleus of organisms, and if these belong to the typhoid group, the stones may be a source of danger by starting an epidemic of typhoid fever at a‘later date. Certain gall-stones from cases of cancer of the gall-bladder have heen

CALCULI AO

Oba

x

Skee ew

E dels$

1 erig i

TRE

ae tary

k7 ean EET IOPEN“ed aa Fe J PoE Ea

=

`` onmis

a ph eee

ce2

EE

Ss

oe Sey Poet ie aia Fo Be Gye Giyeae

So's.

ae

å, “ BL TOES me if $g 2 =ay

as ma

fae saab

cee

z

2

E a on, ESS= a

ae

Fiel

ee = a $ 4 peSanae ara akE te EiEY

SHAE She

! SteeK eg

ang

LETTE

5 ARES

NE

Ma

PARE 3 see

ae eey f T Be

es

2

Ehi 38

A hSy

Se

Euse. ne a SOP PIES a EP RT

Yui teree

ra

aon Br Bh, Sseashy

=.

5T as

MSs

DRAWN

FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA

BY

O

F.

TASSART

FROM

SPECIMENS

IN

THE

ROYAL

FORMS l. Gallstone, pure cholesterin, cut section.

3. Gallstone, mixed

composition,

faceted.

2. Gallstone, pure cholesterin.

4. Gallstones

composed

COLLEGE

OF

SURGEONS

OF CALCULI

almost

entirely of bile pigments. 5. Gallstone of mixed composition, largely cholesterin. 6. Salivary calculus, mainly calcium phosphate and carbonate. 7. Renal calculus, smooth, chiefly salts of uric acid. 8. Renal calculus, mulberry,’ chiefly oxalate of lime. 9. Renal calculus composed of cystin. 10. Renal calculus, smooth, chiefly salts of uric acid. 11. Bladder calculus,

uric acid nucleus, superficial laminae of calcium and ammonio-magnesium phosphates (section). 12. Bladder calculus, phosphatic, nucleus of hazelwood (section). 13. Bladder calculus, phosphatic around oxalate calculus, (section). 14. Intestinal calculus, ammonio-magnesium phosphate with plumstone as nucleus (section). 15. Intestinal calculus from horse (reduced), ammonio-magnesium phosphate with pebble as nucleus (section). 16. Intestinal calculus composed of ammonio-magnesium phosphate

CALCULUS found to contain minute traces of radioactive substances. In some cases both gall-stones and urinary calculi will act upon a

photographic plate in the dark; this action is believed to be due

to the action of hydrogen peroxide produced from turpines, or to minute traces of ammonia. The effect can be produced either at room temperature or at 37°C; at the latter temperature a

few hours may suffice. (P. L.-B.) CALCULUS, ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL: see Tensor ANALYSIS. CALCULUS, BARYCENTRIC: see Barvcentric CALCULUS. CALCULUS, DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL. The differential calculus and the integral calculus are the two

divisions of a branch of mathematics which treats problems involving variable quantities. Such problems arise regularly in geometry, physics and other branches of science. By a quantity,

is meant a distance, a weight, a period of time, in short, anything which can be measured. The two leading problems of the differential calculus are the construction of tangents to curves and the determination of the

rate of change of a quantity. A tangent to a curve is a straight line which grazes the curve at a point. Thus AB, in fig. 1, is tangent to the curve in the figA FIG. 1.—TANGENCY

ure. A more careful analysis of the notion of tangent will be given below. In elementary geometry, the construction of a

tangent to a circle is considered.

The differential calculus fur-

nishes a method for constructing tangents to curves of any type. A typical situation connected with a rate of change is as follows: suppose that water is flowing into a vessel in the shape of

an inverted cone (fig. 4), at the uniform rate of 1 cu. ft./sec.

At first the water will rise rapidly in the cone, and then, because the upper part of the cone is wider than the lower part, the level will go up more and more slowly. The differential calculus permits the determination of the rate at which the level rises at any stated instant. One of the most interesting special problems in

the differential calculus is the determination of the maximum or minimum value a quantity can have. The differential calculus also furnishes methods for calculating tables of logarithms, sines,

cosines, etc., which are used in trigonometry and in developing two important formulae, Taylor’s formula and Maclaurin’s. The integral calculus treats of two classes of problems. The first class deals with such quantities as the amount of area enclosed by a curve, the length of a curve, or the amount of volume enclosed by a surface. The second type of problem is the determination of a variable quantity when the law of its change is known. For instance, let a body be dropped from a height, in a vacuum. We know that the speed with which it is falling, at any instant, is proportional to the length of time for which it has been falling. The speed is nothing more than the rate of change of the distance which the body has fallen. The integral calculus permits the determination of the distance through which the

body falls in any period of time. Function.—The theory of the calculus rests upon three funda-

mental ideas—the ideas of function, derivative, and integral. In the development of the notion of derivative, the important concept of limit will enter. The notion of function can be brought

out readily by means of an example. If the length of the side of a square is known, the area of the square can be calculated immediately. This fact is expressed in the language of mathematics by saying that the area of a square is a function of the length of its side. More generally, if when the value of one quantity is known the value of a second quantity can be found, the second quantity is called a function of the first. If the quantity which is given is called x, and the quantity which is found is called y, the fact that y is a function of x is

expressed by the symbolism y=f(x), that is, “y equals f of x”. In each particular problem, f(x) becomes a definite mathematical expression. For instance, if x is the length of the side of a square,

555

and y is the area of the square, then y equals x”, so that f(x) in this case is x2. Other letters than f may be used as functional symbols. For instance, where several functions appear in the same problem, one might call them f(x), F(x), g(x}, etc., respectively. It is not essential that a change in x should cause y to change. All that is important is that y should be capable of determination when x is known.

A function which has the same value for every

value of x is called a constant. Thus, if y= 2 for every value of x, then y is a constant. While constant functions play a fundamental réle in the calculus, it is difficult to find concrete examples of such functions which do not appear trivial. The density of an incompressible fluid at any point, regarded as a function of the depth of the point, is a constant. The ratio of the area of a circle to the square of the radius of the circle is, regarded as a function of the radius, a constant; its single value is r. Tangents.—The concept of derivative is perhaps best brought out by considering the construction of a tangent to a curve. Assuming some familiarity on the part of the reader with the graphing of curves, we will show the construction of a tangent to the curve whose equation is y=" at the point (2,4). The curve is a parabola (fig. 2).

2

Let Qbe any point on the para-

bola, distinct from the point P(2,4). Let P be joined to Q by Pf _\n a straight line. We shall call the line PQ a secant. Now, let the point Q come closer and closer to FIG. 2.-—TANGENTS P, without attaining to P. As Ọ approaches P, the secant will rotate about P, and will tend towards coincidence with a line through P which touches the parabola at P without cutting across the parabola. This line will be called the tangent to the parabola at P. The tangent at P can certainly be constructed if the angle which it makes with the X-axis is known. We shall call the angle between a line and the X-axis the inclination of the line. In what follows immediately, the inclination of the tangent will be found from the fact that, as the secant approaches the tangent, the inclination of the secant approaches that of the tangent. One point deserves special emphasis. We have not said that if O comes into coincidence with P, the secant becomes a tangent. Unless Q is distinct from P, we do not have two points through which to draw a line. All that has been said is that, as Q comes closer and closer to P, the inclination of the secant comes closer and closer to that of the tangent. This fact suffices for the determination of the slope of the tangent.

Limit.—To express the fact that the inclination of the secant approaches that of the tangent, we shall say that the inclination of the tangent is the Jzmit of the inclination of the secant. In general, when a variable quantity comes closer and closer to a fixed quantity, we shall say that the variable quantity has the fixed quantity as a limit. It is not essential that the variable quantity should move steadily in the direction of the fixed quantity. For instance, as the vibrations of a pendulum die out, the inclination of the pendulum approaches go° as a limit, even though the pendulum never (theoretically) stops its movements away from the perpendicular position. When we speak of the “limit” of a constant quantity, we shall mean the quantity itself. By the slope of a line is meant the trigonometric tangent of the inclination of the line. Obviously, the slope of the secant PQ has for limit, as OQ approaches P, the slope of the tangent at P. We shall first seek to make plausible, by arithmetic

calcula-

tions, that the slope of the secant tends toward a limit as Ọ approaches P. Later, a rigorous treatment of the problem will be given.

Ee

+A? uo

(6)

Arye sos HA"uo.

table in §4, let us continue as the first differences of the call -- + Dun, Bttnp > see that un must come be-

Unyi = ZUn+2— Enyi E

(7

Thus we get Table III. Similarly, we can insert further columns containing 274, etc.

560

CALCULUS

OF DIFFERENCES 8. Operation

TABLE III

Du

u

DUn ;

Au

A?u

Bunty =F (Unt uny),

Un

È Un-1

Aun

2 Un+2

If we only know the w’s, we cannot find the new series completely; for the accuracy of the above table is not affected by adding a constant & to each term of the Zu series. But, when we have found a particular term of this series, say Èu, the other terms are also fixed. By (7) we then have u=

Lurt,

> - Huni

and also A Eun= Unyi— Dun= Un. (9) The relation. between the operators A and 2 may be written in either of the forms AZ=r, T=A7} (10) It should be observed that Zun does not include un; it only goes as far as Un. Until we know a term of the Eu series, we must leave the actual terms indefinite, their first differences being definite. Thus we can write DUn = C+ Un—3 +Ftin—-2 F un

ou

u

bu

şu

O7thy,

(UO Un)

Un

(UÒUn)

(Ho ttn+4)

TUn+}

(Mints)

Ôn}

On

Un--1

(ud Un+t)

o

tt

(UT Un)

(U8 thn.43) ÒUny

(8) It is obvious that

Dus,= Datutue:--

Lyn= Dust urt ust

(13)

TABLE V.

ou

Aung 2

Un+3

introduce the

Õun =} (ÖUnyy F ÔUn), etc.

A? uns

Aun?

Mean.—We

complete central-difference table of which Table V. is a part,

A Unt Un+2

the

These means may be called the constructed central differences. If they are introduced, in brackets, into Table IV., we get the

Aun

Unt

È Unys

of Taking

symbol u to denote the operation of taking the mean of two adjacent quantities in a column, the suffix, like that of 5, being the mean of their suffixes. Thus

;

where C is an “arbitrary constant” ; and we shall then have, with the same value of C, Bunyi = C-+4-Un-3 +HUn—-2+ Un—1 F un,

CUnyy = C+ Un- F Uun- tHUn-

7. Central-difference Notation.—The central-diference no-

tation differs from the advancing-difference in two respects: (i.) the assignment of suffixes, (ii.) the introduction of a symbol

(14)

where C is an arbitrary constant which remains the same throughout any series of operations.

II. SUMMATION

OF SERIES

9. For summation of series, and for difference-equations generally, the advancing-difference notation is usually the more suitable. There are two useful methods. (i.) Suppose we want to find the value of such a sum as 17+ 22--3?-+ ----+n, Let us denote this sum by S,. Then we see that

ASn-1=Sna—Sni=n?, AkSn—3 = A2S n2

and so on.

Un

UO Un = CH Un—3tUn—2+Un—1 +3un

A°%Sn-2= 0?— (n—1)?= 2n—1, yet AZS n3

=

2,

AtS n4

=O,

Thus the fourth and higher differences of the S’s are allo. Now construct the table of differences (Table VI.). TABLE VI.

to denote the operation of taking the mean.

AZSm

The main principle, as indicated in §3,is that uni2— 2unit tun

is regarded as the second difference not of u, but of un11; it is denoted by 67,11. The first difference u,,,—, is therefore ĝu, with a proper suffix; and this suffix, for symmetry, must be

n+%. Thus we have

Ô Unya =EUngim Un, Un= Uny} — Un} = Unyi ™—Zun t Uni, etc. (11) On the same principle the entries in the column preceding the u column will be ow, with proper suffixes; and we have Un = CUn+t3—TUn—y, CtC.,

so that the operations ô and ø are connected by the relation do=1, o=. (12) Our table, from the o2u column to the 8% column, becomes Table IV. ou

u

Sn=0+n(1)+3nln— 1)(3)+4n(n— x1)(n—2)(2) =ġn(n+ i) l2n+ 1).

TaBe IV.

ou

Then, applying formula (6), we have

Ou

6724

Gi.) Another method is to express n? as the sum of two or more expressions which can be easily summed. We can write wW=n(n+1)—n; and the sum we require is therefore 3n(n+t)

Oun?

Un—-2

TUn-3 ont

OUr

TUn—4

TUn+}

g? Un+1

One a

Ò Un?

OUn—3 Un

Un

;

Un?

æ.

*

Õun

OUn+4

Un+t

TUn+3

” EUn

Ôn}

,

s

Ill. DIFFERENCE-EQUATIONS

to. In the method of §o (ii.) we are really solving a differenceequation AS n—1 =

|

OUnis

(n+ 2) —$n(n+1) =$n(n+1)(2n+1).

ô?Uny

EUn

n?

by writing the solution in the form. 5 n=l = Amy

and expressing n? as the sum of two terms, on each of which the

CALCULUS operation A“! is easily performed. a diference-equation.

OF VARIATIONS

The above is an example of and «=, in terms of wu, and the central differences which are in a line with it.

Another simple form is

(E—

A) Un =0,

V. RELATIONS

where a is a constant. This is equivalent to Unı= aun, so that the solution is obviously = Ca", A more general form is the

where C is an arbitrary constant.

linear equation with constant coeficients

pt * -© F apun = N, UnypF aUnyp-i F anye—=2

where ‘dı, &2 * ** p are constants, and N is a given function of n. APPLICABLE

TO

Differences

INTERPOLATION

rr. For interpolation, where u is a continuously varying func-

tion of x, and values of u are tabulated at intervals 4 in x, the relations between differences of the w’s and differential coefficients

of ware important. The values of x for which y is tabulated are taken to be - - + 41, Xo, %1 °° +, where tp=%o+ ph. If the differential coefficient of u with regard to x is denoted by Du, we may regard D as an operator; and it will be found that this can be combined with the operators A, Æ, etc., and with numbers, according to the laws of ordinary algebra. Taylor’s Formula (see CALCULUS, INTEGRAL AND DIFFERENTIAL), h2

f(x+h) = f(x) HAP

HS” (x)-+---

(15)

then leads to the relation

hs E=1+hD+ h?D'+—D'+ --

= gD.

(16)

$

whence we deduce

hD = loge (1+4) =

A— 44+ 4A —

(17)

This gives the first derivative in terms of advancing differences, namely,

(5“)= Auo— 4 Auot $ Auo—

>e;

(18)

and formulae for the second and higher derivatives may be o from (27) by expanding the corresponding powers of $A- A Gas the formulae which involve central differences are more useful. These formulae are based on the relations ,

u=4 (eP + eP),ô =

gihD__ ,-4hD

(19)

Expanding and combining these, we get expressions for u, ô, uô, etc., in terms of kD; and thence we deduce expressions for Du,

etc., in terms of the relevant central differences, original or con-

structed. Ifin (x5) we replace k by 0h, and f(x+6h) by tọ, we can write Itin the form

uo = mtii bt 2!P+ 3l

>-

(20)

where

C.=hDuy = (pô — iust auð" — - + jo Ca = h Dug = (2—4 ôt+ a5 68 ~

$ Juo

cs=h Dug = (u? —}us 5+ - - - Juo Ca= ht Duy = (54— 465+

(21)

- - - Juko

This formula tabis us to interpolate on both sides of using the central differences which are in a line with xo. values of the c’s are given more fully under INTERPOLATION.) is a formula of the same kind for interpolating between

o by (The There «=x»

APPLICABLE

TO QUADRATURE

12. Just as under the heading Interpolation we deal with the relations between differential coefficients and differences, so under Quadrature we deal with the relations between integrals and sums. The main problem is that of expressing the area of a figure (of the kind with which we are familiar in dealing with graphs) in terms of selected ordinates of the figure. We can, however, reverse the process, and express the sum of a series, accurately or approximately, in terms of an integral. The important theorem is the Euler-Maclaurin theorem, given under MENSURATION. BreriocraPHy.—Geo.

IV. RELATIONS

561

Boole,

Treatise

(2nd ed., J. F. Moulton,

on

1872);

the Calculus

of Finite

N. E. Norlund,

Dzffe-

renzenrechnung (1924, bibl.). An elementary treatment will be found in most books dealing with INTERPOLATION (q.v.). W. F. S.)

CALCULUS

OF VARIATIONS.

When two points, A

and B, are given in a plane, as shown in fig. 1, there is an infinity of arcs which join them. A simple problem of the calculus of variations is that of finding in this class of arcs one which has the shortest length, the solution of the problem being of course a straight line segment. But we may also seek to find in the class FIG. 1 of arcs joining A with B one down which a particle, started with a given initial velocity v, will fall in the shortest time from A to B; or we may ask which one of these arcs, when rotated about the axis Ox, will generate a surface of revolution of smallest area. These are typical problems of the calculus of variations of the so-called simplest type. The notations which gave rise to the name, the calculus of variations, were originated by Joseph Louis Lagrange about the year 1762 and are still in use, though at the present time there is a tendency to replace them by others. If T represents the time of descent of a particle falling along an arc £, then to get the corresponding time for a neighbouring arc £’ a correction must be added to T. This correction is called a variation of ôT and is designated in Lagrange’s notation by ôT. Similarly the vertical distances y in fig. 1 corresponding to the various points of E must be corrected by variations dy in order to get the corresponding vertical distances for Æ’. The problem of finding an arc E such that the variation ôT will be positive for all choices of the variations ôy is the problem of the curve of quickest descent mentioned in the last paragraph. Since the time of Lagrange the theory of such problems has been called the calculus of variations. The Shortest Line from a Point to a Curve.—Some of the properties of minimizing arcs of the calculus of variations are well illustrated by the problem of determining the shortest line joining a fixed point A with a fixed curve C, shown in fig. 2. Evidently the solution of the probFIG. 2 lem must be a straight segment AB, and it can further readily be seen that AB must cut the fixed curve

C at right angles. For if C were in the position C’ showniin fig. 2 the line AQ would evidently be shorter than AB. It might be concluded that a straight line AB perpendicular to C is actually the shortest line joining A to C, but this is not always true. It is known that the straight lines cutting C at right angles are all tangent to a curve D, as shown in fig. 3, one of whose properties is that the length of the composite arc PQR is always equal to the length PB, whatever the position of Q at the right of P on D. This is the well-known string property of the curve D, socalled because it means that a stretched string of length PB, at-

tached at P and allowed to wrap itself around the curve D, will describe the arc C with its movable end R. The length of the composite arc APOR is equal to that of AB, as has just been indicated, and the length of APQR will be less than that of AB when the curved arc PQ is replaced by a straight line, Evidently AB is not the shortest arc which can be drawn from A to the curve C

CALCULUS

562

OF VARIATIONS

if its point of contact P with the envelope D lies between A and B. It is conceivable that other properties might be required of the segment AB in order to insure its minimizing property. But it can be proved, when the point A lies to the right of P in fig. 3, that there is a neighbourhood of AB in which that line is shorter than any other arc joining A with C. The Surface of Revolution of Minimum Area.—The properties which have just been described for the shortest line AB

from a point A to a curve C, namely, its straightness, its perpendicularity to C, and the absence from AB of a contact point P with the envelope D, are all analogues of properties which are possessed by minimizing arcs for other problems. There are,

furthermore,

sufficiency proofs,

is a circle. The isoperimetric problem of the Greeks imposes an additional

property besides closure on the arcs of the class in which the minimizing arc is sought, namely, that all of them shall have the same

one which has a minimum surface is a sphere. This agrees with the commonly observed fact that a soap bubble, enclosing a given FIG. 3

in the plane of the paper in fig. 4, one which when rotated about the dotted axis will generate a surface of revolution of smallest area. The curve which solves the problem is described by a mathematical equation, but its shape is that of a chain whose ends are fast but which otherwise hangs freely. The mathematicians call

ing curve D as shown in fig. 5. The critical

this the isoperimetric problem, from tcos meaning equal and Tepi-

uerpov meaning circumference, and were able to show in more or less rigorous fashion that the curve which solves the problem

length. Similar restrictions may be put upon the class of arcs joining the points A and B described in the first paragraph of this article. In the class of closed surfaces enclosing a given volume the

analogous to that mentioned in the last paragraph, which tell us when enough properties have been secured to insure the minimum property. A circular wire dipped in a soap solution and then withdrawn will have a disc of soap film stretched across it. If a smaller circular wire is made to touch this disc and is then withdrawn to a position shown in fig. 4 a film will be stretched between the two wires which is a surface of revolution about the common axis of the two circles. It is found by experiment that when the circle B is moved away from A in the direction of the dotted axis a position is presently reached at which the film always becomes unstable. It contracts at the waist and separates into two plane discs through the two circles. The determination of the shape of the soap film described in the last paragraph gives rise to a perfectly definite mathematical problem. It is that of finding among the arcs joining A with B,

such a curve a catenary from the Latin word catena meaning a chain. The catenaries of the problem which pass through the point A have an envelop-

Isoperimetric and Other Problems.—The ancient Greeks proposed the problem of determining in the class of all closed arcs of a given length one which encloses the largest area. They called

volume of air, has spherical form. If, on the other hand, we turn the problem around and search in the class of closed surfaces having a given area, one which encloses a maximum

volume, the

solution is again a sphere. Every isoperimetric problem has associated with it in this way another one of the same sort and having the same solution surface or curve. Relation to Mechanics.—In the domain of mechanics the

calculus of variations has played an important réle. If a system of particles is moving subject to their own gravitational attractions it is found that their paths will be minimizing curves for what the mathematicians call the integral of the difference between the kinetic and potential energies of the system. This is the famous principle known after its discoverer Sir William Rowan Hamilton as Hamilton’s principle. Many most important trajectories of widely varying character In mechanics, astronomy and mathematical physics have similar maximum or minimum properties. The theory of the calculus of variations has been greatly enriched as a result of applications of this sort, and in turn it has been profoundly influential in shaping the mathematical interpretations of physical phenomena. Two striking illustrations in recent years are the famous relativity theory of Albert Einstein and the quantum theory of E. Schrödinger, both of which depend intimately upon portions of the theory of the calculus of variations. The problems which have been described above are a few only of the large variety with which the calculus of variations is concerned. By the use of the devices of mathematical analysis the scope of the theory has been steadily enlarged. Great progress has been made, for example, in generalizing the character of the re-

FIG. 4

point on one of them, beyond which its minimizing property ceases, is its point of tangency P with the envelope. A very interesting property of the curves in fig. 5 is that the surface of revolution generated by the composite arc AQP is always equal to that generated by the catenary AP whatever the position of Q below P on the envelope. This is the analogue of the string property of the envelope of the straight lines perpendicular to a curve, and an argument similar to the one described for that case shows that the area of the surface of revolution generated by a catenary arc APB can never be a minimum area, since the areas of the surfaces generated by the arcs AOPB are all equal to it. When the point B lies above the envelope D there are always two catenary arcs joinIng it to A, as shown in fig. 5, one of which

has a critical point P on it. The other is

the one which can be proved to furnish a FIG. 5 minimum area. When B lies in the position B, then there is no catenary arc joining the points A and B and the minimum surface of revolution consists of the two discs generated by the broken line AMNB,. When the circular wire B in fig. 4 is moved away from A the catenary arc AB varies from one to another of the catenary arcs

through A shown in fig. 5. The moment when the film decomposes into two discs, like those generated by the broken line AMNB,, is the moment when B reaches the enveloping curve D.

strictions upon the classes of curves and surfaces in which minimizing elements are sought, as compared with the restrictions

which have long been imposed for isoperimetric problems, and in generalizing the variable quantity dependent upon the curves or surfaces whose maximum or minimum value is to be obtained. The questions which have arisen are many of them only imperfectly answered and it is apparent to a student of the subject that the theory of the calculus of variations will always bea lively and growing one. A Historical Sketch.—Some of the problems of the calculus of variations are very old. The isoperimetric problems of the circle and sphere were considered by Zenodorus (about 100 B.C.) and Archimedes (287?—212 B.c.). The problem of the curve of quickest descent appears somewhat vaguely in the writings of Galileo Galilei in 1630 and 1638, and was reformulated and solved by Jean (Johann, John) Bernoulli in 1696-97. The determination of the form of a hanging chain is a problem of the calculus

of variations also considered by Galileo in 1638, reformulated by

Jacques (Jakobs James) Bernoulli in 1690, and solved by Gott-

fried Wilhelm Leibniz and others in t691. Isaac Newton determined in 1686 the characteristic property of a curve generating 4 surface

of revolution

offering minimum

resistance

to motion

through a resisting medium in the direction of its axis. All of these were special problems solved by special methods. The foundations for a general theory were laid by Jacques Ber-

noulli in his solution in 1697 of the problem of the curve of quickest descent which had been proposed by his brother Jean. Leon

` CALCUTTA hard Euler saw that the methods of Jacques Bernoulli were widely applicable and he deduced in 1744 the first general rule for the characterization of maximizing or minimizing arcs of the calculus of variations. In 1760-62 Lagrange devised the notations for variations which have given the theory its name, and greatly simplified and extended the results of Euler. In 1786 Adrien Marie Legendre studied for the first time what is called the second variation of the quantity to be minimized and found a criterion for distinguishing between maxima and minima. In his reduction of the second variation Legendre used a transformation which could not be justified in all cases. The difficulty was analysed in 1838 by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, who in so doing discovered the existence of the critical point P beyond which the minimizing properties of an arc will fail.

563

CALCUTTA, a city in British India and the capital of the province of Bengal. It is situated in 22° 34’ N. and 88° 24’ E., on the left or east bank of the Hugli, about 80m. from the sea. It extends over an area of 32 sq.m. and contains a population (1921) of 1,132,246. Including Howrah on the other side of the river, which has been described as being as much a part of Cal-

cutta as Southwark is of London, Calcutta has a total population

The modern period in the development of the theory of the calculus of variations is characterized by much greater precision in the formulation of problems and in the methods and reasoning applied to their solution. It began with Karl Weierstrass, who in

PIRA 2e Aan

an

x Ee

3

03

Ki AM N

Karle

the decade preceding 1879 saw that one might continue indefinitely to seek for properties of minimizing arcs unless a proof could be made that a suitable set of properties would actually insure the

minimum. He had himself found an important new necessary condition for a minimum which cannot easily be described here in non-technical language. He succeeded in proving in very ingenious fashion that certain characteristics of an arc are suffcient to insure its minimizing property. Between 1894 and 1898 the string property of the envelope of the normals to a curve

was generalized for shortest lines on a surface by Jean Gaston Darboux, and for more general problems by E. Zermelo and Adolf Kneser. In 1899 David Hilbert stated an existence theorem which asserts that under certain circumstances a minimizing arc will surely exist. The theorem has been reproved more simply by other writers and extended by Leonida Tonelli, who in 1921-23 made it the basis for a new approach to the theory of the calculus of variations. The scope of the theory of the calculus of variations

has been greatly extended by Adolf Mayer and Oskar Bolza, who formulated in 1878 and 1913, respectively, problems of very great generality to which the methods of the theory are applicable. For further historical data and accounts of the views of modern mathematicians on the subject, the reader should consult the references in the Bibliography. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-For a relatively elementary introduction to the calculus of variations one may read Edouard Goursat, Cours d’Analyse Mathématique, vol. iii. 3rd ed. pp. 545-660 (Gauthier-Villars 1923),

or Gilbert Ames Bliss, The Calculus of Variations (Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1925). The most thorough presentations of modern theories are O. Bolza, Lectures on the Calculus of Variations (University of Chicago Press, 1904), and Vorlesungen über Variationsrechnung (Teubner, Leipzig, 1909); Jacques Hadamard, Legons sur le Calcul des Variations (A. Hermann, 1910) ; and A. Kneser, Lehrbuch der Variationsrechnung, 2nd ed. (Vieweg, Braunschweig 1925). L. Tonelli, Calcolo delle Variazioni (Zanichelli, Bologna, 1921, 1923), makes existence theorems the basis of a new attack upon the theory requiring analysis of the most modern sort. For an excellent synopsis of the development of the theory of the calculus of variations with elaborate references see two articles by A. Knesee; and by E. Zermelo and H. Hahn, Encyklopddie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, II. A 8 (1900), II. A. 8a (1904). These have been translated into French and amplified importantly by Maurice Lecat Encyclopédie des Sciences Mathématiques, II. 31 (1913, 1916), pp. 1-288.

Books dealing with the history

of the subject are M.

Cantor,

Geschichte der Mathematik, vols. i-iv. (Teubner, Leipzig, 1892-1908) ; and I. Todhunter, A History of the Progress of the Calculus of Variations during the Nineteenth Century (Macmillan, 1861), treating e period from 1760 to 1860. An interesting historical sketch is contained in Pascal, Calcolo delle Variazioni (Hoepli, 1897), which

are eee

Y hea

+

MY,

AAY

eies ate

e

r fle

Biv)

>

RAAE N PREY WR PEA Xt RENE as TNE EN

THE

Yi

BADRI

x LAN panan

EBs

DAS TEMPLE,

435

THE

CENTRE

OF THE

JAIN

t

AuR

SYSTEM

IN CALCUTTA

of 1,327,547 and claims to be the second city in the British empire. It was until rọr2 the seat of the Government of India, which in that year was transferred to Delbi. Buildings.—Though Calcutta has been called “the city of palaces,” its modern public buildings cannot compare with those of Bombay. Its chief glory is the Maidan or park, 2 sq.m. in area, which is large enough to embrace the area of Ft. William and a racecourse. It is adorned by many statues and a pillar r6sft. high erected to the memory of Sir David Ochterlony, who brought the Nepalese War to a victorious conclusion. South-east of the Maidan stands the finest building in Calcutta, the Victoria Memorial, the conception of which was due to Lord Curzon; it was built on the site of the old gaol and opened im roar. It is a domed marble building with a great centre dome, and contains pictures, documents, etc., illustrating Indian history. This great building dwarfs the cathedral, to the east of it, which has a spire 207{t. high. A war memorial to the lascars of Bengal and Assam has been erected near Prinsep’s Ghat by the river bank. Government House, which is situated near the Maidan and Eden gardens, was the residence of the viceroy until 1912, since when it has been occupied by the governor of Bengal. It was built by Lord Wellesley in 1799, and is a fine pile situated in grounds covering six acres. The town hall has been used for some years for meetings of the Bengal legislature pending the construction of a

separate council chamber. The High Court building in its vicinity was designed on the model of the town hall at Ypres. Calcutta being a city of modern growth, there are few buildings

has also been translated into German by Adolf Schepp (Die Variationsrethnung (Teubner, Leipzig, 1899). | extensive bibliography has been published by M. Lecat, Bibliog-

of any considerable age. Lord Curzon restored, at his own cost, the monument which formerly commemorated the massacre of the Black Hole, and a tablet let into the wall of the general post office indicates the position of the Black Hole in the north-east bastion of Ft. William, now occupied by the roadway. Belvedere

his Bibliographic des Séries Trigonométriques (M. Lecat, 1921), p. 155;

House, a country house of Warren Hastings and the official rési-

taphie du Calcul des Variations, depuis les origines jusq à 1850 Hermann, 1916); 18560-1913 (ditto, t9r3). See also the additions in and in his Bibliographic de la Relativité (M. Lamertin, 1924), Appendix, p. 15. A brief bibliography of the principal treatises is given by G. A, Bliss in the book mentioned above. Two new books whose

names do not appear there are G. Viyanti, Elementi del Calcolo delle aviazioni (Principato, Messina, 1923); and A. R. Forsyth, Calculus of Variations (Cambridge University Press, 1927).

(G. À. Bi.)

dence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal from 1854 to 1g21 is situated close to the zoological gardens in Alipore, the southern suburb of Calcutta. Here also are Hastings House, another residence of Warren Hastings, the Bengal Meteorological Observatory and cantonments. Facing the Maidan for a couple of miles is

564.

CALCUTTA

on the lines of this report. There are a numChowringhee, once a row of palatial residences, but now given up ing reorganization ber affliated institutions, of of which the chief is Presidency col. t magnificen almost entirely to hotels, clubs and shops. Several lege, maintained by Government. The university has a number including quarter, l commercia the in erected been have buildings of endowed chairs and lectureships and a very large number of the Royal Exchange. Some areas have been almost transformed { for scholarships and prizes. by an improvement trust which since its creation in 1912 has benefactions Population.—The population has been nearly doubled in th carried out the clearing of insanitary areas; the widening and conhalf century. It is a mixture of many races and presents struction of roads (the chief being the Central avenue, a fine road last curious anomalies. Though a creation of British rule, Calcutta tooft. wide running north and south through the heart of the 13,000 Europeans; though the capital of Bengal, only city); the provision of model dwellings for families dispossessed contains only are Bengalis; though it is the seat of a inhabitants its of 53% prifor under its schemes; and the laying out of suburban land centre of education, less than half provincial the and university vate building. can read and write. the to prosperity Commerce.—Calcutta owes its commercial Hardly more than one-third of its population were born in Cal. | fact that it is the natural port of north-east India, on which ocean, cutta; men outnumber women by two to one, the bulk being below ` the of produce the receives It converge. river and rail traffic the age of forty. The explanation of these peculiarities is that fertile river valleys of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, and being manufactures of the city attract an enormous numsituated midway between Europe and the Far East it forms a the trade and ber of able-bodied men, mostly illiterate workers, from outside. western and eastern the of meeting-place for the commerce The day population largely exceeds that which sleeps in the city; worlds. The port is one of the busiest in the world, and the banks to the railway termini, of the Hooghly rival the port of London in their show of ship- there are 300,000 season ticket holders outnumbering predominate, Hindus Bengal, in towns other in As trust, port a of ping. The port of Calcutta is under the control whose jusisdiction extends to the mouth of the Hooghly. Vessels Mohammedans by 480,000. of the city was formerly very unClimate.—The condition of 10,000 tons drawing 28ft. and more ascend this great river to recent years with modem Calcutta; it is a dangerous river owing to mud shoals constantly healthy, but it has improved greatly of as healthy a place as any in now is it and drainage, and sanitation port the of efforts the by navigation for safe kept is but forming, is hot and damp; the quantity trust and the skill of the pilots. The river is also connected with the plains of Bengal. The climate as great as it is in that of eastern Bengal and Assam bya series of natural waterways and of vapour in the air is more than twice season from the end of cold pleasant a has Calcutta London. 1,100 of length total a with artificial) (some of navigable channels are hot; and the monJune and May April, March; to exNovember 1926-27 in miles. The tonnage of vessels entering the port d by heat and ceeded four millions. Howrah is the terminus of two great rail- soon months from June to October are distinguishe with a range F, 79° is temperature annual mean The humidity. floating immense an by Calcutta with way systems, and is linked rains to 72° in the cool bridge, 1,530ft. in length, which was constructed in 1874. It was from 85° in the hot season and 83° in the and a mean minimum decided in 1924 to build a cantilever bridge over the river. A season, a mean maximum of 102° in May in of January. 48° suburb. eastern an third large railway has its terminus at Sealdah, Docks were opened at Kidderpore to the south in 1892. Owing to HISTORY the increased trade, it has been found necessary to build a new practically dates from Aug. 24, 1690, Calcutta of history main The dock (King George’s dock) below them. Work on the when it was founded by Job Charnock (g.v.) of the English scheme was begun in 1920 and is in progress. Municipality——The Municipal Government of Calcutta is East India Company. In 1596 it had obtained a brief entry as a by command regulated by acts of the Bengal legislature, passed in 1899 and rent-paying village in the survey of Bengal executed at Hugli 1923. Female suffrage was introduced by the act of 1923. The of the Emperor Akbar. In 1686 the English merchants now village a Sutanati, to river the down 26m. about deputy-mayor mayor, retreated corporation consists of 85 councillors, with a Sutanati temand aldermen elected by the council. The water-supply is derived within the boundaries of Calcutta. They occupied Aug. 24, 1690. The from the river Hooghly about 16m. above Calcutta; an iron res- porarily in Dec. 1686, and permanently on river bank to the the along itself extended soon ervoir, said to be the second largest in the world, has been erected new settlement at Talia to the north of the city. The drainage system consists! then village of Kalikata, and by degrees the cluster of neighbourof underground sewers, which are discharged into a natural de- ing hamlets grew into the present town. In 1696 the English built the original Fort William by permission of the nawab, and in pression to. the eastward, called the Salt lake. The University of Calcutta.—The University of Calcutta 1698 they formally purchased the three villages of Sutanati, KalEmperor was founded, together with those of Madras and Bombay, by an kata and Govindpur from Prince Azim, son of the Indian act in 1857, on the model of the University of London. Aurangzeb. The site thus chosen had an excellent anchorage and was deAfter the report from Lord Curzon’s universities’ commission in the districts 1902 it was given teaching powers by an act in-1904; and the uni- fended by the river from the Mahrattas, who harried on the Vauban versity is still working entirely under the acts above named save on the other side. The fort, subsequently rebuilt to renfor the substitution by an act of 1921 of the governor of Bengal principle, combined with the natural position of Calcutta exprthe during India in trade for for the governor-general as chancellor, and of the local govern- der it one of the safest places any fixed without up grew It empire. Mogul the of struggles ing determining the as council, in ment for the governor-general plan and with little regard to the sanitary arrangements required authority for a number of university matters. on the The university exercises control over the hundreds of secondary for a town. Some parts of it lay below high-water mark a most drainage its rendered ut througho level low its and Hugli, schools in Bengal by means of the matriculation examination, for which from 16,000 to 19,000 candidates present themselves an- difficult problem. The chief event in the history of Calcutta is the sack of the nually; it exercises control over the “affiliated” colleges by deterand the capture of Fort William in 1756, by Suraj-udtown, mining the curricula and examinations in the faculties of arts, English oflaws, teaching (education), science, medicine and engineering; and Dowlah, the nawab of Bengal. The majority of the river. The it carries on since 1909 “post-graduate” teaching in arts and ficials took ship and fled to the mouth of the Hugli resistance, short a after , compelled were remained who s science and teaching in law in the university law college. A com- European were force prehensive survey of the university work was made by the Cal- to surrender. The prisoners, numbering 146 persons, cutta university commission presided over by Dr. (now Sir) into the guard-room, a chamber measuring only 18it. by 14ft. left for the Michael Sadler in rg17—19. Since the report was issued an area roin., with but two small windows, where they were with a radius of five miles in the Dacca district and the province night. It was the 2oth of June; the heat was intense; and next of Burma have been removed from the educational’ jurisdiction morning only 23 were taken out alive, among them Holwell, who

of Calcutta and the universities of Dacca (g.v.) and Rangoon created in: 1921. In 1928 the senate adopted a resolution approv-

the “Black left an account of the awful sufferings endured inwith a black Hole.” The site of the Black Hole is now covered

CALDECOTT—CALDERON marble slab, and the incident is commemorated by a monument erected by Lord Curzon in 1902. In Jan. 1757 the expedition

despatched from Madras, under the command of Admiral Watson

and Colonel Clive, regained possession of the city. The battle of Plassey was fought on June 23, 1757, exactly 12 months after the capture of Calcutta. Mir Jafar, the nominee of the English, was created nawab of Bengal, and by the treaty which raised him to this position he agreed to make restitution to the Calcutta merchants for their losses.

By another clause in this treaty the

Company was permitted to establish a mint, the visible sign in India of territorial sovereignty, and the first coin, still bearing the name of the Delhi emperor, was issued on August 109, 1757. Modern Calcutta dates from 1757. The old fort was abandoned, and its site devoted to the custom-house and other Government offices. A new fort, the present Fort William, was begun by Clive a short distance lower down the river. At this time also the

maiddn, the park of Calcutta, was formed.

Up to 1707, when Calcutta was first declared a presidency, it had been dependent upon the older English settlement at Madras. From 1707 to 1773 the presidencies were maintained on a footing of equality; but in the latter year the act of parliament was passed, which provided that the presidency of Bengal should exer-

cise a control over the other possessions of the Company; that the chief of that presidency should be styled governor general; and that a supreme court of judicature should be established at Calcutta. In the previous year, 1772, Warren Hastings had taken, under the immediate management of the Company’s servants, the general administration of Bengal. The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to Calcutta which thus became the capital. In 1834 the governor general of Bengal was created governor general of India. It was not until 1854 that a separate head was appointed for Bengal. In 1912 the 1905 partition of Bengal was reversed and Calcutta was no longer the capital of India, the

seat of Government being transferred to Delhi (g.v.). Since 1920 the harbour has been greatly extended and in internal development and foreign trade, Calcutta still leads the other large cities of Northern India. (See BENGAL.)

505

Ferrol, Rear-Admiral Stirling was ordered to join Sir R. Calder and cruise with him to intercept the fleets of France and Spain on their passage to Brest. The approach of the enemy was concealed by a fog; but on July 22, 1805, their fleet came in sight. It still outnumbered the British force; but Sir Robert entered into action. After a combat of four hours, during which he captured two Spanish ships, he gave orders to discontinue the action. He offered battle again on the two following days, but the challenge was not accepted. The French admiral Villeneuve, however, did not pursue his voyage, but took refuge in Ferrol. In the judgment of Napoleon, his scheme of invasion was baffled by this day’s action; but much indignation was felt in England at the failure of Calder to win a complete victory. In consequence of the strong feeling against him at home he demanded a court-martial. This was held on Dec. 23, and resulted in a severe reprimand of the vice-admiral for not having done his utmost to renew the engagement, at the same time acquitting him of both cowardice and disaffection. False expectations had been raised in England by the mutilation of his despatches, and of this he indignantly complained in his defence. The tide of feeling, however, turned again; and in 1815, by way of public testimony to his services, and of acquittal of the charge made against him, he was appointed commander of Portsmouth. He died at Holt, near Bishop’s Waltham, Hampshire, on Aug. 31, 1818. , a) Naval

1860).

Chronicle,

xvii.;

James,

Naval

History,

iii. 356-379

CALDER, an ancient district of Midlothian, Scotland. It is

divided into the parishes of Mid-Calder (pop. 1932, 2,793) and West Calder (pop. 6,817), East Calder belonging to the parish

of Kirknewton. The locality owes some of its commercial importance to the mineral oil industry, which, however, has now declined. Coal is mined, sandstone and limestone are worked, and paper is made. Mid-Calder, a town on the Almond, has an ancient church, and John Spottiswood (1510-1585), the Scottish reformer, was for many years minister. The town of West Calder

(pop. 3,949), within the parish of that name, is situated on Breich Water, an affluent of the Almond, 154 m. S.W. of Edinburgh by See A. K. Ray, A Short History of Calcutta (Indian Census, 1902) ; the L.M.S.R., and is the chief centre of the district. At AddieC. R. Wilson, Early Annals of the English in Bengal (1895); and well, about 14 m. S.W., the manufacture of ammonia, naphtha, Old Fort William in Bengal (1906) ; S.S. O’Malley, History of Bengal, paraffin oil and candles is carried on; the village dates from 1866, Bihar and Orissa under British Rule, Calcutta (1925). and had in 1921 a population of 3,141. Oil is also refined at CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH (1846-1886), English artist Pumpherston. The district contains several tumuli, old ruined and illustrator, was born at Chester on March 22, 1846, and died in castles and a Roman camp which is in a state of comparatively Florida on Feb. 12, 1886. He was a prolific and original illustrator, good preservation. gifted with a genial humorous faculty, and he succeeded also, CALDERON, GEORGE (1868-1915), British dramatist, though in less degree, as a painter and sculptor. was born in London on Dec. 2, 1868, the son of the painter Philip His most famous book illustrations are those for:—Old Christmas (1876) and Bracebridge Hall: (1877), both by Washington Irving ; H. Calderon, R.A. Educated at Rugby and Trinity college, Oxford, he spent two years in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) (1895— North Italian Folk (1877), by Mrs. Comyns Carr; The Harz Mountains (1883) ; Breton Folk (1879), by Henry Blackburn; picture-books 97), and from that time onwards took a deep interest in Russian (John Gilpin, The House that Jack Built, and other children’s literature and in the dialects and folk-lore of the Slav peoples favourites) from 1878 onwards; Some Aesop’s Fables with Modern generally. He was for a short time an official of the British MuInstances, etc. (1883). He held a roving commission for the Graphic, and was an occasional contributor to Punch. He was a member of the seum. His first play, The Fountain, was produced by the Stage Society in 1909. His collected plays were posthumously printed Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours. See Henry Blackburn, Randolph Caldecott, Personal Memoir of his Early Life (1886). in 1921-22; they included a tragedy in blank verse entitled CALDER, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1745-1818), British ad- Cromwell: Mall o’Monks. He wrote one volume of impressions miral, was born at Elgin, in Scotland, on July 2, 1745 (0.s.), of of travel, Tahiti, after a visit to the South Seas in 1906. In the an old family, and at the age of 14 entered the British navy as World War Calderon served first as an interpreter in France and midshipman. In 1796 he was named captain of the fleet by. Sir then as a line officer in the Dardanelles, His name was in the John Jervis, and took part in the great battle off Cape St. Vincent wounded and missing list of June 4, 1915. (Feb. 14, 1797). He received a baronetcy in 1798. In 1799 he CALDERON, PHILIP HERMOGENES (1833-1898), became rear-admiral; and in 1801 he was despatched with a small English painter, born at Poitiers, only son of the Rev. Juan Caldsquadron in pursuit of a French force, under Admiral Gantheaume, eron, a native of La Mancha. He was educated from his rath conveying supplies to the French in Egypt. In this pursuit he year in London, where his father was professor of Spanish literaWas not successful, and returning home at the peace he struck ture at King’s college. He began his artistic studies in 1850 at his flag. When the war again broke out he was recalled to service, Leigh’s, in Newman street. When nearly 20 he went to Paris to was promoted vice-admiral in 1804, and was employed in the study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, under M. Picot. His most following year in the blockade of the ports of Ferrol and Corunna, popular picture is “Broken Vows,” exhibited at the Royal Acadin which (amongst other ports) ships were preparing for the in- emy in 1857. He became A.R.A. in 1864, R.A. in 1867. He was vasion of England by Napoleon I. He held his position with a elected keeper of the Royal Academy in 1887, and died at Burlingforce greatly inferior to that of the enemy, and refused to be ton House on April 30, 1898. Calderon belonged to the so-called

. enticed out to sea.. On its becoming known that the first move-

ment directed by Napoleon was the raising of the blockade of

St. John’s Wood school, which excelled in genre pictures with historical interest.

566

CALDERON—CALDERON

CALDERÓN RODRIGO

(d. 1621), COUNT OF OLIVA AND

MARQUESS DE Las Siete Increstas, Spanish favourite and adventurer, was born at Antwerp, the son of a Spanish army officer. In

1598 he entered the service of the duke of Lerma as secretary. He was created count of Oliva, a knight of Santiago, commendador of Ocaña in the order, secretary to Philip HI. and made an advantageous marriage with Ines de Vargas. As an insolent upstart he was peculiarly odious to the enemies of Lerma. Two religious persons, Juan de Santá Maria, a Franciscan, and Mariana de San José, prioress of La Encarnacion, worked on the queen Margarita, by whose influence Calderón was removed from the secretaryship in r6rr. But he retained the favour of Lerma, and in 1612 he was sent on a special mission to Flanders, and on his return was made marqués de Las Siete Inglesias in 1614. When queen Margarita died in that year in childbirth Calderon was ac-

cused of having used witchcraft against her. Soon after, it became

generally known that he had ordered the murder of one Francisco de Juaras. On Lerma’s disgrace in 1618 he was arrested, despoiled,

and on Jan. 7, 1620, was savagely tortured until he confessed to the murder of Juaras, although he steadfastly denied all the other charges. He met his fate firmly with a show of piety on Oct. 21, 1621. Lord Lytton made Rodrigo Calderón the hero of his story Calderón the Courtier.

See Modeste de la Fuente, Historia General Espana, vol. xv. pp. 452 et seq. (1850-67) ; Quevedo, Obras, vol. x —Grandes Anales de Quince Dias (1794). A curious contemporary French pamphlet on Calderon, Histoire admirable et declin pitoyable advenue en la personne dun fawory de la Cour d'Espagne, is reprinted by M. E. Fournier in Variétés historiques, vol. i. (1855).

CALDERÓN DE LA BARCA, PEDRO (1600-1681), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Madrid on Jan. 17, 1600. He was educated at the Jesuit college in Madrid with a view to accepting a family living; abandoning this project, he studied law at Salamanca, and competed with success at the literary fétes held in honour of St. Isidore at Madrid (1620-22). From 1625-35 Calderén seems to have resided at Madrid. Early in 1629 his brother Diego was stabbed by an actor, who took sanctuary in the convent of the Trinitarian nuns; Calderón and his friends broke into the cloister and attempted to seize the offender. This

violation was denounced by the fashionable preacher, Hortensio Félix Paravicino (q.v.), in a sermon preached before Philip IV.; Calderón retorted by introducing into Æl principe constante a

mocking reference

(afterwards cancelled) to Paravicino’s gon-

goristic verbiage, and was committed to prison. He was soon re-

leased, grew rapidly in reputation as a playwright, and, on the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, was recognized as the foremost Spanish dramatist of the age. A volume of his plays, edited by his brother José in 1636, contains such celebrated and diverse productions as Èa Vida es sueño, El Purgatorio de San Patricio, La Devocién de la cruz, La Dama duende and Peor está que estaba. In 1636-37 he was made a knight of the order of Santiago by Philip IV., who had already commissioned from him a series of spectacular plays for the royal theatre in the Buen Retiro. Calderén was almost as popular with the general public as Lope de Vega had been in his zenith; he was, moreover, in high favour at court, but this royal patronage did not help to develop the finer elements of his genius. On May 28, 1640, he joined a company of mounted cuirassiers raised by Olivares, took part in the Catalonian campaign, and distinguished himself by his gallantry at Tarragona; his health failing, he retired from the army in Nov. 1642, ahd three years later was awarded a special military pension in recognition of his services in the field. The history of his life during the next few years is obscure. He appears to have been profoundly affected by the death of his mistress—the mother of his son Pedro José—about the year 1648-49; his long connection with the theatre had led him into temptations, but it had not diminished his instinctive spirit of devotion, and he now sought consolation in religion. He became a tertiary of the order of St. Francis in 1650, and finally reverted to his original intention of joining the priesthood. He was ordained in 1651, was presented to a living in the parish of San Salvador at Madrid, and, according to his statement made a year or two later, de-

termined to give up writing for the stage. He did not adhere

DE LA BARCA

to this resolution after his preferment to a prebend at Toledo in 1653, though he confined himself as much as possible to the com.

position of autos sacramentales—allegorical pieces in which the mystery of the Eucharist was illustrated dramatically, and which were performed with great pomp on the feast of Corpus Christj and during the weeks Calderén’s autos—Las

immediately ensuing. In 1662 two of órdenes militares and Mística y real

Babilonia—were the subjects of an enquiry by the Inquisition:

the former was censured; the manuscript copies were confiscated and the condemnation was not rescinded till 167r. Calderón was appointed honorary chaplain to Philip IV. in 1663, and the royal favour was continued to him in the next reign. In his 8zst year

he wrote his last secular play, Hado y Divisa de Leonido y Marfisa, in honour of Charles IT.’s marriage to Marie-Louise de Bourbon. Notwithstanding his position at court and his universal popularity throughout Spain, his closing years seem to have been passed in poverty. He died on May 25, 168r. Like most Spanish dramatists, Calderón wrote too much and too

speedily, and he was too often content to recast the productions of his predecessors. His Saber del mal y del bien is an adaptation of Lope de Vega’s play, Las Mudanzas de la fortuna y sucesos de Don Beltran de Aragón; his Selva confusa is also adapted from a

play of Lope’s which bears the same title; his Encanto sin encanto derives from Tirso de Molina’s Amar por señas, and, to take an extreme instance, the second act of his Cabellos de Absalón is transferred almost bodily from the third act of Tirso’s Venganza de Tamar.

It would be easy to add other examples of Calderón’s

lax methods, but it is simple justice to point out that he committed no offence against the prevailing code of literary morality. Many of his contemporaries plagiarized with equal audacity, but with far less success. Sometimes, as in EJ Alcalde de Zalamea, the bold procedure is completely justified by the result; in this case by his individual treatment he transforms one of Lope de Vega’s rapid improvisations into a finished masterpiece. It was not given to him to initiate a great dramatic movement; he came at the end of a literary revolution, was compelled to accept the conventions which Lope de Vega had imposed on the Spanish stage, and he accepted them all the more readily since they were peculiarly suitable to the display of his splendid and varied gifts. Not a master of observation or an expert in invention, he showed an unexampled skill in contriving ingenious variants on existing themes; he had a keen dramatic sense, an unrivalled dexterity in manipulating the mechanical resources of the stage, and in addition to these minor indispensable talents he was endowed with a lofty philosophic imagination and a wealth of poetic diction. Naturally, he had the defects of his great qualities; his ingenuity is apt to degenerate into futile embellishment; his employment of theatrical devices is the subject of his own good-humoured satire in No hay burlas con el amor; his philosophic intellect is more interested in theological mysteries than in human passions; and the delicate beauty of his

style is tinged with a wilful preciosity. Excelling Lope de Vega at

many points, Calderón falls below his great predecessor in the delineation of character. Yet in almost every department of dramatic art Calderón has obtained a series of triumphs. In the sym-

bolic drama he is best represented by El Principe constante, by

El Mágico prodigioso (familiar to English readers in Shelley's Tree translation), and by La Vida es sueño, perhaps the most profound and original of his works. His tragedies are more remarkable for

their acting qualities than for their convincing truth, and the fact that in La Niña de Gomez Arias he interpolates an entire act bor-

rowed from Velez de Guevara’s play of the same title seems to

indicate that this kind of composition awakened no great interest in him; but in Æl Médico de su honra and El Mayor monstruo los celos the theme of jealousy is handled with sombre power, while

El Alcalde de Zalamea is one of the greatest tragedies in Spanish literature. Calderón is seen to much less advantage in the spectat ular plays—dramas de tramoya—which he wrote at the command

of Philip IV.; the dramatist is subordinated to the stage-carpenter, but the graceful fancy of the poet preserves even such a mediocre piece as Los Tres Mayores prodigios (which won him his knighthood) from complete oblivion. A greater opportunity isafforde

in the more animated comedias palaciegas, or melodramatic prec

CALDERWOOD—CALEDONIA destined to be played before courtly audiences in the royal palace: La Banda y la fior and El Galán fantasma are charming illustrations of Calderón’s genial conception and refined artistry. His his-

567

de las sirenas and La Purpura de la rosa are typical zarzuelas, to be

in 1868, he became professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He was made LL.D. of Glasgow in 1865. He died on Nov. 10, 1897. His first and most famous work was The Philosophy of the Infinite (1854) in which he attacked the statement of Sir William Hamilton that we can have no knowledge of the Infinite. Calderwood held that such knowledge can exist; that Faith implies

are lacking in the lively humour which should characterize these

knowledge. His moral philosophy endeavours to substantiate the doctrine of divine sanction. Beside the data of experience,

torical plays (La Gran Cenobia, Las armas de la hermosura, etc.)

are the weakest of all his formal dramatic productions; El Golfo

judged by the standard of operatic libretti; and the entremeses

dramatic interludes. On the other hand, Calderén’s faculty of ingenious stagecraft is seen at its best in his “cloak-and-sword” plays (comedias de capa y espada), which are invaluable pictures of contemporary society. They are conventional, no doubt, in the sense that all representations of a specially artificial society must be conventional; but they are true to life and are still as interest-

ing as when they first appeared. In this kind No siempre lo peor es cierto, La Dama duende, Una casa con dos puertas mala es de guardar and Guárdate del agua mansa are almost unsurpassed. But it is as a writer of autos sacramentales that Calderón defies rival-

ry; his intense devotion, his subtle intelligence, his sublime lyrism, all combine to produce such marvels of allegorical poetry as La Cena del rey Baltasar, La Vina del Senor and La Serpiente de

metal. The autos lingered on in Spain till 1765, but they may be said to have died with Calderón, for his successors merely imitated him with a tedious fidelity. Almost alone among Spanish poets, Calderón had the good fortune to be printed in a fairly correct and readable edition (1682—91), thanks to the enlightened zeal of his admirer, Juan de Vera Tassis y Villaroel, and owing to this happy accident he came to be regarded generally as the first of Spanish dramatists. The publication of the plays of Lope'de Vega and of Tirso de Molina has affected the critical estimate of Calderón’s work; he is seen to be inferior to Lope de Vega in creative power,

and inferior to Tirso de Molina in variety of conception. But, setting aside the extravagances of his admirers, he is admittedly an exquisite poet, an expert in the dramatic form, and a typical representative of the devout, chivalrous, patriotic, and artificial

society in which he moved.

(J. F.-K.)

BystiocRAPay.—H. Breymann, Calderon-Studien (1905), i. Teil, contains a fairly exhaustive list of editions, translations and arrangements; Autos sacramentales (1759-60), ed. J. Fernandez de Apontes; Comedias (1848-50), ed, J. E. Hartzenbusch; Teatro selecto (1884) ed. M. Menéndez y Pelayo; El Mágico prodigioso (Heilbronn, 1877) en A. Morel-Fatio; Select Plays of Calderón (1888), ed. N. Mac oll. See also E, Fitzgerald, Sie Dramas of Calderón (1853), a free transe

lation; F. W. V. Schmidt, Die Schauspiele Calderon’s (Elberfeld, 1857); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Calderón y su teatro (1881); E,

Günthner, Calderon und seine Werke (Freiburg i, B. 1888); C. Pérez Pastor, Documentos para la biografié de D. Pedro Calderén de la Barca (1905) ; 8. de Madariaga, Shelley and Calderén (1920).

CALDERWOOD,

DAVID

(1575-1650), Scottish divine

and historian, was educated at Edinburgh, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1593. About 1604 he became minister of Crailing, near Jedburgh, and resolutely opposed the introduction

of Episcopacy. In 1617, while James was in Scotland, a Remon-

strançe, which had been drawn up by the Presbyterian clergy, was placed in Calderwood’s hands, He was summoned to St.

Andrews and examined before the king, but neither threats nor

promises could make him deliver up the roll of signatures to

the Remonstrance. The privy council ordered him to be banished from the kingdom for refusing to acknowledge the sentence of the High Commission, On Aug. 27, 1619, he sailed for Holland. During his residence in Holland he published his Altare Damascenum (1623). Calderwood appears to have returned to Scotland in 1624, and he was soon afterwards appointed minister of Pencaitland, in the county of Haddington. His last years were devoted to the preparation of a History of the Kirk of Scotland, the ms. of which is in the British Museum. An abridgment was published in 1678. A digest of the complete work was published by the Wodrow Society (1842-49). Calderwood died at Jedburgh on Oct, 25, 1650,

CALDERWOOD,

HENRY

i

(1830-1897), Scottish philo-

Sopher and divine, was born at Peebles on May 10, 1830. He was educated at the Royal High school and the University of Edinburgh, In 1856 he was ordained pastor of the Greyfriars church, Glasgow. He taught moral philosophy at Glasgow university until,

the mind has pure activity of its own whereby it apprehends reality. He wrote in addition A Handbook of Moral Philosophy (1872); On the Relations of Mind and Brain (1879); Science and Religion (1880); Evolution and Man’s place in Nature (1893). Among his religious works the best known is his Parables of Our Lord (1880), and just before his death he finished a Life of David Hume in the “Famous Scots” series (1896). He was the first chairman of the Edinburgh school board.

CALDWELL,

a city of Idaho, U.S.A.; in the fertile Boise

valley, near the western boundary of the State; the county seat of Canyon county. It is on Federal highway 30 and the Oregon Short Line of the Union Pacific railway system. The population in 1930 was 4,974. It is the centre of a government irrigation project of 144,200ac., 80% of which is already under crops. The College of Idaho was established here in 1890.

CALDWELL, a town of Essex County, New Jersey, named in honour of a hero of the Revolution; population in 1930 was 5,144;

connected by the Erie Railway and motor bus with neighbouring cities. Here Grover Cleveland, twice President of the United States, was born on March 18, 1837; Cleveland Park was named in his honour.

CALEB, in the Bible, one of the spies sent by Moses from Kadesh in South Palestine to spy out the land of Canaan. For his courage he was rewarded by the promise that he and his seed should possess it (Num. xiii. seg.). Later tradition includes Joshua, the hero of the conquest of the land. Subsequently Caleb settled in Kirjath-Arba (Hebron), but there are different accounts. (a) Caleb drove out the Anakites, giants of Hebron, and gave his daughter Achsah to Othniel, his brother, who took Kirjath-Sepher

or Debir (Jos. xv. 14-19). Both are “sons” of Kenaz, an Edomite clan (Gen. xxxvi). Elsewhere (b) Caleb the Kenizzite reminds Joshua of the promise at Kadesh; he asks that he may have the “mountain whereof Yahweh spake,” and hopes to drive out the giants from its midst. Joshua blesses him and thus Hebron becomes the inheritance of Caleb (Josh. xiv. 6-15). Further. (c) the capture of Hebron and Debir is ascribed to Judah who gives them to Caleb (Judg. i. ro seg. 20); and finally (d) these cities are taken by Joshua himself in the course of a great campaign against South Canaan (Josh. x. 36-39). The seat of the clan was at Carmel in South Judah, and Abigail, the wife of the Calebite Nabal, was taken by David after her husband’s death (I Sam. xxv., xxx. 14). Later the small divisions of the south were united under the name Judah, and this is reflected in the genealogies of I Chron. ii., iv., where Caleb and Jerahmeel become

descendants of JupaH (g.v.).

CALEDON,

a town 87 m. from Cape Town, situated 34°

14’ S., 19° 25’ E., on a spur of the Zwartberg, at an altitude of 754 feet. Pop. 1,498 whites and about 1,000 coloured. It is not laid out in the usual rectangular plan. The streets conform to the irregularities of the slopes, and are lined with oaks and blue gums. The town has several mineral springs, of which six have a temperature of 118°. It used to be visited by Dutch and British officials from the East Indies and India, who are said to have

derived

much

benefit

from

the baths, which

are radio-

active. The opening of the Suez canal diverted this traffic, but in recent years Caledon has attracted more health-seeking visitors. Sixteen baths and a hot swimming-bath have been installed. The district of Caledon is largely devoted to pastoralism. Wool

and grain are its chief products. It also has a large trade in wild flowers, especially everlastings,

and many

varieties

of heaths.

Good shooting is to be had. Caledon is also the name tributary of the Orange River (g.v.).

of a

CALEDONIA, the Roman name of North Britain, still used

for Scotland, especially in poetry.

It occurs first in the poet

568

CALEDONIAN

CANAL—CALENDAR

BrsriocrapHy.—Tacitus, Agricola (ed. J. G. C. Anderson, 1922); Lucan (A.D. 64), and then often in Roman literature. There were Hist. Augusta, Vita Severi; Dio lxxvi.; G. Macdonald, The Roman have must border southern the which of Caledonia, district a Wall in Scotland (1911), “Roman Coins found in Scotland” (in Proc (1) been on or near the isthmus between the Clyde and the Forth, Soc. Ant. Scot. lii. and Iviii.) and “The Agricolan Occupation of North (2) a Caledonian Forest (possibly in Perthshire), and (3) a tribe Britain” (in Journ. Roman Studies ix.) ; J. Curle, A Roman Frontier Post (x9r1z) and “Roman and Native Remains in Caledonia” in of Caledones or Calidones, named by the geographer Ptolemy as (Journ, Roman Studies iii.). For accounts of excavations see Proc, living within boundaries which are now unascertainable. ‘The Soc. Antig. Scot. xxx. ff. (Birrens, Ardoch, Birrenswark, Camelon , Zyne, Romans first invaded Caledonia under Agricola about A.D. 82. Inchtuthill, Bar Hill, Castlecary, Rough Castle, Raedykes, Glenmaitan ! After a brief halt on the Forth and Clyde Isthmus, where they and Mumrills) and S. N. Miller, Tke Roman Fort at Balmuildy (1922). For the inscriptions see Corpus Inscr. Lat. vii. and Ephem. established a line of temporary posts, one or two of which, Epigr. (F. J. H.; G. M.) iv. and ix. notably that at Barhill, have been identified through excavation, CALEDONIAN CANAL. The chain of fresh-water lakes of battle decisive the fought and north farther they penetrated

the war, according to Tacitus on the slopes of Mons Grauplus. (This, not Grampius, is the proper spelling, though Grampius was at one time commonly accepted and indeed gave rise to the

modern name Grampian.) The site must have been some way beyond the Roman encampment of Inchtuthill (in the policies

of Delvine, rom. north of Perth near the union of Tay and Isla), which is the most northerly of the ascertained Roman encamp-

ments of a permanent character in Scotland and belongs to the

—-Lochs Ness, Oich and Lochy—which stretch along the line of the Great Glen of Scotland in a south-west direction from Inverness, early suggested the idea of connecting the east and west coasts of Scotland by a canal which would save ships about 400 m. of coasting voyage round the north of Great Britain through the

stormy Pentland firth. In 1773 James Watt was employed by the government to make a survey for such a canal, which was constructed by Thomas Telford and opened in 1822. From the north-

ern entrance on Beauly firth to the southern, near Ft. William, age of Agricola. Tacitus represents the result as a victory. The the total length is about 60 m., that of the artificial portion being home government, whether averse to expensive conquests of barabout 22 m. The number of locks is 28, and their lift is in general ren hills, or afraid of a victorious general, abruptly recalled Agricabout 8 ft., but some of them are for regulating purposes only, abandoned were conquests ola. The old view that his northern The navigation is vested in and managed by the commissioners of is not borne out by the results of recent research. Rather, there the Caledonian canal, of whom the speaker of the House of Comis evidence to show that they were held for 20 or 30 years after mons is ex officio chairman. Any profits must be expended on abun. The vicissitudes various his departure, though not without renewals and improvements of the canal, but parliament is occadance and richness of the relics found at Newstead, the Trisionally called upon to make special grants. The canal is now montium of Ptolemy, suggests that, on one occasion at least, the little used owing to its small size and the increased power and the fixed Hadrian Finally withdrawal was anything but orderly. range of steam fishing vessels. In the commissioners is also vested frontier to the south of Cheviot. The next advance followed immediately. About A.D. 142, when the district up to the Firth the Crinan canal (g.v.). CALENBERG, the name of a district, including the town of of Forth was definitely annexed, and a rampart with forts along Hanover, formerly part of the duchy of Brunswick. It received it, the Wall of Antoninus Pius, was drawn from sea to sea (see its name from a castle near Schulenburg, and is traversed by the Britain: Roman; and ANTONINUS Pius). At the same time a rivers Weser and Leine, its area being about 1,050 square miles. Carpow and Dunblane few other forts such as Ardoch, north of

near Abernethy were occupied or reoccupied. But the conquest was stubbornly disputed, and after several risings, the land north of Cheviot was lost about A.D. 180-185. About A.D. 208 the emperor Septimius Severus carried out an extensive punitive expedition against the northern tribes. It is doubtful how far he penetrated, for he has left no indubitable traces of his presence save at Cramaond on the Forth, and the great temporary camps that have been recognized in the shires of Forfar, Kincardine and Aberdeen, may as easily belong to earlier campaigns as to his. It is, however, clear that after his death the Roman writ never

again ran north of Cheviot. Rome, indeed, is sometimes said to have recovered the, whole land up to the Wall of Pius in A.D. 368 and to have established there a province, Valentia. A province with that name was certainly organized somewhere. But its site and extent are quite uncertain and its duration was exceedingly brief. Throughout, Scotland remained substantially untouched by Roman influences, and its Celtic art, though perhaps infuenced by Irish, remained free from Mediterranean infusion. Even in the south of Scotland which was for a time within the empire, the occupation was military and produced little civilizing effect. Of the actual condition of the land during the period of Roman rule in Britain, we are only beginning to learn the details by excavation. The remains from the purely native settlement on Traprain Law in East Lothian, where the houses were of daub and wattle, include much Roman pottery and many Roman coins. The “brochs,” the “‘crannoys,” and the underground stone houses locally called “weems” in all three of which Roman fragments have been found, were also native forms of dwelling, etc., and some of the “Late Celtic” metal work may belong to this age.

But of the political divisions, the boundaries and capitals of the tribes, and the like, we know nothing. Ptolemy gives a list of tribes and place names. But hardly one can be identified with any approach to certainty, except in the extreme south. Nor has unanimity quite been reached about the ethnological problems of the population, the Aryan or.non-Aryan character of the Picts

_ and the like. The name Caledonia is said to survive in the second syllable of Dunkeld and in “Schiehallion” (Sithchaillinn).

The district was given to various cadets of the ruling house of Brunswick, one of these being Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover, and the ancestor of the Hanoverian kings of Great Britain and Ireland.

CALENDAR, so called from the Roman Calends or Kalends,

a method of distributing time into certain periods adapted to the purposes of civil life, as hours, days, weeks, months, years, etc. The solar day is distinguished by the daily revolution of the earth and the alternation of light and darkness.

The solar year

completes the circle of the seasons. The phases of the moon yield the month. The solar day, the solar year, and the lunar month, or lunation, are called the natural divisions of time. The hour, the week, and the civil month are conventional divisions.

Day, Week and Month.—The subdivision of the day (q.v)

into twenty-four parts, or hours combines a natural with a conventional division. The week, a period of seven days, having no reference whatever to the celestial motions, might have been

suggested by the phases of the moon, or by the number of the

planets known in ancient times, an origin which is rendered more

probable from the names universally given to the different days of which it is composed. The English names of the days are derived from the Saxon. The ancient Saxons had borrowed the week from some Easter nation, and substituted the names of their own divinities for those of the gods of the East. Dies Dies Dies Dies Dies Dies Dies

Latin Solis. Lunae. Martis. Mercurii. Jovis. Veneris. Saturni.

English Sunday. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturday.

Saxon Sun’s day. Moon’s day. Tiw’s day. Woden’s day. Thor’s day. Frigg’s day. Seterne’s day.

it Long before the exact length of the year was determined, must have been perceived that the synodic revolution of the moon is accomplished in about 293 days. Twelve lunations, therefore, form a period of 354 days, which differs only by about 114 days

from the solar year. From this circumstance has arisen the prat-

CALENDAR tice of dividing the year into twelve months.

But in the course

of a few years the accumulated difference between the solar year

and twelve lunar months would become considerable, and have the effect of transporting the commencement of the year to a different

season. To avoid this inconvenience some peoples have abandoned the moon altogether, and regulate their year by the course of the

sun. The month, however, being a convenient period of time, has retained its place in the calendars of all nations, and usually denotes an arbitrary number of days approaching to the twelfth part of a solar year.

Year.—The year is either astronomical or civil. The solar astronomical year is the period of time in which the earth performs a revolution in its orbit about the sun, or passes from any point of the ecliptic to the same point again; and consists of 365 days 5 hours 48 min. and 46 sec. of mean solar time.

The civil

year is that which is employed in chronology, and varies among different peoples, both in respect of the season at which it com-

mences and of its subdivisions.

When regard is had to the sun’s

motion alone, the regulation of the year, and the distribution of the days into months, may be effected without much trouble; but the difficulty is greatly increased when it is sought to reconcile solar and lunar periods, or to make the subdivisions of the year

depend on the moon, and at the same time to preserve the correspondence between the whole year and the seasons.

In the arrangement of the civil year, two objects are sought to be accomplished—first, the equable distribution of the days among twelve months; and secondly, the preservation of the beginning of the year at the same distance from the solstices or equinoxes. Now, as the year consists of 365 days and a fraction, and 365 is a number not divisible by 12, the months can not all be of the same length and at the same time include all the days of the year. By reason also of the fractional excess of the length of the year above 365 days, the years cannot all contain the same number of days if the epoch of their commencement remains fixed; for the day and the civil year must necessarily be considered as beginning at the same instant; and therefore the extra hours cannot be included in the year till they have accumulated to a whole day. As soon as this has taken place, an additional day must be given to the year. , The civil calendar of all European countries has been borrowed from that of the Romans. At the time of Julius Caesar, the civil equinox differed from the astronomical by three months, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn and the autumnal into summer. Caesar abolished the use of the lunar year and the intercalary month, and regulated the civil year entirely by the sun. With the advice and assistance of Sosigenes, he fixed the mean length of the year at 3654 days, and decreed that every fourth year should have 366 days, the other years having each 365. The first Julian year commenced with the rst of January of the 46th before the birth of Christ, and the 708th from the foundation of the city. It may be recorded that evidence has now come to light of the existence in earlier days of a calendar based on a standard year starting from noon on our February 2sth. For many years it was imagined that Caesar readjusted the year so that the first,-third, fifth, seventh, ninth and eleventh months, that is, January, March, May, July, September and November should have each thirty-one days, and the other

months thirty, excepting February, which in common years should have only twenty-nine, but every fourth year thirty days But no ancient or modern authority supports this view, which is a flat contradiction of what -Macrobius says in his Saturnalia 1,14,7, Statements that are repeated in effect in section 9. Most modern authorities are agreed that much of the suggestion about Augustan activities is unwarranted and that Augustus had noth-

ing to do with the lengthening of the month bearing his name. The additional day which occurred every fourth year was given to February, as being the ¢ghortest month, and this additional or

Intercalary day. was called bis-sexto calendas.

Although the Julian method of intercalation is perhaps the most convenient that could be adopted, yet, as it supposes the year too long by 11 minutes 14 seconds, the real error amounts

569

to a day in 128 years. In the course of a few centuries, however, the equinox sensibly retrogrades towards the beginning of the year. In order to restore the equinox to its former place, Pope Gregory XIII. directed ten days to be suppressed in the calendar; and as the error of the Julian intercalation was now found to amount to three days in 400 years, he ordered the intercalations to be omitted on all the centenary years excepting those which are multiples of 400. According to modern astronomy the mean geocentric motion of the sun in longitude, from the mean equinox during a Julian year of 365-25 days, is 360° + 27-685. Thus the mean length of the 360° solar year is X 365-25 = 365-2422 days, or 365 days

360°-+ 27-685

5 hours 48 min. 46 sec. Now the Gregorian rule gives 97 intercalations in 400 years; 400 years therefore contain 365400+-97, that is, 146,097 days; and consequently one year contains 365-2425 days, or 365 days 5 hours 49 min. 12 sec. This exceeds the true solar year by 26 seconds, which amount to a day in 3,323 years. It has therefore been proposed to correct the Gregorian rule by making the year 4000 and all its multiples common years. With this correction the rule of intercalation is as follows:— Every year the number of which is divisible by 4 is a leap year, excepting the last year of each century, which is a leap year only when the number of the century is divisible by 4; but 4,000, and its multiples, 8,000, 12,000, 16,000, etc., are common years. Thus the uniformity of the intercalation, by continuing to depend on the number four, is preserved, and by the last correction the be~ ginning of the year would not vary more than a day from its present place in two hundred centuries. The Lunar Year.—The lunar year, consisting of twelve lunar months, contains only 354 days; its commencement consequently anticipates that of the solar year by eleven days, and passes through the whole circle of the seasons in about 34 lunar years. It being so obviously ill-adapted to the computation of time, almost all nations employ some method of intercalation, by means of which the beginning of the year is retained at nearly the same fixed place in the seasons.

Ecclesiastical Calendar.—The

ecclesiastical calendar which

is adopted in all the Catholic and most of the Protestant countries of Europe is luni-solar, being regulated partly by the solar, and partly by the lunar year, a circumstance which gives rise to the distinction between the movable and immovable feasts. By the 2nd

century

of our

era,

disputes

had

arisen

among

the

Christians respecting the proper time of celebrating Easter, which governs all the other movable feasts. The Jews celebrated their passover on the 14th day of the first month, that is to say, the lunar month of which the 14th day either falls on, or next follows, the day of the vernal equinox. Most Christian sects agreed that Easter should be celebrated on a Sunday. Others followed the example of the Jews, and adhered to the 14th of the moon; but these, the minority, were accounted heretics, and received the appellation of Quartodecimans. The council of Nicaea, in the year 325, ordained that the celebration of Easter should thenceforth always take place on the Sunday which immediately follows the full moon that happens upon, or next after, the day of the vernal equinox. Should the r4th of the moon, which is regarded as the day of full moon, happen on a Sunday, the celebration of Easter was deferred to the Sunday following, in order to avoid concurrence with the Jews and the above-mentioned heretics. The observance of this rule renders it necessary to reconcile three periods which have no common measure, namely, the week, the lunar month, and the solar year; and as this can only be done approximately, and within certain limits, the determination of Easter is an affair of considerable nicety and complication. Dominical Letter.—The first problem which the construction of the calendar presents is to connect the week with the year, or to find the day of the week corresponding to a given day of any year of the era. As the number of days in the week and the number in the year are prime to one another, two successive years cannot begin with the same day; for if a common year begins, for example, with Sunday, the following year

579

CALENDAR

will begin with Monday, and if a leap year begins with Sunday, the year following will begin with Tuesday. For the sake of greater generality, the days of the week are denoted by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, which are placed in the calendar beside the days of the year, so that A stands opposite the first day of January, B opposite the second, and so on to G, which stands opposite the seventh; after which A returns to the eighth, and so on through the 365 days of the year. Now if one of the days of the week, Sunday for example, is represented by E, Monday will be represented by F, Tuesday by G, Wednesday by A, and so on; and every Sunday through the year will have the same character E, every Monday F, and so with regard to the rest. The letter which denotes Sunday is called the Dominical Letter, or the Sunday Letter; and when the dominical letter of the year is known, the letters which respectively correspond to the other days of the week become known at the same time. Solar Cycle.—In the Julian calendar the dominical letters are readily found by means of a short cycle, in which they recur in the same order without interruption. The number of years in the intercalary period being four, and the days of the week being seven, their product is 4X%7=28; twenty-eight years is therefore a period which includes all the possible combinations of the days of the week with the commencement of the year. This period, the Solar Cycle, or the Cycle of the Sun, restores the first day of the year to the same day of the week. At the end of the cycle the dominical letters return again in the same order on the same days of the month; hence a table of dominical letters, constructed for twenty-eight years, will serve to show the dominical letter of any given year from the commencement of the era to the Reformation. The cycle, though probably not invented before the time of the council of Nicaea, is regarded as having commenced nine years before the era, so that the year one was the tenth of the solar cycle. To find the year of the cycle, we have therefore the following rule:—Add nine to the date, divide the sum by twenty-eight; the quotient ts the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder is the year of the cycle. Should there be no remainder, the proposed year is the twentyeighth or last of the cycle. In order to make use of the solar cycle in finding the dominical letter, it is necessary to know that the first year of the Christian era began with Saturday. The

dominical letter of that year, which was the tenth of the cycle, was consequently B. The following year, or the r1th of the cycle, the letter was A; then G. The fourth year was bissextile, and the dominical letters were F, E; the following year D, and so on. In this manner it is easy to find the dominical letter belonging to each of the twenty-eight years of the cycle. But at the end of a century the order is interrupted in the Gregorian calendar by the secular suppression of the leap year; hence the cycle can only be employed during a century. In the reformed calendar the intercalary period is four hundred years, which number being multiplied by seven, gives two thousand eight hundred years as the interval in which the coincidence is restored between the days of the year and the days of the week. Lunar Cycle and Golden Number.—In connecting the lunar

month with the solar year, the framers of the ecclesiastical calendar adopted the lunar cycle, and organized the distribution of months. The lunations are supposed to consist of twenty-nine

and thirty days alternately, or the lunar year of 354 days; and

in order to make up nineteen solar years, six intercalary ‘months, of thirty days each, are introduced in the course of the cycle, and one of twenty-nine days is added at the end. This gives 19X354-+6X30+29=6,935 days, to be distributed among 235 lunar months. But every leap year one day must be added to the lunar month in which the 29th of February is included. Now if leap year happens on the first, second or third year of the period, there will be five leap years in the period, but only four when the first leap year falls on the fourth. In the former case the number of days in the period becomes 6,940 and in the

latter 6,939. The mean length of the cycle is therefore 6,939 days, agreeing exactly with nineteen Julian years. By means of the lunar cycle the new moons of the calendar

were indicated before the Reformation.

As the cycle restores

these phenomena to the same days of the civil month, they wil

fall on the same days in any two years which occupy the same

place in the cycle; consequently a table of the moon’s phases for 19 years will serve for any year whatever when we know its number in the cycle. This number is called the Golden Number

either because it was so termed by the Greeks, or because jt

was usual to mark it with red letters in the calendar. The golden numbers were introduced into the calendar about the year 30

but disposed as they would have been if they had been inserted at

the time of the council of Nicaea. commence

with the year in which

The cycle is supposed to

the new moon

falls on the

rst of January, which took place the year preceding the com-

mencement

of our era.

Hence, x-

to find the golden number N, ‘

;

for any year x, we haveN =( = J; which gives the following rule: Add 1 to the date, divide the sum by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed, and the remainder is the Golden Number. When the remainder is 0, the proposed year is of course

the last or roth of the cycle. The new moons, determined in this manner, may differ from the astronomical new moons sometimes as much as two days, because the sum of the solar and lunar inequalities, which are compensated in the whole period, may amount in certain cases to 10°, and thereby cause the new moon to arrive on the second day before or after its mean time. Dionysian Period.—The cycle of the sun brings back the

days of the month to the same day of the week; the lunar cycle restores the new moons to the same day of the month; therefore 28 X Ig==532 years, includes all the variations in respect of the new moons and the dominical letters, and is consequently a period after which the new moons again occur on the same day of the month and the same day of the week. This is called the Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, from its having been employed by Dionysius Exiguus, familiarly styled “Denys the Little,” in determining Easter Sunday. It was, however, first proposed by Victorius of Aquitaine, who had been appointed by Pope Hilary to revise and correct the church calendar. Hence it is also called the Victorian Period. It continued in use till the Gregorian reformation. Cycle of Indiction.—Besides the solar and lunar cycles, there is a third of 15 years, called the cycle of indiction, frequently employed in the computations of chronologists. This period has reference to certain judicial acts which took place at stated epochs under the Greek emperors. Its commencement is referred to the tst of January of the year 313 of the common era. By extending it backwards, it will be found that the first of the era was the fourth of the cycle of indiction. The number of any year in

this cycle will therefore be given by the formula

=

that

I

is to say, add 3 to the date, divide the sum by 15, and the remainder is the year of the indiction. When the remainder is ©, the proposed year is the fifteenth of the cycle. Julian Period.—The Julian period, proposed by the celebrated Joseph Scaliger as an universal measure of chronology,

is formed by taking the continued product of the three cycles of the sun, of the moon, and of the indiction, and is consequently 28X1I9X15=7,980 years. In the course of this long period no

two years can be expressed by the same numbers in all the three

cycles. Hence, when the number of any proposed year in each of the cycles is known, its number in the Julian period can be determined. ‘Reformation of the Calendar.—The ancient Church Calendar was founded

on two suppositions, both erroneous, namely,

that the year contains 3654 days and that 235 lunations are & actly equal to 19 solar years. It could not therefore long continue to preserve its correspondence with the seasons, or to indicate

the days of the new moons with the same accuracy. Pope Gregory XIII. issued a brief in the month of March 1582, in which he abolished the use of the ancient calendar, and substituted thet

which has since been received in almost all Christian countnés under the name of the Gregorian Calendar or New Style. The author of the system adopted by Gregory was Aloysius Lilius,

CALENDAR or Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, a learned astronomer and physician of Naples, who died, however, before its introduction;

but the in-

dividual who most contributed to give the ecclesiastical calendar its present form, and who was charged with all the calculations necessary for its verification, was Clavius, by whom it was completely developed and explained in a great folio treatise of 800 pages, published in 1603.

In order to restore the beginning of the year to the same place in the seasons that it had occupied at the time of the council of Nicaea, Gregory directed the day following the feast of St. Francis, that is to say the 5th of October, to be reckoned the rsth of that month. By this regulation the vernal equinox which then

happened on the 11th of March was restored to the 21st. From 1582 to 1700 the difference between the old and new style con-

tinued to be ten days; but 1700 being a leap year in the Julian calendar, and a common year in the Gregorian, the difference of the styles during the 18th century was eleven days. The year 1800 was also common in the new calendar, and, consequently, the difference in the 19th century was twelve days. From 1900 to 2100 inclusive it is thirteen days. The restoration of the equinox to its former place in the year and the correction of the intercalary period, were attended with

no difficulty; but Lilius had also to adapt the lunar year to the new rule of intercalation. The lunar cycle contained 6,939 days 18 hours, whereas the exact time of 235 lunations, as we have already seen, is 235 29-530588=6,939 days 16 hours 3: minutes.

The difference, r hour 29 minutes, amounts to a day in 308 years, so that at the end of this time the new moons occur one day earlier than they are indicated by the golden numbers.

Lilius

rejected the golden numbers from the calendar, and supplied their place by another set of numbers called Epacts, a term of Greek origin, which, employed in the calendar, signifies the moon’s age at the beginning of the year. The common solar year containing 365 days, and the lunar year only 354 days, the difference is eleven; whence, if a new moon fall on the rst of January in any year, the moon will be eleven days old on the first day of the following year, and twenty-two days on the first of the third year. The numbers eleven and twenty-two are therefore the epacts of those years respectively. Another addition of eleven gives thirty-three for the epact of the fourth year; but in consequence of the insertion of the intercalary month in each third ‘year of the lunar cycle, this epact is reduced to three. In like manner the epacts of all the following years of the cycle are obtained by successively adding eleven to the epact of the former year, and rejecting thirty as often as the sum exceeds that number. Two equations or corrections must be applied, one depending on the error of the Julian year, which is called the solar equation; the other on the error of the lunar cycle, which is called

the lunar equation. The solar equation occurs three times in 400

years, namely, in every secular year which is not a leap year; for in this case the omission of the intercalary day causes the new moons to arrive one day later in all the following months,

so that the moon’s age at the end of the month is one day less than it would have been if the intercalation had been made, and

the epacts must accordingly be all diminished by unity. Thus the epacts 11, 22, 3, 14, etc., become Io, 21, 2, 13, etc. On the other hand, when the time, by which the new moons anticipate the lunar cycle, amounts to a whole day, which, as we have seen, it does in 308 years, the new moons will arrive one day earlier, and the epacts must consequently be increased by unity. Thus the epacts Il, 22, 3, 14, etc., in consequence of the lunar equation, become 12, 23, 4, 15, etc. In order to preserve the uniformity of the calendar, the epacts are changed only at the commencement of a century; the correction of the error of the lunar cycle is therefore made at the end of 300 years. In the Gregorian calendar this error is assumed to amount to one day in 3124 years or eight days in 2,500 years, an assumption which requires the line of epacts to be changed seven times successively at the end of each period of 300 years, and once at the end of 400 years; and. from the manner in which the epacts were disposed at the Reformation, it was found most

correct to suppose

one of the

Periods of 2,500 years to terminate with the year 1800.

57%

The years in which the solar equation occurs, counting from the Reformation, are 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2500, etc. Those in which the lunar equation occurs are 1800, 2100, 2400, 2700, 3000, 3300, 3600, 3900, after which, 4300, 4600 and

so on. When the solar equation occurs, the epacts are diminished by unity; when the lunar equation occurs, the epacts are augmented by unity; and when both equations occur together, as in 1800, 2100, 2700, etc., they compensate each other, and the epacts are not changed. In consequence of the solar and lunar equations, it is evident that the epact or moon’s age at the beginning of the year, must, in the course of centuries, have all different values from one to 30 inclusive, corresponding to the days in a full lunar month. The use of the epacts is to show the days of the new moons, and thus the moon’s age. If the last lunation of any year ends, for example, on the 2nd of December, the new moon falls on the 3rd; and the moon’s age on the 31st, or at the end of the year, is twenty-nine days. The epact of the following year is therefore twenty-nine. Now, that lunation having commenced on the 3rd of December, and consisting of thirty days, will end on the 1st of January. The 2nd of January is therefore the day of the new moon, which is indicated by the epact 29. In like man-

ner, if the new moon fell on Dec. 4 the epact of the following year would be 28, which, to indicate the day of the next new moon, must correspond to Jan. 3.

Eastet.—The principal use of the calendar is to find Easter,

which, according to the traditional regulation of the council of Nice, must be determined from the following conditions:—1st, Easter must be celebrated on a Sunday; 2nd, this Sunday must follow the r4th day of the paschal moon, so that if the rath of the paschal moon falls on a Sunday then Easter must be celebrated on the Sunday following; 37d, the paschal moon is that of

which the 14th day falls on or next follows the day of the vernal equinox; 4th, the equinox is fixed invariably in the calendar on the 21st of March. This regulation is to be construed according to the tabular full moon as determined from the epact, and not by the true full moon, which, in general, occurs one or

two days earlier. From these conditions it follows that the paschal full moon, or the 14th of the paschal moon, cannot happen before the aist

of March, and that Easter in consequence cannot happen before the 22nd of March. If the 14th of the moon falls on the zıst, the new moon must fall on the 8th; for 2r—13==8; and the paschal new moon cannot happen before the 8th; for suppose the new moon to fall on the 7th, then the full moon would arrive on the 2oth, or the day before the equinox. The following moon would be the paschal moon. But the fourteenth of this moon falls at the latest on the 18th of April, or 29 days after the zoth of March; for by reason of the double epact that occurs at the 4th and sth of April, this lunation has only 29 days. Now, if in this case the 18th of April is Sunday, then Easter must be celebrated on the following Sunday, or the 25th of April. Hence Easter Sunday cannot happen earlier than the 22nd of March, or

later than the 25th of April. The complicated, though highly ingenious method, invented by Lilius, for the determination of Easter and the other movable feasts, is entirely independent of astronomical tables, or indeed of any celestial phenomena whatever; so that all chances of disagreement arising from the inevitable errors of tables, or the uncertainty of observation, are avoided, and Easter determined without the possibility of mistake. But this advantage is only procured by the sacrifice of some accuracy; for the conditions of the problem are not always exactly satisfied, nor can they be always satished by any similar method of proceeding. The equinox is fixed on the 2rst of March, though the sun enters

Aries generally on the 2oth of that month, sometimes even on the roth. A full moon may therefore arrive after the true equinox,

and yet precede the 21st of March. This would not be the paschal moon of the calendar, though it undoubtedly ought to be so if

the intention of the council of Nice were rigidly followed.

The

new moons indicated by the epacts also differ from the astronomical new moons, and even from the mean new moons, in gen-

CALENDAR

574

eral by one or two days. In imitation of the Jews, who counted the time of the new moon, not from the moment of the actual phase, but from the time the moon first became visible after the conjunction, the fourteenth day of the moon is regarded as the Perpetual Table, Showing Easier Dominical Letter

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full moon. But the moon is in opposition generally on the r6th day; therefore, when the new moons of the calendar nearly concur with the true new moons, the full moons are considerably in error. The epacts are also placed so as to indicate the full moons generally one or two days after the true full moons; but this was done to avoid the chance of concurring with the Jewish passover, which the framers of the calendar seem to have considered a greater evil than that of celebrating Easter a week too late. In 1923 a committee was appointed by the League of Nations to consider the reform of the Calendar and the establishment of a fixed Easter. No evidence was discovered of a wide desire to alter the calendar, but there was much secular support and a certain sympathy from some religious authorities in favour of a fixed Easter. In 1928 a private member’s bill was introduced into the British parliament, and duly passed in August (the Easter Act); it provided that, from a date to be fixed by an Order in Council, Easter day shall be the first Sunday following the second Saturday in April. This Order in Council may not be made, however, until a draft of the order has been approved by parliament— a safeguard intended to ensure uniform action with other countries, and to prevent the taking of any definite step before being assured of the acknowledged support of the religious denominations. The principal church feasts depending on Easter, and the times

of their celebration are as follows:— Septuagesima Sunday First Sunday in Lent.

Ash Wednesday .

Rogation Sunday . . . Ascension Day or Holy Thursday Pentecost or Whitsunday . Trinity Sunday . . .

states of Germany

9 weeks bef is< 6 weeks E oe

46 days}

.

“Set

5 weeks -_} 39 days\after 184 > weeks? Easter. 8 weeks

The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, Portugal and part of Italy the same day as at Rome. In France it was received in the same year in the month of December, and by the

the Julian calendar was adhered to till the

year 1700, when it was decreed by the diet of Regensburg that the new style and the Gregorian correction of the intercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of employing the golden numbers and epacts for the determination of Easter and the movable feasts, it was resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should be found by astronomical computation from the Rudolphine tables. But this method was abandoned in 1774 at the instance of Frederick II., king of Prussia. In Denmark ang Sweden the reformed calendar was received about the same time as in the Protestant states of Germany.

Russia adhered to the

Julian reckoning, until it was superseded by the Soviet Government, which introduced the Gregorian reckoning. In Great Britain the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 was passed for the adoption of the new style in all public and legal transactions. The difference of the two styles, which then amounted to eleven days, was removed by ordering the day following the 2nd of September of the year 1752 to be accounted

the 14th of that month; and in order to preserve uniformity in future, the Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the secular

years was adopted.

At the same time, the commencement of the

legal year was changed from the 25th of March to the ist of January. In Scotland, January Ist was adopted for New Year's

Day from 1600, according to an act of the privy council in December 1599. This fact is of importance with reference to the date of legal deeds executed in Scotland between that period and 1751, when the change was effected in England. With respect to

the movable feasts, Easter is determined by the rule laid down by the council of Nice; but instead of employing the new moons and epacts, the golden numbers are prefixed to the days of the full moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is changed in the Gregorian calendar, the golden numbers are removed to different days, and of course a new table is required whenever the solar or lunar equation occurs. The golden numbers have been placed

so that Easter may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian

calendar. The calendar of the Church of England is therefore from century to century the same in form as the old Roman calendar, excepting that the golden numbers indicate the full moons instead of the new moons. The Orthodox Church in Greece has adopted a modified Gregorian calendar, with a goo year cycle. The Orthodox Church in Greece has also adopted the Gregorian. system presumably in this form. Easter is computed by the actual, not the simplified ecclesiastical moon. The meridian for calculations is that of Jerusalem. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The principal works on the calendar are the following:—Clavius, Romani Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P.M. restituti Explicatio (Rome, 1603); L’Art de vérifier les dates; Lalande, Astronomie, tome ii.; Traité de la sphère et du calendrier, par M. Revard (Paris, 1816); Delambre, Traité de Pastronomie théorique et pratique, tome iii.; Histoire de astronomie moderne; Methodus technica brevis, perfacilis, ac perpetua construendi Calendarium Ecclesiasticum, Stylo tam novo quam vetere, pro cunctis Christianis Europae populis, etc. auctore Paulo Tittel (Göttingen, 1816) ; Formole analitiche pel calcolo della Pasqua, e correzione di quello di Gauss, con critiche osservazioni sù quanto ka scritto del calendario il Delambri, di Lodovico Ciccolini

(Rome, 1827); E. H. Lindo, Jewish Calendar for Sixty-four Years (1838); W. S. B. Woolhouse, Measures, Weights and Moneys ofall Nations (1869); R. G. Schram, Kalendariographische und Chronologische Tafeln (Leipzig, 1908), Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. iii., r910, art. Calendar, and articles below. (X.

PRIMITIVE

The calendar of the modern civilized world is a system of

time-reckoning

a . .

Catholic states of Germany the year following. In the Protestant

which

consists

of units or divisions and sub-

divisions which have a strictly limited duration: years, months,

days, hours, minutes, and seconds. To define a certain pomt of space in the lapse of time these units are simply numbered. They

serve not only for the indication and reckoning of time but also for its measurement. Consequently units of the same order ought always to have the same length, but here natural causes at tradition create certain exceptions such as months of 31, 3°: 29

and 28 days respectively, and, in the lunisolar calendar, years ° alternately 12 and 13 months. Primitive man clings always tothe concrete. In his experience certain natural phenomena constanuy

CALENDAR recur, @.g., the sun and the new moon, and certain phenomena

recur in the same order, e.g., snow, the sprouting of the leaves, the ripening of certain fruits, and the falling of the leaves, etc. By reference to such concrete phenomena he is able to indicate a certain time. Time indications of primitive man are not durational like the unit of any system of time-reckoning, but indefinite. Again, the phenomena referred to are often of unequal or indeterminate duration; they overlap or leave gaps, and cannot be numerically grouped together. Consequently we have to deal with a time-reckoning by time-indications only, or briefly, a discontinuous time-reckoning. A definite and constantly-recurring phenomenon, E.g., & certain day, a certain month, a certain year, is indicated by referring to a certain event or natural phenomenon connected with it as, for instance, the day of the waning of the

moon, the month in which the leaves fall, the year of the cattle disease, etc. It is possible to count time by reckoning a single phenomenon, recurring constantly within a certain unit, which has not yet been conceived as such.

The child who has seen

ten snows or ten harvests is ten years old. Nine new moons appear before the woman bears her child. This mode of counting

time may be called the pars-pro-toto method. Presuming that the indication of concrete phenomena following one another in the regular succession of Nature has preceded the abstract numerical indication of time, the origin of time-reckoning is to be found, not in any system, however simple, but in the time-indications referring to concrete phenomena and in the pars-pro-toto method of counting time referring to these concrete phenomena. Celestial phenomena are of outstanding importance. The units of time-reckoning depend on the motions of the heavenly bodies, and the more intimately these enter into the life of man, the more important they are for the calendar. The (solar) day of 24 hours is determined by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The year is the period of a revolution of the earth about the sun. The varying height of the sun and duration of its appearance are ultimately the causes of the seasonal variations of the climate and the life of Nature. By the term “months,” the lunar or moon-month is understood, unless expressly stated otherwise. Our months have nothing to do with the moon but are simply subdivisions of the solar year, the length of which comes near that of a lunar month. The lunar month is the interval between two consecutive new moons, and comprises slightly more than 294 days. Primitive man knows the stars and notes their appearances. It can be observed that some constellations appear in the heavens in the winter, others in the summer. The sun seems to move more slowly than the stars owing to the motion of the earth, and in the course of a year the sun runs through the zodiac backwards. The stars gain every day 3 min. 56 secs. on the sun, z.¢., a particular star culminates every day that much earlier than the sun. Primitive man rises and goes to bed with the sun. At dawn he notices the stars that are shining in the east and are soon to vanish before the light of the sun. In the same way he observes at evening, before he goes to rest, the stars on the western. horizon which soon afterwards set there. The star of which he is just able to catch a glimpse in the east in the morning twilight, will stand a little higher next morning, and it will rise earlier every morning until after about half a year its rising will take place in the evening twilight. The first visible appearance of a star in the morning twilight is termed its Aeliacal rising, and the last visible setting of a star in the evening twilight is called its helzacal setting. The observation of the stars provides a means of determining the time from quite regular phenomena, whereas the variations of the seasons in different years may be considerable. The Day.—The notion of the day of 24 hours, comprising a day and a night, is a late development, so late indeed that most languages lack a proper word for it. Some primitive peoples use such expressions as “light and darkness,” “sun-darkness’”’ to describe it. But this is rare. The days are counted according to the

pars-pro-toto method

in “suns,”

“nights,”

“sleeps,”

“dawns”

(Homer); whoever has slept six nights on the way has undertaken a six days’ journey. The counting in nights was especially favoured by the old Teutonic peoples (cf. the expressions “fort-

hight,” “sennight”).

For the indication of a point of time within

573

the day, reference to the course of the sun is very common, and this indication can be given by a gesture. More rarely the position or the length of the shadow is referred to, and still more rarely a staff is used as a sun-dial. In Iceland and the northern parts of Scandinavia the time of the day was determined by

mountain peaks or stone heaps above which the sun stood at a certain time of the day. The names of the divisions of the day are derived from natural phenomena, e.g.; day-break, twilight, sun-rise, morning, noon, etc., and from the common daily occupations. Examples of these are the Homeric description of evening as “the time when the oxen are unyoked,” and the Irish zmbuarach (morning), “at the yoking of the oxen.” Many primitive peoples have elaborate series of expressions of this kind. The night is the time of complete darkness and rest, and time indications are therefore scanty. The cock-crow sometimes serves this purpose and, more rarely, the stars are used by peoples who have studied them to determine the lapse of the night, because the position of the stars in the night-sky change every day. These indications do not imply a strictly limited duration as our ‘“‘hours” do. To indicate a definite time-limit, some activity, the duration of which is known, is referred tọ, e.g., “thè time in which one can cook a handful of vegetables,” i.e., an hour, “the frying of a locust,” ż¿.e., a moment. Very often duration of time is indicated by reference to the time needed to traverse a well-known piece of road. The Seasons.—The seasons are sometimes used to determine time within the year, but every seasonal occurrence, e.g., the sowing, is used thus, and as these have a short duration, they are better suited to indicate time and much more widely used for this purpose. Thus in the classical examples in Hesiod, the cry of the migrating cranes shows the time of ploughing and sowing; when the snail climbs up the plants there should be no more digging in the vineyards; when the thistle blossoms summer has come; the sea can be navigated when the fig-tree sprouts, etc. Similar timeindications are still used by peasants. Among primitive peoples they are common, and not only among the agricultural ones. The main seasons differ according to the zones. In the tropics there are dry and rainy seasons, sometimes two of each; the tradewinds and the monsoons and the intervening calms. Although the seasons recur more regularly in the tropics and the sub-tropical regions than in northern climates, they are of varying length, and there are greater and smaller seasons and seasonal points, which overlap. Consequently their number is varying and indefinite. We may, e.g., speak of the year as consisting of winter and summer or of spring, summer, harvest and winter. The old Teutons are said to have had only three seasons: winter, spring, and summer. The climatic conditions of the country are of paramount importance. The seasons are seldom adapted for true calendrical purposes, as only with some violence can they be systematized into periods of a definite number of days as the early Scandinavians did with the winter and summer. The Year.—A cycle of seasons make up a year, and while all peoples have an idea of the year in the sense that the same cycle of seasons always recurs in a certain order, they seldom consciously unite the different seasons into a year. The notion of the year is a comparatively late and gradual development acquired by means of selection, regulation and systemization of the seasons. Some peoples reckon in half-years—two seasons—without joining them together, as in East Africa where there are two rainy seasons, and in the East Indian Archipelago, where the south-west and the north-east monsoons each blow for about half a year. Some peoples count one dry and one rainy season without Combining them into a year. An incomplete year consisting of about ten months is found especially among some agricultural peoples, but is in reality the vegetation year, from the commencement of agricultural work to its end, when the harvest is housed; the vacant period is simply passed over. Such reckonings are known to be made in north-east Asia, the East Indian Archipelago and Central Africa. If the vacant period were added to this cycle, the natural year would be attained, but its length is indefinite and may vary according to the accidental variations of the climate. A calendrical year is attained only by the aid of the

574

CALENDAR

stars or the months. For the counting of years, the pars-pro-toto method is employed. The Hottentots reckon the age of their cattle and sheep by the calving and lambing periods. The Algonquin and the old Scandinavians counted by winters, the fellahs of Palestina and the Inca people by harvests, etc. Primitive peoples are primarily concerned with the age of a man in relation to his fellows, that is, whether he be older or younger than another, and from this the counting in generations is evolved. Years are not numbered but designated by reference to some well-known event which took place in a certain year, e.g., a plague, cattle disease, war, migration, unusual snowfall, etc. Long lists of such designations of years are quoted from the Herero and some North American Indians. The same method was employed in Babylonia and in pre-Mohammedan Arabia. Higher civilized peoples refer to their chiefs or kings and the years of their reign. If the highest authority is changed annually, the years are designated by their names: thus, in Rome, the year was

tinctions were not made, indeed were not possible. There was much overlapping, but from this material, by a kind of natural

archon. This method is unwieldy, for a long series of names must be kept in mind in correct order. The Stars.—Time indications by seasons are inexact because the phenomena to which they are related are fluctuating. Observation of the stars provides a means of indicating time within the year with greater precision. Most primitive peoples know the stars well, and some extremely well, e.g., the South American Indians, the Polynesians and Melanesians. Hesiod and many classical authors indicate time by the rising and setting of certain stars: the vines should be pruned before the evening rising of Arcturus; the morning setting of the Pleiades is the time of sowing and of the autumn storms, Counting by the stars, particularly by the Pleiades, is still practised by certain primitive peoples. The appearance of certain stars is connected with seasonal phenomena and used for determining agricultural occupations. Finally, a true notion of the year is formed by a few peoples when the period between a certain appearance of a star or constellation (principally the Pleiades) and its next appearance of the same

this phenomenon is over.

known by the name of the consul and in Greece by that of the

selection, a series of month-names came into being covering the course of the natural year. A number of such series have been found in all parts of the world except South America and Aus.

tralia. A year of 13 months is reckoned by quite as many peoples as reckon 12 months.

Inter- or Extra-calation.—Here a fundamental difficulty ap-

pears, for the solar year has 3654 days; 12 months make 354 days, i.e., 10 days too little, 13 months 384 days, z.¢., 19 days too

much. of the ciated passed

So long as the month-names are accidental, or only some months are named and the two or three months not asso.

with definite occupations are neglected, the difficulty is over. But once a fixed series of months has arisen they

soon cease to coincide with the natural phenomena and occupa-

tions after which they are named.

If the series has 12 months, a

month will come earlier than the natural phenomenon after which it is named. If the series has 13 months it will soon come after The Dakota often had heated debates

as to the existing month and the Pawnees sometimes became inextricably involved in their reckoning. The obvious remedy is to correct the reckoning after the occurrence of the natural phenomenon. In a r2-month series, for instance, the harvest month which came before the corn was ripe, is repeated; the first har-

vest month is then said to have been “lost” or “forgotten.” In the 13-month series the month which came after the natural phenomenon is simply left out, and the following month in the series is reckoned. The means resorted to in the former case was the intercalation of a month and in the latter the extracalation of a month to restore the months to their relative position in the seasons, 7.¢., the solar year, indicated by their names. Thus came into existence the lunisolar year which follows both the sun and

the moon, and consequently must have alternately 12 and 13

months. A still more exact means of detecting the deviation of the months and correcting it was attained by naming some or all of the months after the appearances of certain stars as, for inkind, e.g., the heliacal rising, is noticed. The inhabitants of the stance, is the practice in north-west America, Polynesia and MelMarquesas and some South American Indians call the year and anesia. In Babylonia, before the middle of the third millennium the Pleiades by the same name. In this manner, by observing B.C., the list of months had been fixed and a certain month had the heliacal rising of Sirius, the old Egyptians established the been singled out as the intercalary month. (From about 2000 B.c, it was one of the two months Adarru or Ululu.) The lunisolar solar year, and from them it was adopted by Julius Caesar. The Moon.—-The course of the moon forms a shorter unit year was regulated by empirical intercalation, which continued which steps in between day and year. The shorter period of time down to the Persian times. From Babylonia the Greeks took over defined by it is easily kept in mind and noted at a glance. It has the lunisolar year, but in the 7th century B.c. introduced a cyclical in itself nothing to do with the natural phases conditioned by intercalation, the octaéteris, thus setting the problem of the scienthe course of the sun. Time-reckoning according to the moon is tific regulation of the calendar. The natural year, being an ever-recurring cycle, has no proper by its nature continuous and strictly limited. The month is by its nature a definite and limited unit of time. One moon follows new year, i.e., a point from which the year commences; the heanother with a brief interruption of only one or two days in ginning of the year or of the list of month-names varies greatly which the moon js invisible. The phases of the moon represent therefore. But the agricultural year has a definite commencement a gradual waxing and waning, a continuous development. The and end. This end of the agricultural occupations is often celeprinciple of continuous time-reckoning is suggested by the moon. brated by festivals. It forms the turning point of the year; a new The days of the month are originally not counted but designated period is entered upon. The European calendrical new year has with reference to the shape of the moon and its position in the its origin in the term at which the Roman Consul, after whom sky. The new moon and the full moon have a special prominence the year was named, entered upon his office. Solstices and Equinoxes.—-While the stars were often used and are often hailed with rejoicing and feasting. Then the cres-

cent of the waning moon is added. Many peoples distinguish the three phases of the waxing, the full and the waning moon; then further phases and the absence of the moon, “when it has gone

for more accurately defining the time within the year, certain

points in the course of the sun may be referred to, namely, the solstices and equinoxes (g.v.). This is, however, a more com

to sleep,” are added. The Polynesians and Micronesians have developed a system by which every day of the month has a name taken from the shape or the position of the moon. Other peoples, e.g., the Masai, the Hindus, etc., count the days of the light and

plicated observation which requires a fixed standing point and cer-

the three principal phases, but there are also traces of a division of the month into two parts. A division into four parts is but

They were also known to Homer and Hesiod,

the dark halves of the moon. The Greeks counted in decades after

tain landmarks touched by the sun in its travel from north to south and inversely. In this manner the Eskimos, the Indians of Arizona, the Amazulu, etc., observe the most northern and southern points reached by the sun, its “houses” or “turning points.”

The observation of

the equinoxes is still more difficult; for this purpose the Incas had rarely found, erected towers as artificial marks at Cuzco. Certain gifted and The Month.—The months are seldom counted, and then prin- advanced peoples, the Eskimos, the Northern Scandinavians, the cipally in regard to the months-of pregnancy; but a month is Polynesians and Melanesians, have made still more refined obserdesignated by a natural phenomenon or seasonal occupation oc- vations of the course of the sun, but on the whole even.the curring in it, e.g., the blackberry month, sowing month, lambing simplest observations of this nature, viz., those of the solstices, month, etc. This naming was originally accidental. Sharp dis- play no important part in primitive time-reckoning,

CALENDAR The Market-week.—There is a wholly artificial period of fairly frequent occurrence among peoples who have sufficiently

575

market-week, or the fixed period of days in which a market is held. It varies in length and lasts three days among the Muysca

cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 BC., or forty years before the reign of Yao. This is the epoch assumed by the authors of L’art de vérifier les dates. The mathematical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yao, that is

in Bogota, four among many West African tribes, five in Central

to say, from the year 2277 B.c.

advanced

in civilization

to have a regular trade.

This is the

America, the East Indian Archipelago and old Assyria, six among a tribe in Togo, eight among the ancient Romans (the nundinae),

and ten among the Inca people. On the market day, especially in Africa, work is often forbidden, certain taboos are imposed, and religious ceremonies performed. The hypothesis has therefore been advanced that the Israelitish sabbath was by origin a market day, although the prohibition of work has been extended also to its original purpose of commerce.

Methods of Reckoning.—Finally many peoples use a tally or other device for counting days, moons, and years, and where a more refined science of time-reckoning is evolved it is in the hands of a special class, particularly the priests, who preserve this knowledge and regulate the calendar. Hence the close connection between the religious system and the calendar, for thé celebration of the festivals and ceremonies at the right times as indicated by

Since the year 163 B.c. Chinese writers date the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years of his reign. The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao (year-name). According to this method of dating the years a new era commences with every reign; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the years of our era. In modern China the native calendar is used side by side with the western one (Hsi-li or western reckoning). (X.) EGYPTIAN

A solar year, a lunar month and a day unfortunately are incommensurable units of time, for a year contains roughly 3654

days and a month roughly 294 days. From this fact arise the difficulties with which early constructors of calendars were conthe calendar is the chief duty of the priests, who gathered great fronted. The Egyptians appear to have begun with a lunar calknowledge of times and seasons, of the holy days and the work endar. We have no contemporary evidence of this, but the writing days, of the links between man and the sun, the moon, and the of the word “month” with the moon-sign, the importance of the stars. These and the seasons and the cycle of Nature are the monthly and half-monthly festivals in later times, and the adopmaterial from which by long, hard thought, by patient observa- tion of the month as a unit in the later calendar place it beyond tion, by ever subtler and more accurate calculation, modern sys- doubt. tems of time-reckoning have been developed. At a very early date, however, the Egyptians had begun to See Martin P. Nilsson, Primitive Time-Reckoning (1926). observe what is known as the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (M. P. N.) or Sothis, a conspicuous object in the Egyptian sky. A star is CHINESE said to rise heliacally on the day on which it first appears again in For chronological purposes, the Chinese people, as else- the sky just before sunrise after being for some time invisible. where in the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty to reckon their The Egyptians noted that this rising corresponded very closely days, moons and years. The days are distributèd in the calendar with the rise of the Nile, on which the agricultural welfare of into cycles of sixty, in the same manner 4s ours are distributed the country depended. Small wonder then that they chose this into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has a par- for the first day of the year, and took the period between two ticular name, and as it is usual in mentioning dates, to give the such observed risings to form a unit of time which was conname of the day along with that of the moon and the year, it is venient not only as being much longer than the old month, but easy to verify the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the as including a whole round of the seasons. days in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalation used to The next step was to subdivide the new unit, and here use adjust the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also was made both of the old months and of the changing seasons. distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the Twelve nominal months of 30 days each gave 360 days, and the intercalary moons are not reckoned, because during one of these missing 5 days were added on at the end under the name of “days lunations the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve additional to the year.” The months were grouped into three regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed every five sets of four, the first four forming the inundation season, the secyears. The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or ond four the winter or sowing-time and the third four the sumseries of characters, one of ten and the other of twelve, which are mer or harvest. ; joined together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The Unfortunately the constructors of this calendar either overnames of the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called looked or ignored the fact that every four years, as observation celestial signs, are: must have shown, Sothis rose a day later, z.¢., after a lapse of 366 and not 365 days, the reason being, as we now know, that 1. Kia; 2.1; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Wu; the star-year, which is virtually identical with the solar year, 6. Ki; 7. Kéng; 8. Hsin; 9. Jén; ro. Kuei; measures about 3654 days. This error of theirs meant that their and in the series of 12, denominated ferrestrial signs, calendar got out of gear with the solar year, and consequently 1. Tzi; 2. Chou; 3. Yin; 4. Mao; 5. Shin; 6. Sst; with the seasons, to the extent of one day every four years, and 7. Wu; 8. We; 9. Shin; ro. Yu; 11. Hsii; 12. Hai. the error became greater and greater until eventually, after 1,460 The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary (3654) solar years, known as a Sothic Period, the calendrical cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above New Year’s Day had worked right round the seasons and come series; the second is formed by combining the second of each back to its correct place again. The Egyptians were not unaware of series, and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of this absurdity, but it was not until quite late times that they the first series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then sought to correct it by the insertion of an extra day every four the second of the first series with the twelfth of the second, after years (Leap Year), and even then the attempt failed. this the third of the first series with the first of the second, and We know from the Latin writer Censorinus that the first day

so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last of the second. In the Chinese history. translated into the Tatar dialect by order

of the emperor K’ang-hi (d. 1721), the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the year 2357 B.c. From this it has been inferred that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but as the cycles can be extended backwards indefinitely,

the inference can have very little weight. The characters given to that year 2357 B.C., are Keä-shin, which denote the grst of the

of the Egyptian calendar year coincided with the rising of Sothis in A.D. 139, and it must therefore have done the same thing 1,460 solar years earlier and so on, 7.¢., IN 132I B.C., 2781 B.C., 4241 B.C., 5701 B.c., etc. Obviously it was at one of these moments that the calendar was introduced. Now the religious texts inscribed in

the pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties show that the

calendar with its five extra days was then already in existence. Egyptologists consequently date the introduction of the calendar to 4241 B.C. or to 2781 B.C., according as they believe the pyramids

CALENDAR

576

to be earlier or later than the latter date. A still higher date, e.g., 5701 B.C., is hardly likely. The Egyptians used no unit of time longer than a year. Consequently they had no dating by eras in the modern sense. In very early times each year was named after some important event in it, e.g., “The year of the first smiting of the East,” and was at

the same time connected with the reigning king. Later, under the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, the biennial cattle census was used for time reckoning, and the years of a king’s reign were numbered alternately “The Year of the first (second, third, etc.), census” and “The Year after the first (second, third, etc.), census.” Later still the years of the reign were numbered straightforwardly

I, 2, 3 and so on. ` In early Egyptian documents the months bear no special names, being written merely as the first, second, third or fourth month of such and such a season. In the Persian period, however (6th cent. B.c.), there began to appear month names drawn from festivals which took place during the month; these names may of course have been in use in speech earlier, though they were never written. Considerable uncertainty surrounds the origin of some of them, and the question is complicated by the fact that at some date in or before the Ramesside Age the whole of the names seem to have been thrown one month back in the year. The week of seven days was totally unknown to the early Egyptians and the evidence brought forward for its existence in very late times is far from convincing. The day and the night were each divided into 12 hours, but as the day was measured sometimes from sunrise to sunset and sometimes from the appearance of daylight to its disappearance, the length of day and of night varied through the year. Consequently the Egyptians cannot claim to have established the hour

TEP)

as a fixed unit of time. BABYLONIAN

AND

ASSYRIAN

Babylonian, from 2000 B.C. Onwards.—The Babylonian calendar imposed by the kings of the First Dynasty of Babylon, on all the cities immediately under their rule, was adopted by the Assyrians at the end of the second millennium B.C., was used by the Jews on their return from exile, and was widely used in the Christian era. This calendar was equated with the Sumerian calendar in use at Nippur at the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur (about 2300-2150 B.c.) in the following manner: Bab. Nisan Aiaru Simanu

Sum.

= Bar. Zag. Ga. = Gud. $1. Di.

Seg. Ga.

Su. Numun. Na.

= Kin. Innin. Na.

Bab.

Sum.

Tashritum = Du. Ku. Arakhsamna = Apia. Du. A. Kislimu = Gan. Gan. Na. Tebitum = Ab. Ba. E. ` Shabat = AS. Am.

Addaru

= Še. Gur. Kud.

These were lunar months, and in general their length was 30 days; in historical times regular watch was kept for the new moon, and if that fell on the 30th of a month, then the day automatically became the first of the next month, and all officials were apprised of the fact. In order to prevent too serious a derangement of the seasons owing to the discrepancy between 12 lunar months and the solar year, a month was intercalated; the intercalary month might be a second Elul (Ululu) or a second Adar. Such intercalations were, in the late period, regularly devised within a cycle; in the Seleucid period and earlier, from 382 B.C., the cycle was 19 years, from 504-383 it was 27 years, from 528— sos it was eight years. Before the reign of Darius the intercala-

tion was not based on any fixed cycle, but was inserted when the astronomers advised the king that it was necessary, the object

being, it has been suggested, that the first of Nisan, with which the year always began, should not fall over a month later than the spring equinox, and not more than a month before it. It has been calculated that the actual variation in terms of the Julian calendar amounts to about 27 days. Nisan is therefore roughly

March-April, but in certain extreme cases April-May.

The meanings of the names of the months cannot be ascertained with certainty. Nisanny seems to mean “sacrifice,” Azaru “blos-

som,” Simanu “the fixed, appointed time,” whether in relation to

some ritual observance is not clear, Du’uzu is a form of Tammuz

due to sound changes and the month was so named because vegetation had left the parched earth then, Arakhsamna is “the eighth”

month. Since these names belong to the Akkadian language, it js probable that they arose in Babylonia, but it is conceivable that they were already known to the earliest people of Semitic speech before they entered the Euphrates valley.

The month was divided into unequal periods by days with special names, the first, arku, the seventh, sibutu, the r1sth

abattu, the 28th, bubbulu, and the 3rd., 7th., 16th., nubattu, “rest”; but there was no system of continuous reckoning i weeks of seven or any other number of days. The day was

divided into six watches, three for the day, three for the night, the first being called “sunrise,” napakh Shamshi, “siesta,” mus-

lalu, and “sunset,” ereb Shamshi, or “evening,” lilatz; the second

“peeping (of the stars),” bararitu, “middle,” gablitu, and “the

time of dawn,” šat urri. Time was reckoned in double hours, 12 to the day, and it is probable that the astronomers, if not all

others, reckoned day as beginning with sunset. The hours consisted of 30 smaller divisions. Exact reckoning was secured by measuring weights of water passing through a pierced bowl—a water clock. Other calendars were in use in the seventh century within the Assyrian empire. Thus a month Kanun, which was probably derived from a Syrian calendar, is testified to by a man’s name. The

Elamites had a calendar of their own occasionally used in Assyria. Early Assyrian, Before 1000 B.C.—The calendar regularly used in Assyria before the tenth century, and even after that date

occasionally, was not derived from Babylonia. The month names are: (1) Qarrate, (2) Tan(?)marte, (3) Sin, (4) Kuzalli, (5) Allanate, (6) Belti-ekallim, (7) Sarate, (8) Kinate, (9) Mukhur ili, (10) Ab sharrani (11) Khibur, (12) Sippim. These months are differently equated by cuneiform scribes with Babylonian months; one list makes Qarrate equivalent to Addaru, the other to Shabatu, i.e., either Feb.-March, or Jan—Feb. The difference may perhaps have arisen from the lack of intercalation in the Assyrian calendar over a long space of time. It is to be noted that there is no certain occurrence of an intercalary month in this Assyrian calendar. The meanings of the names are in this instance also known in a few cases. The first month derived its name from afestival in which the immu or eponymous officer of the year took part, per-

haps connected with the drawing of lots. The second, Tanmarte,

if correctly read, is the month of “shining forth,” the third is the

month of the moon-god, the fourth perhaps “of gourds,” the fifth,

“of terebinths,” the sixth is named after a form of Ishtar called “the Lady of the Palace,” the ninth is named after a special ofering made to gods when entering holy buildings. The origin of this calendar must lie in the times before the Assyrians entered the Tigris valley. It was not the Subaraean calendar, for the three known Subaraean month-names were Ari, and “the month of

Adad” and “the month of Nergal.” This Assyrian calendar was used over an extensive area at the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur, for it occurs on the tablets from Caesarea (Mazaca) at that time, together with other month names, Kiratim, “of gardens,” Tinatim, “of figs,” and Narmak-Ashur, “the libation of Ashur.”

This last month was the same as Kinatim, and was only tempo-

rarily used, the other two also may represent a change in nomenclature. But it had no currency in the middle Euphrates, for m the kingdom of Khana, immediately north of Babylonia, still an-

other calendar was used, including the names Kinunu, “stove” (the

later Kanun), Birissaru, Teritum, Belitbiri, “the lady of vision,” Igi-kurra (a divine title); the order of these months is unknown,

and it is uncertain whether this calendar was used outside Khana. Still other month names must have been used elsewhere, for on documents of the First Dynasty of Babylon there occur the names Tiru, Nabru, Sibutu, Rabutu (equivalent to Nisan), Mamitu, and Isin-Abi. Se ti The most striking feature of the Assyrian calendar is its commencement, not at the spring equinox, but one or even two months before. This feature proves a complete independence of any astro-

nomical observation when the calendar was first formed, but its

CALENDAR exact cause cannot be defined. The general meanings of the monthnames, with the exception of the third and sixth, seem to show that this was an agricultural calendar, based simply on the farm-

ing year; the month names closely connected with ritual observ-

ances may have been adopted long after the origin of the actual calendar itself. Sumerian Calendars.—The calendar used by the kings of the

Third Dynasty of Ur (see above), and always subsequently kept as “ideograms” for the later month names, seems to have origi-

nated as the local calendar of the city of Nippur at a time when various other city-calendars were in use. The meanings of these month names may be roughly as follows: (1) “month of the dweller of the sanctuary,” (2) “month of the leading out of the

oxen,” (3) “month of brick-making,” (4) uncertain, (5) “month of setting the fire,” (6) “month of a (certain) festival of Ishtar,” (7) “month of the sacred place” duku, (8) “month of opening the irrigation canals,” (9) “month of ploughing (?),” (10) named after a religious festival, (11) “month of emmer-grain,” (12) “month of corn-harvest.” An intercalary month DIR.SE.GURKUD. was inserted, but no fixed principle can be observed. The Nippur calendar was not used at Lagash, Umma or the ancient town which occupied the site of the modern Duraihim, under the Third Dynasty of Ur, 7.e., about 2300-2150 B.c. The month names at Lagash in use at the time of Sargon of Agade, 1.€., before 2500 B.C., number about 25, but not all these names belonged to a calendar; some are merely descriptions of a month as that in which sheep-shearing took place, or when men arrived from a certain place. The fixed month-names at Lagash, Umma, and Duraihim, where two calendars were in use at the same time, for the Third Dynasty of Ur period were:— Lagash. Gan. Maš. Mu. Mu. Ezen dNe. Šu.

Umma.

Se. Gur. Kud.

Sig. I. Sub.

Ur.

Se. Gur. Kud.

Ezen 4Sul. Gi.

Ku.

U. Ne. Ku

Šu. Numun.

sL Sig. Nin. A.

Min. Ab.

u. Ezen. Nin. A. Zu.

Ezen dBa. U. E. Itu. AX. Mu. Su. Du. dNe. Gun. Amar. A. A. Si. Ezen. 4Shul. Gi. Se. Gur. Kud. Kur. U. E.

A. Ki. Ti. Ezen aul. Gi. u. ES. Sa. Ezen. 4Makh.

(Dir. Se. Gur. | ¢Dumu-Zi.

Ezen. An. Na.

(Dirig.)

Du.

w

Dim. Ku. Zi.

Maš.

eš. Da. Ku.

Ba. Gar. Se. Kar. Gal. La.

Šu. Kul.

Ezen ¢Dumu-

Duraihim.

Ki. Sig. Nin. A. Zu. Ezen. Nin. A. Zu. A. Ki. Ti. Ezen dSul.

_ Gi. ` Su. Ešh. Sa. Ezen. Makh. Ezen. An. Na. Eo Me. Ki.

Gal. Še. Gur. Kud.

Ezen. Me. Ki. Gal.

Those names enclosed in brackets are the names of the intercalary months marking the position in the calendar when intercalated. All, or nearly all, these names are derived from specific festivals and ritual acts. The lists are sufficient to prove three points: (1) names were borrowed by one local calendar from another at this time, (2) the time of the festivals in the’ different cities must have varied, for it is inconceivable that the festival of Shulgi, the second king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, could ever have been in the same month at Umma and Lagash, (3) that the Intercalation in different towns was independent. We are not in a position to explain the complicated calendar of this period by the position at an earlier date; the earliest month names, from the

pre-Sargonic or early Sumerian period offer even greater difficules, and are also connected with religious festivals and ritual acts. Of all the Sumerian calendars, that of Nippur, which is derived from agricultural habits, looks the most primitive, but the point Must remain quite obscure. Some local Sumerian month-names survived until the period of the First Dynasty of Babylon, and the

reduction of the confusion in this matter to comparative order was probably due to Hammurabi. (S. Sm.)

577

BIBLIOGRAPHY —F. X. Kugler, Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel (1914—24) ; B. Landsberger, Der kultische Kalender der Babylonier und Assyrer (Leipzig 1915). i

HINDU From very early times Hindus have employed luni-solar cycles made by the combination of solar years and lunar years so treated as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near that of the solar year. The detailed arrangement of the earliest form of Hindu calendar is still a subject of research but, from about A.D. 400, under the influence of the Greek astronomy, developed the Hindu calendar as known to-day. For civil purposes, solar years are used in Bengal, Orissa and in the Tamil and Malayalam districts of Madras; elsewhere lunar years. But everywhere the general religious rites and festivals are regulated by the lunar year and the details of private and domestic life (auspicious occasions for marriages, undertaking journeys, etc.), are based upon the lunar calendar. Even almanacs showing the solar year give details of the lunar year. The civil solar year is determined by the astronomical-solar year, beginning with an artificial nominal equinox instead of with the true one. The Solar Month.—The solar year is divided into 12 months, in accordance with the successive sariikrdntis or entrances of the sun into the (sidereal) signs of the zodiac, which, as with us, are 12 in number. The names of the signs in Sanskrit are as follows: Mésha, the ram (Aries); Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus); Mithuna, the pair, the twins (Gemini); Karka, Karkata, Karkataka, the crab (Cancer); Simha, the lion (Leo); Kanyad, the maiden (Virgo); Tula, the scales (Libra); Vrigchika, the scorpion (Scorpio); Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius); Makara, the sea-monster (Capricornus); Kumbha, the water-pot (Aquarius); and Mina, the fishes (Pisces). The solar months are known in some parts by the names of the signs or by corrupted forms of them; and these are the best names for them for general use, because they lead to no confusion. But they have elsewhere another set of names, preserving the connection of them with the lunar months: the Sanskrit forms of these names are Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyaishtha,

Ashadha, Sravana, Bhadrapada, Agvina or Asvayuja,

Karttika,

Margasira or MargaSirsha (also known as Agrahayana), Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna: in some localities these names are used in corrupted forms, and in others vernacular names are substituted for some of them; and, while in some parts the name Chaitra is attached to the month Mésha, in other parts it is attached to the month Mina, and so on throughout the series in each case. The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one sativkranti of the sun to the moment of the next samkrdnti; and, as the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal length, 30 degrees, as with us,

while the speed of the sun (the motion of the earth in its orbit round the sun) varies according to the time of the year, the length of the month is variable: the shortest month is Dhanus; the longest is Mithuna. The Civil Day.—The civil days of the solar month begin at sunrise. They are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., in unbroken succession to the end of the month; the length of the month being variable, the number of civil days may range from 29 to 32. The civil days are named after the weekdays, of which the usual appellations (there are various synonyms in each case, and some of the names are used in corrupted forms) are in Sanskrit Adityavara or Ravivara, the day of the sun, sometimes called Adivara, the beginning-day (Sunday); Somavdra, the day of the moon

(Monday);

Mangalavara,

the day of Mars

(Tuesday);

Bud-

havara, the day of Mercury (Wednesday); Brihaspativara or Guruvara, the day of Jupiter (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of

Venus (Friday); and Sanivara, the day of Saturn (Saturday). While some of the astronomical books perhaps postulate an earlier knowledge of the “lords of the days,” and other writings indicate a still earlier use of the period of seven days, the first proved instance of the use of the name of a weekday is of the year A.D. 484, and is furnished by an inscription in the Saugor district, Central India. The main divisions of the civil day are 60 vipalas=1 pala=24 seconds; 60 palas=1 ghattkd= 24 minutes; 60 ghattkds= 24 hours =1day. There is also the muhirta=2 ghattkds=48 minutes: this

CALENDAR

578

is the nearest approach to the “hour.” The comparative value of these measures of time may perhaps be best illustrated thus: 24 muhurtas =2 hours; 24 ghatikds=1 hour; 24 palas=1 minute; 23 vipalas= 1 second. As their civil day begins at sunrise, the Hindus naturally count all their times, in ghatzkds and palas, from that moment. But the moment is a varying one, though less in India than in European latitudes; and Hindus have recognized the necessity, in connection with their lunar calendar, of a convenient means of referring their own times to the time which prevails officially. Consequently, many almanacs have adopted the European practice of showing the time of sunrise, in hours and minutes, from midnight; and some of them add the time of sunset from noon. The lunar year consists primarily of 12 lunations or lunar months, of which the present Sanskrit names, generally used in more or less corrupted forms, are Chaitra, Vaisakha, etc., to Phalguna, as given above in connection with the solar months. It is of two principal varieties, according as it begins with a certain day in the month Chaitra, or with the corresponding day in Karttika: the former variety is conveniently known as the Chaitradi year; the latter as the Karitikadi year. For religious purposes the lunar year begins with its first lunar day: for civil purposes it begins with its first civil day, the relation of which to the lunar day will be explained below. Owing to the manner in which the beginning of the lunar year is always shifting backwards and forwards, it is not practicable to lay down any close equivalents for comparison: but an indication may be given as follows. The first civil day of the Chaitradi year is the day after the new-moon conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Mina, and it now falls from about March 13 to about April 11; the first civil day of the Karttikadi year is the first day after the new-moon conjunction which occurs next after the entrance of the sun into Tula, and it now falls from about Oct. 17 to about Nov. I5. The present names of the lunar months, indicated above, were derived from the nakshairas, which are certain conspicuous stars and groups of stars lying more or less along the neighbourhood of the ecliptic. The makshairas are regarded sometimes as 27 in number, sometimes as 28, and are grouped in 12 sets of two or three each, beginning, according to the earlier arrangement of the list, with the pair Krittika and Rohini, and including in the sixth place Chitra and Svati, and ending with the triplet Révati, Asvini and Bharani. They are sometimes styled lunar mansions, and are sometimes spoken of as the signs of the lunar zodiac; and it is, no doubt, chiefly in connection with the moon that they are now

taken into consideration.

But they mark divisions of the ecliptic:

according to one system, 27 divisions, each of 13 degrees 20 minutes; according to two other systems, 27 or 28 unequal divisions, which we need not explain here. The almanacs show the course of the sun through them, as well as the course of the moon; and the course of the sun was marked by them only, before the time when the Hindus began to use the 12 signs of the solar zodiac. So there is nothing exclusively lunar about them. The present names of the lunar months were derived from the nakshatras in the following manner: the full-moon which occurred when the moon was in conjunction with Chitra (the star @ Virginis) was named Chaitri, and the lunar month, which contained the Chaitri full-moon, was

named Chaitra; and so on with the others.

The present names

have superseded another set of names which were at one time in use concurrently with them; these other names are Madhu

(=Chaitra), Madhava, Sukra, Suchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isha,

Northern India. But only the amdnta month, the period of the synodic revolution of the moon, is recognized in Hindy astronomy

and for the purpose of naming the lunations and adjusting the lunar to the solar year by the intercalation and suppression of lunar months; and the rule is that the lunar Chaitra is the aménta

or synodic month at the first moment of which the sun is in the sign Mina, and in the course of which the sun enters Mésha: the other months follow in the same way; and the lunar Karttika ig

the amanta month at the frst moment of which the sun is in Tylj and in the course of which the sun enters Vriśchika. The connection between the lunar and the solar months is maintained by the

point that the name Chaitra is applied according to one practice to the solar Mina, in which the lunar Chaitra begins, and according to another practice to the solar Mēsha, in which the lunar Chaitra ends.

Like the lunar year, the lunar month begins for religious

purposes with its first lunar day, and for civil purposes with its

first civil day.

One mean lunar year of 12 lunations measures very nearly 354

days 8 hrs. 48 min. 34 sec.; and one Hindu solar year measures 365 days 6 hrs. 12 min. 30 sec. according to Aryabhata, or slightly

more according to the other two authorities.

Hindu.)

(See CHronotocy:

(X.)

GREEK

(1) General.—The

Greek

calendar,

even

in its most de-

veloped forms, differed from all modern European systems in being soli-lunar; z¢., in theory, every year began when the sun was in a certain position (solstice or equinox) and every month

began with the new moon. But, as the solar year (solstice to solstice or equinox to equinox) is not even approximately divisible by the lunar month, the result was that some system of adjustment was necessary. This was found, at an uncertain but early date, in the oktaeteris or eight-year group. Eight solar years are 8 X 365-25 days, roughly, 7.¢., 2,922 days. Eight lunar years, je., eight groups of twelve lunar months each, are 8 X 12 X 20-50 days approximately, z.e., 2,832 days. The difference, 90 days, is about three lunar months. Hence, by inserting, at different times within the oktaeteris, three extra months, approximate agreement with natural phenomena was obtained. But it was at best only approximate, for the above lengths of a solar year and a lunar month are not exact (see ASTRONOMY), and to bring the calendar into accuracy would have meant abandoning the principle of beginning each month at new moon; but this principle was sacred, and could not be abandoned, at least in theory. An important attempt at reform was made by the astronomer Meton of Athens. By his system, the years, commencing from the end of June, 432 B.c. of our reckoning, were grouped into “great years” of 19 each, with seven intercalary months. This gave, on an average, a month of 29 days, 12 hr., 45 min., 57 sec.,—less than 2 minutes too long. Callippus of Cyzicus later combined four Metonic cycles into one, and finally Hipparchus of Nicaea combined four Callippian periods into one cycle of 304 years, by which a very high degree of accuracy was obtainable. These theoretical constructions, however, affected the official years little, if at all, and intercalation went on in a very lax and unscientific fashion, resulting in civic calendars which were often some months out. The month was not divided into weeks; the planetary week is astrological, connected with the dogma that every period of time, including the day, had a planet for its regent. It is not much older than the Christian era, and was never official in classical times

(see F. H. Colson, The Week, 1926). There was, however, a di-

Urja (=Karttika), Sahas, Sahasya, Tapas, and Tapasya (= Phal- vision into thirds. The first ten days of the month were called guna): they seem to have marked originally solar season-months uÌùv ioråpevos or commencing month; the last third, pyv dbivor. of the solar year, rather than lunar months of the lunar year. or waning month; for the middle third, no regular term was m A lunar month may be regarded as ending either with the new- use. Days of a higher number than 20 were either called the first, moon, which is called amdvdsyd, or with the full-moon, which is second, etc., after the eikades (twenties), or numbered backwards; called purnamdsi, pirnimad: a month of the former kind is termed thus at Athens, Bondpoudvos éxrn gôivovros meant the sixth day, aménia, “ending with the new-moon,” or Suklddi, “beginning with counting inclusively, from the end of the month Boedromion, The the bright fortnight”; a month of the latter kind is termed piirni- day was officially computed from sunset to sunset; practically it manta, “ending with the full-moon,” or krishnddi, “beginning with began at dawn. the dark fortnight.” For all purposes of the calendar, the amdnta Parallel with all this reckoning there ran the farmers’ and month is used in Southern India, and the pirnimédnta month in sailors’ calendars, based on observation of the heliacal rising and

CALENDAR

579

end of June. The months were called Hekatombaion, Metageitnion, Boedromion, Pyanopsion (later Pyanepsion), Maimakterion,

clares that Januarius and Februorius were additions to an original year of ro months. Such a year of course was discontinuous; between year and year there was a gap of some 6o days, a phenomenon quite well authenticated among savage and barbarous people. There was a dead season in winter; as this is better fitted to central European than to Italian climatic conditions, it seems likely that this very ancient calendar was brought by northern invaders. February was popularly thought to end, however, on the 23d, the Terminalia, and it was after this date that intercalation was made, which took place once or twice in four years. The mensis intercalaris or Mercedonius was followed by the remaining five days of February; the recently discovered Fastz Antiates

Poseideon, Gamelton, Anthesterion, Elaphebolion, Mounichion, Thargelion, and Skirophorion. When intercalation was necessary, the month Poseideon was repeated; the intercalary month was then called Second Poseideon. The first day of each month was called évn kal véa, i.e., old and new; for as the month began ofâcially at sunset, but most people reckoned the day from dawn (see above), the day of new moon fell between two months. Every

(pre-Julian) show this system in use. In 153 B.c. Jan. 1 ousted Mar. 1 as the official New Year’s day. The working of the calendar was in the hands of the pontijices, who every month used to watch for the new moon, and, when it was seen, proclaimed from the Capitol the number of days, five or seven, to the Nones. Thus the first day of the month was called kalendae, or callings. Full moon was called the Ides (dus) ;

setting of the constellations (such-and-such work was to be done when the Pleiads rose, navigation was not safe after the setting of Arcturus, etc.), or on such phenomena as the appearance of vari-

ous flowers, migratory birds, and the like. Many private persons

had calendars (parapegmaia), on which, by moving a peg from one hole to another, it was possible to see the relative positions

of the civil and natural years.

(2) Individual

Calendars.—That

of Athens

is the best

known. It began, or was supposed to begin, at the summer solstice, or rather at the new moon next to that; hence about the

month was either “full” (aAnpns), consisting of 30 days, or “hollow” (xotAos), with 29 days. It is clear that the months are mostly named after gods (as Poseideon, cp. the Delian Artemision, the Delphic Heraios, and the Boeotian Hermaios) or after festivals (as Amthesterion, cf. Pamboiotios in Boeotia, Karnezos in Laconia). This accords with the probable history of the calendar. It began, not as a scheme of continuous reckoning, but as a series of notable days or groups

of days (opral, iepounviar), corresponding in some cases at least to seasonal events, such as harvest.

The days between

these,

unless they were days of new moon, or full moon, were not holy, and therefore not reckoned. The Boeotian year began with the winter solstice, the Laconian with the autumn equinox. In some of the later calendars, as those of Achaia and Phocis, the months were not named, but only numbered. In Hellenistic times, more and more use was made of the official Egyptian year, which was in use under the Ptolemies. It consisted of 365 days, without intercalation, with the result that every four years it lost a day, and in 1,461 years it came right again. The months were called Thoth, Phaophi, Athyr, Choiak, Tybi, Mechir, Phamenoth, Pharmouthi, Pachon, Pauni, Epiphi and Mesori. See A. Mommsen, Das Kalenderwesen der Griechen (1883); G. F. Unger in I. von Miiller’s Handbuch (1886); Schmidt and Rühl, Handbuch der Griech. Chronologie (1888) ; and J. Gow in Whibley’s Companion to Greek Studies (1916).

In 26 B.c., when Augustus reformed the Egyptian calendar to bring it into line with the Julian, Thoth 1 was equivalent to Aug. 29. This reformed Egyptian calendar had a long struggle to come into actual use, however. Also important for late times is the native Macedonian calendar, originally twelve lunar months called Dios, Apellaios, Audynaios, Peritios, Dystros, Xanthikos, Artemisios, Daisios, Panemos, Loios, Gorpiaios, Hyerberetaios. About the beginning of our era this calendar, which was in common use in Asia Minor and Syria, was reformed on Julian lines. BrsriocrapHy.—(1) Ancient. Geminus of Rhodes, Eisagoge; Censorinus, de die natali. (2) Modern. L. Ideler, Handbuch d. mathematischen u. technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825) is still valuable. Good outline by G. F. Unger, Zeitrechnung d. Griechen u. Romer, in i. v. Muller’s Handbuch, i., p. 711 ff. To his bibliography add: M. P. Nilsson, Primitive Time-Reckoning (Lund and Oxford, 1920); Die Entstehung u. religidse Bedeutung des gr. Kalendars, in Lunds Univer-

sitets Arsskrift, N.F.. Avd. 1, Bd. 14, Nr. 2x (Lund and Leipzig, 1918) ;

J. K. Fotheringham in Journ. Hell. Stud., xxxix. (1919), p. 164 foll. ROMAN

The Roman Republican calendar was of the Greek type (see

above), but rude and primitive, dating probably from the times of the Etruscan dynasty, but showing traces of a still earlier period.

It consisted of twelve lunar months, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, lunius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December, Ianuarius, Februarius. Of these, Martius, Maius, Quintilis and October had each 31 days, the rest 29, save Februarius,

which had 28. The ancients attributed this to Numa, and a good tradition, unjustly suspected in ancient and modern times, de-

this, in the four long months, was the 15th, in the others the thirteenth. The Nones (nonae), were the ninth day, by inclusive reckoning, before the Ides, ż.e., the 5th or 7th respectively. Other days were reckoned as so many before the Kalends, Ides, or

Nones, e.g., a(nte) d(iem) iii non(as) Quint(iles), the 3rd day before the Nones of Quintilis=July 5. The 2nd, 6th (or 8th), and r4th (or r6th) were often called postridie kalendas, nonas, idus., i.e., the day after the Kalends, etc. They were all, especially the day after the Kalends, unlucky (dies postriduani)}. The Ides were sacred to Jupiter; on the Kalends, sacrifice was offered to Juno and also to Janus; the Nones were sometimes a day of festival. Eight-day Weeks.—lIndependent of the months were the eight-day “weeks” called nundinae ; these had no individual names, were not closely connected with any religious practices of importance, and were simply the space from one market-day to another. They are marked on the surviving calendars with the letters A-H. The dies Aegyptiaci marked on some later calendars have no significance for Roman cult, but are astrological. Festivals were almost without exception on the odd-numbered days; if a festival lasted more than one day, there were breaks of one or three days in between, as Lucaria, Quintilis 19 and 21; Carmentalia, Jan. 1x1 and 15. Some months clearly arose out of seasons of ritual; thus Martius contains several important festivals connected with Mars, Februarius is the month of purifications (februa). Owing to the clumsiness of the pontifices, and still more to political manoeuvres, by which intercalation was made or omitted recklessly to affect a magistrate’s year of office, the calendar got into hopeless confusion by the end of the republic, and Julius Caesar undertook its reformation. In 46 B.c. he intercalated, and furthermore added 67 days between November and December, making a year of 445 days, and so bringing the civil abreast of the natural year. Then began the new, Julian calendar, which, with small modifications, lasted until the Gregorian reform. Its months were those still in use; intercalation was made, by repeating Feb. 23 (a.d.vi.kal.Mart., hence the name bissextile for a leap-year). The months Quintilis and Sextilis were renamed later, after Julius and Augustus and, in spite of several strenuous efforts of the authorities, other attempts to give a month the name of an emperor were of no permanent effect. Much of our information comes from inscriptions which set out the whole calendar, with a sign against each day indicating

whether it is F(as), or available for legal business, N(efas), or not so available, C(omitialis), or available for a meeting of the Assembly, NP (?nefas, feriae publicae), or a feastday, or END (otercisus), i.€., nefas morning and evening, fas in the middle. Certain other signs refer to special days, as Q(wando) ST (ercus) D(elatum) F(as) (June 15, cleansing of shrine of Vesta), Q (uando) R (ex) C (omitiavit) F (as), March 24. The classical work is Mommsen, Römische Chronologie; to the literature given by Unger, add M. P. Nilsson, in Strena Philologica Vpsaliensis (1922); H. J. Rose, Primitive Culture in I z a 5);

580

CALENDAR

JEWISH The Jewish Calendar in use to-day is both solar and lunar, the years being reckoned by the sun and the months by the moon. In order to adjust the two systems a month is intercalated

in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, rath, 17th, and roth years of a 19-year cycle. For practical purposes, such as the beginning of Sabbath, the day begins at sunset but the calendar day of 24 hours, always begins at 6 p.m. The hour is divided into 1,080 parts (Halagim) each part (Hélaq) being equal to 3-3 sec. The Hélag is sometimes further divided into 76 regattm. A synodical month is the interval between two conjunctions (Conjunction = Molad) and amounts to 29 days 12 hours 44 min. 34sec. The calendar month must, however, naturally contain an exact number of days, consequently the Hebrew month varies between 29 and 30 days, no month has either 28 or 31. The full (Madlé) month contains 30

and the defective (Hdsér) 29 days. The months Nissan, Sivan, Ab, Tishri, and Shebat are always full; Lyydr, Tammiz, Ellil, Tébéth and Adar are always defective, while Marhkeshvan and Kislev may vary. The number of days in a year naturally changes. The total will be the days in month (29d. 12 h. 44 min. 34 sec.) multiplied by 12 in an ordinary year and by 13 in a leap year. But as either process would result in a fractional answer, the ordinary year has 353, 354 or 355 days and the leap year 383, 384 or 385. The New Year begins on Tishrz 1, but it may be delayed by one or two days for various reasons. Thus, in order to prevent the Day of Atone-

ment (Tishri 10) from falling on a Friday or Sunday, the New Year must avoid Sunday, Wednesday conjunction of Tishrz takes place after would not be seen on that evening, the times two days later. Other causes

or Friday. Or again, if the noon, so that the crescent New Year is one, or somemay also produce delays

(dehiyyéth). A year in which Markeshvan and Kislev are both full, is called complete (Shelemah), and will contain 355 or 385 (if leap) days. In a normal (Ke-Sidrah) year, in which the former month is defective and the latter full, the total of days will be 354 or 384, while in a defective (Haserdh) year, when both months contain only 29 days each, the total of days will be 353 or 383. The character of a year (gebiac, lit. “fixing”) is described by a group of three Hebrew consonants, the first and third giving the days and the week on which New Year and Passover fall respectively, while the middle consonant is the initial of “normal,” “defective” or “complete.” There can be only 14 types of gebi ‘oth, seven in common and seven in leap years. The mean beginning of the four seasons is called Tegufah (lit. orbit or course), spring beginning when the sun reaches the equinoctial point in Nissan, summer in Temmuz, autumn in Tishri and winter in Tébétk. The length of the seasons was variously fixed . by different Rabbis. In the 3rd century ap. Mar Samuel Farhinat (165-250, head of Academy of Nehardea) calculated the interval between tequfoth as 91 days, 7 hours, 30 min. It was observed that the first tequfah always moves forward, year after year, by one day and six hours. The result is that after 28 years have elapsed the Tequfah reverts to the same day and to the same time of day as at the beginning. This orbit is called the Great or Solar Cycle (Mahzor Gadél or Hamméh). Samuel’s length of the solar year (3654 days) was emended by R. Adda to 365 days, 5 hours, 55 min., 2524sec., a total approximating to the Ptolemaic year, but still too great by nearly seven minutes. In addition to the solar cycle of 28 years, the Jewish Calendar employs, as mentioned above, a smaller or lunar cycle (Makzor

gatén) of I9 years in order to adjust the lunar months to the solar year by means of intercalations. The Feast of Passover, on 14 Nissan could not begin before the spring Tequfah and theretore the intercalary month finally selected was Adar. A regular intercalation was not practised before the introduction of the continuous calendar and the adoption of the Metonic cycle. The Mahzér qatan is based on the equation 285=12%7, for 235 lunar months correspond to 19 solar years. In order, therefore, to keep 12 months in the year, seven intercalations are necessary: the periodicity of these additions has been given above. The era which is in use to-day is that of the Creation (Anno Mundi, Li-

yetzirah, see CHRONOLOGY).

The present year of the Jewish Calendar, the year 5689 AM began on Sept. 15, 1928, and ends on Oct. 4, 1929.

It was known

as 689 according to the short system (ż.e., omitting the thoy.

sands); it was a leap year containing 13 months, ss Sabbaths and 385 days. The gebi‘a was Zayin, Shin, hé, which indicates that New Year fell on the yth (Zayim) and Passover on the 5th (hé) day of the week and that Marhkeshvan and Kislev each con. tained 30 days (complete, skelemdh, shin). 5689 was the 8th year of the 3ooth lunar cycle since the Creation and the sth of the 204th of the solar cycle since the Creation. Months and Important Days.—The following list enumer. ates the months and the chief days in each:

Tishri: 1 and 2, New Year; 3, Fast of Gedaliah (IT Ki. xy. 22—5; Zech. xili. 19); 10, Day of Atonement; 15—21, Tabernacles: 22, Eighth day of Solemn Assembly; 23, Rejoicing of the Law. Marheshvan: 22, 25 and 29, First Monday, Thursday and Sec.

ond Monday, Fasts (in 1928). Kislev: 25, Hanucah (Feast of Dedication) begins. Tébéth 2, Hanucah ends; to, Fast of Tébéth (II Ki. xxv, x: Zech. viii. 19). Shebat: 15, New Year of Trees. Adar: 13, Fast of Esther; 14-15, Purim.

(We-Adar; Second Adar, intercalated month). Nissan: 15-22, Passover. Iyyar: 10, 13, 17, First Monday, Thursday and Second Mon-

day, Fasts Cin 1928).

Sivan: 6, 7, Pentecost. Tammuz 17, Fast (Zech. viii. 19).

Ab: 9, Fast (II Ki. xxv. 8, and Zech. viii. 19). Ellal. Origin.—The Jewish Calendar is the result of long development; the present form is not of great antiquity. The ancient Hebrew names of the months disappeared in the Exile and were

replaced by Babylonian names (given above); but even before the Exile the months were more commonly designated by numbers. The Bible records enly four names, Abib (1st), Ziv (2), Ethanim (7), and Bul (8); and the Gezer calendar tablet, which belongs to the period of the Jewish monarchy, employs purely agricultural designations and avoids names. Until quite late times the influence of the crops on the fixation of the calendar was powerful. In Babylon the Jews adopted the Babylonian names, seven of which (Nissan, Sivan, Tébéth, Ellil, Kislev, Shebat, Adar) occur in Nehemiah and Esther, while six, Tammiz, Ab, Elli, Tishri and Shebat)

are mentioned in the Assouan Papyri (5th

century B.c.). Though the habit of enumerating months continued, by the first century a.p. the complete 12 names are found in

a list given in the Roll of Fasting (Megiliath Ta ‘anith). The Mishnah already knows of casual intercalations and m Nedarim viii. 5, the second Adar is mentioned as the month to be added. The Jews did not, however, derive the cycle of 19 years from the Babylonians, who did not possess a system of intercalation. The dates in the Assouan Papyri, and Talmudic evidence, make it clear that Jewish intercalation was empirical and irregular.

In the beginning of the 2nd century Agiba reckoned three successive years as intercalary. The calendar was originally fixed by observation, and ultimately

by calculation. Up to the fall of the Temple (A.D. 70), witnesses who saw the new moon came forward and were strictly examined and if their evidence was accepted the month was fixed by the

priests.

Eventually the authority passed to the Sanhedrin and

ultimately to the Patriarch. When necessary, a second Adar was inserted in order that the reaping of the corn should come at Passover. Gradually observation gave place to calculation. The right to determine the calendar was reserved to the Patriarchate;

the Jews of Mesopotamia tried in vain to establish their own calendar but the prerogative of Palestine was zealously defended. So long as Palestine remained a religious centre, it was naturally

to the homeland that the Diaspora looked for its calendar. Uniformity was essential, for if different parts had celebrated feasts on different days confusion would have ensued. It was not until the 4th century A.D. that Babylon fixed the Calendar. The Book of Jubilees, written in the 2nd century B.c., contains

581

CALENDAR a peculiar calendar, evidently based on a desire to reckon time in a distinctively Jewish way. Every event from the Creation to the

beginning of the Exodus is dated in Jubilee periods of 49 years

and in the heptads. The author uses a solar year of 364 days, or 52 weeks, divided into four quarters of 13 weeks. The calendar has been well described by Moore as a reaction against Hellenism. That it ever was used is more than doubtful. The Qaraites (g.v.) opposed the Rabbanites on no point more vehemently than on the calendar; they regarded calculations as

impious and useless and sought to reintroduce observation.

tion. But as there were 20 days in the month it followed that if any day name, such as Akbal, fell on the day 1 in the first month of any year, it must fall on the day 1 of each month throughout that year, and also on 1 Uayeb. But the five days of Uayeb would use up five of the 20 names, so that in the next year the day Iı of each month would have the day name Lamat, in the year after it would have Ben, in the next year Eznab, and in the TEA RO

egies 3 PN USSUEN SRC RET INL A sy

on RANE MAAN

this matter they were victorious over the Great Rabbanite champjon Satadya (892-942), whose theory that calculation preceded observation they could easily disprove. By the end of the

a

°

against Ben Meir who, in 921, initiated a great controversy on the calendar.

Ben Meir claimed to be a descendant of the Patri-

archs, and hence asserted his right to fix the calendar.

PANERA 4 eae

e

x

.

“eo. $3 ay vat YP i

* >

4

D

Eyga

` Pia

isth century necessity forced the Qaraites to adopt calculation. Sa‘adya was more successful in his defence of the Jewish Exilarch

N E e A

ll; Heyes

In

Litany: ‘aSee

ie z í| afi

wf E

4

wy

nt NS

vt

t

Že

uns we Ais...taoo Tides PNS ` Ky fest “ALi

E

aes

`

His main

point was that New Year is not to be deferred unless the Molad takes place “ter of an hour after midday. The Talmud speaks of various New Year’s days. It may be regarded as certain that in Palestine

the New

Year

began in

we}

Nissan (cf. Exod. xii. 2) and in Babylonia in Tishri. For roughly turning years Anno Mundi

AD.

929.

SGSUALLAR

to Anno Domini, the

number 240 should be added and the thousands neglected.

(s) 689 AM.=(1)

SI thwtis ee mil ig

SU “

Conversely,

I

Thus

(1) 929—240=(5)

he, P wes

VT

689. Since the Jewish year begins about September, consequently between September and December 31st, a difference of one may have to be adjusted. For more exact work by far the best tables are those of Schramm (Kalendariographische Tafeln, Leipzig, 1908).

? ee AY

As

2

we

GS aia J

GL È an

Y lna’

(Le “¢ xX

r,

opis,

Cl

ad

a

w

mad D > aes

uh

1

T

aneA tai) Wi

+ ti DA

ounea

Suse mn

==>) aeea

=

r

RL

See the articles and bibliographies in the Jewish Encyclopaedia and in Hastings Encycl. of Religion and Ethics.

For the Calendar in the

Book of Jubilees cf. G. F. Moore, Judaism, vol. i., a

so

See

MAYA AND MEXICAN MAYA CALENDAR As this was the basis of the Mexican and allied calendars, it is here treated first. It appears at first sight very complex, but is fairly simple and is admirable from its symmetrical completeness. Every Maya date is expressed by two numbers and two names, forming a group of four; e.g., 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, or 9 Imix 19 Zip. This statement is similar to such a European date as Wed., Aug. 24, the 4 Ahau or 9 Imix being parallel to the Wednesday, as it gives the position in a gigantic week of 260 days, while the 8 Cumhu or 19 Zip is parallel to Aug. 24. But while in the European calendar Aug. 24 will fall on a Wednesday four times in 28 years and at unequal intervals therein, the Maya 4 Ahau or 9 Imix will not again occur on 8 Cumhu or 19 Zip until after the lapse of 52 years exactly, so there is no ambiguity. This period of 52 years is called the calendar round.

The Maya had a year of 365 days which was invariable, there being no leap year. This was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, together with five supplementary days at the end. The month names are, Pop, Uo, Zip, Zota, Tzec, Xul, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, Zac, Ceh, Mac, Kankin, Muan, Pax, Kayab, Cumhu, together with the supplementary days, Uayeb. Within the month the days are numbered from o to rọ inclusive, instead of from 1 to 20, and similarly with Uayeb. Hence 8 Cumhu is what European usage would call the 9th of Cumhu. They also had a series of day names

commencing with Imix as in the following

table, the order of reading being down each column: Falls in month

Imix

Cimi

Chuen

Cib

4

Ik Akbal

Manik Lamat

Eb Ben

Caban Eznab

5 I

Kan

Muluc

Chicchan

Oc

Ix

Men

Cauac

Ahau

2

3

on the days 9 I4 109 Io I5 o 6 II 16 7

8

I2

13

I7

18

_This series of day names, like the European week, ran on continuously through the months

and years without

any interrup-

BY

COURTESY

OF

DR

A.

P.

MAUDSLAY

STELA K. AT QUIRIGUA, GUATEMALA. OF THE ''GREAT PERIOD" OF MAYA OLD EMPIRE. IT SHOWS DATE WITH **NORMAL’’ NUMERALS ,

THE

next year Akbal again, the day name returning to the same month-day every four years. Hence each day name has only four possible month-days to fall on, as In above table. The Maya also had a series of 13 day numbers from 1 to 13 inclusive. These also formed a continuous series like our weeks and ran on uninterruptedly throughout the years and months. But each year contained 28 of these 13-day periods and one day more, so that the year ended with the same day number with which it began, and therefore the next year began with the next day number. Hence each month-day would each year have a day number one larger than in the year before, until the 13 numbers were exhausted, and the same day number returned. Combining this with the five-day progression of the day names, it results that only after 52 years (4 times 13) will the same day number and day name fall upon the same day of the same month. Again, as 20 and 13 have no common measure it follows that a day name will only have the same day number once in 260 days. This 260-day period commencing with x Imix is called the

Tonalamatl, which was the Aztec name for it. The Maya name is unknown. It was magical purposes.

The

Calendar

of great importance

Considered

for ceremonial

Astronomically.—The

and

Maya

calendar forms a remarkably perfect instrument for reckoning time, as the various rules check each other like bookkeeping by double entry. This enables Americanists now to decipher partly obliterated inscriptions, and it directed the attention of the Maya

CALENDAR

582 to precision in time reckoning.

Thereby

they had the first

requisite of science, namely accurate measurement, and their attainments in astronomy were surprising. The year of 365 days, being nearly six hours shorter than the true tropical year, caused o Pop gradually to fall earlier in the true year at the rate of nearly a day every four years, and after 1,508 years the Maya year and the true year would again coincide. There is some evidence that the Maya allowed for this error, not by intercalating a day, which would upset their whole elaborate system, but by calculating the error from time to time and altering the dates for their festivals or agricultural operations accordingly, but not disturbing the order of months and days in the calendar. Taking an imaginary example, let us assume that certain agricultural operations and the festivals connected with them were at

The New Empire Calendar.—The Maya who inhabiteg Yuca-

tan at the coming of the Spaniards in the r6th century are spoken of as belonging to the new empire, as distinguished from those of the old empire, known only by their inscriptions in Guatemala

and elsewhere and by the Dresden and two other hieroglyphic

codices. The Books of Chilan Balam, written in Maya with Roman letters after the conquest, show the new empire method. The

one time performed in Yaxkin. Then after 80 years the shift of the calendar would make the same date in the true year fall 20 days later in the Maya year, namely in Mol, Apparently then they performed the work in Mol instead of Yaxkin, and got right with the seasons without disturbing the calendar. Probably the rising and setting of the sun over fixed land-

marks was observed in order to correct the calendar, a method which would give the true length of the tropical year. In this connection the traditions of the Toltec and the Cakchiquel are instructive regarding the “sun” which their ancestors awaited, which was probably an observation of the sun by this method to correct the shifting calendar. The Cakchiquel annals mention the different places where each tribe saw its “sun,” and as to one tribe it is said they had not finished drawing their lines when the sun appeared. It is also instructive to note that the Cakchiquel did not look for their “sun” until they arrived in or near the region where they were found at the Spanish conquest. It would seem then that having reached a new country they had to lay down lines of sight by which to observe sunrise or sunset, somewhat as the captain of a ship corrects his chronometer by observation of a known point of land. The Dresden Codex shows that iy the Maya calculated the synodic Hi on R period of Venus at 584 days, a good approximation, and divided Sai ~N

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a ENY

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THE SO-CALLED CALENDAR-STONE OF MEXICO, AZTEC SHOWS THE TWENTY DAY SIGNS IN INNER CIRCLE AND CERTAIN IMPORTANT DATES IN MYTHOLOGICAL HISTORY

PERIOD. IT MAY RECORD

mS

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this into four parts corresponding

to the invisibility at inferior conjunction, visibility as morning

star, invisibility at superior conjunction, and visibility as evening star. Dr. John E. Teeple makes it probable that they recognized the small error of this Venus table and applied ‘a correction to it. v The Dresden Codex also shows E that they had made a close ap- [aus we TS nee proximation to the true length of STELA D. AT QUIRIGUA, GUATEthe lunar month. This lunar table MALA, OF THE ‘‘GREAT PERIOD’' OF was used for calculating eclipses. THE MAYA OLD EMPIRE. IT BEARS The synodic period of Mars was DATE WITH FULL-FIGURE NUMERALS calculated and probably that of Jupiter, Saturn and Mercury are doubtful. Teeple shows that the supplementary series in the inscriptions contain a lunar count. A supplementary series only occurs in connection with an initial series (see CHRONOLOGY), though not all initial series have them. They show the length of the lunar month, that is whether it is of 29 or 30 days, the number of days elapsed of the lunar month, and the number of the lunar month ina series of five or six lunar months. Attempts have been made to correlate this with the sets of five and six lunar months into which the Dresden Codex eclipse table is divided, but so far this has not worked out satisfactorily in all cases.

calendar was identical with that of the old empire except that the day names fell each one day earlier in the month. Thus Ahau fell on the month-day 2 instead of 3, etc. The reason for this is unknown. The new empire was much influenced by Nahua invaders from Mexico and this led to the use of the characteristic Nahua “Year-bearer,” which is the day number and day name falling on Iı Pop and was used to name the year. Thus “the year-bearer was on 4 Kan’ means that in that year 4 Kan fell upon 1 Pop. But the old calendar round method was still used, the year-bearer being sometimes given also. This is redundant since the year-bearer can be calculated from the calendar round date. But it had a practical use when the year-bearer alone was given, as it showed the year in which an event occurred without specifying the day. The old empire Maya seem, as far as our knowledge goes, to have had no way of doing this. Quiché and Cakchiquel Calendar.—The Quiché and Cakchiquel of Guatemala had a similar system of day names and day numbers. The day names are: Imox, Igh, Akbal, Kat, Can, Camey, Quieh, Ganel, Toh, Tzii, Batz, Balam, Ah, Itz, Tziquin, Ahmak, Noh, Tihax, Caok, Hunahpu. Igh fell on the month-day 1, and so on. There were also 18 months of 20 days each and 5 supplement-

ary days. The Cakchiquel names are: Tacaxepual, Nabey Tumu-

zuz, Rucab Tumuzuz, Zibix, Uchum, Nabey Mam, Rucab Mam, Likinka, Nabey Tok, Rucab Tok, Nabey Pach, Rucab Pach, Tztquin Kih, Cakan, Ibota, Katik, Itzcal Kih, Pariche and the sup-

plementary days, Tzapi Kih. But the Cakchiquel only used the months for magical and ceremonial purposes, never for dating, neither did they use year-bearers. As they only cited the day number and day name in giving a date, e.g., 10 Caok, and as such 4 date will recur every 260 days, their dates were fixed by giving also the position in their era, for which see CHRONOLOGY. MEXICAN

CALENDAR

The Aztec system is the same as the Maya, but the names and glyphs are ‘different.

The day names are:—

CALENDER—CALF i Miquiztli

“ipactli

Ozomatli

Cozcaquauhtli

Falls in month on the days I4 I

death he joined Antony, whose legions he afterwards commanded

Ehecatl

Mazatl

Mallinalli

Ollin

: T4 i

P

Calli

Tochtli

Acatl

Tecpatl

I

Ó

II

416

Cuetzpalin

Atl

Ocelotl

Quiauitl

2

7

I2

17

Coatl

—

Itzcuintli

_—

Quauhtli

Xochitl

3

8

13

18

The names of the months are: Atlcaualco, Tlacaxipeualiztli, Tozoztontli, Uei Tozozth, Toxcatl, Etzalqualiztli, Tecuiluitontli, Uei Tecuiluitl, Tlaxochimaco, Xocouetzi, Ochpaniztli, Teotleco, Tepeiluitl, Quecholli, Panquetzaliztli, Atemoztli, Tititl, Izcalli and the supplementary days Nemontemi. The month-days seem to

have been reckoned from 1 to 20. The monthly festivals regularly fell on the last month-day. In citing a date the practice was different from the Maya. The year-bearer was given and the day number and day name. Thus “year 3 Calli, day 1 Coatl.” The month-day and the month were not given, and as there are 260 days in the Tonalamatl and 365 in the year, in certain cases a day name with its number may occur twice in the same year, thus causing an ambiguity. Often the year-bearer alone is given. When the Aztec had occasion to count a length of time they counted by years of 365 days, having none of the time periods of the Maya. The calendars of several other races of Mexico seem to have been similar with different names, but information is scanty regarding them. In all scientifc knowledge the Aztec were much inferior to the Maya. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See CHRONOLOGY. (R. C. E. L.) MUSLIM

The era of the Hejira, commonly called the Mohammedan era, is used principally in Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt and some

parts of India. The era is dated from the first day of the month preceding the flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. This day was Thursday, July 16 in the year a.v. 622. Hejira years are purely lunar, always consisting of 12 lunar months, beginning with the approximate new moon. Having no intercalation to keep them to the same season in respect to the sun, these years retrogress through all the seasons every 324 years. The names of the months and the number of days in each are as follows :— Muharram Saphar

. 30 . 29

Rabia r .

. 30

Rabia 2 . Jomada x Jomada 2

. 29 . 30 29

Rajab Shaaban Ramadan

Shawwal Dulkaada Dulheggia

. 30 . 29 a

. 30

. 29 . 30 . 29

The last named month (Dulheggia) has, in intercalary years, 30 days.

Ramadān,

the ninth month,

is observed

throughout

Islam as a fast month. (See CHronoLocy: Muslim.) CALENDER. A machine consisting of two or more rollers or cylinders in close contact with each other, and often heated, through which are passed cotton, calico and other fabrics, for the

purpose of having a finished smooth surface given to them; the process flattens the fibres, removes inequalities, and also gives a glaze to the surface. It is similarly employed in paper manufacture. The derivation is from the Fr. calendre, from the Med. Lat. calendra, a cylinder. Calendar is also the name (from the Arabic galandar) of an order of dervishes who separated from the Baktashite order in the 14th century; they were vowed to perpetual travelling. Other forms of the name by which they are known are Kalenderis, Kalenderites, and Qalandarites. (See DERVISH.)

CALENUS,

QUINTUS

FUFIUS,

Roman general.

583

As

tribune of the people in 61 B.c., he helped to secure the acquittal of Clodius when charged with having profaned the mysteries of Bona Dea (Cicero, Ad. Att. i. 16). In 59 Calenus was praetor, and brought forward a law that the senators, knights, and tribuni aerarii, who composed the iudices, should vote separately, so that it might be known how they gave their votes (Dio Cassius xxxviii. 8). He fought in Gaul (sr) and Spain (49) under Caesar; in 48, when fetching reinforcements for Caesar In Epirus, most of his ships were captured by Bibulus and he himself barely escaped. In 47 he became consul. After Caesar’s

in the north of Italy. against Octavian.

He died in 41, while preparing to march

See Caesar, B.G. viii. 39; B.C. i. 84, iii. 26; Cic. Philippic viii. 4.

CALEPINO,

AMBROGIO

(1435-1511), Italian lexicog-

rapher, born at Bergamo on June 6, 1435, was descended of an old family of Calepio, whence he took his name. He became an Augustinian monk and compiled a polyglot dictionary, first printed at Reggio in 1502. This gigantic work was afterwards augmented by Passerat and others. The most complete edition (Basle, 1590) comprises 11 languages. The best edition is that published at Padua in seven languages in 1772. Calepino died blind in rsrz.

CALES

(mod. Carvr), an ancient city of Campania,

be-

longing originally to the Aurunci, on the Via Latina, 8m. N.N.W. of Casilinum. It was taken by the Romans in 335 B.C., and was for a long time the centre. of the Roman dominion in Campania. It was an important base in the war against Hannibal. The fer- . tility of its territory and its manufacture of black glazed pottery (see Pagenstecher, Calenische Reliefkeramik, Berlin, 1909, and C. L. Woolley in Journal of Roman Studies, i. 199), which was even exported to Etruria, made it prosperous. In the sth century A.D. it became an episcopal see, which (jointly with Teano since 1818) it still is, though it is now a mere village. The cathedral, of the 12th century, has a carved portal and three apses decorated with small arches and pilasters, and contains a fine pulpit and episcopal throne in marble mosaic. Near it are two grottos which have been used for Christian worship and contain frescoes of the roth and 11th centuries. Inscriptions name six gates of the town, and the antiquarian remains are considerable, including parts of an amphitheatre and theatre, and of a supposed temple and other edifices.

CALEXICO, a city of Imperial county (Calif.), U.S.A., on

the international border, opposite the Mexican city Mexicali; a port of entry, and the gateway to the Mexican Imperial valley. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway lines. The region produces cotton, fruit and live stock, and the city has large cotton gins. The population was 797 in 1910; 6,299 in 1930. The city was Incorporated in 1908.

CALF.

(1) The young of the Bovidae, and particularly of the

domestic cow, also of the elephant and of marine mammals, as the whale and seal. The word is applied to a small island close to a larger one, like a calf by its mother’s side, as in “Calf of Man,” and to a mass of ice detached from an iceberg. (2) The fleshy hinder part of the leg, between the knee and the ankle.

CALF, THE GOLDEN, an object of worship which appears in two (apparently) different connections in the Old Testament: (a) the molten image whose making by Aaron in the absence of Moses is described in Ex. xxxii.; (b) an idol set up by Jeroboam I. at Bethel and at Dan, on the secession of the northern tribes from the kingdom of the house of David. The calf- (or rather, bull-) cult of northern Israel is condemned by Hosea, and was regarded as an act of apostasy by the compilers of the Books of Kings, probably under the influence of Deuteronomy. At the same time no objection seems to have been raised till the latter half of the 8th century. . Bull worship was common both in Egypt and Palestine, and it has been conjectured that the narrative in Ex. xxxii. records an attempt to revive an older cult which the Israelites had known in Egypt. More probably, however, the narrative is a modified form of an ancient story told at Bethel, and possibly, also at Dan, to explain the cult—in other words the Aagios logos of the shrine. If this be so, then the original probably made Moses himself, not Aaron, the originator of the cult, and explained that this was the

divinely communicated form under which Yahweh wished to be worshipped. A later generation, convinced of the iniquity of any material representation of Yahweh, turned this into an act of apostasy and fathered it on Aaron, who elsewhere has hardly an independent character (see Aaron). We may conjecture that the

bull-cult itself was a native Canaanite form of Baal-religion, adopted by Israel with the change of the name of the deity revered.

584

CALGARY— CALHOUN

See Hesrew ReLrcron; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, pp. 175 seq.; Hastings Dict. Bib. i. 342; and T. H. Robinson on The Golden Calf, Expositor, 8th series, vol. xxiv. pp. 121 seq. (T. H. R.)

CALGARY, a city of the province of Alberta, Canada, at the junction of the Bow and Elbow rivers. Lat. 51° 44’ N.; Long. 114° 15’ W. Pop. (1901) 4,091; (1931) 83,761. It is a centre of the large wheat-growing and stock-raising region of north-western Canada, and an important railway junction on the main line of the C.P.R. to the Pacific coast at Vancouver. The town is well laid out, with fine buildings, and is the seat of the Provincial Institute of Technology and Art. It contains repair shops, flour mills, and other industries; the electric power for lighting and manufacturing is developed on the Bow river, while natural gas is piped from the Bow island field, room. distant, also available from the mining districts of the Calgary was founded in 1883 and incorporated Branch lines connect it north with Edmonton, * province, and south with Lethbridge, while the ing the Bow river, enters the Rocky mountains ing Horse pass, 4om. west of Calgary.

a good coal being Rocky mountains. as a city in 1894. the capital of the main line, followthrough the Kick-

manufacturers began to feel the effects of European competition In discussion of the tariff proposals that resulted, Calhoun in 1816, delivered a speech in favour of protection. Ever after this speech was cited by his opponents in subsequent tariff contro-

versies as evidence of his inconsistency as an opponent of pro-

tection. At this time Calhoun also advocated internal improvements and was an exponent of the “Nationalism” advocated by the younger men of the West who were intent upon building up that section of the country and developing its resources.

In 1817 Calhoun became secretary of war in Monroe’s cabinet

the duties of which office he is credited with having performed

with much ability. Following his service in Monroe’s cabinet,

he was, in 1824, elected vice president of the United States, and again re-elected in 1828. In 1832, in the course of the famoys nullification controversy, he resigned from the office of vice

president and was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he voiced

the political philosophy of “‘States’ rights” on behalf of the cop-

servative slave-holding interests of the South, forming one of a remarkable company of legislators who comprised the Senate at that time. In 1844 Calhoun’s name was considered for the presidency, but he declined to become a candidate, and in that

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1850), American statesman and parliamentarian, was born in Abbeville district, year was appointed by President Tyler to the office of secretary S.C., on March 18, 1782. He was of Scotch-Irish descent, his of State, serving until March 1845. Upon his retirement as ancestors who came to America having settled originally in Penn- secretary of State he returned to the Senate, where he remained sylvania during the first part of the 18th century and later gone „until he died in 1850. southward across the mountains to the up-country of South His extraordinary faculties of mind were applied very arduously Carolina. Calhoun’s family were people of moderate means, own- to the fundamental principles of the American governmental ing but few negro slaves, and more representative of the frontier structure, and he is justly looked upon as one of the most astute farming class than of the established and wealthy slave-holding of political thinkers among the public men of the United States, families of the southern coastal plain section. His father, Patrick The significance of his career, aside from his endeavours for Calhoun, was a man of some prominence in his community, repre- supremacy in the field of national politics at a time when affairs senting it in the colonial assembly, and later in the State legisla- were in the hands of men of striking personalities and unusual ture. Calhoun’s mother’s name was Martha Caldwell. capacities, lies in his advocacy of the doctrine of “States rights,” As a small boy, Calhoun had little opportunity for education, as it related to the interests of the slave-owning aristocracy of but when he was 12 years of age he was sent to live for a year the South and of the concomitant theory of nullification. It has in the family of his brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell been sometimes thought that Calhoun’s political philosophy was (1770-1840), a Presbyterian minister, who subsequently, from developed as a result of his failure to attain a dominating position 1819 to 1829, was president of the University of Georgia. Later, in the national Government and to achieve the presidency of the under the direction of the Rev. Waddell, he prepared for college, United States, to which it is said he aspired, and that he naturally entering the junior class at Yale in 1802. In 1804 he graduated turned his energies to strengthening those political entities, his from Yale with distinction, and commenced the study of law own State, and his own section, in which he had come to occupy at a law school at Litchfield, Conn. Thereafter, he completed his a place of supremacy. It is, however, more reasonable to explain law studies in a law office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was his support of the theories to which he adhered upon the ground admitted to the bar, and began practice in his native Abbeville that they were the result of a class and economic consciousness district. Almost at once he entered politics. In 1808 and 1809 of the group to which he belonged as an integral part and which he was a member of the South Carolina legislature, and from 1811 as a leader he was called upon to defend-in the realm of political to 1817 he served as a member of the House of Representatives thought. The South as a section was losing its place of dominance of the national legislature. politically and economically, and, in addition, was on the defensive In the year that Calhoun entered Congress, he was married to with respect to the morality of the institution of slavery. Cala wealthy cousin, Floride Bonneau Calhoun, whose family was houn’s philosophy served to check the opposing forces with a identified with the Charleston aristocracy, and this, together with threat and eventually, when put into practice by secession, prethe acquisition of a plantation and negroes, associated Calhoun’s cipitated civil war. interests with those of the slave-holding and propertied classes The immediate cause of the controversy leading to an advocacy of the South. However, when he ran for Congress in 1811, he of the States’ rights or strict construction theories was the tariff. advocated a warlike policy against Great Britain more as a repre- In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. sentative of the frontier which was not concerned with British ‘In 1828 a still higher tariff act, the so-called “tariff of abominainterference with shipping, but thought that her influence among tions” was passed. The acts were disadvantageous to the agrithe Indians was inimical to the western expansion of the United cultural South and of advantage to the North. The power of states. When Calhoun entered Congress, Henry Clay was then Congress to pass these discriminatory laws was questioned, and speaker of the House and one of the leaders of the group that Calhoun, in an essay, “The South Carolina Exposition,” took the was eager for war with England. Clay named Calhoun to a position that the Federal Constitution was a compact between place on the important committee on foreign affairs. This com- sovereign States by which each delegated to the central Governmittee, of which Calhoun soon became the dominating member, ment thereby set up certain limited powers. The acts of the recommended the adoption of resolutions urging war with Eng- U.S. Government must be within the sphere of power contemplated land. These resolutions were adopted by the House of Repre- by the compact. Acts beyond the scope of the delegated power sentatives, and it is estimated that no other two members of a State might in the exercise of its sovereignty nullify, or it Congress were more influential in precipitating the War of 1812 might, within its rights, even withdraw altogether from the Union. than were Clay and Calhoun. This was not a new theory in American government, but Calhoun During the period of the embargo and during the War of 1812, so clarified, expounded and amplified the “State’s rights” philomanufacturing thrived in America, but with peace between the sophy that he became inseparably identified with it. United States and Great Britain, and the termination of the In 1832, Calhoun, who had up to that time been a regulat Napoleonic régime on the continent of Europe, the American Jeffersonian Democrat. broke with Tackson. who was head of

CALI—CALIBRATION the Party, and during the remainder of the Jackson régime, was a severe critic of Jacksonianism. He attacked the spoils system and opposed the removal of the Government deposits from the U.S. Bank. In 1831, in an “Address to the People of South Carolina,” he elaborated his views as to the nature of the Union, and in 1832 addressed an essay letter to the governor of South

Carolina, stating in final form his theory of the American governmental system.

This last document resulted in the “nullification”

by South Carolina of the Tariff acts of 1828 and 1832.

There

followed in 1833 the historic debate between Webster and Calhoun on the so-called “Force Bill,” which had been introduced into the U.S. Senate to enlarge the jurisdiction of the Federal courts, and to give Jackson, as president, power to cope with the South

Carolina situation.

Webster maintained the doctrine of Federal

supremacy as the expounder and interpreter of its own powers under the Constitution, while Calhoun argued the cause of State sovereignty. ‘The opposing sides in this famous nullification controversy compromised. Congress reduced duties to an ultimate revenue basis, and South Carolina repealed the acts of nullification. Its consequence was, however, an acceptance by the South

of Calhoun’s doctrine as a protective political philosophy for slavery. To it and to Calhoun the slave-holding interests turned for a constitutional argument against any interference with the

controverted institution.

As the abolition movement

developed

and the question of the extension of slavery became a bitter one, it was Calhoun whose voice was heard in the Senate protesting on constitutional grounds against receiving abolition petitions, and it was under Calhoun’s leadership that the forces opposing the Wilmot Proviso against the extension of slavery in the territory acquired from Mexico were marshalled and the Proviso defeated in the Senate. Calhoun took the extreme position that it was

the duty of the U.S. Government under the Constitution to prevent any interference with slavery in the territories. In the course of the great debate on the admission of California into the Union as a free State, Calhoun died. In that controversy Webster made his famous. “Seventh of March” speech, and Clay achieved his last great feat as peacemaker by the Compromise of 1850. Had Calhoun lived, the Compromise of 1850 might never have been made. Calhoun was tall and slender, and in his later years emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, but he had a striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. To his slaves he was just and kind. He lived the modest unassuming life of a country planter when at home, and at Washington lived as unostentatiously as possible, consistent with his public duties and position. His character in other respects was of stainless integrity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —A collected edition of Calhoun’s Works (1853—1855) has been edited by Richard K. Crallé. The most important speeches and papers are: The South Carolina Exposition (1828); Speech on the Force Bill (1833); Reply to Webster (1833); Speeck on the Reception of Abolitionist Petitions (1836) and on the Veto Power (1842) ; a Disquisition on Government, and a Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States (1849-50)—~the last two, written a short time before his death, defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a government such as that of the United States. Calhoun’s Correspondence, edited by J. Franklin Jameson, has been published by the American Historical Association (see Report for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography of Calhoun by Dr. Hermann von Holst in the “American Statesmen Series” (1882) is a condensed study of the political questions of Calhoun’s time. Wm. P. Trent, Southern Statesmen of the Old Régime (1897); G. M. Pinckney’s Life of John C. Calhoun (1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. Gaillard Hunt’s John C. Calhoun (1908) is a valuable work; W. E.

Dodd, Statesmen of the Old South (1911).

(B. B. K.)

CALI, an inland town, capital of the department of Valle,

Colombia, South America, about 180m. S.W. of Bogota and som.

585

outlet on the Pacific coast. vicinity of the town.

CALIBRATION,

Coal deposits exist in the immediate

a term primarily signifying the determina-

tion of the “calibre,” or bore of a gun. The word calibre was introduced through the French from the Italian calibro, together with other terms of gunnery and warfare, about the 16th century. The origin of the Italian equivalent appears to be uncertain. Tt will readily be understood that the calibre of a gun requires accurate adjustment to the standard size, and, further, that the bore must be straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The term was subsequently applied to the accurate measurement and testing of the bore of any kind of tube, especially those of ther-

a

re

do

mometers.

eft Yo} J

T

A

In modern scientific language, x

01223 485 67 8 9 10

by a natural process of transition, the term “‘calibration” has come

to

denote

the

accurate

comparison of any measuring inCALIBRATION CURVE strument with a standard, and more particularly the determination of the errors of its scale. It is seldom possible in the process of manufacture to make an instrument so perfect that no error can be discovered by the most delicate tests, and it would rarely be worth while to attempt to do so even if it were possible. The cost of manufacture would in many cases be greatly increased without adding materially to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in all cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correction of errors, is to economize time and labour in production by taking pains in the subsequent verification or calibration. This process of calibration, is particularly important in laboratory research, where the observer has frequently to make his own apparatus, and cannot afford the time or outlay required to make special tools for fine work, but is already provided with apparatus and methods of accurate testing. For non-scientific purposes it is generally possible to ‘construct instruments to measure with sufficient precision without further correction. The present article will therefore be restricted to the scientific use and application of methods of accurate testing. General Methods and Principles.—The process of calibration of any measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two parts, which differ greatly in importance in different cases, and of which one or the other may often be omitted. (1) The determination of the value of the unit to which the measurements are referred by comparison with a standard unit of the same kind. This is often described as the Standardization of the instrument, or the determination of the Reduction factor. (2) The verification of the accuracy of the subdivision of the scale of the instrument. This may be termed calibration of the scale, and does not necessarily involve the "comparison of the instrument with any independent standard, but merely the verification of the accuracy of the relative values of its indications. In many cases the process of calibration adopted consists in the comparison of the instrument to be tested with a standard over the whole range of its indications, the relative values of the subdivisions of the standard itself having been previously tested. In this case the distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, and the term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to include both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part only, but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning.

The methods of standardization or calibration employed have much

in common

even

in the cases that appear most

diverse.

They are all founded on the axiom that “things which are equal SE. of the port of Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch to the same thing are equal to one another.” Whether it is a of the Cauca. Pop. (1918) 45,825. Cali stands 3,327ft. above question of comparing a scale with a standard, or of testing the sea-level on the western side of the Cauca valley, one of the most equality of two parts of the same scale, the process is essentially healthful regions of Colombia. The land-locked character of this one of interchanging or substituting one for the other, the two region greatly restricts the city’s trade and development; but it things to be compared. In addition to the things to be tested 18 considered the most important town in the department. A rail- there is usually required some form of balance, or comparator, or

way from Buenaventura gives Cali and the valley behind it, with

which it is connected by over 200m. of river navigation, a good

gauge, by which the equality may be tested. One of the simplest of such comparators is the instrument known as the callipers.

CALIBRATION

586

from the same root as calibre, which is in constant use in the tion of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, or uniformity in each group of four can then be determined by substitution of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated forms of independently of the others, and the total of each group of four optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and making ten times the unit of the group, can be compared with the screw adjustments are essentially similar in principle, being finely smallest weight in the group above. This gives a sufficient num. adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can be ber of equations to determine the errors of all the weights by the successively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison method of substitution in a very simple manner. A number of is that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the other equations can be obtained by combining the different groups gauge or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most in other ways, and the whole system of equations may then be accurate and most important methods of calibration. The com- solved by the method of least squares; but the equations so mon balance for testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate obtained are not all of equal value, and it may be doubted and so easily tested that the process of calibration may frequently whether any real advantage is gained in many cases by the multiwith advantage be reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the calibration of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities of mercury required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, however, be regarded more broadly as the type of a general method capable of the widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, for instance, to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical resistances against each other, or to meas-

ure the refractivity of a gas by balancing it against a column of ` air adjusted to produce the same retardation in a beam of light. These “equilibrium,” or “null,” or “balance” methods of comparison afford the most accurate measurements, and are generally selected if possible as the basis of any process of calibration. In spite of the great diversity in the nature of things to be compared, the fundamental principles of the methods employed are so essentially similar that it is possible, for instance, to describe the testing of a set of weights, or the calibration of an electrical resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and to represent the calibration correction of a mercury thermometer or of an ammeter by precisely similar curves.

Method of Substitution.—In comparing two units of the same kind and of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general method of substitution is invariably adopted. The same method in a more elaborate form is employed in the calibration: of a series of multiples or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method depend on the system of subdivision adopted, which is to some extent a matter of taste. The simplest method of subdivision is that on the binary scale, proceeding by multiples of 2. With a pair of submultiples of the smallest denomination and one of each of the rest, thus r, r, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., each weight or multiple is equal to the sum of all the smaller weights, which may be substituted for it, and the small difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights A, B, C, etc., where each is approximately double the following weight, and if we write a for observed excess of A over the rest of the weights, b for that of B over

C-+-D-- etc., and so on, the observations by the method of substitution give the series of equations,

A—rest==a, B—rest=b, C—rest=se, etc... . (1). Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, and so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of the preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, which is most conveniently taken as the standard

B=A/2-+-(b—a)/2, C=B/2-+(c—b)2, etc...

. (2).

The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in addition to its extreme simplicity, are (1) that there is only one possible combination to represent any given weight within the range of the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights

is required to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number of substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These advantages are important in cases where the accuracy of calibration is limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in the case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the case when it is a question of accuracy of estimation by an observer. In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded by familiarity with the decimal system is the most important consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal system for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, hundreds, etc., arranged in groups of four adjusted in the propor-

plication of comparisons, since it is not possible in this manner

to eliminate constant errors or personal equation, which are generally aggravated by prolonging the observations. A common

arrangement of the weights in each group on the decimal system is 5, 2, I, 1 Or 5, 2, 2, 1. These do not admit of the independent

calibration of each group by substitution.

The arrangement s,

2, I, I, I Or 5, 2, 2, I, I, permits independent calibration, but involves a larger number of weights and observations than the I, 2, 3,4 grouping. The arrangement of ten equal weights in each group, which is adopted in “dial” resistance-boxes, and in some

forms of chemical balances where the weights are mechanically applied by turning a handle, presents great advantages in point

of quickness of manipulation and ease of numeration, but the complete calibration of such an arrangement is tedious, and in the case of a resistance-box it is difficult to make the necessary con-

nections. In all cases where the same total can be made up ina variety of ways, it is necessary in accurate work to make sure that the same weights are always used for a given combination, or

else to record the actual weights used on each occasion. In many investigations where time enters as one of the factors, this is a serious drawback, and it is better to avoid the more complicated arrangements. The accurate adjustment of a set of weights is so simple a matter that it is often possible to neglect the errors of a well-made set, and no calibration is of any value without the most scrupulous attention to details of manipulation, and particularly to the correction for the air displaced in comparing weights of different materials. Electrical resistances are much more difficult to adjust owing to the change of resistance with temperature, and the calibration of a resistance-box can seldom be neglected. on account of the changes of resistance which are liable to occur after adjustment from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to remember that the order of accuracy required, and the actual values of the smaller resistances, depend to some extent on the method of connection, and that the box must be calibrated with due regard to the conditions under which it is to be used. Otherwise the method of procedure is much the same as in the case of a box of weights. Method

of Equal Steps.—In

calibrating a continuous scale

divided into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees of temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by a method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the method of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers or tubes of small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution employing a column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge for comparing the capacities of differ-

ent parts of the tube. A precisely similar method, employing a

pair of microscopes at a fixed distance apart as a standard of length, is applicable to the calibration of a divided scale. The

interval to be calibrated is divided into a whole number of equal steps or sections, the points of division at which the corrections are to be determined are called points of calibration. Slide-wire.—The calibration of an electrical slide-wire into parts of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that of a capillary tube into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster method, employing short steps of equal resistance, effected by transferring

a suitable small resistance from one side of the slide-wire to the

other, is exactly analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers

from the same defect of the accumulation of small errors unless

steps of several different lengths are used. The calibration of &

CALIBRATION slide-wire, however, is much less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube for several reasons.

It is easy to obtain a wire

uniform to one part in 500 or even less, and the section is not liable to capricious variations. In all work of precision the slidewire is supplemented by auxiliary resistances by which the scale

may be indefinitely extended. In accurate electrical thermometry,

for example, the slide-wire itself would correspond to only 1°, or less, of the whole scale, which is less than a single step in the cali-

bration of a mercury thermometer, so that an accuracy of a thousandth of a degree can generally be obtained without any calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare cases in which it is necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as the cylinder potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best effected by comparison with a standard, such as a Thomson-Varley slide-box.

Graphic Representation of Results——tThe results of a calibration are often best represented by means of a correction curve, such as that illustrated in the diagram (see p. 585) which is plotted to represent the corrections in Table I. The abscissa of such a

587

possible, and should be automatically corrected during the process

of ruling. With this object a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the uncorrected screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal template may then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correction curve on a suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut which feeds the carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour of the template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each point of the travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the screw. A small periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each revolution, may be simlarly corrected by means of a suitable cam or eccentric revolving with the screw and actuating the template. This error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to determine and correct. Calibration by Comparison with a Standard.—The commonest and most generally useful process of calibration is the © direct comparison of the instrument with a standard over the whole range of its scale. It is necessary that the standard itself

should have been already calibrated, or else that the law of its

TABLE I. Solution of Complete Calibration. Step No.

I.

2.

I

2

o

=—s

+ 5

a.

‘Oo

3

4

II

+20

+16

II

—16

4.

—20

—23

— 8

6.

35

—29

—13

5.

— 34

"

—

8. Gro I0.

7

:

Error of step Corrections

.

: s

: z

—24

+34

+25

+24

+13

+29

+12

o

+15

+ 5

+9

o

—1I5

Ta

—15

—

— 23 —32

—28 —37

—I3 —22

—17°3

—22-°0

—

+173

+39°3

-+12

—

9

+7

+4

+13

—17

+2

—1

+ 8

— 26

+10 + 2

+ 1 — 8

64

+ 1-9

+16-7

+45°7

+43°8

27°12

The corrections are plotted in the

to be —29 and —og thousandths respectively. The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in terms of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the points +-29

and -+-9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates from this line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may be replotted with the new ordinates thus obtained. In drawing the curve from the corrections obtained at the points of calibration, the exact form of the curve is to some extent a matter of taste, but the curve should generally be drawn as smoothly as possible on the assumption that the changes are gradual and continuous.

The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to the first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under the term “Standardization.” It effects the reduction of the readings to a common standard, and may be neglected if relative values only are required. A precisely analogous correction occurs in the case of electrical instruments. A potentiometer, for instance, if correctly graduated or calibrated in parts of equal resistance, will give correct relative values of any differences of potential Within its range if connected to a constant cell to supply the But to determine at any

time the actual value of its readings in volts it is necessary to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or reduction-factor, by

comparison with a standard cell. . A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by

Prof. W. A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of divid-

Ing machines or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as applied by Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect in point of uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced by the method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, and more particularly in the case of optical grat-

ings, it is most important that the errors should be as small as

+32

—12

— 4 —13

figure in terms of the whole section, taking the correction to be zero at the beginning and end. As a matter of fact the corrections at these points in terms of the fundamental interval were found

+23

Io

+37

— I9

O

+15 —

8

+13 —10

22

—

2

+19

+16

—

3

+ 6

— 16 — 26

+ 3 — 6

—

© 9

+9 ©

+ 72

— IOI

+ 89

+ 6r

-+-20-0

+30-1

+21-2

—

|

+26

9

+28

4

2

+ 8

8

+31

—

-+17

nate is the correction to be added to the observed reading to

steady current through the slide-wire.

— .O

+7

+26

7

curve is the reading of the instrument to be corrected. The ordireduce to a uniform scale.

7

+39

+8

+ 4

— 31

6

+23

—I2

— 26

wk. .

—39

o

5

ò

` I5

+26

+Ir5'Ir o

indications should be known. A continuous current ammeter, for instance, can be calibrated, so far as the relative values of its readings are concerned, by comparison with a tangent galvanometer, since it is known that the current in this instrument is proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an alternating current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an electro-dynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the current. But in either case it is necessary, in order to obtain the readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some particular value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, or In some equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters and voltmeters are calibrated by comparison of their readings with those of a potentiometer, the calibration of which can be reduced to the comparison and adjustment of resistances,

which is the most accurate of electrical measurements. The commoner kinds of mercury thermometers are generally calibrated and graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases this is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A mercury thermometer of limited scale reading between 250° and 400° C, with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation of the mercury column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by comparison with a mercury standard possessing a fundamental interval, on account of difficulties of stem exposure and scale, The only practical method is to compare its readings every few degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under the conditions for which it is to be used. This method has the advantage of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, etc.,

with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally at some point of the scale. Brsriocraray.—Mercuria]l Thermometers: Guillaume, Tkermométrie de Précision (1889), gives several examples and references to original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and testing of standards are generally to be found in publications of standards offices, such as those of the Bureau International des Poids et Mésures at Paris.

Dial Resistance-Box: Griffiths, Phil. Trans. A, 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J. A. Harker and P. Chappuis, Phzl. Trans. A, 1900;

Thomson-Varley Potentiometer and Binary Scale Box: Callendar and Barnes, Phil. Trans. A, 1901. (For calibration of a mercury thermometer, see article THERMOMETRY.) (H. L. C.)

588 CALIBRE.

CALIBRE—CALICUT The diameter of the bore of a gun, not counting

the depth of the rifled grooves.

CALICO.

A trade term to describe the simplest variety of

plain cotton fabrics embodying what is variously known technically as the “plain,” “calico” and “tabby” weave. This simple fabric structure is evolved by the most elementary plan of interweaving two distinct series of threads, constituting the warp and the weft series, respectively, and which cross each other at right angles. Each individual thread of these two series interweaves in an exactly corresponding manner; 7.¢., with every thread in each series passing alternately under and over consecutive threads of the other series, uniformly, throughout the entire fabric. Hence, every thread in each series interweaves to the uttermost possible extent with every thread in the other series, and thereby produces a texture which is relatively firmer and stronger than that of any other elementary weave structure, for corresponding counts and quality of yarn, and ends and picks per inch in the fabric. Calico fabrics comprise an infinite variety of different textures and qualities according to the different uses for which they are intended, ranging from the finest muslin and cambric textures to those of the coarser and stronger textures of cotton. In the cotton trade, however, the term “calico” applies more strictly to a true plain cloth in which the counts and quality both of the warp and weft, and also the number of ends and picks per inch correspond, approximately. Thus, a typical example of a fine texture is one containing 100 ends and picks per inch, of 40’s counts of yarn both for warp and weft, though these data may be varied in either direction with considerable latitude, without departing from the true calico texture. When these items correspond, either exactly or approximately, the resultant texture, whether this is fine

or coarse, will be produced with a general evenness of surface in

consequence of the threads of both series each bending and yielding in the fabric in an exactly corresponding measure. Tabby Weave.—Plain cloths, ż.e., woven fabrics embodying the simple calico or “tabby” weave, are probably produced in a greater variety of textures and from every kind of textile material, than those of any other fundamental weave in the entire range of fabric structure. Plain cloths produced from cotton yarn ranging from, say, about 16’s to 160’s counts both for warp and weft, and containing any number of threads ranging from, say, about 40 to 160 ends and picks per inch, would come under the designation of “‘calicoes’”; whereas the finer textures of plain cotton fabrics would be described as “muslins” and “cambrics”; whilst the heavier textures of plain cotton fabrics would be given such descriptions as heavy “sheetings,” ‘‘canvas,” “duck,” and many other varieties. Calico fabrics are almost invariably woven in the “grey” state; z.e., in the natural colour of the raw cotton staple. A considerable quantity of calico is used in the grey state for domestic purposes,

as well as for many trade and other uses. It is also shipped in large quantities all over the world. A considerable amount of calico is also bleached, dyed, and printed, for every conceivable household use and articles of clothing. (See CRETONNES.) Variations of Plain Calico.—Although the plain calico weave is the simplest possible fabric structure, yet it permits of several distinct modifications in the development of different textural effects without departing in the very least from the essential basis of that structure as defined in the first part of this article. Thus, instead of employing warp and weft of similar counts of yarn, and inserting a corresponding number of ends and picks per inch, as in a true calico fabric, warp and weft of widely different counts may be employed in order to produce ribs and cords either across, lengthwise, or in both directions of the fabric. The ribs or

cords will lie in the direction of the coarser threads and will be more or less pronounced according to the disparity in the respective counts. For example, a warp-ribbed effect is produced across the fabric by employing a greater number of warp threads of finer counts of yarn, per inch, with a fewer number of picks of coarser counts of weft, as exemplified in “poplins” and similar textures. By adopting the reverse method, a weft-ribbed or corded effect is produced lengthwise of the fabric, by employing yarn of coarser

counts for warp, and of finer counts for weft.

The familiar ex.

ample of “repp” fabric employed for upholstering railway carriages is virtually a plain texture evolved by employing yarn of both coarse and fine counts both in the warp and also in the weft series of threads, in order to develop a more pronounced tibbed effect, as well as a texture of greater strength and durability, (See also Cotton; WEAVING.) See H. Nisbet, Grammar of Textile Design (1927). (H. N.)

CALICO

PRINTING.

A means of producing decorative

effects in the form of patterns or designs on cotton and other

fabrics. The application of this art is not limited to the material generally known as calico, for almost all varieties of cotton fabric may be printed. The effects produced are generally coloured, but many other substances besides colours are applied in printing, for example mordants to combine with colour principles in subsequent dyeing, “resists” to prevent dyeing, “discharges” to destroy the colour in certain places on already dyed fabric and substances capable of

producing differences of texture and of lustre in the fabric. The substance to be printed must either constitute or be made into a paste of such consistency that it will remain exactly where

it is applied to the fabric and will not spread by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the design. With this object in view the substance is usually mixed with “thickening” which may be composed of such materials as starch, flour, British gum, gum tragacanth and less frequently albumen, casein or glue. Solutions used

for the production of certain kinds of artificial silk may be already of such consistency that they can be applied directly for the purpose of producing a lustrous film. The mixture to be printed is

prepared in the “colour” shop of the printworks and whether its essential constituent is or is not colour the paste produced is frequently known in the works as the “colour.” It is the essential substance printed or the manner in which this

acts during or following printing which determines the “style” of printing. Only by ingenuity in the application of chemistry to “colour mixing,” is it possible to satisfy the ever increasing demand for new and novel styles.

The local application of “colour” in the form of a pattern may also be carried out by the assistance of various instruments, but by far the most important is the engraved cylinder or roller. The first practically successful application of this form of printing machine was made in 1785 by Bell at the works of Livesey, Hargreaves and Co., near Preston. Roller printing is applicable to almost all types of ornament and fabric, it is capable of depositing from one to sixteen colours in a single printing operation and in one working day 18,000 yards of cloth can be printed in one colour and 8,000 to 9,000 yards in 12 colours. The pattern is engraved

intaglio in fine lines or dots on a copper roller or in the case of a multicolour design as many rollers are engraved as the number of colours in the design demands and in the form taken by each colour which it is intended to print. This method of printing enables much detail in very fine designs to be clearly represented. The hand block on which the pattern is cut in flat relief is unsurpassed for designs characterized by boldness and breadth of effect in rich transparent colours. By this method of printing which has been known from time immemorial such fabrics as cretonnes, table covers, curtains and chintz may be produced with fine effect. Although the method is necessarily slow it has never been superseded by any form of machine printing for certain

classes of work.

,

In the best types of work whether produced by block or machine printing, it is not possible to observe any stiffnėss in the printed

parts of the fabrics, for all starch or gum is removed. Moreover

the results represent the combined efforts of artists, skilled crafts-

men, chemists and engineers.

(See TEXTILE TES

i

CALICUT, city, British India, headquarters of the Malabar district of Madras; on the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypore. Pop. (1921) 82,334.

The weaving of cotton, for which the place was at onè

time so famous that its name became identified with its calico, !8

no longer of any importance. About the 7th century Calicut grew largely through the immigration of the Moplahs, fanatical

CALIDARIUM—CALIFORNIA Mohammedans from Arabia. The Portuguese traveller, Pero de Covilham (g.v.) visited Calicut in 1487, and described its possibilities for European trade; and in 1498 Vasco da Gama, the first European navigator to reach India, arrived at Calicut, then a flourishing city. Da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he met with persistent hostility from the local chief (zamorin), and a similar attempt made by Cabral two

years later ended in the destruction of the factory by the Moplahs.

In revenge the Portuguese bombarded the town; but no further attempt was made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an unsuccessful attack on the city. In the following year Albuquerque, with 3,000 troops, plundered the palace and burnt the town; but the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships after heavy loss.

589

Physiography.—The physiography of the State is simple; its main features are few and bold; a mountain fringe along the ocean, another mountain system along the east border, between them—closed in at both ends by their junction—a splendid valley of imperial extent, and outside all this a great area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to the great basin and partly to the open basin region. Along the Pacific, and some 20-40m. in width, runs the mass of the Coast range, made up of numerous indistinct chains—most of which have localized individual names

In the following year they concluded a

peace with the zamorin and built a fortified factory, which was abandoned in 1525. In 1615 the town was visited by an English expedition; but it was not until 1664 that an English trading settlement was established by the East India Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, who expelled all the mer-

chants, and destroyed the coconut trees, sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country might not tempt Europeans. In 1782 Hyder’s troops were driven from the town, but in 1788 it was destroyed by his son Tippoo, who, with great cruelty, carried off the inhabitants to Beypore. In 1790 the country was occupied by

the British; and under the treaty concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his dominions, Calicut fell to the British. After this the inhabitants returned and rebuilt the town. Calicut is served by the Madras railway, and is the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, although steamers have to lie 3 m. offshore, and the port is practically closed during the south-west monsoon from the end of May to mid-August. Beypore, where there are eight wharves, is included in the port. Two piers, about 13 m. apart, have recently been built at Calicut. The principal exports are coconut products, coffee, tea, pepper, ginger, etc. There are factories for coffee cleaning, cotton-mills, saw-mills and tile, oil and soap works. A detachment of European troops is generally stationed here to overawe the fanatical Moplahs. There are two colleges, a hospital of the Basle Mission, a fishery research station and a commercial school in the town.

CALIDARIUM,

the hot room of the Roman baths (see

BATHS),

CALIDIUS, MARCUS, Roman orator. His first speech of

which we know was delivered in 64 B.c. against Gallius, who was defended by Cicero, for bribery. He was praetor in 57, and spoke in favour of Cicero’s return and the restoration of his house. In the disturbances after Clodius’ death he was a partisan of Milo. In the debate in the Senate in Jan. 49 he urged that Pompey should leave for his provinces to avoid war. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined Caesar, who made him governor of Gallia Togata, where he remained till his death, at Placentia, in 48 B.C. BrsLiocraPHy.—Cicero, Brutus, 79, 80, for a discussion of his style. Meyer, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, 434; Westermann, Gesch. der Rom. Beredtsamkeit, 69, 6-11.

CALIFORNIA, popularly known as the “Golden State,” is

one of the Pacific coast group of the United States of America.

Physically it is one of the most remarkable, economically one of

the most independent, and in history and social life one of the most interesting of the Union. It is bounded on the north by Oregon, east by Nevada and Arizona, from which last it is separated by the Colorado river, and south by the Mexican territory of Lower California, and west by the Pacific ocean. The extreme limits of California extend from 114° to 124° 29’ W. and from

BY

COURTESY

COLTON FRAMED

OF AMERICAN

EXPRESS

COMPANY

HALL, MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA, WHERE THE CONVENTION THE FIRST CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE MET IN 1849

THAT

—that are broken down into innumerable ridges and spurs, and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. The range is cut by numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of recent activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of which seem to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast range vary from about 2,000 to 8,oooft.; in the neighbourhood of San Francisco bay the culminating peaks are about 4,oooft. in height (Mt. Diablo, 3,856ft.; Mt. St. Helena, 4,343ft.), and to the north and south the elevation of the range increases. In the east part of the State is the magnificent Sierra Nevada, a great block of the earth’s crust, faulted along its eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west and a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system of the United States. The sierra proper, from Lassen peak to Tehachapi pass in Kern county, is about 430m. long (from Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside county, more than 600 miles). Far higher and grander than the Coast range, the sierra is much less complicated, being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of structure. Precipitous gorges of canyons, often from 2,000 to 5,oooft. in depth, become a more and more marked feature of the range as one proceeds northward; over great portions of it they average not more than 20m. apart. The eastern slope is very steep, due to a great fault which threw the rocks of the great basin region abruptly downward several thousand feet. Few passes cross the chain. Between 36° 20’ and 38° the lowest gap of any kind is above 9,oooft., and the average height of those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 feet. The Kearsarge, most used of all, is still higher. Some 4o peaks are catalogued between 5,000 and 8,oooft., and there are rr above 14,ooo. The highest portion of the system is between the parallels of 36° 30’ and 37° 30°; here the peaks range from 13,cooft. up- ` ward, Mt. Whitney, 14,5o1ft., being the highest summit of the United States, excluding Alaska. Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of the highest sierra opposite Owens lake, where there is a drop eastward into the valley of about 10,cooft. in tom.; the snowy volcanic cone of Mt. Shasta, rising 10,c0oft. above the adjacent plains; and the lovely valleys of the Coast range, and the south fork of the Kings river—all these have their charms; but most

beautiful of all is the unique scenery of the Yosemite valley (q.v.).

32° 30’ to 42° N. The length of its medial line north to south is Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the mountains is due to the

about 780m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350m., and its total

area is 158,297 sq.m., of which 2,645 are water surface.

The

coast-line is more than 1,00om. long. In size California ranks second among the States of the Union. California was given the

name “Golden State” because of its early and continued production of enormous quantities of gold.

erosive action of many alpine glaciers that once existed on the

higher summits, and which have left behind their evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with towering walls, polished rockexpanses, glacial lakes and meadows, and tumbling waterfalls. Remnants of these glaciers are still to be seen—as notably on Mt. Shasta—though shrunk to small dimensions. The canyons are

CALIFORNIA

590

largely the work of rivers. The finest of the lakes is Tahoe, does not receive a single tributary of any importance. Another 6,225ft. above the sea, lying between the true sierras and the peculiar and very general feature of the drainage system of the basin ranges, with peaks on several sides rising 4,000~5,oooft. State is the presence of numerous so-called river “sinks,” where above it. Clear lake, in the Coast range, is another beautiful the waters disappear, either directly by evaporation or (as in sheet of water. Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, Death valley) after flowing for a time beneath the surface. These especially in the northern half of the range, whereas the evidences “sinks” are therefore not the true sinks of limestone regions, of glacial action are most perfect (though not most abundant) in Some of the mountain lakes show by the terraces about them that the south. Lava covers most of the northern half of the range, the water stood during the glacial period much higher than it does and there are many craters and ash-cones, some recent and of now. Tulare lake, which has practically disappeared, was formerly perfect form. Of these the most remarkable is Mt. Shasta. In Owens valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant volcanoes. Among the other indications of great geological disturbances on the Pacific coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes to which California like the rest of the coast is subject. They occur in all seasons, scores of tremors being recorded every year by the Weather Bureau; but they are of slight importance, and even of these the number affecting any particular locality is small. In 1812 great destruction was wrought by an earthquake that affected

ali the southern part of California; in 1868 the region about San Francisco was violently disturbed; in 1872 the whole sierra and

the State of Nevada were shaken; in 1906 San Francisco (q.v.) was largely destroyed by a shock (and ensuing fire) that caused great damage elsewhere in the State; and in 1925 Santa Barbara was severely shaken. North of 40° N. lat. the Coast range and sierra system unite, forming an extremely rough country. The eastern half of this area is very dry and barren, lying between precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; the western half is magnificently timbered, and toward the coast excessively wet. Between 35° and 36° N. lat. the sierra, at its southern end, turns westward towards the coast as the Tehachapi range. The valley is thus closed to the north and south, and is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is broken down in but a single place, the gap

behind the Golden Gate at San Francisco. Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The length of the valley is about 450m., its breadth averages about 4om. if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area is about 18,000 square miles. From the mouth of the Sacramento to Redding, at the northern head of the valley, the rise is 552ft. in 192m., and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to Kern lake it is 282ft. in 260 miles. bd

Se

ea,

Te

es eR

suap 0

eet

rs foes

ETESR -æ 0 mOe

ten,

a shallow body of water, some 25 miles broad, that received the

drainage of the southern Sierra, a flow that is believed to have

shrunk greatly since 1850.

The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou and

number of alkaline lakes. Finally along the sea

below

Modoc counties has no outlet to the sea and is collected in a Point

Conception

are fertile

coastal plains of considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts by various mountain ranges from 5,000 to 7,oo0oft. high,

and with peaks much higher (San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, 10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). Unlike the northern sierra

the ranges of southern California are broken down in a number of places. It is over these passes—Soledad, 2,822ft., Cajon

2,631ft.; San Gorgonio, 2,560ft.—that the railways cross to the coast. That part of California which lies to the south and east of the Coast range and the sierra comprises an area of fully 50,000 sq.m. and belongs to the basin range region. For the most part it is

excessively dry and barren. The Mohave desert—embracing parts

of Kern, Los Angeles and San Bernardino, as also a large part of San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties—belongs to the great basin, while a narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the open basin region. They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for

slight areas through the Colorado river. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties a number of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are normally dry, flow centrally towards the desert

of Salton sink or sea; this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the level of the sea—at Salton 263ft. and 276ft. at the lowest point. In 1900 the Colorado river (g.v.) was tapped

south of the Mexican boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial valley along the Southern Pacific railway, south of Salton sea. The river enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than that to its mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding Salton sink, and when the break in this river was closed for the second time, in Feb. 1907, a lake more than 400 sq.m. in area was left. The region to the east of the sierra, between the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very mountainous. Near Owens lake the scenery is extremely grand. The valley here is very narrow, and on either side the mountains rise from 7,000 to 10,000ft. above the lake and river. Still farther to the east some 40m. from the lake is Death valley —the name a reminder of the fate of a party of “forty-niners” who perished here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death valley, some 50m. long and, on an average, 20-25m. broad from the crests of the enclosing mountain ranges (or 5—rom. at their base), constitutes an independent drainage basin. It is 276ft. below sea-level, and altogether is one of the most remarkable physical features of California. The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant with varied colours.

S) EE PanbatKEHie Be By BY

COURTESY

VIEW IN OAKLAND

OF

THE

SAN

FRANCISCO

SAN FRANCISCO AND BERKELEY

CHAMBER

OF

COMMERCE

LOOKING EASTWARD TOWARD THE CITIES OF ACROSS THE BAY, HERE ABOUT 4 M. WIDE

Two river systems drain this central basin—the San Joaquin, whose valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire basin, and the Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. The eastward flanks of the Coast range are very scantily forested, and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. On the eastern side of both rivers are various important tributaries, fed by the more abundant rains and melting snows of the western flank of the sierra. The Feather is the most important tributary emptying into the Sacramento river, A striking feature

The Amargosa river,

entering the valley from Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities of borax, already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known to be present in the surrounding country, the borax an almost pure borate of Kme in Tertiary lake sediments.

California has the highest land and the lowest land of the United States, and the greatest variety of temperature and rainfall.

Climate.—The climate is very different from that of the Atlantic coast; and indeed very different from that of any part of the country save that bordering California. In the first place, the climate of the entire Pacific coast is milder and more uniform in temperature than that of the States in corresponding latitude

east of the mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57° N. lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in latitude 44° 39’. And going south

along the coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6° of of the Sacramento system is that for 200m, N. of the Feather it 7° less than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. In the

CALIFORNIA second place, the means of winter and summer are much nearer the mean of the year in California than in the east. This condition of things is not so marked as one goes inward from the coast; yet everywhere, save in the high mountains, the winters are com-

paratively mild. In the third place, the division of the year into two seasons—a wet one and a dry one—marks this portion of the

Pacific coast in the most decided manner, being truly characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, except on the coast, the disagreeableness of the heat of summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air and the consequent rapidity

of evaporation.

59+

tion was introduced in southern California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its spread slow till after 1850. In 1920, 4,219,040ac. were irrigated, an increase of 181% since 1900. More than half of this total was in San Joaquin valley. California has the greatest area of irrigated land of any State in the Union, and offers the most complete utilization of resources. In the

south artesian wells, and in the great valley the rivers of the sierra slope, are the main sources of water-supply. On nearly all lands irrigated some crops will grow in ordinary seasons without irrigation, but it is this that makes possible selection of crops; practically indispensable for all field and orchard culture in the

south, save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases the yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the State. Government.—lIn the matter of Constitutions California has been conservative, having had only two. The first was framed by a convention at Monterey in 1849, and ratified by the people of the sierra and the north-west counties; shading off from this is and proclaimed by the U.S. military governor in the same year. the region of ro—20in. fall, which covers all the rest of the State The present Constitution, framed by a convention in 1878-79, save Inyo, Kern and San Bernardino counties, Imperial county came into full effect in 1880, and was subsequently amended. and the eastern portion of Riverside county; the precipitation of It was the work of the Labour Party, passed at a time of high this belt is from o to to inches. In the mountains the precipita- discontent, and goes at great length into the details of governtion increases with the altitude; above 6,000 or 7,oooft. it is almost ment, as was demanded by the state of public opinion. The wholly in the form of snow; and this snow, melting in summer, qualifications required for the suffrage are in no way different is of immense importance to the State, supplying water at one from those common throughout the Union, except that by a contime for placer-mining and later for irrigation. The north-west stitutional amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be counties are extremely wet; many localities here have normal rain- able to read the State Constitution and write his name. As comfalls of 60-7oin. and even higher annually. Along the entire pared with the earlier Constitution it showed many radical Pacific coast, but particularly north of San Francisco, there is a advances toward popular control, the power of the legislature night fog from May to September. Below San Francisco the being everywhere curtailed. Power was taken from the Legisprecipitation decreases along the coast, until at San Diego it is lature by specific inhibition in 31 subjects previously within only about ro inches. The extreme heat of the south-east is tem- its power. “Lobbying” was made a felony; provisions were pered by the extremely low humidity characteristic of the great inserted to tax and control common carriers and great corporabasin. Many places in northern, southern, central, mountain and tions, and to regulate telegraph, telephone, storage and wharfage southern coastal California normally have more than 200 clear charges. The Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote days in a year; and many in the mountains and in the south, even of all the members elected to each house of the legislature, folon the coast, have more than 250. lowed by ratification by a majority vote of the qualified electors The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila valley of voting on the proposition. Since 1911 amendments may be subArizona) is the hottest part of the United States. Along the line mitted directly to the people by means of the “initiative.” A of the Southern Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently from 124° Constitutional Convention may be called by the legislature when to 129° F (ż.e., in the shade, which is almost, if not quite, the two-thirds of all members of the legislature deem it necessary, greatest heat ever actually recorded in any part of the world). provided the question is approved by a majority vote at the next At the other extreme temperatures of —20° to —36° are recorded yearly'near Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the coldest localities of the State are from 37° to 44° F; the monthly means cuy ots os from 20° to 65° F. The normal annual means on Indio, Mammoth 2 mrt rh ey a Co SL Tanks, Salton and Volcano springs are from 73-9° to 78-4° F; the

Along both the Coast range and the sierra considerable rainfall is certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumulations of the former, its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy rain-belt, with a normal fall of more than 4oin., covers all the northern half

n

in their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, and seasonal trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an on-shore breeze blows every summer day; in the evening it is replaced by a night fog, and the cooler air draws down the mountain sides in opposition to its movement during the day. There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. There are points in southern California where one may actually look from sea to desert and from snow to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, situation with reference to the mountain ranges,

and altitude are all important determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the last seems to be most important. Death valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any meteorological stations on earth where regular observations are taken, although = extremes of heat it is exceeded by places in the Colorado esert. Soil—-Sand

and loams in great variety, grading from mere sand to adobe, make up the soils of the State. The plains of the north-east counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east,

sandy. It is impossible to say with accuracy what part of the

State may properly be classed as tillable. Much land is too rough, too elevated or too arid ever to be made agriculturally available;

but irrigation, and the work of the State and national agricultural bureau in introducing new plants and promoting scientific farmIng, have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. Irriga-

N

`

Etd: FEARI

monthly means from 52-8° to 101-3° (frequently 95° to 98°). Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely regular

BY

COURTESY

OF

YOUNG

GRAPE

Modern

U.S.

cultivation

a rich agricultural

fi!

sets

BUREAU

OF

VINEYARD

f

~

a hw

wa

me? hd

X

g

RECLAMATION

IN

using tractors

country

A

THE

IMPERIAL

VALLEY,

tn a district transformed

producing

CALIFORNIA

by irrigation

into

a great variety of crops

general election. The work of the convention must be submitted to the people for approval or rejection. The executive officers elected by the people of the State every four years are a governor, a lieutenant-governor, a secretary of State, a controller, a treasurer, a State board of equalization, a surveyor-general, an attorney-general and..a superintendent of public instruction. Besides these executive and administrative officers, there are more than 50 boards, commissions, officers, etc., appointed by the governor, with or without the consent of the Senate. .Fhe legislature consists of two houses—a Senate of 40 members elected for four-year terms and an Assembly of 80 members elected for two-year terms. Regular sessions of the

CALIFORNIA

592

legislature are held in the odd-numbered years and are divided into two parts, a recess of not less than 30 days separating the two sessions. In the second part no bill may be introduced into either house without the consent of three-fourths of its members, and no member may introduce more than two bills. The judicial powers of the State are confined to a supreme court, three district courts of appeal, superior courts, and justice of the peace and police courts. The supreme court consists of

30,596.

The State’s total foreign-born population in 1920 was

681,662. Thirty-three countries contributed over 1,000 residents each, the leading ones being Italy, 83,502; Mexico, 86,610; Ger.

many, 67,180; Canada, 59,562; England, 58,662; Ireland, 45,308: and Sweden, 31,925. Finance.—Until 1910 the chief source of State and local revenue was a levy upon property.

The system of taxation was

so changed by a constitutional amendment in Igro that State expense was to be borne by taxes on corporations, which were on the other hand, relieved of county and local taxation. Other

sources of State revenue were an inheritance tax, corporation licence fees, collected for the secretary of State and for the special funds, a gasolene (petrol) tax, motor vehicle licences, a compensation insurance tax, the sale of bonds and revenue derived from

the school fund and lands.

The chief disbursements were for

general expenses, highways and education. The treasurer’s report for the biennium ending June 30, 1926, showed receipts, including $11,000,000 of bonds, of $224,231,786, and disbursements amounting to $211,594,807. These figures show an increase in receipts of 231% over the biennium ten years previous, and an increase in expenditures of 194% for the same period. The bonded indebt-

edness of the State amounted to $100,350,500 on June 30, 1926,

By an amendment

to the Constitution,

adopted in 1922, State

expenditures are subject to an executive budget. Education.—The educational system of California is one of It provides a complete system of free

the best in the country. a

BY COURTESY

a

:

ae

oat pats

STAane

IN

ei

gm

OF THE Los ANGELES CHAMBER OF COMMERCE THE NEW LOS ANGELES PUBLIC LIBRARY

BUILDING

a chief justice and six associate justices elected by the people of the State for a term of 12 years. Regular sessions of the court are held in Sacramento, San Francisco and Los Angeles. The district courts of appeal have six judges each for the first and second district, and three judges for the third district; but in every case three judges constitute a separate court. Judges are elected by the votes of their respective districts for a term of 12 years. Each county has a superior court with one or more judges (Los Angeles county has 28) elected by the people for a term of six years. There is at least one justice of the peace for each township, elected for a period of four years. The Constitution of 1879 made provision for expediting trials and decisions. Notable was the innovation that agreement by three-fourths of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases and that a jury might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision which was based on experience under the Mexican law. The State is divided into 58 counties, and it is here that the chief administrative functions of local government take place. Municipalities are divided into six classes according to population. There is no uniform type of city government—the mayor-council, the commission and the city manager systems are all in common usage. Notable among the measures granting a greater popular control of the Government are the primary law of 1909 and the constitutional amendments of 1911 establishing the initiative and referendum, the recall (including the recall of judges), and the adoption of the short ballot. Population.—The population of California in successive decades from 1850 to 1920 was as follows: 92,597 in 1850; 379,994 in 1860; 567,247 In 1870; 864,694 in 1880; 1,213,398 in 1890; 1,485,053 in 1900; 2,377,549 In 1910; 3,426,861 in 1920 or an increase of 44-1% for the last decade. According to the census figures in 1920 the State ranked in population eighth among the States of the Union. The population in 1930 was 5,677,251. The density of population in 1920 was 22 per sq.m.; in 1930 it was 36-5. The urban population (in places of 2,500 or more) in 1920 Was 2,331,729, an increase during the decade from 61-8% to 68% of the total population. Of the cities, 47 had a population of 10,000 or more in 1930, and of this number three had more than 200,000 inhabitants; Los Angeles (1,238,048), San Francisco

(634,394), and Oakland (284,063).

Of the entire population in

1970, 3,264,711 were white, 38,763 negro, 17,360 Indian, 28,812 Chinese and 71,952 Japanese. During the decade r910~20 the

Chinese population decreased 7,436, while the Japanese increased

instruction from the kindergarten through the State university, and in the elementary and secondary schools even text-books and supplies are furnished without cost to individual pupils. At the

head of the public school system

.

gu

i,

Dee Fz MW

te

OOs

Ss

ene

A

a SN 8

par

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W

Ta

Blt

Mg

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Lf ay, Sp

= '

TiN

Ate

| PI £

a = a

NS Ke

are the State superintendent of public instruction and the State board of education, a body consisting of seven members appointed by the governor. All schools are governed by a board of education. Outside the cities the school districts are governed by boards of trustees of three members, and, in the case of union districts, of five members. There was a compulsory attendance law passed in 1874 which has since been amended so as to require all children between the ages of eight and 16 to attend for the entire school year unless graduated from a four-year high school or exempted by the proper Secondary school authorities. schools are closely affiliated with, and inspected by, the State university. All schools are generously supported, salaries are usu-

ally good, and pension funds in all cities are authorized by State laws. THE GENERAL SHERMAN TREE IN THE GIANT FOREST OF SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, SAID TO BE THE OLDEST LIVING THING IN THE WORLD. ITS AGE HAS BEEN ESTIMATED AT 3,500 YEARS

The school population between the ages of five and 17 years,

inclusive, was 779,692 in 1924. The public school enrolment for the same year was 1,022,130, of

131-1% as compared with the population between the ages of five and 17 years, a condition unique among the States of the Union. The distribution of the public school enrolment was 713,596 in kindergarten and elementary grades, and 308,534 in the secondary schools. There were, also, 37,765 pupils enrolled in private and parochial schools.

The average number of days attended per pupil enrolled had

decreased from 142 in rgro to 125-2 in 1924. The total expendi-

ture for the school year 1923—24, according to the Statistical Abstract, was $124,241,000, or a per caput expenditure based on

CALIFORNIA

Prare I sas ae ants egoe a

T

e

s

seek

at

$

arh Mea

FA

BY

COURTESY

OF

Se

(2)

w,

x"sos eae

THE

y

irrigation

CALIFORNIA

orchard

pipe

3

agi Essg”

ene ba

el,

ert

ae

A

PACKING

CORPORATION,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

FRUIT—RAISING l. View of cherry

>

a

outlets

in blossom at

the

in the Santa

end

of the

Clara

rows.

AND

valley,

The

(1,

water

3)

GABRIEL

MOULIN,

(4)

HARVESTING

showing escapes

through the vents in these pipes, each vent leading into a separate furrow Peach-picking in the same orchard. As the buckets of peaches are transferred to the Jug boxes, they are again inspected and any imperfect fruit not previously discarded by the pickers, is removed

EWING

IN CALIFORNIA

3. View of Santa side.

GALLOWAY

Clara valley,

The Santa

looking

Clara valley opens

towards San Jose from on San Francisco

the eastern

bay and

extends in a southerly direction. It is bounded on the east by the Coast Range and on the west by the Santa Cruz mountains. Prunes as well as other fruits are raised in great quantities 4. A Harris Side Hil! combined grain harvester at work in a field of grain near Stockton, Callfornia

CALIFORNIA

PLATE IT

wea yoan “eeFie oA MY tte a = EANESRT, BREE 9A Be

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tages

PA

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Sp!ao pyting “Pepi a ag fallae Be PY

Pye

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ae

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y mete

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$

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y

* ” in

BY COURTESY

OF

(1,

2) THE

SOUTHERN

PACIFIC

LINES,

THE 1. View

of Emerald

water

bay, a part of Lake

lake in California.

a

*

$

(3,

*

4) THE

COAST Tahoe,

the

It is about 25 miles

v

UNION

*

Foow

PACIFIC

AND

SYSTEM,

INLAND

third

long.

E

funos

largest fresh

The water of

the main lake is noted for its deep blue colour, while that of Emerald bay is crystal green 2. View of the rocky residences which

coast of Monterey, California, border the irregular shore

showing

one

of the

3. The sand dunes of Death valley, in Inyo county, California. This desert valley lies about 275 ft. below sea-level, and is one of the lowest land areas in the world. in the valley

Borax deposits of immense

extent are found

vvi mt feted

COPR.

es,

Saa

z

reat age

ot x

S TEPHEN

WILLARD,

COUNTRY

weg ha

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THE

a

x

eos

(5)

ie

CANADIAN

PACIFIC

RAILWAYS,

(6)

GABRIEL

MOULIN

OF CALIFORNIA

4, Part of Furnace Creek ranch, in southern California, showing the cultivation of the fan and feather palms. The tall fan palm grows wild in desert regions, but is cultivated widely In California

5. Yosemite

falls, in the Yosemite

falls give an impression

national

of continuity,

park.

From

a distance the

but the tremendous drop is in

three stages; first, the Upper falls, then a series of cascades flowing south, and finally the Lower falls. The total height is 2,370 feet 6. A roadway in California lined with redwood trees. The redwood belt is situated chiefly in the Coast ranges of northern California. It

consists Monterey

of a series of groves

extending

from

southern

Oregon to

CALIFORNIA population 5-17, inclusive, of $159.35, the highest among the

593

monopolizes the warm-zone

fruits.

Oranges, lernons and walnuts

States.

come chiefly from that section, but citrus fruits grow also in the sierra foothills of the great interior valley. Almonds and

versity of California, (q.v.) with the two main parts at Berkeley and Los Angeles, is by far the most important. In 1924 there

peaches, pears, plums, cherries and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over one-half of the prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the raisin output from Fresno

Of the higher educational institutions of the State the Uni-

were also seven State teachers’ colleges located at Chico, Arcata, Fresno, San Diego, San Francisco, San José and Santa Barbara. There is also a State polytechnic

school

county.

Among the endowed and denominational universities and colleges, Stanford university, near Palo Alto, is the greatest. It is privately endowed and is one of the richest educational institutions of

America.

Another

importance

university

of large attendance

is the University

of Southern

and

California,

great at Los

Angeles. Agriculture.—The

rapid development of the spread of irrigation and of intensive cultivation, and the increase of small farms during the last few decades have made California an agricultural region and a great fruit-producing

area.

Staple products have

changed with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, of lifezones and of the fitness of crops. Irrigation has shown that with water, arid and barren plains, veritable deserts, may be made to bloom with immense wealth of semi-tropical fruits. The aver-

age size of farms in 1850, when the large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, was 4,466ac.; in 1910 it was 316-7ac., and in 1925 only 202 acres. In 1920 there were 29,365,667ac. in farms, of which 11,878,339ac. were improved land. The total acreage had fallen to 27,565,440 in 1925. The value per acre increased from

$47.16 in 1910 to $94.77 in 1920 and to $114 in 1925. In 1920 the total value of all farm property was $3,431,021,861; this value had fallen to $3,161,818,824 in 1925. There were 4,219,ogoac. under irrigation in 1920. The total acreage devoted to agriculture in 1925 had the following distribution: main field crops, 4,551,200aCc.; main fruit crops, 1,502,500ac.; and vegetable crops, 247,800ac. The average value per harvested acre was $42.51 for field crops, $101.60 for fruit, and $98.50 for vegetables, giving total values of $193,484,000, $228,366,000, and $52,047,000 for the respective crops, or a total value of $473,897,000. Some idea of the character and value of these products can be secured from the table below, which shows the ranking of the 20 most valuable crops in 1925:

Produc

Farm value

bg

Oranges

oy cultivated arley atape a Raan

ms

Wine grapes Beans Lemons Wheat .

eae

o

n.

Peaches Walnuts

e E ee ee A e ne ne ee

.

i

:

i

:

$

;

i

.

22,910,000

‘ :

; : í

. 3

@.

@

‘ : i

. ; ;

: ‘ ;

; ; ;

; ‘ i

. Š d

. . .

18,737,000 18,000,000 16,956,000

s

‘

‘

:

;

;

:

f

:

.

14,590,000

d

As

oge

Ces

; i .

.

. «~ : .

I3,134,000 13,020,000 9,872,000

Lettuce ; Potatoes Cantaloupes

ears Rice

Table

i í ;

wk

Asparagus Tomatoes

. e .

wt š

grapes

;

.

`

Se

i

e a OA i

;

;

ee ae

;

de.

“@-

oe a i

;

; Í :

R i ;

A Ss i

.

w.

2

wes

;

í

$

en

i

y

e

131190,0 . 24,180,000 Gao

we a a :

15050000

a

o

430000 13,420,000

:

Y

:

.

In the develop-

and condensed milk and market cream. Horticultural products, as shown in the table, are the principal

orange industry practically

began with the introduction into southern California in 1873 of two seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have been developed, by budding, millions of trees bearing a seedless fruit

which now holds high rank in the American market. Shipments Southern

in

excess Of $50,000,000 were: slaughtering and packing of meat, ae $115,787,976; . foundry and machine-shop products, $80,653,577;

f NATIVE WHITE, | NATIVE WHITE, BORN IN

CALIFORNIA

BORN IN

|OTHER STATES AND POSSESSIONS OF

OF ALL THE NATIVES OF CALIFORNIA LIVING IN

THE U. S. IN 1920 (1,409,467)

(1,268,243) IN CALIF.

a

7,698,000 7,678,000

cance. In 1925 dairy products had a value of $126,480,746, the chief products being market milk, butter, ice cream, evaporated

?

In this field California stands

Other industries with a product in 1925

7,776,000

ment of the State under the American régime the live stock Industry has been subordinate but not without economic signifi-

Continue all the year round.

an equal.

8,055,000

The live stock industry was introduced by the Franciscans and

The modern

without

9,412,000 4

:

flourished throughout the pre-American period.

products of the soil.

Fisheries.—Fishing is a minor industry, but has great relative importance when compared with the product of the other States. In 1925 the yield of the fisheries of the State was 428,744,96zIb. of fish, 8,872,118lb. of shell fish, and 2,683,436lb. of whale products; the total value for all products being $11,661,709. The fish of chief importance are albacore, pilchard or sardine, and yellow fin tuna, each with a product valued in excess of $1,000,000. Other species of great commercial importance are barracuda, cod, California halibut, salmon, striped tuna, blue fin tuna and yellow tail. In the canning of tuna fish, California has no rival. The pack of tuna and tumna-like fishes in 1926 was 851,199 standard cases, valued at $5,282,283. In 1926, for the first time, California ranked first over Maine in the sardine industry. In that year, the 30 plants engaged in canning sardines packed 2,003,278 standard cases, valued at $7,807,404. Manufactures.—Previous to 1860 almost everything used in the State was imported from the East or from Europe. For many years manufacturing was handicapped by the State’s lack of coal, but the opening of the petroleum fields and the increased use of the mountain streams to create electric power, obviated the difficulty. California had attained the rank of eighth among the .States and first west of the Mississippi in the value of products manufactured in 1925. In that year there were 9,638 industrial establishments, giving employment to 249,552 wage-earners, and having an output valued at $2,442,952,104. The industry of greatest importance was the refining of petroleum, which, in 1925, had a product valued at $369,581,955, an output which made the State pre-eminent in the industry. The canning and preserving of fruit and vegetables was the State’s second most valuable industry,

| With a product of $181,272,830.

7,200,000

Oe

.

&

.

OC

Ow.

UC

Olives thrive as far north as the head of the great valley.

Vines were first introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and until 1860 “Mission” grapes were practically the only stock in California. Afterwards many hundreds of European varieties were introduced with great success.

at San Luis Obispo.

California by no means

,

AND ONLY 10% (141,224) IN OTHER STATES POPULATION OF CALIFORNIA COMPOSITION IN 1920

NATIVES OF CALIFORNIA IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1920

motor vehicles, $78,442,568; printing and publishing newspapers and periodicals, $77,876,415; lumber products, $72,315,489; planing-mill products, $68,910,812; bakery products, $68,029,184; motion-pictures, $62,821,194; and butter, cheese and evaporated and condensed milk, $56,519,754. California leads the other States of the Union in the motion-picture industry, which centres chiefly in Hollywood. In lumber production the State ranked sixth in 1925, when the cut for California was 2,043,000,000 board feet. The chief varieties were redwood, yellow pine, fir, sugar pine, cedar and spruce. In 1925 there were 19 national forest reserves within the State, with a combined area of 10,143,640ac. and a stand of commercial

594

CALIFORNIA

timber estimated at 100,599,000,000 board feet. There are also three national parks, five national monuments, one State park and several small State forest reserves within the State. Transcontinental Commerce—tThe transportation facilities in California increased rapidly after the completion of the first continental line in 1869 by the connection of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific lines. The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific was opened in Jan. 1883; the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe owns the lines built to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco bay in r900. Other railways of importance are the San Pedro and

Cement ($26,159,531) was the product fourth in importance, and clay products ($21,324,844) were fifth. Other products in 1925 which had a value in excess of $1,000,000 were: gold ($1 3,065-

330), stone ($10,341,815), sand and gravel ($8,752,528), copper

($6,654,818), silver ($2,119,765), and salt ($1,420,924). Much of the world’s mercury supply comes from a region about San Francisco bay, and practically the entire borax product of the

Salt Lake (the Union Pacific) and the Western Pacific. The total

steam railway mileage, exclusive of switches and terminal roads, in the State on Dec. 31, 1924, was 8,334 miles. This was supplemented by 3,400m. of electric railways. After 1919 there was a rapid improvement in highways. The State highway system on

1 Crescent City 2 Yreka

21 Santa Rosa 22 San Rafael

5 Weaverville

24 Fairfield 25 Markleeville

Redding 7 Red Bluff 8 Susanville 9 Quincy

10 Willow

Dec. 31, 1926, had a total mileage of 6,582-1, of which 3,537-9 were surfaced. The use of motor vehicles for passenger and freight transportation has increased rapidly within recent years. The total motor vehicle registration for 1925 was 1,440,541; an increase of over 146% since 1920. There is now frequent freight and passenger service from San Francisco and Los Angeles (San Pedro) with Hawaii, Australia, and eastern Asia, as well as with American ports, both Atlantic and Pacific. Water-borne imports and exports for 1925 showed 1,383,664 cargo tons imported and 5,395,705 tons exported. San

17 Nevada City Auburn

~

19 Placerville

bee", 20 Woodland N L

N,

Napa

77 Sarit

ockton 28 Modesto

fo 31 32 33 34 35 36

edwood Ci San Jose y Santa Cruz Merced Madera Salinas Fresno

| 39 San Luis Obi 40 Bakersfield ge 41 Santa Barbara éentura

43 a Bernardino nta Ana 45 El Centro

Francisco imported 895,849 tons as compared with 393,258 tons

for Los Angeles; in the export trade Los Angeles had 3,231,141 cargo tons as compared with 1,838,148 for San Francisco. One of the remarkable developments within recent years is the growing importance of the dredged harbour of San Pedro, the port for Los Angeles. San Diego has a very good harbour but handles less tonnage than some of the secondary ports. The chief exports of California are petroleum, lumber, grains, fruit, vegetables and fish.

Mineral Products.—The existence of gold had long been suspected in California before 1848, and there had been desultory washings in parts where there was very little to reward prospectors. The first authenticated discovery was made near Los Angeles in 1842. The discovery of real historical importance was made on Jan. 24, 1848, at John A. Sutter’s mill, on the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, James W. Marshall (1810-85). His monument marks the spot. At the time of their greatest productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of washings was probably not less than $65,000,000 a year. From the record of actual exports and a comparison of the most authoritative estimates of total production, it may be said that from 1848 to 1856 the yield was almost certainly not less than $450,000,000, and that about 1870 the $1,000,000,aoo mark had been passed. Placer-mining was of chief importance in the early years, but after the richer deposits had been exploited the machine-worked quartz mines came into prominence. In 1926 more than half of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are very often as good at a depth of 3,o0oft. as at the surface. A remarkable feature of the mining since 1900 is gold “dredging.” Thousands of acres of land have been thus treated in recent years. _ Gold was being produced in 1926 in about 25 counties in the east-central and northern part of the State. The production was 581,700 troy ounces valued at $12,024,800; a value which gave California the rank of first among the States of the Union. Petroleum and products associated with it have an annual value far in excess of the historically important gold. The production of crude petroleum grew rapidly after 1895; its output increased from 4,325,000bbl. in 1900 to 262,876,000bbl. in 1923. In 1926 the production was 224,117,o00bbls., with a well value of $355,000,ooo. Oil is found from north to south over some 6oom., but especially in southern California. The production came chiefly from Fresno, Kern, Los Angeles, Orange, Santa Barbara and Ventura counties. There was also a notable production in Sacramento, San Luis Obispo, San Joaquin and Solano counties. Natural gas gasolene was the State’s second most valuable product in 1926, $46,000,000 being its estimated value. Third in the rank of value in 1925 was natural gas, which was valued at $32,587,000.

20

0

20 40

60 80 100 MILES

MAP

country comes

OF THE

MAIN

ROADS

from Death valley.

OF

CALIFORNIA

The mineral production of

California in 1925, valued at $496,923,376, was exceeded by Pennsylvania and Oklahoma only; it represented 9-97% of the total mineral output of the United States. California, in 1925, ranked first among the States in the production of petroleum, gold, platinum, tungsten ore, chromite, mercury, magnesite,

pyrites, silica (quartz), diatomaceous earth, potash, borates and sodium salts; second in natural gas and natural gas gasolene; third in cement; and fourth in talc and stone.

HISTORY “Gold made California!” The most important feature of modern Californian history is the way in which the territory came to be a part of the United States, with gold as the under-

lying dramatic element. Fear lest England or Russia might obtain California, and thus threaten Mexico, caused Spain at length to occupy it. Otherwise, quite probably the land might have fallen to England. The Spanish occupation merely kept others out, thus in fact serving to the ultimate advantage of the American Unuon,

which would not have been strong enough to take over California

much prior to the time when it actually did so. If the Spanish

settlers had discovered California’s gold, the destiny of the province would have been different from what it proved to be; in that

event it might have become a Spanish-American republic, ot England might have acquired it. The discovery of gold was

postponed, however, until the Americans were already pouring into the province. Thereafter the rush of American settlers put

the stamp of certainty on the connection with the United States.

Exploration and Early Settlement.—The name “Califor nia” was taken from Ordéfiez de Montalvo’s story, Las Sergas de

Esplandién (Madrid, ts10), of black Amazons ruling an island of this name “at the right hand of the Indies . . . very close (0 that part of the Terrestrial Paradise.” The name was given t0

CALIFORNIA

595

following 1808 made little stir in this far-off province. When revolution broke out in Mexico (1811), California remained loyal to the entire Pacific coast north from Cape San Lucas. Neces- to Spain. In 1820 the Spanish Constitution was duly sworn to in sarily the name had for a long time no definite geographic California, and in 1822 allegiance was given to Mexico. Under meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1540, but the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824 Upper California, first the explorers did not penetrate California; in 1542-43 Juan alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with Rodriguez Cabrillo and his successor, Bartolomé Ferrelo, Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. Political Unrest.—The following years before American occuexplored probably the entire coast to a point just north of the pation may be divided into two periods. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a preparation for the future—the missions fall, Republicanism grows, the sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign immigration, and of foreign influence. The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Iturbide’s empire and the creation of the republic. After 1821 secularization of the missions was the burning question in California politics. Active and thorough secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was consummated at 16 missions out of 21, and by 1840 at all. In 1831 the mission question led to a rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel Victoria. He was driven out of the province. This was the first of the opéra bouffe wars. The causes underlying them were serious enough. In the first BY COURTESY OF THE U.S. BUREAU OF RECLAMATION place, there was a growing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, HERD OF OSTRICH ON ONE OF CALIFORNIA'S OSTRICH FARMS which accomplished nothing tangible for good in California, present boundary; in 1579 Sir Francis Drake repaired his ships although its plans were as excellent as could be asked had there in Drake’s bay, and named the land New Albion; Spanish galleons been peace and means to realize them. In the second place, there en route from the Philippines to Acapulco usually sighted the was growing jealousy between northern towns and southern towns, coast, and certainly did so in the voyages of 1584 and 1595; and northern families and southern families. In 1831: Governor in a famous voyage of 1602-03 Sebastian Vizcaino carefully Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Governor Mariano Chico was explored the coast, and discovered the Bay of Monterey. There frightened out of the province; in 1836 Governor Nicolas was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for 150 years. Gutiérrez and in 1844-45 Governor Manuel Micheltorena were Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an driven out of office. The leading natives headed this last rising. island or a group of islands. Jesuit missionaries entered Lower There was talk of independence, but sectional and personal California as early as 1697, and maintained themselves there jealousies could not be overcome. until expelled in 1768 by order of Charles III. of Spain; but Foreign Influence.—By this time foreign influence was innot until Russian explorations in Alaska from 1745-65 did the creasing. Foreign commerce, which was contrary to all Spanish Spanish Government take definite action to occupy Upper Cali- laws, was active by the beginning of the zgth century. It was fornia. Because of the fear of foreign danger, and also the long- greatly stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions, for, felt need of a refitting point on the California coast for the as the Californian authorities practically ignored the law, smuggalleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and gling was unnecessary. In the early ’40s some three-fourths of the Monterey in 1770. San Francisco bay was discovered in 1769. imports, even at Monterey. itself, are said to have paid no duties, Meanwhile the Jesuit property in the peninsula had been turned being landed by agreement with the officials. American trade was over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the Dominicans took over by far the most important. The trade supplied almost all the cloththe missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly withdrew to ing, merchandise and manufactures used in the province; hidés join their brethren who had gone with the expeditions of 1769 and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade was not to be to Upper California. There they were to thrive remarkably for received, still less were foreign travellers, under the Spanish laws. some 50 years. However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on The Mission Period.—This is the so-called “mission period” Bodega bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and or the pastoral period of California history. In all, 21 missions hunted (even in San Francisco bay) for furs. In 1826 American were established between 1769 and 1823. Economically the hunters first crossed to the coast; in 1830 the Hudson Bay missions were the blood and life of the provinces. At them the Company began operations in northern California. The true overneophytes worked up wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cul- land immigration from the United States began only about 1840. tivated hemp and wheat, raised a few oranges, made soap, some As a class, foreigners were respected, and they were influential iron and leather articles, mission furniture, and a very little wine beyond proportion to their numbers. Many were naturalized, held and olive oil. The hides and tallow yielded by the great herds generous grants of land, and had married into Californian families, of cattle at the missions were the support of foreign trade, and not excluding the most select and influential. Most prominent did much toward paying the expenses of the government. As for of foreigners in the interior was John A. Sutter (1803-80), who the intellectual development of the neophytes the mission system held a grant of rr square leagues around the present site of accomplished nothing; save the care of their souls they received Sacramento, whereon he built a fort. Though Sutter himself was no instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into Swiss, his establishment became a centre of American influence. a fatal dependence, so that once coercion was removed they His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his fortified relapsed at once into barbarism. The missions, however, were post on the border, made him of great importance in the years only one phase of Spanish institutions in California. The govern- preceding and immediately following American occupation. Ameriment of the province was in the hands of a military officer cans were hospitably received and very well treated by the stationed at Monterey. There were also several other military Government and the people. There was, however, some jealousy establishments and civilian towns in the province, as well as a of the ease with which they secured land grants, and an entirely few private ranches, The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico just dislike of “bad” Americans. Many of the later comers

the southern part of Lower California probably in 1533—34, but

at any rate before 1542. By extension it was applied in the plural

CALIFORNIA

596

wanted to make California a second Texas. As early as 1805 (at the time of James Monroe’s negotiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain’s fear of American ambitions, even in this far-away province. Spain’s fears passed on to Mexico, the Russians being feared only less than Americans. An offer was made by President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, including San Francisco bay, but was refused. From 1836 on, foreign interference was much talked about. Americans supposed that Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed ambitions; and all parties saw that, even without overt act by the United States, the progress of American settlement seemed likely to gain the province. In 1842 Commodore T. A. C. Jones (1789—1858) of the U.S. navy, believing that war had broken out between his country and Mexico, and that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American flag over Monterey (Oct. 21), but finding that he had acted on misinformation, he lowered the flag next day with due ceremony and warm apology. In California this incident served to open up agreeable personal relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify the diplomatic atmosphere. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among all American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future of the country. The American consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin (1802-58), was instructed, in 1845, to work for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the United States, but with their good will and sympathy. He very soon gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement

military rule and Mexican law technically ended.

before 1848.

enforced as time went on, until there was a stable condition of things. $

At the same time American naval officers were

instructed to occupy the ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the good will of the natives.

Early in 1849

temporary local governments were set up in various towns, and in

September a convention framed

a free State Constitution ang

applied for admission to the Union.

On Sept. 9, 1850, a bil

finally passed Congress admitting California as a free State, This

was one of the bargains in the “Compromise Measures of 1850,” Meanwhile

the gold discoveries

culminated

and surpassed

“three centuries of wild talk about gold in California.” Settle. ments were completely deserted; homes, farms and stores abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San Francisco—there were 500 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted

wholesale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody

in fact, flocked to the foothills. It is estimated that 80,000 men

reached the coast in 1849, about one-half of them coming over. land; three-fourths were Americans. Rapid settlement, excessive prices, reckless waste of money, and wild commercial ventures that glutted San Francisco with all objects usable and unusable, made the following years astounding from an economic point of view; but not less bizarre was the social development, nor less extraordinary the problems of State-building in a society “morally and socially tried as no other American community ever has been

tried” (Royce). There was, of course, no home life in early California. In 1850 women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% in the mining counties. Mining times in California brought out some of the most ignoble and some of the best traits of American character. Through varied instruments—lynch law, popular courts, vigilance committees—order was, however,

The slavery question was not settled for California in 185ọ. Until the Civil War the division between the Whig and DemoGovernment surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions of cratic parties, whose organization in California preceded Statethe Californian authorities by suspicious and, very possibly, inten- hood, was essentially based on slavery. The followers of Senator tionally provocative movements, and there was a show of military Gwin hoped to divide California into two States and hand the force by both parties. In violation of international amities, and southern over to slavery; on the eve of the Civil War they practically in disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused considered the scheme of a Pacific coast republic. The State a band of Mexican cavalry mounts to be seized, and prompted was thoroughly loyal when war came. The later ’50s are characsome American settlers to occupy Sonoma (June 14, 1846). This terized by H. H. Bancroft as a period of “moral, political and episode is known as the “Bear Flag War,” inasmuch as there financial night.” National politics were put first, to the complete was short-lived talk of making California an independent State, ignoring of excessive taxation, financial extravagance, ignorant and a flag with a bear as an emblem flew for a few days at legislation, and corruption in California. Land Grants.—One legacy that must be noted is that of disSonoma. Fortunately for the dignity of history, and for Frémont, it was quickly merged in a larger question, when Commodore puted land grants. Under the Mexican régime such grants were John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on July 7 raised the flag of the generous and common, and the complicated formalities theoreticUnited States over Monterey, proclaiming California a part of ally essential to their validity were very often, if not usually, only the United States. The opening hostilities of the Mexican War in part attended to. Instead of confirming all claims existing when had occurred on the Rio Grande. The aftermath of Frémont’s the country passed to the United States, and so ensuring an filibustering acts, followed as they were by wholly needless hostili- immediate settlement of the matter, the U.S. Government undertook through a land commission and courts to sift the valid from ties and by some injustice then the fraudulent. Claims of enormous aggregate value were thus and later in the attitude of considered, and a large part of those dating from the last years Americans towards the natives, of Mexican dominion, many probably antedated after the was a growing misunderstanding commission was at work, was finally rejected. and estrangement, regrettable in In State gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the DemoCalifornian history. crats won in 1867, 1875, 1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans were A State of the Union.—By In 1845 Captain J. C. Frémont

(g.v.), while engaged in a

the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, Mexico ceded California to the United States. Gold was discovered, and the new territory took on great national impor- GRAPH SHOWING CHINESE AND JAPtance. The discussion as to what ANESE POPULATION OF CALIFORNIA, should be done with it began in 1880—1920 Congress in 1846, immediately involving the question of slavery. A furious conflict developed, so that nothing was accomplished in two successive sessions; even at the end of a third, in March 1849, the only progress made toward creating a Government for the Territory was that the national revenue laws had been extended over it, and San Francisco had been made a port of entry. Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the motley Californian people of 1848-49; yet they had none when, with peace,

successful in all the other contests.

Features of political life and

of legislation after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, the struggle for the exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of

hydraulic-mining, irrigation, and the advancement by State aid of the fruit interests. Labour conditions were peculiar in the decade following 1870.

Mining, war times, and the building of

the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices and prosperity. Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather that

money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there was any over supply of labour. The dismissal by the Central

Pacific lines (principally in 1869-70) of some 15,000 Chinese, who flocked to San Francisco, augmented the discontent of incompetents, of disappointed late immigrants, and the reaction from flush times. Labour unions became strong and demonstrative. This is called the “sand-lots agitation” from the favourite

meeting-place (in San Francisco) of the agitators. The outcome

CALIFORNIA of these years was the Constitution of 1879, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in 1902. All authorities agree that the Chinese in early years were often abused in the mining country and their rights most unjustly neglected by the law and its officers. The exclusion had much to do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable

and in leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. One outcome of early mission history, the “Pious Fund of the Californias,” claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague Tribunal

(see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL: The Hague cases). In 1906-07 there was throughout the State a remarkable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in San Francisco

THOUSANDS OF INHABITANTS

(g.v.) and affecting international relations

The

and

national

Japanese

politics.

question

was

brought to an acute situation in

1913 by the Webb Alien Land Holding Act, which prevented Japanese from holding real estate. The question was then taken up diplomatically between the United States and Japan, and as a result Japan agreed to the exclusion of further immigration of her citizens to the United

States. The period 1910-25 was one of reforms, through the me- GRAPH SHOWING GROWTH OF dium of legislative changes, POPULATION IN CALIFORNIA, 1850which were both numerous and ‘°° far-reaching.

In addition to legislative enactments,

78 constitu-

tional amendments were approved. While these acts were generally recognized as having high social value, many of them added materially to the rapidly increasing cost of government. In 1919 the problem of governmental cost was made an object of special study and legislation, and in 1921 a remedy was sought by the consolidation of many State boards and commissions into a few State departments and also by raising the rate of the tax on corporations. This action brought forward the problem of State expense as an acute political issue, and resulted in the adoption of a constitutional amendment providing for an executive budget, and in the election of Friend W. Richardson as governor on a platform of strict economy. The prosecution of this programme divided the State into two political camps, one urging the full discharge of the social and educational responsibility of government, the other demanding relief from the burden of heavy taxation. In 1926 the firstnamed group was successful, and was able to procure the election of Clement Calhoun Young as governor. BrBxioGRAPHY.—For lists of works on California, see Robert E. Cowan, A Bibliography of the History of California and the Pacific West, 1510-1906 (1914); Charles E. Chapman, “The Literature of California,” in the South-western Historical Quarterly (vol. xxii., 1919); published in revised form in his A History of California; the Spanish Period; Eudora Garoutte, Study Outline of California History

(1920) ; the University of California, Library Bulletin; and the cata-

logue of State official publications. The works of H. H. Bancroft have i el bibliographies with analyses and appreciations of many works, The best short histories of California are: C. E. Chapman, A History

of California: the Spanish Period (1921) and R. G. Cleland, A History

of California: the American Period (1922). See also Henry K. Norton, The Story of California from the Earliest Days to the Present Time

(1913) ; Irving B. Richman, California Under Spain and Mexico 15351847 (1911); C. E. Chapman, The Founding of Spanish California,

1687-1783 (1916) ; Z. S. Eldredge, editor, History of California (5 vol., 1915); and S. E. White, The Forty-Niners; A Chronicle of the Cali-

fornia Trail and El Dorado (1918, Chronicles of America series). Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two men,

Hubert H. Bancroft and Theodore H. Hittel. The former has published a History of California, 1542-1890 (7 vol., San Francisco, 1884— 90), also California Pastoral, 1769-1848 (1888), California InterPocula, 1848-56 (1888), and Popular Tribunals

(2 vol., 1887). These

volumes were largely written under Bancroft’s direction and control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a vast store-

597

house of detailed material which is of great usefulness. As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and adequacy. Written by one hand, and more uniform in treatment, is T. H. Hittell’s History of California (4 vol., San Francisco, 1885-97). The earliest historian of California was Francisco Palóu, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his most important work was “Noticias de la Nueva California” (Mexico, 1857) in the Doc. Hist. Mex., ser. iv., tom. vi-viii.; also San Francisco (4 vol., 1874). See in this connection Francisco Paléu, Historical Memoirs of New California, edit. H. E. Bolton (4 vol., Berkeley, 1927). Of the contemporary material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by R. H. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast (1840, many later and foreign editions) ; also A. Robinson, Life in California (1846) ; and Alexander Forbes, California: A History of Upper and Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time (London, 1839) ; see also F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the South-west (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1891). A beautiful and vivid picture of the old society is given in Helen Hunt Jackson’s novel, Ramona (New York, 1884). For mission period the standard Franciscan work is Zephyrin Engelhardt, The Missions and Missionaries in California (4 vol., San Francisco, 1908—15). Francisco Paléu, Relacién Historica de la Vida... del Fray Junipero Serra (Mexico, 1787), is an important contemporary source. On the “flush” mining years the best books of the time are J. Q. Thornton, Oregon and California (2 vol. New York, 1849) ; Edward Bryant, What I Saw in California (1848) ; W. Shaw, Golden Dreams (1851); Bayard Taylor, Eldorado (2 vol., 1850) ; W. Colton, Three Years in California (1850); and G. G. Foster, Gold Regions of California (1884). On this same period consult Bancroft, Popular Tribunals; D. Y. Thomas, “A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory of the United States,” in vol. xx., No. 2 (1904) of Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law; C. H. Shinn, Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government (1885) ; Mary F. Williams, A History of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance of 1851 (1921) ; J. Royce, California ...A Study of American Character, 1846~1856 (Boston, 1886) ; Cardinal L. Goodwin, The Establishment of State Government in California, 1846—50 (1914); and, for varied pictures of mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret Harte. For government see David P. Barrows, Government in California (1925), an elementary work; the California Blue Book; and the reports of the various officers, departments, and administrative boards of the State Government. -On population, industries, etc., consult the volume of the Fourteenth United States Census; the Agricultural Year Book; the biennial Census of Manufactures; the California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins etc. See also C. F. Saunders, Finding the Worth-while in California (1930). For physical features, mineral. flora, etc., see J. Muir, Mountains of California (New York, 1894); United States Geological Survey, roth Annual Report, pt. 5, H. Gannet, Forests of the United States”; United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 28, “A Short Account of the Big Trees of California” (x900); No. 38, “The Redwood” (x vol., 1903); W. L. Jepson, The Trees of California (1909, 2nd ed.

1923) and Illustrated Manual

(1925).

of the Flowering Plants of California

CALIFORNIA, LOWER

(C. E. Cu.)

(Baja California), a long narrow

peninsula between the Gulf of California and the Pacific ocean, forming a territory of the Republic of Mexico. Its population in IQIO Was 52,272 and in 1921 was 62,831. Lower California is, geographically, a southward extension of the State of California, U.S.A., and is touched by only one of the Mexican States, that of Sonora on the north-eastern corner. The peninsula is about 760 m. in length, from 30 to 150 m. in width and has an area of 55,654 sq. miles. It is traversed throughout its length by an irregular range of mountains, which slopes gently toward the Pacific but breaks down abruptly toward the gulf. The coast has two or three good, sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the gulf side and that of Magdalena on the Pacific side being the best. The coast is bordered by numerous islands, particularly on the eastern side. The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly because of the volcanic rocks with which a large part of the land is covered, and partly because of the scanty rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of the desert, except in a few better watered valleys and on the high mountains of the north. The northern part of the peninsula, however, is much like southern California. Its climate is similar, with mild temperatures the year round on the Pacificward slope, and with light rains confined almost entirely to the winter season. The southern section is warmer and receives rain only in the summer. The central region is the most arid, being a pronounced desert.

The Gulf

coast, sheltered from the marine imfluence, is hot

and dry, habitable only in a few widely separated valleys where water exists in sufficient quantities for irrigation. In such spots

598

CALIFORNIA

sugar-cane, cotton, a few cereals and grapes are grown, but only to a limited extent. In the desert sections the only product of commercial importance is orchil or Spanish moss. The most productive agricultural region of Lower California is the extension of the Colorado river delta-plain southward of the MexicanAmerican, border. Here, in 1925, there were 217,000 acres under

intensive cultivation, being irrigated from the river and from the Imperial valley canal, which, for some 60 m. runs through Mexican territory. Cotton is the chief crop. The land is owned principally by Americans but the labourers employed are Mexicans and Asiatics. Some stock-raising is carried on in the better watered valleys of the peninsula and on the high mountains (the San Pedro Mártir range) in the north. The territory is quite rich in minerals. A little silver and gold is being mined in the northern district back of Ensenada; copper deposits are worked at Santa Rosalia and Mulegé on the east coast, while the southern district produces small amounts of silver and lead at San Antonio, El

Triunfo and Cacachilas, north of Cape St. Lucas. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early as 1700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the gulf, La Paz being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the west coast in the vicinity of Magdalena bay, where large catches are reported annually. The waters of the west coast also yield great

quantities of sardines and tuna fish to many Dalmatian, Japanese and American fishermen, who make their headquarters at San Diego and San Pedro, Calif. The development of the territory has been delayed by lack of a railway system in the peninsula, no lines penetrating it except the San Diego-Arizona railway which runs south of the border for a short way between San Diego and Yuma. The territory is divided into two districts, the northern having as its capital Mexicali (pop. 1921; 6,782) across the border from the Imperial valley of California, and the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamers running between Guaymas or Mazatlan and the west coast cities of the United States. In 1921

it had a population of 7,480. Ensenada (pop. in 1921; 2,178) 65 m. south of San Diego and connected with it by a motor road, is the only port for the northern Pacific coast of the territory, and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and some 60 m. inland, including several mining centres, though it has no good roads except to the American border. Its chief activity is supplying border towns with alcoholic beverages. It was formerly the capital of the northern district. By order of Cortés the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlements resulted. It was named California at that time. the name being derived, apparently, from an island mentioned in a popular Spanish romance, Sergas de Esplandidn, ‘The name was at first applied exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait connected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name Islas Californias, was used. This theory was held as late as 172r. The first European settlement was made in 1597, but was abandoned. A Jesuit mission was founded at Loreto in 1697 and another at La Paz in 1720. By 1776 there were 16 missions among the Indians. The settlement of Upper California began in 1769, with the founding of San Diego. In 1804 the region was divided into Alta and Baja Californias, but was reunited in 1825. Lower California was little disturbed by the struggle for independence in Mexico, but in the war between the United States and Mexico, La Paz and other towns were occupied by small detachments operating from California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the mainland, the filibusters first withdrew to Ensenada, near the American border, and next year broke up during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. BrsriocrapHy.—H. H. Bancroft, North Mexican States and Texas, vols. xv. and xvi. of his works; A. Walbridge North, The Mother of California (x998) and his Camp and Camino in Lower California; E. W. Nelson, “Lower California and its Natural Resources,” Mem. Nat. Acad. Sc. vol. xvi., first memoir (Wash., 1921); P. L. Bell, “Mexican West Coast and Lower California,” U.S. Dept. Com. Sp. Ag.

Series, No. 220 (Wash., 1922) ; A. de Vivanco, Baja California al Dig SrA California Up to Date (in English and Spanish) 1924).

CALIFORNIA,

UNIVERSITY

(Los Angeles,

OF, a State university

with seats at Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Francisco and elsewhere.

Control of the university lies in a board of regents, created by the State Constitution, and a president; the board comprises in its

24 members eight ex oficio (including the governor) and 16 named by the governor William Wallace Campbell, astronomer observatory, is president, elected by the centre of administration is at Berkeley.

president and the State for 16 year terms, Dr. and director of Lick regents in 1923. The

In the ’60s, upon suggestion from Governor Low, the trustees

of the College of California, founded in 1855, offered the college to the State. The gift, grounds and buildings in Oakland, the library of 10,000 vol. and the property of 160 ac. were worth about $110,000. Accepting, the legislature appropriated $306,. 661.80 as a university fund and secured California’s share of the Federal land grant of 1862 in aid of education in agriculture and the mechanic arts. The university, chartered in 1868, opened its doors in 1869. In 1873 removal was made to its home on the

slopes of the Berkeley hills, a site of great natural beauty, facing the Golden

Gate.

Here, 30 years

later, the regents began to

develop an enduring architectural plan based upon designs sub. mitted by Emile Benard, of Paris, in a competition underwritten by Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst (afterwards a regent) in 1896. By 1927, 16 buildings conforming to this plan were in use, eight provided by private donors, eight by the State. The dominant

style is Italian Renaissance in white granite (seven buildings), and cement plaster on reinforced concrete. The Sather campanile, in granite, stands 302 ft. high. Noteworthy also are the stadium, seating 75,000, built by sale of scrip; Stephens hall, built by students and alumni for lounges, book-shop, restaurant and offices

of students’ publications and other activities, and an incomparable gymnasium for women, built in 1927 by William Randolph Hearst, a memorial to his mother, the regent. Twenty-four years earlier, in a hollow where the hills become abrupt, amid towering eucalyptus trees, Mr. Hearst had built the first modern Greek theatre, adapted under Roman influences from the fine example at Epidaurus, to seat 7,500. By 1927, also, the university grounds had been enlarged to embrace nearly 600 acres. In 1926, the people of

California voted $6,000,000 in bonds for university buildings. Two at Berkeley are an infirmary costing $350,000 and a structure at $2,000,000 to house 10 life science departments. The Los Angeles buildings—four, in the style known as Mediterranean, in terracotta and red—are the first upon the suburban Westwood site of 382 ac. given in 1926 by public-spirited individuals and groups to

replace quarters outgrown. Between 1919, when the Los Angeles Normal school became the southern branch of the university, and 1926, when the regents named it formally the University of California at Los Angeles, its student roll increased from under 1,000 to nearly 6,000. In San Francisco, in 1895, Adolph Sutro gave a hillside tract overlooking Golden Gate park, for the college of dentistry, the college of pharmacy and the medical school (with which later were associated the University hospital and the Hooper Founda-

tion for Medical Research). Here, filled with invaluable ethnological material, stands the University Museum of Anthropology. On other premises are Hastings college of the Law and the California School of Fine Arts, affiliated with the university. Two notable outposts are the Scripps Institution, endowed by

the Scripps family, of Oceanography on a 168 ac. site at La Jolla, near San Diego; and the Lick observatory, gift of James Lick in

1875, On a 3,000 ac. site on Mt. Hamilton, go mi. south of

Berkeley.

The 36-in. refractor, the Crossley reflector (364-in.),

its almost ideal atmospheric conditions, its astronomers, have

made the observatory one of the world’s greater sources of cos-

mological knowledge. At Santiago, Chile, is a branch, the D. 0. Mills observatory.

The unparalleled scope and variety of California farming cause

the college of agriculture to be the university’s largest and ‘most

complex department. Its annual budget exceeds $2,000,000, nearly

CALIFORNIA one-eighth ($227,060) coming from Federal sources.

LILAC—CALIGULA

Its faculty

numbers (1928) 350. Its largest unit, as also the university’s, is the extension service, with a staff of 145 including r11 agents in 40 counties. The agricultural extension served 1,365 correspondence students in 1927, lectured to farm audiences numbering 630,197 persons, made upon invitation 51,713 calls at farms, had 95,913 office and 82,276 telephone discussions of farmers’ prob-

lems, and answered 110,000 inquiries by letter. Its functions centre at Berkeley; its principal rural seat is 75 mi. north-east at Davis, in the Great Valley of California, where the university farm of 1,079 ac., With buildings worth $1,250,000, engages experimenters

and both matriculant and non-degree students.

The college con-

tains also the important Citrus experiment station and Graduate

School of Tropical Agriculture at valued at $250,000 and 765 ac. Berkeley and 500 ac. in scattered than 2,500 ac. in research and

Riverside, occupying buildings of land. Including 135 ac. at parcels, the college uses more experimentation. It publishes

Hilgardia, a technical journal, and many bulletins and reports. At Berkeley are the schools of architecture, education, jurisprudence, librarianship and (in part) of medicine, and the colleges of letters and sciences, commerce, chemistry, civil engineering, mechanics and mining. The University of California at Los An-

geles is in the main a college of letters and sciences; there is, besides, the teachers’ college and, in affiliation, a graduate medical

department.

The faculties number, in all (excluding summer

session and affiliated faculties), 1,700 professors and others en-

gaged in teaching and research; of whom 800 are at Berkeley, 300 at Los Angeles, 300 at San Francisco, 300 at Davis, Riverside and elsewhere. The University of California was placed among the first five American universities by the editors of American Men of Science for 1927, with respect to strength of its scientific staff. For the year 1927-28, $85,000 was appropriated for research projects in 35 departments, in addition to private gifts and endowment funds used for this purpose. The libraries contain nearly 1,000,000 vol., including the unique Bancroft collection of western Americana. Ten endowed chairs and 50 graduate scholarships and fellowships make also for productive scholarship. The university press expends $50,000 annually in publishing the university’s additions to knowledge. The university’s assets, June 30, 1927, were $43,210,458.96, including endowments,

599

John D. Rockefeller Jr., a gift prompted

by the university’s

primacy in number of foreign students, to build at Berkeley an International House in which alien and native-born students might live together in furtherance of international understanding. )

CALIFORNIA

LILAC

given to a handsome

North

(R.G.S.

(Ceanothus thyrsiflorus), a name American

tree

of the buckthorn

family (Rhamnaceae), called also blue blossom and blue myrtle. It grows

on canyon

sides from Monterey

northward

to Oregon

and is especially abundant in the redwood belt. While usually a shrub, 3 ft. to 8 ft. high, it sometimes becomes a small tree 25 ft. in height with straight ascending branches. The small, smooth, oval or oblong leaves are green on both sides and shining above, with the edges minutely toothed. The showy blue or rarely white

flowers

are borne

CrANOTHUS;

in dense

clusters

about

3 in. long.

(See

NEw Jersey TEA; OREGON TEA-TREE.)

CALIFORNIA

POPPY

(Eschscholizia californica), a per-

ennial herb of the poppy family (Papaveraceae), abundant in the valleys and foothills west of the Sierra: Nevada. It has erect or diffusely spreading stems r ft. to 2 ft. long, bearing finely dissected leaves and large pale yellow to deep golden-orange flowers, 4 in. or more across, the petals glowing with a brilliant sheen. This plant, one of the most handsome and best-known representatives of the California flora, is now widely cultivated as an ornamental annual and has become extensively naturalized in India and Australia.

CALIGULA

(GAIUS

CAESAR)

emperor 37-41, youngest son of elder, was born on Aug. 31, A.D. camp among the soldiers, and was or soldiers’ boots which he used father to Syria and after his death

(ap. 12~41), Roman

Germanicus and Agrippina the 12. He grew up in his father’s called Caligula from the calzgae, to wear. He accompanied his returned to Rome. In 32 he was

summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed to escape the fate of his relatives.

After the death of Tibe-

rius, mysterious no doubt, but by no means certainly a murder, Caligula succeeded to the exclusion of Tiberius Gemellus, son of Drusus. The traditional account shows him received with rejoicing, and for eight months delighting everybody by general concessions, and in particular by reversing Tiberius’ policy. Then apparently he had a very severe illness, and for the rest of his $11,799,060.67. The year’s income was $12,056,106.02, covering life was the usual monster of cruelty and vice with whom we $6,201,957.93 State appropriation, $475,599.20 from endow- become so familiar in the history of the Roman emperors, with a ments, $1,712,823.03 students’ deposits. The year’s private gifts few added extravagances, such as bestowing the consulship on amounted to $2,129,414.18,—$250,706.69 of which were for cur- his horse, that seem only explicable on the ground of madness. rent use, $745,195.41 for land, buildings, etc., and $1,133,512.08 In the case of a good many emperors there is some material for endowment. Citizen residents of California are tuition-free at whereby we can discount some of the excesses of senatorial hisBerkeley, Los Angeles, and Davis, but all students pay small ses- tory; in Caligula’s, very little. This much is clear, Caligula is the earliest of a tradition that eventually prevailed, the pioneer sional fees in support of infirmary and certain services. During the year 1926-27, the university conferred 2,658 degrees of the oriental type of monarchy. His upbringing tended that way; (1,281 upon women), including 211 masters of arts, 49 masters of he was brought up by his grandmother Antonia, and Herod science and 60 doctors of philosophy. By this time 37,027 de- Agrippa was a frequent visitor. Hence his insistence on personal grees, in all, had been granted, nine-tenths of them since 1900. deification, the extravagant honours paid to the imperial family, Nov. 1927 found enrolled 17,003 resident students; 9,997 (includ- the increasing importance of the women of the palace. But his ing 4,699 women) at Berkeley, 6,012 at Los Angeles (women anti-Roman tendencies, which made him, perhaps even more than 4,028), 860 in San Francisco (women 63), and 134 elsewhere. his cruelties, an abomination to the senatorial class which furThe Berkeley figure carries 1,996 in the graduate division, most of nished the histories of the time, produced effects favourable ta them candidates for teacher’s certificates or advanced degrees. the provinces. The strictness with which Augustus and Tiberius Many more thousands, mostly adults, are using the extension kept the citizenship closed was relaxed. We find provincial equites division, which during the year 1927—28 had 37,677 class enrol- growing numerous, provincial senators even. He also reversed the ments throughout California and 6,690 throughout the world in policy of Tiberius towards Eastern religions, and rebuilt the correspondence courses, drew 285,000 persons to public lectures, temple of Isis that Tiberius had destroyed. Caligula’s reign was undisturbed externally; there is only the and from its “film library,” considered foremost of its kind, supplied cinema and stereopticon material for 5,263 public educa- abortive expedition to the coast opposite Britain. He was murdered by Cassius Chaerea, a tribune in the guard, on Jan. 24, tional programmes. Noteworthy recent benefactions are the bequest of William A. 41. That he was the savage tyrant that he appeared to senatorial Clark, Jr., of his estate at Los Angeles, containing a library of Rome seems probable, in spite of attempts at rehabilitation. It is 10,000 manuscripts and first editions; Mrs, Alexander F. Morri- a pity, however, that there is not more to show whether he was son’s gift of 15,009 books far recreational reading, a memorial to not, in other directions, something more. See Suetonius, Caligula; Tacitus, Annals, vi. 20 sgq.; Dio Cassius her husband, in a room in the Doe library at Berkeley furnished and decorated by her at a cost of $50,000; the men’s dormitory at lix. See also S. Baring Gould, The Tragedy of the Caesars (3rd ed.,

Berkeley, built by Mrs. Philip E. Bowles at a cost of $350,000 in

memory of her husband, a former regent; and $1,750,000 from

1892); J. B. Bury, Students

Hist. of the Roman

Empire

(1893).

Mention may also be made of the pamphlet by L. Quidde, Caligula, Eine Studie über römiscken Cäsarenwaknsinn, and an anonymous

CALINGA— CALIPHATE

600

supplement, Ist Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar? (both 1894); a ` reply by G. Sommerfeldt, Fin-de-Siècle-Geschichtsschreibung

1895).

CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern India in

ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running inland from the bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. Rajahmundry, Coringa, Singapur, Calingapatam and Chicacole, have all been the chief cities of Calinga at different periods; but the capital of Calinga under the Ganga dynasty was probably at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district.

CALIPASH

and CALIPEE, the gelatinous substances in

the upper and lower shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour

(possibly connected with carapace, the upper shell of a turtle). Both are highly esteemed by epicures.

CALIPH, atitle of the head of the Muslim community, first

applied to Aba Bakr, as successor of Muhammad (Arab, khalifah lit. “successor,” “viceregent”). For other meanings of the word,

acquire the rights and privileges of Muslim citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so. It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest: they did not rest until the Muslims had subjugated the whole of the Sasanid empire. The most important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle of Nihāwand in 641; the most obstinate resistance was offered by Persis

proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Persepolis). In the end, all the numerous

and partly autonomous

provinces of the

Sasanid empire fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Muslims, and the young king, Yazdagird III. (g.v.), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came to a miserable end. But the subjection of the Persians was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating them as the

Syrian Christians were assimilated. ‘Umar’s military policy aimed at making the whole Arab nation an army of soldiers; his internal policy was directed chiefly towards financial questions—the incidence of taxation in the con-

see T. W. Arnold, The Caliphate (1924), Appendix C. (See also IsLAMIC INSTITUTIONS.) CALIPHATE. The history of the Muhammadan rulers in the East who bore the title of caliph (qg.v.) falls naturally into three

quered territories, and the application of the vast resources which poured into the Treasury at Medina. In the mosque at Medina he

main divisions :—(a@) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of Muhammad; (b) The Umayyad caliphs; (c) The Abbasid caliphs. To these three groups the present article is confined; for the Western caliphs, see Spain: History (and minor articles such

elected to succeed ‘Umar, the government of Islam fell entirely

as ALMOHADES, ALMORAVIDES); for the Egyptian caliphs, see Ecypt: History (§Muhammadan) and Fatimitss. The history of Arabia proper will be found under Arabia: History.

should favour his relations and the Quraysh as a whole, in every possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position

A.—THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS After the death of Muhammad, homage was paid to Abii Bakr, as his successor. 1. Reign of Abu Bakr.—Abi Bakr’s first task was the crushing of the revolt of the Bedouins who were compelled to submit. But the internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was mainly brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border countries which Muhammad had already inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was also afforded for gaining rich booty. After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out. 2, Reign of ‘Umar.—Abii Bakr (d. Aug. 22, 634) was succeeded by ‘Umar, to whose reign belong for the most part the great conquests. Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on Aug. 20, 636, was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax (Yarmitk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (g.v.) finally to abandon Syria. Left alone, the Christians henceforward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified cities. Meanwhile the war was also carried on against the Persians in ‘Iraq, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide turned at the battle of Qadisiyyah (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which they here sustained, the Persians were forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran proper. The Muslims

made themselves masters of Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sasanids on the Tigris, and conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Iraq were face to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands—Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little diff-

culty by ‘Amr ibn-al-‘As in 640. (See Ecypt: History § Muhammadan.) The lapse of the masses from Christianity to Islam, which took place during the first century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that in reality they had no inward relation to the Gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to

was stabbed by a Kufan workman and died in Nov. 644.

3. Reign of ‘Uthman.—Under the weak ‘Uthm4n, who was

into the hands of the Meccan aristocracy.

‘Uthman did all in his

power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged to the foremost

family of Mecca, the Umayyads,

and that he

of influence and emolument was assigned to them.

Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began to appear, led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of Islam. Everywhere in the provinces there was agitation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where ‘Uthm4an’s cousin, Mu‘awiyah, carried on a wise and strong administration. The movement was most encrgetic in ‘Iraq and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of ‘Uthman in favour of ‘Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. The malcontents demanded the abdication of ‘Uthman, besieging him in his own house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. 4. Reign of ‘Ali.—Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned ‘Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zubayr, disappointed candidates for the Caliphate, to do him

homage.

But soon these two, along with ‘A’ishah, the mother of

the faithful, who had an old grudge against ‘Ali, succeeded in making their escape to ‘Iraq, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. The new caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in Nov. 656 Talha and Zubayr were slain, and

‘A’ishah was taken prisoner.

But even so ‘Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of ‘Uthman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate cry—that of vengeance for the blood of the greyhaired caliph—and a distinguished champion, the governor Mu-

Awiyah, whose position in Syria was impregnable. He exhibited ‘Uthmin’s blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited his Syrians to vengeance. ‘Ali’s position in Kiifa was much less advantageous. The population of ‘Iraq was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters here; Kiifa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was that had raised ‘Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling 0

CALIPHATE Syria for the Umayyads.

Mu‘awiyah

could

either act or refrain

from acting as he chose, secure in either case of the obedience of

his subjects. ‘Ali, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters, who compelled him suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on the point of gaining over Mu‘awiyah because the Syrians fastened

copies of the Qur’an to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest. But in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine zealots; so when the negotiations failed and war was resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow ‘Ali’s army, and he had to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He defeated them at the battle of Nahraw4n, but in his success he lost the soul of his following.

B.—THE UMAYYAD r. Reign

CALIPHS

of Mu‘awiyah.—Mu‘awiyah

was

a. born

ruler;

Syria was the best administered province of the whole empire, and he was loved and honoured by the Syrians.

On the murder of

‘Ali in 661, his son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he recoiled before the prospect of a war with Mu‘awiyah, and resigning his position retired to Medina, where he died eight or nine years afterwards. Mu‘awiyah now made his entry into Kiifa in the summer of 661 and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the Believers.

Just as soon as Mu‘awiyah had his hands free, he directed all his forces against the Greeks, and no year passed without a campaign. Twice he made a serious effort to conquer Constantinople, in 669 when he besieged it for three months, and in 674. In Africa also the extension of Muhammadan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took place the famous march of ‘Uqbah b. Nafi* and the foundation of Qayraw4n, where the great mosque still bears

his name. The talented prefect of Kufa, Mughira broke down the resistance of Ziyad, who had been a faithful servant of ‘Ali, and was said to be a bastard of Mu‘awiyah’s father. Mu‘awiyah acknowledged him as the son of Abii Sufy4an, and thus as his brother; in 664 this recognition was openly declared. In the next year Ziyad was appointed governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to it. Mughira died about 670, and the province of Kifa also was entrusted to Ziyad. Kiifa and Basra were military colonies, and each tribe had its own quarter of the city. The policy of eastern expansion, which had been interrupted by the civil war, was resumed. The first army sent by Ziyad into Khurasan recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered Tukharistan and advanced as far as the Oxus. In 673 the son of Ziyad, crossed the river, occupied Bokhara, and returned laden with booty taken from the wandering Turkish tribes of Transoxiana. Other generals penetrated as far as the Indus and conquered Kabul, Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar. Ziyad governed ‘Iraq with the greatest vigour, but as long as discontent did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death (672-673), order was so generally restored that “nobody had any more to fear for life or estate, and even the unprotected woman was safe in her house without having her door bolted.” Mu‘awiyah was a typical Arab sayyid (gentleman). He govered, not by force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-

601

have him proclaimed caliph in ‘Iraq. Husayn, having learned that the majority of the inhabitants were apparently ready to support him strenuously, prepared to take action. Meanwhile Yazid, having been informed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi‘ites in Kufa, sent ‘Ubaydallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used before, ‘Ubaydallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made them responsible for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of Dhuw’l-Hijja Husayn set out from Mecca with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm by the citizens of Kifa, but on his arrival at Karbala, west of the Euphrates, he was confronted by an army sent by ‘Ubaydallah under the command of ‘Umar, son of the famous Sa‘d b. Abi Waqgias, the founder of Kūfa. Husayn gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid from Kiifa, and fell, with almost all his followers, on Oct. 10, 680. No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But, as it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of ‘Ali, and so many members of his family, Husayn’s devout partisans at Kiufa, who by their overtures had been the principal cause of the disaster, regarded it as a tragedy, and the facts gradually acquired a wholly romantic colouring. ‘Umar b. Sa‘d and his officers, “Ubaydallah and even Yazid, came to be regarded as murderers, and their names have ever since been held accursed by all Shi‘ites. They observe the roth of Muharram, the day of ‘Ashira, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages are erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, representing the misfortunes of the family of ‘Alt. “Revenge for Husayn” become the watchword of all Shi‘ites, and the Mashhad Husayn (Tomb of the martyr Husayn) at Karbala is to them the holiest place in the world. ‘Ubaydall&h sent the head of Husayn to Damascus, together with the women and children. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the prisoners under safe-conduct

to Medina. Ibn Zubayr profited greatly by the distress caused by Husayn’s death. He had himself secretly addressed as caliph, and many of the citizens of Medina acknowledged him as such. Yazid, when informed of this, sent an army with orders first to exact submission from the Medinians, if necessary by force, and then to march against Ibn Zubayr. The Medinians fought valiantly, but could not hold out against the well-disciplined Syrians, and for three days the city was given up to plunder. But the city recovered very soon from the disaster, and remained the seat of holy tradition and jurisdiction, and of the Arabic aristocracy. The army arrived before Mecca in Sept. 683 and found Ibn Zubayr ready to defend it. The siege had lasted 65—others say 40——days, when the news came of the death of Yazid, which took place presumably on Nov. 12, 683; whereupon the army returned to Syria. Ibn Zubayr’now openly assumed the title of caliph and invited men to take the oath of allegiance. He was soon acknowledged throughout Arabia, in Egypt and in ‘Iraq. 3. The Son of Yazid.—Mu‘awiyah II. had reigned a very short time when he fell sick and died. Marwan b. Hakam, of another branch of the Umayyads, who had been ‘Uthman’s righthand man, was proclaimed caliph and defeated the supporters of Ibn Zubayr in a battle (av. 684) which ensued at Marj Rahit, near Damascus.

4. Reign of Marwan J.—dAfter the victory of Marj Rahit, Marwan conquered Egypt, and installed as governor his second son. An army sent to the rescue by Ibn Zubayr under the comcontrol, his mildness and magnanimity. Mu‘awiyah was desirous mand of his brother Mus‘ab was beaten in Palestine. of securing the Caliphate for his son Yazid. The leadership with Meanwhile Mukhtar, a man of great talents and still greater the Arabic tribes was, as a rule, hereditary, the son succeeding his ambition, after having supported Ibn Zubayr in the siege of father, but only if he were personally fit for the position, and were Mecca, had gone to Ktifa, where he joined the Shi‘ites, mostly acknowledged as such by the principal men of the tribe. The Persians, and acquired great power. He claimed to be the vicehereditary principle had not been recognized by Islam in the cases regent of ‘Ali’s son, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, who after the of Abii Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman, but had been adopted en- death of Husayn was recognized by the Shi‘ites as their Mahdi. tirely for the election of Hasan. Mu‘awiyah succeeded in getting Ibn Zubayr’s representative in Kiifa was compelled to flee, and the succession of Yazid generally acknowledged before his own all those who had participated in the battle of Karbala were put death, except in Medina. He died in 680. to death. Ibn Zubayr, determined to get rid at all costs of so 2. Reign of Yazid.—On the news of Yazid’s accession, the dangerous an enemy, named his brother Mus‘ab governor of Basra numerous partisans of the family of ‘Ali in Kiifa sent addresses to and ordered him to march against Kufa. Mukhtar fell, and with Husayn, inviting him to take refuge with them, and promising to him the ephemeral dominion of the Persian Shi‘ites. This had

CALIPHATE

602

been their first attempt to dispute the authority of their Arabian conquerors, but it was not to be the last. 5. Reign of ‘Abdalmalik.—Marwan died on May 7, 685. The accession of his son, ‘Abdalmalik: was attended with no difficulty,

but the first years of his reign were occupied by troubles in northern Syria, and it was not until 689 that he made an expedition into ‘Iraq to break Mus‘ab, who in 691 was slain, sword in hand, by a Shi‘ite of Kifa. This victory opened the gates of Kifa to ‘Abdalmalik, and all

citizens of the two capitals, and were at any moment ready to

suppress any fresh outburst. As soon as the expedition to ‘Iraq against Mus‘ab had ter. minated, the holy war against the Greeks was renewed. From this time forth the Muslims made yearly raids, the chief advantage of which was that they kept the Syrian and Mesopotamian Arabs in continual military exercise. In the year 696 ‘Abdalmalik sent into Africa a numerous army, which swept the coast as far as Carthage, expelling the Greek garrisons from all the fort.

‘Iraq received him with acclamation. Thence, a few days later, he sent Hajjaj b. Yusuf at the head of 2,000 Syrians against Ibn Zubayr in Mecca. In 692 Mecca was invested. The blockade lasted more than six months, during which the city was a prey to all the horrors of siege and famine, which at length triumphed over the last adherents of Ibn Zubayr; he resolved to die, and, when the Umayyad troops made their way into the city, attacked them furiously, notwithstanding his advanced age, and was slain. His head was cut off, and sent by Hajjaj to Damascus. The caliph committed to Hajjaj the government of the H1jaz, and, later, made him governor of ‘Iraq also with the most extensive powers. In Kifa Hajjaj ordered that every man capable of bearing arms should immediately join Muhallab in Khizistan (Susiana), and swore that all who should be found in the town after the third day should be beheaded. This threat had its effect, and Hajjaj proceeded to Basra, where his presence was

fied places; and then turned against the Berbers, who when the were ultimately subdued henceforward remained faithful to the Arabs. In the meantime ‘Abdalmalik reconstituted the administration

followed by the same results. Muhallab, reinforced by the army

postmasters were charged with the task of informing the caliph

of ‘Iraq, at last succeeded, after a struggle of 18 months, in subjugating the Kharijites, and was able in 697 to return to Hajjaj at Basra. The latter loaded him with honours and made him governor of Khurasan, whence he directed several expeditions into Transoxiana. In the east the realm of Islam had been very much extended under the reign of Mu‘aéwiyah, when Ziyad was governor of ‘Iraq and Khurasan. Balkh and Tokhiristan,

Bokhara, Samarkand and Khwarizm (modern Khiva), even Kabul and Kandahar had been subdued; but in the time of the civil war a great deal had been lost again. Now at last the task

of recovering the lost districts could be resumed. 697, Hajjaj gave the government

When,

in

of Khurasan to Muhallab, he

committed that of Sijistan (Seistan) to ‘Ubaydallah, a cousin of Ziyad. This prefect allowed himself to be enticed by Zanbil, prince of Zabulistan, to penetrate into the country far from his base, and narrowly escaped, not without severe losses. The command over Sijistan was now given to Ibn Ash‘ath, who soon after his arrival in Sijistan, exasperated by the masterful tone of Hajjaj towards himself, decided to revolt. The soldiers of ‘Iraq, who did not love the governor, and disliked the prospect of a long and difficult war far from home, eagerly accepted the proposition of returning to ‘Iraq, and even proclaimed the dethronement of ‘Abdalmalik, in favour of Ibn Ash‘ath. When Hajjaj came up with him, Ibn Ash‘ath drove him back to Basra, entered the city, and then turned his arms against Kifa, of which he took possession with aid from within. In July 702, a decisive action took place at Dayr al-Jamajim. Ibn Ash‘ath, defeated, fled to Basra; but having been again beaten in a furious battle that took place at Maskin near the Dujail, he sought an asylum with the king of Kabul, who betrayed him; so he killed himself. His head was sent to Hajjaj and then to Damascus. This happened in the year 703 or 704. The struggle of Ibn Ash‘ath was primarily a contest for hegemony between ‘Iraq and Syria. The proud lords could not acquiesce in paying to a plebeian like Hajjaj, invested with absolute power by the caliph, the strict obedience he required. They considered it further as an injustice that the Syrian soldiers

received higher pay than those of ‘Iraq. Moreover, Hajjaj, in

of the empire on Arabic principles. Up to the year 693 the Muslims had no special coinage of their own, and chiefly used Byzantine and Persian money, either imported or struck by themselves. ‘Abdalmalik instituted a purely Islamic coinage. A stil] greater innovation was that Arabic became the official language

of the State.. In the conquered countries till then, not only had the Greek and Persian administration been preserved, but Greek remained the official language in the western, Persian in the eastern provinces. All officials were now compelled to know Arabic and to conduct their administration in that language. Lastly, a regular post service was instituted from Damascus to the provincial capitals, especially destined for governmental dispatches. The of all important news in their respective countries. ‘Abdalmalik died on Oct. 9, 705, at the age of about sixty. His reign was one of the most stormy in the annals of Islam, but also one of the most glorious; he not only brought triumph to the cause of the Umayyads, but also extended and strengthened the Muslim power as a whole. į 6. Reign of Walid I—This is the most glorious epoch in the history of Islam. In Asia Minor and Armenia, Walid’s generals obtained numerous successes against the Greeks, and in Armenia advanced even as far as the Caucasus. In Africa, Misa in a

short time carried his conquests as far as Fez, Tangier and Ceuta, and one of his captains even made a descent on Sicily and plundered Syracuse. When he returned from the west to Kairawan, he made his client Tariq governor of Tangier and of the whole western part of Africa. In the beginning of A.D. 711, Tariq passed over into Spain with an army composed mainly of Berbers. The spot where he landed thence acquired the name of Jabal Tariq,

“Mountain of Tariq,” afterwards corrupted into Gibraltar. Having made himself master of Algeçiras and thereby secured his communication with Africa, Tāriq set out at once in the direction of Cordova, and after a brilliant campaign, in 712, proclaimed the caliph of Damascus as sole ruler of the whole peninsula. In the East the Muslim armies gained the most astonishing successes. In the course of a few years Qutaybah b. Muslim conquered Paikand, Bokhara, Samarkand, Khwarizm (modem Khiva), Ferghana and Shash (Tashkent), and even Kashgar on the frontiers of China. Meanwhile Muhammad b. Qasim invaded Makran, took Daibal, passed the Indus, and marched, after having beaten the Indian king, Dahar, through Sind upon Multan, which he conquered and whence he carried off an immense booty. Towards the end of this reign, died Hajjaj, the great viceroy of the Orient. He was a man of extraordinary ability, and accomplished the task committed to him with vigour and energy. To his unflagging constancy was due the suppression of the dangerous rebellion of Ibn Ash‘ath. After the restoration of peace

his capacity for organization was displayed in all directions. The draining and tilling of submerged or uncultivated land on a large scale, the promotion of agriculture in every way, in particular

order to maintain the regular revenue from taxation, had been obliged to introduce stringent regulations, and had compelled a great many villagers who had migrated to the cities to return to their villages. Immediately after the victories of Dayr al-Jamajim and Maskin, in 7o2, Hajjaj, built a new residence on the Tigris,

by the digging of channels, and the regulation of the system of

between Basra and Kiifa, which he called Wāäsit (“Middle”). There his Syrian soldiers were not in contact with the turbulent

on equipment and commissariat. The heavy expenses entailed thereby were largely met by the booty which he won.

taxation, were carried out on his initiative. He showed the utmost

wisdom in the selection of his lieutenants. The fear of his name was so great that even in the desert there was security for life and property, and his brilliant military successes were un-

questionably due in a great measure to the care which he bestowed

CALIPHATE

603

», Reign of Sulayman.—Sulayman succeeded on the death of Hubayra caused large sums of money to be extorted from several

his brother, Jumada II. 96 (Feb. 715).

Walid had, in his last

years made preparations against Constantinople.

Sulayman car-

ried them on with energy, and as early as the autumn of ap. 715 Maslama invaded Asia Minor at the head of a numerous army, whilst a well-equipped fleet sailed out to second him. The first year of the expedition was not unsuccessful. The siege of Amorium in Phrygia was broken up, but Pergamum and Sardis were taken. On Aug. 25, 716, the blockade of Constantinople began from the land side, and two weeks later from the sea side. The siege lasted about a year. The besieged were hard pressed, but the besiegers suffered by the severe winter, and were at last obliged to raise the

siege. Maslama brought back the rest of his army in a pitiful

state, while the fleet, on its return, was partly destroyed by a

violent tempest.

Maslama was still on his way back when Sulay-

man died at Dabiq in northern Syria, which was the base of the

expeditions into Asia Minor.

8, Reign of ‘Umar II.—Sulayman was succeeded by his devout cousin, ‘Umar b. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, who did his best to imitate his

grandfather “Umar in all things, and especially in maintaining

the simple manner of life of the early Muslims. He was, however, born in the midst of wealth; thus frugality became asceticism, and in so far as he demanded the same rigour from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused uneasiness and discontent. In the matter of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he did harm to the public revenues. The principle of Islam was, that no Muslim, whatever might be his nationality, should pay any tax other than the zakdé or poor-rate. (See ISLAMIC INSTItutions.) In practice, this privilege was confined to the Arabic Muslims. “Umar wished to maintain the principle. The original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for each district. If one of these adopted Islam, ‘Umar permitted him to leave his place, which had been strictly forbidden by Hajjaj in ‘Iraq and the eastern provinces, because by it many hands were withdrawn from the tilling of the ground, and those who remained were unable to pay the allotted amount. ‘Umar’s system not only. diminished the actual revenue, but largely increased in the cities the numbers of the mauld’s (clients), mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. In north Africa particularly, and in Khurasan the effect of ‘Umar’s proclamation was that a great multitude embraced Islam. When it became necessary to impose a tribute upon the new converts, great discontent arose, which largely increased the number

of those who followed the Shi‘ite

preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was promoted by the severe regulations which ‘Umar introduced for the non-believers, such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those humiliating rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to ‘Umar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than one illegal impost. He followed the guidance of divines and devotees, in whose congenial company he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that these men saw in ‘Umar the ideal of a prince, and that in Muslim history he has acquired the

reputation of a saint. _9. Reign of Yazid I1—Umar's reign was as short as that of

his predecessor. He died on Feb. 9, 720. Vazid II., son of ‘Abdalmalik and, by his mother ‘Atika, grandson of Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposition. He had at once, however, to put down a dangerous rebellion, which, commencing in Basra, spread to Ahwaz (Khiizistan), Fars and Kirman. As the rebellion threatened to spread far and wide, Yazid II. was obliged to

appeal to his brother, the celebrated Maslama, who with his Syrian troops

completely

defeated

the rebels

and

ruthlessly

hunted them to death. Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of ‘Iraq and Khurasan, but was soon replaced by Ibn Hubayra, who under Umar II. had been governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to the tribe of Qays, and was very severe against the Azd and other Yemenite tribes, who had more or less favoured the rebellion. In these years tke antagonism between Qays (Mudar) and Yemenites ecame more and more acute, especially in Khurasan, where Ibn

of the most respectable Khurasanians. The discontent roused thereby became one of the principal causes of the fall of the Umayyads. In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause, when the governor issued orders that the villagers who, having adopted Islam, were freed from tribute according to the promise of ‘Umar II., and had left their villages for the towns, should return to their domiciles and pay the same tribute as before their conversion. The Berbers rose in revolt, slaughtered the unfortunate governor, and put in his place the former governor. Yazid IL., died on Jan. 26, 724, according to the chroniclers, from grief for the loss of a favourite singing-girl. As his successor he had appointed in the first place his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid. 10. Reign of Hisham.—Hisham was a wise and able prince and an enemy of luxury, not an idealist like ‘Umar II., nor a worldling like Yazid II., but more like his father ‘Abdalmalik, devoting all his energy to the pacification of the interior, and to extending and consolidating the empire of Islam. But the discontent, which had been sown under his predecessors, had now developed to such an extent that he could not suppress it in detail. In ‘Iraq Zayd b. ‘Ali, grandson of Husayn b. ‘Ali, who had come to Kifa for a lawsuit, was persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi‘a to organize a revolt in 740, but he was deserted by his troops and slain. His son Yahyd, still a youth, fled to Balkh in Khurasan, but was hunted down, till he fell, sword in hand, under Walid II. Abū Muslim, the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that occasion adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive colour of the dynasty. In Khurasan also there were very serious disturbances. The Sogdians implored the assistance of the Turks, who had long been contending earnestly against the Arabs for the dominion of Transoziana. The Government troops suffered more than one defeat, but in 736 a brilliant victory over the Turks finally caused them to retreat. Hisham separated Khurasan from ‘Iraq and chose as governor of the former Nasr b. Sayydar, a valiant soldier who had grown grey in war. Nasr instituted a system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced earlier, would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that which later on was generally adopted, viz., that all possessors of conquered lands (ż.e., nearly the whole empire except Arabia), whether Muslims or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in addition to pay a poll-tax, from ‘which they were relieved on conversion to Islam. During the reign of Hisham, Nasr made a successful expedition against the Turks. The propaganda of the Shi‘a by the Abbasids was continued in these years with great zeal. In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam under the Caliphate of ‘Umar II. declared themselves independent, because the promise of equal rights for all Muslims was not kept under the reign of his successors. This led to the evacuation of

the eastern part of India (called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the name of the western part). and to the founding of the strong cities of Mahfuza and Mansiira for the purpose of controlling the land. In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal disorders, but the Muslims had hard work to maintain themselves against the Alans ani the Khazars. The war against the Byzantines was continued with energy during the whole of Hisham’s reign. In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The Berbers, though they had pledged themselves to Islam and had furnished the latest contingents for the Holy War, were treated as tributary serfs. The Kharijites, of whom a great many had emigrated to Africa, found them eager listeners, and a fierce insurrection broke out which was not easily suppressed. Hisham died in Feb. 743, after a reign of 20 years. He had not been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins of the government in his own hands. His financial administration was sound and he guarded against any misuse of the revenues of

604

CALIPHATE

the State. But he was not popular. Hishdm tried to keep himself free from and above the rival parties, but his viceregents were inexorable. Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to the management of affairs, the Muslim power declined rather than advanced, and signs of the decay of the Umayyad dynasty began to show themselves.

The history of his four successors, Walid II.,

Yazid III., Ibrahim and Marwan II., is but the history of the fall of the Umayyads. 11. Reign of Walid Il—wWalid II. was a handsome man, possessed of extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished poet. His first public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 dirhems, that of-the Syrians by 20. The Umayyads who came to pay their respects to him received large donations. But he made the mistake of designating his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. These were still under age and were not the children of a free-born, noble mother. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. Walid I., and joined by the majority of the Marwanid princes and many Kalbites and other Yemenites. The conspirators met with slight opposition. Without difficulty, Yazid made himself master of Damascus, and the caliph was murdered on

April 17, 744.

12. Reign of Yazid II.—Yazid III., on his accession, made

a fine speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected from a good and wise ruler, even offering to make place immediately for the man whom his subjects should find better qualified for the Caliphate than himself. But the distant provinces, with the exception of Sind and Sijistan, renounced his authority. In Africa ‘Abdarrahman b. Habib was almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself from a suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b. Sayyar, the governor of Khurasan, had not yet decided whether he ought to take the oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a reign of only five months and a half in 744. 13. Yazip III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He was acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned no longer than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and to submit to the authority of Marwan IT. 14. Marwan II., the son of Muhammad b. Marwan and cousin of Maslama, was a man of energy, and might have revived the strength of the Umayyad dynasty, but for the general disorder which pervaded the whole empire. Marwan did all he could to pacify Syria, permitting the Arabs of the four provinces to choose their own prefects. He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but transplanted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in Mesopotamia. But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Umayyad princes considered Marwan as an upstart, his mother being a slave-girl; the Damascenes were angry because he had chosen Harran for his residence; the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, as the Qaisites predominated. Marwan, who wanted to march against ‘Iraq, was obliged to return to Syria, where he put an end to the troubles. Shortly afterwards Sulayman b. Hisham persuaded the Syrians to proclaim him caliph. But Marwan utterly defeated him at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin, and then besieged his brother Sa‘id in Homs. After the victory the walls were demolished, and likewise those of Baalbek, Damascus, Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, and therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until 746 could Marwan resume his campaign against ‘Iraq. Here the Kharijites had set up a rival caliph and had captured (in Aug. 745) Hira, the residence of the governor of the province. Whilst Marwan besieged Homs, the Kharijite army, which now numbered 120,000 men, returned to Mesopotamia, took Mosul, and threatened Nisibis. Mesopotamia itself was in danger, when Marwan at last was able to march against the enemy. In a furious battle at Kafartūtha (Sept. A.D. 746) the Kharijites were defeated; and their rebellion was crushed during the campaign of the following year. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern parts of the empire lay at the feet of Marwan. But in the north-east, in Khurasan, meanwhile a storm had arisen, against which his resources and his wisdom were alike of no avail. When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khurasan,

Nasr b. Sayyar did not at once acknowledge

the Caliphate of

Yazid III., but induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir of Khurasan, until a caliph should be universally acknowl.

edged. But Nasr had a personal enemy, the chief of the Azd (Yemenites), Kirmani, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose and in a short time the Azd under Kirmani, supported by the Rabi‘a, who always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection; Nasr tried in vain to put it down by concessions and finding that he could hold Merv no longer, retired toNishapur.

Since the days of ‘Ali there had been two tendencies among the Shi‘ites. The moderate party distinguished itself from the other Muslims only by its doctrine that the imamate belonged legally to a man of the House of the Prophet. The other party, that of the ultra-Shi‘ites, named Hashimiya after Abii Hashim, the son of Muhammad b. al-Hanafiya, preached the equality of all Mus-

lims, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the same divine spirit that had animated the Prophet incorporated itself again in his

heirs. After the death of Husayn, they chose for their Imim Muhammad b. al-Hanafiya, and at his decease his son, Aba Hashim, from whom Muhammad b. ‘Ali, the grandson of ‘Abdal-

lah b. ‘Abbas, who resided at Homaima in the south-east of Syria, obtained the secrets of the party and took the lead. This Muhammad, the father of the two first Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability and great ambition. He directed his

energies primarily to Khurasan.

The missionaries were charged

with the task of undermining the authority of the Umayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took place under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of the court, as contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. God would not suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe He would send a saviour out of the House of the Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore Islam to its original purity. The missionaries had great success, especially among the non-Arabic inhabitants of Khurasan and Transoxiana.

When Muhammad b. ‘Ali died, his son Ibrahim, the Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant about whose antecedents .one fact alone seems certain, that he was a mauld (client) of Persian origin. This man, Abi Muslim by name, was a man of real ability and devoted to his master’s cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of affairs in Khurasan was entrusted. At first the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize Abt Muslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. In the year 749 he judged that the time for open manifestation had arrived. His partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides on a fixed day at Siqadanj in the province of Merv. Then, on June 15, 747, the first solemn meeting took place and the black flags were unfolded. By the end of the year Abi Muslim, whom the majority believed to belong himself to the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a strong army. Mean-

time, Nasr had moved from Nishapur to Merv, and here the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, the true significance of Abii Muslim’s

work was

recognized.

Nasr

warned the Arabs against their common enemy, “who preaches

a religion that does not come from the Envoy of God, and whose chief aim is the extirpation of the Arabs.” In vain he had en-

treated Marw4n to send him troops before it should be too late. When at last it was possible to them to fulfil his wish, it was, fact, too late. But Abii Muslim made himself master of Merv, in Dec. 747. Nasr escaped only by a headlong flight to Nishaput. This was the end of the Arabic dominion in the East.

As soon as Abii Muslim had consolidated his authority, he sent

his chief general, Qahtaba, against Nishapur. Nasr could not further resist. He reached Sawa in the vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of 85 years. Rayy and

Hamadan were taken without serious difficulty. In June 749 Nibäwand surrendered, and thereby the way to ‘Irāq lay open

to Qahtaba. Qahtaba himself perished in the combat, but his son Hasan entered Kifa without any resistance on Sept. 2, 749. Marwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the movement in Khurasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam and imprisoned him at Harran. There he died, probably from the plague, though Marwan was accused of having killed bhm.

CALIPHATE The other Abbasids arrived at Kifa in the latter half of Sept. 749, where in the meantime the head of the propaganda, Abi Salama,

had previously undertaken the government.

This Abū Salama

seems to have had scruples against recognizing Abu’l-‘Abbis as the successor of his brother Ibrahim, and to have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked for from Medina, would not be slow

in making his appearance, little thinking that an Abbasid would

present himself as such. But Abii Jahm, on the instructions of Abii Muslim, declared to the chief officers of the Khurasanian army that the Mahdi was in their midst, and brought them to

Abul-‘Abbas, to whom they swore allegiance. Abi Salama also

was constrained to take the oath. On Nov. 28, 749, Abu’l-‘Abbas was solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal mosque of Kifa.

The trick had been carried out admirably. On the point of gathering the ripe fruit, the Alids were suddenly pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched away by the Abbasids. The latter gained the

throne and they took good care never to be deprived of it. The advancing Abbasid army completely defeated Marwan near the Greater Zab, an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted 11 days. Marwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle (Aug. 750). His head was cut off and sent to Kifa. In Syria, the Umayyads were

persecuted with the utmost rigour.

Even their graves were

violated, and the bodies crucified and destroyed. Only a few Umayyads escaped the massacre. A grandson of Hisham, ‘Abdarrahman, reached Africa and founded in Spain the Umayyad dynasty of Cordova. With the dynasty of the Umayyads the hegemony passes finally from Syria to ‘Iraq. At the same time the supremacy of the Arabs

came to an end. Thenceforth it is not the contingents of the Arabic tribes which compose the army, and on whom the Government depends; the new dynasty relies on a standing army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations begins to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic language, and the Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and spread more and more over the whole empire.

C.—THE ABBASID CALIPHS We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under which the power of Islam reached its highest point. 1. Abw’l-“Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue to the people of Kiifa, in which he announced the era of concord and happiness which was to begin now that the House of the Prophet had been restored to its right. He asserted that the Abbasids were the real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants of his oldest uncle ‘Abbas. He did not, however, trust the Kufians. He resided outside the town with the Khurasanian troops, and with them went first to Hira, then to Hashimiya, which he caused to be built in the neighbourhood of Anbar. The ruin of the Umayyad empire and the rise of the new dynasty did not take place without mighty convulsions. In Bathanlya and the Hauran, in the north of Syria, in Mesopotamia and ‘Iraq Khurasan insurrections had to be put down with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the provinces among the principal members of his family and his generals. Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa remained, at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection to the new

dynasty. In 754 Abii Muslim came to ‘Iraq to visit Abu’l-‘Abbas and was received with great honour. Abu’l-‘Abbas died on June 5, 754. He seems to have been a man of limited. capacity, and had very little share in the achievements

accomplished in his name. In the few cases where he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his brother Abi Ja‘far.

2. Reign of Mansur.—Abu’l-‘Abbias had designated as his successors first Abii Ja‘far, surnamed al-Mansiir (the victorious), and

after him his cousin ‘Isa b. Misa. The first care of Mansiir was now to get rid of the powerful

Abi Muslim. On pretence of conferring with him on important

business of state, Mansiir induced him to come to Madain Ctesiphon), and in the most perfidious manner caused him to be

605

murdered by his guards. About the same time Africa and Spain escaped from the dominion of the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, the latter permanently. But in the year 761 Muhammad b. Ash‘ath, the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained possession of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the reign of Hariin al-Rashid, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, that of the Aghlabites. At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of the western Umayyads was founded in Spain by one of the last survivors of the Umayyads, ‘Abdarrahman b. Mu‘awiyah, grandson of the caliph Hisham. (See Spain: History.) While Mansiir was thus losing Africa and Spain, he was trying

to redeem the losses which the Byzantines had inflicted on the empire on the northern frontier. But from 758 till 763 Mansur was so occupied with his own affairs that he could not think of further raids. In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called the Rawandis, went to Hashimiya, the residence of the caliph, and began to pay him divine honours. These fanatics, having later risen in revolt, were hunted down and massacred to the last man, and thereby the ties that bound the Abbasids to the ultra-Shi‘ites were severed. From that time forward the Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, just as the Umayyads had been. A much greater danger now threatened Mansir. In the last days of the Umayyads, the Shi‘ites had chosen as caliph, Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah b. Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi, and Manstir had been among those who pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, the Alids in Medina were indignant

at being supplanted by the Abbasids, and Mansiir’s chief concern was to get Muhammad into his power. In 758 Mansiir, informed that a revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and ordered ‘Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other relatives were seized and transported to ‘Iraq where ‘Abdallah and his brother ‘Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. Notwithstanding all these precautions, a vast conspiracy was formed. In 762 Muhammad took Medina and had himself proclaimed caliph, but was defeated and slain. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained possession of Basra, Ahwaz and Fars, but had even occupied Wasit. The empire of the Abbasids was in great jeopardy. Had Ibrahim marched at once against Kiifa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra, 48m. from Kifa, and Ibrahim was finally defeated. His head was cut off and brought to Mansir. Mansiir could now give his mind to the founding of the new capital. He made choice of the admirable site of the old markettown of Baghdad on the western bank of the Tigris. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in the centre of which was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. But around this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which was to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate lasted. The building lasted three years and was completed in the year 766.

‘Isa b. Miis& had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu’l‘Abbas as successor to Mansiir. The latter having vainly tried to compel ‘Isa to renounce his right of succession, in favour of Mansur’s son, Muhammad al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who swore that he had done so. However unwillingly, ‘Isa was obliged at last to yield. One of the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid b. Barmak, the head of that celebrated family, the Barmecides (qg.v.), who played so important a part in the reign of Hartin al-Rashid. This Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family in Balkh, and had been one of the trusty supporters of Abū Muslim, Mansūr appointed as minister of finance. In 775 Mansur died after having reigned for 22 years. He was a man of rare energy and strength of mind. His ambition was boundless and no means, however perfidious, was despised by him. But he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able officers for all places.

606

CALIFHNALE s, Reign of Harun al-Rashid.—Hariin ascended the throne

his 3. Reign of Mahdi.—As soon as Mansir was dead, Rabi’,

who without opposition. His first act was to choose as prime minister client and chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals son his former tutor, the faithful Yahya b. Khalid, and to confide im. his to ce allegian of oath the take to accompanied the caliph, 161, Mahdi portant posts to the two sons of Yahya, Fadl and Ja‘far, of whom Muhammad al-Mahdi, who was then at Baghdad. In gen- the former was his own foster-brother, the latter his intimate known sectary, a by led revolt, us dangero a was menaced by friend. Loaded with all the burdens of government, Yahya always he because one,” erally as Muqanna‘ (g.v.), or “the veiled in the brought the most distinguished abilities to the exercise of his abode his up took He mask. a wearing public in d appeare gathered office. He put the frontiers in a good state of defence; he filled the Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he successes, around him a great number of adherents. After some near Sanam of castle the at d cornere ly ultimate the pretender was family. Kish, and took poison together with all the members of his His head was cut off and sent to Mahdi. During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the Byzanonly tines had taken place almost without intermission, but the “the called , Laodicea of conquest the been had nce feat of importa 770. burnt” (ù karakekavuévn) by Ma‘yuf b. Yahya in the year At first the armies of Mahdi were not successful. The Greeks

(Germanicia) and annihilated the Muslim In 778, however, Hasan b. Qahtaba made as Adhriliya (Dorylaeum); it was on his resolved on building the frontier town the called Hadath (Adata), which became an outpost. In 779 Mesong Traversi person. in army his leading caliph decided on on potamia and Syria, he entered Cilicia, and established himself exan hed despatc he Thence s). (Pyramu Jihan the of banks the peditionary force, nominally under the command of Harin, but in reality under that of his tutor, the Barmecide Yahya b. Khalid. Haran captured the fortress SamAlu after a siege of 38 days. In consequence of this feat, Mahdi made Harin governor of the whole western part of the empire, including Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out afresh between the Muslims and the Greeks. The Muslims invaded Cilicia under the orders of ‘Abdalkabir who, being afraid of encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harin, accompanied by his chamberlain Rabi‘, with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with orders to carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. Harin marched against Nicomedia, where he vanquished the domesticus, the chief commander of the Greek forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the Bosporus. The regent, Irene, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for three years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Muslims with guides and markets on their way home. This brilliant success so increased Mahdi’s affection for Harun that he appointed him successor-designate

even conquered Marash army sent from Dabiq. a victorious raid as far proposition that Mahdi

public Treasury, and carried the splendour of the throne to the highest point. His sons, especially Fadl, were worthy of their father. Although the administration of Harun’s States was committed to skilful hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free from troubles. Towards the year 793 a man of the house

of ‘Ali, named Yahya b. ‘Abdallah, another brother of Muhammad

and Ibrahim, publicly claimed the Caliphate, but he was induced to submit by a promise of safety and a brilliant position at the court of Baghdad. At the end of some months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, and the caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a possible rival, threw him into prison, where he died, according to the majority of the historians, of starvation. Others say that Ja‘far b. Yahya b. Khilid,

to whose care he had been entrusted, suffered him to escape, and that this was the real cause of Hariin’s anger against the Barme-

cides (g.v.). Dreading fresh insurrections of the Alids, Harin secured the person of another descendant of “Ali, Misa b. Ja‘far,

surnamed al-Kazim, who enjoyed great consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by the caliph himself to Baghdad and there died, apparently by poison. Meanwhile Harin did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam.

Almost every year successful raids were made into Asia Minor, in the year 797 under the command of the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to sue for peace. Even in the midst of the cares of war, Hariin was assiduous in his religious duties, and few years passed without his making the pilgrimage. It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very moment when the Barmecides thought their position most secure, that Hariin brought sudden ruin upon them. The causes of their

disgrace have been differently stated by the annalists. (See BarMECIDES.) The principal cause appears to have been that they abused the sovereign power which they exercised. Not a few were jealous of their greatness and sought for opportunities of instilling distrust against them into the mind of Harun, and of making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The secret right the after Misa and named him al-Rashid (“the follower of dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some 43. only of age the , at suddenly died he later, years Three cause”). apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the was Much prosperity. great The reign of Mahdi was a time of b. ‘Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harin redone for the organization of the huge empire; agriculture and Alid Yahya destruction, and Ja‘far b. Yahya was arrested and their on solved the whilst increasing, were revenues the commerce flourished; following day, his father Yahya, his brother Fadl, The beheaded. even ed people fared well. The power of the State was acknowledg Barmecides were arrested and imprisoned; all other the in the Far East: the emperor of China, the king of Tibet, and and all confiscated. The only Barmecide who rewas property their was He caliph. the with treaties many Indian princes concluded his family was Muhammad the brother with unmolested mained an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, and persecuted mercithe chamberlain of the caliph till 795, been had who Vahya, of . freethinkers of kinds all and s Manichaean lessly the

4. Reign of Hadi.—On the death of Mahdi, Hartn, following

the advice of Yahya b. Khalid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, with letters of condolence and congratulation, to Musa and brought the army which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully back from Media to Baghdad.. Mūsā returned in all haste to the capital, and assumed the title of al-Hādī (“he who directs”). Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly escaped being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for excluding him from the Caliphate and transmitting the succession to his own son Ja‘far. To this he obtained the assent of his ministers and the principal chiefs of his army, with the exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Hariin’s former tutor, who showed such firmness and boldness that Hadi cast him into prison and resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already given orders for his execution, when he himself was killed (Sept. 14, 786) by his mother Khaizuran, who had systematically and successfully inBN against him with the object of gaining the real power for erself.

when Fadl b. Rabi‘ got his place. This latter had henceforward

the greatest influence at court. In the same year hostilities broke out again with the Greeks, and the new emperor, Nicephorus, was so completely beaten that

he was compelled to submit to very harsh conditions.

The disturbances in Khurasan were caused by the malversa-

tions of the governor of that province, ‘Ali b. ‘Isa b. Mahan. The

caliph went in person to Merv, in order to judge of the reality

of the complaints which had reached him, but confirmed ‘All in

his post, and, after having received the chiefs of Tabaristan who

came to tender their submission, returned through Baghdad to Rakka on the Euphrates, which city was his habitual residence. In the following year Rafi‘ b. Layth, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the standard of revolt in Samarkand. The caliph’s hope that Rafi‘ would submit on condition of receiving a free pardon to Khurasan, was not fulfilled, and he resolved to set out himself taking with him his second son Ma’mūn. On the journey he was

attacked by an internal malady, from which he died, ten months

CALIPHATE after his departure from Baghdad in March 809, just on his arrival at the city of ‘Tus. Hartin was only 45 years of age. As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on their direction. After their disgrace he was led into many impolitic actions by his violent and often cruel propensities. But the em-

pire was, especially in the earlier part of his reign, in a very prosperous state, and was respected widely by foreign Powers. Embassies passed between Charlemagne and Hfrin in the years

797 and 801, by which the former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, the latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean ports. Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor of Africa, succeeded in making himself independent of the Central Government, on condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his suzerain the caliph. This was, if we do not take Spain into account, the first instance of dismemberment, later to be followed by many others.

6, Reign of Amin.—On

the death of Harin his minister,

Fadl. b. Rabi‘, with the view of gaining the new caliph’s confidence, hastened to call together all the troops of the late caliph and to lead them back to Baghdad, in order to place them in the

hands of the new sovereign, Amin.

War soon broke out between

the two brothers, and their respective armies met under the walls of Rayy (May 811), where Ma’mun’s general Tahir gained

a brilliant victory. Ma’min now no longer hesitated to take the title of caliph. Tahir continued his victorious march and one after the other the provinces fell away from Amin, and he soon found himself in possession of Baghdad alone. The city, though blockaded on every side, made a desperate, defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern part of the city fell into the hands of Tahir, and Amin, deserted by his followers, was compelled to surrender and was put to death. His head was sent to Ma’miin (Sept. 813). Amin was only 28 years old.

As a ruler he was wholly incom-

petent, and the five years of his reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular to Baghdad, which never entirely recovered its old splendour.

7. Reign of Ma’mun.—On

the day following the death of

Amin, Tahir caused Ma’miin to be proclaimed at Baghdad, and promised in his name a general amnesty. The accession of this prince appeared likely to restore to the empire the order necessary for its prosperity. It was not so, however. The reign of Ma’min had a very stormy beginning; he was in no haste to remove to Baghdad, but continued to reside at Merv. The Alids seized on his elevation as a pretext for fresh revolts, and Mecca, Medina and Yemen fell into their hands, and several cities of ‘Iraq were occupied by rebels, but at last the tide of disaster was checked. The troops of the Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of ‘Iraq fell again into the hands of the Abbasids, and peace seemed within reach. This, however, was by no means the case. The disorder of civil war had caused a multitude of robbers and vagabonds to emerge from the purlieus of Baghdad. These ruffans proceeded to treat the capital as a conquered city, and it became

necessary for all good citizens to organize themselves into a regular militia. Meanwhile, at .Merv, Ma’miin was adopting a decision which fell like a thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In 817 under pretence of putting an end to the continual revolts of the partisans of “Alt,

he publicly designated as his successor in the Caliphate “Ali ar-

Rida, a son of that Misa al-Kazim who perished in the prison of Mahdi. The people of Baghdad refused to take the oath to ‘Ali b. Misa, declared Ma’miin deposed, and elected his uncle, Ibrahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate. Ma’miin was much incensed and wrote that he was coming to Baghdad in a short time. From that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found himself deserted, and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His precarious reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Having taken all precautions, Ma’miin now made his solemn entry into Baghdad

607

his mind towards him, contrived to get himself appointed governor of Khurasan. Like most of the great Muslim generals, Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project of creating an independent kingdom for himself. His death (a.p. 822), prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded him one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in reality to have founded a dynasty in Khurasan. The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim was eventually arrested, but Ma’miin generously pardoned him. Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Ma’miin gave himself up to science and literature. He caused works on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy to be translated from the Greek, and founded in Baghdad a kind of academy, called the “House of Science,” with a library and an observatory. Ma’min interested himself, too, in questions of religious dogma. He had embraced the Mu‘tazilite doctrine about free will and predestination, and in 827 he published an edict by which the Mu'tazilite doctrine was declared to be the religion of the State, the orthodox faith condemned as heretical. At the same time he ordered all his subjects to honour ‘Ali as the best creature of God after the Prophet, and forbade the praise of Mu‘awiyah. In 833 a new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors were summoned to renounce the error of the uncreated word of God. In the reign of Mutawakkil the orthodox faith was restored, never to be assailed again. In spite of these manifold activities Ma’min did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 832 he made expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theophilus, the Greek emperor, sued for peace, which Ma’min haughtily refused to grant. Accordingly, he decided on marching in the following year against Amorium, and thence to Constantinople itself. He set out for Asia Minor to put himself at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 4om. from Tarsus, in Aug. 833, at the age of forty-eight. Ma’miin was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers of the whole dynasty after Manstir. By him the ascendancy of the Persian element over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, he began to attract young Turkish noblemen to his court, an example which was followed on a much larger scale by his successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a later period. 8. Reign of Mu‘tasim.—Abii Ishaq al-Mu‘tasim had for a long time been preparing himself for the succession. Every year he had bought Turkish slaves, and had with him in the last expedition of Ma’miin a bodyguard of 3,000. Backed by this force he seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph to designate him as his successor. He made his public entry into Baghdad on Sept. 20, 833. Mu‘tasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately after his coming to Baghdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves living there who had distinguished themselves. But the excesses of his Turkish soldiery so stirred up the anger of the inhabitants of Baghdad, that he resolved to move the capital, and having bought in 834 territories at Samarra, a small place situated a few leagues above Baghdad, he established himself there in 836. This resolution of Mu‘tasim was destined to prove fatal to his dynasty; for it placed the caliphs at the mercy of their praetorians. In fact, from the time of his son, Wathiq, the Caliphate became the plaything of the Turkish guard, and its decline was continuous. Mu‘tasim was faced with the difficult task of suppressing the revolt of Babak al-Khurrami in Azarbaijan. The Khurrami were not really Muslims, but Persian Mazdaqites, or communists. Their

object was to abolish Islam and to restore “the white religion.” During the civil war their power was steadily increasing, and spread not only over Azarbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and Khurasan. The numerous efforts of Ma’miin to put them down had been all in vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. Therefore, in the year 835, Mu‘tasim

in Aug. 8109.

When welcoming Tahir, Ma’miin bade him ask for any reward he might desire. Tahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to

made Afshin, a Turkish prince, governor of Media, with orders to take the lead of the war against Babak. After three years’ fighting, Babak was taken prisoner, carried to Samarra, and put

endure the sight of the murderer of his brother, should change

to death.

608

CALIPHATE

In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak’s favour, Theoph-

several other Turkish generals were to be assassinated. But Wasif

ilus in 837 fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of Zibatra.

and Muntasir had been informed, and resolved to anticipate him

There and in several other places he took a great number

In the night before Dec. 10, 861, Mutawakkil was murdered

`

by poison, it is said.

i

of

prisoners, whom he mutilated. The news arrived just after that of the capture of Babak, and Mu‘tasim swore to take exemplary

vengeance. He assembled a formidable army, penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, where he gained rich plunder. Mu‘tasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt broke out in Tabaristan, which was suppressed with great difficulty. Mu‘tasim died a year later, in Jan. 842. 9. Reign of Wathiq.—His son Wathig, who succeeded, though not in the least to be compared with Ma’min, had yet in common with him a thirst for knowledge and an intolerant adherence to

the doctrine of the created Qur'an. He carried his zeal to such a point that, on the occasion of an exchange of Greek against Muslim prisoners in 845, he refused to receive those -Muslim captives who would not declare their belief that the Qur’ān was created. The only other event of importance in the reign of Wäthiq was a rising of the Arabian tribes in the environs of Medina, which the Turkish general, Bogha, with difficulty repressed. When he reached Samarra with his prisoners, Wathiq had just died (Aug. 846). That the predominance of the praetorians was already established is clear from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish generals, Ashnas and Itakh respectively, the

titular but lucrative supreme government of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In his days the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of Africans (Maghribis). to. Reign of Mutawakkil—Wathigq was succeeded by his brother Ja‘far, who at his installation adopted the name of al-

Mutawakkil ‘ala’llak (“he who trusts in God”). One of the first acts of Mutawakkil was the release of all those who had been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the created Qur’ān, which was declared heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of that doctrine and other Mu‘tazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed, never again to lose its place as the State religion. Hand in hand with these reactionary measures came two others, one against Jews and Christians, one against the Shi‘ites. Mutawakkil, in 850, formulated an edict by which these sectarles were compelled to wear a distinctive dress and to distinguish their houses by a figure of the devil nailed to the door, excluding them at the same time from all public employments, and forbidding them to send their children to Muslim schools. He showed his hatred for the Shi‘ites by causing the mausoleum erected over the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, together with all the buildings surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be ploughed up, and by forbidding anyone to visit the spot. In the year 848-849 a revolt broke out in Azerbaijan and another, in 851-852, in Armenia. The annual raids of Muslims and Greeks. in the border districts of Asia Minor were attended with alternate successes, though on the whole the Greeks had the upper hand. In 856 they penetrated as far as Amid (Diyarbakr), and returned with 10,000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a heavy defeat with ‘losses of men and cattle, the emperor, Michael, himself was in danger, whilst the fleet of the Muslims captured and sacked Antalia. This was followed by a truce and an exchange of prisoners in the following year. In 855 a revolt broke out in Homs (Emesa), where the harsh conditions imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews had caused great discontent. It was repressed afterta vigorous resistance. A great many leading men were flogged to death, all churches and synagogues were destroyed and all the Christians banished. About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy of the Tahirids. Ya‘qib b. Layth al-Saffar proclaimed himself amir of that province in the year 860, and was soon after confirmed in this dignity by the caliph. In 858 Mutawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant patronage of the Turkish guard, contrived to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater part Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. The day had been fixed on which Muntasir, Wasif and

11. Reign of Muntasir.—On the very night of his father’s assassination Muntasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was a man of very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands of his vizier and the Turkish generals. He died six months after

12. Reign of Musta‘in.—The Turkish soldiery, now the chief

power in the State, chose in succession to Muntasir, his cousin

Ahmad, who took the title of al-Musta‘in billah (“he who look. for help to God”). In the reign of this feeble prince the Greeks inflicted serious losses on the Muslims in Asia Minor. In 865

the caliph’s brother, Mu‘tazz, was proclaimed caliph at Simarr3. A terrible war ensued; Musta‘in was obliged to abdicate, and was

killed in the following year.

In 864 a descendant of ‘Alī, named Hasan b. Zayd, gained possession of Tabaristān and occupied the great city of Rayy near Teheran. A year later the province was reconquered by the Tāhirid governor of Khurasan, so that Hasan was obliged to retreat for refuge to the land of the Dailłam.

But he returned soon,

and after many reverses ruled over Tabaristan and Jurjan for many years. 13. Reign of Mu‘tazz.—Mu'tazz, proclaimed caliph at Baghdad in Jan. 866, devoted himself to the object of freeing himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, especially Wasif and Bogha, who had opposed his election. But such a task demanded an ability and energy which he did not possess. He was obliged to grant them amnesty and to recall them to Samarra. But a more difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, Persian and African guards, which was said to have amounted in AH. 252 tO 200,000,000 dirhems (about £6,500,000), or apparently twice the revenue derived from the land-tax. As the provincial revenues annually decreased, it became impossible to pay this sum. Upon a further demand, Mu‘tazz, having failed to procure the money, was seized upon and tortured, and died of starvation in prison (July 368). The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these years, and the caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual independence of the governors Ya‘qib the Saffarid (see SarrArtips and PersIA, History, § B) in Sistén, and Ahmad b. Tilin in Egypt. 14. Reign

of Muhtadi—timmediately

after the seizure of

Mu‘tazz, the Turks proclaimed as caliph one of the sons of Wathigq with the title of al-Muhtadz billah (“the guided by God”), who, however, refused to occupy the throne until his predecessor had solemnly abdicated. Muhtadi, who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had no lack of energy, began by applying the

precarlous measure of power which was left him to the reform of the court. He devoted himself to the administration of justice, and gave public audiences to the people for the redress of their

grievances, and endeavoured to break the supremacy of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Muhtadi came too late, and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work. The soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong enough. Muhtadi was overwhelmed and killed by the Turks (June 870).

15. Reign of Mu‘tamid.—aA son of Mutawakkil was brought

out of prison to succeed his cousin, and reigned for 23 years under

the name of al-Mu‘tamid-‘ala’llah (“he whose support is God”). During his reign the Tahirids were crushed in 873 by VYa‘qib the Saffarid, whose short-lived empire in 900 passed into the hands of the Samanids, who had been governors of Transoxiana from the time of Ma’min, and after the fall of the Tahirids, had been confirmed in this office by the caliph. After goo they were independent princes, and under their dominion these districts attained to high prosperity. i Muʻtamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves 1m

the province of Basra; it lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked the

Government to its utmost.

He died in Oct. 892. The seat of

the Caliphate had already been restored to Baghdad. 16. Reign of Mu‘tadid.—Mu‘tadid may be called, after Mansur, the most able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers

He took good care of the finances, reformed the administration,

CALIPHATE was an excellent commander in war, and maintained order as far as possible. Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves in

Basra there arose in the province of Kia the celebrated sect of the Carmathians (q.v.), Fatimites or Ismāʻilites. The founder

609

carved out for himself a principality in the province of Basra, laid siege to Baghdad, and Muttaqi fled to the Hamdanid, prince of Mosul, who then marched against Baghdad, and succeeded in repelling Baridi. In return he obtained the office of Amir alUmara. But the Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer

him to keep this office longer than several months. Tuzin, a former captain of Bajkam, compelled him to return to Mosul and took his place. Muttaqi fled again to Mosul and thence to sent against him by Mu‘tadid. Mu‘tadid died in March 902 leaving the Caliphate to his son. Rakka. Tūzūn found means to entice him to his tent, and had 17, Reign of Muqtafii—Muatafi inherited his father’s intre- his eyes put out (Oct. 944). 22. Reign of Mustakfi.—As successor Tiiziin chose al-Muspidity, and seems to have had high personal qualities, but his reign of six years was a constant struggle against the Carma- | takft billak (“he who finds full sufficiency with God”), a son of mere thians. But, to avenge their defeat, they lay in wait for the great | Muktafi. This prince, still more than his predecessors, was a

of a Carmathian state in Bahrein, the north-eastern province of

Arabia (actually called Lahsa) in the year goo routed an army

pilgrim caravan on its return from Mecca in 906 and massacred | puppet. One of the Biyid princes marched about this time against 20,000 pilgrims, making an immense booty. This horrible crime | Baghdad, which he entered in Dec. 945 and was acknowledged by the caliph as legal sovereign, under the title of sultan. He raised the whole Muslim world against them.

The war with the Byzantines was conducted with great energy | assumed at this time the name of Mu‘izz addaula. Mustakfi was during the reign of Muqtafi, and the dominion of the 'Tūlūnids | soon weary of this new master, and plotted against him. At least

in Egypt was overthrown.

Mu‘izz addaula suspected him and deprived him of his eyesight

had 18. Reign of Muqtadir.—The sudden death of Muqtafi in| (Jan. 946). There were thus in Baghdad three caliphs who and Aug. 908 was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Caliphate, for the | been dethroned as well as blinded, namely, Qahir, Muttaqi new caliph, his brother, al-Muqtadir billah (“the powerful through | Mustakfi. 23. Reign of Muti‘—Mu‘izz addaula’s choice fell on a son of God”) was only 13 years of age when he ascended the throne, obeys and allowed himself to be governed by his mother and her ladies | Muqtadir, who took the title of al-Muti‘ billah (“he who reveand powers the all himself to reserving sultan, The God’’). | of period a are reign Muqtadir’s of years and eunuchs. The 24 and secretary a merely caliph the allowed Caliphate, the of nues | the rapid decay. The most important event in the reign was abdifoundation of the Fatimite dynasty, which reigned first in the | a pension of 5,000 dirhems a day. Muti was compelled to Maghrib and then in Egypt for nearly three centuries. (See | cate in Aug. 974. 24. Reign of Ta’i..—Muti'‘ left the empty title of caliph to his Fitrmrres and Ecypt: History, “Muhammadan.”) Far more dangerous, however, for the Caliphate of Baghdad at| son al-Ta@’ i‘ li-amri’lléh (“the obedient to the command of God”). zenith. the time were the Carmathians of Bahrein. In 923 they took | Under ‘Adud addaula the power of the Būyids reached its and in and ransacked Basra; in the first month of the following year the | His empire stretched from the Caspian to the Persian sea, in death his after But Syria. of frontier eastern the to west the overpowered; was Mecca from return its on caravan great pilgrim the ggo In other. the against one fought sons his 983 year the made 2,500 men perished, while an even larger number were prisoners and brought to Lahsd, the residence of the Carmathian | youngest of them, Baha addaula, had the upper hand, and wishing princes, together with an immense booty. Then Kifa underwent | to deprive the caliph Tai‘ of his possessions, compelled him to abdicate (A.D. 991). the fate that had befallen Basra. 25. Reign of Qadir.—A grandson of Muqtadir was then made In 926 the caravan was allowed to pass on payment of a large under the name of al-Qadir billah (“the powerful through caliph | crush to resolved Baghdad of sum of money. The Government the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated in 927} God”). During this Caliphate the Biyid princes were in continual and Baghdad was seriously threatened. Next year Mecca was | war with one another. Meanwhile events were preparing the fall taken and plundered; even the sacred Black Stone was trans- | of their dynasty. In 96x a Turkish general of the Samanids had ported to Lahsa, where it remained till 950, when by the express | founded for himself a principality in Ghazni, and one of his and order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it was restored to the | successors, Mahmid, conquered the whole of Khurasan Būyids, the attacked then He India. of part great a with Sijistan, | in commander Ka‘bah. Mugtadir fell in battle against a rebel Oct. 932 at the age of 38 years. His reign, which lasted almost | and would have destroyed their dynasty but for his death in the year 1030. Qadir died in Nov. 1031. 25 yéars, was in all respects injurious to the empire. 26. Reign of Qa’im.—He was succeeded by his son, who at 19. Reign of Qahir—aA brother of Muqtadir, named Qahir, succeeded him; he was a drunkard, and derived the money for his accession took the title of al-O@im bi-amri’ liah (“he who his excesses from promiscuous confiscation. In April 934 he was | maintains the cause of God’). During the first half of his long reign took place the development of the power of the Seljuk dethroned and blinded, and died in poverty seven years later. During the last years of Muqtadir and the reign of Qahir a new Turks. In 1038 Tughril Beg, their chief, beat the army of the dynasty rose in the north of Persia, the Biyids. (See Persia: | Ghaznavids and made his entry into Nishapur. Thenceforth his progress was rapid. (See SELJUKS.) The situation in Baghdad History.)

to his aid. 20. Reign of Radi—Mudtadir’s son, who was then pro- | had become so desperate that the caliph called Tughril finally overthrew and 1055, Dec. in Baghdad entered prince This | content (“the claimed caliph under the name of ar-Rddi billah through God”), was pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the | the dynasty of the Biyids. In 1058 he received from the caliph

shadow of power. He created the office of Amir al-Umara, which | the title of “King of the East and West”; he was succeeded by

nearly corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace among the | his nephew, Alp Arslan, who died in 1072. Franks. The empire was by this time practically reduced to the| later, April 1075.

Qa’im died two years

27. Reign of Muqtadi—lIn the first year of the Caliphate of province of Baghdad; Khurasan and Transoxiana were in the| hands of the Samanids, Fars in those of the Biyids; Kirman and | al-Mugtadi bi-amrv’ llak (“he who follows the orders of God”),

Media were under independent sovereigns; the Hamdanids pos- | a grandson of Qa’im, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its sessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids Armenia and Azerbaijan; the | zenith. All the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor

Ikshidites Egypt: as we have seen, the Fatimites Africa, the | Syria with the exception of a few towns on the shore, the main Carmathians Arabia.

part of West Africa acknowledged the caliph of Baghdad as the

his 21. Reign of Muttaqi—Radi died in Dec. 940. Another son | Imam. Yemen had been subjected, and at Mecca and Medina that of the Fatimite for prayers public the in substituted was name | of name the under caliph proclaimed then was of Mugqtadir a contest for the sultana-Muttagi billah (“he who guards himself by God”). At the | caliph. But after the death of Malik Shah Baghdad time of his accession the Amir al-Umara was the Turkish general, | ate took place; the day after his son, Barkiyaroq entered apparently by suddenly, died caliph the 1094) (Feb. triumph in | death his and after, soon died Bajkam Bajkam. Unfortunately was followed by general anarchy. A certain Baridi, who had | poison.

28, Reign of Mustazhir.—Al-Mustazhir billah (“he who seeks to triumph through God”), son of Muqtadi, was only 16 years old when he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable chiefly for the growing power of the Assassins (g.v.) and for the first crusade. (See Crusapes.) After the death of Barkiyaroq in Nov. 1104, his brother, Muhammad, reigned till April 1118. His death was followed about four months later by that of Mustazhir. 29. Reign of Mustarshid.—Al-Mustarshid billak (“he who asks guidance from God”), who succeeded his father in Aug. 1118, distinguished himself by a vain attempt to re-establish the power of the caliph. In 1135 he was assassinated.

30. Reign of Rashid.—Al-Rdshid billah (“the just through God”) tried to follow the steps of his father. But the Seljuk sultan, Mas‘id took Baghdad and had Rashid deposed (Aug. 1136). Rashid escaped, but was murdered two years later.

31. Reign of Muqtafi—His successor Al-Mugtafi li-amrv’ llāh (“he who follows the orders of God”), son of Mustazhir, had better success. He was real ruler not only of the district of Baghdad, but also of the rest of ‘Iraq, which he subdued by force. He died in March 1160. Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks was rapidly sinking. In the west, Zengi, the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against the Franks. At his death in 1146, his noble son, Nuraddin, continued his father’s glorious career.

32. Reign

}

CALIPHATE

610

of Mustanjid—aAl-Mustanjid

billah

(“he who

caliph under the title al-Mustansir

biliah (“he who seeks help

from God”), make an effort to restore a dynasty which was now

for ever extinct. At the head of an army he marched against Baghdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under

the name of al-Hakim bi-amri'llah (“the who decides according to the orders of God’). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in Egypt without power or influence. (See Ecyet: History, “Muhammadan period.”) This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan, Selim I., who deposed the last of them, Muta-

wakkil.

(See Turxey: History.) He died at Cairo, a pensionary

of the Ottoman Government, in 1538. There has been much diversity of opinion in the Muslim world on the subject of the Caliphate since the rst century of the Muhammadan era, but only one theory—that of Sunni orthodoxy —has obtained more than temporary or local realization. (See Istamic Institutions.) This theory of the Sunni Caliphate grew out of the actual political facts connected with the establishment of the vast Arab empire stretching from the shores of the Atlantic to Transoxiana; it assumed that all believers would

always live under one Muslim ruler, who would be of the tribe of Quraysh (to which the Prophet himself had belonged), and for nearly nine centuries the caliph was actually a Qurayshite.

But

the empire remained undivided for little more than a century,

invokes help from God”), the son of Muqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate by making an end to the State of the Mazyadites in Hillah. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nuraddin, the overthrow of the Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his major-domo in Dec. 1170. 33. Reign of Mustadi.—His son and successor al-Mustadz biamrillah (“he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God”), though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the death of Niraddin in 1174 Saladin’s power became firmly rooted. Mustadi died in the month of March 1180.

and broke up into a number of independent states; so that by the roth century the authority of the caliph in Baghdad hardly ex.

In Jan. 1256 Hulagi, the brother of the great khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by destroying all the strong-

the prevailing fashion, and we accordingly find that the title

tended beyond the walls of that city, and he himself was a puppet in the hands of his Turkish mercenaries. The theory, however, survived its failure to realize itself and even independent monarchs recognized the caliph as the source of all authority, and would apply to him for a diploma of investiture or a title of honour, in order that their position might be legitimatized and the tender consciences of their subjects satisfied. After the last Abbasid caliph in Baghdad was put to death by the Mongols in 1258, a shadowy continuation of the dynasty was set up in Cairo under the protection of the Mameluke sultans and, though the 34. Reign of Nasir.—Quite a different man from his father caliph was now powerless to exercise any influence on political was his successor al-Ndsir li-dini’llah (“he who helps the religion affairs, he was still regarded in popular sentiment as the only of God”). During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin legitimate source of authority, and requests still came for titles on Oct. 2, 1187. Nasir was very ambitious; he had added Khizi- and diplomas from independent princes. On the other hand, parstan to his dominions, and desired to become also master of ticularly after the Mongol conquests, a new theory of sovereignty Media. Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty was devised by the Muslim legists, who began to represent the prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), and invoked the help of the Mon- authority of the ruler as derived directly from God Himself, “Who gols against him. When Nasir died (Oct. 1225), the eastern prov- giveth the kingdom to whomsoever He wills, and raiseth whomsoinces of the empire had been trampled down by the Mongol ever He wills to honour.” No authorization, therefore, from the hordes under Jenghiz Khan, the towns burned, and the inhabi- caliph was any longer held to be necessary, and the legists impressed the duty of obedience to any ruler who had established his tants killed without mercy. 35. Reign of Zahir.—Al-Zahir bi-amri’llah (“the victorious position by force of arms. Development from 13th Century.—dAccordingly from the through the orders of God”) died within a year after his father’s latter part of the 13th century onwards, independent sultans— death, in July 1226. 36. Reign of Mustansir.—Al-Mustansir billah (“he who asks Maghrebins, Indians, Seljuks and even Turkomans and Shayhelp from God”) was caliph till his death in Dec. 1242. In 1227 banids— began to assume to themselves the title of caliph in addiJenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued to advance tion to other high-sounding titles, and this title, which in earlier ages had been considered to be the exclusive prerogative of one with immense strides. 37. Reign of Musta‘sim.—A]-Musta‘sim billah (“he who clings supreme sovereign, now came to be applied to any number of to God for protection”), the last caliph of Baghdad, was a narrow- princes, some of whom were persons of quite insignificant status. minded, irresolute man, guided, moreover, by bad counsellors. The rising power of the Ottoman sultans naturally fell in with

holds of the Isma’ilis.

In Jan. 1258 Hilagii arrived under the

walls of Baghdad. Musta‘sim was obliged to surrender and came with his retinue into the Mongol camp. The city was then given up to plunder and slaughter; the caliph, after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524

years, from the entry of Abu’l-‘Abbas into Kiifa. In vain, three years later, did Abu’l-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Baybars the Mameluke sultan, and who had been proclaimed

Khalifah was applied as early as 1362 to Murad I., and afterwards to each one of his descendants on the Ottoman throne. There is, therefore, no justification for the legend that the first

of the Ottoman sultans to assume this title was Selim I, and still less historical evidence is there for the story that after his occupation of Cairo in 1517 the dignity of the caliph was transferred to him by the last of the Abbasid caliphs, Mutawakkil.

This legend was first put forward in 1787 by D’Ohsson and

passed unchallenged from one European history to another, and was adopted by Turkish writers also, and in modern times it became a commonplace in the propagandist literature of the

Muhammadan

world in support of the Ottoman claim to the

CALIVER—CALIXTUS

611

Caliphate. As the Ottoman conquests extended the boundaries

CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is

of their enormous empire, it became clear that the Turkish sultan

an English corruption of “calibre,” and arises from the “arquebus of calibre,” that is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. “Caliver,” therefore, is practically synonymous with ‘“‘arquebus.” The heavier musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century.

was the only Muhammadan monarch possessing territories, power and wealth commensurate with the dignity of sc exalted atitle,

and the same halo of glory gathered round Constantinople as in former centuries had been associated with the cities of Damascus and Baghdad. The Ottoman Diplomacy.—The Ottoman sultans do not

appear to have attached much importance to the title of Khalifah until in the 18th and 1oth centuries Turkish diplomatists found it convenient in their relations with Christian Powers to make use of the false analogy current in Europe between the caliph and

the pope, and to claim for the sultan spiritual authority over

Muslims who were not actually his subjects. Abdul Hamid II. (1876-1908) especially emphasized this claim, and from the outset of his reign endeavoured to obtain recognition of himself as caliph by sending emissaries to Egypt, Tunis, India, Afghanistan, Java and China. His deposition in 1908 did not entail the abandonment of this policy, and in the treaties made between the new constitutional Government in Turkey and the States which be-

tween 1908 and 1913 annexed territories formerly provinces of the Turkish empire, e.g., Bosnia, Hercegovina, Libya, Bulgaria and Macedonia, it was stipulated (in regard to the first three) that the name of the sultan should continue to be mentioned in the public prayers as caliph, and that in all of them the appointment of Muslim ecclesiastics should be authorized by the Shaykh al Islam in Constantinople.

When Turkey entered into the World’ War in 1914 a further attempt was made to make political use of the Turkish claim to the Caliphate by the proclamation of a Jihad in which all Muslims were called upon to fight in defence of the Khalifah and were threatened with the punishment of hell if they supported his enemies. The lack of response to this appeal revealed the unreality of this assumption of authority, but many Muslims, especially in India, were undoubtedly distressed at the fact of hostilities between Turkey and the Governments under which they themselves lived, and after the Armistice in 1918 much sympathy was aroused for the Caliphate, and fears were expressed lest the terms of peace should cripple the power of Turkey. Abolition of Sultanate and Caliphate.—In Nov. 1922 the National Assembly declared a republic and abolished the Sultanate; Muhammad VI. was deposed and his cousin, Abdul Majid, elected Khalifah of all the Muslims, but the exact nature of his functions had not been clearly defined before he was sent into exile in March 1924 and the Ottoman Caliphate abolished altogether. A few days later King Husayn of the Hijaz was proclaimed caliph in Mecca and Transjordan, and received some recognition also in Palestine and Syria; but in the following October he abdicated, just before the victorious Wahhabis entered Mecca.

All three of these claimants have since died, and the

recognition paid to any holders of this title is merely local, e.g., the sherif of Morocco is regarded as caliph by his own subjects. and four petty chiefs in the Malay archipelago enjoy the title. Future of the Caliphate.—Meanwhile the problem that faces the Muslim world is being much discussed. The orthodox Sunni legists maintain that the Muslim world must always have a Khalifah as head of the community, and those in sympathy with this view held an international Caliphate Congress in Cairo in May 1926; but no practical conclusion was arrived at. The number of those Muslim theologians who brave orthodox opinion by

CALIXTUS or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes.

CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery of the book of the Philosophumena. From this work

which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope Victor, and, later, was associated with Pope Zephyrinus in the government of

the Roman Church.

On the death of Zephyrinus

(217) he was

elected in his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author of the Philosophumena, accused him of having favoured the modalist or Patripassian doctrines and of certain relaxations of discipline. Calixtus died in 222. In the time of Constantine the Roman Church reckoned him officially among the martyr n: À D. CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured

reform in the Church. In Feb. 1119 he was chosen pope at Cluny, succeeding Gelasius II., and in opposition to the anti-pope Gregory VIIL, who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor Henry V., to dispose of the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in

Oct. 1119 both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory having fled to Sutri, was delivered inta his hands and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in Sept. r122 was the result. He died in Rome on Dec. I3 OF 14, 'II24. See M. Maurer, Pabst Calixt II. (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, Histoire

du pape

Calixte II. (Paris,

1891);

encyklopädie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

and A. Hauck’s

Real-

CaLrxtUs III. (c. 1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he endeavoured fruitlessly to organize a crusade. Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after the king’s death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. Notorious for nepotism, he was responsible for introducing his nephew, Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on Aug. 6, 1458. See A. Hauck’s Realencyklopddie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586—1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelbye, Schleswig, on Dec. 14, 1586. After studying Is small; but, outside theological circles, there is a growing readi- philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstedt, Jena, Giessen, Tübingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France ness to accept the altered circumstances of the case. and England, where he became acquainted with the leading reBrtiocrapHy.—A full bibliography is given in vol. ii. (chap. x., xi. formers. On his return in r6r4 he was appointed professor of and xii.) and vol. iv. (chap. x.) of the Cambridge Medieval History theology at Helmstedt by the duke of Brunswick, who had ad1913, 1923). The outstanding works on this period are L. Caetani, Annali dell Islām (up to the death of ‘Ali, av. 661) (1905-26); mired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute H. Lammens, Hiudes sur le regne du calife Omaiyade Mo‘awia Ier with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. Calixtus held this post for (1906-07) ; J. Wellhausen, Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz (1902; 40 years, and made Helmstedt a centre of reasonableness in an trans. M. G. Weir, 1927) ; A. Mez, Die Renaissance des Islams (1922) ; age of bitter theological controversy. He constantly pressed for a T. W. Arnold, The Caliphate (1924); Oriente Moderna (1921-28); A. J . Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs (1925), vol. i. The milder treatment of confessional differences, and thought that a basis for the reunion of all the churches could be found in the Islamic World (1927). (T. W.A,)

declaring that there is no longer any need for such an institution,

CALL—CALLAO

612 study of the Christian fathers.

His ideas were those later advo-

cated (also fruitlessly) by Leibnitz. In 1613 he published a book, Disputationes de praecipuis religionis christianae capitibus, which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he published his Epitome theologiae, and some years later his Theologia Moralis (1634) and De Arte Nova Nihusii. Statius Buscher

charged the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Calixtus refuted the accusation of Buscher, but after the conference of Thorn (1645), a new charge was preferred against him, prin-

cipally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (1612—1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. The disputes on the possibilities of the reconciliation desired by Calixtus known in the Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran Church, till a new controversy arose with P. J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died on March 16, 1656. See E. L. T. Henke, Georg Calixtus und seine Zeit (1853—60) ; also Isaak Dorner, Gesch. d. protest. Theol. pp. 606-624; and especially Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.

CALL.

A term used on the English and American stock ex-

changes for a contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an “option” is given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named therein or his order or to bearer, to “call” for a specified amount of stock at a certain day for a certain price. A “put,” which is the reverse of a “call,” is the option of selling (putting) stock at a certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or putting is termed a “straddle,” and sometimes on the American stock exchange a “‘spread-eagle.” The word is also used in connection with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not been demanded or “called” up at once.

(See Company:

Options.)

CALLA, in botany, a genus of the arum family (Araceae),

comprising only one species (C. palustris), known as arum lily, water arum or wild calla, found widely in bogs in cool north temperate and subarctic regions. It is a handsome plant, with heartshaped leaves, showy white flowering spathes and a fruit cluster of brilliant red berries. The well-known calla or calla lily of the gardeners is a species of Zantedeschia (q.v.). (See ARACEAE.)

CALLABLE, a term relating to securities, meaning that the issuer retains the right to call in, repay, or redeem them under specified conditions. Callable or redeemable stock is that upon which the issuing company has retained the option, under the conditions and upon the terms specified in its certificate of incorporation, of redeeming it or buying it back from the stockholders. Callable or redeemable bonds are those which by the terms of their issue may be called for redemption by the issuing company before the date of their maturity. CALLAGHAN, SIR GEORGE ASTLEY (1852~1920), British admiral, was born in London on Dec. 21, 1852, the son of an army captain, and entered the navy in 1866. He was promoted captain while on service on the China station in 1894, and was then (1894-97) naval adviser to the inspector of fortifications at the War Office. He was in command of the “Endymion” on the China station at the time of the Boxer rising in 1900, and commanded the naval brigade which entered Peking. He held various other important commands in the years r900—14 and for the three years immediately before the World War was commander-inchief of the home fleets, which he brought to a high state of efficiency and readiness. Callaghan was commander-in-chief at the Nore (Jan. 1915s—March 1918), and was promoted admiral of the

fleet in 1917. He died in London on Nov. .23, 1920.

CALLANDER,

police burgh and parish, Perthshire, Scot-

land, 16 m. north-west of Stirling by the L.M.S.R. Pop. (1931), 1,572. Situated on the north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in repute as a health resort, and there is a large hydro on the south side of the river. A mile and a half north-east are the Falls of Bracklinn (Gael. “white-foaming pool”), while two miles north-

the Lake.

The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the

town.

CALLANDER-PEMBROKE ROAD, a highway beginning at Pembroke on the Ottawa river and ending at Lake Nipissing in the province of Ontario, Canada. It forms part of the Trans-Canada highway and is about 140m. in length, improved throughout. It passes through Algonquin Provincial park, which is notable as a hunting and fishing region, while the Chalk river, Mackey and Mattawa also lie in its path.

CALLAO, and

acity, chief port

constitutional

province of

Peru. Pop. (1927), 53,258, about

50,000 of whom were in the city.

CALLANDER-PEMBROKE

ROAD

The province (area 144 sqm.), a low

peninsula

south

of the

Rimac river, includes the city and its suburbs, Bellavista to the east, with a large Anglo-American colony, La Punta, at the western extremity of the peninsula, a bathing resort with casino, pier,

hotels, private houses and naval academy, and Chucuito, between La Punta and Callao; also the islands of San Lorenzo, Frontón, Los Palominos and other islets. San Lorenzo (1 by 44 m. in extent, 1,050 ft. high) has an arsenal and submarine base, Los Palominos, a revolving light with a visibility of 18 miles. Though politically and administratively a province, Callao has the standing of a department. The climate is temperate and equable, although the sky is ovefcast for half the year. Agricultural products include sugar, maize, fruits and vegetables for local markets. The city (12° 4’ S., 77° 13’ W.) is the port of Lima, 84 m. distant, with which it is connected by train, electric tramway and automobile. This section of the Central railway was opened in 1851, the first in South America. The Avenida del Progreso, built in 1924, is a modern, reinforced concrete highway. The harbour of Callao, a bay sheltered by a tongue of land on the south (La Punta) and by San Lorenzo, is one of the best anchorages on the Pacific coast of South America. The city is south of the bay, 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are mostly adobe, of poor design, the streets narrow and ill-paved. Recent public improvements, however—widening and paving the streets, beautifying the plazas, restoring the castle of Real Felipe (177075), building reservoirs to double the water-supply and new systems of sewage disposal, as well as many imposing new edifices— are fast changing the appearance of Callao. A slaughter-house and refrigerating plant, the first of its kind in Peru, was finished in 1927. It supplies meat to Lima and vicinity and handles dairy products and fruit for the local trade. Among the principal buildings are the customs-house, prefecture, post-office, court-house, barracks, churches, hospitals, markets, clubs and large commercial houses. There are five plazas with statues of national heroes. Business activities are largely connected with shipping and forwarding merchandise. As Callao handles most of the imports of the country, there are many wholesale firms, banks, steamship offices and consulates. Manufactories include flour-mills, breweries and bottling works, foundries, machine-shops and others of less importance. There are 11 primary schools with 104 teachers and 5,536 pupils (1926), also secondary and commercial schools

and a recently established school of fisheries. Callao is a port of call for many foreign steamship lines. ‘The Peruvian line, Compafia Peruana de Vapores y Digue del Callao, runs between Peruvian ports and Panama. In 1926, 1,402 vessels with a tonnage of 2,628,696, entered the port of Callao. Chief exports are sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, copper, vanadium

lead and

vehicles, implements, ing materials, paint, personal, household harbour and docks

other minerals;

chief imports, machinery,

food-stuffs, cotton and other textiles, buildjute, paper and general merchandise for and industrial uses. As improvement of is centrally important, a contract closed

with a North American firm in 1928, provides for the con west is the Pass of Leny. Callander owes much of its prosperity struction of new docking facilities in addition to those alto the fact that it is the centre from which the Trossachs is ready in use. Two granite breakwaters, with an entrance 500 it. usually visited, the route being that described in Scott’s Lady .of wide, will enclose an area of 667 acres. The main channel will be

CALLCOTT—CALLIAS 37 ft. deep, with a depth of 32 ft. over the rest of the dredged area. Four piers, 600 ft. long, will be built, two of which will have fireproof sheds with water service, tracks for freight cars, cement ways for trucks and crane equipment. At a cost of $6,300,000, this new terminal will be finished in 1932 and will be called Terminal Leguia. Callao handles at present an average of

125,000 tons a year exports, and 400,000 tons imports. The new

facilities will have a capacity of 1,000,000 tons. is large enough to include other docks as needed.

The port area

Callao has had an eventful history. Founded in 1537, two years after Lima, it was repeatedly sacked by Drake (1578) and other buccaneers. The centre of trade with Spain, it had become the richest port on the Pacific when it was destroyed by a tidal

613

such as internal combustion engines, thermometric scales, radiation, vapour pressure, osmotic pressure of solutions, absolute expansion of mercury and the boiling point of sulphur. He is also responsible for Air Ministry reports and memoranda on work carried out by himself and colleagues on Dopes and Detonation (1926) and on the effect of anti-knock compounds on engine-knock (1927). He died in London on Jan. 21, 1930. Callendar was a member and officer of many learned societies; he was awarded the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society in 1906 and the first Duddell Memorial Medal of the Physical Society in 1924; he received the C.B.E. in 1920.

CALLES, PLUTARCO

ELÍAS

(1877-

), Mexican

statesman and military leader, president of Mexico in 1924-28, wave and earthquake in 1746 in which 6,000 persons perished. It born at Guaymas, Sonora, Sept. 25, 1877. Little is known of his was rebuilt and strongly fortified. Several times besieged by Spanish fleets, it was finally abandoned by Spain in 1826. A

Spanish squadron which attacked it on May 2, 1866, was defeated,

and Spanish claims in Peru came to an end.

(M. T. Br.)

CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (1779-1844), English landscape painter, was born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was music; but by the age of 20 he had determined to give up music, and had exhibited his first

painting at the Royal Academy.

He became R.A. in 1810, was

knighted in 1827, and in 1834 was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His wife, Marra, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. (d. 1822). She published accounts of her visits to India (1812) and to the environs of Rome (1820); Memoirs of Poussin (1820); a History of France; a History of

Spain (1828); Essays toward a History of Painting (1836); Little Arthur’s History of England (1836); and the Scripture Herbal (1842); etc.

CALLCOTT,

JOHN

WALL

(1766-1821), English mu-

sician, brother of Sir Augustus Calicott, R.A., was born in Kensington Nov. 20, 1766, his father having been a bricklayer and builder. His reputation as a composer rests chiefly upon his concerted vocal works, such as the catch “‘O beauteous fair,’’ the canon “Blessed is he” and the glee “Dull repining sons of care.” Callcott’s son, Wittiam HutcHins CALLCOTT (1807—1882), inherited to a large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song,

“The last man,” and his anthem, “Give peace in our time, O

Lord,” were his best-known compositions. CALLENDAR, HUGH LONGBOURNE (1863-1939), British physicist, was born at Hatherop in Gloucestershire. He was educated at Marlborough and at Cambridge; he held the post of professor of physics at McGill college, Montreal (1893-98); at University college, London (1898-1902) and at the Imperial College of Science. His work in physics is mainly on heat and thermodynamics; he has been successful in devising and carrying out accurate methods of measurement and in designing new apparatus. The electrical resistance thermometer, with the Callendar-Griffths bridge and various recording devices used with it, was the subject of papers published in 1886-87. This was followed by his work on the electrical continuous flow calorimeter, giving a new method of Measuring specific heats of liquids, which eliminates the water

equivalent of the apparatus and simplifies the radiation correction; the full description was given in 1902.

In addition, Cal-

lendar is responsible for a compensated air thermometer (1891) and a radio-balance (1910). His researches on steam led to the formulation of the Callendar steam equation and thë publication of Calendar Steam Tables (1915); Properties of Steam and Thermodynamic Theory

(1921); Abridged Callendar Steam Tables C. and F. Units (1922

and 1927), and Callendar Steam Diagram C. and F. Units (1922). The work on steam at high pressures and temperatures is still carried forward at the direct request of steam turbine manufacturers and the Electrical Research Association. In 1925 he presented a report to the latter association on the continuous flow method of measuring the total heat of steam at high pressures. Callendar is the author of a number of papers on various subjects

early life, however, it is certain that almost to manhood he lived the life of the poorer class. He attended the school of his native town, where at the age of 17 years he became a teacher in the primary school. Later he became superintendent of schools in Hermosillo, and it was there that he began to show the qualities which have made him an outstanding figure in Mexico. His interest in social and economic reforms caused him to join the revolutionary movement which overthrew Porfirio Diaz. In 1913 he joined the forces of Gen. Carranza in the struggle against the Huerta administration, attaining the rank of general. In the border wars of 1915 he served with Gen. Obregón in the campaigns against Villa, and in 1917 became governor of Sonora. During his brief administration as governor he succeeded in

establishing an industrial school at Hermosillo and in securing

legislation favourable to labour and prohibition. He was minister of commerce, labour and industry under Carranza, secretary of war under the provisional Government of Adolfo de la Huerta and secretary of the interior under President Obregén. In 1924, as the candidate of the Labour Party, he was elected president

for the four-year term ending Dec. 1, 1928.

President Calles

came into power pledged to continue the work begun under President Obregón: land for the peasants, work for the workers, education for the masses and legitimate profits for decent capital and honest business. The chief international problems of the administration grew out of the alien land and petroleum laws passed by the Mexican Congress, at the president’s request, in Dec. 1925

(see Mexico:

History).

Early in Jan. 1926, just as a spirited

diplomatic controversy with the United States concerning these laws reached an apparent crisis, the Mexican Roman Catholic episcopate teok a positive stand against the religious and educational provisions of the Constitution and thus precipitated a con-

flict between church and State. A decision of the Mexican Supreme Court (Nov. 1927) declaring certain articles of the petroleum

law unconstitutional

and the diplomacy

of Dwight

Morrow, U.S. ambassador to Mexico, have brought about amicable relations between the two nations. The solution to the church question has proved more difficult. He was succeeded by Portes Gil. CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea, wished, with the assistance of Philip of Macedon, to subdue the whole island. But, finding Philip unwilling to help him, he applied to the Athenians, though he had previously fought against them. They were persuaded by Demosthenes to make an alliance with Callias, with whose help they drove out the pro-Macedonian tyrants from Eretria and Oreus, and at Demosthenes’ suggestion handed over the tribute formerly paid by the Euboic cities to Athens to a

Euboic synod sitting at Chalcis (Demosthenes, De Pace, 58; Ep. Philippi, $9; Diod. Sic. XVI. 74). At the end of his life he seems to have lived at Athens, and Demosthenes proposed to grant him the citizenship (Aeschines, Contra Ctesiph., 85, 87).

CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately

by the heads of a wealthy Athenian family. During the sth and 4th‘ centuries B.c. the office of daduchus or torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family. The following members deserve mention. I1. CALLIAS, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon (490). After the accession of Artaxerxes he was sent on an embassy to the Persian court (Herod. vii. 151). This

CALLICRATIDAS—CALLIGRAPHY

614

visit has been connected with the Peace referred to by the orators and Diodorus as the ‘“‘Peace of Callias,” but the contradictory nature of their statements about its date and terms, and the silence of Thucydides, make it doubtful whether any formal peace was concluded. (See Cron.) At all events Callias’s mission does not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on his return and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents.

oxen among those he had captured, and after nightfall sent them

off by a higher pass, crossing the ridge of Callicula in a westerly

direction, with lighted torches tied to their horns, with a detachment of light troops, who had orders to make as much noise as

possible. The Roman force which held the defile was completely deceived, left its position to pursue them, while Hannibal with the main body marched through the defile unhindered back to the

See Grote, who refers to the ancient authorities, and accepts the treaty as a historical fact, History of Greece, ch. xlv. Curtius, bk. iü. ch. ii., denies the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, Forschungen, ii.; J. B. Bury in Hermathena, xxiv. (1898); E. M. Walker, note 3, “The Peace of Callias,” in Camb. Anc. Hist. vol. v.

S

Montorio,

qei Frentani

2. Hrprponicus, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426 B.c.) and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). See Thucydides Alcibiadem, 13.

iii. 92;

Diod.

Sic.

xii. 65;

Andocides,

Conira

3. CALLIAS, son of the above, was notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the comic poets (Aristophanes, Frogs, 429, Birds, 283, and schol. Andocides, De Mysżeriis, I10~131). His house is the scene of Xenophon’s Symposium and Plato’s Protagoras (Var. Hist. iv. 23). In 392 he was in command of the Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy which made the “Peace of Callias.”

Cajanello,

SOs

Roscamonfina /

See Xenophon, Hellenica, iv. 5, vi. 3; and DELIAN LEAGUE.

CALLICRATIDAS,

Spartan admiral, succeeded Lysander

as admiral of the Lacedaemonian fleet in 406 B.c. He found at once that his predecessor had made his position as difficult as possible, by setting his subordinates against him and returning to Cyrus all the supplies that he held. He won over the captains by calling them together, explaining that he had been appointed their commander, and asking “Now shall I stay, or go back and report that you do not wish me to command?”, but he found the necessity of coming to Cyrus for money irksome, and declared that when he got home he would do his best to reconcile Sparta with Athens. He eventually got some money from Miletus, and fitted out a new fleet of 140 sail. He captured Methymna in spite of Conon’s attempt to save it, and refused to sell into

slavery the prisoners he took. He then chased Conon to Mitylene, and after a successful engagement in the harbour blockaded him there. Athens sent out a fleet of r50 sail to relieve Conon, and Callicratidas left 50 ships to hold Mitylene and took 120 to meet the new fleet. In the battle of Arginusae that followed, we find a complete reversal of the old tactics, the Spartan fleet sailing one deep and aiming at the diekplous, while the Athenians massed their weight in the wings to defeat it. But all order was soon lost, and an individual struggle followed, in which the Spartans were defeated and Callicratidas was killed. In his honesty and straightforwardness Callicratidas was a Spartan of the old type, but with advanced Pan-Hellenic sympathies. See Xen. Hell. I, vi. 1-33. Plut. Lysander 5—7.

,

CALLICULA, a historic mountain of Campania, Italy, some 4m. N.E. of Teanum (mod. Teano) (g.v.). After the victory of Trasimenus (g.v.) and the Roman failure to block Hannibal’s

(g.v.) march into Picenum at the pass of Plestia, the Carthaginian army remained at rest in Picenum for some time, and then marched along the Adriatic coast into northern Apulia, encamping first near

Luceria and then near Vibinum (Bovino). The dictator, Q. Fabius Maximus, encamped near Aecae (Troia), about 6 miles away from him, and when Hannibal offered battle, wisely refused it. Hannibal, therefore, who had no supply or recruiting base, and was living from hand to mouth, crossed the Apennines for the third time in the same year (217) and marched into Campania plundering the territory of Beneventum and taking the town of Telesia on his way down the valley of the Calor (mod. Calore) and up that of the Volturnus (mod, Volturno). Leaving the latter valley near Allifae he entered Campania by the defile below the ridge of Callicula, to the north-east of the modern village of Pietravairano, and plundered the Falernian territory. Unable to bring Fabius to battle, he planned to return to Apulia with the booty he had collected by the way by which he had come, but found it blocked by Fabius. Hannibal, however, collected 2,000 of the strongest

valley of the Volturnus, and sent a detachment of light troops which successfully disengaged the light troops and the oxen. Hence he marched through Samnium and into the country of the Paeligni, as though he were moving towards Rome, making

Fabius keep between him and the city; and then he suddenly turned back and marched eastwards to Gerunium, Apulia, which is to be placed at Colle d’Armi, on the right bank of the Fortore some 20m. E.N.E. of Luceria and the same E.S.E. of Larinum— which he captured and used as a supply base, encamping outside the town and pillaging the countryside. The Romans eventually heard where he was, came up with him and established a camp on the left bank of the river, near Calene in the territory of Larinum. Both sides then advanced their camps closer to the river, so that each lay on a hill above it, but on opposite sides. Minucius, the master of the horse, who was in command in Fabius’s absence, took advantage of the fact that the greater part of the Carthaginians were on a foraging expedition to attack their camp, and very nearly took it, so that Hannibal thought it more prudent to withdraw to his old camp near Gerunium itself,

while Minucius occupied the abandoned camp on the right bank. Fabius now returned from Rome, and divided the army with him, each taking two legions; the camps were 14m. apart and that of Fabius appears to have been on the left bank of the river. Between that of Minucius and that of Hannibal there was ahill and a deep ravine, in which the latter concealed 5,000 light troops and some cavalry; he then occupied the hill at dawn with a small

force, and when Minucius attacked, as he expected, he sent continual reinforcements, and when the Romans were sufficiently engaged, threw in his reserves from both wings and the rear. A catastrophe was only avoided by the intervention of Fabius with

his two fresh legions, and the Carthaginians sounded the retreat, Hannibal declaring that he had beaten Minucius, but that Fabius

had beaten him. He had, indeed, succeeded in living on the country, so that in the next summer he was able to win the victory of Cannae; and he had sufficient self-restraint and self-confidence to be ready to wait for a decisive battle until the circumstances were favourable to his tactics of surrounding the enemy.

* See Kromayer, Antike Schlachtfelder, iii. 1 (Berlin, 1912) for a

full description

of these operations

in which

it is once more clear

that Polybius’ authority is to be preferred to that of Livy.

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xii. Itemisation Excerpts from the Domesday Book, a census of lands in England, prepar ed by command of William the Conqueror in the 11th century: in Bremesese hundred. of the lands of Wm. de Scohies in Carlion Castle and Tornelaus hundred xv. Itemisation of the land held by Wm. Son of Baderen xvi. Itemisation of the land held by Wm. Son of Norman in Radelau hundred. xvii. ltemisation of the land held by Thurstin Son of Rolf in Bremesese

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CALLIGRAPHY rule, compass and square.

615

But it is the essence of handwriting

The first works on letter formation deal with capital letters and were compiled by enthusiastic admirers of the old Latin inscriptions, like Ciriaco of Ancona, who transcribed, collated and copied all the memorials, gravestones and tablets they could dispressed upon vellum, paper or other suitable material by an cover. Andrea Mantegna introduced into his famous frescoes at instructed hand with an appropriate tool, the result may be a the Eremitani in Padua careful renderings of certain inscriptions handwriting possessing style. Calligraphy may be defined as (since destroyed). Feliciano of Verona compiled a collection of freehand in which the freedom is so nicely reconciled with order inscriptions and dedicated it to Mantegna; and from the same that the understanding eye is pleased to contemplate it. Hence we scholar’s hand we have (Cod. Vaticanus 538) a codex which repreimmediately recognize the beauty resulting from right propor- sents the earliest extant treatise on the shapes of inscription tion of the components to the whole of a letter, and between letters. The ms. is dated 1463 and is the first to give diagrams the parts to the whole of a word. Many scripts of the remote and instructions for the geometrical formation of Roman capitals. or recent past, such as the Rustic Capitals, Uncial, Half-Uncial, The earliest printed work of the kind is a modest anonymous Quarter-Uncial, the Caroline Minuscule and the later Gothics, work with an undated colophon: “impressum Parme per demonstrate that handwriting, though an elementary craft, is Damianum Moyllum, Parmensem.?? As there are extant several capable of infinite variations. Changes of fashion so affect the mss. signed by Damiano Moille we may guess that he had a share form, the cutting of the tool and the manner of holding it, that in the authorship as well as in the printing of the alphabet. a collection of the hands employed in pre-Renaissance Europe There is bibliographical evidence for concluding the date of pubexhibits a series of almost bewildering variations. The necessity lication to lie between 1480-83. for speed is the first great cause of variation; a second equally At about the same time the friar and mathematician Pacioli, potent occasion lay in the use of special hands for certain pur- notable as a friend of Leonardo, was busy on his De Divina poses. In the mediaeval period, outside the monastic scriptoria Proportione, a treatise which included an appendix on the where the most formal upright and deliberate text hands were geometry of letter-making. The Padre’s book was not printed written, there were several recognized classes occupied with until 1509, but existed in a finely illuminated manuscript copy writing such as clerks, public scriveners, public notaries and in much earlier, having been presented to Ludovico Sfroza (JI Moro) addition certain others who were ancestors of the later profes- of Milan. Fanti of Ferrara brought out in 1514 the first extension of the sional writing-masters. Finally, there were writers of the special hands used in documents issued from the papal and other chan- geometrical method to the rounded Gothic letter then greatly ceries. Most of these classes, in the hope of preventing forgery, used for large choir-books: Theorica et practica Perspicassimi wrote hands of deliberate complexity. Sigromundi de Fantis ... De Modo Scribendi Fabricandique The Renaissance, by its reaction from the complicated late omnes Litterarum species (Venice, Rubeus, 1514). The title is Gothic and reversion to the simpler Caroline hands, indeed fuller than the contents, for Fanti gives no more than the Roman changed the writing tradition of all Europe, but not all the cisal- capitals in the method of Feliciano, Moille and Pacioli, plus a pine countries adopted the new hands simultaneously—the set of round semi-Gothic letters similarly made, which designs tenacity, in fact, of Gothic is only in our own day being broken were roughly cut on wood by da Carpi. Whereas the models of in its chief stronghold, Germany. Though the humanists de- capitals already published had been useful to architects and liberately reverted to the Caroline hand, theirs was not a barren antiquarians and a few scribes, Fanti’s small Gothic letters facsimile of the gth century letter for, since they laboured for a (lower case) of the kind then known as “modern letter” (lettera return to classical traditions, many scribes broke completely moderna) were serviceable to the numerous clerks in monasteries with the Caroline exemplars in the matter of majuscules, so and elsewhere. Arrighi, a calligrapher from Vicenza and subsethat adaptations of the old Roman geometrically formed inscrip- quently an assistant in the Apostolic Chancery, published in 1522 tion letters appear upon the vellum pages of humanistic codices a book of models of a current correspondence hand based upon the lettere de brevi. This, the first of all copybooks, was entitled equally with majuscules based upon the fine Tours forms. The Renaissance did more than merely revert to the art styles Il Modo et Regola da Imparare di scriuere littera corsiua ouer of antiquity. In its early phase it was a movement in which a cancellerescha nouamente composto per Ludovico Vicentino. The limitless curiosity of the mind—the mark of the true humanist script in this first publication of Arrighi, scrittore de breui apos—predominated and had not yet aroused the jealousy of the toltci in Roma, as he styles himself, is a singularly effective and church. Indeed in the early 15th century, ecclesiastics vied with beautiful combination of the neo-Caroline minuscule, slightly secular scholars in the task of renewing art and science. To record inclined by speed, with perpendicular majuscules reminiscent of our least legacy of that age, we make acknowledgement to the the inscriptions, whose austerity is relieved with additional char- , secular humanistic scribes for the fine round book letter which acters of a decorative form, BC DE PRN. There are also is the foundation of our “roman” printing; to the scriveners of to be found flourishes, ligatures, initial and terminal letters of the papal chancery for our running hand. In an age in which grace and freedom. Arrighi’s fine professional hand is ornamental science, religion and art were the chief, and commerce a sub- in comparison with the somewhat angular and pinched version ordinate interest, these novel scripts were introduced and propa- of the same hand as it was officially used so years before. The gated by artists and ecclesiastics, while merchants, bankers and popularity gained by the chancery script during the half-century lawyers kept accounts and indited conveyances in a tortuous 1470-1520 exposed it to great risks. Writers of diplomatic docuGothic. The development of handwriting owes nothing to com- ments practised it with a discretion foreign to the temper of merce until the next century, and then everything. Mantegna, Cellini, da Vinci and scores of other artists, nobles

that it be free from such, though not from all, government; and of beautiful handwriting that it possess style. When the agreed forms, passing through a mind sensitive to symmetry, are ex-

In mediaeval society it depended upon the officials of Church and State. Hands were invented and books written in accordance with liturgical, administrative and judicial requirements. Like other courts, the Roman Curia maintained (and maintains) a group of canon lawyers and scriveners known as the Apostolic Chancery from which were issued papal bulls, and later a more modest class of document” A small easily formed hand was! teserved by order of Pope Eugenius IV. (1431-47) for the en-

grossing of these minor documents written fast (brevi manu) and known as “briefs.” The script itself became famous as “concelleresca corsiva,” chancery cursive, and in the next century printed and engraved models of it abounded. "Mas Latrie (Trésor de Chronologie).

and scholars who adopted it. The habit of writing “private” letters with a view to their being handed about as specimens of true Latinity developed interest in calligraphy, and with this powerful support the new cursive rapidly became the favourite correspondence

script of the

fashionable

classes,

absorbing

a

multitude of mannerisms which corrupted it until its original simplicity was scarcely recognizable. While in Vicentino’s specimens flourished forms were offered as an occasional pleasant alternative to the rigid capital and both were mcdestly proportioned to the height of the ascending letters d, hk and I, later models exhibit an irritating superfluity of display. The burin of the copper engraver produced an excessively brilliant line which tempted pupils to employ

a correspondingly fine pen,

so that

616

CALLIGRAPHY

the later writing of the century was dominated rather by the technique of the engraver’s burin than that of the scribe’s pen. The first book in copper-plate is the handsome and ornate, though practical, Libro of Hercolani, a notary of Bologna (1571). His book is valuable as a good specimen of the late chancery hand distinguished by its decorative treatment of the -ascending and descending letters. In the pure Vatican style these forms terminated in an angular serif, which existed side by side with a variety which terminated in a short blunt curve from right to left. The angular serif went out of use before 1520 and there-

after no models of the chancery hand for secular or official Vatican use recommend it. Gradually, by means of a fine pen and a supple wrist, the originally unassuming serif was turned into the most conspicuous feature in the word—and in the page—so that a late Italian 16th century letter is almost a network of deliberately formed blots. This development may be conveniently watched in the books of Palatino, a first-rate scribe who gained great renown in Spain where he was copied by Ycia. Pens then became finer and enabled Periccioli (Siena 1610) not only to execute very delicate calligraphical entrelac borders but exceedingly subtle script which gained a seductive sparkle when reproduced from intaglio plates. All the Italian scripts found their way abroad; the fine early hands and their bulbous successors may be met in various parts of Europe. The Italian artists transplanted to Fontainebleau by Francis I. included a humbler rank of decorators, craftsmen and calligraphers. These found Gothic, formal and cursive, generally practised. Tory wrote an Italian hand and his Champfleury a plea for beautiful lettering and an elaboration of the geometrical method of making Roman capitals he had learned

from Pacioli and Diirer. Gothic book hands are also given, but we have to wait a generation for a French pattern book of correspondence hands. In the books of Hamon and de la Rue we find good chancery models and a number of Lettres de Fantaisie (alphabets of wavy, crooked, club-footed and other similarly treated latins). Cursive francoyse, as current Gothic was called, always appears in the early French books. This was the letter

from which the Civilité type was made, and which in the next generation was to be amalgamated with the Italian hand producing the elegant compromise known as “Ronde.” It has a vigorous character and may rank as the French national hand, still employed to-day, but with its Gothicisms heavily diluted. Early fine Rondes are to be found in the book of Louis Barbedor (1628). In the middle of the 17th century, Colbert, when Louis XIV.’s financial secretary, took in hand the revision of French official scripts and, in consequence, the clerks in the offices of State were instructed to abandon the old Gothic cursives and to confine themselves to the upright Ronde known as financière, inclined

bâtarde, and a running form known as coulée.

Such changes gained effect gradually: generations of masters recommended almost non-Gothic as the “Italian hand,” so great was the prestige of that name. The rise of the fine French school of portrait engraving influenced the use of Roman scripts and the opposition of Colbert left Gothic scarcely a vestigial existence by the end of the century. To Colbert, the eminent master Senault dedicated his fine book —Livre ecriture representant la beauté de tous les caractères financiers maitenant à la mode (1660). Other French models of calligraphy circulated also in England and in Holland; French influence in England being more direct than the Italian, though

there were such Italians as Petruccio Ubaldini who taught calligraphy to the English Court (c. 1580). Jean de Beauchesne and

Jobn Baildon’s A Booke containing divers sortes of hands, also a “True and just proportid of the capitall Romae” (London, Thomas Vautrouillier, 1571) is the first English manual of calligraphy. Beauchesne is the same who had brought out Le Thresor @’Escripture in Paris (1550). Both contained admirable models; the English book having handsome forms of current Gothic and secretary hands as well as fine italics.

Bilingsley’s The Pen’s Excellency (London) still has many more secretary, court and other Gothic hands than Roman.

Billingsley’s is one of the few English books independent of the

designs

of Barbedor

and

which

Materot

London masters of the 17th century.

powerfully

atffecteg

But though England learned

much from France, specimens of the work of Van der Velde Boissens, Perlingh and other conspicuous Dutch exponents of the art were highly esteemed when the London writing-masters found their services demanded by youths training for Clerkships in the growing English commercial houses. The Dutch possessed at that time most of the carrying trade and were for that reason

directly imitated in England.

The Dutch naturally copied the

Frenchmen since French literature was not only read but, owing to the repressive legislation against Paris printers, also printed in the Low Countries. The difference between the late Italian 16th, early French and Dutch 17th century hands was not considerable—mainly a matter of width of letter. The Italians had a habit of angularizing the letter, the Dutch of widening and giving it greater inclination, What French, Dutch and English writers commonly called the “Italian” hand is a free, flowing and obviously inclined hand in

which

the ascenders

are looped

and the majuscules

entirely

cursive—wholly different from the Chancery of Vicentino. This was the result of the demand for speed, itself the concomitant of commercial development. English writing gained in currency as commerce expanded. When in 1658, Oliver Cromwell broke the Dutch commercial

power and, by his Mercantile Act, secured that every cargo shipped to England was carried in English bottoms, there resulted

a vast increase in the nation’s shipping. Commercial clerkships became desirable positions, bringing a fine opportunity for such

professors as Snell (1693), Seddon (1695) and others who all learned from the Dutch masters, but whose hands drew away from their models and finally expressed those characteristics which came in another generation to be regarded by the rest of the world, if not by Englishmen, as thoroughly English and admirable for the purposes of salesmanship. Thus the commercial success of England drew hearty foreign respect for the script in which English Bills of Lading and Notes of Exchange were made out; named Anglaise in France, letra Inglesa in Spain, it dominated in Italy itself at the end of the roth century as “Lettere Inglese.” Gothic now persists only with the greatest difficulty— where once it had been used for the text of deeds it fights for

existence as a script for titles, and to-day Whereas and Uhis Sndenture witnesseth its sole traces. In contemporary France the ronde is being hard pressed by anglaise. The Cours d’Inscription Calligraphique, published by Ecole des Travaux Publics has a very extensive circulation, and though treating of bâtarde and ronde gives primary place to anglaise. The situation is not very different in present-day Spain. Thê magnificent

16th century specimens

of Iciar

(1550) and Brun

(1583) were adaptations of the hand of Palatino and Vicentino, but these writers succeeded neither in acclimatizing these nor inventing any new, living, national hands. This was achieved by Lucas, who created a characteristic Spanish upright round-hand and companion inclined bétarde which with astonishingly trifling variations remained in possession for two centuries, giving way

only before anglaise. The hands of many English writing-masters were familiar to the leading Spanish calligraphers of the 18th century. It would be an exaggeration to claim that the script, which we are accustomed to term “copper-plate,” possesses an

attractive personality. It is colourless, thoroughly unromantic and dull. These, however, were precisely the qualities which commended it to those who wrote out invoices. Above all it was expeditious, and the writing-masters of London knew better than to teach them to tricking out of ascenders with solid blacks or capitals with meandering loops which a generation of earlier masters thought would endear their own calligraphy to present and future. The simple and practical nature of English business hand did not exactly serve the material interests of the English

writing-master. Plain round-hand is not so difficult to acquire as to need either perpetual practice at home or continual resort to a master. The early American colonists followed the calli-

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and published by Plunney and Company, Buffalo, N. Y. of penmanship from Martin Billingsley’s The Pen’s ExcelJencies or the Secretaries Delight, 1618, showing Gothic influence

THE

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4. A copy of an engraving by Charles Snell in The art of writing in its

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roman and italic me type of calligraphy, a blend of hands introduced at the beginning of the twentieth century 6. Illustration from The Fashionable Penman, showing the method of handwriting advocated by Joseph Carstairs. According to this system, the forearm, not the fingers, controlled the script

CALLIGRAPHY

617

graphical styles of the home country and Benjamin Franklin | text comprising four or five cacophonous Gothics, semi-Gothics practised a fine anglaise from which a printing type was subse-

quently engraved. The first American copybook (Jenkins, 1791)

continued the mid-18th century English script. In 1809 Joseph Carstairs of London

championed

a theory

of handwriting

in

which the forearm and not the fingers controlled the script. His hook was translated into French and Spanish and was introduced into the United States by Foster in 1830. It was employed overseas with such success that it even became known as the American System. The American hand, however, did in fact develop from a continuation of this movement of the forearm

and a condensation of the running hand exemplified in Jenkins. Dayton copyrighted in 1855 the first specimen of what developed into a style which now may fairly claim to rank as the national American hand. It is a style which requires a very fine pen as

the down strokes taper from top to bottom.

There is a slightly

increased slope, a tendency to flourished terminations and a noticeable degree of condensation. It had little success at first and it is possible that it would have made no progress but for the plagiarization by the very active “Professor” Spencer, who, in spite of the protests of Dayton, claimed the design as his own and taught it throughout a chain of business colleges established

in 44 cities by the time of his death in 1861. The style which is known to this day as the Spencerian system is by no means without its exponents. It is not a particularly unpleasant letter except when written carelessly. Nineteenth-century England learned to write from the copybooks of Vere Foster, whose lithographed models expressed edifying admonitions in a flawless current hand of the plainest style. The “Civil Service” hand also, an upright version of the same design, was and is commonly practised. Both scripts are declining, for one thing because when written with great speed they become illegible. The pressure of life to-day tells heavily against decent handwriting. Writing too much and therefore too quickly we corrupt the shape and become accustomed to low standards. We may find a way out by practising two hands, a rough scribble and a ceremonial script. Twentieth-century mechanics ensure a future for correspondence calligraphy if the desk equipment of . every schoolboy and girl could include a typewriter. To inculcate a good modern. current hand Mr. Hewitt’s Oxford Copy Books are to be recommended. | So much for the epistolary department of post-Renaissance calligraphy (the early fine formal book hands may be studied in the article on PALAEOGRAPHY: Latin). Calligraphical book hands settled the forms of the earliest printing types, but were themselves affected when the type forms acquired a momentum of their own. It is not true that typography killed calligraphy outright—some of the finest calligraphy in the history of book production was executed within the memory of the generation which witnessed the invention of printing, as may be seen from the work of Antonio Sinibaldi of Florence and Mennius of Naples, to name only two famous scribes of the Italian school. The anonymous calligrapher whose splendid “Chantilly” Caesar is fit to rank with the finest of mediaeval manuscripts, heads a not less brilliant French school. The art died for lack of patrons, not for lack of calligraphers. These eked out a penurious existence as rubricators attached to printing houses, or as engrossers of choir-books which required larger characters than type founders were willing to cast. _The age of Louis XIV. witnessed an abortive revival of cal-

and Romans. If in any English address the calligraphy has been handsome and noble or even sober and dignified, it will have been due entirely to the teaching and practice of Mr. Edward Johnston whose Writing and Illuminating and. Lettering (London, 1906) created a new interest in calligraphy among wealthy amateurs and collectors and a new school of excellent scribes. To Mr. Johnston’s teaching therefore we owe that revival of fine calligraphy in which England may well take great pride. Mr. Johnston did what the renaissance had done before him: he went back to the Caroline Minuscule and though he learned, and learned well, from certain fine English mediaeval hands his own beautiful book-hand is individual and underived. As the Exhibition of the Society of Scribes and Illuminators (London) proves, he has created a body of skilful English calligraphers, whose fine scripts give us no excuse for using the debased Gothics and pinchbeck Romans laboriously confected by the hack employees of the west-end heraldicartist, the court stationer and the Fifth-Avenue bookseller. Johnston’s influence has not been merely national; it has perhaps been greatest in Germany. The works of Neff, Durer and of Baurenfeind were succeeded by an indifferent posterity and until our own generation Germany used a mean informal Gothic for commemorative and other purposes where a ceremonial writing was required. In r910 Mr. Edward Johnston’s pupil Fraulein Simons introduced his teaching into Germany with great success and the printing revival due to William Morris which had already made rapid progress rallied to its support. In 1928 Germany has a school of calligraphers second to none in inventiveness and skill. The Gothic letter does not lack champions: the Austrian Professor Larisch and Herr Otto Hupp, two of the generation who were writing before Mr. Johnston’s movement assumed its present importance, both practised Gothic. Prof. Koch of Offenbach is a representative of the present lively generation and for a variety of national and other reasons prefers to work in Gothic, though he learned from Johnston the handsome Roman and italic hands. F. H. Ehmcke, though skilled in Gothic, specializes in Roman. There are not wanting certain influences in Germany which while seeking inspiration from the new movement would be happier if the old Gothic hands could be revived. Thus the Bund fur Deutsche Schrift exists to encourage the Gothic hands. It remains to be seen whether this reaction will be successful. There is perhaps a tendency on the part of the Johnstonian school to narrow its interest and practice to formal book-hands and to ignore the need for a simple, easy, running cursive. The

ligraphy to which the manuscripts by Jarry, Gilbert, Damoiselet

and Rousselot remain a pathetic testimony. This school so formalized their book hands and cursives as to deceive the eye into

thinking that they were types. Scribes like Eclabart were in fact

able to write whole books in a letter indistinguishable from

Printing type. Gothic remained here and there in occasional use and, even in our own day, it not infrequently garnishes a presentation address. Col. Lindbergh’s reception by the City of New York in 1927 was signalized by the presentation of a gorgeous address of welcome in which the regard of the American nation was tendered in a “La Méthode de J. Américaine,” Paris, 1839.

Carstairs

faussement

appelée

Méthode

layman fears that if he writes with a modicum of care his script

will be confounded with his office boy’s, and it is even claimed that “character” in handwriting is more important than legibility. This is a reductio ad absurdum and it may be replied that a selfrespecting person employing the inevitable and natural movement

of his pen to make modest capitals and a lower-case script in which the angles shall be regular, the characters symmetrically rounded, the descenders and ascenders proportionate to their bodies will there and then have the elements of legibility, style and character. PRINTING Type; TYPOGRAPHY; See also PALAEOGRAPHY; WRITING.

BrsrrocraPHy.—H. Jenkinson, The Later Court Hands in England (Cambridge, 1927); H. Jenkinson and C. Johnson, Court Hand Illustrated (Oxford, 1915); E. A. Lowe, “Handwriting” in CrumpJacob, Legacy of the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1926), illustrated, admirable summary of development closing of minuscule with the Humanistic period; F. Madan, Books in Manuscript (London, 1895); E. Crous

and J. Kirchner, Die Gotischen Schriftarten (Berlin, 1928) ; P. Jessen,

Meister der Schreibkunst (Stuttgart, 1925); A. Prunaire, Les Plus Beaux Types de Lettres (avec avant-propos de Claudius Popelin et Preface par Anatole France (Paris s.d.) ; S. Morison, The Calligraphical Models of Ludovico degli Arrighi surnamed Vicentino (Paris, 1926) ; Luca di Pacioli, De Divina Proportione (Venetiis, 1509), reprint of text (with introduction) in Constantin Winterburg, Fra Luca Pacioli,

Divina Proportione

(Quellenschriften für Kunstgeschichte u. Kunst-

technik des Mittelalters u. d. Neuzeit, Wien, 1889); A. Diirer, Unterweysung der Messung mit dem Zuckel und Richtscheyt in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen (Nuremberg, 1525) and Of the Just Shaping of Letters (New York, 1917), translation by R. T. Nichol of that portion of the Unterweysung dealing with the construction of letters; G. Tory, Champfleury (Paris, 1529); Champfleury (New

CALLIMACHUS—CALLISTRATUS

618

York, 1927), English translation by George B. Ives; G. Manzoni, Studii di Bibliografia Analitica (Bologna, 1882); S. Morison and A. F. Johnson, Fleuron, The, Nos. 2, 3 and 4 for articles on early italics (London, 1924—27); R. Blanco y Sanchez, Arte de la Escritura y de la Calligrafia (Madrid, 1920); D. M. de Servidori, Reflexiones sobre la Verdadera Arte de Escribir (Madrid, 1789); E. Cotarelo y Maori, Diccionario Biográfico y Bibliográfico de Caligrafos Españoles

(Madrid, 1913-16) ; T. Torio de Ja Riva y Herrero, Arte de Escribir (Madrid, 1798); M. Dubois, Histoire abregée de PEcriture (Paris, 1772); N. Duval, Nouvelle Méthode pour Apprendre Facilement

L’Art de toutes les Ecritures usitées dans le Royaume

(Paris, 1750) ;

W. A. Smith, “According to Cocker,” The Progress of Penmanship from the earliest times (Paisley, 1887); J. Bonzon, La Corporation des Maitres-Ecrivains sous Vancien Régime (Paris, 1899); J. GrandCarteret, Papeterie et Papetiers de Vancien temps (Paris, 1913); W. Massey, Origin and Progress of Letters (London, 1763); S. Morison, Caractères de VEcriture (Paris, 1927), valuable bibliographical and other details (in the style of Massey, q.v.); F. Aeffens, Lateinische Paldographie, Trever, 1908; E. F. Strange, The Writing Books of the Sixteenth Century; E. Johnston, Writing, and Iluminating and Lettering (London, 1906); E. Johnston and A. Eric R. Gill, Manuscripts and. Inscription Letters (London, r91r); R. Bridges (edited by), English Handwriting, with thirty-four facsimile plates and artistic and paleographical criticisms, by Roger Fry and E. A. Lowe, S.P.E. Tract No. xxiii. (Oxford, 1926); M. Gorce, Cours de Calligraphie (Paris, 1921); H. Nélis, L’Ecriture et les Scribes Bibliographiques (Brussels, 1918). (S. Mo.)

CALLIMACHUS,

an Athenian sculptor of the second half

of the 5th century B.c. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column and the running borer for drilling marble. He made a golden

lamp for the Erechtheum (Paus. I. xxvi., 2). His “dancing Laconian maidens” was a work “of flawless precision,” but spoilt, like his other sculptures, by over-elaboration of detail. (Pliny, Nat. His., xxxiv. 92.) See A. Furtwängler (trans. E. Sellars), Masterpieces Sculpture, p. 437 ff. (1895). i

CALLIMACHUS,

of Ancient

Greek poet and grammarian, a native of

Cyrene, flourished about 250 B.c. He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). His Pinakes (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of Greek literature. Of his 800 works, only six hymns, 64 epigrams and some fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the Hekale, an idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon in Classical Review, Nov. 1893). His

Kome Berenikes is known from the imitation of Catullus and partly in Greek from papyrus fragments (cf. Classical Philology for 1929). His Aiżia (causes) was a collection of elegiac poems. According to Quintilian (Znstit. X. i. s8) he was the chief of the elegiac poets, and imitated by Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a laboured style, unrelieved by poetic genius. The epigrams are in the Greek anthology. BrsrrocrapHy.—Editions of the hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by Bentley) by J. A. Ernesti (z761), and O. Schneider (1870-73) (with elaborate indices and excursuses); E. Cahen, French edition, with introductions (1922) ; hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke (1861), and U. Wilamowitz-Mdllendorff (1897). See Neue Bruchstücke aus der Hekale des Kallimachus, by 'T. Gomperz

(1893);

H. von

Arnim,

Zum

neuen

Kallimachos

(Wien,

1910);

R. Pfeiffer, Callimachi Fragmenta Super Reperta (1921), with bibliography; F. Schmidt, Die Pinakes des Kallimachos (1922); also G. Knaack, Callimachea (1896); A. Beltrami, Gl’ Inni di Callimacho e il Nomo di Terpandro (1896); K. Kuiper, Studia Callimachea (18096) ;

A. Hamette, Les Epigrammes de Callimaque: étude critique et littéraire (Paris, 1907); U. von Wilamowitz-MoOllendorff, Hellenistiche Dichtung in der Zeit des Kallimachos (1924). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd (1755) and H. W. Tytler (17093); (prose) by J. Banks (1856). See also J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. i. (ed. 1906), p. 122.

give the key to his poetry in which he tries to rouse the Tonians to patriotism.

Only scanty fragments of his poems remain: the

longest of these (preserved in Stobaeus, Florilegium, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtaeus. See edition of the fragments by N. Bach

(1831), and in Bergk

Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882). On the date of Callinus, see the histories

of Greek literature by Mure and Mueller; G. H. Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, De Calini

Aetate (1877), who places him earlier, about 642.

CALLIOPE, the chief of the Muses (q.v.), occasionally in

late authors the Muse of epic poetry (Gr., “beautiful voice”), See Hesiod, Theog., 79; Anth. Pal., ix. 504, 1. CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river-god Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon (q.v.). On his death she prayed that her two young sons might grow to manhood at once and avenge their father. This prayer was granted; and her sons, Amphoterus and Acarnan, slew Phegeus, the murderer of Alcmaeon, and returning with the necklace and robe (peplos) of

Harmonia (q.v.; see also ALcmaron), dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, Metam. ix. 413). CALLISTHENES (c. 360-328 B.c.), of Olynthus, Greek his-

torian, a relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He censured Alexander’s adoption of oriental

customs; this offended the king, and he was accused of being privy

to a conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died. His death

was commemorated in a treatise (Kaddoderns # rept TeévGous) by his friend Theophrastus. Callisthenes wrote an account of Alexander’s expedition, a history of Greece from the peace of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian War (357), a history of the Phocian War and other works, all of which have perished. The

romantic life of Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, originated during the time of the Ptolemies,

but in its present form belongs to the 3rd century Ap. Its author is usually known as pseudo-Callisthenes, although in the Latin

translation by Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is ascribed to Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen ‘Litteratur, 1897, p. 849). Valerius’s translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, arch-priest of Naples in the roth century, the so-called Historia de Prelits. See Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni (by C. W. Müller, in the Didot edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments and the text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduction; A.

Westermann, De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene Commentatio (1838-42); J. Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes (1867); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898), pp. 363, 819; article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopddie; A. Ausfeld, Zur Kritik des griechischen Alexanderromans (Bruchsal, 1894}; Plutarch, Alexander, 52-55; Arrian, Anab. iv. ņo-14; Diog. Laërtius v. 1; Quintus Curtius viii. 5-8; Suidas s.y. See also ALEXANDER THE GREAT (ad fin.). For the Latin translations see Teuffel-

Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature

(Eng. trans.) § 399; and M.

Schanz, Geschichte der rémischen Litteratur, iv. 1, p. 43.

CALLISTHENICS: see Gymnastics; Puystcat CULTURE. CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an Arcadian nymph, daugh-

ter of Lycaon and companion of Artemis; probably a local form

of Artemis Kalliste (fairest). She bore Zeus a son, Arcas, the ancestor of the Arcadians, and was transformed into a bear by

Hera, Zeus, or Artemis.

Arcas, when hunting, encountered the

bear Callisto, and would have shot her, had not Zeus carried up both to the skies, where he placed them as constellations. .

BrstiocrapHy.—See Apollodorus, iii. roo—zor; Ovid, Metom., i.,

381-530; R. Franz, De Callistus fabula (1890), which deals exhaustively with the various forms of the legend, and Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v.

CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author of a hymn in honour of Harmodius (g.v.) and Aristogeitan. poets and the creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is This ode, which is to be found in Athenaeus (p. 695), has been CALLINUS

of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac

supposed to have flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.c.). During his lifetime his own countrymen were also engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the Magnesians. These two events 3 ati

4 Gna?a

!

beautifully translated by Thomas Moore.

CALLISTRATUS of Aphidnae, Athenian orator and general

in the 4th century B.c. For many years, as prostates, he supported Spartan interests at Athens. On account of the refusal of the

619

CALLISTRATUS—CALNE Thebans to surrender Oropus, which on his advice they had been allowed to occupy temporarily, Callistratus, despite his magnifi-

individual. Freedom, variety and naïveté characterize all his pieces. His Fairs, his Miseries of War, his Sieges, his Temptation

cent defence (which so impressed Demosthenes that he resolved to study oratory), was condemned to death, 361 B.c. He fled to Methone in Macedonia, and on his return to Athens in 355 he was

of St. Anthony and his Conversion of St. Paul are the best-known of his plates. T Edouard Méaume, Recherches sur la vie de Jacques Callot

executed.

T5600).

flourished at

CALLWELL, CHARLES EDWARD (1859-1928), only son of Henry Callwell, of Lismoyne, Antrim, was born in London on April 2, 1859, and educated at Haileybury. He entered the Royal Military Academy in 1876. He saw active service in India, in the Transvaal 1881, and in the South African War. He had

the beginning of the 2nd century B.c. He was one of the pupils of

resigned from the intelligence department of the war office, where

Aristophanes of Byzantium. Callistratus wrote commentaries on Greek poets, a few fragments of which have been preserved in the scholia and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscella-

he was D.A.Q.N.G. in that branch, in 1909, but returned to the service in 1914, held the post of Director of Military Operations at the War Office during the Great War and was largely responsible for the plans of the Dardanelles campaign, although opposed to it in principle. From 1915 onwards he was employed first in Russia and then on munitions work, and in 1917 was promoted major-

See Xenophon, Hellenica, ili. 3, vi. 2; Lycurgus, In Leocr. 93; and P. Cloché, La Politique de l’Athénien Callistratos, in Revue des Etudes

Anciennes, vol. xxv. (Bordeaux, 1923), where references are given to other modern works.

CALLISTRATUS,

Alexandrian

grammarian,

neous work called Zvuuikrå, used by the later lexicographers,

and of a treatise on courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D). He is not to be confused with Callistratus, the pupil and successor of Isocrates and author of a history of Heraclea in Pontus. See R. Schmidt, De Callistrato Aristophaneo, appended to A. Nauck’s Aristophanis Byzantii Fragmenta (1848); also C. W. Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iv. p. 353 note.

CALLISTRATUS,

Greek sophist and rhetorician, probably

flourished in the 3rd century. He wrote Ekphraseis, descriptions of 14 works of art in stone or brass by distinguished artists. This little work is usually edited with the Eikones of Philostratus. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —See F. Jacobs, Animadversiones criticae in Callstrati statuas (1797); edition by Schenkl-Reisch (Teubner series, 1902); also C. G. Heyne, Opuscula Academica, v., pp. 196—221, with commentary on the Descriptiones.

CALL MONEY.

A London money-market term used to

describe short-term loans advanced to bill-brokers by banks on security. Another name for such advances is “day-to-day money,” or even “over-night money.” Such advances are essential to the bill-broker, who requires prompt loans to deal with bills offering. Call money is advanced on the security of bills of exchange or of bearer securities, and the name expresses the fact that, lent for a very short period, the bank making the advance has the money for practical purposes at call. (See MonEY MARKET.) Call Loan.—According to the custom in use by the New York Stock Exchange, a lender wishing repayment of a call loan must notify the borrower by 12.30 P.M. in order to receive payment on that day, and a borrower wishing to terminate a call loan must notify the lender before r P.m., or else he can be charged an-

other day’s interest. It is possible to stipulate a rate of interest on a call loan but this practice is quite unusual. Interest is commonly paid at the “call loan rate,” which may vary from day to day. The lender notifies the borrower of any rise or fall in the interest rate, which is known as “marking up rates” or “marking down rates.”

CALLOT, JACQUES

(1592-1635), French engraver, was

general and created K.C.B.

He was an acknowledged authority

on small overseas campaigns, and his chief contribution to literature is his Small Wars (1897), which has remained a standard work. His other works include: Tactics of To-day (1897), Military Operations and Maritime Preponderance (1897), The Tactics of Home Defence (1897) and The Dardanelles (1920). CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1672-1757), French Benedictine, was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne, on Feb. 26, 1672. He joined the Benedictines in 1688, and in 1698 was appointed to teach theology and philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was successively prior at Lay, abbot at Nancy and of Sénones in Lorraine. He died in Paris on Oct. 25, 1757. The erudition of Calmet’s exegetical writings won him a universal reputation but they have failed to stand the test of modern scholarship.

The

most

noteworthy

are:—Commentaire

de la

Bible (1707-16), and Dictionnaire historique, géographique, cri-

tique, chronologique et littéral de ła Bible (1729). His numerous other works and editions of the Bible are known only to students, but as a pioneer in exegesis, Calmet is noteworthy. As a historical writer he is best known by his Histoire ecclésiastique et civile de la Lorraine (Nancy, 1728), founded on original research, and by various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full list is given in Vigouroux’s Dictionnaire de la Bible. See A. Digot, Notice biographique et littéraire sur Dom Calmet (Nancy, 1860).

CALMETTE,

GASTON

Augustin

(1858-1914), French journalist

and writer, was born at Montpellier on July 30, 1858. In 1884 he joined the staff of Le Figaro, and in 1894 became editor. He attracted much notice in 1913 and 1914 as the originator of the bitter attacks on the policy of M. Caillaux; especially with regard to M. Caillaux’s attitude in the Rochette case of 1911, in which it was alleged by Le Figaro that the director of public prosecutions had been influenced by the Ministry to delay the course of justice. As a result of these newspaper attacks Mme. Caillaux called at the office of Le Figaro on March 16, 1914 and shot M. Calmette dead. (See CAILLAUX, JosepH Marre AUGUSTE.)

born at Nancy in Lorraine, where his father, Jean Callot, was a herald-at-arms. When only 14 years old, he was allowed to accompany the duke of Lorraine’s envoy to the papal court in order CALNE (Kawn), a market town and municipal borough in the to study artin Rome. His first care was to study the art of design, of which in a short time he became a perfect master. Philip Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99m. Thomasin instructed him in the use of the graver, which, however, “W. of London by the G.W.R. Pop. (1931) 3,463. Area, 356 acres. he ultimately abandoned, substituting the point as better adapted It lies in the valley of the Calne, and is surrounded by the high for his purposes. From Rome he went to Florence, where he table-land of Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. In the remained till the death of Cosimo II., the Maecenas of those roth century Calne (Canna, Kalne) was the site of a palace of the times. On returning to his native country he was warmly received West-Saxon kings. Here a synod met in 978 and a witenagemot by the then duke of Lorraine, who admired and encouraged him. was summoned in 997. In the Domesday Survey Calne was a royal As his fame was now spread abroad in various countries of Europe, borough with forty-seven burgesses. In 1565 the borough posmany distinguished persons gave him commissions to execute. By sessed a gild merchant. Calne claimed to have received a charter the Infanta Isabella, sovereign of the low countries, he was com- from Stephen and a confirmation of the same from Henry IITI.; missioned to engrave a design of the siege of Breda; and for the charter issued to the borough by James IJ. in 1687 apparently

Louis XIII. he executed a design of the siege of Rochelle and the attack on the Isle of Ré. He engraved in all about 1,600 pieces, the best of which are those executed in aqua fortis. No one ever possessed in a higher degree the talent for grouping a large number of figures in a small space, and of representing with two or three

bold strokes the expression, action and peculiar features of each

never came into force. The borough returned two members to parliament more or less irregularly from the first parliament of Ed-

ward I. until the Reform Bill of 1832. Other noteworthy buildings, besides the church of St. Mark, are a grammar school, founded by John Bentley in 1660, and the town-hall, Baconcuring is the staple industry.

620 CALOMEL

CALOMEL—CALORIE occurs in nature as the mineral horn-quicksilver,

found as translucent tetragonal crystals with an adamantine lustre and whitish grey or brownish colour; it is mercurous chloride (mercury subchloride), Hg,Cl. The chief localities are Idria, Obermoschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in Spain. It was used in medicine as early as the 16th century under the names Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, Aquila alba, Mercurius dulcis; later it became known as calomel, a name probably erived from the Greek xaNés, beautiful, and yédas, black, in allusion to its blackening by ammonia, or from xaddés and é^, honey, from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by heating mercury in chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron retorts, and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. In the wet way it is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt with hydrochloric acid. Calomel is a white powder which sublimes at a low red heat; it is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Long continued boiling or prolonged digestion with water, dilute hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline chlorides convert it into mercuric chloride with deposition of mercury. The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion for much discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour density to be 8-3 (air=1), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters of the formula Hg.Cl, pointed out that dissociation into mercury and mercuric chloride would give this value, since mercury is a monatomic element. A. Werner determined the molecular weight of mercurous chloridé in pyridine solution, and obtained results pointing to the formula HgCl. However, the double formula, He2Cl, has been completely established by H. B. Baker, 1900, by vapour density determinations of the absolutely dry substance. Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in the pharmacology and therapeutics of mercury (g.v.). The specific value of mercurous chloride is that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric chloride in the safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is continuously and freshly generated in small quantities. Its pharmacopeial preparations are the “Black wash,” in which calomel and lime react to form mercurous oxide, a pill still known as “Plummer’s pill,” and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any particular advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the existence of the officinal ointment. Internally the salt is given in doses—for an adult of from one-half to five grains. It is an admirable aperient, acting especially on the upper part of the intestinal canal (duodenum and jejunum). It is well to follow a dose of calomel with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power and its stimulation of the liver. The salt is often used in the treatment of syphilis, but is probably less useful than certain other mercurial compounds. Calomel or alternatively mercuro-salicyl arsenate is the active constituent of an ointment (unguentum prophylaxis) employed as a prophylactic measure against syphilis. CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (17341802), French statesman, was born at Douai on Jan. 20, 1734. He became in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, procureur to the parlement of Douai, master of requests, then intendant of Metz (1768) and of Lille (1774). Calonne assumed office as controller-general of finance on Nov. 3, 1783. He found “300 millions to pay and neither money nor credit.” He attempted to carry on the government by means of loans and thus made a position which was already serious practically hopeless. The parlement protested against registering the edicts for raising the loans, but in vain. In October 1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he developed the caisse d’escompte. When it became impossible to raise any more loans Calonne proposed to the king the suppression of internal customs, duties, and the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy. Turgot and Necker had attempted these reforms, and Calonne attributed their failure to the malevolent criticism of the parlements. An assembly of “Notables” was called together in January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, and proposed the establishment of a subvention territoriale, which should be levied on all property without dis-

tinction. This suppression of privileges was badly the privileged notables. Calonne, angered, printed his so alienated the court. Louis XVI. dismissed him 1787, and exiled him to Lorraine; from there he went

received by reports and on April 8 to England

In 1789, when the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over to Flanders in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for election, but he was sternly forbidden to enter France. He then joined the émigré party at Coblenz. His Etat de la France

a present et à venir, a violent criticism of the financial measures of Necker, was published in London in 1790. He was allowed to return to France in 1802, and died in Paris on Oct. 30 of that year. See Ch. Gomel, Les Causes financières de la Révolution (1803): R, Stourm, Les Finances de Pancien régime et de la Révolution (1885); Susane, La Tactique financière de Colonne, with bibliography (1902).

CALOOCAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 31 barrios or districts) of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine

Islands, not far from Manila.

Pop. (1918) 19,551, of whom 6r

were whites. The principal products of this fertile region are rice, sugar and coco-nuts. In 1918 it had 18 manufacturing establishments with output valued at 156,000 pesos and 52 house-

hold industry establishments with output valued at 20,800 pesos, It has 12 public schools. Caloocan was one of the earliest communities to rise against the Spaniards. The language is Tagalog.

CALORESCENCE.

When radiant energy is absorbed by a

substance (i.e., when the sum of the reflected and transmitted energies is not equal to the incident energy) the absorbed energy is usually transformed into radiant energy of a different wavelength or refrangibility, or into energy of another form, The conversion of the rays belonging to the dark (infra-red) portion of the spectrum into the shorter, more refrangible waves of visible light was demonstrated by John Tyndall and the term

calorescence

(from the Lat. calor, heat) ‘was invented by him

to describe this phenomenon. Tyndall sifted out the long, dark, infra-red waves from the shorter, visible waves associated with them in the light from the sun or electric arc, and concentrated them to a focus. A piece of charcoal or blackened platinum placed at this focus was raised to incandescence. The emission of light (visible rays) by the charcoal or platinum is purely a temperature effect, therefore calorescence is not to be regarded as the strict converse of the phenomenon shown by Sir G. G. Stokes to occur in fluorescent bodies (see FLUORESCENCE and PHOSPHORESCENCE). See also John Tyndall, Heat as a Mode of Motion.

CALORIC, a hypothetical imponderable fluid to whose action the early scientists ascribed the manifestations of heat (g.v.).

CALORIE

(also spelt Catory).

A unit of heat defined as

the quantity of heat required to raise a unit mass of water one degree in temperature on the Centigrade scale, in which the freezing point of water is taken as o°C. and the boiling point as 100°C. The magnitude of the unit is proportional to the unit of mass selected, so that it is also necessary to specify the unit of mass in defining the quantity of heat measured. The following units of this type are in general use for various purposes. The gramme-calorie

(or small calorie) defined as the quantity

of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gramme of water by 1°C., is the unit of heat most commonly employed for scientific purposes for which the gramme is taken as unit of mass. The kilogramme-calorie (kilocalorie or large calorie) is equal to 1,000 gramme-calories, and is commonly employed by englneers in countries where the metric system is adopted. The poundcalorie is similarly employed in connection with the British system of weights, and is equal to 453-6 gramme-calories, if 1 lb. is taken as 453-6 gm. The term calorie is also employed in stating the total heat or total energy of a substance, such as water, or steam, when measured per unit mass on the Centigrade scale. It is unnecessary in this case to specify the unit of mass because the total heat measured in pound-calories per pound is obviously the same for any given substance and range of temperature as that measured

in gramme-calories per gramme, provided that the same umt

of mass is employed in either case in measuring the substance

and in defining the heat unit. In this connection the mean calorie

CALORIFIC

VALUE—CALORIMETRY

is most commonly employed, defined as one hundredth part of the increase of total heat of water per unit mass between

and 100°C. under atmospheric pressure.

o°

Similar units of heat may be defined in terms of the Fahrenheit

and Réaumur

scales of temperature,

but are rarely, if ever,

called by the name calorie, or employed for purely scientific purposes. By far the most important of these is the British

Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.), defined as the quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. One B.Th.U. is equal to 453-6/1-8 or 252 gramme-calories precisely.

The absolute values of all the above units of heat depend on the properties of water in a manner which is explained in the article CALORIMETRY. Their relations to other units are further illustrated in the article HEAT.

VALUE,

the number of heat units obtained

by the complete combustion

CALORIFIC

(g.v.) of unit mass of a fuel (see

FUEL). CALORIMETRY, is the scientific term for the measurement of quantities of heat and must be carefully distinguished from

thermometry, which signifies the measurement of temperature or degree of hotness. Quantities of heat may be measured in various ways by observing the effects they produce. The most important of these effects for the present purpose are (a) rise of tempera-

ture, (b) a change of state, (c) transformation of electrical or mechanical energy into heat, or vice versa. The object of the

present article is to illustrate the various methods of measure-

ment by reference to historical experiments, to discuss the assumptions made and the experimental difficulties involved in their

application, and to compare the results with special reference to the mechanical equivalent of heat, and to the order of accuracy

621

precision of statement or manipulation is required in accurate calorimetry. Method of Mixtures.—The method originally employed in nearly all cases was the familiar method of mixtures as described in textbooks. The apparatus in its simplest form consists of an open vessel, of known thermal capacity, containing a known mass of water at atmospheric temperature to, and provided with a thermometer and a stirrer. A known mass m of the substance to be tested is heated to a suitable temperature 7, in a separate heater, and is then quickly immersed in the calorimeter. The water is well stirred, and its final temperature tz is noted aš soon as equilibrium has been reached. The loss of heat of the hot substance in cooling from its initial temperature tı to the final temperature ź is represented by the product of its thermal capacity ms by the drop of temperature (żı—ż2). This is equated to the gain of heat by the calorimeter and the contained water due to the rise of temperature (f2—f)), which is represented by the product M(te~to), where M includes, in addition to the actual mass of the water, a small correction, called the “water-equivalent,”’ representing a mass of water equivalent in thermal capacity to the calorimeter, thermometer and stirrer. The value of s is thus obtained in the form, s = M(te-to)/(ti-te)m, and represents the mean specific heat of the substance tested over the range £: to te expressed in terms of that of water over the range to to tz} If specific heats were all constant, as originally assumed, the mean specific heat over any range would be the same as the actual specific heat at any point. But since we know that the specific heat of any substance may often vary considerably with temperature, it is usually necessary to specify the range of temperature over which the measurement is made. Further, since the scales of different thermometers differ quite appreciably, it is desirable in accurate work to reduce the results to the absolute scale of temperature for the sake of uniformity. It will easily be seen that, unless the specific heat is nearly constant, the familiar method of expression in terms of specific heat becomes rather complicated and difficult to apply. Thus in dealing with cases in which the specific heat is variable, it is usually preferable to express the observations of mean specific heats over large ranges directly in terms of the total heat 4, which greatly simplifies the necessary reduction and tabulation of the results. The total heat per unit mass at any temperature is a definite physical property of the substance, and is that most often required in practical calculations. The quantity actually measured in an experiment like the above is the drop of total heat, hi~/2, which is equal to

attainable. The fundamental assumption made in measuring quantities of heat by any method is that the quantity of heat contained in any body in a given state at a definite temperature and pressure must always be the same under the same conditions at any time, no matter what changes the body may have undergone in the interval, provided that it has been restored to its original state. This was assumed by all observers from the earliest times, but was first put in categorical form by Carnot (see Heat) as the basis of his argument on the motive power of heat by the method of the cycle. It was also assumed as self-evident that the total heat per unit mass of any substance, such as water, in a homogeneous state, must be the same for different portions of the substance when thoroughly mixed to a uniform temperature and pressure. MERCURY In other words that the heat-content of any body of uniform THERMOMETER IN WATER JACKET composition must be simply proportional to its mass, other things. being equal. Since it was manifestly impossible to deprive any FLOW TUBE body completely of heat, the absolute value of the total heat conVACUUM JACKET tents could not be measured in any case; but it sufficed for practical purposes to be able to measure the change of total heat beTHERMOMETER tween any limits, from which the total heat of any substance per CURRENT unit mass, reckoned from a convenient zero such as o°C., could be inferred for any temperature. But with the rough apparatus POTENTIAL employed by the early experimentalists, it appeared that the inDIFFERENTIAL crease of total heat was so nearly proportional to the rise of temPLATINUM THERMOMETER perature within the limits of error of their measurements that it sufficed to tabulate for each substance a single specific constant S, FIG. 1.—CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC CALORIMETER FOR OBSERVING THE called the “specific heat,” representing the rate of increase of the VARIATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER total heat with temperature. Taking water as the standard substance of specific heat unity, the unit of heat on this system s(tı—t2), where s is the mean specific heat over the same range of is the quantity required to raise unit mass of water 1° in temper- temperature. Further examples of this method of expression are ature. In terms of this unit the specific heat s of any other sub- given in the later sections of this article. One of the chief sources of uncertainty in all calorimetric experistance may be defined as the quantity required to raise unit mass of the substance 1° in temperature. It follows that a body of ments is that heat cannot be perfectly insulated or prevented from mass m, composed of a substance of specific heat s, will require escaping. Thus in the simple experiment above described, some transferred to the per degree rise of temperature a quantity of heat represented by heat is lost while the heated body is being the product ms, which is called the “thermal capacity” of the calorimeter, some heat is lost from the calorimeter as soon as body considered. These approximate definitions, tacitly assuming its temperature is raised above that of its surroundings, and the constancy of the specific heat, will suffice for the immediate some is usually lost by evaporation from the exposed surface of in the measurepurpose as a basis of discussion of experimental methods of the water. The degree of accuracy attainable measurement in illustration of the various points in which further ments depends to a great extent on the possibility of preventing

CALORIMETRY

622

with all such losses as are avoidable, and of estimating those which can- |very suitable for the purpose, since the highest observation 97°, not be eliminated. Various methods of effecting this desirable | the hot water at 97° does not give the actual specific heat at result are described and compared with special reference to the | but only the mean specific heat from 97° to 18°, the final tem. problem

of determining

the variation

The quantities of hot water added

of the specific heat of | perature of the calorimeter.

water, which is one of the most fundamental questions in calorim- | were adjusted to give nearly the same rise of temperature, 11° etry, and affords many good illustrations of the difficulties to | to 18°, in the calorimeter in each case, so that the mean specific heat of the hot water over each range could be compared with in accurate work. be encountered Variation of the Specific Heat of Water.—It would appear | the same

standard. The observations of the mean specific heat, were taken for each of ten ranges, seldom differed which of six the of constancy at first sight to be a simple matter to test the specific heat of water by mixing equal weights of water at differ- |by more than 2 or 3 parts in 1,000 from the mean at each point, ent temperatures and observing whether the final temperature of | but may have been liable to systematic errors due to evaporation the mixture was the mean of the two initial temperatures. In| or similar causes. The deduction of the formula for the actual

reality the result of any such experiment would depend quite as specific heat from the observed values of the mean specific heat much on the scale of the thermometers employed, and on uncer- | over different ranges is a somewhat indirect process which greatly tainties of heat-loss, as on the actual variation of the specific heat. increases the uncertainty of the values of the actual specific heat

M. V. Regnault, who made so many advances in calorimetry and | in the region near 100°C. Liidin’s formula for the actual specific thermometry, appears to have come to the conclusion by making heat s at any temperature ¢ between o° and 100°C. is often

some tests of this nature that the variation of the specific heat, | quoted, and is as follows:— be detected with certainty.

He also made

ah

ii tei

eae

some very elaborate

measurements on a large scale with water from a boiler under

~—_(3)

s = 1 —0:07668 (i/100) +0-196 (#/100)?—o-116 (¢/100)®

at temperatures such as are used in calorimetry, was too small to

PIPAS

na

eo

as

steam-pressure, over the range from 110° to 190°C., which showed

The probable errors of the coefficients, as calculated by Liidin,

the simple formula,

beyond rise to Ba maximumi at 87°, , and falls rapidly rapid 1 100° F ; instead of rising continuously like Regnault’s curve given by

curve reprethat the total heat % of water increased somewhat more rapidly | 4*¢ 8iven in the line below the formula itself. The Lüdin’s at higher temperatures and pressures in a manner which could sented by this formula is shown by the line marked by a followed 25°C. at minimum a shows It 2. fig. in formula” by experiments his of error be represented within the limits of ree

=

(x)

3

i f+o-2(/ 100)" +o 3(¢/100)

T/ | formula (2). But a formula of this type, in which the coefficients

s=dh/dt=1-+0-004(t/100) +0-009(#/100)?

(2) | ing, which is now commonly applied for measuring specific heats

large and of opposite signs, cannot be trusted for extrapolation. The corresponding value of the specific heat s at any tempera- | areMethod ture ¢ was deduced by differentiation, thus, of Electric Heating.—The method of electric heat-

for the These formulae were accepted for more than ṣo years as the | at high or low temperatures, offers special advantages in steam-engine practice, for which they | variation of the specific heat. After the substance to be tested

basis of calculation

afforded ample accuracy.

They implied a gradual increase of spe-

has been heated or cooled to any desired temperature in a suitable

to it by an cific heat, starting from the value 1 at o°C. and reaching 1-00116 | thermostat, a measured quantity of heat is imparted rise of tem-

at 20°, 1-00425

at 50°C., and

1-0130 at 100°C., thus

confirming

electric heating coil, sufficient to produce

a small

The actual specific heat

the conclusion that the variation of the specific heat at ordinary | perature, which is carefully measured.

atmospheric temperatures was too small to be worth taking into | is thus obtained over a small range at the desired point, in place range of temperature. The account in calorimetric experiments, the accuracy of which under | of the mean specific heat over a large that the heat-loss in transthe best conditions rarely exceeded 2 or 3 parts in 1,000.

Many able experimentalists who succeeded Regnault found much larger rates of increase of the specific heat at ordinary tem-

method has the additional advantage

ference, which is such an uncertain element in the method of mixtures, may be entirely avoided, since the substance is heated

ingenious, but | after being placed in position in the calorimeter.

Many of their methods were highly The arrangement shown in fig. 1 was employed by H. L. Callentheir results were so discordant as to leave little doubt that the and H. T. Barnes (Phil. Trans. 1902) in applying the electric dar | due were observers remarkable discrepancies between different

peratures.

mainly to lack of appreciation of the difficulty of the problem. The first reliable indication of the true mode of variation between o° and 40°C. was that obtained by H. A. Rowland (see below) in his experiments on the mechanical equivalent of heat. His observations led to the totally unexpected result that the specific heat of water, instead of increasing steadily with rise of temperature from the freezing point, showed at first a fall of more than 1%, reaching a minimum at 30°, after which a slight increase was indicated. But owing to the rapid increase of the heat-loss at higher temperatures the observations were not continued beyond 35°C. Rowland himself was doubtful on this account about the exact position of the minimum, and considered that the specific heat might go on decreasing as far as 40°. The fact of the diminution of the specific heat in this region was soon verified by many independent observers, though they differed somewhat in the rate of diminution and in the position of the minimum. But they differed so widely at higher temperatures that they did not throw any light on the relation between the thermal unit at 20°C., as employed in the method of mixtures, and the mean thermal unit from 0° to roo°C., as commonly adopted by engineers and used in ice-calorimetry.

The first investigation covering the whole range 0° to 100°, in which due attention was paid to the thermometric difficulties, was that made by Liidin (Ziirich, 1895) under the direction of Prof. Pernet, employing the method of mixtures with mercury thermometers of the Paris type. The results were probably as good as could be obtained by the method employed, which is not

= ot OBSERVATIONS BY CALLENDAR AND BARNES METHOD +

(TT |

N

`

eee

pieten A|

P

ete

“PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS,”

FIG, Varlation

AL

jh

ans+000

ae

ag

® CALLENDAR’S

tt FROM

Te A

ie ge

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

ROYAL

FORMULA

SOCIETY

2.—CURVES REPRESENTING FORMULAE (3), (6) AND (8) , of specific heat of water, between O° and 100°C, in terms of

cafories at 20°C, as In Table l.

method to the variation of the specific heat of water. A steady

current of water flowing through a fine tube from B to A is

heated during its passage by a steady electric current through a central conductor of suitable resistance. The current produces a steady difference of temperature between A and B, which is measured by a single reading with a differential pair of platinum thermometers (see THERMOMETRY). The flow-tube and the ther-

mometer pockets at either end are protected from heat-loss by enclosure in a silvered vacuum jacket, which is surrounded by an external water jacket maintained at the desired temperature

CALORIMETRY

623

504/(t-+ 20) +0:0084 (¢/100)-+o-009(t/100)? by a vigorous circulation of water from a delicate thermostat. | S=0:98536-+0:

The adoption of a steady-flow method eliminates all the discontinuities of operation which are so troublesome in the method of mixtures. After turning on the electric current and allowing sufficient time for the temperature to become perfectly constant in the outflow pocket A, the water current through AB is switched over into a weighing flask (not shown in the figure) without altering any of the conditions, and is collected for a suitable interval of time, recorded on an electric chronograph, in order to deduce

the fow m in gm. per second.

Meanwhile one observer records

the difference of temperature dz between A and B, which remains

practically constant, while another records the difference of potential E between the ends of the central heater and the current C

passing through it by means of a potentiometer.

The water-

equivalent of the calorimeter, consisting mainly of the outflow

pocket A, is very small, and is not required at all in the calculation if the temperature is constant. Sufficient stirring is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs of the

Formula (6) shows a minimum at 37-5°C., and differs from Liidin’s by about 1% between 70° and go°C., but shows no

thermometers and round the central heater in the flow tube AB. The heat generated by the stirring can be measured by observing the difference of pressure between A and B, but never exceeds 1 in 10,000 of the heat supplied electricalty. The temperature of the external water jacket, which is always nearly the same as

that of the inflow pocket B and of the thermostat, is not required with great accuracy, and is read by the mercury thermometer shown in the figure. The use of a differential pair of platinum thermometers for measuring the rise of temperature di of the water in passing through the fine flow tube (which is required with the greatest accuracy) ensures that the observation shall be simultaneous for both thermometers, and avoids the uncertain

corrections for change of zero and for stem-exposure to which even the best mercury thermometers are liable. The steady-flow method possesses the advantage that the external loss of heat is greatly reduced and is rendered more regular, so that it becomes easier to measure with certainty. There is no free surface of water to permit loss by evaporation as in an open calorimeter. The vacuum jacket eliminates the possibility of loss by convection or by deposition and evaporation of dew, which are common sources of trouble in calorimetric experiments by other methods, but it cannot entirely elrminate losses by conduction or radiation. The direct determination of these residual losses, by experiment at each observation, is readily effected by the following method. The rate of heat supply by the electric current in watts Is given by the product EC, and is equal to the rate at which heat is being carried off by the water together with the rate of heat loss by conduction and radiation; these may be expressed in watts and represented by the products /smdé and k di, respectively, since both are proportional to the rise of temperature dt. We thus

obtain the general equation of the method, EC=Jsmdt+ihdt (4) in which Js is the variable specific heat to be determined in joules or watt-seconds per gram per degree rise of temperature, m is the flow of water in grams per second, and k is the rate of heatloss in watts per degree rise. A second observation is then taken at the same temperature with a different value of the water flow m, and the current C is adjusted to give the same rise of temperature. We thus obtain a second equation in which the term % dt is the same as in (4) and can be eliminated by subtraction. The required value of Js is thus obtained in the form,

Js=(E'C’— E"CA m —m”) dt, where the quantities observed in the two separate flows are tinguished by dashes. In practice it is seldom possible to get rise of temperature precisely the same in both observations,

(5) disthe and

(6)

in which the value of the constant 0-98536 is adjusted to make s = 1 when f = 20°, or the specific heat is expressed in terms of a unit at 20° C. The other terms are small and positive, and can be calculated with ample accuracy for all possible purposes by means of a roin. slide rule. The corresponding curve is shown by the line marked “Callendar’s formula” in fig. 2. Some of the separate observations, taken with six different calorimeters, are SMALL BORE TUBE CONTAINING plotted in the figure in order to MERCURY indicate the order of agreement obtained. Liidin’s observations could not be plotted in the same | way, since they did not represent CENTRAL TUBE, the actual specific heat at any point but only the mean specific heat over considerable ranges.

sign of a maximum, and continues to rise at a rate very similar to Regnault’s formula (2), with which it agrees closely at 200° C. It is not intended for FIG. 3.—BUNSEN ICE CALORIMETER. ENCLOSED IN VACUUM JACKET TO extrapolation above 100°C. as it PREVENT CREEP OF ZERO represents the specific heat at a constant pressure of 1 atmosphere, which cannot be directly measured at temperatures above the boiling-point. TABLE I. Specific heat s, and total heat h of water at atmospheric pressure in terms of a thermal unit at 20°C. for the range o° to 100°C.

Temperature | Specific heat

centigrade Oo...

5S.

lo -s te.

209. OS 30°

|Callendar (6)

.| s 2

T

35, 45

Callendar

I-o1056

0-00

100310 100122

10'062 15'072

ī00596

5040

Rowland

Liidin

re

0:00

10°062 15-072

T0052 15060

51042

5'033

I-00000 0°99922 0°99877

20'075 25°073 30°068

20-075 25°O71 30-071

20'061 25'067 30:059

07998556

40'054

;

40°065

0°99856

400.

Total heat k, reckoned from o° C.

099871

35°002 45'047

35-058

35'060 45°O77

50°

o-9990I

50'042

50°095

6o 70.

o99994 L'OOL25

60:036 7004,2

Go-r56 70-251

1°00288 T°02479 1-009696

80-062 go: Loo 100-159

80-372 90°505 100-14

80° ig °

o oa

The figures in the column headed “Specific Heat” show ‘the variation given by formula (6). It will be seen that the specific heat at 15° exceeds that at 20° by little more than 1 in 1,000, which is beyond the limits of error of ordinary calorimetric experiments. The figures in the next column give the corresponding values of the total heat #4 obtained by integrating the same formula for the specific heat. The mean thermal unit over the range o° to 100° is obtained by dividing the value of # at 100° by roo,

and is seen to be z-0026 times the specific heat at 20°. The mean specific heat over any range is most easily obtained from this

column by dividing the drop of total heat by the corresponding drop of temperature. But for most experiments in which large ranges of temperature are used in the calorimeter the converse the other theoretical conditions cannot be satisfied exactly, but it process is required, namely, to deduce the drop of total heat ‘4 from the observed drop of temperature #’~t”, This-is most is easy to allow for any small deviations of this kind by making easily done by adding the small diference A-t, and subtracting slight modifications in the calculation. -t which may be obtained from the table by inspection. The results obtained by this method over the whole range o° In comparing results obtained by different methods it is always to ro0o°C. can be represented satisfactorily by the following desirable to go back to the quantities actually measured, whenever formula :—

624 possible.

CALORIMETRY Rowland in his experiments observed the increase of

total heat from 5° to 35° in mechanical units, which are reduced to thermal units in the column headed “Rowland” by dividing by his value of the mechanical equivalent at 20°. His results thus reduced are seen to agree very closely with those found by the electric method over the same range, although the values of the specific heat for successive intervals of 5° (which are generally taken as the basis of comparison) are somewhat irregular owing to the increasing uncertainty of the heat-loss towards the latter part of the range. Similarly in Lüdin’s experiments, the quantity measured was not the specific heat at ¢, but the drop of total heat of the hot water (or the gain of total heat of the cold water) introduced into the calorimeter. His values of the total heat agree as closely as could be expected with the continuous electric method from 0° to 40°. Beyond 40° they show an increasing divergence, which amounts, however, to only 0.2% at 70°, where his curve of specific heat shows a discrepancy of nearly 1%. Liidin’s curve of specific heat was reproduced with remarkable fidelity by W. R. and W. E. Bousfield (PAil. Trans. 1911), who employed a most ingenious method of electric heating in a Dewarflask calorimeter. They measured the rise of temperature with

mercury thermometers, and were unable to extend the observations beyond 80° on account of evaporation from the surface of the water. When expressed in terms of total heat, the discrepancies of their results from formula (6) are somewhat smaller than those of Liidin’s formula, and may probably be attributed to uncertainties of heat-loss by evaporation, etc., at the upper limit of their range, or to errors due to stem-exposure and variations of zero such as are inevitable with mercury thermometers, or possibly to the difficulty of determining the water-equivalent -of the calorimeter and heater satisfactorily. In any case the type of variation shown by Liidin’s curve for the specific heat, with a maximum below roo° followed by a rapid fall at higher temperatures, is quite inadmissible on theoretical grounds, besides being in contradiction with the results of experiments at higher tempera-

tures, all of which appear to require a continuous increase of the specific heat with rise of temperature. Theoretical Explanation of the Variation.—Rowland suggested that the increase of the specific heat of water on approaching the freezing-point should be due to an increasing proportion of molecules of ice in the liquid. Assuming that each ice molecule in melting absorbs a quantity of heat equivalent to its latent heat of fusion, the proportion of ice molecules in water at the freezingpoint would be something in the order of 1% of the mass. Nearly all of these would be melted by the time the water reached a temperature of 40°, where the specific heat has already begun to increase again. H. T. Barnes has succeeded in measuring the specific heat of supercooled water below the freezing point, and finds'that it continues to increase as the temperature falls, following a prolongation of the same curve as that found above the freezing point. The high specific heat of water has often been attributed to the complexity of the water molecule, which has been the subject of much speculation; but it is futile to speculate until something definite is known of the nature of the polymers present and the laws of equilibrium between them. There is no doubt that the formation and dissociation of complex molecules must profoundly affect the specific heat. In the case of the vapour, on the other hand, there is little doubt that the great majority of the molecules of steam are single molecules of the type H:O. (See VAPORIZATION.) It appears highly probable that a certain proportion of steam molecules must also exist in solution in the guid when in equilibrium with the vapour in the state of saturation, and that these molecules are chiefly responsible for the increase of specific heat of the liquid. According to the vapour-pressure theory of osmotic pressure (see THERMODYNAMICS) the surface of any liquid acts as a semi-permeable membrane, which allows free passage to the vapour-molecules. This implies that the density of the vapour molecules in the liquid should be the same as that of the vapour with which it is in equilibrium, or that water at any temperature should contain its own volume v per unit mass of saturated steam at the same temperature. Since a volume v of steam already E E

z

exists in the water in the state of vapour, the vaporization of unit mass of water with increase of volume from v to V (the corre-

sponding volume of steam) involves the vaporization of a volume

V-v of steam. Thus the whole latent heat L of vaporization per unit mass corresponds with the generation of a volume V-y of

steam, and the latent heat of the volume v already contained in

the water should add the fraction v/(V-v) of L to the total heat STEAM INLET FROM THROT TLE

WATER OUTLET FROM CONDENSER

SSS a a

ee

ne

gee

net

nes Og te

ae Oe

ne

INTERNAL LAGGING BETWE EN JACKET AND CCNDENSER ee

tet

ee

ee

OUTFLOW OF CONDENSATE

COOLING WATER INLET TO JACKET FROM

“WORLD

POWER”

FIG. 4.—SECTIONAL DIAGRAM OF JACKETED CONDENSER, ING TOTAL HEAT OF STEAM AT HIGH PRESSURE

h of the water.

FOR

MEASUR-

According to this view, the effect of the steam

molecules on the variation of the total heat # of the liquid, reck-

oned from o°C., may be represented by the simple formula: h=sot+oL/(V —v)

(7) A formula of this type, though without any theoretical interpreta-

tion, was first proposed by Paul de St. Robert (Turin, 1857), as representing Regnault’s results between 100° and 200°C. just as well as formula (1). It was also pointed out by J. MacFarlane Gray (Proc. Inst. C.E. 1962) that, by superposing on formula (7) the effect of the ice molecules near the freezing point, a curve very similar to that found by the continuous electric method for the variation of the specific heat between o° and 100°C. would be obtained. Since the effect of the ice molecules becomes evanescent above 40°C., the simple formula (7) was adopted as the basis of Callender’s steam tables (Ency. Brit. 1902), though formula (6), including the effect of the ice molecules, is still required for calorimetric experiments between 0° and 40°. Tase

IlI.

Total heat h of water under saturation pressure. thermal unit o° to roo°C. Temperature} C.

Regnault (x)

Dieterici (8)

Iso. 200° .

1507 202°2

15092 203°II

250°

T51°16 203°54

254°7

257716

258-36

.

300° $

350° >-

374

.

308:3

363°6 390°5

In terms of mean

(8)+-apv | Formula (7) |

313°46

316°41

401-91

418-91

374°98

The first column gives the temperature.

382-03

150°91 203°55 259°78

322°86

|

gor e

481-25

The column headed

Regnault (1) gives values of k by formula (1) reduced in the proportion 100/roo-5, since the value of k% at 100°C. is 100 in terms of the mean thermal unit, whereas Regnault’s formula

(1) gives A=100-5 at 100°C. in terms of a unit at o°C. In the case of Dieterici’s formula (8) (see below) the values are already expressed in terms of the mean thermal unit. His formula for + is very similar to Regnault’s but with different coefficients. Both are liable to the objection that they do not make the total heat increase sufficiently fast to satisfy the theoretical conditions at the critical point, 374°C. The values of the thermodynamic formula (7) are expressed in terms of the mean thermal unit by choosing

the value of the constant s, to be 0.99666, which is very nearly

the same as the minimum value of the specific heat 0-99697 given

by formula (6) in terms of the mean thermal unit.

Method of Fusion.—The measurement of quantities of heat

in terms of change of state, e.g., fusion of ice or condensation of steam at constant temperature, is theoretically the most perfect in that no question of the thermometric scale is directly involved. The practical difficulties encountered by Black and other observers

CALORIMETRY (see HEAT) in applying the method of fusion Jay in the measurement of the quantity of ice melted. These troubles were first successfully overcome by R. Bunsen (Phil. Mag. 1871), who constructed an apparatus in which the diminution of volume due to the melting of the ice could be observed. The construction of a modern calorimeter of this type is illustrated in fig. 3. The cen-

tral tube A serving for the reception of the heated body is surrounded by a bulb B filled with air-free water, which communi-

625

mean specific heat, but stated that the precision attainable diminished at lower temperatures as the quantity of heat to be measured was reduced.

For this reason the method was not suited for giving

accurate results for the variation of the specific heat near the freezing point. The correction for the water equivalent of the quartz

bulbs

became

more

important

at higher

cates at its lower end with a tube C of small bore containing

CALORIMETER

mercury, by which any changes of volume of the water in freezing or melting can be observed with considerable accuracy. The vacuum jacket J surrounding the bulb B was not included in Bunsen’s original design but is a later addition intended to eliminate creep of zero, as explained below.

temperatures,

where it was necessary to use much thicker bulbs in order to with-

HAND WHEELS FLY WHEEL

In using the instrument,

FLOAT

the first operation is to freeze some of the water in B by circulating a freezing liquid, such as alcohol or ether at a low tem-

COUNTER

perature, through the inner tube A, which thus becomes coated with a sheath of ice. The whole apparatus is then immersed in a bath of melting ice, leaving only the upper end of A and the

tube C exposed. If a hot body the quantity of heat which it melt a corresponding amount of melted is shown by the retreat

is now dropped into the tube A, gives up in cooling to o°C. will the ice sheath. The quantity of ice

of the mercury along the tube C, or preferably by observing the weight of mercury sucked into the tube as in using a weight thermometer. Since the weight thus observed is directly proportional to the quantity of heat added, and is independent of the dimensions of the calorimeter, the constant factor for reducing weight of mercury drawn in to gramcalories of heat added is the same for all ice-calorimeters of this

type. The constant is usually determined by adding known quantities of heat in the form of water at its boiling-point. Dieterici (Ann. Phys. 1905) used the method for observing the variation of the mean specific heat of water at temperatures up to 300°C., by sealing known weights of water in quartz-glass bulbs which were heated to various temperatures and dropped into an icecalorimeter. By using thin bulbs heated to 100°C. he was thus able to determine the constant of the ice-calorimeter in terms of the mean thermal unit with an accuracy not previously achieved. The value found was 15-492 mg. of mercury per mean gramcalorie centigrade, in place of the value 15-44 previously employed as the mean of the results of other workers. Dieterici’s value of this important constant has since been confirmed by E. Griffiths (Proc. Phys. Soc. 1913), who found 15-491 mg. of mercury as the equivalent of the mean gm. calorie of 4-185 joules, as given by the electric method shown in fig. 1. The chief advantage of the ice calorimeter is that it is very perfectly protected against external loss of heat provided that the internal ice sheath is sufficiently continuous to prevent any heat escaping directly from the heated body to the external ice bath, and that the temperature of the ice bath is precisely the Same as that of the ice sheath inside the calorimeter. Sometimes there may be a slight difference in quality of the ice, causing a gradual creep of zero when the calorimeter is directly immersed in the ice bath. This creep of zero, which is often troublesome in delicate experiments, may be completely eliminated, as has been explained by H. L. Callendar (Ency. Brit. 1902), by enclosing the bulb of the calorimeter in a vacuum jacket, as indicated in fig. 3, which reduces any possible interchange of heat about 1,000 times as compared with direct immersion of the calorimeter in the ice bath. The method is then very convenient for measuring small quantities of heat, such as those due to the Peltier effect

(see also Erecrricrty), especially when the heat is’ generated

Inside the calorimeter. The risk of heat-loss in transference cannot be avoided, any more than in the method of mixtures, if the heated body has to be dropped into the calorimeter, though the uncertainty may be reduced by skilful manipulation. The most important: correction in Dieterici’s experiments on

water was that for the thermal capacity of the quartz bulbs, which amounted to about a quarter of that of the contained water in the experiments at 100° to 130°C., and was calculated from a formula for the specific heat of quartz-glass. He estimated the order of accuracy of the experiments at 100°C. as 1 in 1,000 on the

VESSEL OF WATER

“SS EQUAL WEIGHTS FIG. 5.—JOULE’S APPARATUS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT, 1878. JOULE’S ORIGINAL APPARATUS OF 1850 DIFFERED IN MANY RESPECTS

stand the steam pressure. Frorn 150° to 220°, bulbs having a thermal capacity about equal to the contained water were employed. Above this point up to 300°, the limit of the experiments, the

bulbs had a capacity nearly 4 times that of the water, which would greatly increase the uncertainty of the results. Another small correction was applied for the internal latent heat of the steam generated in the space left vacant above the water level, since the bulbs could not be completely filled without risk of bursting under the enormous pressures which might be generated by the expansion of the water. When these corrections are applied the quantity measured, as Dieterici points out, is the drop of internal energy of the water in cooling to o°C. from its initial temperature, since the water is enclosed in a practically nonexpansive envelope, and no external work is done either in heating or cooling. Thus the formula given by Dieterici for the mean specific heat so, ; from o° to £, namely

So, ¢==0-99827—0-005184(£/100)+0-006912(#/100)?

(8)

when multiplied by ż, represents the internal energy of water at ¢ under saturation pressure, reckoned from o°C. and expressed in terms of the mean thermal unit, giving 5, :=1 when t= 100. This formula gives slightly higher values for the internal energy than Regnault’s formula (xr) for 4, as shown in Table II., and has commonly been adopted for the total heat of water by Conti-

nental and American writers on the subject.

But in order to

deduce the total heat # from the internal energy, the quantity apv should be added, representing the thermal equivalent of the work required to pump a volume v into a boiler against the steampressure ». This correction is indicated in the next column of Table II. and gives higher values than (8), agreeing very well with the thermodynamic formula (7) up to 200°C., but still falling short of the rapid increase shown by (7) near the critical point. The corresponding formula for the specific heat s at ¢, as obtained from (8) by differentiation, and expressed in terms of a unit at 20°C., is represented by the curve marked “Dieterici” in fig. 2. As Dieterici remarks, the formula for s has an inferior degree of accuracy to that representing the mean specific heat, So, t Since it does not so directly represent the results of observation. Some additional uncertainty in the reduction arises from the value of the unit at 20°, which Dieterici gives as 0-9974 in terms of the mean unit, in place of the value o-9984 given by the continuous electric method. The agreement of these two values to r in 1,000 coincides with Dieterici’s estimate of the limit of accuracy of the ice calorimeter.

626

CALORIMETRY

Method of Condensation.—The Steam Calorimeter, in which quantities of heat are measured in terms of the latent heat of condensation of steam, has been applied with success by J. Joly (Proc. R.S. 1889) to the difficult problem of measuring the specific heats of gases at constant volume, and is undoubtedly capable of giving very accurate results under suitable conditions. But its use for accurate work is practically restricted to the range from atmospheric temperature to 1roo°C., and it is of less general applicability than the ice calorimeter. The method also requires very delicate weighing of the quantity of steam condensed, as 1gm. calorie corresponds to the condensation of less than 2mg. of steam. Assuming Regnault’s value 536-68 for the latent heat of steam at 100° C., Joly found, by weighing the steam condensed in heating a known mass of water from 12° to roo°C., that the mean specific heat of water between these limits was only 0-9952, whereas the value given by Regnault’s formula was 1-0053, and that given by Liidin’s formula 1-0086, exceeding the value found by Joly by more than 1%. Joly’s observation was of special interest at the time (1895) as the first suggestion that the accepted values of the total heat of water at too° and the latent heat of steam were discordant by an amount which could hardly be neglected in the case of such important constants. Joly’s observation was probably very accurate but gave only the ratio of the two, and not the actual value of either. The truth probably lay between the two extremes, as was subsequently found to be the case. Thus if we take the values of the total heat of-water at 12°

and 100°, as deduced from formula (6) and given in Table I., we find the mean specific heat 1-oore4 in terms of a unit at 20°C. and deduce for the latent heat from Joly’s observation the value 540-0 in place of Regnault’s 536-7. The higher value, 540 in terms of a unit at 20°C., has since been confirmed by other observers, though it may still be a little too low on account of the difficulty of eliminating the last traces of moisture in saturated steam or any other vapour. For this reason it is usually preferable, in finding the total heat, or the latent heat, of a saturated vapour, to observe the total heat at the required temperature f, but at pressures slightly below that of saturation to make sure that the vapour is dry. Values for the dry saturated vapour may then be deduced by extrapolating the isothermal curves thus obtained on the PT diagram to the saturation pressure. Steady Flow Methods.—In place of measuring the rise of temperature in a fixed mass of water, as in the method of mixtures, it is often preferable, in cases where the heat to be measured can be supplied at a steady rate, to keep the temperature in every part of the apparatus constant by removing the heat as fast as it is generated by means of a steady flow of cooling water. When the conditions have become stationary the rate of heat supply can be measured by observing the rate of flow and the rise of temperature of the cooling water. The method is especially suitable for measurements of the total heat of liquids or vapours, and of the calorific values of gaseous and liquid fuels, which include many of the most important cases in practice. It has the advantage that the water equivalent of the apparatus is not required, which greatly facilitates work at higher temperatures and pressures, where the thermal capacity of the apparatus is often large and its accurate determination would be a matter of considerable difficulty. A steady flow method combined with electric heating has already been illustrated in fig. 1. The object in that case was to determine the variation of the specific heat of the steady current of water. The total heat of other fluids in steady flow may then be measured by using a steady flow of water to carry off the heat. In this case there are two flows to be measured, but the complication of electric heating is no longer re-

quired. As a good illustration of the way in which difficulties of measurement may be circumvented by the employment of a steady flow method, we may take the measurement of the total heat of steam at high temperatures and pressures, which is a problem of

some practical interest and importance, but has hitherto resisted

solution by any of the older methods, The heart of the apparatus, in which the steam is condensed and

its drop of total heat measured, is called a jacketed condenser and is shown in section in the annexed fig. 4, omitting such details of

construction as are not essential to the principle of the method The auxiliary apparatus required for generating a steady flow of steam consists of a-feed-pump, designed to work up to a pressure

of 4,000 Ib. per sq. in., delivering water at the desired pressure to an electric boiler and superheater capable of generating steam

and heating it up to the desired temperature.

The steam then

passes through a thermometer pocket in which its initial tempera. ture and pressure are accurately observed, defining the state in which its total heat Hı is to be measured. Immediately on leaving this high-pressure pocket, the steam is passed through a throttle tube (which reduces the pressure to atmospheric without altering

its total heat) before entering’ the condenser through the inlet marked A on the left of the figure. The condenser proper con. sists of the annular space between the two inner tubes, in which

the steam is caused to circulate spirally, as indicated in the figure,

in order to increase the efficiency of condensation.

After being

condensed to water at atmospheric pressure the steam leaves the condenser at B and passes through a thermometer pocket, not shown in the figure, in which its final temperature as condensate is observed. Its total heat Hz in this state is known from the table already given. Finally the condensate is cooled to atmospheric temperature before being collected in the tanks, which are weighed at suitable intervals in order to determine the flow of steam M in Ib./min or gm./sec. or other convenient units. The steady flow of cooling water by which the steam is condensed is supplied from a large tank in which the level is maintained constant. After passing through a thermometer pocket at C, where its temperature is observed, the cooling water circulates round the jacket shown in the figure, which is separated from the condenser proper by the layer of lagging. It then circulates round

the condenser tube, abstracting heat from the steam and rising in temperature, and leaves the apparatus through a thermometer pocket attached to the outlet at D. It is cooled again to atmospheric temperature on its way to the weighing tank, in which the

“~~ STEEL WIRE SUSPENSION

GRADUATED

na

o =

DISC

PULLEY

amare eu = INERTIA WEIGHTS

S ilf PT H

nel

~~ WATER JACKET

bake]

=

SUSPENDED WEIGHT DRIVING BELT FROM MOTOR

CHRONOGRAPH Drum AND: COUNTER BEVEL WHEELS DRIVING PADDLE SHAFT

FIG. 6.—ROWLAND’S APPARATUS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT, 1879 flow m of cooling water is measured for the same intervals as that of the condensate M by switching over the flows simultaneously into their respective tanks. The function of the jacket,

through which the cooling water enters the apparatus, is to catch

any heat which might otherwise escape from the hot water surrounding the condenser. In addition to this, the whole apparatus

is enclosed in an external jacket, not shown in the figure, supplied with circulating water from the same tank as the cooling water.

This external jacket is protected by lagging and, being always at the same temperature as the interna} jacket surrounding the con-

627

CALORIMETRY denser, serves to prevent any heat reaching the cooling water from outside, after its inflow temperature has been measured at C.

With these precautions, the external loss of heat from the condenser is almost incredibly small, rarely exceeding a fifth of 1%,

even with a rise of temperature of 80°C. in the cooling water. The theory of the method is extremely simple and has the

advantage of giving the result directly in terms of total heat, without any ambiguity with regard to the quantity measured. The kinetic energy of flow through the pockets being negligible, when

everything is steady, the rate at which heat is being carried in by the steam, namely MH, must be equal to the rate at which heat

is being carried off by the condensate and the cooling water,

namely MH:+m(hz—-hı), together with the rate of heat-loss X from the high-pressure pocket, and x from the condenser. Dividing each of these quantities by M, so as to obtain the total heat Hı, of the high-pressure steam per unit mass, we find the equation,

Hı=H:4 (hz—hı)m/M +(X +x)/M

(9)

It should be observed that H and X + x are small compared

with Hı, and that the term requiring the greatest accuracy of measurement is ža+—A the gain of total heat of the cooling water. This is always very nearly equal to the corresponding rise of

temperature, as directly measured with a differential pair of platinum thermometers, from which the gain of total heat is easily deduced by adding and subtracting the small differences shown in Table I. between # and ¢, as previously explained. The rates of heat-loss, X and x, can be found, as in the continuous electric

provided that the temperature was 2° or 3° below that of saturation; but, at or near the saturation point, any trace of air in the water caused profuse generation of steam in the air bubbles and tended to give results appreciably higher than equation (7). This difficulty was surmounted by supplying the pump with distilled water from a special apparatus, by which it was freed from air immediately before passing into the pump. This led to so great an improvement that there seems to be little doubt that equation (7) holds up to the critical temperature where the volume of water becomes indeterminate. The actual value of ~%at the critical point, as given in Table II., remained uncertain, so long as the corresponding value of the volume v rested on theoretical assumptions, such as those of van der Waals, which were very doubtful, if not entirely erroneous. But both % and v have now been determined by direct experiment at this point, and are found

to satisfy formula (7).

.

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.—The history of the establishment of the mechanical theory of heat is reviewed in the article Heat, in which a general account is given of the early experiments by Joule and others demonstrating the transformation of other kinds of energy into heat. The phrase “mechanical equivalent” was originally employed to denote the number of gravitational units of mechanical work, such as foot-pounds or kilogrammetres, required to produce one unit of heat when completely converted into heat by friction or otherwise. By a natural process

of transition the same phrase is now commonly used for the numerical ratio of equivalence between units of energy in any form method, by varying the flows M and m independently in suitable and the various units of heat. Since most forms of energy are ratios. This is more troublesome than in the electric method, but measured directly or indirectly in terms of mechanical work done need not be repeated at every observation if the same apparatus against gravity, it is merely a question of conversion of units, when one value of the mechanical equivalent of a particular theris employed for a considerable period. It might be thought that it would be necessary to condense the mal unit has been found by experiment, to deduce the correspondsteam under its original pressure in order to measure the total ing result for any other thermal unit in terms of any other unit of heat. This was the case according to the old definition of the total energy. Owing to the multiplicity of units both of energy and heat by Regnault, who actually measured the total heat of steam heat, there are many different values for the mechanical equivalent in this way up to 12 atmospheres. Owing to the high pressure, he on this basis; but for scientific purposes it is usual to reduce exmet with many difficulties from leakage and measured the total perimental results to absolute units on the C.G.S. system, taking heat of water in a different way, which led to awkward discrep- the joule or watt-second as the absolute unit of energy and the ancies in the theory. With the new definition of total heat, first gram-calorie centigrade at 20°C. on the scale of the hydrogen proposed by Callendar in a previous edition (Ency. Brit. 1902), thermometer as the unit of heat. This has the advantage of exand now generally accepted, all these difficulties and discrepancies cluding the effect of local variations of gravity and fits condisappear, and the steam may be condensed at any convenient veniently with the electrical system of units. Engineers, on the pressure without affecting the results for the total heat. The ad- other hand, still prefer the gravitational system as fitting better vantage of condensing always at atmospheric pressure is that only with the practical measurement of pressure in terms of weight one design of condenser is required. Moreover the best security per unit area, since the variations of gravity are relatively small against any possibility of leakage between the steam and the cool- and can be taken into account if necessary in special cases. The experimental measurement of the mechanical equivalent of ing water is obtained, since the perfect absence of leakage may be tested at any time by employing much higher pressures. Never- heat requires the accurate determination of the quantity of heat theless it is essential, in order to secure permanent immunity from generated by the expenditure of a known amount of mechanical leakage, to design the condenser in such a way that every tube is work, and is mainly a question of calorimetry. The simplest perfectly free to expand. Otherwise it would rack itself to pieces method to use in the laboratory is the electric method, since the in time by differences of expansion between the hot and cold measurement of electric energy requires no moving parts in the tubes. In practice both the inside and the outside of the annular apparatus, and is very accurate if the absolute values of the space are utilized for condensing the steam, by making the cooling electric standards employed are known. Accordingly as soon as the water circulate through the whole length of both. But these de- absolute value of the ohm had been determined by the committee tails of construction could not be shown in the diagram without of the British Association, the electric method of calorimetry was applied to the verification of Joule’s determination of the mechanobscuring the main principle. It is a great advantage of the method that the same apparatus, ical equivalent of heat. The result gave a value more than 1% Without any modification, can be applied for measuring the total lower than the mechanical method employed by Joule in 1850. heat of water by simply pumping hot water through it. In point As these early experiments had been carried out on a small scale of fact it was first designed with the object of verifying the ther- with a very laborious method of measuring the work and applying modynamic formula (7) for the variation of the total heat of corrections for heat-loss, Joule consented to repeat them on a water at high pressures near saturation; but owing to the difficulty much larger scale with a greatly improved method, as shown in of procuring the expensive apparatus required for high pressures fig. 5. The calorimeter # containing about 12 lb. of water, it was first applied (Phil. Trans. 1912) to the verification of Table was supported on a float w in a vessel of water v, so as to be in I. for the total heat between o° and 100°C. as deduced from the neutral equilibrium, but was kept at rest by a pair of fine strings observation of the specific heat by the continuous electric method. passing round a horizontal wheel of radius r on the circumference Since the World War, with the assistance of the British Electrical of the calorimeter, and supporting equal weights kk by means of Research Association, who provided the necessary funds, it has frictionless pulleys. During an experiment the paddles inside the been possible to extend the measurements for both steam and calorimeter were rotated by means of the hand-wheels at the top water to pressures in some cases exceeding 3,500 Ib. There was no of the apparatus at such a speed as to keep the weights floating

difficulty in measuring the total heat k of water at high pressure

steadily, balancing the turning moment due to the friction of the

628

CALOVIUS— CALPURNIUS

paddles churning the water. If the sum of the weights is equal to W the work done against friction in 2 revolutions as shown by the counter will be 2arnW in mechanical units. The corresponding value of the heat generated is calculated in the usual way from the product of the thermal capacity M of the calorimeter and its contents, by the observed rise of temperature (7’-2”) corrected for heat-loss. The ratio J/=e2nrnW/M (i’-t’’) gives the required value of the mechanical equivalent in terms of the units employed in the measurement. As the result of this series of experiments Joule found that 772-55{t. lb. of work in the latitude of Greenwich were required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. of water 1° at 60° on the scale of his mercury thermometers. This agreed very closely with the value 772 under similar conditions obtained in his earlier experiments in 1850, but disagreed with the value obtained by the electric method on the assumption that the B.A. unit of resistance correctly represented the absolute value of the ohm. The discrepancy was subsequently explained by the discovery that the absolute value of the B.A. unit of resistance was about 1-3% too small as compared with the true ohm. About the same time H. A. Rowland (Proc. Amer. Acad. xv. p.75, 1880) repeated the measurement of the mechanical equivalent, employing the same method as Joule in 1878, but with many improvements in detail, as illustrated in fig. 6. His calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, the torsion of which made the equilibrium stable, and was slightly larger and more compact than Joule’s. To reduce the relative importance of the heat-loss, he found it necessary to secure a greater rate of heat-supply, about 17 times that employed by Joule. The paddles were mounted on a vertical spindle F, passing through a gland in the bottom of the calorimeter, and were driven through bevel gearing g by a belt from a petroleum motor running at a nearly constant speed. The greater part of the torque due to the friction of the paddles inside the calorimeter was balanced by the floating weights O and P, suspended by silk ribbons passing over pulleys and round the

wheel ki. The small variations of torque with speed were balanced by the twist of the steel wire suspension, and were observed by a scale on the circumference of the wheel &/.- The number of revolutions of the paddles was recorded automatically on a chronograph drum driven by a worm gear from the spindle f. The rise of temperature was recorded on the same sheet by an observer watching the thermometer and pressing a key at the moment when the mercury passed each division of the scale. The paddles were made very light and rigid, in order to reduce their water-equivalent, and were arranged to give the greatest possible uniformity of torque and efficiency of stirring. The lower part of the calorimeter was surrounded by a water jacket at a definite temperature in order to protect it from draughts and to make the heat-loss consistent. The heat-loss at any temperature was estimated by observing the rate of rise of temperature in subsidiary experiments when the paddles were driven at a much slower rate than in the main series of observations. It was found possible to obtain reliable observations in this way over a range from 5° to 35°C. about 14 times greater than in Joule’s experiments, owing to the greater rate of work supply. But some of the observations were vitiated by deposition of dew on the calorimeter at the lower limit, and the heatloss at the upper limit was rendered somewhat uncertain by

upward convection currents from the heated calorimeter, which could not be completely enclosed. That Rowland’s calorimetric observations were more accurate than those of any previous observer was Clearly indicated by the fact that they conclusively demonstrated the diminution of the specific heat of water with rise of temperature from 5° to 30°C., which had never been suspected, and has since been confirmed with remarkable precision. Rowland was the first to appreciate the importance of reducing results for the mechanical equivalent to the absolute scale of temperature in place of the arbitrary scale given by a particular mercury thermometer. He considered that the comparison of his mercury thermometers with the air thermometer was the most difficult part of the investigation, and estimated the limit of accuracy at only r in 500 on this account; especially as the thermometers could not be compared under the actual conditions of

the experiments, with the temperature rising at 1°C. per minute, owing to the excessive lag of eter and the time required for taking readings. probable accuracy of his result, namely, 4-179

the rate of nearly the air thermomNevertheless, the joules per gm.cal.

at 20°C., the middle point of his range, may be taken as at least

1 in 2,000, since it was only raised to 4-181 by an elaborate comparison of his thermometers

with Paris standards by Day, and

with the platinum thermometer by Griffiths. Some 20 years later his result at 20°C. was further confirmed by the continuous elec.

tric method already described, in terms of the standard ohm and the Clark standard cell. By that time the absolute value of the

ohm was known to at least 1 in 5,000, but that of the Clark cel] was more doubtful, and was accordingly determined by R. O.

King (Phil. Trans. 1902) using a special form of electrodynamometer which he set up for the purpose. The accuracy of this instrument has since been confirmed by Norman Shaw (Phil.

Trans. 1915), who employed it without any alteration for a similar determination of the absolute value of the Weston standard cell. Including all known corrections for the values of the electric units since ascertained, the electric method gives 4-178 joules, agreeing closely with Rowland’s uncorrected result for the absolute value

of the gm.cal. C. at 20°C. The corresponding value for the mean gm.cal. 0° to 100°C. would be 4-185 joules according to

Table I. This also agrees very closely with the value 4-184 joules for the mean calorie as directly obtained by Reynolds and Moorby (Phil. Trans. 1897) with a 1ooh.p. steam engine, using a Froude-

Reynolds brake, in which the water was heated from near o°C. to 100°C. This agreement may be regarded as confirming the variation of the specific heat of water as given by equation (6). It is usual, however, to take the round number 4-180 joules as the equivalent to the gm. calorie at 20°C., giving greater weight to Rowland’s corrected result. A very accurate determination of the gm. calorie in joules has recently been made by Laby and Hercus (Phil. Trans. A. 1927) between 15° and 20° by a steady flow method, in which the work was directly measured in mechanical units. They give the value 4-1809 joules for the gm. calorie at 20°C., but it is uncertain how far the last figure may be regarded as significant. For special methods commonly employed in the determination of the heats of combustion and calorific values of fuels, see article THERMOCHEMISTRY. For specific heats of gases and vapours, see articles HEAT, THERMODYNAMICS and VAPORIZATION. (H. L.C.)

CALOVIUS

(1612-1686) (the latinized name of Abraham

Calan), German Lutheran divine, was born at Mohrungen, East Prussia, on April 16, 1612. After studying at KGnigsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg, where

he afterwards became general superintendent and primarius. He died there on Feb. 25, 1686. Calovius was the powerful champion of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century. He opposed Catholics, Calvinists, and Socinians, attacked in particular the recon-

ciliation policy or “syncretism” of Georg Calixtus. His chief dogmatic work, Systema locorum theologicorum (1655-77), represents the climax of Lutheran scholasticism. His Biblia Illustrate was written to refute the statements made by Hugo Grotius in

his Commentaries.

His Historia Syncretistica (1682) was sup-

pressed.

CALPRENEDE, G. DE C. DE LA: see La CALPRENÈDE, G. DE C. DE.

CALPURNIA, wife of Julius Caesar, was the daughter of L.

Calpurnius Piso, consul in 58 B.c. She married Caesar in 59. Alarmed by the rumours of conspiracy current before Caesar's murder, she did her best to dissuade him from going to the SenateHouse on the rs5th of March 44. After the murder, she secretly moved his money and private papers to Anthony’s house. See Appian, B.C. 11, 14, 115, 125; Caesar, 27; C.I.L. VI., 14211.

CALPURNIUS,

Plutarch,

Caesar;

Suetonius,

TITUS, Roman bucolic poet, surnamed

SIcULuUS, probably flourished during the reign of Nero. Eleven eclogues have reached us under his name, of which the last four, from metrical considerations and express ms. testimony, are now generally attributed to Nemesianus (g.v.) who lived in the time of the emperor Carus and his sons (latter half of the 3rd century

CALTAGIRONE—CALVADOS ap.). We gather from the poems (in which he is obviously represented by “Corydon”) that Calpurnius was in poor circumstances and was on the point of emigrating to Spain, when “Meliboeus” came to his aid and helped him to a post at Rome. The time at which Calpurnius lived has been much discussed, but the references to the emperor seem to point to the time of Nero. Meli-

boeus has been variously identified, but what is known of Calpurnius Piso fits in with what is said of Meliboeus by the poet. His claim is further supported by the poem De Laude Pisonis (ed. C. F. attributing names can have been

Weber, 1859), which there is considerable reason for to Calpurnius.' Further, the similarity between the two hardly be accidental; it is suggested that the poet may adopted by the courtier, or that he was the son of a

freedman of Piso. The attitude of the author of the Laus towards

the subject of the panegyric seems to show less intimacy than the

relations between Corydon and Meliboeus in the eclogues, and

there is internal evidence that the Laus was written during the

reign of Claudius (Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist of Rom. Lit. § 306,6). The two short hexameter poems in an Einsiedeln ms., obviously

belonging to the time of Nero, if not written by Calpurnius, were

imitated from him. Although there is nothing original in Calpurnius, he is “a skilful

literary craftsman.” Of his models the chief is Virgil, of whom (under the name of Tityrus) he speaks with great enthusiasm; he is also indebted to Ovid and Theocritus. Calpurnius is “a fair scholar, and an apt courtier, and not devoid of real poetical feeling. The bastard style of pastoral cultivated by him, in which the description of nature is made the writer’s pretext, while ingenious flattery is his real purpose, nevertheless excludes genuine pleasure, and consequently genuine poetical achievement. He may be fairly compared to the minor poets of the reign of Anne” (Garnett).

Calpurnius was first printed in 1471, together with Silius Italicus and has been frequently republished, generally with Gratius Faliscus and Nemesianus. The separate authorship of the eclogues of Calpurnius and Nemesianus was established by M. Haupt’s De Carminibus bucolicis Calpurnii et Nemesiani (1854). Editions by H. Schenkl (188s), with full introduction and index verborum, and by C. H. Keene (1887), with introduction, commentary and appendix and by Giannatano (Naples, 1910), and by H. Schenkl in Postgate’s Corpus (1920); English verse translation by E. J. L. Scott (1891) ; see H. E. Butler, Post-Augustan Poetry (Oxford, 1909), pp. 150 foll.; F. Skutsch in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopadie, iii. I. (1897) ; C. Chiavoli, Della vita e del? Opere di T. Calpurnio Siculo (Ragusa, 1921).

CALTAGIRONE,

a city and episcopal see of the province

of Catania, Sicily, situated 1,999ft. above sea-level, 36m. S.W. of Catania direct (ssm. by rail). Pop. (1921) town 30,845; commune 38,017. Extensive Sicel cemeteries have been explored to the north of the town, and a Greek necropolis of the 6th and 5th centuries B.c. has been found to the south-east. Remains of buildings of Roman date have also been discovered; but the name of the ancient city is unknown. The present name is a corruption of the Saracen Kalat-al-Girche (the castle of Girche, the chieftain who fortified it). Majolica is made here, and the town is prosperous. CALTANISETTA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, the capital of a province of the same name, 60 m. S.E. of Palermo direct and 83 m. by rail, situated 1,930 ft. above sea-level. Pop.

(1921), 46,405 (town); 60,086 (commune). The town is of Saracenic origin, and some ruins of the old castle (called Pietrarossa) still exist. The cathedral and the church of the former

CALUIRE-ET-CUIRE,

629 a town of eastern France, in the

department of Rhone, 24m. N. by E. of Lyons. Pop. (1926), 12,557. It makes velvet, combs and pins and has copper and bronze foundries and nursery-gardens.

CALUMET,

the name given by the French in Canada to

the “peace-pipe” of the American Indians (Norm. Fr. chalumet, Lat. calamus, a reed). This pipe occupied among the tribes a position of peculiar symbolic significance, and was the object of profound veneration. It was smoked on all ceremonial occasions, even on declarations of war, but its special use was at the making of treaties of peace. It was usually about 24 ft. long, and in the west the bowl was made of red pipestone (catlinite). The pipe stem was of reed decorated with eagles’ quills or women’s hair. Native tobacco mixed with willow-bark or sumac leaves was smoked. The pipe was offered as a supreme proof of hospitality to distinguished strangers, and its refusal was regarded as a grievous affront. In the east and south-east the bowl was of white stone, sometimes pierced with several stem holes so that many persons might smoke at once.

See Joseph D. Macguire, “Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines” in Smithsonian Report (American Bureau of Ethnology) for 1897, vol. i.; and authorities quoted in Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).

CALUMPIT, a municipality (with administration centre and

23 barrios or districts) of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the junction of the Quiñgua and Pampanga rivers, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1918) 14,844, of whom only 7 were whites. It is on the Manila and Dagupan railway and the bridge across the Pampanga at this point is one of the longest in the Philippines. The surrounding fertile plain produces rice, sugar, corn and a variety of fruits. The market here is famous. In 1918 it had 9 manufacturing establishments, with output valued at 45,500 pesos, and 24 sugar-mills and 650 household industry establishments with output valued at 166,400 pesos. Of the 12 schools, rx were public. Much of the community was destroyed

by insurgents in 1899. The language spoken is Tagalog.

CALVADOS, a department of north-western France, formed

in 1790 out of Bessin, Cinglais, Hiémois, Bocage, the Campagne de Caen, Auge and the western part of Lieuvin. Pop. (1926) 390,492. Area, 2,197 sq.m. It received its name from a ledge of rocks,

stretching along the coast for a distance of about 15 m. between the mouths of the rivers Orne and Vire. It is bounded north by the English channel, east by the department of Eure, south by that of Orne, west by that of Manche. In the south-west are the hills of Normandy (maximum height 1,197 ft.) which run in a northwesterly direction and cross a portion of the Bocage—a region of Devonian, Silurian and Cambrian rocks related structurally to the Armorican massif. The remainder of the department is lowlying and is drained by numerous streams. The deep valleys of the lower courses of the Orne and the Touques. suggest that the slope was once greater than it is at present and a recent subsidence as elsewhere in the English channel has led to the formation of estuaries. The Campagne de Caen is a region of Jurassic rocks noted for its horse-breeding. In the north-west and east are Cretaceous rocks. Here is good pasture land and butter, eggs and

cheese (Camembert, Livarot, Pont ’Evéque) are exported.

The

chief crops are wheat, oats, barley, colza and potatoes. The orchards of Auge and Bessin produce good cider and cider brandy

s”) is distilled. The spinning and weaving of Jesuit college are interesting baroque buildings. There is a famous (known as “Calvado the chief industries. There are also ironare cotton and wool Sicilian procession on Holy Thursday. It is the centre of the tanneries, saw-mills, ship-building oil-mills, ls, paper-mil mines, sulphur industry and the seat of a royal school of mines. It is distilleries and bleach-fields, scats, dye-work ks, rope-wor yards, Palermoto from line main the with connected by a short branch and building stone, slate and lime nt, departme the ut througho tered Catania; and a railway to Caltagirone and Syracuse is in construcfishing villages, lobster, oyster, many are There are plentiful. tion. Two miles east is the Norman abbey of S. Spirito.. important. Trouville is the being fisheries mackerel and herring deprobably CALTROP (from the Mid. Eng. calketrappe, Caen and Honfleur are the resorts. coast numerous the of chief rived from the Lat. calx, a heel, and trappa, late Lat. for a snare), al ports. There is a canal 9 m. in length commerci t importan most spikes four with cavalry, against obstacle an as used an iron ball, the coast. in or on the ground, one spike from Caen to Ouistreham on so arranged that, however placed always points upwards. It is also the botanical name for several

species of thistles.

‘Tt has been variously ascribed to Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Statius, and

Saleius Bassus.

The department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway.

It is

divided into the four arrondissements (38 cantons, 763 communes) of Caen, Bayeux, Lisieux and Vire. Caen, the capital, is the seat of a court of appeal and the centre of an académie (educational

CALVART—CALVIN

630

division). The department forms the diocese of Bayeux, in the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, and belongs to the region of the

III. Army Corps. The other principal towns are Falaise, Lisieux, Conde-sur-Noireau, Vire, Honfleur and Trouville (g.v.). Caen has fine Romanesque and Gothic churches, St. Etienne, La Trinité, St. Pierre; and fine Gothic churches occur elsewhere, particularly at St. Pierre-sur-Dives, Lisieux, Bayeux, Norrey, a good example of the Norman-Gothic style, and Tour-en-Bessin, in which Romanesque and Gothic architecture are mingled. Fontaine-Henri has a chateau of the rsth and 16th centuries. The castle at Falaise is an important historic monument. CALVART, DENIS (1540-1619), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp. After studying landscape-painting in his native city he went to Bologna, where he perfected himself in the anatomy of the human form under Prospero Fontana, and so completely lost the mannerism of Flemish art that his paintings appear to be the work of an Italian. From Bologna he went to Rome, where he assisted Lorenzo Sabbatini (1533-1577) in his works for the papal palace, and devoted much of his time to copying and studying the works of Raphael. He ultimately returned to Bologna and founded a school, of which the greatest ornaments are Guido and Domenichino.

CALVARY,

the scene of Christ’s crucifixion; the word is

the English form of the Vulgate, Calvaria, Greek xpanov, “skull,” Hebrew, Golgotha. The name is applied to a sculptured representation of the Crucifixion, either inside a church or in the open air. Important examples of the latter are the Sacro Monte (1486) at Varallo in Piedmont, and those at Guimiliau (1581), Plougastel

(1602), St. Thegonnec (1610) and Pleyben, near Quimper (1670), in Brittany, all in good preservation.

CALVE, EMMA

(1864-

__), operatic singer, was born at

Decazeville, Aveyron, in 1864, and trained in Paris, making her first important appearance in opera at Brussels in 1882. She sang mainly in Paris for some years, but in 1892 she came to London and achieved immediate fame and popularity at Covent Garden, more especially by her wonderful Carmen (in Bizet’s opera), a part with which her name will always be associated. She sang at the Metropolitan and Manhattan opera houses in New York; she lectured on singing in the United States in the summer of 1927.

CALVERLEY,

CHARLES

STUART

lish poet and wit, and the literary father university school of humour, was born shire on Dec. 22, 1831, and died on Feb. Rev. Henry Blayds, resumed in 1852

(1831-1884), Eng-

of what may be called the at Martley in Worcester17, 1884. His father, the the old family name of

Calverley which his grandfather had exchanged for Blayds in 1807. Charles Blayds went up to Balliol from Harrow in 1850. At Oxford he was a universal favourite, a delightful companion, a brilliant scholar and the playful enemy of all “dons.” In 1851 he won the Chancellor’s prize for Latin verse but a year later he took his name off the books, to avoid the consequences of a ‘college escapade, and migrated to Christ’s college, Cambridge. Here he was again successful in Latin verse. In 1856 he took second place in the first class in the Classical Tripos. He was elected fellow of Christ’s (1858), published Verses and Translations in 1862, and was called to the bar in 1865. Owing to an accident while skating he was prevented from following up a professional career, and during the last years of his life he was an invalid. His Translations into English and Latin appeared in 1866; his Theocritus translated into English Verse in 1869; Fly Leaves in 1872; and Literary Remains in 1885. His sparkling, dancing verses, which have had many clever imitators, are still without a rival in their own line. His Complete Works, with a biographical Sendall, appeared in roor.

CALVERT,

notice

by Sir W.

J.

the name of three English artists: CHARLES

(1785-1852), a well-known landscape painter; Epwarp

1836 till 1846 he lived in France. On his return to England he settled in Manchester as a consulting chemist, and was appointed

professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution in that city. He

gave much attention to the manufacture of coal-tar products, and particularly carbolic acid, for the production of which he estah-

lished large works at Manchester in 1865. He died in Manchester on Oct. 24, 1873.

CALVERT,

SIR

HARRY,

Barr.

general, was born in 1763 at Hampton,

(1763-1826), near London.

British He was

educated at Harrow, and in 1778 entered the army. In the following year he served with his regiment in America, being present at the siege of Charleston, and from 1781 to 1783 was a prisoner of war. He next saw active service in 1793-94 in the Low Coun-

tries, where he was aide-de-camp to the duke of York. In 1790, he was made adjutant-general, holding the post till 1818, and did much to improve the administration of the army medical and hospital department; he introduced regimental schools, developed the two existing military colleges and helped to found the duke of York’s school, Chelsea. He was made a G.C.B. (1815), and, on retiring from office, received a baronetcy (1818). In 1820 he was made governor of Chelsea hospital. He died on Sept. 3, 1826, at Middle Claydon, Buckinghamshire. The Journals and correspondence of General Sir Harry Calvert .. . comprising the Campaigns in Flanders in 1793-04 were edited by his son, Sir Harry Verney (1853).

CALVES’ HEAD

CLUB, a club established shortly after

his death in derision of the memory of Charles I. Its chief meeting was held each Jan. 30, the anniversary of the King’s execution, when the dishes served were a cod’s head to represent the individual, Charles Stuart; a pike representing tyranny; a boar’s head representing the King preying on his subjects; and calves’ heads representing Charles as King and his adherents. After the Restoration the club met secretly. It survived till 1734, when the diners were mobbed, and the riot which ensued puta stop to the meetings. CALVI, a sea-port of north-west Corsica, having railway connections with Ile Rousse eastwards along the coast. Pop. (1926) 2,517. Situated on the Bay of Calvi, it is the nearest Corsican port to France, being togm. from Antibes; the harbour, however, is exposed to the east and north-east winds. Calvi was founded in 1268, and in 1278 passed into the hands of the Genoese. In recognition of its repulsion of the united attacks of the French and the Turks in 1553, the Genoese senate caused the words Civitas Calvi semper fidelis to be carved on the chief gate of the city, which still preserves the inscription. In 1794 Calvi was captured by the British, but it was re-taken by the Corsicans in the following year. The old palace of the Genoese governor is used as barracks. The modern town lies at the foot of a rock, on which stands the old town with its steep rockpaved streets and fortified walls, commanded by the Fort Muzello. Fishing is carried on, and some timber, oil, wine and lemons are exported. Calvi claims to be the birthplace of Columbus (1451).

CALVIN, JOHN

(1509-1564), Swiss divine and reformer,

was born at Noyon, in Picardy, on July 10, 1509, and was the second son of Gérard Cauvin or Calvin, a notary-apostolic and procurator-fiscal

for the lordship of Noyon,

Franc, daughter of an innkeeper at Cambrai. of Calvin

seems

to have

been

written

and of Jeanne le

(The family name

indifferently

Cauvin,

Chauve, Chauvin, Calvus, Calvinus. In the contemporary notices of Gérard and his family, in the capitular registers of the cathedral at Noyon, the name is always spelt Cauuin. The anagram of Calvin is Alcuin, and this, in its Latinized form Alcuinus, appears in two editions of his Justitutio as that of the author [Audin, Vie de Calvin, i. 520]. The syndics of Geneva address him ina letter

(1803

written in 1540, and still preserved, as “Docteur Caulvin.” In his

1883), an important wood-engraver and follower of Blake: and FREDERICK, an excellent topographical draughtsman, whose work

letters written in French he usually signs himself “Jean Calvin.’ He affected the title of “Maître,” for what reason is not known.) Of Calvin’s early years little is known. Destined for an ecclesi-

in water-colour is represented at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and who published a volume of Picturesque

Staffordshire and Shropshire (1830). CALVERT, FREDERICK CRACE

Views in

(1819-1873), Eng-

lish chemist, was born in London on Nov. 14, 1819. From about

astical career, he was educated in the household of the noble family of Hangest de Montmor.

In May 1521 he was appointed to a

chaplaincy in the cathedral of Noyon, and received the tonsure. Calvin accompanied

the Hangests to Paris in Aug. 1523, being

CALVIN enabled to do so by the income received from his benefice.

He

attended as an out-student the Collége de la Marche, at that time under the regency of Mathurin Cordier, who in later days taught at Neuchatel, and died in Geneva in 1564. Calvin dedicated to

him his Commentary on the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. From the Collége de la Marche he removed to the Collége de

Montaigu, where the atmosphere was more ecclesiastical. (Pierre de Montaigu refounded this institution in 1388. Erasmus and Ignatius Loyola also studied here.) In the college disputations he gave fruitful promise of that consummate excellence as a reasoner in the department of speculative truth which he afterwards displayed. Among his friends were the Hangests (especially Claude), Nicolas and Michel Cop, sons of the king’s Swiss physician, and his own kinsman Pierre Robert, better known as Olivétan. Such friendships contradict the legend that he was an unsociable misan-

thrope. The canons at Noyon gave him in Sept. 1527 the curacy of St. Martin de Marteville, which he exchanged in July 1529 for the cure of Pont l’Evéque. But Calvin was not destined to become

a priest. Gérard Cauvin began to suspect that the law offered to a youth of his talents and industry a more promising sphere. He was also now out of favour with the cathedral chapter at Noyon. It is said that John himself, on the advice of Olivétan, the first translator of the Bible into French, had begun to study the Scriptures and to dissent from the Roman worship. He readily com-

plied with his father’s suggestion, and removed from Paris to Orleans (March 1528) in order to study law under Pierre Taisan de PEtoile, the most distinguished jurisconsult of his day. Other studies, however, besides those of law occupied him, and moved by the humanistic spirit of the age, he eagerly developed his classical knowledge. His friends here were Melchior Wolmar,

Francois Daniel, Francois de Connam these his earliest letters were written. to Bourges in the autumn of 1529 to the brilliant Italian, Andrea Alciati Daniel went with him, and Wolmar

and Nicolas Duchemin; to From Orleans Calvin went continue his studies under (1492-1550). His friend followed a year later. By

Wolmar Calvin was taught Greek, and introduced to the study of the New Testament in the original.

Twelve years had elapsed since Luther had published his theses against indulgences. In France there had not been as yet any overt revolt against the Church of Rome, but multitudes were in sympathy with the reformers’ ideals. Calvin’s own record of his “conversion” is so scanty that it is extremely difficult to trace his religious development with any certainty. But it seems probable that at least up to 1532 he was far more concerned about classical scholarship than about religion. His residence at Bourges was cut short by the death of his father in May 1531. He went to Paris, where the “new learning” was now at length ousting the mediaeval scholasticism from the university. He lodged in the Collége Fortet, reading Greek with Pierre Danès and beginning Hebrew with François Vatable. In April 1532 Calvin published his commentary in Latin on Seneca’s tract De Clementia. . Soon afterwards Calvin returned to Orleans. He visited Noyon in Aug. 1533, and by October of the same year was settled again in Paris. Here and now his destiny became certain. The conservative theology was becoming discredited, and humanists like

Jacques Lefèvre of Étaples (Faber Stapulensis) and Gérard Rous-

sel were favoured by the court under the influence of Margaret of Angoulême, queen of Navarre and sister of Francis I. Calvin’s old friend, Nicolas Cop, had just been elected rector of the university and had to deliver an oration according to custom in the church of the Mathurins, on the feast of All Saints. The oration (cer-

tainly influenced but hardly composed by Calvin) was in effect a defence of the reformed opinions, especially of the doctrine of justification by faith alone.

To the period between April 1532

and November 1533, and in particular to the time of his second sojourn at Orleans, we may assign the great change in Calvin which he describes (Praef. ad Psalmos; opera xxxi, 21-24) as his “sudden conversion” and attributes to direct divine agency. But Cop’s address was followed by a summons to the orator to appear before the parlement of Paris, and as he failed to secure the support either of the king, or of the university, he fled to Basle. An

631

attempt was made at the same time to seize Calvin who, being forewarned of the design, also made his escape. He went to Noyon, but, proceedings against him being dropped, soon returned to Paris. He left the city again about New Year of 1534 and became the guest of Louis du Tillet, a canon of the cathedral, at

Angouléme. Here, in du Tillet’s splendid library, he began the studies which resulted in his great work, the Institutes, and paid a visit to Nérac, where the venerable Lefévre, whose revised translation of the Bible into French was published about this time, was spending his last years under the kindly care of Margaret of Navarre. Up to this time Calvin’s work for the evangelical cause was not so much that of the public preacher or reformer as that of the retiring but influential scholar and adviser. Now, however, he had to decide whether, like Roussel and other of his friends, he should strive to combine the new doctrines with a position in the old church, or whether he should definitely break away from Rome. His mind was made up, and on May 4 he resigned his chaplaincy at Noyon and his rectorship at Pont ’Evéque. Towards the end of the same month he was arrested and suffered two short terms of imprisonment, the charges against him being not strong enough to be pressed. His movements now become difficult to trace, but he visited Paris, Orleans and Poitiers. The Anabaptists of Germany had spread into France, and among other notions which they had spread abroad was that of a sleep of the soul after death. To Calvin this notion appeared so pernicious that he composed a treatise of refutation of it, under the title of Psychopannychia. The preface to this treatise is dated Orleans 1534, but it was not printed till 1542. At Poitiers, in a grotto near the town, he for the first time celebrated the communion in the Evangelical Church of France, using a piece of rock as a table. The year 1534 was thus decisive for Calvin. From this time forward his influence became supreme, and all who had accepted the reformed doctrines in France turned to him for counsel and instruction. Renan, no prejudiced judge, pronounces him “the most Christian man of his time,” and attributes to this his success as a reformer. But his life was in danger, and, in company with his friend Louis du Tillet, whom he had again gone to Angouléme to visit, he set out for Basle. Here Calvin was welcomed by the band of scholars and theelogians who made that city the Athens of Switzerland, and especially by Oswald Myconius, the chief pastor, Pierre Viret and Heinrich Bullinger. Under the guidance of Sebastian Münster, Calvin now gave himself to the study of Hebrew. Francis I., desirous to continue the suppression of the Protestants, but anxious, because of his strife with Charles V., not to break with the Protestant princes of Germany, instructed his ambassador to assure these princes that it was only against Anabaptists, and other parties who called in question all civil magistracy, that his severities were exercised. Calvin, indignant at the calumny which was thus cast upon the reformed party in France, hastily prepared for the press his Institutes of the Christian Religion. The work was dedicated to the king, and Calvin says he wrote it in Latin that it might find access to the learned in all lands. Soon after it appeared he set about translating it into French, as he himself attests in a letter dated October 1536. This sets at rest a question at one time much agitated, whether the book appeared first in French or in Latin. The earliest French edition known is that of 1540, and this was after the work had been much enlarged, and several Latin editions had appeared. In its first form the work consisted of only six chapters, and was in-

tended merely as a brief manual of Christian doctrme. The chapters follow a traditional scheme of religious teaching: (1) The Law (asin the Ten Words), (2) Faith (as in the Apostles’ Creed), (3) Prayer, (4) the Sacraments; to these were added (5) False Sacraments, (6) Christian liberty, ecclesiastical power and civil administration. The closing chapters of the work are more polemical than the earlier ones. His indebtedness to Luther is of course great, but his spiritual kinship with Martin Bucer of Strasbourg

is even more marked. The book appeared anonymously, the author having, as he himself says, nothing in view beyond fur-

632

CALVIN

nishing a statement of the faith of the persecuted Protestants. In this work, written at the age of 26, we find a complete outline of the Calvinist theological system. Nor is there any reason to believe that he ever changed his views on any essential point from what they were at the period of its first publication. It exercised a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of contemporaries and of posterity. After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renée, duchess of Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), Calvin returned through Basle to France to arrange his affairs before finally taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at Strasbourg or Basle, and to devote himself to study. Unable, in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach Strasbourg by the ordinary route, he journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making for Basle. In Geneva his progress was arrested by the “formidable obtestation” of Guillaume Farel (Praef. ad Psalmos) who had succeeded in planting the evangelical standard at Geneva. Anxious to secure the aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to devote himself to the work in that city. Calvin, after some hesitation, consented, hurried to Basle, transacted some business, and returned to Geneva in Aug. 1536. He at once began to expound the epistles of

St. Paul in the church of St. Pierre, and after about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the consent of the people. His services were at first rendered gratuitously. Calvin was in his 28th year when he settled at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) “‘but very imperfectly enlightened in divine knowledge.” This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. To obviate the evils thence resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew up a condensed statement of Christian doctrine consisting of 21 articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to profess and swear to as the confession of their faith. As the people took this oath in the capacity of citizens, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system which subsequently became peculiarly characteristic of the Genevan polity. Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools throughout the city, and to enforce attendance; and as he had no faith in education apart from religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which was an obligatory part of the curriculum. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public disputation was held on March 16-17, 1537, and so excited the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, chief pastor at Lausanne. Calvin brought Caroli before the commissioners of Berne on a charge of advocating prayers for the dead as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and Arianism. In a synod held at Berne the matter was fully discussed, a verdict was given in favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and banished. Two brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled De fugiendis impiorum sacris, the other De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo, were also published by Calvin early in this year. But the austerity, both of ritual and living, enjoined by Calvin and his endeavour to effect the complete freedom of the Church from State control, was deeply resented. He and his colleagues refused to administer the sacrament in the Bernese form, że., with unleavened bread, and on Easter Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. For this they were banished from the city. They went at first to Berne, and soon after to Zürich, where they pleaded their cause before a synod of Swiss pastors, and declared that they would yield in the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ unleavened bread in the eucharist, to

use fonts in baptism and to allow festival days, provided the people might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. These

Calvin regarded as matters

of indifference, provided the

magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them; and he was the more willing to concede them, because

he hoped thereby to meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren

whose ritual was less simple than that established by Farel at

Geneva.

But he and his colleagues insisted, on the other hand,

that for the proper maintenance of discipline, there should be a division of parishes—that excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of elders chosen by the council, in

conjunction with the clergy—that order should be observed in the admission of preachers—and that only the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It was proposed that the sacrament of the Holy Communion should be administered more

frequently, at least once every month, and that ‘congregational

singing of psalms should be practised in the churches. On these

terms the synod interceded with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition of some of the Bernese (especially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only response.

Calvin and Farel betook themselves to Basle, where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neuchâtel and Calvin to Stras-

bourg, where he remained until the autumn of 1541. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. In 1539 he attended Charles V.’s conference on Christian reunion at Frankfurt as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he represented the city of Strasbourg at Hagenau and Worms. He was present also at the diet at Regensburg, where he formed with Melanchthon a lifelong friendship. He also did something to relieve the persecuted Protestants of France. To this period we

owe a revised and enlarged form of his Institutes, his Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, and his Tract on the Lord’s Supper. During his residence at Strasbourg he married, in Aug. 1540, Idelette de Bure, the widow of one Jean Stordeur of Liége, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words, “the excellent companion of his life,” a “precious help” to him amid his manifold labours and frequent infirmities. She died in 1549. Their only child, Jacques, born on July 28, 1542, lived only a few days. During Calvin’s absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. An attempt made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (14771547), bishop of Carpentras, to restore Roman Catholicism was frustrated by a letter written by Calvin at the desire of the Bernese authorities.

The letter was a popular yet thoroughgoing

defence of the whole Protestant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that was ever written. While he was still at Strasbourg there appeared at Geneva a translation of the Bible into French, bearing Calvin’s name, but in reality only revised and corrected by him from the version of Olivétan. Meanwhile his enemies in Geneva gradually lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. He returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm, on Sept. 13, 1541. He now determined to carry out his whole original scheme of reform, and to set up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had carefully matured during his residence at Strasbourg.

He now became the sole directive spirit in the Church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the Neuchatelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin’s return, removed to Lausanne, He recodified the Genevan laws and constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Berne that issued in the

treaty of Feb. 1544. He spent much time in controversy, notably over the doctrine of predestination and election. His three chief opponents were Albert Pighius, who subsequently embraced his

views, Jerome Bolsec, Sébastien Castellio and, greatest of all,

Michael Servetus (g.v.). At Calvin’s instance Servetus was arraigned for blasphemy,

condemned,

and burnt to death.

Even

though the opprobrium of this procedure must be shared by the

Genevan fathers, the Swiss authorities, and some of the more famous reformers like Melanchthon, who approved it, Calvin cannot be held guiltless of perpetrating a martyrdom that did much to sully the cause he had so greatly at heart.

CALVIN Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing dispute with the Lutherans respecting the Holy Communion, which ended in the separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of Lutherans and Reformed—the former holding that in the eucharist the body and blood of Christ are objectively and consubstantially present, and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In addition to these

controversies on points of faith, he was for many years greatly disquieted by opposition in Geneva to the ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of church polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member of the State was also under the discipline of the Church; and he asserted that

the right of exercising this discipline was vested exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers

and elders. Calvin’s views on

Church discipline naturally brought him into conflict with the civil authority and with the people. But his courage, his perseverance and his earnestness at length prevailed and, before he died, his system of church polity was firmly established, not only at Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and was adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland.

The men

whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every country in Europe. Nor was it only in religious matters that Calvin busied himself; he was consulted on every affair, great and small, that came before the council—on questions of law, police, economy, trade and manufactures, no less than on questions of doctrine and Church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her citizens; sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the admiration of all visitors; and in him she reverences the founder of her university. This institution was in a sense Calvin’s crowning work. It added religious education to the evan-

gelical preaching and the thorough discipline already established, and so completed the reformer’s ideal of a Christian commonwealth.

Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin wrote many controversial and many exegetical works. We have from him expository comments or homilies on nearly all the books of Scripture, written partly in Latin and partly in French. Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern idea of a progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration and tact in eliciting his author’s meaning, his precision, condensation and concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the closeness of his reasoning and the elegance of his style, all unite to confer a high value on his exegetical works. The series began with Romans in 1540 and ended with Joshua in 1564. In 1558—59_also, though in very ill health, he finally perfected the Institutes. The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave himself could not but tell on his fragile constitution. On Feb. 16, 1564, he preached his last sermon, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. On April 20 he made his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th

033

Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar gifts of learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the theologian of the new religion. Calvin’s dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty of God, to know whom is man’s supreme end. God is known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were

“sure and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit.” While God is the source of all good, man is guilty and corrupt. The first man was made in the image of God, which not only implies man’s superiority to other creatures, but indicates his original purity, integrity and sanctity. Through Adam’s fall, depravity and corruption attach to all men. On account of such corruption all are deservedly condemned before God, by whom nothing is accepted save righteousness, innocence and purity. When it is said that we through Adam’s sin have become

obnoxious to the divine judg-

ment, it is not to be taken as if we being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse through his transgression, he is said to have bound us. From him, however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them from their mothers’ wombs, are bound not by another’s but by their own fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their iniquity, they have its seed; nay, their whole nature is a sort of seed of sin, ar it cannot but be hateful to God (Instit. bk. ii. ch. i. sec. 8).

To redeem man from this state of corruption, the Son of God became incarnate. He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected His work and fulfilled all that was required in a redeemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed that He has merited

for man the grace of salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17).

But until a

man is united to Christ, the benefits of Christ’s work cannot be attained by him. This union is achieved through the special operation of the Holy Spirit in the faithful, who thus become partakers

of His death and resurrection, so that the old man is crucified

with Him and they are raised to a life of righteousness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ, the believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had before Impressed on the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. ili. ch. 33-36). From faith springs repentance, proceeding from a sincere fear of God, and consisting in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a vivification of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives justification, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to him. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification come to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room; on May 2 he wrote his two blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to last letter—to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neu- be disjoined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation châtel to see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and he receives from the operation of the Holy Spirit; but this again died quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and this falls back on God’s eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has prethe evening of May 27. The next day he was buried without pomp “in the common cemetery called Plain-palais,” in a spot not now destined some to eternal life and some to eternal death. The former he effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by Him to be identified. Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. passim). pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke The external means by which God unites men into the fellowship the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple of Christ, and advances those who believe, are the Church and its in his dress; he took but little sleep, and was capable of extraor- ordinances, especially the sacraments. The Church universal is dinary efforts of intellectual toil. He had a most retentive mem- the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though diory and a very keen power of observation. He spoke without vided by time and place, agree in one common faith, and it is thetoric, simply, directly, but with great weight. He had many bound by the tie of the same religion; and wherever the word of acquaintances, but few close friends. If somewhat severe and irri- God is sincerely preached, and the sacraments are duly administable, he was at the same time scrupulously just, truthful and tered, according to Christ’s institute, there beyond doubt is a steadfast; he never deserted a friend or took an unfair advantage Church of the living God (bk. iv. ch. 1, sect. 7—11). Its permanent of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions he could be cheerful officers are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs to preside over the discipline of the Church, to administer the and even facetious among his intimates.

METHODISTS

CALVINISTIC

634

sacraments, and to admonish the members; while the latter expound the Scriptures. With them are to be joined for the government of the Church certain pious men as a senate in each church; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the poor. The election of the officers is to be with the people, and those duly chosen are to be ordained by the laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The sacraments are two— Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism is the sign of initiation into the Church; it serves both for the confirmation of faith and as a confession before men. The Holy Communion is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, He in the Supper attests and seals; and that not by an empty sign but there He puts forth the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He promises. In the mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited by the symbols of bread and wine; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness for us, are presented. Christ is not affixed to the bread or in any way circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and substantial communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to believers under the said symbols is to be received, and that not as merely mentally received, but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, 17). The course of time has substantially modified many of Calvin’s positions. Even the churches which trace their descent from him no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as the preserver of church purity, the utter depravity of human nature, the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But his system had great value in the history of Christian thought. It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So also its insistence on the chief end of man “to know and do the will of God” made for strenuous morality. Its effects are most clearly seen in Scotland, in Puritan England and in the New England States, but its influence was and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be called Calvinist. BiBLiocRAPHY.—The standard edition of Calvin’s works is that

means of awakening Howell Harris (1714-1773) of Trevecca, who became a fiery itinerant preacher. Jones, preaching at Llanddewi Brefi, Cardiganshire—the place at which the Welsh Patron Saint

David, first became famous—roused Daniel Rowland (r7r 31790), curate of Llangeitho, who became an ardent apostle of the new movement. Naturally a fine orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his eloquence, and his fame spread abroad. About 1739 another prominent figure appeared: this was Howell Davies of Pembrokeshire, whose ministry was modelled on that of his master, Griffith Jones. In 1736 Harris opened a school, Griffith Jones supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up societies, in accordance with the recommendations in Josiah Wedgwood’s little book on the subject; and these exercised a great influence on the religious life of the people. By far the most notable of Harris’s converts was William Williams (1717-1791), of Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales. He had been ordained deacon in the Church of England, 1740, but Whitefield recommended him to leave his curacies and go into the highways and hedges. In Jan. 1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at Wad-

ford, near Caerphilly, Glam., in order to organize their societies, The meeting is known as the first Methodist

Association—held

eighteen months before John Wesley’s first conference (June 25, 1744). Monthly meetings covering smaller districts were organized to consider local matters, the transactions of which were to be reported to the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, modified, or

rejected.

Exhorters were divided into two classes—public, who

were allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number

of societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or two societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be part of the established church, as Wedgwood’s were, and every attempt at estranging them therefrom was sharply reproved; but persecution made their position anomalous. They did not accept the discipline of the Church of England, so the plea of conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out licences, so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris’s ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals to ordain him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from persecutors, were of the Strasbourg scholars, J. W. Baum, E. Cunitz, E. Reuss, P. the only things that prevented separation. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vols., 1863-1900). The last of these A controversy on a doctrinal point—‘Did God die on Calcontains an elaborate bibliography also published separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published in English by the vary?”-—raged for some time, the principal disputants being Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, 1843-55); the Rowland and Harris; and in 1751 it ended in an open rupture, Institutes have often been translated. The early lives by Beza and which threw the Connexion first into confusion and then into a Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among modern biog- state of coma. The societies split up into Harrisites and Rowlandraphies are those by P. Henry, Das Leben J. Calvins (3 vols. ites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 that the breach was Hamburg, 1835-44; Eng. trans. by H. Stebbing, London and New York, 1849); V. Audin, Histoire de la vie, des ouvrages, et des fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the history of the doctrines de Calvin (2 vols., Paris, 1841; Eng. trans. by J. McGill, Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just publisheda little London, 1843 and 1850), unfairly antagonistic; T. H. Dyer, Life volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed the people. This of John Calvin (London, 1850); E. Stähelin, Jok. Calvin, Leben led the bishop of St. David’s to suspend Rowland’s licence, and und ausgewählte Schriften (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F. W. Kampschulte, Jok. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf (2 vols., 1869, 1899, unfinished) ; Abel Lefranc, La Jeunesse de Calvin (Paris, 1888); E. Choisy, La Théocratie à Genève au temps de Calvin (Geneva, 1897); E. Doumergue, Jean Calvin; les hommes et les choses de son temps (17 vols., 1899-1927). See also A. M. Fairbairn,

“Calvin

and

the

Reformed

Church”

in the

Cambridge

Modern

History, vol. ii. (1904); P. Schaff’s History of the Christian Church, vol. vil. (1892), and R. Stahelin’s article in Hauck-Herzog’s Realencyk. für prot. Theologie und Kirche. Each of these contains a useful bibliography, as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston

Walker,

John

Calvin,

the Organizer

of Reformed

Heroes of the Reformation” series (1906).

Mansfield

Coll. Essays

(1909);

L. Penning,

METHODISTS,

This place became the Jerusalem of Wales. A remarkable event in the history of Welsh Methodism was the publication in 1770 of an annotated Welsh Bible by the Rev. Peter Williams, forceful preacher, and an indefatigable worker, who had joined the Methodists in 1746, after being driven from several curacies. It gave birth to a new interest in the Scriptures, being the first definite commentary in the language. The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult for Methodism to spread there,

until the advent of the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, of having spent five years in Somersetshire as curate of several

See also C. S. Horne in

Calvin, Eng. trans. by B. S. Berrington (1912).

CALVINISTIC

Protestantism,

Rowland had to confine himself to a meeting-house at Llangeitho.

Life and

Times

a body of Christians

forming a church of the Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only denomination in Wales which is of purely Welsh origin. Its beginnings may be traced to the labours of the Rev. Griffith Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circulating charity schools for the education of poor children. Griffith Jones’s zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence. An impressive announcement of the Easter Communion Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of Talgarth, March 30, 1735, was the

parishes, returned to Bala and joined the Methodists in 1784. His circulating charity schools and then his Sunday schools gradually made the north a new country. In 1791 the Bala Association

was disturbed by the proceedings which led to the expulsion of

Peter Williams from the Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling among the Methodists Bibles with Sabellian marginal

notes.

Separation from the Church of England.—About 1795, persecution led the Methodists to take the first step towards

separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines made 1t impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to continue without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, and the meeting-

CALVISIUS—CALYPSO houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. Moreover, until 1811 they had no ministers ordained by themselves; their growth in numbers and the scarcity of ministers to administer the Sacra-

ment (three in north Wales) made the question of ordination a matter of urgency.

The south Wales clergy who regularly itiner-

ated were dying out; the majority of those remaining itinerated but irregularly, and were most of them against the change. The lay element, with the help of Charles and a few other stalwarts, carried the matter through—ordaining nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo in August. In 1823, the Confession of Faith was published; it is based on the Westminster Confession as “Calvinistically construed,” and contains 44 articles. The Con-

nection’s Constitutional Deed was formally completed in 1826. The question of ministerial training then arose. Candidates for the Connexional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until 1837, when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles

(1812-1878) opened a school for young men at Bala. North and south alike adopted it as their college, the associations contributing a hundred guineas each towards the education of their students. In 1842, the south Wales association opened a college at Trevecca,

leaving Bala to the north. The latter was now a purely theological college, the students of which were sent to the university colleges for their classical training. In 1905 Mr. David Davies of Llandinam——one of the leading laymen in the Connexion—offered a large building at Aberystwyth as a gift to the denomination for the

purpose of uniting north and south in one theological college; but in the event of either association declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take possession, giving the association that should decline the option of joining at a later time. The association of the south accepted, and that of the north declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into a preparatory school

on the lines of a similar institution set up at Bala in 1891. Constitution and Doctrine.—The constitution of the denomination is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism; each church manages its own affairs and reports to monthly meetings which are made up of all the officers of the churches comprised in each, and are split up into districts for the purpose of a more local co-operation of the churches. The monthly meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly associations, of which all officers are members. The associations of north and south are distinct institutions, deliberating and determining matters pertaining to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. For the purpose of a fuller co-operation in matters common to both, a general assembly

(meeting once a year) was established in 1864. This is a purely deliberative conclave, worked by committees, and all its legislation has to be confirmed by the two associations before it can have any force or be legal. In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far from being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, and,

635

of the features of the Welsh Churches is the Sunday school, which is attended by adults as well as children.

CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German musician and

chronologer, was born at Gorschleben, in Thuringia, on Feb. 21, 1556, and died at Leipzig, where he was director of the school of music, on Nov. 24, 1615. In his Opus Chronologicum (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. He put forward an ingenious proposal for the reform of the calendar in his Elenchus Calendarii Gregoriani (Frankfort, 1612). His principal work in music is Exercitationes musicae (1600-11). See K. Benndorf, Sethus Calvisius als Musiktheoretiker

CALVO,

CARLOS

(1894).

(1824-1906), Argentine publicist and

historian, was born at Buenos Aires on Feb. 26, 1824. He devoted himself to the study of the law, and in 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan Government on a special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published in 1863 his Derecho internacional teorico y practico de Europa y America, in two vols., and at the same time brought out a French version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern authorities on the subject. Sefior Calvo’s next publications were of a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in Spanish and French his great collection in 15 vols. of the treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and between 1864 and 1875 his Annales historiques de la révolution de l’Amérique latine, in five vols. In 1884 he was one of the founders at the Ghent congress of the Institut de Droit International. In the following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his Dictionnaire du droit international public et privé, in that city. Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris.

CALVUS, GAIUS LICINIUS MACER,

Roman orator

and poet, was born on May 28, 82 B.c., and died, probably, about the age of 35. His father committed suicide when he was about 16, when prosecuted for extortion by Cicero. He became a very successful advocate, but of the 21 speeches he left behind him we know the names of only five, of which the most famous was the first, against Vatinius, who was defended by Cicero. Calvus was short in stature and vehement in action, and Catullus calls him salaputium disertum, the eloquent Jack-in-the-Box. In antiquity he was regarded as an orator and poet of the first rank, but very little of his work has survived. His speeches were on the Attic model, and too polished for universal appeal. His poetry consisted of fugitive pieces, lampoons and erotic verse, very highly praised by his contemporaries, Catullus, Propertius and Ovid. 1896).

ee De G. Licinio Calvo poeta (1830); F. Plessis, Calvus

CALW, a town of Germany, in the republic of Württemberg,

on the Nagold, W.S.W. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1925) 5,68r. The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town in general, distinctly cultured. It is a remarkable fact that every was under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose Welsh revival, since 1735, has broken out among the Calvinistic possessions finally passed to Wiirttemberg in 1345. In 1634 the Methodists. The ministerial system is quite anomalous. It started town was taken by the Bavarians, and in 1692 by the French. in pure itineracy; the pastorate came in very gradually, and is The industries include spinning and weaving, etc., and the making not yet in universal acceptance. The authority of the pulpit of of cigars and soap. It trades in wine. It is a health resort also. CALYDON, an ancient town of Aetolia, according to Pliny, any individual church is in the hands of the deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so many Sundays, filling the remainder with 74 Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to any preacher they choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been work, and receives his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his the scene of the hunting, by Meleager and other heroes, of the Sundays from home he fills up at the request of deacons of other famous Calydonian boar; the Calydonians are said to have taken churches. Deacons and preachers make engagements seven or part in the Trojan war. In 391 B.c. it was in the possession of the Achaeans. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.c.) it was reeight years in advance. The Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales is in federation with stored by Epameinondas to the Aetolians. Augustus removed its the United Free Church of Scotland, and the Presbyterian Church inhabitants to Nicopolis, founded to commemorate his victory at of England and of Ireland. It is also a constituent of the Pan- Actium (31 B.c.). The walls of Calydon, now the Kastro of Presbyterian Council or Alliance. In 1925 the body numbered: Kurtaga on the Euenus, have a circuit of over 2 m., with one large churches, 1,487; chapels and schools, 1,771; ministers and preach- gate and five smaller ones. Large terraces outside the walls ers, 1,156; on probation, 1,630; Sunday school teachers and probably indicate the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose gold officers, 24,064; communicants, 189,325. Contributions for various and ivory statue was transferred to Patras.

teligious purposes (including the ministry), amounted to £499,608.

There are foreign missions in Assam (India), and in Brittany. The English branch of the Church has 375 chapels and preaching stations, with 35,669 communicants. All the rest are Welsh. One

See W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, i. p. 109, iil. pp. 533 sqq.; W. J. Woodhouse, Aetolia, pp. 95 sqq.

CALYPSO,

in Greek mythology,

daughter of Atlas

(or

Oceanus, or Nereus), a nymph of the mythical island of Ogygia.

CALYSTEGIA—CAMARINA

636

She entertained Odysseus (g.v.) seven years, but could not overcome his longing for home even by a promise of immortality; at last Hermes was sent by Zeus to bid her release him. In several later (Italo-Greek) stories, she bore Odysseus a son Auson, or Latinus. (Homer, Odyssey, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254.)

CALYSTEGIA,

a genus of twining plants of the family

Convolvulaceae (q.v.), commonly known as bindweeds and comprising some 15 or more species, widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions, eight of which are found in California. It differs botanically from Convolvulus in that the calyx is subtended by two large bracts which partly enclose the flower. Wellknown representatives are the hedge bindweed (q.v.); the seaside bindweed or shore morning-glory (C. Soldanella), widespread along coasts, including those of the British Isles, California and the Pacific ocean generally; and the Japanese bindweed or California-rose (C. japonica), native to eastern Asia, widely grown for ornament, and somewhat naturalized in the eastern United States. By many botanists, especially those of the United States, Calystegia is made a part of Convolvulus and in the standard American floras and horticultural works the foregoing and other similarly bracted species are described under the last named genus.

CAM (CAO), DIOGO (f. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West African coast between Cape St. Catherine

(2° S.) and Cape Cross (21° 50’ S.) almost from the equator to Walfish bay. When King John II. of Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam (about midsummer [?] 1482) to open up the African coast still farther beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps in Aug. 1482) and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark point; the great river was also ascended for a short distance and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam then coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa) and erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in 13° 26’ S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April 1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a cavalleiro of his household (he was already an escudeiro or esquire in the same), and granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (April 8 and 14, 1484). That Cam, on his second voyage of 1485-86, was accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter’s Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars beyond the farthest of his previous voyage, the first at another “Monte Negro” in 15° 41’ S., the second at Cape Cross in 21° 50’, this last probably marking the end of his progress southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of Henricus Martellus Germanus), Cam died off Cape Cross; but Joao de Barros and others make him re-

turn to the Congo, and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two voyages have all been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrão is now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) ; those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in the museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society. See João de Barros, Decadas da Asia, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de Pina, Chronica d’ el Rei D. João II.; Garcia de Resende, Chronica; Luciano Cordeiro, “Diogo Cao,” in Boletim of the Lisbon Geog. Soc., 1892; E. G. Ravenstein, “Voyages of Diogo Cão,” etc, in Geog. Jnl., vol. xvi. (1900) ; also Geog. Jnl., xxxi. (1908).

CAMALDULIANS,

a religious

order

C. R. B.)B.

founded by St.

Romuald (also called CamatpoLEsE). Born of a noble family at Ravenna c. 950, he retired at the age of twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but being strongly drawn to the eremitical life, he went to live with a hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. In this way during the course of his life Romuald formed a great number of colonies throughout central Italy. His chief foundation

was at Camaldoli on the heighis of the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during half the year. Romuald’s idea was to reintroduce into the West the primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first Egyptian and Syrian monks. Disciples of St. Romuald went on missions to the still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St.

Romuald with twenty-five of his monks started on a missionary

expedition to Hungary, but he was unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death mitigations were graqually introduced into the rule and manner of life; and in the monastery of St. Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became cenobitical.

From that time to the present day there have always

been both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter ap-

proximating to ordinary Benedictine life. See Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896) i. § 29; art.

“Camaldulenser” in Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (and ed.), and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (3rd ed.); and art. “Camaldolese,” Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. iii.

CAMARGO,

MARIE

ANNE

DE

CUPIS

DE (rro

1770), French dancer, of Spanish descent, was born in Brussels on April 15, 1710, the daughter of a violinist and dancing-master.

At ten years of age she was given lessons by Mlle. Françoise

Prévost (1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opéra, and at once obtained an engagement as premiére danseuse, first

at Brussels and then at Rouen.

Under her grandmother’s family

name of Camargo she made her Paris début in 1726, and at once became the vogue. Every new fashion bore her name: her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at court; her shoemaker—

she had a tiny foot—made his fortune. She had many titled adorers, whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in 78 ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas Lancret in the Wallace collection, London.

CAMARGUE, the thinly-populated Rhone delta, department of Bouches-du-Rhône, France. It is a marshy alluvial plain between the Grand Rhône to the east and the Petit Rhône to the west. Its average elevation is from 64 to 8 feet. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30m. in length and an area of 290 square miles. About a quarter of this, along the river banks, is fertile and cultivated. The rest is rough pasture for sheep and the local black bulls and white horses, or marsh, stagnant water and salty areas. It is a centre for sea-birds, flamingoes and bustards. The Étang de Vaccarès, the largest of the numerous lagoons, covers

about 23 sq.m.; it receives three main drainage canals. Inlets in the protecting sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the lagoon fisheries and salt-pans; and the river water is used for irrigation and for the submersion of vines. Hard winters and scorching summers are the rule; the mistral, blowing from the north and north-west, is the prevailing wind. Many details of the region are discussed in R. D. Oldham’s “Portolan

Maps of the Rhéne Delta,” Geogr. Journ. Ixv., p. 403 (1925).

CAMARINA,

an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the S.

coast, about 17m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova).

It was founded

by Syracuse in 598 B.c., but defeated by the mother city in 553 in an attempt to assert its independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse and restored the town in 491, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484 and its population transferred to Syracuse; the Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It was abandoned by Dionysius’s order in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 but in 258 was destroyed by the Romans. To the north lay the marsh, formed by the river Hypparis to which

the

answer

of

the

Delphic

oracle

referred, wy kive

Kaydpwar, when the citizens enquired as to the advisability of draining it.

On the site of the ancient city nothing is visible but a small part of the temple of Athena and a few foundations of houses; remains of the harbour and portions of the city wall have been

CAMBACERES—CAMBERT traced by excavation, and the cemeteries have been carefully explored and have yielded important objects. See B. Pace, Camaring (Catania, Tirelli, 1927). ,

CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, Dvuxe or PARMA (1753-1824), French statesman, was born at Montpellier on Oct. 18, 1753. In 1792 the newly organized department of Hérault sent him as one of its deputies to the Convention.

Cam-

hacérés took no decided part in party strife but occupied himself mainly with the legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission even during the Terror. He had laid down conjointly with Merlin of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also urged the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the Convention, from which they had been driven

connecting them running straight across the city. Cambaluc was not only the capital of the eastern

Khanate

(which

comprised

besides China the plateaux and steppes of Tibet, Mongolia and Manchuria) but was also the terminus of the overland traderoute from western Asia and so from Europe across high Central Asia, just as Zaiton on the south-east China coast was the terminus

of the sea-route from India by way of the Spice Islands. The Polos reached China by the first route and returned by the second. The population participating in this overland commerce seems to have lived outside the walls of Cambaluc and in Marco Polo’s time, the last quarter of the 13th century, the population outside

In the course of the year

was greater than that within. The name Cambaluc refers essentially to the city of the Mongol period and the succeeding Chinese Ming dynasty re-named the city Peking, the northern capital, as distinct from Nanking, the southern capital. (See also CATHAY

the dissolution of the Convention Cambaon the list of candidates for the Directory, The moderation of his views brought him Directors after the coup d’état of Fructidor a time he retired into private life. Owing,

alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about 1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the gov-

by the coup d’état of May 31, 1793.

1795, as president of the Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign affairs, he helped to bring about peace with Spain. At cérés was one of those but was not elected. into opposition to the (Sept. 1797), and for

637

however, to the influence of Sieyés, he became minister of justice in July 1799. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieyés in their enterprise of overthrowing the Directory

(coup d’état of Brumaire 1799). After a short interval Cambacérés was, by the constitution of Dec. 1799, appointed second consul of France.. He undoubtedly helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon the consulship for life (Aug. 1, 1802); but the second consul is known to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the execution of the duc d’Enghien, the rupture with England, and the proclamation of the empire (May 19, 1804). He then became arch-chancellor of the empire and president of the Senate in perpetuity. He also became a prince of the empire and received in 1808 the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambacérés did the State good service by seeking to curb the impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion

of Russia (1812) proved to be. In 1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he was for a time exiled. A decree May 13, 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in retirement. In demeanour he was quiet, reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated gourmet, and his dinners were utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft. See A, Aubriet, Vie de Cambacérés (2nd ed., 1825).

CAMBALUC, the name by which the city on the site of the present Peking in China became known to mediaeval Europe. The word represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, “the city of the Khan,” and was often, as by Longfellow, inaccurately spelt Cambalu. A city had long stood on its site, but it did not become the capital of all China until Kublai Khan transferred the capital of the Mongol confederacy from Karakorum up on the Mongolian steppe to Khan-Balik in the conquered lowlands of China. It was not until the Mongol conquests temporarily united western with eastern Asia that mediaeval travellers reached China from Europe

and the place-names they took back with them were those employed by the Mongols. Kublai Khan built a new city, completed in 1267, across a brook

from the old city of Yenking and all but the northern third of his

city is now occupied by the present “Tartar” city of Peking.

Kublai’s Palace seems to have stood on the same site as the Imperial Palace of the late Manchu dynasty. According to Marco Polo’s description, Cambaluc was laid out on a rectangular

plan and had a circuit of 24 miles. Its walls, 50 ft. high and on top 15 ft. broad, were each pierced by three gates, the roadways

and PEKING.) CAMBAY, a native state (Kaira agency) of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 350 square miles. Pop. (1921) 71,762. The tribute is £1,337. Cambay is entirely an

ernors of Gujarat, who made himself governor of Cambay in 1742. Wheat and cotton are the chief crops. The nawab being a minor, the state was under British administration in 1928. The town of Cambay had a population in 1921 of 27,303. It is supposed to be the Camanes of Ptolemy and was formerly the seat of an extensive trade and textile manufactures: but, owing principally to the rise of Surat and the silting up of the harbour, its commerce fell away, and the town became unimportant. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft. The town is celebrated for its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation principally in China. There is a cotton mill. Many houses are built of stone (which indicates the former wealth of the city, as the material had to be brought from a distance); and remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs and three bazaars. To the south-east there are extensive ruins of subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities. In 1780 Cambay was taken by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1783, and was afterwards ceded to the British by the Peshwa under the treaty of 1803. It is connected through Petlad with the Bombay, Baroda and Central India railway.

CAMBAY, GULF OF, a trumpet-shaped inlet on the west

coast of India, narrowing northwards between Kathiawar peninsula and Gujarat. Its shape and orientation in relation to the south-west monsoon winds explain its very high tides and the velocity with which they enter. But it shallows rapidly; the silt of flood torrents entering its head contributes to progressive deterioration, and shoals and sandbanks are everywhere treacherous. Broach is one of the oldest Indian ports;. Surat is particularly identified with the rise of direct European contacts with India, and Bhaunagar is a noteworthy entry for Kathiawar, but the importance of the gulf ports is now only local.

CAMBER, in engineering, the upward convexity given to a beam or girder to allow for the load. If the camber is properly calculated, the cambered member becomes straight when loaded. The word camber is from Fr. cambrer, to arch, and is also used in other connections; e.g., the curve given to a roadway and the curvature of the wing of an aeroplane in imitation of the camber of a bird’s wing. In architecture camber is a slight upward curve to correct the illusion of sagging which a straight unsupported line presents.

CAMBERT,

ROBERT

(1628-1677), French musician, was

born in Paris in 1628 and is remembered as one of the first composers of opera in France, at first in conjunction with the Abbé Pierre Perrin and afterwards on his own account. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the founding of the Académie Nationale de musique, the germ of the Grand Opéra, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and Perrin were discarded in

CAMBERWELL—-CAMBODIA

638

the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where soon after his arrival he is said to have been appointed master of the band to Charles II. He is supposed to have killed himself—according to another account he was murdered—in London in 1677.

CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of Lon-

don, England, bounded north by Southwark and Bermondsey, east by Deptford and Lewisham, west by Lambeth and extending south to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1931) 251,373. Area, 4,480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of

Peckham and Nunhead, and Dulwich (g.v.) with its park, pic-

ture-gallery and schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good houses in Dulwich and southward towards the high ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has four divisions, North, North-West, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member.

CAMBIASI,

LUCA

(1527-1585), Genoese painter, famil-

iarly known as Lucchetto da Genova (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio), was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiasi. At the age of 15 he painted, with his father, some subjects from Ovid’s Metamorphoses on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great

daring of execution in the Palazzo Doria. Lucchetto’s best artistic period lasted for twelve years after his first successes. In r 583 he accepted an invitation from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which had been begun by his friend Giambattista Castello. He died in the Escorial in the second year

of his sojourn. Cambiasi painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this branch of art a figure of Faith. His son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Lucchetto. The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen in Genoa. In the church of S. Giorgio, the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperiali Terralba, a Genoese suburb, a fresco of the “Rape of the Sabines”; in S. Maria da Carignano, a “Pietà” containing his own portrait and (according to tradition) that of his sister-in-law, whom he loved, and who after the death of his wife, had taken charge of his household. In the Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to that time, ever been given for a single work.

CAMBIST, a shortened form of cambista, which is Italian for

money-changer. A cambist is one who deals in foreign bills of exchange and bank notes. The term is also applied to conversion tables of foreign money, weights, and measures. (See EXCHANGES, FOREIGN.)

CAMBODIA,

a protectorate within French Indo-China.

It

is bounded north by Siam and Laos, east by Annam, south-east and south by Cochin-China, south-west by the Gulf of Siam, and west by Siam. Its area is 65,000 sq.m.; its population (1926) 2,402,583, three-quarters Cambodian, the rest Chinese, Annamese, Chams, etc. Cambodia has more varied surface features than CochinChina. The Cardamone mountains in the west reach 4,900 ft., and their granite buttresses extend north-eastwards to the lakes, with forests on their steep sides, while the calcareous Elephant mountains extend from them southwards to the Gulf of Siam. To the north the sandstone terraces of the Dangrek mountains fall

abruptly to the Cambodian plain, the old Mekong (¢.v.) delta. The Tonlé-Sap depression is a striking feature with the smaller and the larger lake, remnants of an old sea-gulf. It is fed by several streams and links with the Mekong by a channel at Pnom-Penh,

through which it receives Mekong flood waters. In June the waters

of the Mekong rise to a height of 40 to 45 ft. and flow through the

Bras du Lac towards the lake, which then covers an area of 770

sq.m. and, like the river, inundates the marshes, forests and cultivated lands on its borders. During the dry season the current re-

verses, the lake shrinks to an area of 100 sq.m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a maximum of 5 ft. Tonlé-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000; the fish, taken in large nets at the end of the inundation, are either dried or fermented for the production of

nuoc-mam sauce. West of the large lake, around Battam Bang, is the largest Cambodian rice-area. The mountainous region east of

the Mekong is traversed by affluents of the Mekong, the Se-khong

and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into the Mekong at Stungtreng. Small islands, with a fishing population, fringe the

west coast.

Climate, Fauna and Flora.—From mid-October to midApril the north-east monsoon gives dry weather, the rainy season (mid-April to mid-October) is due to the south-west monsoon. At Pnom-Penh there is little variation of temperature (average 81°)—January giving 79°, and April, the warmest month, 84°, Wild animals include the elephant, which is also domesticated, the

rhinoceros, buffalo and some species of wild ox: also the tiger,

panther, leopard and honey-bear. The crocodile is found in the Mekong, and there are many reptiles, some venomous. The buffalo is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in large numbers. Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak, the lac-tree, and valuable woods and gums are among the natural products. People.—The Cambodians are more closely akin to the Siamese

than to the Annamese. The race is probably the result of a fusion of aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique; the skin is dark brown, the hair black. Both sexes wear the langouti or loincloth, which the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf draped round the figure, or a long clinging robe. The wife enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party. Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. The Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen ; many live on the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or floating rafts. The religion is Buddhism, and inCENTRAL STUPA

TERRACES WITH SMALL STUPAS CONTAINING BUDDHA IMAGES

NICHES WITH BUDDHA IMAGES 4TH GALLERY SRD GALLERY 2ND GALLERY IST GALLERY: ORIGINAL BASE

FROM KROM, “INLEIDING TOT DE HINDOE,” (N.Y. MARTINUS NIJHOFF'S BOEKHANDEL) SECTION OF BARABUDUR TEMPLE, JAVA, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF GALLERIES WITH SHRINES AND STUPAS. THE GALLERIES CONTAIN A SERIES OF RELIEFS REPRESENTING BUDDHIST TRADITIONS

volves great respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or

local genii is also widespread, and Brahmanism is still maintained

at the court. Numerous monks or Bonzes live by alms, and in

return teach the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals, and the other ceremonials. As in the rest of Indo-

China, there is no hereditary nobility, but superior castes founded on blood-relationship, as well as the mandarins, who form a class

by themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the administration. Under the native régime the common people attached themselves to one or other of the mandarins, who 1m

CAMBODIA /-° return granted them the protection of his influence. Under French rule, local government of the Annamese type is supplanting this feudal system. Slavery was abolished by royal ordinance (1897). Cambodian idiom is like some aboriginal dialects of south IndoChina; it is agglutinate and rich in vowel-sounds. The king’s language and the royal writing, and also religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and complicated.

Industry, Agriculture and Commerce.—Iron, worked by

the tribe of the Kouis, is found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working gold and silver; silk-cultivation is extending, and Pnom-Penh has a sericulture school; we may also name the cultivation of rice and, in a minor degree, that of tobacco, coffee, cotton, pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar. Factories near Pnom-Penh shell cotton-seeds. The fisheries of the great lakes produce 100,000 tons per annum and make fishing of great economic importance. Trade, largely in Chinese hands, is carried on chiefly through

Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. Pnom-Penh (g.v.) communicates

regularly

by the

steamers:of

the ““Messageries

Fluviales” by way of the Mekong with Saigon. About 90% of the

exports are accounted for and are by river. In 1925 they included 26,470,039 kg. of fish and fish products, 3,029 kg. of silk, 5,566

tons of rice, 1,189 tons of cotton and 114,565 tons of paddy. Administration.—The king (7dj) either nominates his successor, in which case he sometimes abdicates in his favour, or else is elected by the five chief mandarins from among the Brah Vansa, members of the royal family within the fifth degree. The king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior mandarins; and there are about 50 provinces administered by mandarins. France has a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is the real ruler of the country, and residents exercising supervision in districts. In each residential district there is a council of natives, presided over by the resident, which deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public works, etc.) and one native “notable,” and the royal orders must receive its sanction before they can be executed. Control of foreign policy, public works, customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while management of police, collection of direct taxes and administration of justice between natives remain with the native Government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes where one of the parties is not a native. The French are developing a network of communications, and the production of cotton and silk, as well as the fisheries of the lakes. ‘ The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, including poll-tax and taxes on the products of the soil, which amounted to 8,215,-

575 piastres in 1925—3.42 piastres per head. FRENCH. ) The spread of of the Christian probably because nal known, but

ARCHAEOLOGY Indian culture to this area, era, left no monuments of at that time wood was the from the sixth and seventh

(See INDO-CHINA, (X.) after the beginning the first centuries, only building matecenturies onwards

temples and stone and bronze images are found.

In the older

forms the direct influence of the Indian tradition is perceptible.

The monuments are small with great sobriety of sculpture. In the more recent period the native elements of the district in question assert themselves and the ornamentation becomes richer and more elaborate. Vast elaborately constructed groups of temple buildIngs arose in Java in the second half of the first period, while in Cambodia they belong to the more recent period. Finally, due principally to political circumstances, a period of degeneration set in, in Cambodia after the r2th century, in Champa after the r1th

and in Java after the r4th century.

In the valley of the Mekong, the district around the great lake

and the adjoining hills, the name of the oldest established kingdom, Fu-nan, gives place in the Chinese documents after the sixth

century, to that of Chen-La, without evidence of the connection

639

between the ancient kingdom and the two simultaneous Chen-La states, the northern and the southern.

The art of the sixth to the

eighth century may be termed primitive Khmer. the eighth century the northern

Chen-La

In the course of

gained predominance,

and from the ninth century union with the Khmers was an established fact. In regard to art the first part of this century is a blank, followed by a transition period, named after the reigning PINNACLE prince Indravarman, which has certain common features with the primitive style, but is in general nearly related to the classical Khmer art of the following centuries. Classical art flourWOODEN CEILING ished from the roth to the rath century, reaching its highest point in the temple of Angkor Vat. After this degeneration rapidly set in. PEDESTAL The Primitive Khmer Style. —This yields usually small, solitary temples (prasat) rectanguSUPPORTS OF lar or square constructed in brick. WOODEN CEILING Horizontal lines predominate, the profiling is weak and the mouldings are furnished with ALSE VAULT niche-shaped antefixes, with hu= == man heads as ornamentation. pee = e The external roof, built in e VESTIBULE EO — storeys, does not correspond to the vaultings of the interior, beINSCRIBED cause this style of building arose DOOR-JAMBS af | through the adaptation in stone COA ORS rR ; of a style already using lighter FROM DE LAJOUGIERE, “INVENTAIRE DESmaterials. Probably a survival of i

ee

A

A

N

CRIPTIF

$

'

a

SS ye

DES

MONUMENTS

DU

CAMBOGE,”

COURTESY OF L'ÉCOLE FRANÇAISE

BY

D'EXTREME

the pre-Khmer

style is to be

found in the miniature buildings LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS THROUGH carved in relief, forming the CAMBODIAN TEMPLES. THESE ARE decoration of the frontages and BUILT OF BRICK AND VAULTED. THE the space above the entrance, in LOWER TEMPLE HAS A PORCH WITHthe latter case enclosed in a wide IN THE ENTRANCE arch. The entrance itself, flanked by round pillars, is covered by a lintel, a favourite theme for which is a depressed arch, often set with medallions, the extremities springing from the open mouths of makaras (seaelephants). In this primitive art two styles, a simpler and a more complicated, are recognizable. The latter is richer and lighter in decoration, the building is raised upon a considerable base, having projections on all four sides, one of which contains the entrance, the others bearing niches or blind doors. The roof, which is the first style, is constructed of many storeys, each of small height, is in ORIENT

the latter a few stories of great height, which lend to the whole a slender appearance. The first style has been regarded as being Hindu, and therefore in contrast to the later Khmer art. The most important remains are those of Sambor Prei Kuk, to the east of the great lake, some forty buildings, divided into different groups of both types. The stone cell of Asram Maha Rosei on the lower Mekong represents the older type and the

lofty temple of Bayang the later one. In the lake district the simple Trapan Kuk contrasts with Damrei Krap and the group of Pra Srei; while on the upper Mekong at Han Cei both styles are found.

At Boran is preserved the only complete example of

a temple with two chambers. The sculpture of this period combines severity of design with delicacy of modelling; of which the images of Phnom Da and the Harihara of Andet are striking examples.

Indravarman Art.—In common with the primitive style the buildings are solitary, usually in brick, preferably, however, in the square ground plan. The form of the arch above the entrance persists, and the pillars flanking the entrance, though now almost always octagonal in place of round, are treated in the same spirit,

CAMBODIA

640

the makara motive on both sides of the lintel being still frequently |while in the chapels both Hindu and Buddhist sacred images are found. The latter, however, were probably introduced at a later found. The representation of buildings upon the façade has disappeared date. North of Bayon lie the remains of the palace, in which and given place to sculptured panels; mouldings and decoration the royal temple Phimeanakes still stands. Gallery and shrine have taken different forms, the technique is changed, the lintel here arise above three steep terraces. In front of the building has lost its architectural character and has become merely an runs a great terrace of honour ornamented with reliefs (elephants ornament. In everything a tentative search for new forms is felt. and others). All this is believed to belong to the most ancient plan The group of sacred buildings at Roluoh, south east of Angkor, consisting of the shrines of Prah Ko, Bakong and Lolei, is characteristic of the Indravarman style. The first consists of two rows of three temples with a few outbuildings, contained within a double wall; Bakong is a tall pyramidal construction of six stories in stone, with two brick smaller temples on either side; Lolei is formed of four temples upon a vast terrace. With these, though of a somewhat later date, may be grouped Pre Rup, five temples raised upon a terrace, with twelve upon a lower level and a conglomeration of terraces, gateways and minor buildings; the (eastern) Mebon, also comprising five central temples, but with rather p3 different surroundings; and Baksei Camkrong set alone upon a foundation raised in terraces. At Içvarapura, the present Bantay Srei, is a main temple between two others, in which the proportions of the stone buildings are small. They are conspicuous for the delicacy of their execution. This temple is typical of the Indravarman style in a number of particulars, although it was i. Y only built in the r4th century in what was then a very archaic style, to replace a 1oth century sanctuary. The principal image is the representation of Siva with Uma, almost naked, carved in bold lines, without ornamentation except for the head dress. The oldest productions of the classical style are usually attrib-

uted to the ninth century (King Yacovarman, 889-910).

Certain

characteristics are shared with the Indravarman style, which also produced groups of buildings with gateways and minor constructions, divine figures, often heavenly nymphs in niches, forming the principal decoration of the panels on the facade. The entrance, between octagonal pillars, is covered by a lintel, ornamented by garlands extending from the centre-piece, this centre-piece being frequently formed by the head of a monster. The makaras are replaced by magas (snakes) which coil around the pointed-arch above the lintel, and other projecting parts and rear their heads on both sides; also the profiling is more animated. The principal buildings, now almost invariably of stone, are connected by a more or less consecutive system of galleries. Great projections on each side transform the square into a cruciform plan. The layers of the roof repeat this form, succeeding each other in such a way that the whole roof, beneath the great lotus flower by which it is crowned, acquires an elongated cone shape, giving it the appearance of a tower. The centre of this classical art is the capital city of Angkor Thom, the building of which is supposed to have been begun at

the end of the oth century.

At Banteai Chma, in the north west,

are still older remains of an ancient stronghold of the oth century, showing even then the typical construction of a classical sanctuary. The temples of which the centre one has a portico, are combined and surrounded by a square gallery with four gateways; in front more passages and galleries join on, connected by side galleries; the whole, with other buildings at the side and back, is surrounded by another gallery, outside which again lie

ponds and entrances with balustrades, the latter formed of huge

snakes. The mountain of Kulen and perhaps Prah Khan, yield further examples of the older classical style; in the latter group there are twelve minor temples, excluding the outbuildings. Angkor Thom itself, the ancient Yacodharapura, is a square, surrounded by wall and moat, each side of which is three kilometers in extent. There are five gateways, from which roads with snake-balustrades lead to the centre of the city. In this centre stands the state temple Bayon. The chief building is surrounded by two galleries provided with portals and turrets and decorated with reliefs. These towers and the gates are cut in the form of four huge human faces, presumably representations of Siva. The cen-

tral tower, outside which a ring of small chapels are built, is

provided with projections. In front there is a network of corridors and side passages; the inner chamber contained Siva’s Lingga,

FROM THE

GARNIER, LIBRAIRIE

“ATLAS

DU

VOYAGE

D'EXPLORATION

EN

INDO-CHINE,”

BY

COURTESY

OF

HACHETTE

ANGKOR VAT. GROUND PLAN SHOWING THE ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS A. Main

Entrance

F. Second Court

B. Gallery with reliefs

G. Inner Court

C. Libraries D. Galleries of Vestibule

H. Corner Towers l. Central Tower,

E. Outer Court

Siva

with sanctuary of

of the city. Ta Prohm, to the east, dates from the same time, having a particularly intricate arrangement of projections against the inner gallery, large gateways and ponds. The neighbouring Banteai Kedei, attached to a great pond, while adhering to the leading principles, shows a very mixed ground plan. The group of Koh Ker, the remains of a new capital city, in the

classical style but much simpler in construction, belongs to the second quarter of the tenth century. In the capital itself, Baphuon dates from this period, and is reared up high upon the topmost of three steep terraces, each of which is surrounded by a gallery and reached by a triple balustraded way. Ta Keo, just outside the city, is of the 11th century, with five towers on a high terrace, four at the corners and one in the middle.

These great institutions

are mostly Sivaitic; Buddhism is rather less conspicuous, although a great veneration for the Bodhisattva Lokeévara is apparent everywhere. The same reign (Stryavarman I. 1002-1050) saw Prah Vihear arise, on a high forepost of the Dangrek, a temple now ruinous with gallery porticos and a long approach with steps, portals and terraces. In Phnom Chiso(r) the same features can be recognized, the 200 sanctuaries of which are constructed of the old brick material.

The culmination of classical art is reached in Angkor Vat, the magnificent Sivaitic sanctuary raised by Siryavarman II. (1112-

CAMBODIA 1152) to the south of the capital. The temple court, surrounded by a broad moat, contains two square cloisters rising one above the other and surrounding the central pile of four corner turrets and a central tower connected by ‘galleries, with an elaborate

approach.

The celebrated reliefs in the first gallery represent

scenes from the heroic epics, the contemporary royal court, priest-

hood and army. Champa.—The history of Champa art, taken as a whole, shows

a gradual process of degeneration, following the expulsion of the Chams from Annam, by the Annamites from Tonkin. The re-

moval of the capital to Chaban in the south about a. 1000, divides the older (primary) period from the more recent (secondary). When stone came into favour for temple buildings (kalan) and replaced the lighter material—in Champa they have

always gone on building in brick—we find, beside the small temples of the delicate form of the primitive art, another kind of building of a much more massive and heavy construction, to which

the name of cubic art has been given. In the roth century they fuse and form a hybrid style, though the pure primitive style still

persists, and at the beginning of the secondary period, produces the so-called classical art, which follows the forms of the older style. In several buildings, an alteration in the form -of the roofing leads to the pyramidal style, which survived to the r4th

century. Classical art maintained itself up to the beginning of the rath century. It then shows a rapid decline and after the fall of Chaban in 1471 is completely degenerate, although up to the 17th century it still produced buildings. In sculpture, the oldest pieces are the best, some obviously dating from before the oldest monuments, e.g., those from Trakieu. The primitive shrines are small square edifices, with a separate vestibule in front and projections for blind doors on the other sides. The plan of the temple building is repeated in the stories of the roof, which recede and leave space for small corner towers, the whole surmounted by an apex usually octagonal. The

facades are decorated with slender pillars and floral or foliated scrolls, Divine nymphs, at the corners of the cornice with projecting motives at the foot of the buildings, form a typical characteristic of Cham art. The cubic style is much more artificial and conventional; the layers of the roof recede less and ‘the corner towers disappear. The pilasters are broad and heavy. Mi-Son, south of Tourane contains the remains of some sixty small temples, dedicated to Siva; which exemplify the whole development of the Cham style from the 7th century onwards. In the sculpture of the divine figures, the gradual deterioration is perceptible. In Po Nagar near Nhatrang, beside the style of the first period, pyramidal forms are found; theprimitive style marks the temples of Khuong My and Binh Lam. As specimens of cubic style, Po Dam and Hoa Lai and the group of Dong Duong, south of Mi-Son, are the most important. The remains of the second period are necessarily in the south. In the classical style of the 11th century, descended from the primitive way everything that demands special skill is eliminated; decorative sculpture is replaced by a repetition of mouldings and edgings, terra-cotta ornaments take the place of sculpture; the roofs become higher and more clumsy, as at Binh Dinh, in the so-called Towers of Silver, Copper and Gold. The increase in

number and the decrease in size of the stories of the roof which at the same time are less overlapping, lead to the pyramidal roof,

running up in gentle curves, of Hung Thanh and Chanh Lo. An attempt to return to the old style at the end of the 11th century Sy the derivative style, as at Chien Dang, Klaung Garai and o Rome. Brsriocrapay.—L. Fournereau and J. Porcher, Les ruines d’ Angkor (1890) » L. Fournereau, Les ruines khméres (1890); E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (1900-1904) ; E. Lunet de Lajonquiére, Atlas archéologique de ?Indo-Chine (1901) ; E. Lunet de Lajonquière, Inventaire descriptif des monuments du Cambodge (1902-1911) with additions by H. Parmentier, Bull, Ec. Fr. d’Extr. Or. (1913) and E. Seidenfaden, Bull, (1922) ; H. Dufour and C.'Carpeaux, Le Bayon d’Angkor Thom (1910-1914) ; G. Coedés, “Catalogue des pièces originales de sculpture

khmére conservées au Musée Indochinois du Trocadéro et au ‘Musée Guimet,” Bull. Comm. Arch. Indo-Ch. (1910) ; H. Parmentier, “Cata-

logue du Musée khmér de Phnom Penh, Bull. E. F. (1912); L. Delaporte, Les monuments du Cambodge (1914~1924) ; H. Parmentier,

64.1

“L’art d’Indravarman,” Bull. E.F. (1919) ; G. Coedés, Bronzes khmérs, Ars Asiatica, V. (1923); E. Groslier, Angkor (1924); E. Groslier, La sculpture khmére

(1925); Etudes asiatiques (1925), articles by Finot, Goloubev, Groslier, Marchal, de Mecquenem; L. Finot, H. Parmentier, V. Goloubev, Le temple d’I¢varapura (1926); H. Parmentier, L'art khmèr primitif (1927); Ph. Stern, Le Bayon d’Angkor et

Pévolution de Vart khmer, Mus. Guim. Bibl. Vulg. 47 (1927); Periodical: Art et archéologie khmérs I. (1921-1923) and II. (1924-

1926), articles by Groslier and others. Champa: E. Lunet de Lajonquiére, Atlas, see above: H. Parmentier, “Le sanctuaire de Po Nagar,” Bull. Ec. F. (1902); H. Parmentier, “Les monuments du cirque de Mi-son,” Bull. E.F. (1904); H. Parmentier, Inventaire descriptif des

monuments, Cams de Annam

(1909—1918) ; H. Parmentier, “Les sculp-

tures chames du Musée de Tourane,” Ars Asiatica, iv. (1923) ; J. Leuba,

Les Chams en leur art (1923). HISTORY

(N.J. K.

The name Kambuja, whence the European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu Kambu, the name of the mythical founder of the Khmer race.

Some centuries before the Christian era,

immigrants from the powerful influence over the Sanskrit language. marked about the sth the Khmers as a nation

east coast of India began to exert a Cambodia, introducing Brahminism and This Hinduizing process became more century A.D., when, under S’rutavarman, rose into prominence. At the end of the

7th century the dynasty of S’rutavarman ceased to rule over the

whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was ruled over by two sovereigns. About the beginning of the oth century, with Jayavarman III., there began a dynasty which embraced the zenith of Khmer greatness. The royal city of Angkor-Thom (see ANGKOR) was completed under Yasovarman about a.p. goo. In the roth century Buddhism, which had existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival Brabminism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the rath century. The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later r5th century was absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the r2th century in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. In the later 13th century the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of the Menam began. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the r4th century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive. These aggressions were continued in the rsth century, in the course of which the capital was finally abandoned by the Khmer kings. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded AngkorThom as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During that céntury, the Portuguese had established some influence in the country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the arrival of the French. At the beginning of the r7th century the Nguyen, rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia, governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of the rth century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed by Siam. In 1863, in order to counteract Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagrée was sent by Admiral ja Grandiére to the court, and as a result of his efforts King Norodom placed Cambodia under the protection of France, removing his capital to Pnom-Penh in 1866. In 1867 a treaty between France and Siam, was signed, whereby Siam renounced its right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal authority to a shadow. In 1904 the territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese provinces of Melupré and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-

CAMBON— CAMBRAI

642

reap and Sisophon. By the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother Sisowath, the present king. Under the French the country has rapidly developed, but there is still a shortage of labour. The opening up of the interior is still rapidly proceeding. The historical monuments of the country make it one of the most important archaeologic grounds of Asia. See A. Leclére, Les codes cambodgiens

(1898);

Cambodge

(1900-04);

Russier, Histoire Sommaire

Cambodge

(1916) ; De Beerski, Angkor (1923).

E. Aymonier, Le

du Rozaume

de

CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French revolutionary and financier, was born at Montpellier. As a member of the legislative assembly, he quickly attracted public attention by his able and sagacious speeches. An opponent of Marat, Danton and Dumouriez, Cambon nevertheless voted in favour of Louis XVI.’s execution. He opposed the creation of the Revolutionary Tribunal, and he incurred Robespierre’s hatred by his outspoken criticism of his actions no less than by his intervention in favour of the Girondists on June 2, 1793. Cambon gave his valuable support to the Mountain, and it was due to his initiative and financial acumen that the assignats appreciated in value. Accused by Robespierre of reactionary and aristocratic leanings, Cambon replied so vehemently and effectively that his speech sounded the knell for Robespierre’s own downfall. Under the Thermidor Cambon was violently attacked as a supporter of the Mountain and was accused of malversation. In April 1795 he was excluded from the committee of finance, and he soon afterwards sought safety from Tallien’s attacks in flight to Switzerland. The amnesty of the 4th Brumaire enabled him to return to his estate at Terral, near Montpellier, where he lived in seclusion throughout the entire Napoleonic era. After Napoleon’s downfall, and despite his advocacy of a Bourbon restoration, Cambon was exiled as a regicide. He retired to Belgium and died near Brussels on Feb. 15, 1820. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F, Bornard, Cambon (1905) ; R. Arnaud, Cambon (1926).

CAMBON,

PIERRE

PAUL

et la Révolution Française

(1843-1924), French diplo-

matist, was born on Jan. 20, 1843, and educated at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and the Ecole de Droit. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry during the Commune. Thiers subsequently appointed him to administrative posts in the Alpes-Maritimes and at Marseilles. Later he became prefect of Lille. In 1882 he was appointed resident in Tunis, where he displayed his rare diplomatic talent. Four years

later he was appointed ambassador to Madrid, and in 1890 was

transferred to Constantinople, where he had an opportunity of

watching German diplomacy at work in the Near East. In 1898

he became French ambassador in London immediately after the Fashoda incident had embittered Franco-British relations. Cambon at once set himself the task of improving those relations, and so successful was he that in 1904 he signed with Lansdowne the Anglo-French Agreement. He was very largely responsible for the promotion of the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907. In that year his brother, M. Jules Cambon, became French ambassador in Berlin, and thenceforth the two brothers worked in close accord

to frustrate the designs of the military party in Germany.

A

believer in the doctrine expressed in the old French proverb “Tout vient a temps à qui sait attendre.” Cambon pursued his policy of strengthening Franco-British relations with quiet skill, The

culmination of his long years of work was reached in November 1912 with the exchange with Sir Edward Grey of the now

famous letters regarding a naval and military co-operation between France and Great Britain in the possible event of war. Despite some anxious moments in the early days of Aug. 1914,

Cambon never wavered in his belief in Great Britain; and her

participation in the war on the side of France fittingly crowned his life-work. During the war he laboured unceasingly to smooth away difficulties and allay irritations between the Allied com-

mands, but when the peace had been signed at Versailles Cambon felt that the hour of his retirement had come. After 22 years of unremitting service to the interests of France and Great Britain,

he left London in 1920 amid manifestations of regret rarely dişplayed to the ambassador of a foreign power. In 1903 he had been

created G.C.V.O., and in r917 the King accorded him the unusual distinction of the Grand Cróss of the Bath. He died in Paris on

, May 29, 1924. His brother, JuLes MARTIN CAMBON

(1845-

), was called

to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and en. tered the civil service in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887-91), and in 1891 became

governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, L’oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor Position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of peace on behalf of the Spanish Government after the war with the

United States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin; in 1915 he became secretary to the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs.

He wrote the article Securty

CAMBORNE,

a market town of Cornwall, England, a

W.S.W. of Truro, on the G.W.R. 14,157.

for this Encyclopedia. (I. F. D. M.

Pop. of urban district (1931)

It lies on the northward slope of the central elevation of

the county, among numerous tin and copper mines. Mining, metalworking, stone-quarrying and the making of chemicals are the main industries. The parish church of St. Martin contains an ancient stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science

and art and mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine. It was developed from classes initiated in 18 59

by the Miners’ Association.

Camborne

(Cambron,

Camron)

formed part of the large manor of Tehidy, held at Domesday by the earl of Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. In the early 18th century copper and tin began to be worked vigorously at Dolcoath: in 1788 ore worth £2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth £5,500,000 was produced. It was the scene

of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the

engineer, and of William Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuze,

CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, the seat of an arch-

bishop and capital of an arrondissement in the department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E., of Lille on the main line of the Northern railway. Pop. (1926) 24,854. Cambrai is situated on the right bank of the canalized Schelde, arms of which traverse the west of the town. Formerly strongly fortified, the ramparts had given way before the war of 1914-18, in which Cambrai figured prominently and was badly damaged, to handsome boulevards. Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of Camaracum, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. In the sth century it was the capital

of the Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, It was captured and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Hungarians in 953. During the roth,

tith and 12th centuries it was the scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and the citizens; but the latter ultimately effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained the town on the death of Charles the Bold, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles V. built a strong citadel, for the erection of which the castles of Cavillers and

Escaudoeuvres were demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which assigned it to France, it frequently changed hands by capture or treaty. The League of Cambrai is

the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis XIL, Maximilian I. and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians

in 1508; and the peace of Cambrai

(the Ladies’ Peace) was

concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of

Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the names of these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai, dating from the 5th century, was raised in 15 sg to the rank of an archbishopric which continued till the Revolution and has since been

restored. The bishops received the title of count from the em-

peror Henry I. (919-936), and in rsro were raised to the dignity

of dukes, their territory including the town itself and its ter-

ritory, called Cambrésis. In the war of 1914-18, Cambrai was occupied by the Germans from August 26, 1914, to October 8, 1918. When they retired they left the town heavily mined, and

the central portion was wrecked.

(See also CAMBRAI, BATTLE OF.)

CAMBRAI

64.3

The former cathedral of Cambrai was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame is a church of the roth century built on the site of the old abbey church of St.

fot the Cambrai method, the initial impulse came from another

intact.

and 18th centuries transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance period.

The preface to it contained this significant example of prevision: “

S

CHOH

T

CHOH

e

CH:0H COOH COOH Glucono- Saccharic Glycuronic lactone acid acid (IV.) (V.) (VI.)

gluconolactone in aqueous solution with sodium amalgam and dilute acid gives glucose, whilst on oxidation with nitric acid both glucose and its lactone yield saccharic acid (V.)}. The aldehydic functions are further illustrated by the action of such reagents as hydroxylamine and phenylhydrazine, which give respectively glucose-oxime and glucose-phenylhydrazone. Excess of the latter reagent causes oxidation, with the production of glucose-phenylosazone (m.p. 210°), a substance of characteristic appearance which is often used as a qualitative test for the presence of glucose. The oxidation can be shown to involve the second carbon atom and the formation of the osazone may be summarized thus:

BOGE

B

Otherwise it may be erroneously considered that the former can be made to be identical with the latter by merely revolving the second carbon atom round the first. In the study of sugar chemistry, spherical models of the atoms are essential aids to the realization of these factors of the distribution of groups in threedimensional space. In the following expressions it is assumed: (a) that the chain of carbon atoms has been uncurled and placed in a straight line;

(b) that the two or more addenda which point outwards from this plane are projected downwards into the plane of the paper. Reference to the aldehydic formula (VI., see below) for glucose shows that the second, third, fourth, and fifth carbon atoms are asymmetric (see STEREOCHEMISTRY), and accordingly there exist 24 or 16 isomeric aldohexoses differing only in the stereochemical arrangement of the—H and—OH groups round the asymmetric carbon atoms. The 16 are arranged in 8 pairs, the two members of each pair being identical except that one form has a dextroconfiguration (d-series) and the other a laevo-configuration

(i-series). All eight aldohexoses are known.

Similarly, on theo-

retical principles there could exist 23 or 8 aldopentoses which may be arranged in 4 pairs. Corresponding to these there exist d- and i-modifications of xylose, ribose, arabinose, and lyxose. The naturally occurring dextrorotatory glucose is genetically

CARBOHYDRATES

832

at TES weet

the o- and B-forms related to the dextrorotatory form of glyceraldehyde, to which | (V. and VI.) have been assigned to the latter, by formulae (I.) and (II.). represented be similarly may glucose of thereare sugars the and (A), formula projection is assigned the be fore classified into two series, called the d- and the -series re- Hence the formulation of glucose as an aldehyde must now representations which admit spectively, according as they may be built up by synthetical superseded by these more precise of glucose (as means from d- or l-glyceraldehyde (Rosanoff). On this basis the of the explanation of all the aldehydic functions also other sugars) for whilst serving the to better elucidate the four d-forms of the aldopentoses can be represented by the provery special properties of sugars as modified aldehydes. It-is jection formulae shown below. CHO ae H—C—OH

ae

ee

co

ae

H-C-OH HO-C-H

H-COH

H-COH

CH.OH

H-C-0H

(A)

CH:0H (I.) d-Ribose

=e

oe CH.OH (II.) d-Arabinose

CHOH (IIT.) d-Xylose

CHO HO-C-H

CHO

HO-C-H

H-b.0H

HO-C-H

HO-C-H

H-¢-OH

n-on

CH,OH (IV.) d-Lyxose

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

Cmon (V.) Mannose Synthetic

HCH

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

H,OH (VI.) Glucose Glucosides

CHO

n0-CH

and

H,OH (VIL) Gulose the Structure

CHO

i

HOCH

H

CH,0H (VIIT.)Galactose of Glucose.—

Aldehydes ordinarily react with one or with two molecules of t

ethyl alcohol to give either an alcoholate, RCH” or an OH Et acetal, R-CHO - Methyl alcohol in the presence of an acid

NOEt

oo

—C/

je

|

HO x ¢

m

>

int (2)..... H-C-OH

ae

=

OOH H n

sah las

>

HOCH H-C-OH

H.-C H:0H

HOCH H-C

CH:OH

CHOH

Glucose (aldehyde form)

B-Glucose

(1) T

(ID 4}

(It) t

A P

OMe

AEK, F

C

&

H-C-OH

H: OH;

|

Ho

ENN

|

H

—

aon

OH

i

C i j

| I=

HCO

HCO |

mC

mC—oH |

CH:OH

Ò

H-C-OH

Ba

a-Glucose

HO-C-H 14.08

CH-OH

m

S

ae a

CHO

H-C:0H

and by interaction the CHO deprives the OH of its hydrogen,

thus:

HO-C-H

The physical and chemical behaviour of these sugars renders possible the accurate diagnosis of the above configurations and it is on this basis that the formulae are assigned. Similarly there - exist 16 aldohexoses—8 of the d-series, and 8 of the /-series—the chief representatives in the d-series being those formulated below. The corresponding formulae for those in the /-series are the mirror images of the formulae now given. CHO

seen that the —-OH on the fifth carbon atom of the hexose chain is spatially near to the aldehyde group in the transitory phase,

1

|

CH:OH

|

aa

HOCH

H-C-OH |

me

CH.OH

a-Methyl-glucoside

(Possible intermediate compound)

6-Methylglucoside

(V)

(IV

VI

In formulae (I.) and (II.) it is seen that the potential aldehyde group now becomes asymmetric and the arrangement of the H and OH in space in two possible ways at carbon atom No. 1 accounts for the existence of the two stereochemical forms, &one molecule of water: CsH:,.0.+CH;3-OH— C,Hy.0.+H,.0. and 6-, having different specific rotations. It has been shown The resulting compound, a methyl-aldoside, can only be reprethat the glucoside (V.) is hydrolysed to the glucose form (I.) and sented, on the basis of rules of valency, as a cyclic compound glucoside (VI.) to (II.) by the action of enzymes. The analo(V. and VI., below). It is isolated in two different forms which the gous optical properties also support these inter-relations of are interconvertible. Thus, by the agency of methyl alcohol consugar and glucoside. Moreover, the presence of the two OH taining o-5% hydrogen chloride, glucose is converted on heating groups on the right of the contiguous carbon atoms (1) and (2) into, (1) @-methyl-glucoside having m.p. 166° and a specific in æ- glucose (I.) is demonstrated by the ease with which this form, rotation of +159°, and (2) B-methyl-glucoside having m.p. 105° as distinct from the 6-form, combines with boric acid. and a rotation of —34°. These differ remarkably in their behaviour towards enzymes. The enzyme maltase is specific for aH HONl1 B. H—C—O\ methyl glucoside, converting it into glucose and methyl alcohol. B-OH. OH — + I The enzymes of emulsin, on the other hand, convert the 6-gluH—C—O”/ H—C—OiH HO y coside into glucose and methyl alcohol. Heating with aqueous mineral acid regenerates glucose from each glucoside. The general form of the structure here assigned to glucose and A striking fact, related to these observations, is that dextro- its glucosides applies equally to all the simple sugars, both of rotatory glucose can also be isolated in two crystalline forms the pentose and hexose class; so that the generalization is which are interconvertible, and.so also can its penta-acetate, its reached that the ordinary varieties of these sugars exist as sixpenta-benzoate, as well as other derivatives. By crystallizing atom rings. To preserve the relationship between aldehyde and glucose from alcohol or from acetic acid the @ form is obtained, ring-forms the structures are usually written as (I.) and (II.) m.p. 146°, having a specific rotation [@]-+113°. From solution above, but actually a model constructed on these lines would in pyridine the crystalline 6-form isisolated, m.p. 148°, [@])+ more accurately represent the sugars as hexagonal figures. 17°. Each of these forms changes in aqueous solution to an Indeed, the sugars may be clearly pictured if we consider that equilibrium mixture having [@]}p-+52-5°, this change being known they are derivatives of a parent substance, -pyran (A), which, as ‘‘mutarotation.” These two forms are structurally related to if suitably hydroxylated and reduced would give the sugar form the œ- and §-methyl glucosides, and since the cyclic formulae (B) which has been named pyranose, wherein the group marked

as catalyst yields, a dimethyl-acetal, R-CHO—-R-CH(OMe)>. A sugar aldose, however, under similar conditions reacts with one molecule of methyl alcohol, with elimination of

wo Sore ED eeeoomeet asche wecomeinl

CARBOHYDRATES * is the potential aldehyde (or reducing) O O

L i

é» CH-OH CH,

CH

CH-OH

P CH,

group. O

This

is a | theexpressions(IV.) and (V.) for a-and B-forms; but (VI.) is the

aN *CH-OH CH-CH:0H

CH-OH

CH-OH

CH-OH

CH-OH

CH-OH

y-Pyran

Pyranose

Hexa-pyranose

(A)

(B)

(C)

pentose. The corresponding formula for a hexose is (C), which contains as a side chain a —CH2OH group. The spatial distribution of the H and OH atoms or groups accounts for the existence of arabinose, xylose, ribose, and lyxose. These sugars may thus be named arabo-pyranose, xylopyranose, etc., the spatial relationships being clearly seen if we show the 6-atom ring in perspective, with the H and OH at each of the five C atoms either directed above this plane of the ring or below it.

Ba N

OA

bd"

NEY

N,

NEY

Cat

H

Cass

rere

i

H

Arabo-pyranose (d-form)

833

i

Xylo-pyranose (d-form)

The configurations for lyxose and ribose may be similarly sketched by referring to the provisional formulae for the pentoses given earlier. These would be designated lyxo-pyranose and ribo-pyranose on this nomenclature, which combines both structural and spatial considerations. In the same way, formula (C) represents the common forms of glucose, of mannose and of galactose, which may be correctly described as gluco-pyranose, galacto-pyranose, etc. But the spatial relationships of H and OH at the carbon atoms of the ring are not shown in (C).

most reasonable mode of formulating (V.) as fructo-pyranose.

CH,-OH

Z HO-C-H

CHOH

Cm,-on

ic

a

Ze Sy

OCH HO-C-H | HO-CH,-C-OH CH, H-C-OH O H-C-OH ~ H-C-OH O | | | HO-C-H H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH | CH: CHOH CH: H Je OH (IV.) (ITL) (V.) (VL)

Fructose, like glucose, is fermentable by yeast. It probably plays a different part in metabolism from glucose, and seems to be more intimately connected with tissue formation, whilst glucose is more concerned with respiration. The Labile or y-Sugars (Furanoses) —Whilst fructose on

isolation is found to have the above 6-atom ring, yet there is strong evidence that when fructose occurs in combination in cane sugar and in inulin the structure is different and has a fiveatom ring. The first sugar derivative of this type to be recognized (Emil Fischer) was y-methyl-glucoside, which is obtained by condensing glucose and methyl alcohol containing 1% HCl in the cold. It is now known that most simple sugars can assume the y- or labile form under analogous conditions. Derivatives of these have been prepared, and they are shown to be related, not to pyran as the parent substance, but to furan, and are therefore named furanoses.

Z

a

O

N

a

dey thes Furan

Fo

O

CHOH

O

oS

AOON

CH-CH,OH

CHOH

CHOH—CHOH Xylo-(etc.)-furanose

CH-CH(OH)-CH;0H

CHOH—CHOH Gluco-(etc.)-furanose CHOH

Z N HO-CH:-C-‘OH CH-CH,0H

ce

or e.g.

HO-C-H | H-C-.OH

"aa

CHOH-—-CHOH Fructo-furanose

Fructose.—Fructose, laevulose or fruit sugar, CgHi2O¢, is the

commonest of the ketoses. It is formed along with glucose by inversion of cane sugar (sucrose) and occurs mixed with glucose in fruit juices. It is best prepared by digesting the polysac-

charide, inulin (q.v.) with dilute oxalic acid. Crystalline fructose,

m.p. 95°, is strongly laevorotatory in solution, having [e@lp —134°, which changes by mutarotation to —92°. Although laevorotatory its configuration is closely related to d-glucose, and hence it is named d-fructose. This fact is established in that by nascent hydrogen fructose passes into d-sorbitol, as does glucose. Fructose gives the same phenylosazone as glucose. It combines additively with hydrogen cyanide, and hydrolysis of this product, followed by reduction of the OH groups by hydriodic acid, gives methylbutylacetic acid (IT.). Hence the provisional formula for fructose represents the sugar as a ketone (I.) CH.OH.

CH,OH Le | ae

CO

|

CHOH

HCN —

{No

CHOH

CH; | CH—CO0OH

[Nou

|

eae

CHOH | )HOH

CHOH

as

CHOH

CH:

CH.OH Fructose

CH:0H

CH.OH

CH;

cane

+

CH OH Wee |

—_

—

CH: ie

(I.) (IL) The mutarotation of fructose shows that an a-form of the sugar exists, and again, as with glucose, the ketone formula (III.) must give place to the cyclic, 6-atom ring structure indicated in

| O

CH2-OH

The above constitutional problems have been elucidated by studying sugar derivatives such as methylated, acetylated, and benzoylated sugars, and also the acetone-sugars. A summary of the development of the experimental proofs has appeared in the Annual Reports of the Chemical Society (Organic Chemistry, Aliphatic Division) for the years 1923-1927; see also W. N. Haworth, The Constitution of Sugars (London, 1928). Synthesis of Sugars—By combining certain reactions which have been already considered it is possible to pass from any monosaccharide to the one containing an additional carbon atom. Thus addition of HCN to glucose (A) (Kiliani) gives two

CHO

+

HCN

a H—C—OH

(A) R

(B)

A and

R

Hoe (C)

R

nitriles (B and C), hydrolysable to the acids, the lactones of which may be reduced by Fischer’s method to the corresponding heptoses. The opposite effect, or degradation, can be accomplished by several methods. In one of these the calcium salt of gluconic acid is oxidized with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of ferric acetate, when the following reaction takes place:

R—CHOH-COOH = R—CHO-+CO,+H,0.

In this case d-

glucose yields d-arabinose. The action ofpyridine or quinoline on the lactones of gluconic

acid results in theinversion of the groups attached to the second

CARBOHYDRATES

A

34+

carbon atom (epimerization) ” Mannonolactone is thus produced which may be reduced to mannose. The reaction is general and has been used frequently in the synthesis of rare sugars. COOH H—

COOH

ae

—_

HO— T—H

R

R

An aldose may be converted into a ketose through the osazone, the reactions being clear from the following scheme: CHO

CH=N-NHPh

|

CHOH | Aldose

—-

(e.g., glucose)

C=N-NHPh i Osazone

HCl —

CHO

|

CH,OH

Reduction

CO

|

—

R Osone

R Ketose

(e.g., fructose).

R-CO-CH.OH — R-CHOH-CH.OH — R-CHOH-COOH — eee (e.g,

fructose)

Alcohol

Acid

6. 9*7

( "8:7

mannitol)

Aldose 7

mannonic acid)

lar molecules: compounds of glucose and galactose, glucose and fructose, etc., also occur, and these may exist either in a- or bforms. For these reasons the elucidation of the structure of the disaccharides has been a most complex problem. The methylated sugars have furnished a valuable means to this end. Lactose.—Lactose or milk sugar may be obtained by evaporation of whey from milk. It is not encountered in the vegetable

kingdom. It reduces Fehling’s solution, gives a characteristic osazone, exists in œ- and 6-modifications, shows mutarotation, and forms methy] lactosides. a-Lactose has [alp+ 90°, m.p. 22 3°,

a

The reverse (e.g., glucose) transformation may be effected in the following way: Ketose

and oxidation at the reducing group gives rise to the bionic acids which correspond with a hexonic acid such as gluconic acid, Disaccharide formation is not limited to the union of two simi-

Cg-

mannose).

The elucidation of these and similar reactions prepared the way for the complete synthesis of the natural sugars from their elements. Glyceraldehyde, CHO-CHOH-CH,OH, gives with dilute alkali dihydroxyacetone, CH,OH-CO-CH.OH, the crude mixture of the two being termed glycerose. These two molecules then unite by an aldol condensation to give a-acrose, which was identified as dl-fructose by means of its osazone.

Oxidation with bromine water gives lactobionic acid which can be hydrolysed to a mixture of gluconic acid and galactose. Lactose therefore contains one glucose and one galactose residue and

these two hexoses can be obtained from lactose by hydrolysis, The free reducing group in lactose is situated in the glucose portion. Lactose is thus a glucose 6-galactoside, having the structural formula (IX.), wherein A= glucose, and B= galactose. Similar experiments have been carried out with all the common reducing disaccharides and it is found that they may be accom-

modated by one or other of the two general formulae (IX. and X.), where A=glucose, B=either glucose or galactose according to the disaccharide selected; and the junction * may be either a- or B- as required by a particular example. am a 7—CHOH ni e O

ai

CHOH

4

O

cH O CHOH E cH CH CH,OH hee B

CH,OH-CO-CH,OH + CHO-CHOH-CH,OH —CH,OH-CO-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CH,OH. The osazone yielded the osone which was then reduced to the pure di-fructose (see above). The operations were next continued according to the scheme: a-acrose—a-acritol (mainly dl-mannitol)—>d/-mannose—dl-mannonic acid—d-mannonic acid —> d-mannose— d-glucosazone— d-glucosone— d-fructose. Also d-mannonic acid—d-gluconic acid—»d-glucose. The I-series of sugars may be obtained similarly from /-mannonic acid. The photosynthesis of carbohydrates in the plant from carbon dioxide requires the presence of chlorophyll (q.v.). Very recently it has been claimed that on suitable coloured surfaces carbon dioxide and water can be induced to yield trué carbohydrate material under the influence of light. The reaction requires intense energy supplies. Disaccharides.—The disaccharides, C1H2201, are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules with loss of one molecule of water: 2CsHi,0O.— CwH»Ou-+H.O. The reaction always involves one of the reducing groups and may involve both. The disaccharides may therefore be regarded as

CHOH

a

CHOH

CHOH

buon

CHOH

O L

|

O

HOH CHOH cH CH CH.,——O CH,OH

(TX.) (X.) Other Disaccharide Compounds.—Maltose is formed by the

action of the enzyme diastase on starch during the generation of cereals (preparation of malt). It is prepared by the hydrolysis [of starch by diastase and forms crystals resembling glucose, alb+137° (equil. value), mutarotating upwards. Hydrolysis by acids or by the enzyme maltase gives two molecules of glucose.

The structure of maltose is similar to that of lactose (formula IX., aand B=glucose) except that the sugar is a glucose a-glucoside =

a-) z

Cellobiose (m.p. 225° [æl +16°, B-form; equil. value +35°) is obtainable in the form of its octa-acetyl derivative from cotton cellulose by treatment with acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid under special conditions. Its special interest lies in the apparently close relationship between it and cellulose. Structurally it analogues of the methylglucosides in which the methyl] radical is resembles maltose except in the nature of the glucosidic linkage replaced by a sugar residue. As glucosides, they are readily which is B-. It is glucose 8-glucoside (formula IX.). Gentiobdiose hydrolysed to the component sugars by dilute acids and show the (m.p. 190-195° [a]p—11°, equil. value +9-6°) is a reducing dicharacteristic specific reactions towards enzymes. For example, saccharide obtained by partial hydrolysis of the trisaccharide maltose, an a-glucosidic disaccharide, is readily hydrolysed in gentianose. It is the sugar present in the glucoside amygdalin aqueous solution by maltase, whilst cellobiose, a 8-glucosidic (g.v.). It differs structurally from maltose and corresponds with disaccharide, is attacked by emulsin and not by maltase. Ac- formula (X.). Melibiose (m.p. 88-95°, [@]p 124°, equil. value cording as one or both reducing groups are involved in the 143°) is one of the hydrolytic products of the trisaccharide raffdisaccharide linkage there exist reducing and non-reducing di- nose. It contains glucose and galactose residues, corresponds saccharides, the former reducing Fehling’s solution and behaving structurally with gentiobiose (formula X.) but is glucose @-galike an ordinary aldose or ketose. Typical examples are lactose lactoside. (reducing) and cane sugar (non-reducing). Sucrose or cane sugar (m.p. 160°, [@]p+66-5°) is the most im` In general the chemistry of the disaccharides resembles that portant non-reducing disaccharide. For description of its physiof the monosaccharides, with the exception that the scope of the cal properties and the mode of extraction from the sugar cane reactions which can be utilized is limited by the presence of the

easily severed glucosidic linkage by which the two halves of the molecule are joined. The —OH groups may be substituted by acetyl groups (¢.g., octa-acetyl sucrose) or by methoxy-groups (octamethyl-sucrose, etc.) or by other groups. Hydrazones, oximes and osazones are formed by the reducing disaccharides

and the sugar beet, see SUGAR.

It is very readily hydrolysed by

dilute acids to a mixture of equal quantities of glucose and fructose (termed invert sugar), but sucrose itself does not reduce

Fehling’s solution. In this case both reducing groups are involved in the disaccharide linkage. It gives octa-acetyl, octa-methyl derivatives, étc., and from a study of the latter the structure of

CARBOHYDRATES sucrose has been determined (formula X1.); it involves a pyranose structure in the glucose portion and a furanose structure in the fructose half of the molecule.

835

trical work. Much attention is being given to the problem of the internal

structure of cellulose.

It can be converted into glucose quanti-

CHOH

tatively by hydrolysis and so consists solely of glucose residues. The first and fourth carbon atoms of the Cg, unit are concerned in the mutual union of these glucose residues, which are all identical in structure in cellulose (for-

CH———

CH— |

mula I.). The acetolysis of cotton cellulose to give cellobiose (see above)

CHOH

CH G OH

strengthens this view. On the basis of X-ray measurements

CH.0OH oe

box

kaon|

|bus

CHOH

CHOH

O

buon CH

CH ——-0O--———-C

O

CHOH (Glucose component)

|

= (Fructose component)

Sucrose (cane sugar)

In addition to the disaccharides similar compounds are known in which three sugar molecules are linked together (érisaccharides). The best known. of these are raffinose (from cotton seed meal), melezitose (from the manna exuded from the Douglas Fir) and gentianose (from gentian roots). Polysaccharides.—The empirical formula of the members of this series is CgsHi.Os, or in some cases CsH;O,. Their molecular weight is, however, very high; they are mostly amorphous, colloidal complexes, which break down on hydrolysis to monosaccharides containing 5 or 6 carbon atoms. Several of the individual substances are of great industrial importance and are fundamental in the synthetic processes taking place in the living cell.

Their colloidal nature and high molecular weight greatly increase the difficulties inherent in their chemical investigation,

and the structural formula of no one of them can at present be regarded as definitely established. Cellulose.—-The name cellulose has been given to several products found in the vegetable kingdom. These consist for the most part of complexes of various extraneous materials with normal

cellulose, the purest form of the latter being found in cotton. The same cellulose is present also to a greater or less extent in flax, hemp, wood, straw, etc. For the part played by cellulose in paper making, see PAPER. Cotton cellulose is a white fibrous substance, which contains when air-dried some 7% of moisture. It is insoluble in all the usual solvents, but dissolves readily in an ammoniacal solution of copper hydroxide (Schweitzer’s reagent) and in the concentrated solutions of certain metallic salts. On dilution it is again precipitated. It is unaffected by moist chlorine, and as this

reagent converts into soluble substances almost all the materials which accompany cellulose this provides a convenient method for its purification and estimation. Treatment of unglazed paper with strong sulphuric acid converts the superficial layer into the so-called “amyloid” modification, with production of parchment paper. Another, somewhat similar transformation is the con-

:

substances known as hydrocelluloses and oxycelluloses are produced respectively by the action of acids and of oxidizing agents. The most important compounds of cellulose are the esters. These include the nitrates which are used in the manufacture of explosives (q.v.), celluloid, photographic films, etc. The xanthate, formed by the action of caustic soda and carbon disulphide (R-OH+-CS2.+-NaOH -R-0-CS-SNa-+H20), is of prime importance in the viscose industry, in which a suitably prepared cellulose xanthate solution is forced through fine orifices into an acid bath, with the regeneration of cellulose in the form of silky filaments (see SILK, ARTIFICIAL). The acetates of cellulose, produced by the action of acetic anhydride in the presence of a catalyst, are of equal importance in that in one or other of their forms they are the basis of cellulose acetate silk, of non-inflammable films, and of many varnishes and lacquers; they can be used as insulating materials in elec-

cellulose can be regarded as a closely

packed array of continuous chains of gluco-pyranose residues, arranged as formula (I.) and having the same mode of linking as the related

disacchaside cellobiose. Starch.—This polysaccharide is present in assimilating plants and occurs in large amounts in cereals, grains, roots, tubers, etc. It occurs in the form of gronules built up of concentric layers round a nucleus. When heated with water the outer integument of the granule bursts and an opalescent liquid is formed which sets to a paste when cold. The granules and the paste give a characteristic deep blue colour with iodine. It has been claimed that starch can be separated into two portions termed amylose and amylopectin, which differ in their colour reactions with iodine (the latter giving a violet coloration and the former blue) and in their capacity to give a starch paste. The action of diastase on starch yields the disaccharide maltose. Complete hydrolysis yields glucose quantitatively. The controlled action of acids or ferments has led to the preparation of a large number of substances intermediate between starch and maltose. These are classed generally as dextrins. They differ considerably from one another in physical properties and their relationship to starch on the one hand and to the simple mono-

saccharides on the other has yet to be worked out. Little can be said at present regarding the structyral relationship of starch and cellulose, but that maltose is closely connected with the structure of starch seems to be clear (see also FERMENTATION).

Glycogen or animal starch, (CsHiOs),, occurs in the animal muscle and in the liver of mammalia. It gives a red coloration with iodine and is readily hydrolysed to give glucose in quantitative yield. It is more labile than ordinary starch which it re-

sembles in many particulars, Like starch and cellulose, its methylated derivative yields 2:3:6-trimethylglucose on hydrolysis. Lichenin or moss starch, (CgHOs),,, is yet another example

of a polysaccharide built up solely of glucose units. It occurs in Iceland moss. Chemically it has many properties In common with cellulose. ` Inulin, (CsH1Os)n, is of common occurrence in plants as a

reserve food-stuff, where it may often take the place of starch. It is composed entirely of fructose units and hydrolysis of inulin by oxalic acid provides

version of cellulose (cotton) into mercerized cotton by the action of cold 15-25% sodium hydroxide solution. Various indefinite

_|,

(I.)

i a —C | | ao O CHOH

| | CH— a OH s „ Inulin,

the best method for obtaining ordinary crystalline fructose. Despite this fact the fructose unit in inulin is not the pyranose type of fructose, but is the furanose or labile type of the sugar. Iodine gives a yellow colour with

inulin, The two groups concerned in the union of the fructose units in the complex

are the primary alcoholic group at the first carbon atom and the reducing group at-

tached to the second carbon of the ketose.

The number of such units has not yet been ascertained. See special articles on various carbohydrates, BrsriocraPHy.—For

summaries

of the most recent developments

see the Annual Reports on the Progress of Chemistry for recent years (Chemical Saciety, London); W. N. Haworth, The Constitution of

Sugar (London, 1928); E. F. Armstrong, The Simple Carbohydrates

and the Glucosides, contains bibliographv and summarizes the chemistry of the sugars (excluding polysaccharides) to 1924; M. Cramer,

> 836

CARBOLIC

Les Sucres et leurs Dérivés, includes the polysaccharides (complete to 1926); H. Pringsheim, Die Polysaccharide (1923), and Zuckerchemie, excluding the polysaccharides (complete to 1924); P. Karrer, Polymere Kohlenhydrate, the polysaccharides considered more particularly as colloids (1925); W. M. Bayliss, The Nature of Enzyme Action; E. Heuser, Lehrbuch der Cellulosechemie (English trans., 1925). For references the following are invaluable: B. Tollens, Kurzes Handbuch der Kohlenhydrate (Leipzig, 1914) ; Emil Fischer, Untersuchungen iiber Kohlenhydrate und Fermente, I. u. II.; Lippmann, Chemie der Zuckerarten (Braunschweig, 1904). (W.N. H.)

CARBOLIC ACID or PHENOL

discovered in 1834 by F.

Runge in coal tar. A. Laurent in 1841, first obtained it in a pure crystalline condition, determined its composition and named it phenyl hydrate or phenic acid. It is, in fact, to be regarded as derived from benzene, the simplest hydrocarbon of the so-called aromatic series (see also CHEMISTRY: Organic), through the replacement of one hydrogen atom by the hydroxyl or alcoholic group, -OH. Thus it stands in the same relation to benzene as ordinary methyl alcohol (wood spirit), CH;OH, does to methane (marsh-gas), CH; just as methyl alcohol is hydroxy-methane so is phenol hydroxy-benzene, and, having the formula CgH;OH, is the prototype and simplest member of one of the most important groups of compounds in organic chemistry. Although, as explained above, it has certain analogies of composition with methyl and other alcohols of the aliphatic series, its properties differ greatly from those of an alcohol, properly so called, and this difference must be attributed to the great difference in structure and properties between the paraffin hydrocarbons, on the one hand (methane, ethane, etc.), and the coal-tar hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, naphthalene, etc.), on the other. It is found in nature as a product of animal metabolism, occurring in the urine of man, horse and other mammals; also in the degradation products of proteins. It is formed in many chemical processes, particularly by the decomposition of organic matter such as wood or coal at high temperatures (carbonization). It has been observed

in small quantities in Galician and Russian petroleum. It is contained in coal tar in proportions of from o-1 to 1-0% and its principal commercial source is that fraction of coal tar which distils from 180°—220° C. For the manufacture of carbolic acid,

this fraction is treat¢d with an 8-10% aqueous solution of caustic

soda. The phenol and its homologues are thereby dissolved in this solution, forming carbolate (phenoxide or phenate), whilst the hydrocarbon oils together with small quantities of pyridine and other evil-smelling bases are left as an oily layer floating above the carbolate solution. The latter is drawn off, steamed for the removal of adhering or dissolved neutral hydrocarbons, and then

treated with carbon dioxide, which decomposes the carbolate to

give sodium carbonate and thus liberates, the carbolic acid and the higher phenols or cresols, forming a black oily layer of crude carbolic acid of characteristic odour. The separated crude carbolic acid contains about 15-20% of water, traces of inorganic salts and other impurities from which it is freed by repeated fractional distillation, and, in this manner, the crude product is separated into fractions rich in phenol which crystallize upon cooling and fractions containing the cresols (higher homologues of phenol) which fail to crystallize. The raw crystals are passed through centrifuges in which they are freed from adhering “‘cresylic” liquid and they are then submitted to a final fractionation yielding a distillate of commercial carbolic acid in form of crystals of melting point 39°-4o0°C. The mixture of cresols or liquid carbolic acid forms an article of commerce, but is frequently further worked up and more or less efficiently separated into its constituents. Comparison of the boiling points of the pure compounds—phenol, 181-3°C; orthocresol, 188-0°; para-cresol, 199-5°; meta-cresol, 200-0°: symmetrical xylenol, 218-0°-—-shows that by fractional distillation they may be separated into phenol, ortho-cresol and a not easily separable mixture of para- and meta-cresols. A product rich in meta-cresol

is of importance for the manufacture of explosives. At times when carbolic acid is in great demand or when slack-

ness in the demand for the products accompanying jt in coal tar does not commercially justify its extraction, it is manufactured by synthesis from benzol. Only one process is carried out indus-

ACID

trially.

Benzol is sulphonated with fuming sulphuric acid, the

resultant benzenesulphonic acid after neutralization with milk of

lime is converted into its sodium salt and the sodium benzenesy]phonate is fused at 340°C with an excess of sodium hydroxide in

cast iron vessels provided with powerful stirrers. treatment with a limited amount

The melt, on

of water, yields a solution of

sodium phenate (carbolate or phenoxide) and a solid residue of

sodium sulphite. From the carbolate solution crude carbolic aciq is liberated by means of carbon dioxide and distilled, as in tar. works practice. As, however, the synthetic product is not associated with cresols, fractionation is simpler, and a very pure

carbolic acid is obtained. Properties of Phenol or Carbolic Acid.—Phenol crystallizes

in colourless needles of characteristic odour.

If chemically pure,

the crystals are not hygroscopic and remain colourless, but when containing even slight impurities they are highly deliquescent and slowly assume a pink colour. Phenol has melting point 42-5-43°C, boiling point 181-3°C under 760mm. pressure; specific gravity

(d20°/20°) 1-0722; calorific value 7,810 calories (14,060 B.T.U,),

It forms a hydrate CsH;-OH,H2O

of melting point 17-2°C.

By

mixing phenol with water two immiscible solutions are formed,

one of phenol in water and one of water in phenol, but on adding more water a clear solution results; 100 parts of water dissolve at 11°C 4.8 and at 77°C 11-8 parts of phenol, whilst at 84°C phenol and water are miscible in any proportion. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, carbon disulphide, chloroform, glacial

acetic acid and somewhat in light petroleum.

It is also readily

soluble in caustic alkalis, slightly soluble in aqueous ammonia solution, but almost insoluble in sodium carbonate solution. Good solvents are also gallic acids and a solution of sodium benzenesulphonate. It is volatile in steam. It gives a violet coloration with ferric chloride and a white precipitate of tribromophenol with bromine water. Phenol is a weak acid and forms salts with alkalis which react alkaline to litmus. It is readily acted upon by chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphuric and nitric acid; chloroform in alkaline solution, formaldehyde, oxidizing and reducing agents, and a large number of derivatives can be obtained from it by these and other reagents.

Uses of Phenol.—The ease with which phenol reacts with a great number of chemical compounds marks it as a substance of wide and varied applicability in the chemical and other industries. It is used to a moderate extent as an intermediate in dyestuff manufacture. It is a component of the azo-dyes, such as diamine green B, brilliant yellow, chrysophenin and aurin ‘or rosolic acid. The last is used as an indicator (g.v.) in chemical analysis and for colouring varnishes or in form of its sodium salt, yellow corallin, for printing wall paper. By heating phenol with phthalic anhydride and sulphuric acid another important indicator, phenolphthalein, is obtained, which is colourless in neutral or acid solution but turns deep red .with caustic alkalis. Phenolphthalein also finds application as a purgative. A number of dye-stuffs are derived from the products of the nitration of phenol, ortho- and para-nitrophenol and their derivatives. A very important product of the nitration, z.¢., the interaction of nitric acid with phenol, is picric acid, or 2:4:6-trinitrophenol. It was formerly used as a yellow dye-stuff, but its importance lies in its application as an explosive (lyddite). At the outbreak of the World War it was most widely used for bursting charges in highexplosive shells, although it was gradually replaced by the more

reliable and efficient trinitrotoluol (T.N.T.). Another high explo-

sive, mainly used in the French army, is trinitro-meta-cresol, derived from one of the three cresols, the higher homologues of phenol. In chemical warfare chloropicrin, a compound made by chlorination and oxidation of picric acid or its salts by means of bleaching powder, has been used as a lachrymator, mostly in combination with stannic chloride. Picric acid has usefulness in an entirely different direction, namely as a substitute for “carron oil” for the dressing of burns, and in the treatment of skin diseases

such as erysipelas and eczema.

l

To the non-chemist phenol, or carbolic acid as it is usually named in this connection, is mostly associated with its antiseptic

and disinfectant properties. It is a strong germicide arid parasiti-

CARBOLOY—CARBON cide. It now plays a much less important réle in surgery than it did in the first days of antisepsis, and on account of its irritant action and the danger of absorption it has become unpopular even as a dressing or lotion after operation or injuries, when it may lead to gangrene, necessitating amputation. Although, therefore, in surgical practice it has been largely superseded by its derivatives and other substances, it is still used as a standard of germicidal efficacy for the comparison and evaluation of other disinfectants. Amongst antiseptics directly obtained from phenol may be mentioned:—tribromophenol (bromol), phenolsulphonic acid (aseptol), di-iodophenol-para-sulphonic acid (sozoiodol). Moreover it is also widely used, either by itself in aqueous solutions or in soaps, tooth-powders and similar preparations. One of the most important phenol derivatives is salicylic acid (g.v.), produced from dry sodium phenate (phenoxide) and carbonic acid at 130°C, the sodium salicylate formed being acidified to produce the acid. It is used in therapeutics and as an intermediate for over 100 azo-dyes. It is a powerful food preservative, though condemned by health authorities and not permitted in some countries for this purpose. Some derivatives of phenol are used in perfumery, the most prominent of which is coumarin (g.v.) synthesized by way of salicylaldehyde. Phenol finds a quantitatively important and steadily growing application in the production of artificial resins and plastic materials made by its condensation with formaldehyde. (See Resins, SYNTHETIC.) Several photographic developers, such as metol, ortol and rodinal, are obtained from phenol, as are also certain sensitizers of the photographic plate. By the hydrogenation of phenol with nickel as catalyst at a temperature of 160°—180°C cyclohexanol or hexaline is obtained, a solvent used for intensifying the detergent action of soaps, particularly in the textile industry. Physiological Properties.—Carbolic acid has a pungent and, in very dilute solutions, a somewhat sweet taste. It coagulates the proteins of the tissues, and forms, when concentrated, a white opaque scar on the skin which becomes red and shiny and falls off after a few days, leaving a light brown stain for several weeks. It acts as a caustic, and causes irritation and necrosis of the mucous membranes and even in dilute solution produces local anaesthesia which lasts for many hours. It is found in urine, mostly coupled with sulphuric or glucuronic acid, principally formed in the liver. It is oxidized in the body to hydroquinone (quinol) and pyrocatechol, these products causing a green coloration of the urine. Carbolic acid is formed by degradation of proteins. Toxicology.—Carbolic acid acts upon the central nervous system by absorption through the unbroken skin, the intestines, wounds or the respiratory organs. The larger portion of toxic doses is excreted, partly through the lungs, thus causing inflammation of the air passages and corrosion of the points of entry. It is a typical nerve poison acting first by exciting and then by paralyzing. Administered as a chronic poison it degenerates kidney and liver, but the effect varies for different individuals. The fatal dose may vary considerably, but is in the adult of the order of one gram when introduced into open wounds and eight grams when taken by the mouth. In the latter case the patient collapses, and the skin becomes cold and clammy. By paralysis of the respiratory organs, the breathing gets shallow, the patient dying in a state of coma. As antidote in cases of carbolic acid poisoning soluble sulphates, such as sodium or magnesium sulphate, used to be administered. These have been found to be of little or no use, because the phenol does not combine with sulphates as such, but with organic sulphur while being oxidized to sulphuric acid in the body. The first treatment is the removal of the poison by the stomach tube followed by the thorough rinsing of the stomach with water to which 10% of alcohol has been added. Saccharated solution of lime is also recommended. When coma and collapse set in, the patient should be sustained by the external application of warmth and by such nerve stimulants as caffeine or strychnine; artificial respiration may eventually be used, although there is little prospect of resuscitation, where intoxication has advanced so far. (R. Lez.)

CARBOLOY: see Toot STEEL. CARBON, a non-metallic element, is found in the free state a

837

as diamond, graphite and as crude forms of the former (symbol C, atomic number 6, atomic weight 12-000); in combination it occurs in all animal and vegetable tissues, in coal and petroleum and (as carbonate) in many minerals such as chalk or limestone, dolomite, calcite, witherite, calamine and spathic iron ore; as carbon dioxide (g.v.) it occurs in the atmosphere. It is a solid which assumes different forms having widely different properties. The diamond has the highest specific gravity (3-52) of these, and its high refractive index (2-417 for sodium light) is responsible for its characteristic brilliance. Very small diamonds have been made artificially by causing carbon to crystallize from molten iron under very high pressures. (See H. Moissan, The Electric Furnace, 1904.) Genuine diamonds differ from “paste” imitations in being transparent to Réntgen rays. Carbonado and bort (boart) are “black diamonds”; they are diamonds with a small percentage of impurity, and therefore valueless as gems. Graphite is an extremely soft form of carbon of much lower density (ranging from 2-0 to 2-6; the purest is about 2-25); it is probably of organic origin as it usually contains about 1% of hydrogen. Carbon is deposited in this form when it condenses from the vapour state in the electric furnace or in the arc. The purest artificial graphite (Acheson) contains only 0.5% of ash and is produced in a furnace of fire-brick lined with carborundum (g.v.), the space between and around the carbon electrodes being filled with petroleum coke. Graphite differs from diamond in being a conductor of electricity. The heats of combustion of diamond and graphite are both very close to 94,000 calories per 12 grams, so that it is not certain which is the stable form at ordinary temperatures, but diamonds are converted into graphite at high temperatures under ordinary pressures. Diamond and graphite crystallize in the cubic and hexagonal systems respectively. ‘Graphite is slowly attacked by mixtures of sulphuric acid with nitric acid, potassium chlorate or chromic acid, to give “graphitic acid” and

finally mellitic acid, Cs(COOH).,

whereas the diamond is un-

affected by such treatment. Graphite (g.v.) is used in “lead” pencils, in polishes (as “black lead’), and as a lubricant for machinery. Numerous varieties of carbon are classed as “amorphous” in contrast to the foregoing crystalline varieties; the commonest are lamp-black, gas carbon, animal charcoal, sugar charcoal and wood charcoal. They are formed by burning substances, from which they are named, in a limited supply of air. Lamp-black is thus formed from tars, resins, turpentine, etc., and is collected on blankets suspended in condensing chambers; even after further purification by heating in closed vessels, it still contains oily impurities; it is used in printers’ ink, in paints and in calico printing. Gas carbon is produced in gas manufacture (g.v.) and collects on the walls of retorts; it is a very dense and fairly pure form of carbon and is used for the rods of arc lamps. Coke is the residue from gas retorts; specially designed retorts and processes are used for the production of the coke used in metallurgical operations. The charcoals are very porous, and consequently their specific gravity is apparently only about o-25, but when the air is pumped out of the pores this becomes 1-4-1-9. Sugar charcoal is purified by heating in a current of hydrogen chloride, extraction with water, and further heating in a current of hydrogen until free from hydrogen chloride. Animal charcoal, from bones, horns, etc., contains only about 10% of carbon and about 80% of calcium phosphate; a purer form is obtained by calcining blood with potassium carbonate. Being very porous, it is used for decolourizing solutions (e.g., of sugars) and for filtration of contaminated water. Wood charcoal is produced either by the wasteful process of slowly burning carefully stacked wood or by carbonizing it in retorts, in which case certain volatile products, such as acetone, wood spirit

and pyroligneous acid are retained, and the last two are worked up for methyl alcohol and acetic acid respectively. Specially prepared blocks of wood charcoal are used in “blowpipe” analysis. (See CHEMISTRY: Analytical.) The absorptive powers of charcoals for gases are greatly improved by regulated heating, and are very pronounced at low temperatures. (See CHARCOAL.) All the varieties of amorphous carbon are readily attacked by the reagents mentioned in connection with graphite.

CARBONADO— CARBONATES

8 38

The specific heats of all varieties of carbon are abnormally low at ordinary temperatures, but become nearly normal at about 1,000° C; that of diamond is only about half that of graphite at — 50° C, but they gradually become more nearly equal at higher

government and after the separatist revolt of Sicily had broken out the king obtained from the Emperor of Austria the loan of an army. Early in 182r a force of 50,000 Austrians defeated the

temperatures; graphite and wood charcoal have nearly the same specific heats at ordinary temperatures.

lament, and set to work to persecute the movement. A similar movement broke out in Piedmont in March r821. Here as in Naples the Carbonari comprised many men of tank, and they were more or less encouraged by Charles Albert, the heir-presumptive. The rising was crushed, and a number of the

Carbon volatilizes at 3,600° C. In the electric arc it unites with

hydrogen to give acetylene, C,H, (M. Berthelot), but small proportions Hz of methane and ethane are also produced; at lower temperatures

the conditions

are more

favourable for methane,

constitutionalists under General Pepe and the king dismissed par-

leaders were condemned to death or long terms of imprisonment,

CH, and W. A. Bone and H. F. Coward obtained almost quantitative yields of this gas from very pure carbon and hydrogen at

but most of them escaped.

t,200° C. Carbon unites directly with fluorine to give the tetrafluoride, CF4; it burns in oxygen to give oxides; and when heated in sulphur vapour it gives carbon disulphide (g.v.). When heated with nitrogenous substances and alkaline carbonates, it gives

In the papal states a society called the Sanfedisti or Bande della Santa Fede had been formed to counteract the Carbonari, and their behaviour and character resembled those of the Calderai of Naples. In 1831 Romagna and the Marches rose in rebellion and

cyanides (q.v.); and in the electric furnace it gives carbides (g.v.) with many elements, that with silicon being the abrasive carborun-

dum (g.v.). CARBONADO,

(A. D. M.) a name given in Brazil to a dark massive

The French revolution of 1830 had its echo in central Italy.

shook off the papal yoke with astonishing ease. At Parma and Modena the rulers were expelled by Carbonarist risings, but re-established by the Austrians, who occupied Romagna and restored the province to the Pope. Among those implicated in the Carbonarist movement was Louis Napoleon, although it does not appear that he ever actually became a Carbonaro. Even in after years, when he was ruling France as Napoleon III., he never quite forgot that he had once been a conspirator, a fact which influenced his Italian policy. The Carbonari, after these events, ceased to have much importance, their place being taken by the more energetic Young Italy Society presided over by Mazzini. In France, Carbonarism began to take root about 1820. The

form of impure diamond, known also as “carbonate” and in trade simply as carbon. It is sometimes called black diamond. Generally it is found in small masses of irregular polyhedral form, black, brown or dark-grey in colour, with a dull resinoid lustre; and breaking with a granular fracture, paler in colour, and in some cases much resembling that of fine-grained steel. Being slightly cellular, its specific gravity is rather less than that of crystallized diamond. It is found almost exclusively in the state of Babia in Brazil, where it occurs in the cascalho or diamond- example of the Spanish and Italian revolutions incited the French bearing gravel. Borneo also yields it in small quantity. Formerly Carbonari, and risings occurred at Belfort, Thouars, La Rochelle of little or no value, it came into use on thé introduction of and other towns in 1821, which were easily quelled. The Cardiamond-drills (see Borrne), and is now extremely valuable for bonarist lodges were centres of discontent until 1830, when, after contributing to the July revolution of that year, most of their mounting in the steel crowns used for diamond-boring. CARBONARI, the members of certain secret revolutionary members adhered to Louis Philippe’s Government. The Carbonarist movement undoubtedly played an important societies that played an active part in the history of Italy and France early in the roth century. The Carbonari (Ital. “charcoal part in the Italian Risorgimento, and if it did not actively conburners”) gained importance in southern Italy during the reign tribute to the wars and revolutions of 1848-49, 1859—60 and 1866, of Joachim Murat (1808-15). They aimed at freeing the coun- it prepared the way for those events. try from foreign rule and obtaining constitutional liberties, and were ready to support the Bourbons or Murat, if either had ful-

filled these aspirations.

Murat himself had at first protected

them, especially when he was quarrelling with Napoleon, but later, some Carbonarist disorders having broken out in Calabria, Murat sent General Manhés against the rebels, and the movement was ruthlessly quelled in Sept. 1813. But Malghella, Murat’s minister of police, continued secretly to protect the Carbonari and even, to organize them, so that on the return of the Bourbons

in 1815 King Ferdinand IV. found his kingdom swarming with them. The society comprised nobles, officers of the army, small landlords, government officials, peasants, and even priests. Its organization

was

curious

and mysterious,

and had a fantastic

ritual, A lodge was called a vendita (“sale”), members saluted each other as buoni cugini (“good cousins”), God was the “Grand Master of the Universe,” Christ the “Honorary Grand Master.” Its red, blue, and black flag was the standard of revolution in Italy until substituted by the red, white, and green in 1831. When King Ferdinand felt himself secure he determined to exterminate the Carbonari, and to this end his minister of police, the Prince of Canosa, set up another secret society called the Calderas del Contrappeso (“braziers of the counterpaise’’), recruited from the brigands and the dregs of the people, who committed hideous excesses against supposed Liberals, but failed to exterminate the movement.

On the contrary, Carbonarism flour-

ished and spread to other parts of Italy. Among the foreigners who joined it for love of Italy was Lord Byron. The first rising promoted by the Carbonari was the Neapolitan revolution of 1820. Some regiments comprised many Carbonari, and on July r a military mutiny broke out at Monteforte, to the cry of “God, the King, and the Constitution.” The troops sent against them sympathized with the mutineers, and the king, being powerless to resist, granted the Constitution (July 13), which he swore on the altar to observe. But the Carbonari were unable to carry on the

BrsriocraPpHyY.—Much information is given in R. M. Johnston’s Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy (1904) which contains a full bibl.; D. Spadoni’s Sette, cospiraziqni, e cospiratori (Turin, 1904), is an excellent monograph; Memoirs of the Secret Societies of Southern Italy, said to be by one Bertoldi or Bartholdy (London, 1822), Ital. transl. by A. M. Cavallotti (Rome, 1904); Saint-Edmé, Constitution et organisation des Carbonari; P. Colletta, Storia del Reame di Napoli (Florence, 1848) ; B. King, A History of Italian Unity (London, 1899), with bibliography. (L. V.)

CARBONATED

BEVERAGES:

see AERATED WATERS.

CARBONATES. (1) The metallic carbonates are the salts of carbonic acid, H:CO3. Many of them are white solids, but some, such as those of copper (blue or green) and nickel (green), possess colours which are characteristic

of the metal

concerned. Many are found as minerals, the more important of such naturally occurring carbonates being cerussite (lead carbonate, PbCQ;), malachite and azurite (both basic copper carbonates), calamine (zinc carbonate, ZnCO3), witherite (barium carbonate, BaCOs), strontianite (strontium carbonate, SrCOs), calcite, and aragonite (calcium carbonate, CaCOs3), dolomite (cal-

cium magnesium carbonate, CaCOs,MgCOs):; sodium “sesquicar-

bonate,” NazCO3,NaHCOs;,2H2O, occurs as a deposit in African lakes and is called “trona.” Most metals form carbonates (aluminium and chromium are exceptions), the alkali metals yielding both acid and normal carbonates of the types MHCO; and M2COs (M=one atom of a univalent metal); whilst bismuth, copper and magnesium appear only to form basic carbonates. The acid carbonates (bicarbonates) of the alkali metals can be prepared by saturating an aqueous solution of the alkaline hydroxide with carbon dioxide, M.OH+4+CO:=MHCO,;, and from these acid salts the normal salts may be obtained by gentle heating, carbon dioxide and water being evolved at the same time, 2MHCO:=

M:2CO3;+HO2+COes. Most other carbonates are formed by precipitation of salts of the metals by means of alkaline carbonates. All carbonates, except those of the alkali metals and of thallium,

CARBON

COMPOUNDS

are insoluble in water, and the majority decompose when heated strongly, carbon dioxide being liberated and a residue of an oxide of the metal left. Carbonates of the heavy metals, as silver, yield the metal on strong ignition. Alkaline.carbonates undergo a very slight decomposition, even at a very bright red heat. The carbonates are decomposed by mineral acids, with formation of the corresponding salt of the acid, and liberation of carbon dioxide. Many carbonates which are insoluble in water dissolve in water containing carbon dioxide, giving bicarbonates which cause “tem-

porary” hardness (see Catcrum)}.

The individual carbonates are

described under the various metals. (2) The organic carbonates are the esters of carbonic acid, H.COs, and of the unknown ortho-carbonic acid, C(OH).s The acid esters of carbonic acid of the type HO-CO-OR are not known in the free state. Potassium ethyl carbonate, KO-CO.OC;Hs, is obtained in the form of pearly scales when carbon dioxide is passed into an alcoholic solution of potassium ethoxide, COz+KOC,H;=

KO-.CO.OC.Hs.

It is not very stable, water decomposing it into

839

oxygen and nitrogen. Organic chemistry is defined as “the chemistry of carbon compounds,” and a few of the vast number known

(some hundreds of thousands) are described in that article and un= individual headings; only some of the simplest are described ere. Three oxides of carbon are well defined, viz., the subaxide C30», the monoxide (or carbonic oxide), CO, and the dioxide (or carbonic acid gas), CO2; other subozides, such as mellitic anhydride, C1209, have been described. Carbon subosxide is formed by the action of phosphoric oxide on malonic acid or its ethyl ester at 300° C under diminished pressure; the reaction is essentially one

of dehydration: CH,(COOC2H;) =2C2H.-+ 2H:0-+-C302, and the oxide has the properties to be expected of a ketene (q.v.), since it is probably OC:C:CO, and of an anhydride of malonic acid. Its composition is confirmed by explosion with oxygen, whereupon it gives the correct amaunt of carbon dioxide (Cs02-+- 20O2==3COz), and by vapour-density determinations. It boils at 7° C and has a colourless, suffocating vapour. When kept in a sealed tube, it slowly undergoes polymerization (g.v.) to a dark red mass which is soluble in water. Carbon monoxide and dioxide are produced simultaneously when carbon is burnt in oxygen (T. F. E. Rhead and R. V. Wheeler}, the relative proportions depending upon the amount of

alcohol and the alkaline carbonate. The normal esters may be prepared by the action of silver carbonate on the alkyl iodides, or by the action of alcohols on the chlorocarbonic esters. These normal esters are colourless, pleasant-smelling liquids, which are readily soluble in water. They show all the reactions of esters, oxygen and other conditions. They are both concerned in many being readily hydrolyzed by caustic alkalis, and reacting with | balanced reactions of great industrial importance; thus, in metalammonia to produce carbamic esters and urea. Heating with Iurgical processes and producer-gas the equilibrium COs.-+-C AERIS SOLERO RENN rB EARE

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PERSONAGES

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Prate IV

CARICATURE

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BY COURTESY OF (1) MAX BEERBOHM AND WM. HEINEMANN, LTD , (3) G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, LONDON, (5) “THE STAR,” (6) ALBERT AND CHARLES BONI, INC., (10) G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, N Y. AND THE RICHARDS PRESS LTD , FROM B BAIRNSFATHER, “BULLETS AND BILLETS”; PHOTOGRAPHS, (4, 8) COPR. H. BONNAIRE, FROM “LE CANARD SAUVAGE,” (11) COPR. H. BONNAIRE, “DESSINS INÉDITS DE ROUVEYRE” (J. BOSC)

LATE 1. “Robert

Browning

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EARLY

Society”

by Max

TWENTIETH

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by Honoré

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CARICATURE by A. B. Sava

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frozen during a train trip 4. “Jules Renard” by “$em” (George Goursat) 5. “S'r ’enry” (Sir Henry Wood) “refusing an encore” by Low

6. Yvette Guilbert, from “Stage Folks” by Alfred J. Frueh, an American born in Lima, Ohio

7. “Austen

9. Drawing by Daumier, published in Charivari.

"Why the devil should

this great red creature, only half-dressed, too, be called Olympia?” “But, my dear, it is the black cat they mean by that!” 10. “Old Bill. Full of determination and plum & apple.” Central figure

in a series of World War cartoons created by Bruce Bairnsfather

ll. Cécile Sorel, by André Rouveyre

CARICATURE FRENCH CARICATURE Effect of Censorship.—Meanwhile, our attention may conveniently be turned to France, where personal caricature, even if it had established itself as soon as in England, was hardly likely to be allowed the same liberty in connection with political satire. The rarity of satirical prints of the earlier part of the 18th century is due rather to the extreme rigour with which they were sup-pressed than to their numbers, and apart from politics there was a large and varied supply of very interesting material for GrandCarteret’s volume L’Estampe Satirique, etc., and the more recent and fuller works of André Blum on the same subject. Among the earliest examples is another medical satire by poor Watteau who, in the short interval between his return from England and his death in 1721, burlesqued the whole faculty in a drawing which was engraved by Comte de Caylus. Caylus himself appears to have caught the infection of pure caricature from Ghezzi, and he made some very curious portrait-chargés of the frequenters of Madame Doublet’s salon. Of more public interest were the satires against literary and artistic personages; in 1728 the Almanac de Parnasse had a frontispiece introducing portraits of Rousseau, Voltaire, Racine le jeune, Crébillon and other figures, which was suppressed by the police and the Almanac sold without it. Voltaire in later years was bombarded with caricatures, one of which had the interest for us of showing Urania offering him a pair of spectacles to help him in reading Newton’s Principia. Jacques Saly produced a series of caricatures when he was at the French Academy in Rome in 1750, thus carrying on the true Carraccian tradition. The lighter side of social satire is represented by Jeurat, J. B. Huet and Gabriel St. Aubin, all of whom had a kindly eye for Jes filles de joie, and later by Duboucourt, some of whose works have more thana little in common with the best of Rowlandson’s. With Vauxhall Gardens and La Promenade de la Galerie du Palais Royal, published in 1785 and 1787, England and France, the only two countries in which a continuous development of caricature is traceable, were within measurable distance of each other. In the years of the Revolution and Napoleonic Wars such an approach could hardly be expected to be continued; no later than 1791 the rift was wide enough for the following legend beneath a very telling print :—“‘La grande aiguiserie royale des poignards anglais: Le fameux ministre Pitt aiguisant les poignards . . . Le gros Georges Dandin tournant le roule en haletant de fatigue.” The very numerous satires of these years are of the greatest interest historically, but are not of an attractive nature. It is, however, all the more interesting on this account to note that when the two countries were, so to speak, starting afresh in the second quarter of the next century, they did so on remarkably similar lines. Let us, therefore, continue with France. The Reign of Louis Philippe—Champfleury begins his History of Modern Caricature with the reign of Louis Philippe in 1830. In his preface he remarks that the book might well be styled “The demolishers of the bourgeoisie,” for they had no more determined adversaries than Daumier, Traviés and Henri Monnier; and that whatever satirical characters might be created in the future to succeed those of Mayeux, Robert Macaire and Monsieur Prudhomme, those three types would subsist as the most faithful representatives of the bourgeoisie from 1830 to 1850. The king himself, he adds, was the first bourgeois in the realm, and seemed to think that he could govern it with an umbrella for a sceptre, and that he only had to open it to protect himself from political storms. Certainly that strikes the dominant note of modern caricature, which henceforth, not only in France and England, but generally everywhere, became gradually less rude and savage, and

more “refined” and domesticated. As both politically and socially the world settled down after the Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, so caricature, save for occasional necessities, assumed a more polite, if more sarcastic, tone, and monsters and deformities gave place to subtler rendering of human weaknesses or excesses. In France, at first, the satire was none the less biting, the ridicule none the less stinging for its artistic excellence, and personal, physical caricature was used by Daumier and others with terrific

effect. The king’s heavy physiognomy was transformed into a symbol—la poire—and there was no public character who es-

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caped merciless caricature of his features, gestures and habits. At the same time, however, the artistic sense predominated, and when the bitterness had somewhat abated, survived as an example to be followed, a standard to be maintained. Even if this improvement was, so to speak, in the air, it was actually precipitated by one man, namely Charles Philipon. Whether or not he influenced John Doyle in the course of their lithographic studies, who, as we shall see, was doing something of the same sort for English caricature, he was certainly the great general who organized and led to glory the noble army of French satirical artists, and thereby furnished an example which has been followed more or less closely in every country in the world.

Philipon’s Career.—Philipon was born at Lyons in 1800 and settled in Paris in 1825, where he took to lithography for a living and produced some very charming caricatures; but he soon realized his ambition to found a paper. This was La Caricature, which made its appearance on Nov. 4, 1830, and after braving a continuous deluge of legal actions, was suppressed in 1835. Its chief artists were Honoré Daumier, Henri Monnier and J. T. Traviés, above mentioned. On Dec. 1, 1832, was born Philipon’s second child, Le Charivari, which still survives in a new series, having only temporarily succumbed to the World War in 1915. This was a daily paper, “publiant chaque jour un nouveau dessin.” Its birthday vignette, designed by Tony Johannot, the public were informed, required such special preparation that it could not appear in time. When no more than eight years old, it stood godfather to another lusty, and still thriving paper, Punch, or the London Charivari. In 1838, on Nov. 1, La Caricature Provisoire donned the shoes of its deceased brother, dedicated “aux amis de l'ancienne Caricature politique,” and adorned by its artists Daumier, Grandville, Forest, Bouchot, etc.; and when asked about the adjective provisoire, Philipon replied: “Si elle n’est pas politique, elle sera non politique . . . elle sera morale, littéraire, théatrale, artistique, sociale, medicale, chirurgicale, agricole, somnambuliste, anabaptiste, etc.” In the following June it received a new sub-title, “revue morale, judiciaire, littéraire, artistique, fashionable et scénique,” having abdicated its title of provisoire, “désormais trop sûre de vivre longtemps, et bien, pour ne pas se proclamer définitive.” In Jan. 1842 its subtitle was further modified, and it broke out into coloured plates of a most distressing brilliance. Philipon’s third child to attain public importance was Le Journal pour Rire, a specimen number of which was issued in Dec. 1847, and No. 1 on Feb. 5 following. This was on large newspaper sheets and full of wood-cut illustrations by some of the older artists, and also some new ones. Among these one of the most brilliant was Gustave Doré, who furnished Punch with the idea for at least two of his most successful features, namely, the “Bird’s Eye Views of Society” and “The Royal Academy Guyed,” Besides these, Philipon was responsible for Le Musée Philipon and was also the godfather of a great many occasional publications. In No. 5 of Le Journal pour Rire is a list of “Caricatures par les principaux dessinateurs du Musée Philipon, du Charivari, du Journal pour Rire, et de la maison Aubert,” some of them consisting of as many as 70 or 8o plates, a glance at which will give us a fair idea of what purely social caricature had become under the fostering influence of Philipon. First place is given to Gavarni, with “Le Carnaval,” “Le Carnaval 4 Paris,” “La Boîte aux Lettres,” “Les Maris vengés,” “Les Artistes,” “Les Impressions de Ménage,” “Les Lorettes,” “Les Enfants terribles.” Next is Daumier with “Les Beaux Jours de la Vie” (80 plates), “Les Croquis d'Expression” and “Les Robert Macaire” (with Philipon). Then Bouchot’s 70 “Bonnes Fêtes Musicales”; Jacques’s “Militariana”; Behr’s “L’Amour 4 Paris”; “Croquis parisiens” and “L’Opéra au 19° siècle” by E. de Beaumont; “Au Bal de l’Opéra,”’ “Les Troupiers Français,” “Croquis militaires,” “Les Grisettes,” and “Physiologie des bals publics” by Vernier. The anonymous remainder is not long, and is necessary to complete the survey :-— “Nos Gentilshommes,” “Turlupiniades,” “Souvenirs de Garnison,” “A Ja Guerre comme à la Guerre,” “Moeurs Algériennes,” “Moeurs britanniques,” “Les Chargés parisiens,” “Le Conservatoire de danse,” “Ces bons Parisiens,” “Prophètes chariviques.”

868

CARICATURE

For one man such an achievement, of which the above is the inating figure of this period was, undoubtedly, George Cruikbarest outline, was prodigious, and its effect on caricature, both shank, who, if we allow for the difference in time and circumin France and other countries, has been decisive. He raised cari- stances, occupied very much the same place in the roth century cature from the precarious issue of occasional prints to the regular as Hogarth did in the 18th. The untimely death of Seymour, by his own hand, in 1836, position of an indispensable auxiliary to journalism. To his recognition of the practical and artistic possibilities of lithography com- and a diminishing output of H. B.’s lithographs, may possibly bined, we owe the magnificent series of drawings that await resur- have accelerated the foundation in 1840 of Punch or the London rection in the forgotten or neglected volumes above mentioned, Charivari. Certainly the time was ripe for such an event, thanks and his undying ardour in political ridicule is still traceable in to the efforts of the preceding decade, and although neither the elder Doyle nor George Cruikshank had any hand in it, and its these days of milder expression. Among the brilliant and very numerous band of his artists, origins were of the humblest, it soon established itself, and only three names only are familiar to the public in Great Britain or the needed Richard Doyle and John Leech to make its success the U.S.A. Daumier, who stands head and shoulders above the rest; more sure and more glorious. But the success of Philipon’s papers in Paris was bound to be Doré, who might have rivalled him had he been prevented, as attempted, sooner or later, in other countries than England, and and painting; popular into evaporating Daumier was, from Gavarni. The first has now been recognized, like Rowlandson, for even a glance at the history of caricature during the second as a serious factor in the history of art; the second had his popu- half of the roth century we must look all over Europe—to say lar triumph and must wait for reinstatement until the effects of nothing of America, north and south—-where in every capital the it have cleared off. The third is still hovering. But none of the press was being requisitioned to provide a regular weekly service three can be fairly appreciated, until much more of their work is of vehicles for comical and satirical expression of feeling, which brought out into the light. Of the rest, Traviés and Monnier stand had hitherto had to go on foot or hire a conveyance for any out conspicuously as the creators of two almost historical char- particular occasion. Bismarck in Caricature.—Such a consummation was, peracters—the hunchback Mayeux and Monsieur Prudhomme—characters like Philipon’s and Daumier’s Robert Macaire and Ber- haps, dimly foreshadowed by the publication, in 1890, in Paris, trand (feebly imitated in “Ally Sloper” and “Ikey Mo”); and of a little volume entitled Bismarck en Caricatures, illustrated Grandville, who is best known for his ornithological whims, though by 140 cartoons, etc. from the more important periodicals since they were but a part of his excellent works, deserves equal rank. 1862. Its author, J. Grand-Carteret, was already well known for his work on caricatures in earlier periods, and he followed it some WORLDWIDE SPREAD OF CARICATURE years later with volumes dealing similarly with Leopold II., Nicholas II., Alphonse XIII. and Edward VII., which bring us Doyle and Seymour.—In England, as in France, modern nearer to present days. But the first volume, in itself marking caricature may be fairly dated from 1830, when McLean, the a distinct advance in the importance of caricature as an aid to printseller, commenced the issue of his Monthly Caricature Sheets, history, and also emphasizing, as it happened, the beginning of a a series which outlasted Philipon’s first venture by a year. These new epoch with the dismissal of the great Chancellor, is for many sheets were entirely covered with lithographs, mostly by Robert reasons the most valuable. Allowing for Bismarck being its only Seymour, but also by John Doyle who in the previous year had subject, with the stage all to himself, one cannot fail to see how begun the famous series of political cartoons, also in lithograph, clearly the mirror of caricature reflects the events, and the subover the mysterious signature “H. B.” These, too, were published tleties with which they are developed, throughout the whole quarby McLean, and although it would be paying him too high a compliment to style him the English Philipon, he is certainly to be ter of a century in which Bismarck was violently, yet always respectfully attacked, both in his own country and in many other congratulated on having brought out two such notable caricaturists as Doyle and Seymour, and also on having realized the prac- States. A French author might be pardoned for alittle bias in tical and artistic possibilities of lithography for the purpose. dealing with such a subject, but throughout the volume there is Doyle was an Irishman who came to London to paint portraits, hardly a cartoon which Bismarck himself could not have regarded but turning his attention to lithography, like Philipon, found it with pleasure or pride. All are tributes to his incessant activity an equally efficient and delightful means of improving and re- and efficiency, even those of the little Munich Punsch, which never fining the artistic qualities of political caricature. George Cruik- ceased to sting him till it ceased to appear in 1870. The occasional shank, not content to follow in his father’s footsteps, but still issue of single caricatures to a very limited clientèle was now suusing the needle, was also a great, and certainly a wider, influence perseded by the regular publication of illustrated periodicals in the general refinement upon the monstrous and extravagant which were read by thousands, and the foundations of a permafancies of the older school which is apparent in the work of John nent and world-wide alliance between caricature and journalism Leech, Richard Doyle, Hablot Browne and the rest. But there is were firmly laid. On its social side this alliance was no less fruita softness and a gentle spirit of raillery in the elder Doyle’s polit- ful in its developments than in politics, and the gain to both ical sheets—numbering in all over goo—and at least equally dis- parties to it became more and more apparent as the century adcernible in the work of his son, that inclines one to place Doyle vanced to its close. To posterity the gain is immeasurably greater, as high as Cruikshank among those to whom the spirit of modern in having a live record of manners and customs in place of the caricature is most indebted for its high tone and gentle demeanour, haphazard fragments from which its knowledge of earlier periods .| is alone derivable. Astronomers contemplate the heavens in a no less than for its artistic excellence. Robert Seymour, whose name and work are now entirely for- pool of mercury, and the reflections of human action in the mergotten, was really one of the older school. Like Woodward and curial element, though the gaiety of nations may ripple the surBunbury, he was a born caricaturist. It was his suggestion of face, are not so distorted as to impair their interest or their Cockney Sporting Plates to be issued monthly that was altered by value. Rather do the ripples add that relish to matter of fact Charles Dickens, whom he asked to supply the letterpress, into which, as we presently shall see, is at the root of the derivation The Pickwick Papers, and he was their first illustrator. His art of the word caricature, and, we may almost say, of a really spirwas not of the highest order, or he might not have achieved such itual understanding of anything human. Eastern Europe.—Beginning with the remotest and least proa wide popularity in his inartistic period. It was in Figaro in London, edited by Gilbert à Beckett, that Seymour was described, lific of the nations, we find in Russia Strekoza and Palimet, in in 1833, as the Shakespeare of caricature, and in the same year Cracow Djabel and in Warsaw Mucha. None of these is available was announced The Terrific Penny Magazine with cuts by Sey- for perusal in England, but the Buda-Pest Borsszem Janko, by mour and other artists of celebrity, and later, The Wag, and a some strange chance, though not mentioned by Grand-Carteret, 1s new supply of Figaro’s caricature gallery. In this sort of company in the British Museum library. It began with the New Year m one might observe, like Dr. Primrose, that if there was not more 1868, and had an excellent artist in Karl Klié. It is amusing to wit than usual, there was certainly more laughter. But the dom- find: scraps of English here and there; there is “Lord Jockeymor-

CARICATURE land” in Janko’s Museum, remarking on a bottled specimen “indeed very curious,” while outside Queen Victoria is sitting attended by a Scotch piper. In 1887 the paper was still well illustrated, by Klosz and others unnamed, a really fine cartoon being a grim rendering of “Cholera,” and a more amusing one showing Bismarck in the prompter’s box dismissing the old year down a stage trap, and calling on the new, armed to the teeth. More surprising is a group of politicians in the disguise of Gilbert and Sullivan’s Mzkado and the “Three Little Maids from School.” Caviar, another Hungarian paper, had a good caricaturist in C.

Sieben. Vienna, as might be expected, was far more prolific. Kikeriki, founded in 1861, is still crowing; Figaro, a name adopted by numerous papers and in all lands—there was even a Sheffield Figaro —was most famous in Vienna; and there were also Der Floh, Lucifer, Die Bombe, Die Auste, Wiener Caricaturen and Die Muskete. At Innsbruck, too, was Der Scherer, and at Prague Humoristiche Listy. Spain and Portugal.—In Lisbon, Os Puntos nos iz (the dots on the i’s) had a notable cartoonist in Raphael Pinheiro. In Madrid the only considerable illustrated paper in the last century was El Motin, and the work of Spanish caricaturists must be looked for in North and South America. But there is now quite a long list including El Liberal, Espana, Gil Blas, Gedeconciio, Blanca e Nera, La Espera, Gedéon, El Mundo Humoristico. In Barcelona two excellent caricaturists, Bracons (“Apa”) and Inglada, work for Jberia, and Picarol for La Campana de Gracia. Switzerland, Belgium, Holland.—Switzerland was fortunate in having two caricaturists at a much earlier date, Rudolf Topffer and Martin Bisteli. Both were dead before 1850; but their influence may have contributed to the success of the Geneva Carillon and the Zurich Postheirt and Nebelspalier, the last of which attained first rate importance in political caricature and is still flourishing. In Belgium, the grotesque and somewhat fearful expressions of Breughel, Bosch, Wierz and Jan van Beers found a remarkable

exponent in Felicien Rops, whose contributions to the Brussels Uylenspiegel in the ’50s and ’60s are among the rariora of modern prints. On one occasion, in 1863, he paid Grandville the compliment of a new version of that artist’s famous cartoon of 1831, “Order is established in Warsaw.” In the ’80s, the eccentricities of “Popold’’ had begun to afford opportunity for the caricaturists which were not neglected. At Liége, there were Lemaitre in Le Rasoir and Lapiérre in Le Frondeur; and in Brussels, Boum-Kelkou in Le Clairon, Sebranc in the Moniteur du Congo, Levy in Le Gourdin, and Zarib in Clair de Lune. With the new century appeared G. Julio in Le Cri du Peuple and La Réforme, C. de Busschera in Le Flirt, Sicambre in Le Zwanzeur, besides others in Le Sifiet, La Trique and Les Corbeaux. From the colder genius of Holland, where Romeyn de Hooghe established pictorial satire as a serious contribution to politics, we need not expect very much on the lighter side of caricature, but can appreciate all the better the extraordinary manifestation of the old spirit in Louis Raemaekers’ War cartoons; and even forgive the Amsterdam Weekblad von Nederland and De Kroniek for their sharpest hits at the British Government in the Boer War. The magnificent conception of Cecil Rhodes in his coach, in 1897, needs no forgiveness. De Notenkraker, Amsterdam, and De Nederlandische Spectator at The Hague are also to be remembered. Scandinavia, Greece, Italy.—Scandinavia, in an atmosphere comparatively free from the political smoke or social scents of its neighbouring countries, has produced numerous caricaturists whose delightfully fresh and simple touch proclaims their kinship with Grieg and Ibsen. With the exception of Olaf Gulbranson and “Blix? who became famous on Simplizissimus, their names and their works are little known abroad. Among the earliest were Wilhelm Marstrand, Constantin Harrisen and Fritz Jiirgensen in Copenhagen and Wilhelm Petersen, the illustrator of Hans Andersen. In the Danish Punch we find excellent work of Hans Tegner and Knud Gamborg, in Blaeksprutten and Klods-Hans of

Alfred Schmidt, and in Vort Land of Axel Thiess.

869

In Norway and Sweden the principal artists were Th. Kittlesen in Tyrilhaus, E. Schwart in Sondags Nisse, Knud Stangenberg in

Strix, and Albert Engelstr6m. At the present time Copenhagen maintains a good display but of no special merit. “Blix” contributes on Sundays to the venerable Berlingske Tidende (no connection with Berlin), now in its I8oth year. Politiken, approaching its jubilee, is wonderfully vivid and varied, as are the morning Dagens Nyheder, the noonday B.T. and the weekly Hjemmet. If Greece was somewhat outside the European circle in the last century, and if her language and written character are still beyond the casual intelligence, her recent contributions to our subject are fuller and more certain than in the days of Pauson. Romeos, the most famous of all Greek comic papers, which first appeared in 1883 and was read by every Greek from Marseille to Trebizond, was the work of one man, Soures, the Aristophanes of modern Greece, who wrote the whole of it (including the advertisements) in verse. It ceased, with his death, in 1918. Asty was more remarkable for its caricatures (a volume of which has been published) by its editor Themistocles Anninos (d. 1906). Eleutheron Bema, the present leading morning paper, exhibits a daily cartoon (I'eXotoypadia) by Ph. Demetriades; and Proia, another daily, rivals it in the productions of El. Koumetakes and N. Kastanakes. Gatos (the Cat), a weekly paper, supplies the only coloured caricatures in this country. In Italy, modern caricature began with the establishment of Il Fischietto in 1848, at Turin, as a very small paper with one or two crude woodcuts. But it soon enlarged itself, and early in the 60s It was admirably, one is almost tempted to say superbly, illustrated by three artists, Virginio, Teja and Redenti. If Virginio’s lithographs lacked the genius of Daumier, as any but Daumier’s must, they lacked little else to recommend them both to the collector and to the historian. Had Grand-Carteret included Napoleon ITI. in his series, the Italian artists would have had a preponderating share of the illustrations, for as he points out in his Bismarck, French influence was predominant in Italy right up to 1870, and it seemed that the caricaturists were violently protesting against it. After 1870, he adds, there is a complete change; the kingdom of Italy, having now attained her unity and territorial integrity, began to look abroad, and the press admirably reflected the new state of affairs. Italian comic papers might be those of a neutral country with cosmopolitan ideas, and Papagalio, soon afterwards established in Bologna, was a veritable European picture gallery, unfolding week by week in a succession of coloured cartoons the broadest outlines and most important questions of European politics. So great was the success of Papagallo that it was soon imitated by ZI Trottola and Zi Rana. Il Pasquino was already established at Turin and J] Pulchinella in

Naples. J] Fischtetto was later managed and illustrated by Camillo Marietti, who signalized the retirement of Bismarck in 1890 by a cartoon which may take rank with Tenniel’s “Dropping the Pilot.” It was entitled “L’Armoire aux retraites,” and showed Tisza and Bismarck each occupying a cupboard, and the hand of history pointing out a third to Crispi. J/ Travaso in Rome, J] 420 in Florence, L'Uomo di Pietra and Guerin Meschino in Milan, are lively younger brothers of the still flourishing Pasquino. Among the modern caricaturists none is finer than Musacchio, and none more effective than Sacchetti. Germany, France.—The extent and diversity of modern Ger-

many, apart from her great place in Europe, precludes more than a very scanty tribute in our space to the very large and accom-

plished family descended from Luther and Cranach as also from Gutenberg and the early block printers. Between the homeliness of Adolf Oberlander and the mordancy of Th. H. Heine there is

a wide gulf, but it is by no means a void; and from Fliegende Blatter of 1845 to Des Junggeselle of 1928 one cannot step as through a desert. Berlin and Munich were naturally the two most

prolific centres, and they were not long in following England in Philipon’s train with Kladderadatsch (1848) and Flegende Blatter (1845). Munich was first in point of time, and has certainly never been eclipsed by Berlin in point of quality. The miniature cartoons of E. Schleich from 1862 to 1870 in the Munich Punsch

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CARICATURE

are a most valuable commentary on the story of the rise of Prussia under the influence of Bismarck. Jugend and Simplizissimus in later times have developed the artistic possibilities of caricature, and if with more vigour than charm, it may be added that even their most cruel and brutal satire has something about it which compels laughter. In Berlin, besides Kladderadatsch, there were soon Der Ulk in 1868, Wespen in 1870, Lustige Blätter, and Humoristiche Blätter. The Frankfurt Latern, the Stuttgart Wahre Jacob, the Dusseldorf Monatschafte, the Danzig Bunte Blätter are all of them to be reckoned with the Berlin and Munich apers. j in France, the school of Philipon continued to flourish, and also to expand. Daumier lived on to 1879, and his cartoon after Sedan was one of his most impressive. Doré had abandoned caricature, or “Cham” would not have been Daumier’s next of kin. The foremost names or pseudonyms of the next generation were Nadar, André Gill, Draner, Sahib, Stop, Luque, Félix Regamey, Alfred le Petit, Moloch and Pilotell. Of the many new papers before 1890 were L’Eclipse, Le Trombinoscope, La Chronique Parisienne and La Chronique Amusante (all containing cartoons by Moloch), Le Journal Amusant, Le Cri de Paris, La Lune, La Charge, Triboulet, La Journée, Le Figaro Illustré, La Silhouette, Le Carillon and Le Siflet. The last named, which began in 1872, was peculiarly vivacious, and its large coloured cartoons by Le Mare and others, though of little artistic merit, and vulgar in their extravagant outlines, were still very amusing and informing. It was thoroughly radical, and the ex-emperor, the royalists and the church cut very sorry figures in it. Certainly there was a decline in artistic illustration, not in France alone, towards and during the ’8os; and though we can hardly drag in Bismarck here, it is noticeable that after 1890 there were signs of a very potent revival. The appearance of Gil Blas in the kiosques in 1891, and of Le Courrier Francais, if not a challenge to the inanities of “Mars” in La Vie Parisienne, was truly a relief. Though Steinlen was even less a caricaturist than Gavarni, and Forain little more, both were great artists, and it was a pity that so much of their subject matter being “the unmentionable,” their really fine qualities,

like those of Rowlandson and Gillray, had to wait to be discovered. The first appearance of Le Rire on Nov. 10, 1894, may fairly be regarded as an event of some importance in the history of caricature, at any rate as to its lighter side, and its opening number, with a coloured plate by J. L. Forain, is a document of considerable interest. In the first place, there is its list of artists, which, even without the further promise “d’autres noms, aimés du public, et d’autres encore qui seront des surprises,” is surprising enough:—J. L. Forain, Willette, Caran d’Ache, Fernand Frau, Dépaquit, Paule Crampel, Courboin, Jossot, Georges Delaw, G. Darbour, D’Espagnet, Gyp, Heidbruck, Jean Veber, Léandre, Louis Anquetin, Ch. Maurin, H. de Toulouse-Lautrec, P. Bonnard, Hermann-Paul, Marc Mouclier, Vallotton, Rupert-Carabin, Roedel, Louis Morin, A. Schlaich, Alphonse Lévy (“Said”), Grellet, Gumery, Verbeck, Vavasseur, Guydo, Charly, Lebégue. Even without ` Steinlen, Guillaume, Gerbault, Abel Faivre and many more, there are names in this list to which none of the previous generation, with the great Cham, Moloch, Sahib, Bac, etc., can deny at least equal places in the niches of fame. Of no less interest, and of considerable historical significance, is the introduction of two features, “Le Rire d’Autrefois” and “Le Rire 4 l’Etranger,”’

the latter still continuing. The former was distinctly homage to Philipon, the first item being a double page reproduction of Daumier’s famous “Le Ventre Legislatif,” with the mischievous parenthesis added “Ça n’a pas beaucoup changé depuis 1834.” Later numbers reproduced still older caricatures, by Isabey and others. The foreign section had a distinctly English flavour, being introduced by a note signed “Globe-Trotter,”’ and two out of its three items (nowadays it contains a dozen) were English—one by Sambourne from Punch, and the other by Phil May from The Sketch. The third was from the Vienna Floh, but still with a Gladstonian allusion—Bismarck as “The Grand Old Man” trying to fell Capriva persdnified as a tree. Of more recent date were L’Assietie au Beurre, Le Canard sauvage (subsequently Le Can-

ard enchainé), L’Iniransigeant, L’Indiscret, Mon Dimanche D’Artagnan, Fantasio and many others. : Great Britain.—Returning at last to England, it is ip. teresting to observe that Punch, though dominating the realm of caricature from its very inception, and for over a quarter of a century almost

alone in its glory, was

always equal to the oc.

casion, sustaining with dignity and charm the whole responsibility

of an ancient and most honourable inheritance. Victorian conditions inflated the popular love of monarchy, and the public at large came more and more to regard established institutions like the Royal Academy, Covent Garden theatre or the Langham hotel as all-sufficient, and to look askance at any attempt to supplement them with new ones.

So that when Judy, Fun, Moonshine and

Ally Sloper’s Half Holiday were successfully established, they were never in any sense rivals to the legitimate monarch. It is rather surprising that half-a-dozen artists in a single journal, of

so small a size, and with no coloured illustrations, should for half

a century more or less have been the only representatives of the

great family with its ramifications that flourished in former days. But autres temps, autres moeurs and the extraordinary vulgarities with which the domestic life of the young queen and her consort was made fun of soon gave place to the refinement introduced

by the Doyles and established by their successors, Leech, Tenniel, Keene, Du Maurier and Sambourne. For Victorian England this must be allowed to have sufficed, and Dr. Primrose might now have observed that if there was not more laughter than of yore there was certainly as much wit. At the same time it must be admitted that the Victorian climate was not suitable for the development of rude health in caricature. Heavy academical foliage absorbed the sun, and the pungent undergrowth of PreRaphaelitism only succeeded in forcing its way up by virtue of its deadly earnestness. Punch alone enjoyed the free air. One plant, however, appeared in 1869, which by its fruits we know must have been from a seed of the original tree, namely Vanity Fair. Here, at last, was a revival, and in its pleasantest form, of personal caricature. Though “Ape” and “Spy” (Carlo Pellegrini and Leslie Ward) were the only two of its artists whose names are familiar to the general public, it is significant that many of the finest portraits in the earliest numbers were by J. J. Tissot, so that the success of the paper was really established by Italian and French artists. Historically this is quite as it should be, just as “Punch” is named after the mythical “Polchinello” whose characteristics were illustrated by Ghezzi, and one of its most successful artists, Du Maurier, was of French extraction. Not until the last decade—la jin du siécle—did the Victorian glaciation give any sign of loosening. Among the first, in 1890, and of itself insignificant, was a little paper called The Whirlwind edited by Herbert Vivian and Stewart Erskine and illustrated by some of the founders of the New English Art club —another sign. A little later Pick me up made a gallant bid for popular favour, but was before its time. In 1894 there was a more decided crack, and The Yellow Book, published by Matthews & Lane, threw up two volcanoes in the shape of Aubrey Beardsley and Max Beerbohm, whose molten streams combined to flow with ever increasing effect on the artistic and literary climate. Widely different as they were, both these young men achieved the same result in bursting the shackles that were cramping the arts of illustration and caricature. Reed’s caricature

in Punch, “Britannia à la Beardsley,” was far too witty and too clever to have been designed in derision of so fine an artist; but there was something so entirely new to the Victorian in Beardsley’s uncanny grotesque, that he was for long looked at askance. His influence on “black and white” in general was enormous, and in caricature it is traceable everywhere.

Max, on his

part, being a caricaturist in the strict Carraccian tradition, loosened the buttons, shook out the folds and generally disorganized the growing trimness of personal caricature as exemplified in the Vanity Fair cartoons, which in the ’80s were becoming more and more suitable for The Tailor and Cutter. The most baffling thing about his marvellous gift of spiritual portraiture seems to be S the farther he gets from actuality the nearer he gets to truth.

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CARICATURE Pirate VI

871

CARIGARA Recent Developments.—-With the most recent developments of caricature it is impossible for the staid historian to keep pace. He can only shout after the caricaturists, not to stop, but to wish them still more activity in still wider fields. As it is they have rushed in at the studio doors opened to them by the cubists, vorticists, post-impressionists and their imitators, and rushed out

Poca A a aa

again with their arms full of fancies which they have twisted up and thrown, like confetti, into the most unexpected places. Some have stuck to the hoardings, others have got into the circulars of the most respectable and stately commercial firms, and the least humorous of the weekly papers. This great and surprising expansion is due, in no small measure, to the World War, when they were employed with Lutheran vigour and insistence, both as propaganda and as a relief to the feelings. Posterity may perhaps decide which were the most successful (for either purpose) among such as King George reviewing the British fleet in

a diving suit (German), the Bolsheviks at the telephone (Musacchio), or “What did you do in the Great War, Daddy?” (English); but there is no doubt that all of them contributed something to the very general extension of the employment of caricature for artistic and commercial, no less than for satirical purposes, in these present days. Instead of being destroyed, or reserved for private circulation, as in the old times, the careless rapture of the modern artist now finds a place on the hoardings. These modern artists are a determined lot of fellows, a large and exceedingly fierce tribe, and they are doing much more for caricature than any one before them. Adopting the most advanced and highly artistic tenets, they have imposed significant form alike on the commonest objects of the ideal home and the rarest flowers in the garden of public affairs. They know to a hair’s breadth how far a statesman’s face can be stretched without snapping, they have the bursting strain of every bulge in his figure calculated to a decimal point. With a few strokes of the pen they can visualize an international situation or a social tendency in a manner that saves us reading whole columns of print. Finally, notwithstanding every excess, they have shown themselves equal to the delicate task of sustaining the traditions of the very oldest of the comic papers under the double disadvantage of the devastations of the World War and the complete change of outlook on many subjects resulting therefrom. Charivari, now in its 87th year, has in Soupault, Bib and Cyl, cartoonists as lively as ever, and if an artistic comparison with their earliest predecessors is impossible now, it is probably only because it is too soon to make it. Punch, the next oldest, having enjoyed uninterrupted prosperity with a sound constitution and no incitement to change, is still an old friend with a young face. Kladderadatsch and Flregende Blatter are oftener quoted by Le Rire than any others, and side by side with them we find Nebelspalter, Simplizissimus, Mucha, Ulk, Jugend, Pasquino, Lustige Blätter and Wahre Jacob, most of them past their jubilee and all well up to date. If the tight-lacing of the ’80s was finally abolished by the War, and if the reaction seems a little too startling just at the moment, it must be accepted nevertheless as a very healthy symptom in an art which to be an art at all, must always be allowed its own way. BIBLIOCGRAPHY.—J. P. Malcolm, Historical Sketch of the Art of Caricaturing (1813) ; T. Wright, History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (1865); Champfleury (Jules Fleury), Histozre de la Caricature (antique et moderne), and other volumes by the same author (186s, etc.) ; J. Paxton, Caricature and other Comic Art (1878) ; J. Grand-Carteret, Les Moeurs et la Caricature en Allemagne, etc. (1888); Bismarck en Caricatures, and numerous other volumes by the same author (1890) etc.; G. Everitt, English Caricaturists and Graphic Humorists of the Nineteenth Century (1886); Armand Dayot, Les Maîtres de la Caricature française en XIXe siècle (1888) ; Arsène Alexandre, L’Art du rire et de la Caricature (1893); M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895); Georges Veyrat, La Caricature à travers les siécles (1895); A. Brisson, Nos Humoristes (1900) ; E. Bayard, La Caricature et les Caricaturistes (1901); E. Fuchs, Die Karikatur der europäischen Völker (1901); A. Filon, La Caricature

en Angleterre (1902); R. de la Sizeraine, Le Miroir de la Vie, la Caricature (1902); A. B. Maurice and F. T. Cooper, The History of the Nineteenth Century in Caricature (1904); C. E. Jensen, Karikatur-Album etc. (Copenhagen, 1904-08); P. Gaultier, Le Rire et la Caricature (1906); E. Rasi, La Caricatura e i Comici Italiani (Florence, 1907) ; J. Frances, La Caricatura Española Contemporanea

(1915); C. R. Ashbee, Caricature (1928).

-

(R. D)

United States.—Political caricature in the United States began with William Charles, a Scotsman who, forced to leave Great Britain, emigrated to America, and, in the War of 1812, used his pencil and invention with great bitterness against his renounced country. Pencil and invention were both crude. Charles was an imitator of James Gillray, and his most widely-circulated cartoon, “John Bull Making a New Batch of Ships to Send to the Lakes,” bore a close resemblance, in conception and detail, to Gillray’s “Tiddy-Doll (Napoleon) Making a New Batch of Kings.” Gillray, influencing Charles, also influenced the work of Charles’s successors for several decades. The basis of the early American cartoon was the Gillray group of many figures. A school of distinctively American caricature came in with the first administration of President Jackson. These lithographs told their stories by means of legends enclosed in balloon-like loops issuing from the lips of the various members of the groups. The anonymous artists were most productive in the heat of political campaigns, during the Mexican War, and with the rising slavery agitation. The Civil War naturally let loose a flood of cartoons; among them the early work of Nast. Thomas Nast (1840-1902) remains the dominant figure in the history of American caricature. Lincoln called Nast’s cartoons the best recruiting sergeants on the Union side. His picture “Peace,” originally called “Compromise with the South,” first made his reputation. It appeared just after the election of 1862, and was circulated by the million as a campaign document. Nast’s later influence was both national and local. He was the inventor of the “donkey” used as the symbol of the Democratic Party, the Tammany “Tiger,” the “‘rag-baby” of inflation, and the cap and dinner pail emblematic of labour. More than any other man he was responsible for the overthrow of the notorious Tweed Ring that long held New York city in its clutches. Such cartoons as “The Brains of Tammany” and “The Tammany Tiger in the Arena” proved the siege guns in the battle for civic reform. Finally it was a Nast picture that led to the capture, in Spain, of the fugitive Tweed. The traditions of Nast were carried on in the late ’7os, 80s and ’90s by Keppler and Gillam. The series of “Tattooed Man” cartoons, depicting James G. Blaine in the title rdle, contributed to Cleveland’s victory in 1884. They were the work of Bernard Gillam, who, upon leaving Puck, drew equally vindictive caricatures of Cleveland and the Democratic Party on the rival pages of Judge. A cartoon with a story was Gillam’s “Where Am I At?” of 1892. It was originally drawn to commemorate an expected smashing Republican victory. When the election returns showed that Cleveland had won it was too late to prepare another cartoon, so Gillam set to work making the necessary changes in the plate, capping his labour with a likeness of himself in the form of a monkey turning an uncomfortable somersault. Two outstanding cartoons of the later ’90s, “Don Quixote Bryan Meets Disaster in his Encounter with the Full Dinner Pail,” and “Be Careful: It’s Loaded!” a warning to Spain just before the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, were the work of Victor Gillam.

American caricature of the present century is abundant and of a high order. Syndicate service has brought the work of the most efficient and highly paid cartoonists to the readers of the most rural communities. There is a Pulitzer prize annually awarded for the cartoon deemed the most effective. Conspicuous among these awards for recent years have been (1921) to Rollin Kirby for “On the Road

to Mandalay,”

in the New

York

World;

(1924) to J. N. Darling for ‘In the Good Old U.S.A.,” in New York Tribune; and (1926) to Nelson Harding for “Toppling the Idol,” in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. (A. B. M.) See the articles on related subjects, as CARTOON; COMIC STRIP; PEN DRAWING; PENCIL DRAWING; ILLUSTRATION; POSTER; etc.

CARIGARA, a municipality (with administration centre and 35 barrios or districts) of the province and island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on Carigara bay, 22 m. W. of Tacloban, the provincial capital. Pop. (1918) 17,558, of whom 8,862 were males and none white. Carigara is open to coast trade, exports large quantities of abaca, raises much rice and corn and manufactures cotton and abaca fabrics. It also has important fisheries

872

CARIGNANO—CARINTHIA

and mineral springs exist in or near the municipality. In 1918 it had 18 manufacturing establishments, with an output valued at 28,726,700 pesos, and 317 household industry establishments, output, 134,400 pesos. Of the four schools, three were public. The language spoken is a dialect of Bisayan. ;

CARIGNANO,

a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province

of Turin, rım. S. by tramway from the town of Turin. Pop. (1921) town, 3,952, commune, 6,639. It has a handsome church (S. Giovanni Battista) erected in 1756—66 by the architect Benedetto Alfñeri di Sostegno (1700—1767), uncle of the poet Alfieri.

S. Maria delle Grazie contains the tomb of Bianca Palaeologus, wife of Duke Charles I. of Savoy, at whose court Bayard was brought up. The town passed into the hands of the counts of Savoy in 1418. Carignano was erected by Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy into a principality as an appanage for his third son, Thomas Francis (1596—1656), whose descendant, Charles Albert, prince of Carignano, became king of Sardinia on the extinction of the elder line of the house‘of Savoy at the death of Charles Felix in 1831.

CARILLON,

an arrangement for playing tunes upon a set

of bells by mechanical means. The word is said to be a Fr. form of late Lat. or Ital. guadriglio, a simple dance measure on four notes or for four persons (Lat. quattuor); and is used sometimes for the tune played, sometimes (and more commonly in England) for the set of bells used in playing it. The earliest mediaeval attempts at bell music, as distinct from mere noise, seem to have consisted in striking a row of small bells by hand with a hammer, and illustrations in mss. of the 12th and 13th centuries show this process on three, four or even eight bells. The introduction of mechanism in the form either of a barrel (see BARREL-ORGAN) set with pegs or studs and revolving in connection with the machinery of a clock, or of a keyboard struck by hand (carillon à clavier), made it possible largely to increase the number of bells and the range of harmonies. In Belgium, the home of the carillon, the art of the carillonneur has been brought to its greatest perfection, and here, and in Holland and France, the number of carillons, great and small, runs into hundreds. (See BELL.) In Britain the system of ringing bells by peal, known as the change-ringing, has always been preferred. But carillons and keyboards on the Continental model exist here and there, e.g., at the Manchester town hall, at Armagh and Cobh cathedrals, Bournville, Cattistock and elsewhere, while British made carillons have been set up in America. Among the latter are that of the Houses of Parliament at Ottawa (53 bells, the largest weighing to tons), and that of Riverside Drive church, New York, containing 57 bells, of which the deepest-toned, weighing 184 tons, is the fourth largest bell in existence. Some of the most important improvements in bell-ringing mechanism, as well as in methods of tuning, have had their origin in Britain. This mechanism is very similar in general to that employed in the case of organs, one difference, however, being that light wooden levers take the place of the ivory keys. These levers are attached by means of wires and cranks to the clappers, which strike the bell on the inside surface at a point near its largest diameter. The travel of the clapper is about one inch, which is sufficient to bring out the full volume of sound required for carillon playing, while still permitting the delicacy of touch necessary to the obtaining of the best effects. Pedals are attached to the levers connected with the heavier bells, so that these can be played by foot or by hand, their performance being further facilitated in some cases by the employment of “assistance pistons.” These provide that directly the player begins to depress the pedal, electrical contact brings into operation an electro-pneumatic motor, the piston of which is coupled to the clapper and its force thereby added to that of the performer. This device, the invention of Gillett and Johnston, was employed first in the case of the fine carillon of 48 bells made by this firm and presented to Louvain university library by the American engineering societies. As regards the compass of carillons, the smallest usually have a range of at least two octaves, in semi-tones, while the largest may have a compass of as much as four-and-a-half octaves, or 53 bells.

BrsriocraPpHyY.—W. Gorham Rice, Carillons of Belgium and Holland The Carillon in Literature and Carillon Music and Singing Towers of

the Old World and the New; lecture by W. W. Starmer, Proc. Mus. Assoc., London, 31st session.

CARINA, one of the three constellations (see CONSTELLATION) into which the large southern Ptolemaic constellation Argo (q.v.) was subdivided. It contains several variable stars (see STAR). CARINATAE, the name often given in contradistinction to Ratitae (g.v.) to a large section of birds, including all the modern flying forms except the tinamous,

like process on the breast-bone.

on account

of the keel-

The terms are now commonly

replaced by Palaeognathae (=Ratitae) and Neognathae (=Carinatae).

CARINI, a town in the province of Palermo, Sicily, 13m. by

rail W.N.W. of Palermo. Pop. (1921) 12,912 (town); 14,217 (commune). On the coast lay the ancient Hyccara, said to be the

only Sican settlement on the coast. It was stormed and taken by the Athenians in 415 B.c., and the inhabitants, among them the famous courtesan Lais, were sold as slaves.

CARINTHIA is an Alpine province of Austria occupying the drainage area of the upper Drava and its headwaters.

Its isolation

is emphasized by the difficult enclosing mountain masses. Within the province two distinct regions exist, viz., Upper Carinthia, west of the confluence of the Gail and the Drava, and Lower Carinthia, east of that junction. The former is very mountainous and is divided into two sharply contrasted types of country by the

west-east flowing Drava. North of the river lies a belt of crystalline rock highly dissected into blocks by the numerous left-bank tributaries of the main stream, e.g., the Isel, the Möll, etc. Here,

though the heights are well-watered and clothed with forests and high pastures, settlement is sparse; scattered dwellings and hamlets concerned with cattle-raising predominate, for the valleys are narrow and rise steeply to the glaciated summits of the Hohe Tauern. There are, however, great possibilities for the development of electricity from the numerous falls and the present trend of Austria in this direction will doubtless react favourably upon the prosperity of this region. South of the Drava the southern limestone zone of the Alps is entered. Although several thousand feet lower in general level than the crystalline zone this region offers few attractions to human occupation. The prevalence of faulting and steep scarps, the lack of good passes, the absence of surface drainage and the marshy nature of the valley floors combine to restrict settlement which, with agriculture, favours the sunny northern slopes and the occasional alluvial fans, particularly in the valley of the Gail which divides the mass of the Carnic Alps into two groups. In both a decrease in height and BY COURTESY OF THE AUSTRIAN TOURIST difficulty towards the east is acOFFICE MAN AND WOMAN OF THE ALPINE companied by an increase in culPROVINCE, CARINTHIA, DRESSED IN tivation and by a growth in the THEIR NATIVE GALA COSTUME number and size of the villages. Lower Carinthia centres on the nucleus of the busy Klagenfurt basin, an undulating area, between 1,300 ft. and 1,650 ft. above sea-level, foored with Tertiary sediments and morainic debris. Its fertility is In great contrast to that of the crystalline Gurktal Alps and Saualpe to the north and of the Karawanken limestone belt of the south, for suitable soil and the high summer temperatures favour the growth of cereals and fruit while the surrounding mountain pastures aid the breeding of horses and cattle. In addition leather, paper, cement and mineral products are extensively manufactured, the latter particularly in the south-east near Bleiburg where lead ores are extracted. These, with the iron of the Saualpe and local lignite are the bases of small but important metal-

CARINUS—CARLETON lurgical industries at many places, among which Ferlach, Klagenfurt and St. Veit are the best known. The development of Carinthia is hindered in every direction by its remoteness and internal difficulties of communication. The old longitudinal route from Innichen to Bleiburg, now followed by a railway, carries little through trade because of frontier difficulties at either end, while only two transverse railways exist. One of these, however, the eastern, leads to the important Semmering pass and has brought additional prosperity to the important route junctions of Klagenfurt (32,000) and Villach (22,000). The other, crossing the Hohe Tauern by tunnel, handles a large proportion of the local trade in timber and wood products while both carry increasing numbers of tourists to the numerous small bathing resorts that line the shores of the remarkably warm Carinthian lakes which lie in the = longitudinal valleys, e.g., the Wéorther-see, the Millstatter-see, the Ossiach-see, etc. The population (371,000 in 1923) is predominantly Roman Catholic in religion and German in speech. Only in the southeast, where access is most easy, has a foreign element succeeded in penetrating along the main valleys and here alterations in customs, language and architecture herald the passage to Slovene territory. See also AUSTRIA; V. Paschinger, M. Wutte, Landeskunde von Kärnten, Klagenfurt, 1923. W.S. L.)

CARINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman emperor, A.D. 283-84, was the elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor of the western portion of the empire. He fought with success against the German tribes, but soon left the defence of the Upper Rhine to his legates and returned to Rome, where he abandoned himself'to dissipation. He also celebrated the Judi Romani on a magnificent scale. After the

873

held in Bowcombe, including church, mill, houses, land and tithes of the manor. Richard II. bestowed it on the abbey of Mountgrace in Yorkshire. It was restored by Henry IV., but was dissolved by act of parliament in the reign of Henry V., who bestowed it on his newly-founded charter-house at Sheen. Carisbrooke formerly had a considerable market, several mills, and valuable fisheries, but it never acquired municipal or representative rights, and was important only as the site of the castle. See Victoria County History: Hampshire; William Westall, History of Carisbrooke Castle (1850).

CARISSIMI, GIACOMO

(c. 1604-1674), one of the most

celebrated masters of the Italian school of music, was born about 1604 in Marino, near Rome. Of his life almost nothing is known. At the age of twenty he became chapel-master at Assisi, and in 1628 he obtained the same position at the church of St. Apollinaris belonging to the Collegium Germanicum in Rome, which he held till his death on Jan. 12, 1674, at Rome. He seems never to have left Italy. The two great achievements generally ascribed to him are the further development of the recitative, previously introduced by Monteverde, and of infinite importance in the history of dramatic music; and the invention of the chamber-cantata, by which he superseded the madrigals formerly in use. It is impossible to say who was really the inventor of the chambercantata; but Carissimi and Luigi Rossi were the composers who first made this form the vehicle for the higher kind of chambermusic, a function which it continued to perform until after the time of Alessandro Scarlatti, Astorga and Marcello. His oratorios in turn were of the first importance as having definitely established the form and style of that class of work.

CARLEN,

EMILIA

SMITH

FLYGARE

(1807-1892),

represents the battle as a complete victory for Diocletian.

Swedish novelist, was born at Strémstad on Aug. 8, 1807, and died at Stockholm on Feb. 5, 1892. Her first husband, a doctor, A. Flygare, died in 1833, and in 1841 she married a poet, Johan Gabriel Carlen, and went to live in Stockholm, where she formed a literary salon. Among her numerous novels, some of which depicted the life of fishermen and sailors, others the manners of the middle classes of her time, were Waldemar Klein (1838); Gustaf Lindorm (1839, Eng. trans. 1853); Professorn och hans skyddslingar (1840; Eng. trans. Professor’s favourites, 1843); The Rose of Fistelén (1842, Eng. trans. 1844); Jungfrutornet

See Vopiscus, Carinus (mainly the recital of his crimes); Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 38, Epit. 38; Eutropius ix. 18-20; Zonaras xii, 30; Orosius vii. 25; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie, ii, 24 ff. (Henze).

(1848, Eng. trans, The Maiden’s Tower, 1853). In 1878 she published an autobiography, Reminiscences of Swedish literary life (1878). Emilia Carlen’s novels were collected in 31 vols., Semlade romaner (Stockholm, 1869-75), and were translated into German

death of Carus, the army in the East demanded to be led back to Europe; Numecrianus, the younger son of Carus, was forced to comply, but was murdered on the way, and Diocletian, commander of the body-guards, was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. Carinus at once marched against Diocletian, whom he met in Moesia. Carinus was successful in several engagements, but at the battle on the Margus (Morava), according to one account, he was assassinated in the hour of victory; another tradition

CARISBROOKE, a town in the Isle of Wight, England, x m. S.W. of Newport. Pop. (1921) 4,767. The valley of the Lugley brook separates the village from the steep conical hill on which stands the famous castle. There are remains of a Roman villa in the valley, but no reliable mention of Carisbrooke occurs in Saxon times, nor does the name appear in the Domesday Survey. The castle is mentioned in the Survey under Alvington, and was probably raised by William Fitz Osbern, first lord of the Isle of Wight. From this date lordship of the island was always associated with ownership of the castle, which thus became the seat of government. Henry I. bestowed it on Richard de Redvers, in whose family it continued until Isabella de Fortibus sold it to Edward I., after which the government was entrusted to wardens as representatives of the crown. The keep was added in the time of Henry I., and in the reign of Elizabeth, when the Spanish Armada was expected, it was surrounded by an elaborate pentagonal fortification. The castle was garrisoned for Maud in 1136, but was captured by Stephen. In the reign of Richard II. it was unsuccessfully attacked by the French; Charles I. was imprisoned here for fourteen months before his execution. In 1904 the chapel of St. Nicholas in the castle was reopened and reconsecrated, having been re-built as a memorial of Charles I. The remains of the castle are imposing: parts are inhabited, but the king’s apartments are in ruins. The church of St. Mary has a beautiful Perpendicular tower and transitional Norman portions. Only the site can be traced of the Cistercian priory to which it belonged. This was founded shortly after the Conquest and originated from the endowment which the monks of Lyre near Evreux

in 72 vols. (sth ed. Stuttgart, 1893). CARLETON, WILL (Wrrram McKeENDREE) (1845-1912), American poet, was born in Hudson, Lenawee county, Mich., on Oct. 12, 1845. After graduating at Hillsdale college in 1869 he made extensive lecture tours through the Western States, Canada and Great Britain. He then engaged in editorial work for local Michigan papers, and in Jan. 1872 became editor of the Detroit Weekly Tribune. From 1873-78, he was editor of the Detroit Tribune. He had early shown a taste for poetry, and his “Betsey and I Are Out” (1871) won for him immediate recognition. For many years he was a frequent contributor to Harper’s Weekly. In 1883 he published City Ballads. He died in Brooklyn, N.Y., on Dec, 18, 1912. His published works include: Farm Ballads (1873); Farm Legends (1876); City Ballads (1883); City Legends (1890); City Festivals (1892) ; Songs of Two Centuries (1902) ; Poems for Young Americans (1906); A Thousand More Verses (1912); Over the Hill to the PoorHouse (1927). See A. E. Corning, Wil Carleton; A Biographical Sketch (1917).

CARLETON, WILLIAM

(1794-1869), Irish novelist, was

born at Prillisk, Clogher, Co. Tyrone, on March 4, 1794. As his father removed from one small farm to another, William attended at various places the hedge-schools, which used to be a notable feature of Irish life. Most of his learning was gained from a curate named Keenan, who taught a classical school at Donagh (Co. Monaghan), which Carleton attended from 1814 to 1816 with the intention of becoming a priest. After various experiments in earning his living he set out for Dublin, and arrived in the metropolis with 2s. 9d. in his pocket. He first sought occupa-

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CARLETON

PLACE—CARLISLE

tion as a bird-stuffer, but a proposal to use potatoes and meal as stuffing failed to recommend him. He then determined to become a soldier, but the colonel of the regiment in which he desired to enlist persuaded him (Carleton had applied in Latin) to give up the idea. He obtained some teaching and a clerkship in a Sunday school office, began to contribute to the journals, and his paper “The Pilgrimage to Lough Derg,” which was published in the Christian Examiner, excited great attention. In 1830 appeared the first series of Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, which at once placed the author in the first rank of Irish novelists. A second series, containing, among other stories, ‘“Tubber Derg, or the Red Well,” appeared in 1833, and Tales of Ireland in 1834. From that time till within a few years of his death Carleton’s literary activity was incessant. “Fardorougha the Miser, or the Convicts of Lisnamona” appeared in 1837—38 in the Dublin University Magazine. Among his other famous novels are: Valentine McClutchy, the Irish Agent, or Chronicles of the Castle Cumber Property (1845); The Black Prophet, a Tale of the Famine, in the Dublin University Magazine (1846), printed separately in the next year; The Emigrants of Ahadarra (1847); Willy Reilly and his dear Colleen Bawn, in The Independent (London, 1850); and The Tithe Proctor (1849), the violence of which did his reputation harm among his own countrymen. Some of his later stories, The Squanders of Castle Squander (1852) for instance, are defaced by the mass of political matter with which they are overloaded. Carleton remained poor, but in 1848 a pension of £200 a year was granted by Lord John Russell in response to a memorial on Carleton’s behalf, signed by numbers of distinguished persons in Ireland. He died at Sandford, Co. Dublin, on Jan. 30, 1869.

Carleton’s best work is contained in the Trazts and Stories of the Irish Peasaniry. He wrote from intimate acquaintance with the scenes he described; and he drew with a sure hand a serie§ of pictures of peasant life, unsurpassed for their appreciation of the passionate tenderness of Irish home life, of the buoyant humour and the domestic virtues, which would, under better circumstances, bring prosperity and happiness. He alienated the sympathies of many Irishmen, however, by his unsparing criticism and occasional exaggeration of the darker side of Irish character. During the last months of his life Carleton began an autobiography which he brought down to the beginning of his literary career. This forms the first part of The Life of William Carleton ... (1896), by D. J. O'Donoghue, which contains full information.

CARLETON PLACE, a town and port of entry of Lanark county, Ontario, Canada, 28m. S.W. of Ottawa, on the Mississippi river, and at the junction of the main line and Brockville branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. It has abundant water-power privileges, and extensive railway-repair shops and woollen mills. Pop. (1932) 4,105.

CARLILE, RICHARD

(1790-1843), English reformer and

freethinker, was born on Dec. 8, 1790, at Ashburton, Devonshire, the son of a shoemaker. He was educated in the village school and, after apprenticeship to a tinman, obtained occupation; in 1813, in London as a journeyman tinman. Influenced by Paine’s Rights of Man, he became an uncompromising radical, and in 1817 started pushing the sale of the Black Dwarf, a new weekly paper, edited by Thomas Wooler, all over London, and in his zeal to secure the dissemination of its doctrines frequently walked 30m. a day. In the same year he also printed and sold 25,000 copies of Southey’s Wat Tyler, reprinted the suppressed Parodies of Hone, and wrote himself, in imitation of them, the Political Litany. This work cost him 18 weeks’ imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine’s works, for which and for other publications of a like character he was fined £1500, and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment in Dorchester gaol. Here he published the first

by him, and nine of his shopmen received terms of imprisonment varying from six months to three years. In 1825 the government decided to discontinue the prosecutions.

After his release in that

year Carlile edited the Gorgon, a weekly paper, and conducted free discussions in the London Rotunda. For refusing to give sureties for good behaviour after a prosecution arising out of a

refusal to pay church rates, he was again imprisoned for three years, and a similar resistance cost him ten weeks’ more imprisonment in 1834-35. He died on Feb. 10, 1843, after having spent in all nine years and four months in prison. See G. J. Holyoake, The Life and Character of Richard Carlile (1870) ; T. C. Campbell, The Batile of the Press, as told in the life of R. Carlile (1899) ; G. A. Aldred, Richard Carlile, Agitator (1923).

CARLINGFORD,

CHICHESTER

SAMUEL

FOR-

TESCUE, Baron (1823-1898), British statesman, belonged to a family long settled in Ireland, and became Liberal M.P. for Louth in 1847. He was junior lord of the treasury (1854), chief secretary for Ireland (1865) under Lord Russell and (1867) under Gladstone, president of the board of trade (1871~74), lord privy

seal (1881~83), and president of the council (1883~85). received a peerage in 1874.

At first a warm

He

supporter of Glad-

stone’s Irish policy, he parted from him in 1885 on the Home Rule question.

CARLINGFORD, market town and port, Co. Louth, Ireland. Pop. (1926) 547. King John’s castle dates from 1210. There are remains of castellated houses built during Elizabethan and previous wars. A Dominican monastery was founded in 1305. The town received several charters between the reigns of Edward II. and James II., and was represented in the Irish parliament until the Union. Carlingford Lough is a rock basin hollowed out by glacial action. The oyster beds have long been valuable.

CARLINVILLE, a city of western Illinois, U.S.A., on the

Chicago and Alton railroad, 60m. N. by E. of Saint Louis; the county seat of Macoupin county. The population in 1930 was 4,144. Natural gas is found in the vicinity, and in a normal year the county mines over 6,000,000 tons of coal. The city manufac-

tures brick, tile and monuments. It was settled about 1828 and incorporated as a city in 1865. CARLI-RUBBI, GIOVANNI RINALDO, Count or (1720-1795), Italian economist and antiquarian, was born at Capo d’Istria. At the age of 24 he was appointed professor of astronomy and navigation in the University of Padua, and entrusted with the superintendence of the Venetian marine. After filling these offices for seven years he resigned them in order to devote himself to the study of antiquities and political economy.

Among his principal works are his Delle origine et del commercio della moneta, e della instituzione delle zecche d'Italia, published in four parts between 1751 and 1750: his Ragionamento sopra i bilanci economici delle nazioni (1759); his Sul libero commercio dei grant (1771), and his Antichità Italiche (1771).

CARLISLE, EARLS OF. This English title has been held

by two families, being created for James Hay in 1622, and being

extinct in that line on the death of his son in 1660, and then be-

ing given in 166r to Charles Howard,

and descending to the

present day in the Howard family.

James Hay, ist earl of Carlisle (d. 1636), the son James Hay of Kingask (a member of a younger branch Erroll family), was knighted and taken into favour by VI. of Scotland, brought into England in 1603, treated as a favourite” and made a gentleman of the bedchamber.

of Sir of the James “prime

He received

many titles and honours, was created Lord Hay of Sawley (1615), Viscount Doncaster (1618), and earl of Carlisle (1622). James employed him on many important diplomatic missions to France, Germany and Spain. On July 2, 1627, Lord Carlisle obtained 12 volumes of his periodical the Republican (1820, etc.). The from the king a grant of all the Caribbean Islands, including Barpublication was continued by his wife, who was accordingly bados, this being a confirmation of a former concession given by sentenced to two years’ imprisonment in 1821. A public sub- James I. He was also a patentee and councillor of the plantation scription, headed by the duke of Wellington, was now raised to of New England, and showed great zeal and interest in the coloprosecute Carlile’s assistants. At the same time Carlile’s furniture nies. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to King Charles and stock-in-trade in London were seized, three years were added I. after his accession. In 1628, after the failure of the expedition to his imprisonment in lieu of payment of his fine, his sister was, to Rhé, he was sent to make a diversion against Richelieu in fined £500 and imprisoned for a year for publishing an address Lorraine and Piedmont; he counselled peace with Spain and the

CARLISLE

875

vigorous prosecution of the war with France, but on his return mander-in-chief of the four northernmost counties. In 1672 he home found his advice neglected. He took no further part in became lord-lieutenant of Durham, and in 1673 deputy earl marpublic life, and died in March 1636. “He left behind him,” says shal. In 1678 he was appointed governor of Jamaica and reapClarendon, “a reputation of a very fine gentleman and a most ac- pointed governor of Carlisle. He died on Feb. 24, 1685, and was complished courtier, and after having spent, in a very jovial life, buried in York Minster. above £400,000, which upon a strict computation he received Frederick Howard, sth earl (1748-1825), was a member of from the crown, he left not a house or acre of land to be re- a commission sent out by Lord North to attempt a reconciliation membered by.” with the American colonies. In 1780 he became viceroy of IreThe charms and wit of his second wife, Lucy, countess of land. The two years of Carlisle’s rule passed in quietness and Carlisle née Percy (1599—1660) which were celebrated in verse prosperity, and the institution of a national bank and other by all the poets of the day, including Carew, Cartwright, Her- measures which he effected left permanently beneficial results rick and Suckling, and by Sir Toby Matthew in prose, made her upon the commerce of the island. In 17809, in the discussions as a conspicuous figure at the court of Charles I. There appears no to the regency, Carlisle took a prominent part on the side of the foundation for the scandal which made her the mistress suc- prince of Wales. In 1791 he opposed Pitt’s policy of resistance cessively of Strafford and of Pym. Strafford valued highly her to the dismemberment of Turkey by Russia; but on the outbreak sincerity and services, but after his death, possibly in consequence of the French Revolution he left the opposition and vigorously of a revulsion of feeling at his abandonment by the court, she maintained the cause of war. In 1815 he opposed the enactment devoted herself to Pym and to the interests of the parliamentary of the Corn Laws; but from this time till his death, in 1825, he leaders, to whom she communicated the king’s most secret plans took no important part in public life. Carlisle was the author and counsels. Her greatest achievement was the timely disclosure of some political tracts, a number of poems, and two tragedies, to Lord Essex of the king’s intended arrest of the five members, The Fathers Revenge and The Stepmother, which received high which enabled them to escape. But she appears to have served praise from his contemporaries. His mother was a daughter of both parties simultaneously, betraying communications

on both

sides, and doing considerable mischief in inflaming political animosities. In 1647 she attached herself to the interests of the moderate Presbyterian party, which assembled at her house, and

in the second Civil War showed great zeal and activity in the royal cause, pawned her pearl necklace for £1,500 to raise money for Lord Holland’s troops, established communications with Prince Charles during his blockade of the Thames, and made herself the intermediary between the scattered bands of royalists and the queen. In consequence her arrest was ordered on March 2r, 1649, and she was imprisoned in the Tower, whence she maintained a correspondence in cipher with the king through her brother, Lord Percy, till Charles went to Scotland. According to a royalist newsletter, while in the Tower she was threatened with the rack to extort information. She was released on bail on Sept. 25, 1650, but appears never to have regained her former influence in the royalist counsels, and died soon after the Restoration, on Nov. 5, 1660. The first earl was succeeded by James, his only surviving son by his first wife, at whose death in 1660 without issue, the peer-

age became extinct in the Hay family. Charles Howard, ist earl of Carlisle in the Howard line (1629-85), was the son and heir of Sir William Howard, of Naworth in Cumberland. In 1645 he became a Protestant and supported the government of the commonwealth, being appointed high sheriff of Cumberland in 1650. He bought Carlisle Castle and became governor of the town. He distinguished himself at the battle of Worcester on Cromwell’s side, was made a member of the council of state in 1653, chosen captain of the protector’s body-guard and selected to carry out various public duties. In 1655 he was given a regiment, was appointed a commissioner to try the northern rebels, and a deputy major-general of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland. In the parliament of 1653 he sat for Westmorland, in those of 1654 and 1656 for Cumberland. In 1657 he was included in Cromwell’s House of Lords and voted for the protector’s assumption of the royal title

the same year. In 1659 he urged Richard Cromwell to defend his government by force against the army leaders, but his advice being refused he used his influence in favour of a restoration of the monarchy, and after Richard’s fall he was imprisoned. In April 1660 he sat again in parliament for Cumberland, and at the Restoration was made custos rotulorum of Essex and lordlieutenant of Cumberland and Westmorland. On April 20, 1661, he was created Baron Dacre of Gillesland, Viscount Howard of Morpeth, and earl of Carlisle; the same year he was made viceadmiral of Northumberland, Cumberland and Durham, and in 1662 joint commissioner for the office of earl marshal. In 1663 he was appointed ambassador to Russia, Sweden and Denmark, and in 1668 he carried the Garter to Charles XI. of Sweden. In 1667 he was made lieutenant-general of the forces and joint com-

the 4th Lord Byron, and in 1798 he was appointed guardian to Lord Byron, the poet, who lampooned him in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.

George

Howard,

6th earl (1773—1848),

eldest son of the

sth earl, entered parliament as Lord Morpeth in 1795 as a Whig. He was appointed to the Indian board in 1806, when the “Ministry of all the Talents” took office, but resigned in 1807, though he remained prominent in the House of Commons. After his elevation to the House of Lords (1825), he held various cabinet offices under Canning and Grey. He made some minor contributions to literature and left the reputation of an amiable scholar.

George William Frederick Howard, 7th earl (1802-64), was born in London on April 18, 1802, eldest son of the 6th earl by his wife Lady Georgiana Cavendish. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where (as Lord Morpeth) he earned a reputation as a scholar and writer of graceful verse. He sat in parliament for Morpeth (1826-32), and subsequently for the West Riding. In the agitation for parliamentary reform he took the side of Earl Grey. In 1835 he was appointed by Lord Melbourne chief secretary for Ireland. This post he held for about six years (being included in the cabinet in 1839), winning great popularity by his amiable manners and kindly disposition. Losing his seat at the election of 1841, he visited the United States, but in 1846 he was again returned for the West Riding, and was made chief commissioner of woods and forests in Lord John Russell’s cabinet. Succeeding to the peerage in 1848, he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1850. The great event of his life, however, was his appointment by Lord Palmerston to the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland in 1855. This office he continued to hold till Feb. 1858, and again from June 18509 till within a few months of his death. Among his writings may be mentioned a lecture on The Life and Writings of Pope (1851); The Last of the Greeks, a tragedy (1828); a Diary in Turkish and Greek Waiters (1854), the fruit of travels in the East in 1853 and 1854; and a volume of Poems, published after his death. In 1866 appeared his Viceregal Speeches, collected and edited by J. Gaskin. He took warm interest in the reformation of juvenile criminals, and established on his own estate one of the best conducted reformatories in the country. Lord Carlisle died at Castle Howard on Dec. 5, 1864. He never married, and was succeeded in the peerage by his brother, the Rev. WiLtL1AmM GrorcE Howarp (d. 1889), as 8th earl.

George James Howard, oth earl (1843~1911), was the son of Charles, 4th son of the 6th earl. He was educated at Eton and Trinity and Cambridge and married in 1864 Rosalind, daughter of the 2nd Lord Stanley of Alderley. Howard sat in parliament as a Liberal in 1879-80, and again from.188x to 1885; and succeeded his uncle in the peerage in 1889. In the split in the Liberal party over Home Rule Carlisle joined the Liberal Unionists, but did not

again sit in the Commons. In the House of Lords he rarely spoke,

876

CARLISLE

except on licensing questions, in which, as a lifelong temperance advocate, he took a keen interest. His real distinction lay in his knowledge and practice of art. He was a pupil of Legros and Giovanni Costa, and was an excellent landscape painter. For 30 years he was a trustee of the National Gallery, London, and a great connoisseur. The Mabuse “Adoration of the Magi” in the National Gallery was sold from the Carlisle Collection to the National Gallery at a figure far below its market price. He died at Hindhead, Surrey, on April 16, 1g1r. His wife, Rosalind Frances (1845-1921), youngest daughter of the 2nd Lord Stanley of Alderley, was married in 1864. Her mother was one of the founders of Girton college, Cambridge, and Lady Carlisle took a keen interest in the advancement of women’s education. Up to 1885 the Howards’ house in Kensington was a centre for Liberal politicians, as well as for the artists who gathered round George Howard. When the Home Rule split came Lady Carlisle remained a staunch friend of Gladstone, and she moved gradually further and further to the Left. Most of her life was spent in the North on her husband’s estates, the management of which was left to her. She was an even more enthusiastic temperance advocate than her husband, and was president from 1903 onwards of the National British Women’s Temperance movement. She was president also of the Women’s Liberal Federation from 1896 to r90z, then from 1906 to 1914, and worked with her group for a democratic franchise for women, when many Liberal women were prepared to accept a narrower measure. She died in London on Aug. 12, 1921. Charles James Stanley Howard, roth earl (1867~1912), son of the oth earl and his wife Rosalind noticed above, was an active member of the London School Board (1894-1902) and Unionist M.P. for Birmingham (1904-11). Viscount Morpeth succeeded his father in 1911, and died the January following. He was succeeded by his son GEORGE JOSELYN, 11th earl (b. 1898), who was educated at Osborne and Dartmouth, and served in the navy until 1920.

CARLISLE,

a city, municipal and parliamentary borough,

and the county town of Cumberland, England, 299m. N.N.W. of

London, and 8m. S. of the Scottish border. Pop. (1931), 57,107. It lies on the south bank of the river Eden, a little below the point where it debouches upon the Solway plain, 8m. above its mouth in the Solway firth, at the junction of two tributaries from the south, the Caldew and the Petteril, which leave a small strip of land between them. The city grew up originally about two slight eminences on this peninsula, crowned respectively by cathedral and castle. To the north of the Eden lies the suburb of Stanwix. The rivers are not navigable, and a canal, opened in 1823, connecting the city with Port Carlisle on the Solway firth, was unsuccessful and was replaced by a railway. Silloth, on the Irish sea, is the nearest port (21 miles). Carlisle is one of the principal railway centres in Great Britain, the chief lines being those of the L.M.S. and L.N.E. railways. Through connections with Scotland are maintained past the head of the Solway firth. The Romano-British Luguvallium occupied the site of the city. It lay a mile south of Hadrian’s wall and seems to have been a town rather than a fort. Its position near the small ports on the Solway firth brought it much intercourse with Ireland and the Isle of Man. Carlisle (Caer Luel, Karliol) is first mentioned in 685, when under the name of Luel it was bestowed by Ecgfrith on St. Cuthbert to form part of his see of Lindisfarne. It was then a thriving and populous city, and when St. Cuthbert visited it in 686 he was shown with pride the ancient walls and a Roman fountain. The saint was believed to have founded a convent and a school here. Nennius, writing in the oth century, mentions it in a list of British cities under the name of Caer Luadiit, Caer Ligualid or Caer Lualid, but about this time it was destroyed by the Danes, and vanishes completely from history until in 1092 it was re-established as the political centre of the district by William Rufus, who built the castle. During the centuries of border-strife which followed,

the history of Carlisle centres round that of the castle, which formed the chief bulwark against the Scots on the western border, and played an important part in the history of the country down to the rebellion of the Young Pretender in 1745. At the time of the

Scottish wars two parliamenis were held at Carlisle, in 1300 and in 1307. A charter from Edward I., dated 1293, exemplifies two earlier grants. The first, from Henry II., confirmed the liberties

and customs which the city had theretofore enjoyed, granting in addition a free gild merchant, with other privileges. This grant is exemplified in the second charter, from Henry III., dated 1251. A charter from Edward II., dated 1316, grants to the citizens the city, the king’s mills in the city, and the fishery in the Eden. A charter from Edward III. in 1352 enumerates the privileges and liberties hitherto enjoyed by the citizens, including a market twice a week, on Wednesday and Saturday; a fair for 16 days at the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin (Aug. 15); free election of

a mayor, bailiffs and two coroners; and the right to hold their markets in the place called “Battailholm.” It also mentions that the city was greatly impoverished by reason of the devastations of

the Scots and by pestilence.

Confirmations of former privileges

were issued by Richard II., Henry IV., Henry VI. and later sov-

ereigns. Although the city had been under the jurisdiction of a mayor and bailiffs at least as early as 1290, the first charter of

incorporation was granted by Elizabeth in 1566. A charter of James I. confirmed former liberties, and in 1638 Charles I. granted a charter under which the town continued to be governed until 1835. It declared Carlisle a city by itself. The Cathedral.—Bede named a monastery which seems to have had close connections with Irish and Scottish Churches until its destruction by the Danes. William Rufus is given the credit for its rehabilitation. The bishopric of Carlisle was created by Henry I., in 1133, out of the house of Augustinian canons, founded in 1102. This was the sole episcopal chapter of regular canons of St. Augustine in England. It was dissolved in 1540. Between 1456 and 1204 the bishop’s throne was unoccupied, but thereafter there was a continuous succession. The diocese covers the whole of Westmorland, and practically of Cumberland, with Furness and the adjacent district in the north of Lancashire. The cathedral, a fine cruciform building with a central tower, is incomplete. Of the Norman nave, built by Aethelwold, the first prior and bishop, only two bays are standing, the remainder having been destroyed by the Parliamentarians in 1646. The south transept, and the lower part of the tower piers, are also of the period. Remarkable distortion is seen in the nave arches, owing to the sinking of the foundations. The thinness of the aisle walls, and the rude masonry of the foundations of the original apse which have been discovered, point to native, not Norman, workmanship. The choir is ornate and beautiful, and the huge decorated east window, with its elaborate tracery, is perhaps the finest of its kind extant. The reconstruction of the Norman choir was begun in the middle of the 13th century, but the work was almost wholly destroyed by fire in 1292. The north transept and the tower also suffered. Building began again c. 1352, and the present tower, erected with some difficulty on the weak foundations of the Norman period, dates from 1400-19. The conventual buildings are scanty, including little more than a perpendicular gateway and refectory. The moated castle, now used as barracks, has been so far altered that only the keep is of special interest. Fragments of the old city walls are seen on the western side over against the river Caldew. Notable public buildings are the city hall, the courthouses, museum and art gallery. The 'grammar-school, of very early foundation, received endowment from Henry VIII. Much valuable information relating to the early history and customs of Carlisle is furnished both by the Dormont Book, which contains an elaborate set of bye-laws dated 1561, and by the records of the eight craft gilds—weavers, smiths, tailors, tanners, shoemakers, skinners, butchers and merchants. The constant wars until the union of the Crowns of England and Scotland impeded commerce} and Fuller, writing in the 17th century, says that the sole manufacture was that of fustian. In 1750 the manufacture of coarse linen cloth was established, and was followed in a few years by the introduction of calico stamperies. The commercial prosperity of Carlisle, however, began with the railway development of the roth century. The main industries are those connected with transport and the production of textiles. Metal and wood working are

CARLISLE—CARLOS also carried on. The parliamentary borough returns one member. Area of municipal borough, 4,488 acres.

See Victoria County History, Cumberland; R. S. Ferguson, Some Municipal Records of the City of Carlisle (Cumberland and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc., Carlisle and London, 1887), and Royal

Charters of Carlisle (1894) ; Mandell Creighton, Carlisle in “Historic Towns” series (London, 1889).

CARLISLE, a borough of Cumberland county, Pennsylvania,

877

Hanover, 1826-92); E. Dümmler, “Geschichte des Ostfränkischen Reiches,” in Jakrbiicher der Deutschen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1887-88) ; J. F. Böhmer, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern, vol. i. (ed. E. Miihlbacher, Innsbruck, 1908).

CARLOMAN, the name of three Frankish princes.

CARLOMAN (d. 754), mayor of the palace under the Merovingian kings, was a son of Charles Martel, and, together with his brother, Pippin the Short, became mayor on his father’s death in

U.S.A., in the pleasant and fertile Cumberland valley, 18m. W. by 741, administering the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom. S. of Harrisburg. It is on Federal highway 11, and is served by He extended the power of the Franks in various wars, and the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. The population in strengthened the church in the lands under his rule. In 747 1930 was 12,596. It is the county seat, and a busy industrial Carloman retired to a monastery which he founded on Monte centre, with a factory output in 1925 valued at $11,817,679. Rugs, Soracte, but subsequently entered a monastery on Monte Casino. He died at Vienne on Aug. 17, 754. carpets and shoes are the leading products. Dickinson college, founded here in 1783 by John Dickinson CaRLOMAN (751-771), king of the Franks, was a son of King (g.v.), Dr. Benjamin Rush (q.v.) and other citizens, is the sec- Pippin the Short, and consequently a brother of Charlemagne. ond oldest college in the State. Its oldest building (West The brothers became joint kings of the Franks on Pippin’s death college), designed by Latrobe, is a fine example of classic colonial in 768. Trouble between them arising out of the conduct of the architecture. Enrolment is restricted to 500, and the number of war in Aquitaine was followed by Carloman’s death at Samoussy women to 25% of the entire student body. A medical field service on Dec. 4, 771. He married Gerberga, daughter of Desiderius, school of the U.S. army now occupies a Government reservation king of the Lombards. CARLOMAN (d. 884), king of France, was the eldest son of where British prisoners were kept during the Revolutionary War, and which later was used successively for a cavalry post, for the King Louis II., the Stammerer, and became king, together with famous Carlisle Indian school (established in 1879), and for a his brother Louis IIL., on his father’s death in 879. Although hospital during the World War. A guard-house built there by Hes- some doubts were cast upon their legitimacy, the brothers obtained recognition and in 880 made a division of the kingdom, sians captured in the battle of Trenton still stands. Lowther) (Ft. Carloman receiving Burgundy and the southern part of France. stockade its and Carlisle was laid out in 1751, was a refuge for the pioneers of the Cumberland and the Juniata In 882 he became sole king owing to his brother’s death. Carlovalleys. County and borough were named after Cumberland, man met his death while hunting on Dec. 12, 884. See E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (1903). England, and its county town. In 1794 Washington made Carlisle CARLOS I. (1863-1908), king of Portugal, the third sovhis headquarters during the “whisky rebellion” in western Pennsylbattle of Portugal of the line of Braganza-Coburg, son of King the of ereign heroine Pitcher,” “Molly of home the was It vania. and Maria Pia, daughter of King Victor Emmanuel of by I. Louis bombarded was of Monmouth. On the night of July 1, 1863, it 22, 1886, Confederate troops. The borough was incorporated in 1872, and Italy, was born at Lisbon on Sept. 28, 1863. On May d’Orléans, duc Philippe, of daughter Amélie, Marie married he government. of form manager commissiona in 1921 adopted 19, 1889) CARLOFORTE, a town of Sardinia, in the province of comte de Paris, and on the death of his father (Oct. the British Cagliari, the capital of the small island (6 m. by 5 m.) of San he succeeded to the throne of Portugal. In that year s in encroachment Portuguese against remonstrated island) Government hawk’s the i.e., cos, Pietro (anc. Accipitrum or ‘lepaxovvij were greatly off the west coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1921) 7,864. It lies on the South Africa, and relations between the two countries crisis was east coast of the island, 6m. west by sea from Porto Vesme, which strained for some time. The king’s attitude at this was an Carlos King relations. peaceful aided and conciliatory, by 1737 in founded was It is 13 m. S.W. by road from Iglesias. of oceanography. In Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy, who planted a colony of artist of some repute, and a keen student of Portugal and temGenoese whose dialect and costume still prevail. In 1798 it was May 1907 he suspended the constitution for the execution dictator as Franco Senhor appointed porarily away taken attacked by the Tunisians and 933 inhabitants were was aroused by this proas slaves. They were ransomed after five years and the place of necessary reforms. Some discontent drastic measures, and on fortified. It is now a centre of the tunny fishery, and there are ceeding; this was increased by Franco’s son, Louis, duke of Braelder his and Carlos King 1908, 1, Feb. the manganese mines, while most of the ore from the mines of whilst driving through the assassinated were (1887-1908), ganza is south-east the to miles Three here. shipped is district Iglesias streets of Lisbon. The king was succeeded by his only surviving the island of S. Antioco (see SULCI). Beja (b. 1889), who took the title of CARLOMAN (828-880), king of Bavaria and Italy, was the son, Manuel, duke of Manuel IT. He Franks. East the of king German, the eldest son of Louis See L. de Colleville, Carlos Ier intime (1906). married a daughter of Ernest, count of the Bohemian mark, and in CARLOS, DON (1545-1568), prince of Asturias, the son of conjunction with his father-in-law resisted the authority of his II., king of Spain, by his first wife Maria, daughter of Philip he which by made was nt father in 861. In 865 an arrangeme of Portugal, was born at Valladolid on July 8, 1545. III. John became possessed of Bavaria and Carinthia as his expectant was recognized as heir to the throne of Castile, and he 1560 In between troubles the During Louis. of kingdom the of share later to that of Aragon, but his mental derangement years three to faithful remained Louis and his two younger sons Carloman that in his morbidness he even contemplated the his father, and carried on the war with the Moravians so suc- became so acute At length, in Jan. 1568, when he had made father. his of murder they 874 in Forchheim at made was cessfully that when peace from Spain, he was placed in confinement flight for preparations IT. Louis emperor recognized the Frankish supremacy. In 875 the and on July 24 he died. He had not married, died, having named his cousin Carloman as his successor in by order of Philip, and Margaret, daughters of Henry If. of France, Italy. Carloman crossed the Alps to claim his inheritance, but though Elizabeth and Anne, daughter of the emperor MaxiScots, of queen Mary, Franks, was cajoled into returning by the king of the West been suggested for him. The marriage of his father had IT. milian beCarloman death, father’s his on 876, In Bald. Charles the to whom Carlos had once been betrothed, is became actually king of Bavaria, and after a short campaign against and Elizabeth, writers to have hastened his death. Schiller and some by lieved the Moravians he went again to Italy in 877 and was crowned king Campistron in Andronic, and Lord John Russell de G. J. Alfieri, John Pope with ns negotiatio his but of the Lombards at Pavia; between Don Carlos and his father the relations the made have paralywith VIII. for the imperial crown were fruitless. Stricken dramas based upon the life of Don other and dramas; of sis, he bequeathed the whole of his lands to Louis. He died on subject Otway, M. A. Chénier, J. P. Thomas by written been have Carlos an leaving buried, was he where Sept. 22, 880, at Ottingen, Enciso. de X. D. and Montalvan, de illegitimate son, afterwards the emperor Arnulf. H. ’”’ in See Regino von Prum’s “Chronicon” and “Annales Bertiniani Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Scriptores, Bd. i. (ed. G. H. Pertz,

See L. von Ranke, Zur Geschichte des don Carlos (1829); W. Prescott, History of the Reign of Philip II., vol. ii. (1855, 1859);

CARLOS—CARLOW

878

L. P. Gachard, Don Carlos et Philippe II. (1863); C. de Motiy, Don Carlos et Philippe I. (1863); L. A. Warnkonig, Don Carlos, Leben, Verhaftung und Tod (Stuttgart, 1864) ; W. Maurenbrecher, Don Carlos (1876) ; M. Biidinger, Don Carlos, Haft und Tod (1891) ; F. Rachfahl, Don Carlos Kritische Untersuchungen (Freiburg, 1921).

and three daughters. Don Carlos boldly asserted his pretensions to the throne two years after the revolution of 1868 had driven

Queen Isabella IT. and the other branch of the Bourbons into exile, but his supporters were routed at Oroquista by the troops of

first of the Carlist claimants of the throne of Spain, was the second surviving son of King Charles IV. and his wife, Louisa Maria of Parma. He was born on Mar. 20, 1788. From 1808 till 1814, he was a prisoner of Napoleon in France. Returning to Madrid,

King Amadeus in 1872, and Don Carlos himself became a fugitive in the French Pyrenees. When the Federal republic was proclaimed on the abdication of King Amadeus, the Carlists, organ. ized in guerrilla bands, many of them led by priests, had overrun Spain to such an extent that they held the interior of Navarre, the

he married, in 1816, Maria Francesca de Asis, daughter of King John VI. of Portugal, and sister of the second wife of his elder

Aragon, and Valencia, and had made raids into Old Castile and

CARLOS,

DON

(Carros Marra Isoro)

(1788-1855), the

brother King Ferdinand VII. Though he took no part in the Government, except to hold a few formal offices, Don Carlos was known for his religious orthodoxy and his firm belief in the divine right of kings. During the revolutionary troubles of 182023 he was threatened by the extreme radicals, but no attack was made on him. Towards the close of Ferdinand’s reign Don Carlos was forced into the position of a party leader, for when Ferdinand endeavoured to alter the Jaw of succession in order to secure the crown for his daughter Isabella, the Spanish clericals banded to protect the rights of Don Carlos, and he might easily have placed himself at the head of an insurrection had he not considered rebellion a sin. In Mar. 1833, Don Carlos went to Portugal to support Don Miguel, then regent. While there he was called upon by Ferdinand to swear allegiance to the infanta Isabella, afterwards queen, but he refused to renounce his rights and those of his sons. On the death of his brother in Sept. 1833, he was shut off from Spain by the civil war in Portugal, and could do nothing to direct the Spaniards who rose on his behalf and proclaimed him king as Charles V. When the Miguelite party was beaten in Portugal, Don Carlos escaped in a British warship to England in June 1834, and, crossing to France, joined his partisans at Elizondo in the valley of Bastan, in the western Pyrenees. On Oct. 27, 1834, he was deprived of his rights as infante by a royal decree, confirmed by the Cortes on Jan. 15, 1837. Don Carlos remained

in Spain till the defeat of his party, and then escaped to France in Sept. 1839. The defeat of his cause, which had many chances of success, was due to his want of capacity and apathy. His first wife having died in England, Don Carlos married her elder sister, the princess of Beira, in Oct. 1837. He abdicated his pretensions in May 1845, took the title of count of Molina, and died at Trieste on Mar. 10, 1855.

By his first marriage, Don Carlos had three sons, Charles (1818~ 61), John (1822-87) and Ferdinand (1824-61). Charles succeeded to the claims of his father, and was known to his partisans as Don Carlos VI., but more commonly as the count of Montemolin. In 1846, when the marriage of queen Isabella was being negotiated, the Austrian Government endeavoured to arrange an alliance between the two, but as Charles insisted on the complete recognition of his rights, the Spanish Government refused the alliance. In April 1860 he and his brother Ferdinand landed at san Carlos de la Rapita, at the mouth of the Ebro, but no Carlist rising took place, and the princes only saved their lives by an abject surrender of their claims. Later at Cologne, the count of Montemolin publicly retracted his renunciation on June 15 on the ignominious ground that it had been extorted by fear. Both princes died in Jan. 1861 without issue. The third brother, John, who had advanced his own claims before his brother’s retraction, now came forward as the representative of the Carlist cause. On Oct. 3, 1868, he made a formal renunciation in favour of his son Charles, Don Carlos VII. (q.v.). See H. Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens (Leipzig, 1861) ; H. Butler Clarke, Modern Spain (Cambridge, 1906), which contains a useful bibliography.

CARLOS, DON (CHartzs Marta pe Los Dotores) (1848~

1909), prince of Bourbon, claimant, as Don Carlos VII., to the

throne of Spain, was born at Laibach on March 30, 1848, the son of Don Juan (John) of Bourbon and the archduchess Maria Beatrix, daughter of Francis IV., duke of Modena.

Don Carlos

was the grandson of the first pretender. He married in 1867, Princess Marguerite, daughter of the duke of Parma, and niece of the comte de Chambord, who bore him a son, Don Jaime, in 1870,

three Basque provinces, and a great part of Catalonia, Lower

Estremadura. Don Carlos re-entered Spain in July, 1873, and was present at the siege of Bilbao and at the battle near Estella on

June 27, 1874, in which Marshal Concha was killed and the liberals were repulsed with loss. Twice he lost golden making a rush for the capital in 1873, during the and after Concha’s death. His cousin, Alphonso claimed king, the tide of war turned against him,

opportunities of Federal republic, XII. being proand in 1875, the

Carlist bands were swept out of central Spain and Catalonia and in March 1876 from the Navarre district. From that date Don Carlos became a wanderer residing successively in England, Paris, Austria, and Italy. Two further chances of testing the power of his party in Spain came to him, but he failed to profit by them because of his lack of decision. The first was when he was invited to unfurl his flag on the death of Alphonso XII., when the perplexities of Castilian politics reached a climax during the first year of a long minority under a foreign queen-regent. The second was at the close of the war with the United States and after the loss of the colonies, when the discontent was so widespread that the Carlists were able to assure their prince that many Spaniards looked upon his cause as the solution of the national difficulties. After the death of his first wife in 1893, Don Carlos married, in 1894, Princess Marie Bertha of Rohan. He died at Varese, in Italy, on July 18, 1909.

CARLOW, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster, bounded north by the counties Wicklow and Wexford, south by Co. (formerly Queen’s Co.) and is the smallest county in Ireland,

Pop. (1926), 34,504.

Kildare and Wicklow, east by Wexford, and west by Laorghis Kilkenny. Excepting Louth, it having an area of 221,539 acres.

In the south-east is a range of barren granitic mountains, the chief peaks being Knockroe (1,746 ft.) and Mt. Leinster (2,610 ft.). This range is flanked on the east by mica-schists and Silurian slates and on the west by Carboniferous limestone, the level expanse of which covers the greater portion of the county. On the west side, the Barrow affords means of communication with Waterford whilst to the east the drainage is chiefly to the Slaney. Beyond the Barrow is the elevated tract of land known as the

ridge of Old Leighlin (Gallows hill bog, 974 ft.), forming the beginning of the coal-measures of Leinster. Glacial deposits cover much of the lower land and many eskers may be seen near Bagenalstown. Carlow, under the name of Catherlogh, is among the counties generally considered to have been created in the reign of John.

Leinster was confirmed as a liberty to William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, by John, and Carlow, among other counties in this area, had the privileges of a palatinate on descending to one of the earl’s heiresses. The relics of antiquity in the county comprise large dolmens, some relics of ecclesiastical and monastic buildings, and the remains of several castles built after the English

settlement. Old Leighlin, where the 12th century cathedral of St. Lazerian is situated, is merely a village, although until the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament. The soil is rich but stock-raising has become the most important rural ‘activity. Sheep, poultry and dairy cattle are kept and the farms are often large. The staple trade of the county is in corn, flour, meal, butter and provisions, which are exported in large quantities. There are no manufactures. The sandstone of the county is frequently of such a nature as to split easily into layers, known in commerce as Carlow flags. Porcelain clay exists in the neighbourhood of Tullow, but no attempt is made to turn this product to use.

i

CARLOW—CARLSBAD DECREES The Great Southern railway from Kildare to Wexford follows the river Barrow through the county, with a branch from Bagenalstown to Kilkenny, while another branch from the north terminates at Tullow. Co. Carlow and Co. Kilkenny together form one constituency returning five members to the Dáil Eireann.

CARLOW, county town, Co. Carlow, Ireland, on the river Barrow. Pop. of urban district (1926) 7,175. Little of the castle now remains. In the reign of Edward III. the king’s exchequer was removed thither and money applied to building town walls. Early in Elizabeth’s reign Rory Oge O’More burnt the town. Carlow submitted to Ireton in 1641 and was attacked in the insurrection of 1798. It obtained a charter of incorporation in the 13th century and was reincorporated by James I., returning two members to the Irish parliament. Two miles north-east of the town is an important dolmen and 3 m. W. is the church of Killeshin of Norman and pre-Norman date. Brewing and flour-milling are important and there is trade in dairy produce.

CARLSBAD, a celebrated spa of Bohemia, Czechoslovakia

(Czech, Karlovy Vary), lies about 1,225 ft. above sea level at the junction of the Tepl and the Ohře. Surrounded by the precipitous pine-forested foothills of the Erzgebirge, it is squeezed along the valleys of both streams and rises picturesquely tier above tier on the slopes of the hills around. Legend ascribes its origin to an accidental discovery of its famous springs by the emperor Charles IV., but there was certainly an old pre-existent settlement, Vary, which derived enhanced prosperity and an addition to its name from his interest. His experience of the medicinal qualities of its waters caused him to build a castle near by and to confer many privileges upon the town. Its function as a curative spa tends to

870

in 1930 was 3,708. It is served by the Santa Fe railway, and is a shipping point for large quantities of cotton, wool, alfalfa and live stock. The Carlsbad irrigation project of the Federal Government comprises 25,045ac., of which over 90% is under crops. The city has cotton-gins, a cotton-seed oil mill and a gypsumplaster mill. There are five large lakes and mineral springs in the vicinity. In the Guadalupe mountains, 30m. S.W., is Carlsbad Cave National Monument, an immense cavern not yet fully explored, containing vast lofty chambers, with limestone formations of extraordinary beauty and impressiveness. The ‘Big Room” is over $m. long and has a maximum width of 4ooft. and a mazimum height of 348 feet. CARLSBAD CAVE NATIONAL MONUMENT, 2 tract of about 720 ac. in south-east New Mexico, U.S.A., set apart in 1923 as a Government reservation. The series of caverns from which it is named was formed by the dissolvent action of water on original beds of rock salt, limestone and gypsum in the predom-

inating shale. Its total extent is not known, but is probably much greater than that of the present area of the reservation. One of the most notable discoveries is the Big Room, a cavern over $ m. in length with a maximum width of 400 ft. and 348 ft. in height, containing a great variety of stalactites and stalagmites and portions of white limestone and onyx marble.

CARLSBAD DECREES, the name usually given to a series

of resolutions (Beschlüsse) passed by a conference of the min-

isters of. the more important German States, held at Carlsbad

Aug. 6-31 1819. The occasion of the meeting was the desire of

Prince Metternich to take advantage of the consternation caused by recent revolutionary outrages (especially the murder of the obscure other important activities of the district. The 17 warm dramatist Kotzebue) to persuade the German Governments to mineral springs are believed to rise from a common reservoir, combine in a system for the suppression of the Liberal agitation in known as the Sprudelkessel, and range in temperature from 107-7° Germany. The business to be discussed, as announced in Metto 164° F. While they vary in temperature the chemical compo- ternich’s opening address, was twofold: (1) Matters of urgent sition is constant and the following figures per thousand parts of importance necessitating immediate action; (2) Questions affectwater for the largest, the Sprudel, delivering 405 gallons per ing the fundamental constitution of the German Confederation, minute, are typical:—2-405 sulphate of soda, 1-298 bicarbonate of demanding more careful and prolonged discussion. These questions were debated in 23 formal conferences. On soda, 1-042 sodium chloride, 0-186 sulphate of potash, 0-166 bi-

carbonate of magnesia, o-or2 bicarbonate of lithium, 0-966 carbon the issues raised by the first class there was practical unanimity. dioxide, with traces of arsenic, antimony, rubidium, selenium, tin All were agreed that the state of Germany demanded disciplinary and organic substances. Free from colour and odour, the waters measures, and it was decided to lay before the Federal Diet defiare slightly acid and saline and are used for drinking and bathing nite proposals for (1) a uniform press censorship of all periodical with beneficial effects in liver diseases and troubles due to uric publications; (2) a system of “curators” to supervise education acid. Owing to their powerful action they require to be used under in universities and schools; and (3) the erection of a central comcareful medical direction regarding diet and exercise, and there mission at Mainz, armed with inquisitorial powers, for the purpose are many elaborate curative establishments supplemented by of unmasking the widespread revolutionary conspiracy assumed to several hospitals and hospices for poorer patients. Though the exist. On the questions raised under the second class there was more waters were first used for bathing in 1520 the rapid growth of the town as an international health resort dates from the middle of fundamental difference of opinion, especially on the burning questhe roth century, after which many of its imposing buildings, e.g., tion of the due interpretation of Article XIII. of the Federal act. the Kurhaus, the Kaiserbad, the Mühlbrunnen and Sprudel colon- The controversy raged round the distinction between “assemblies

nades were erected. Concurrently, the porcelain and stoneware of estates,” as laid down in the article, and “representative assemindustries, for which the town is the centre in Czechoslovakia, blies,” such as had been already established in several German have developed in range of markets and in character of products, States. Gentz, in an elaborate memorandum, laid down that repconcentrating to-day upon luxury articles. The industries have a resentation by estates was the only system compatible with the long record of prosperity based upon rich local supplies of high conservative principle, whereas representative assemblies were grade kaolin and ornamental stone with easy access to the coal based on “the sovereignty of the people.” In answer Count of the Falkenau basin, some miles west of Carlsbad. There is a Wintzingerode, on behalf of the king of Wiirttemberg, placed on flourishing trade in fine leather goods, confectionery and the record a protest, in which he urged that insistence upon the system preparation of evaporated salts and bottled waters for export. of estates would be to stereotype caste distinctions foreign to During winter the town is dominated by the manufactures but the whole spirit of the age, would alienate public opinion from the with the advent of the season, which reaches its height in June and Governments, and—if enforced by the central power—would July, everything is subordinated to catering for visitors; the violate the sovereign independence of those States which, like normal population of about 19,000 is trebled by the influx and the Wiirttemberg, had already established representative constitutown assumes a cosmopolitan appearance, reflected in the number tions. Though the majority of those present favoured the Ausof its churches and the variety of their denominations. The trian interpretation of Article XIII. as elaborated by Gentz, they charming wooded heights, e.g., the Aberg (1,980 ft.), the Konig were as little prepared as the representative of Württemberg to Otto’s Hohe (1,960 ft.), the Dreikreuzberg (1,805 ft.) and many agree to any measures for strengthening the Federal Government others approached by easy well-kept paths and commanding at the expense of the prerogatives of the minor sovereignties. The superb panoramas attract increasing numbers of tourists seeking result was that constitutional questions were reserved for further recreation rather than health. (W. S. L.) discussion at a general conference of German ministers to be summoned to Vienna later in the year. The effective Carlsbad on U.S.A., CARLSBAD, a city in south-eastern New Mexico, Diet, were the Pecos river; the county seat of Eddy county. The population resolutions, subsequently issued as laws by the Federal

880

CARLSTADT— CARLYLE

therefore only those dealing with the curbing of the ‘‘revolutionary” agitation. See GERMANY: History. The acts, protocols and resolutions of the conference of Carlsbad are given in M. de Martens’s Nouveau Recueil général de traités, etc., t. 4, pp. 8-166 (Gottingen, 1846). (W. A. P)

CARLSTADT, Kartsrapt or Karotostapr. Andreas Rudolf Bodenstein (1480-1541), Bavaria. He studied at Cologne and Wittenberg, of the scholasticism of

German reformer, was born at Carlstadt, the universities of Erfurt (1499-1503), where he acquired fame as a champion Thomas Aquinas. In 1513 he became professor of theology. In 1515 he went to Rome to take a degree in law. He returned to Germany as an ardent opponent of Thomism and as a champion of the Augustinian doctrine of the impotence of the human will and salvation through Divine grace alone. The 151 theses of Carlstadt, dated Sept. 16, 1516, discovered by T. Kolde (“Wittenberger Disputationsthesen” in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xi.), prove that Carlstadt was at this time actually in advance of Luther. In 1518, in reply to Eck’s Obelisci, an attack on Luther’s 95 theses, Carlstadt published a series of theses, maintaining the supremacy of the Holy Scriptures over the authority of the fathers, and asserting the liability of general councils to error. A public disputation with Eck, in which Luther also took part, led

to three polemical treatises against Eck in which he proclaimed

the doctrine of the exclusive operation of grace in the justification

of believers.

In 1520 he appeared as the first of modern biblical critics, denying the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch and classifying the Scriptures into three categories of different value in accordance with the degrees of certainty as to their traditional origin. He still, however, held their verbal inspiration, and attacked Luther for rejecting the epistle of James. The inclusion of Carlstadt’s name in the papal bull excommunicating Luther resulted in his attack upon the papacy in Von päpstlicher Heiligkeit, (Oct. 1520). In 15212 Carlstadt went to Denmark, on the invitation of Christian II., to assist in the reform of the church; but he was forced, by the hostility of nobles and clerics alike, to leave after a few weeks. In June hé was back'in Wittenberg, busy with tracts on the Holy Sacrament (he still believed in the corporeal presence) and against monasticism and the celibacy of the clergy. He was accepted as the leader of Protestantism in Wittenberg; and, at his instance, auricular confession, the elevation of the Host communion under one species, and the rules for fasting were abolished. In January he was married. The return of Luther early in March, however, ended Carlstadt’s supremacy, and communion in one kind and the elevation of the Host was restored. Carlstadt himself, though still professor, was deprived of all influence in practical affairs, and devoted himself to theological speculation. He now denied the necessity for a clerical order and retiring to Orlamiinde abolished the Mass and even preached against the necessity for any sacraments. He occasionally lectured at Wittenberg and fulminated against Luther’s policy of compromise. ! All this brought him into conflict with the elector, Frederick the Wise, the university and Luther himself. His professorship and living were confiscated and in 1524 he went into exile. He was exposed to great privations, but found opportunity for polemical writing, proclaiming for the first time his disbelief in the “Real Presence.” He visited Strasbourg, Heidelberg, Ziirich, Basel, Schweinfurth, Kitzingen, Nördlingen and Rothenburg on the Tauber, from whence he had to fly for bis life after the Peasants’ War. His spirit was now broken, and from Frankfort he wrote to Luther humbly praying him to intercede for him with the elector. Luther agreed to do so, on receiving from Carlstadt a recantation of his heterodox views on the Lord’s Supper, and as a result, the latter was permitted to return to Wittenberg (1525), but not to lecture. His refusal to take up the cudgels against Zwingli and Oecolampadius ended in his flight to avoid imprisonment. Taking refuge

reception by Zwingli, who procured him employment. After Zwingli’s death he remained in close intercourse with the Zürich preachers, who defended him against Luther’s attacks; and finally in 1534, on Bullinger’s recommendation, he was called to Basel as preacher at the church of St. Peter and professor at the university,

He died there on Dec. 24, 1541. During these latter years Carlstadt’s attitude became more moderate. Despatched to Strasbourg in 1536, to discuss a proposed compromise in the matter of the Lord’s Supper between the theologians of Strasbourg and Wittenberg, he displayed a conciliatory attitude which earned him the praise of Bucer. Carl-

stadt’s historical significance lies in the fact that he was one of the pioneers of the Reformation; but he was a thinker and dreamer rather than a man of affairs. He lacked the balance of mind and sturdy common sense that inspired Luther’s policy of consideration for “the weaker brethren.”

In reply to Luther’s attack in

Wider die himmlischen Propheten, he issued his Anzeig etlicher Hauptartikel christlicher Lehre, a compendious exposition of his views. Besides the above mentioned works, Carlstadt’s chief Writings

are De Canonicis Scripturis (1520), Von Geliibden Unterrichtung (1521), De legis litera sive carne et spiritu (1521), Priestertum u. Opfer Christi (1524), Ob man gemach faren soll (1524). His disputations with Eck were reprinted in 1903. See C. F. Jaeger, A. Bodenstein

H. Barge, A. Bodenstein

Müller, Luther

und Karlstadt

(Tübingen,

of the Reformation in Germany Hist. of the German people.

CARLSTADT,

von Karlstadt

von Karlstadt,

2 vols.

(Stuttgart, 1856); (Leipzig, 1905); K.

1907); Von Ranke, Hist,

(Eng. trs., 1905)

and J. Janssen,

a borough of Bergen county, New Jersey,

U.S.A., 5m. north of Jersey city, on the Erie railroad. The population was 4,472 in 1920 (25% foreign-born white), and was 5,425 in 1930 by the Federal census. The numerous and varied manufactures include silk, wire gauges, dynamos, candles, wax, cigars, safety razors, buttons, embroidery, marble, chemicals and petroleum products. The borough was incorporated in 1894. CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805), Scottish divine, was born on Jan. 26, 1722, at Commertrees Manse, Dumfriesshire, and passed his youth and early manhood at Prestonpans, where he witnessed the battle of 1745. He was educated at Edinburgh (M.A. 1743), Glasgow, and Leyden. From 1748 until his death, on Aug. 28, 1805, he was minister at Inveresk in Midlothian and became the leader of the moderate or “broad” Church section in the Scottish church. His personal appearance earned

him the name of “Jupiter Carlyle,” and Sir Walter Scott called him “the greatest demigod I ever saw.” See his Autobiography (published 1860; new ed., 1910).

CARLYLE,

JOSEPH DACRE

(1759-1804), British ori-

entalist, was born at Carlisle. He was appointed, in 1795, professor of Arabic in Cambridge university. His translation from the Arabic of Yusuf ibn Taghri Birdi, the Rerum Egypticarum Annales, appeared in 1792, and in 1796 a volume of Specimens of Arabic Poetry, from the earliest times to the fall of the caliphate, with some account of the authors. Carlyle was appointed chaplain by Lord Elgin to the embassy at Constantinople in 1799, and in a tour through Asia Minor, Palestine, Greece and Italy, collected several valuable Greek and Syriac mss. for a projected critical edition of the New Testament, collated with the Syriac and other versions—a work, however, which he did not live to complete. On

his return to England in 1801 he was presented to the living of Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he died April 12 1804.

CARLYLE, THOMAS

(1795-1881), British essayist, histo-

rian and philosopher, born on Dec. 4, 1795, at Ecclefechan, in Annandale, was the eldest of the nine children of James Carlyle by his second wife, Janet Aitken. The father was by trade a mason, and afterwards a small farmer. He had joined a sect of

seceders from the kirk, and had all the characteristics of the typical Scottish Calvinist. He was respected for his integrity and independence, and a stern outside covered warm affections.

The

family tie between all the Carlyles was unusually strong, and

Thomas regarded his father with a reverence which found forcible inLEHolstein and later in East Friesland, he ultimately reached | expression in his Reminiscences: He always showed the tenderest Zirich, where Bucer and Oecolampadius secured him a friendly | love for his mother, and was the best of brothers. The narrow

CARLYLE means of his parents were made sufficient by strict frugality. He was sent to school when he was about five and to Annan grammarschool when ten years old, and soon showed an appetite for learning which induced his father to decide to educate him for the ministry. He walked to Edinburgh in Nov., 1800, and entered the university. Of the professors, he liked Sir John Leslie the best and distinguished himself in mathematics. But he benefited most by his reading of books obtained from the University library and the Advocates’ Library. A few lads in positions similar to his own began to look up to him as an intellectual leader, and their correspondence with him shows remarkable interest in literary matters. In 1814 Carlyle, still looking forward to the career of a minister, obtained the mathematical mastership at Annan. The salary of £60 or £70 a year enabled him to save a little money. He went to Edinburgh twice to deliver the discourses required from students of divinity, but the main occupation of his leisure time was wide reading in French and English literature and the study of mathematics. In 1816 he was appointed, through the recommendation of Leslie, to a school at Kirkcaldy, where Edward Irving, Carlyle’s senior by three years, was also master of a school. Irving’s severity as a teacher had offended some of the parents, who set up Carlyle to be his rival. A previous meeting with Irving, also a native of Annan, had led to a little passage of arms, but Irving now welcomed Carlyle with a generosity which entirely won his heart, and the rivals soon became the closest of friends. The-intimacy, affectionately commemorated in the Reminiscences, was of great importance to Carlyle’s whole career. “But for Irving,” he says, “I had never known what the communion of man with man means.” Irving had a library, in which Carlyle devoured Gibbon and much French literature, and they made various excursions together. Carlyle did his duties as a schoolmaster punctiliously, but found the life thoroughly uncongenial. No man was less fitted by temperament for the necessary drudgery and worry. His admiration for a Miss Gordon there seems to have suggested the “Blumine” of Sartor Resartus; but he made no new friendships, and when Irving left at the end of 1818 Carlyle also resigned his post. He had by this time given up the ministry and altogether ceased to believe in Christianity in the winter of 1817-18, though he was and always remained in profound sympathy with its moral teaching. A period of severe struggle followed. He studied law for a time, but liked it no better than schoolmastering. He took a pupil or two, and wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia under the editorship of Brewster. He occasionally visited his family, and their unfailing confidence helped to keep up his courage. Meanwhile he was going through a spiritual crisis. Atheism was profoundly repugnant to him. At last, one day in July or Aug., 1822, after three weeks’ total sleeplessness, he went through the crisis afterwards described quite “literally” in Sartor Resartus. He cast out the spirit of negation, and henceforth the temper of his misery was changed to one, not of “whining,” but of “indignation and grim fire-eyed defiance.” That, he says, was his spiritual new-birth, though certainly not into a life of serenity. The conversion was coincident with Carlyle’s submission to a new and very potent influence. In 1819 he had begun to read German, with which he soon acquired a very remarkable familiarity. Many of his contemporaries were awakening to the importance of Ger_man thought, and Carlyle’s knowledge enabled him before long to take a conspicuous part in diffusing the new intellectual light. The chief object of his reverence was Goethe. In many most important respects no two men could be more unlike; but, for the present, Carlyle seems to have seen in Goethe a proof that it was possible to reject outworn dogmas without sinking into materialism. Goethe, by singularly different methods, had emerged from a merely negative position into a lofty and coherent conception of the universe. Meanwhile, Carlyle’s various anxieties were beginning to be complicated by physical derangement. A rat, he declared, was gnawing at the pit of his stomach. He was already ‘suffering from the agonies of indigestion from which he continued to suffer all his life. Irving’s friendship now became serviceable. Carlyle’s confession of the radical difference of religious opinion had not alienated

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his friend, who was settling in London, and used his opportunities for promoting Carlyle’s interest. In Jan. 1822 Carlyle, through Irving’s recommendation, became tutor to Charles and Arthur Buller, who were to be students at Edinburgh. Carlyle’s salary was £200 a year, and this, with the proceeds of some literary work, enabled him at once to help his brother John to study

medicine and his brother Alexander to take up a farm. Carlyle was tutor to the young Bullers till July, 1824, when it was decided to send them to Cambridge and both Charles Buller and his parents continued to be his friends as long as they lived. It was through Charles Buller that he later became acquainted with the Barings. Meanwhile he was employed upon a life of Schiller and a translation of Wilhelm Meister. He received £50 for a translation of Legendre’s Geometry; and an introduction, explaining the theory of proportion, is said by De Morgan to show that he could have gained distinction as an expounder of mathematical principles. The impressions made upon him by London men of letters in 1824 were most unfavourable. Carlyle felt by this time conscious of having a message to deliver to mankind, and the men of letters, he thought, were making literature a trade instead of a vocation, and prostituting their talents to frivolous journalism. He went once to see Coleridge, who was then delivering his oracular utterances at Highgate, and the only result was the singularly vivid portrait given in a famous chapter in his life of Sterling. Coleridge seemed to him to be ineffectual as a philosopher, and personally to be a melancholy instance of genius running to waste. Carlyle, conscious of great abilities, and impressed by such instances of the deleterious effects of the social atmosphere of London, resolved to settle in his native district. There he could live frugally and achieve some real work. He could for one thing, be the interpreter of Germany to England. A friendly letter from Goethe, acknowledging the translation of Wilhelm Meister, reached him towards the end of 1824 and greatly encouraged him. Goethe afterwards spoke warmly of the life of Schiller, and it was translated into German. Letters occasionally passed between them in later years, which were edited by Charles Eliot Norton in 1887. Goethe received Carlyle’s homage with kind complacency. The gift of a seal to Goethe on his birthday in

1831 “from fifteen English friends,” including Scott and Wordsworth, was suggested and carried out by Carlyle. Carlyle did much to promote interest in German literature during the next few years, and made some preparations for a history of German literature. British curiosity, however, about such matters seems to have been soon satisfied, and the demand for such work

slackened. Carlyle meanwhile was passing through the most important crisis of his personal history. Jane Baillie Welsh, born 1801, was the only child of Dr. Welsh of Haddington. She had shown precocious talent, and was sent to the school at Haddington where Edward Irving (g.v.) was a master. After her father’s death in 1819 she lived with her mother, and her wit and money attracted many admirers. Her father had bequeathed to her all his property which was worth about £200 a year. Her old tutor, Irving, was now at Kirkcaldy, where he became engaged to a Miss Martin. He visited Haddington occasionally in the following years, and a strong mutual regard arose between him and Miss Welsh. They contemplated a marriage, and Irving

endeavoured to obtain a release from his previous engagement. The Martin family held him to his word, and he took a final leave of Miss Welsh in 1822. Meanwhile he had brought Carlyle from Edinburgh and introduced him to the Welshes. Carlyle was attracted by the brilliant abilities of the young lady, procured books for her and wrote letters to her as an intellectual guide. The two were to perform a new variation upon the theme of Abelard and Héloïse. (A good deal of uncertainty long covered the precise character of their relations. Until 1909, when Mr.

Alexander Carlyle published his edition of the “love-letters,” the full material was not accessible; they had been read by Carlyle’s biographer, Froude, and also by Charles Norton, and Norton [in his edition of Carlyle’s Early Letters, 1886] declared that Froude had distorted the significance of this correspondence in a sense injurious to the writers. The publication of the letters certainly

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seems to justify Norton’s view.) Miss Welsh’s previous affair and he returned to Craigenputtock in the spring of 1832. Jeffrey, with Irving had far less importance than Froude ascribes to it; stimulated perhaps by his sympathy for Mrs. Carlyle, was and she soon came to regard her past love as a childish fancy. She characteristically generous. Besides pressing loans upon both recognized Carlyle’s vast intellectual superiority, and the respect Thomas and John Carlyle, he offered to settle an annuity of £199 gradually deepened into genuine love. The process, however, took upon Thomas, and finally enabled John to support himself by some time. By 1825 Carlyle and she were planning marriage, and recommending him to a medical position.' Carlyle’s proud spirit at Carlyle’s instance she conveyed to her mother the house at of independence made him reject Jeffrey’s help as long as possible; Haddington, and everything in it, and gave her the life rent of and even his acknowledgment of the generosity (in the ReminisCraigenputtock estate. She also made her will and bequeathed cences) is not so cordial as might have been expected. In 1834 the fee-simple of the estate to Carlyle. She had been brought up he applied to Jeffrey for a post at the Edinburgh Observatory, for in a station superior to that of the Carlyles, and could not accept which his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy made him the life of hardship which would be necessary in his present cir- specially well qualified. But Jeffrey preferred to give the job to cumstances. Carlyle, accustomed to his father’s household, was a man who had been clerk in his service, which led to a break less frightened by the prospect of poverty. He was determined between Carlyle and Jeffrey which lasted some years. not to abandon his vocation as a man of genius by following the In the beginning of 1833 the Carlyles made another trial of lower’ though more profitable paths to literary success, and Edinburgh. There he found materials in the Advocate’s Library expected that his wife should share the necessary sacrifice of for the article on the Diamond Necklace, one of his most perfect comfort. The natural result of such discussions followed. The writings, and he began to study the history of the French Revoluattraction became stronger on both sides, in spite of occasional tion. Sartor Resartus was at last appearing in Fraser’s Magazine, spasms of doubt. though the rate of payment was cut down, and the publisher About the same time, July 1825, a friend of Irving’s, Mrs. reported that it was received with “unqualified dissatisfaction.” Basil Montague, wrote to Miss Welsh, to exhort her to suppress Both Carlyle and his wife liked Edinburgh, but on the whole her love for Irving, who had married Miss Martin in 1823. Miss preferred London. Besides, the materials for the history of the Welsh replied by announcing her intention to marry Carlyle; and French Revolution which he had decided to write were more then told him the whole story, of which he had previously been accessible in London; so they went there in the summer of 1834, ignorant. He properly begged her not to yield to the impulse and took the house at 5 (now 24) Cheyne row, Chelsea, which without due consideration. She answered by coming at once to Carlyle inhabited till his death; the house has since been bought his father’s house, where he was staying; and the marriage was for the public. Irving, who had welcomed him on former occafinally settled. It took place on Oct. 17, 1826. sions, was just dying—a victim, as Carlyle thought, to fashionable Carlyle had now to arrange the mode of life which should cajoleries. A few young men were beginning to show appreciation. enable him to fulfil his aspiration. His wife had made over her J. S. Mill had made Carlyle’s acquaintance in the previous visit income to her mother, but he had saved a small sum upon which to London, and had corresponded with him. Mill had introduced to begin housekeeping. A passing suggestion from Mrs. Carlyle Ralph Waldo Emerson, who visited Craigenputtock in 1833. that they might live with her mother was judiciously abandoned. Carlyle was charmed with Emerson, and their letters published Carlyle had thought of occupying Craigenputtock, a remote and by Norton show that his regard never cooled. Emerson’s interest dreary farm belonging to Mrs. Welsh. His wife objected to his showed that Carlyle’s fame was already spreading in America. utter incapacity as a farmer; and they finally took a small house Carlyle’s connection with Charles Buller, a zealous utilitarian, at Comely Bank, Edinburgh, where they could live on a humble introduced him to the circle of “philosophical radicals.” Carlyle called himself in some sense a radical; and J. S. Mill, scale. The brilliant conversation of both attracted some notice in the literary society of Edinburgh. The most important con- though not an intellectual disciple, was a very warm admirer of nection was with Francis, Lord Jeffrey, still editor of the Edin- his friend’s genius. Carlyle had some expectation of the editorburgh Review. Though Jeffrey had no intellectual sympathy with ship of the London Review, started by Sir W. Molesworth at this Carlyle, he accepted some articles for the Review and became time as an organ of philosophical radicalism. The combination warmly attached to Mrs. Carlyle. Carlyle began to be known as would clearly have been explosive. Meanwhile Mill, who had leader of a new “mystic” school, and his earnings enabled him collected many books upon the French Revolution, was eager to to send his brother John to study in Germany. The public help Carlyle in the history which he was now beginning. He set appetite, however, for “mysticism” was not keen. In spite of to work at once and finished the first volume in five months, and support from Jeffrey and other friends, Carlyle failed in a candida- lent the ms. to J. S. Mill, who left it at the house of a Mrs. ture for a professorship at St. Andrews. His brother, Alexander, Taylor, who had separated from her husband on account of her had now taken the farm at Craigenputtock, and the Carlyles intimacy with Mill. There it was burned accidentally, according decided to settle at the separate dwelling-house there, which would to Mrs, Taylor, and Carlyle who had no copy and few notes had to bring them nearer to Mrs. Welsh. They went there in 1828, write it afresh. Mill sent a cheque for £200 as compensation. and began a hard struggle. Carlyle, indomitably determined to Carlyle accepted only £100, the actual cost of living while he make no concessions for immediate profit, wrote slowly and care- was writing what had been burned. On Jan. 12, 1837, the writing fully, and turned out some of his most finished work. He laboured of the history was finished, and Carlyle said to his wife: “What “passionately” at Sartor Resartus, and made articles out of frag- they will do with this book, none knows, my Jeannie, lass; but ments originally intended for the history of German literature. they have not had, for a two hundred years, any book that came The money difficulty soon became more pressing. John, whom he more truly from a man’s very heart; and so let them trample it was still helping, was trying unsuccessfully to set up as a doctor under foot and hoof as they see best.” “Pooh, pooh! they cannot in London; and Alexander’s farming failed. In spite of such trample that,” was her answer. The publication, six months later, of the French Revolution drawbacks, Carlyle in later years looked back upon the life at Craigenputtock as on the whole a comparatively healthy and even marks the turning-point of Carlyle’s career. Many readers hold happy period, as it was certainly one of most strenuous and it to be the best, as it is certainly the most characteristic, of courageous endeavour. Though absorbed in his work, he found Carlyle’s books. The failure of Sartor Resartus to attract average relief in rides with his wife, and occasionally visiting their rela- readers is quite intelligible. It contains, indeed, some of the most tions. Their letters during temporary separations are most af- impressive expositions of his philosophical position, and some of fectionate. The bleak climate, however, the solitude, and the his most beautiful and perfectly written passages. But there is necessity of managing a household with a single servant, were something forced and clumsy, in spite of the flashes of grim trying to a delicate woman. In the autumn of 1831 Carlyle ‘John Aitken Carlyle (1801~79) finally settled near the Carlyles in accepted a loan of £50 from Jeffrey, and went in search of work Chelsea. He began an English prose version of Dante’s Divine Comedy —which has earned him the name of “Dante Carlyle’—but only to London, whither his wife followed him. He made some engagethe translation of the Inferno (1849). The work included ments with publishers, though no one would take Sartor Resartus, acompleted critical edition of the text and a valuable introduction and notes.

CARLYLE humour, in the machinery of the Clothes Philosophy. The mannerism, which has been attributed to an imitation of Jean Paul, appeared to Carlyle himself to be derived rather from the phrases current in his father’s house, and in any case gave an appropriate dialect for the expression of his peculiar idiosyncrasy. But it could not be appreciated by readers who would not take the trouble to learn a new language. In the French Revolution Carlyle had discovered his real strength. He was always at his best when his imagination was set to work upon a solid framework of fact. The book shows a unique combination: on the one hand is the singularly shrewd insight into character and the vivid realization of the picturesque; on the other is the “mysticism” or poetical philosophy which relieves the events against a background of mystery. The contrast is marked by the humour which seems to combine a cynical view of human folly with a deeply pathetic sense of the sadness and suffering of life. The convictions, whatever their value, came, as he said, “flamingly from the heart.” It was, of course, impossible for Carlyle to satisfy modern requirements of matter-of-fact accuracy in details. He could not in the time have assimilated all the materials even then extant, and later accumulations would necessitate a complete revision. Considered as a “prose epic,” or a vivid utterance of the thought of the period, it has a permanent and unique value. The book was speedily successful. It was reviewed by Mill in the Westminster and by Thackeray in The Times, and Carlyle, after a heroic struggle, was at last touching land. In each of the years 1837 to 1840 he gave a course of lectures, of which the last only (upon “Hero Worship’) was published by himself; they materially helped his finances. By Emerson’s management he also received something during the same period from American publishers. At the age of 45 he had thus become independent. He had also established a position among the chief writers of the day. Young disciples, among whom John Sterling was the most

accepted, were gathering round him, and he became an object of social curiosity. Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton), who won universal popularity by the most genuine kindliness of nature, became a cordial friend. Another important intimacy was with the Barings, afterwards Lord and Lady Ashburton. Carlyle’s conversational powers were extraordinary; though, as he won greater recognition as a prophet, he indulged too freely in didactic monologue. In his prophetic capacity he published two remark-

able books: Chartism (1839), enlarged from an article which Lockhart, though personally approving, was afraid to take for the

Quarterly; and Past and Present

(1843), in which a recently

published Mediaeval Chronicle was taken as a text for the exposure of modern evils. They may be regarded as expositions of the doctrine implicitly set forth in the French Revolution. Carlyle was a “radical” as sharing the sentiments of the class in which he was born. He had been profoundly moved by the widely-spread distresses in his earlier years. When the yeomanry were called out to suppress riots after the Peace, his sympathies were with the people rather than with the authorities. So far he was in harmony with Mill and the “philosophical radicals.” A fundamental divergence of principle, however, existed and was soon indicated by his speedy separation from the party and alienation from Mill himself. The Revolution, according to him, meant the sweeping away of effete beliefs and institutions, but implied also the

necessity of a reconstructive process.

Chartism begins with a

fierce attack upon the laissez faire theory, which showed blindness to this necessity. The prevalent political economy, in which that theory was embodied, made a principle of neglecting the very evils which it should be the great function of government to remedy. Carlyle’s doctrines, entirely opposed to the ordinary opinions of Whigs and Radicals, found afterwards an expositor in his ardent disciple Ruskin, and inspired Keir Hardie and other

leaders of the labour movement.

At the time he was as one crying

in the wilderness to little practical purpose.

Liberals were scan-

dalized by his apparent identification of “right” with “might,” implied in the demand for a strong government; and though he often declared the true interpretation to be that the right would ultimately become might, his desire for strong government seemed too often to sanction the inverse view. He came into collision with

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philanthropists, and was supposed to approve of despotism for its own sake. ; His religious position was equally unintelligible to the average mind. While unequivocally rejecting the accepted creeds, and so scandalizing even liberal theologians, he was still more hostile to simply sceptical and materialist tendencies. He accepted the nickname of “mystic,” which had been applied to him by critics. The God he revered and held up for worship was the living God of Nature—inspiring all human effort, revealed by all reality, and speaking in the hearts of men and women. Any philosophy of history which emphasized the importance of general causes seemed to him to imply a simply mechanical doctrine and to deny the efficacy of the great spiritual forces. He met it by making biography the essence of history, or attributing all great events to the “heroes,” who are the successive embodiments of divine revelations. This belief was implied in his next great work, the Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell, published in 1845. The great Puritan hero was a man after his own heart, and the portrait drawn by so sympathetic a writer is not only intensely vivid, but a very effective rehabilitation of misrepresented character. He was the first to make plain the greatness of Oliver Cromwell as one of the makers of the modern British empire. The “biographical” view of history, however, implies the weakness, not only of unqualified approval of all Cromwell’s actions, but of omitting any attempt to estimate the Protector’s real relation to the social and political development of the time. The question, what was Cromwell’s real and permanent achievement, is not answered nor distinctly considered. The effect may be partly due to the peculiar form of the book as a detached series of documents and comments. The composition introduced Carlyle to the “Dryasdust” rubbish heaps of which he here and ever afterwards bitterly complained. A conscientious desire to unearth the facts, and the effort of extracting from the dullest records the materials for graphic pictures, made the process of production excessively painful. For some years after Cromwell Carlyle wrote little. His growing acceptance by publishers, and the inheritance of her property by Mrs. Carlyle on her mother’s death in 1842, finally removed the stimulus of money pressure. He visited Ireland in 1846 and again in 1849, when he made a long tour in company with Sir C. Gavan Duffy, then a young member of the Nationalist party (see Sir C. G. Duffy’s Conversations with Carlyle, 1892, for an interesting narrative). Carlyle’s strong convictions as to the misery and misgovernment of Ireland recommended him to men who had taken part in the rising of 1848. Although the remedies acceptable to a eulogist of Cromwell could not be to their taste, they admired his moral teaching; and he received their attentions, as Sir C. G. Duffy testifies, with conspicuous courtesy. His aversion from the ordinary radicalism led to an article upon slavery in 1840, to which Mill replied, and which caused their final alienation. It was followed in 1850 by the Latterday Pamphlets, containing “sulphurous” denunciations of the do-nothing principle. They gave general offence, and the disapproval, according to Froude, stopped the sale for years. The Life of Sterling (d. 1844), which appeared in 1851, was intended to correct the life by Julius Hare, which had given too much prominence to theological questions. The subject roused Carlyle’s tenderest mood, and the Life is one of the most perfect in the language. Carlyle meanwhile was suffering domestic troubles, unfortunately not exceptional in their nature, though the exceptional intellect and characters of the persons concerned have given them unusual prominence. Carlyle’s constitutional irritability made him intensely sensitive to petty annoyances. He suffered the torments of dyspepsia; he was often sleepless, and the crowing of “demon-fowls” in neighbours’ yards drove him wild. He would gladly have retired to the country again for the sake of quiet;

but his wife’s love of London kept him there. What helped to decide him to humour her by remaining there was the state of her health. For many years she was in danger of a mental breakdown, from which she was delivered mainly by his continual care and attentions. In 1851 Carlyle commenced work on his History of Frederick

the Great.

He shut himself up in his study to wrestle with the

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Prussian Dryasdusts, whom their Puritan predecessors Scotland to see his mother, tenderest affection, on her

he discovered to be as wearisome as and more voluminous. He went to to whom he had always shown the deathbed at the end of 1853. He returned to shut himself up in the “‘sound-proof room,” a study built on the top of his house and designed to be as free as possible from noises. He twice visited Germany (1852 and 1858) to see Frederick’s battlefields and obtain materials; and he occasionally went to the Ashburtons and his relations in Scotland. The first two volumes of Frederick the Great appeared in 1858, and succeeding volumes in 1862, 1864 and 1865. The success was great from the first. The book is in some respects his masterpiece, and its merits are beyond question. Carlyle had spared no pains in research. The descriptions of the campaigns are admirably vivid, and show his singular eye for scenery. These narratives are said to have been used by military students in Germany, and at least convince the non-military student that he can understand the story. The book was declared by Emerson to be the wittiest ever written. Many episodes, describing the society at the Prussian court and the relations of Frederick to Voltaire, are unsurpassable as humorous portraiture. The effort to fuse the masses of raw material into a well-proportioned whole is perhaps not quite successful; and Carlyle had not the full sympathy with Frederick which had given interest to the Cromwell. Carlyle’s general conception of history made him comparatively blind to aspects of the subject which would, to writers of other schools, have a great importance, but the extraordinary power of the book is undeniable, though it does not show the fire which animated the French Revolution. A certain depression and weariness of spirit darken the general tone. Mrs. Carlyle had apparently recovered from an almost hopeless illness, when at the end of 1865 Carlyle was elected to the rectorship of the University of Edinburgh. He delivered an address there on April 2, 1866, unusually mild in tone, and received with general applause. He was still detained in Scotland when Mrs. Carlyle died suddenly while driving in her carriage. The immediate cause was the shock of an accident to her dog. She had once hurt her mother’s feelings by refusing to use some wax candles. She had preserved them ever since, and by her direction they were now lighted in the chamber of death. Carlyle was overpowered by her loss. His life thenceforward became more and more secluded. He went to Mentone in the winter of 1866 and began the Reminiscences. He afterwards annotated the letters from his wife, published (1883) as Letters and Memorials. He was impressed by the story of Johnson’s “penance” at Uttoxeter, and desired to make a posthumous confession of his shortcomings in his relations to his wife, according to Froude, whose statements to this effect, however, are not generally accepted. A few later utterances made known his opinions of current affairs. He joined the committee for the defence of Governor Eyre in 1866: he also wrote in 1867 an article upon “shooting Niagara,” that is, upon the tendency of the Reform Bill of that year; and in 1870 he wrote a letter defending the German case against France. The worth of his Frederick was acknowledged by the Prussian Order of Merit in 1874. In the same year Disraeli offered him the Grand Cross of the Bath and a pension. He declined very courteously, and felt some regret for previous remarks upon the minister. The length of his literary career was now softening old antipathies, and he was the object of general respect. His infirmities enforced a very retired life, but he was constantly visited by Froude, Ruskin, and many others. Many friends paid him constant attention. A niece, Miss Aitken afterwards Mrs. Alexander Carlyle, became his housekeeper and ministered to him like a daughter till the end of his life. His conversation was still interesting, especially when it turned upon his recollections, and though his judgments were sometimes severe enough, he never condescended to the scandalous. His views of the future were gloomy. The world seemed to be going from bad to worse, with little heed to his warnings. He would sometimes regret that it was no longer permissible to leave it in the old Roman fashion. He sank gradually, and died on Feb. 4, 1881. A place in Westminster

Abbey was offered, but he was buried, according to his own desire,

by the side of his parents at Ecclefechan. He left Craigenputtock,

which had become his own property, to found bursaries at the University of Edinburgh. He gave his books to Harvard college, Carlyle’s appearance has been made familiar by many portraits, The statue by Boehm on the Chelsea Embankment is characteristic; and there is a fine painting by Watts in the National Por. trait Gallery, London. J. McNeill Whistler’s portrait of him is in the possession of the Glasgow corporation. During Carlyle’s later years the antagonism roused by his attacks upon popular opinions had subsided; and upon his death general expression was given to the emotions natural upon the loss of a remarkable man of genius. The rapid publication of the Reminiscences by Froude produced a sudden revulsion of feeling. Carlyle became the object of general condemnation. Froude’s

biography, and the Memorials of Mrs. Carlyle, published soon afterwards, strengthened the hostile feeling. Carlyle had appended

to the Reminiscences an injunction to his friends not to publish them as they stood, and added that no part could ever be published without the strictest editing. Afterwards, when he had almost forgotten what he had written, he verbally empowered Froude to use his own judgment; Froude accordingly published the book at once, without any editing, and with many inaccuracies. Omissions of a few passages written from memory at a time of

profound nervous depression would have altered the whole character of the book. Froude in this and the later publications held that he was giving effect to Carlyle’s wish to imitate Johnson’s “penance.” No one, said Boswell, should persuade him to make his lion into a cat. Froude intended, in the same spirit, to give the shades as well as the lights in the portrait of his hero. His admiration for Carlyle probably led him to assume too easily that his readers would approach the story from the same point of view, that is, with an admiration too warm to be repelled by the admissions. Moreover, Froude’s characteristic desire for picturesque effect, unchecked by any painstaking accuracy, led to his reading preconceived impressions into his documents. The result was that Carlyle was too often judged by his defects, and regarded as a selfish and eccentric misanthrope with flashes of genius, rather than as a man with many of the highest qualities of mind and character clouded by constitutional infirmities. Yet it would be difficult to speak too strongly of the great qualities which underlay the superficial defects. Through long years of poverty and obscurity Carlyle showed unsurpassed fidelity to his vocation and superiority to the lower temptations which have ruined so many literary careers. His ambition might be interpreted as selfishness, but certainly showed no coldness of heart. His unstinted generosity to his brothers during his worst times is only one proof of the singular strength of his family affections. No one was more devoted to such congenial friends as Irving and Sterling. He gave away a great deal of money when the sale of his books made him rich in the later years of his life, but he was careful to hide his benefactions as much as possible. The harsh judgments of individuals in the Reminiscences had no parallel in his own writings. He scarcely ever mentions a contemporary, and was never involved in a personal controversy. But the harshness certainly reflects a characteristic attitude of mind. Carlyle was throughout a pessimist or a prophet denouncing a backsliding world. His most popular contemporaries seemed to him to be false guides, and charlatans had ousted the heroes. The general condemnation of “shams” and cant had, of course, particular applications, though he left them to be inferred by his readers. Carlyle was the exponent of many of the deepest convictions of his time. Nobody could be more in sympathy with aspirations for a spiritual religion and for a lofty idealism in political and social life. To most minds, however, which cherish such aspirations the gentler optimism of men like Emerson was

more congenial. They believed in the progress of the race and the triumph of the nobler elements. Though Carlyle, especially in his earlier years, could deliver an invigorating and encouraging, if not a sanguine doctrine, his utterances

were

more

generally

couched in the key of denunciation, and betrayed a growing despondency. Materialism and low moral principles seemed to him

to be gaining the upper hand; and the hope that religion might

CARMAGNOLA—CARMARTHEN survive the “old clothes” in which it had been draped seemed to

grow fainter.

The ordinary mind complained that he had no

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Cuneo diverge; it is also connected with Turin by a steam tramway via Carignano. It was captured by the French in 1796.

specific remedy to propose for the growing evils of the time: CARMAGNOLE, a word first applied to a Piedmontese and the more cultivated idealist was alienated by the gloom and peasant costume (from Carmagnola, the town in Italy) well the tendency to despair. To a later generation it will probably known in the south of France, and brought to Paris by the revoluappear that, whatever the exaggerations and the misconceptions tionaries of Marseilles in 1793. It consisted of a short skirted to which he was led, his vehement attacks at least called attention coat with rows of metal buttons, a tricoloured waistcoat and red to rather grave limitations and defects in the current beliefs and cap, and became the popular dress of the Jacobins. The name was social tendencies of the time. The mannerisms and grotesque then given to the famous revolutionary song, composed in 1792. exaggerations of his writings annoyed persons of refinement, and Each verse of this ends with the refrain: suggested Matthew Arnold’s advice to flee “Carlylese” as you Vive le son, vive le son, would flee the devil. Yet the shrewd common sense, the biting Dansons la Carmagnole, Vive le son humour, the power of graphic description and the imaginative Du Canon. “mysticism” give them a unique attraction for many even who do not fully sympathize with the implied philosophy or with the CARMAN, WILLIAM BLISS (1861-1929), Canadian Puritanical code of ethics. The letters and autobiographical writ- poet and journalist, was born at Fredericton, New Brunswick, on ings, whether they attract or repel sympathy, are at least a series April 15, 1861, and was educated at the universities of New of documents of profound interest for any one who cares to Brunswick, Edinburgh (1882-83), and Harvard (1886-88). From study character, and display an almost unique idiosyncrasy. 1890 to 1892 he was literary editor of the New York Independent, (L. S.; D. A. W.) afterwards working on the staffs of Current Literature and the The materials for the Life of Carlyle consist of his Reminiscences Atlantic Monthly. The keynote of Carman’s poetry is a pagan and his own and his wife’s correspondence and the reports of many love of nature. He is a self-acknowledged disciple of Robert disciples and other witnesses. The best edition of the Reminiscences Browning, and in a lesser degree, of Matthew Amold. His numis that of C. E. Norton (1887), who has also edited the correspondence with Goethe (1887) and with Emerson (1883) and four volumes of erous volumes of verse include: Low Tide on Grand Pré (1893); other letters (1888). Alexander Carlyle has edited his Love Letters Songs from Vagabondia (Boston, 1894); More Songs from Vag(1909), Letters of Carlyle to Mill, Sterling and Browning (1923) and abondia (Boston, 1896); and Last Songs from Vagabondia (Bostwo more volumes, New Letters (1904) and Carlyle intime (1907). ton, 1901); these last three containing lyrics by Richard Hovey; A book published in 1892, Last Words of Thomas Carlyle, is mainly letters. The correspondence of Mrs. Carlyle is in her Letters and Ballads of Lost Haven (1897); By the Aurelian Wall (1898); Memorials, three volumes edited by Froude (1883), supplemented by Sappho (1902); Pipes of Pan (1903-05); Daughters of Dawn two more edited by Alexander Carlyle (1903), and her Early Letters, (1912); April Airs (1916, repr. 1922); and Later Poems (1921). edited by David G. Ritchie (1889), and Letters to her Kinsfolk, edited by Leonard Huxley (1924). The reports by disciples and others are numerous. Among the best are Conversations with Carlyle, by Sir Charles Gavan Duffy (1892); Literary Recollections, by F. Espinasse (1893); “Carlyle in Society and at Home,” by G. S. Venables (Fortnightly Review, 1883-84); Wiliam Allingham, A Diary, edited by H. Allingham and D. Radford (1907); Personal Reminiscences of Carlyle, by A. J. Symington (1886); “Conversations with Carlyle,” by William Knighton (Contemporary Review, 1881), and Carlyle Personally and in his Writings, by David Masson (1885). There have been many short biographies, That by Richard Garnett (1887) is one of the best, but many others are also good, and so is Augustus Ralli’s Guide to Carlyle (1920) in two volumes. The four-volume life by J. A. Froude (1882-84) was riddled by many critics, and in the posthumously published book, My Relations with Carlyle (1903), Froude at last confessed how he had shaped his work in complete reliance on the truth of what he had been told by Geraldine Jewsbury, that “Carlyle was one of those persons who ought never to have married.” This led to a controversy, the upshot of which is that Miss Jewsbury and Mr. Froude, who believed her, were both mistaken. See The Nemesis of Froude, by Sir James Crichton-Browne and A. Carlyle (1903) and The Truth about Carlyle, by D. A. Wilson (1913), with a preface by Sir James Crichton-Browne.

Thanks mainly to Crichton-Browne,

there is now no room left for

doubt in the medical profession and among people of sense about a

matter of peculiar importance in the case of a great moralist.

Of a new Life of Carlyle, by D. A. Wilson, in which Carlyle is reported like Dr. Johnson or Confucius, the first. volume, Carlyle till Marriage, appeared in 1923, and was followed by Carlyle to the French Revolution in 1924, Carlyle on Cromwell and Others (1925) and Carlyle at his Zenith in 1927. Later volumes are entitled Carlyle to Threescore-and-ten and Carlyle in Old Age. (D. A. W.)

CARMAGNOLA, FRANCESCO BUSSONE, Count oF (1390-1432), a condottiere, won back Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s divided territories for Gian’s son and heir Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. In 1425, feeling that he had not been sufficiently rewarded by Visconti, Carmagnola sold his services to the Venetians. In the ensuing war with Milan, he was so dilatory in his actions that the republic became suspicious of his intentions; and indeed Carmagnola was in treaty with his former master. Summoned to Venice by the doge, he was seized, tried for treason, condemned to death and beheaded on May §, 1432.

See Horatio Brown, Studies in Venetian History (1907). A. Manzoni made this episode the subject of a poetical drama, Ii Conte di Carmagnola (1826).

CARMAGNOLA, a town of Italy, in the province of Turin,

18m. by rail S. of Turin. Pop. (1921) 3,740 (town), 11,914 (commune). It is the junction where the lines for Savona and

Some of Carman’s prose essays have been collected in Kinship of

Nature (1904); Friendship of Art; and The Poetry of Life (1905.) He died in New Canaan, Conn., June 8, 1929. See O. Shepard, Bliss Carman (1923); and H. D. C. Lee, Bliss Carman (1912), which contains a bibliography.

CARMARTHEN,

the capital town of the county of that

name, on the right bank of the Towy, where the river straightens out after meandering, and turns seawards (pop., 1931, 10,310). Its site on the historic south Wales coast road also commands the main Towy route into central Wales from the south and is the focus of roads from hill-lands to the north. The main part of the town is situated on a hillock with the ruins of a Norman castle (converted into a gaol in the 18th century and now disused) on the south-west side; with the fine parish church of St. Peter, founded in the r2th century but largely of r4th-century construction on the north-east side. The castle site is undoubtedly of great antiquity and was certainly the Roman station of Maridunum. In the post-Roman centuries Carmarthen became the focus of activity for the Welsh chieftains of south Wales and was associated with the name of Merlin as well. After the town passed into Norman hands in 1123 it became subject to many attacks from the people of the hills around. The castle and church were the nucleus of the mediaeval town and in their neighbourhood there are still traces of the old town wall. Carmarthen was granted its first charter by Edward I. in 1313, a privilege which was renewed and augmented by subsequent sovereigns. The mediaeval history of the town, in virtue of its key position, is a record of attacks, sieges and burnings into which enter the names of Llewellyn, Glyndwr, Edward, John and Sir Rhys ap Thomas. On the lower ground to the east of the town near the banks of the river was the Benedictine priory famous for its literary tastes and the Black Book of Carmarthen; while on the western side of the town was the house of the Black Friars. In the middle ages Carmarthen was important for its wool trade, being declared by Edward ITI. in 1353 the sole “staple” for Wales. As a result of the social changes in Tudor times a guild hall was built in 1583 near the centre of the town.

The town grew in size and importance.

It had associations with

the early Protestants among whom were Bishop Ferrar of St. Davids (burnt in the market place, 1555) and John Penry (15591593). During the great Rebellion the castle was held for the king, but soon changed hands on the appearance of Cromwell and his

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CARMARTHENSHIRE

men. Situated at the highest navigable point of the tide, the town became a busy river port as coastal trade grew during the subsequent centuries. Carmarthen became the social centre for the neighbourhood and was associated with Sir Richard Steele, Bishop Thirlevall, David Williams, Dr. Richard Price, Sir Thomas Picton, etc. It became a printing and literary centre as well. Its importance was further enhanced in 1747 by the building of one of the earliest iron-smelting works in Wales, which later manufactured tinplates. The advent of the railway in 1856 helped the local trade of the town and made it an important railway junction. With the development of the seaboard and the changes that followed the industrial revolution Carmarthen’s prosperity declined, although the tinworks continued until 1900. Carmarthen, together with Lichfield, Poole and Haverfordwest, is one of the old boroughs that remain counties of themselves, a privilege granted to Carmarthen by James I. in 1604. It was created a parliamentary borough in 1536 and since 1832 returned a member jointly with Llanelly, but since 1918 it has been merged in the West Carmarthenshire parliamentary area.

CARMARTHENSHIRE,

South Wales county, is bounded

north by Cardigan, east by Brecon and Glamorgan, west by Pembroke, south by Carmarthen Bay and the Bristol Channel (area 918 square m.; the largest Welsh county). It consists essentially of the plain of the Towy, with its continuation into the Taf Valley. This line of lowland curving from a south-west to a west direction is a worn anticline mainly floored by black shales of Tremadoc (Cambrian Age) covered at the sides by conglomerates, sandstones and shales, with beds of volcanic ash and lava of Arenig (Ordovician Age). Above these are shales, flags and limestones named from Llandilo where they are remarkably developed. North of the Towy lowland the hills are formed of Ordovician and Silurian shales and mudstones, deeply dissected and divided into two zones, one south of Brechfa with a maximum height of goo ft., and one north of Brechfa and the Cothi reaching above 1,300 ft. South and southeast of the Towy the Silurian sandstones and mudstones form the first hills; behind and above them comes Old Red Sandstone followed by Carboniferous Limestone and Coal Measures. The Old Red Sandstone gives to the south-east the Black Mountains of Carmarthenshire rising to 2,026 ft., while south of this the scarps and moorlands of the Carboniferous Limestone and “Farewell rock” (Millstone Grit) form the north-west rim of the South Wales coalfield, the rich coal measures of the Gwendraeth Valley and Llanelly district being within the county. The Old Red Sandstone rocks on the south side of the main Towy lowland form only very subordinate hill lines westward from the Black Mountains and the Towy makes its way through the Old Red Sandstone zone to‘an estuary formed by coastal sinking. The main drainage follows the line of the denuded anticline occupied by the Towy which is fed by streams dissecting especially the northern uplands; these include the Sawdde, Cothi and Gwili. The Gwendraeth Fach and Gwendraeth Fawr and the Loughor follow north-east to south-west lines which are characteristic of the region and the Loughor divides the county from Glamorganshire on the east. The line of the middle Towy is continued by the Taf on the west boundary of the county and after passing Whitland it turns south-east to the sea near Laugharne. Most of the hills have been rounded by ice action and deposits of boulder clay are frequent on the lower valley sides, especially west of Carmarthen Town on the lowland area which shows evidences of having been a lake probably in late-glacial times. With the exception of Llyn y fan in the Black Mountains the lakes of the county are inconsiderable in size, the Bishop’s Pond, two miles East of Carmarthen is a good example of an ox-bow lake. The region above the 600 ft. contour is dotted with tumuli and cairns and, especially in the north-west section, with menhirs and

other great stone monuments. The distribution of Bronze Age finds seems to indicate the use of the coast and rivers or valley

ways at the time. Bronze objects are found especially along the South Coast, and at Conwil in the Gwili Valley. The hill top camps of Romano-British age cap spurs of the high ground and seem to be situated at defensible points that guard ways up from the sea and communications along the valleys. Garn Goch (5 m.

north-east of Llandilo) covers some 15 acres and is enclosed by a

stone rampart. The Roman focus of ways across the country lay

at Maridunum, later Carmarthen, the present capital of the county. The post Roman centuries saw the civilizing and Christianizing influence of the Celtic Saints on the one hand, leaving its mark to this day in dedications of rural churches, and on the other the numerous raids from the sea and by land of Irish and Scandinavians. The strong reign of Rhodri Mawr (c. 870) is said to have brought a measure of peace and his grandson Howell the Good (Hywel Dda) was the first to codify the ancient laws of Wales at his palace of Ty Gwyn Ar Dâf near modern Whitland. The period subsequent to 1080 saw the beginnings of the Norman intrusion. The Normans first built castles along the coast at Kidwelly, Llanstephan, Laugharne, etc., and then penetrated up the valley ways to Carmarthen, Llandilo, etc. It is interesting to find that many of these castles occupy sites previously chosen for defence by earlier rulers of the country, e.g., the castle at Dinefawr. This had been the seat of the princes of South Wales, the central point of Ystrad Tywi the nucleus of the future county. The campaigns of Edward I. gave the Normans a more unified control of

the principality and by the Statutes of Rhuddlan (1284) the counties of Cardigan and Carmarthen were formed out of the districts of Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi. Nearly a third of the present county, however, still remained under the jurisdiction of the Lords Marchers and it was not until the Act of 27 Henry VIII. that these districts, including the commots of Kidwelly, Iscennen and Carnwillion were added to Edward I.’s original shire. The surrounding hill county made Carmarthenshire famous for its wool in the later Middle Ages. Edward III. by the statute staple of 1353 declared Carmarthen town the sole staple for Wales, ordering every bale of wool to be sealed here before it left the Principality. There are few remains of the mediaeval monastic houses:

Talley Abbey (north of Llandilo), founded by Rhys ap Griffith prince of South Wales (late 12th century), for Benedictine monks; Whitland, or Albalanda, also a Benedictine house, probably founded by Bishop Bernard of St. David's (early 12th century), on a site long associated with Welsh monastic life and the celebrated Augustinian Priory of St. John at Carmarthen (12th century). Connections with the house of Tudor through Sir Rhys ap Thomas were important in the 16th century. At Abergwili the then new palace of the Bishops of St. David’s Bishop Richard Davies (1505-1581) and William Salesbury of Llanrwst translated the New Testament and the Prayer Book into Welsh and in the early part of the 17th century Rhys Prichard (d. 1644), the Puritan Vicar of Llandovery published his famous “Canwyll y Cymry” (the Welshman’s Candle). The castles of Carmarthenshire, especially the southern ones, made a very half hearted resistance to the parliamentarian forces. Griffith Jones (16841761), vicar of Llanddowror

founded Welsh circulating schools,

the effective beginning of the modern educational movement in Wales. William Williams of Pantycelyn (1716—91) was the chief hymnologist of the Welsh Methodist revival. Dr. Richard Price, the friend of Priestley, also belonged to the shire. Carmarthen was deeply implicated in the Rebecca riots (1842—43). The markets of Carmarthen, Llandilo and Llandovery received cattle driven on foot in pre-railway days, and Llandovery seems to have been an important focus for cattle being driven to the English Midlands. Old lead mines at Llangunnor (2 m. S.E. of Carmarthen) and Rhandirmwyn (8 m. N. of Llandilo) are derelict. Stock-marts using the railway still continue. The anthracite coalfield in Carmarthenshire led to growth of Ammanford, Llanelly, Pontardulais, etc., and it has tended to develop industries such as tin-plate and copper smelting. The increasing modern demand for anthracite favours the county and the collieries are now nearly all in a large combine with interests in outside fields as well. Some migration from the Glamorganshire coalfield is taking place. The G.W.R. runs from Loughor, in the south-east, along the coast to the Towy estuary which it follows up to Carmarthen and then leaves, going west via Whitland. Branches go from Llanelly to Ammanford and Llandilo, from Pembrey to the Gwendraeth valley, from Carmarthen to Pencader and Newcastle Emlyn, and from Whit-

CARMATHIANS—CARMELITES

887

Jand to Cardigan. The L.M.S.R. running from Shrewsbury via as the central range of Palestine it suggests a buttress thrust forth Craven Arms enters the north-east of the county and runs to to the Mediterranean plain. In the middle it attains an altitude of Llandovery and Llandilo, with branches thence to Swansea and to about 1,800 feet. On its south-west side it subsides gently in ridges Carmarthen, partly conjoint with the G.W.R. Carmarthen has and valleys to the plain of Sharon whilst above Haifa and Esdraerecently become a considerable centre for road-motors. lon the descent is more rapid. The line of its ridge against the sky The area of the county is 587,816 acres and the population in can be seen from sea and land over a wide radius. Carmel is 1931 was 179,063. The municipal boroughs are Carmarthen covered with a wild and luxuriant vegetation. Forests of oak, (styled County Borough) (pop. 10,310), Kidwelly (pop. 3,161), groves of olive trees and extensive vineyards flourished there of Llandovery (1,980) and Llanelly (pop. 38,398). Urban districts old. The hill was a sanctuary and its many caves and thick underare Ammanford (7,160), Llandilo (1,886), Burry Port (5,752), growth afforded security to robbers and outcasts (Strabo xvi. Newcastle Emlyn (762). The county is in the South Wales cir- 759). The mountain is mentioned in the conquest lists of cuit, and assizes are held at Carmarthen. The borough of Car- Thutmose IIT. and in the Amarna letters but its place in history marthen has a commission of the peace and separate quarter ses- is small. Throughout the ages the waves of innumerable military sions. The county is divided into two parliamentary divisions, the enterprises have surged past its base to break elsewhere. The eastern (industrial) and the western (rural) each returning one route naturally followed led along the sea coast or through the member to parliament. The ancient county contains 75 parishes defiles in the lower slopes at its southern end, linking the plains and a part of another and is wholly in the diocese of St. David's. of Sharon and Esdraelon. In 1479 B.c. Thutmose III. led his CARMATHIANS, a Muhammadan sect named after Ham- chariots and horsemen to Megiddo by the same defile through din Qarmat, who accepted the teaching of the Isma‘ilites (see which Lord Allenby thrust cavalry and armoured cars in 1918. The territories of Asher, Zebulun, Issachar and Manasseh met IsLaAM: Sects) from Husayn al-Ahwazi, a missionary of Ahmad, son of the Persian ‘Abdallah ibn Maimin, toward the close of the at Carmel but the possession of the mount was never apparently gth century. For the political history of the Carmathians, their determined. Somewhere on Carmel’s top was the scene of Elijah’s conquests, and their decay, see ARABIA: History; CALIPHATE dramatic challenge resulting in Yahweh’s vindication and the complete discomfiture of Baal and his prophets (I Kings 18). and Ecypt: History (Muhammadan period). In their religious teaching they claimed to be Shi‘ites; 7.e., they Tradition and a consensus of enlightened opinion have fixed the asserted that the imamate belonged by right to the descendants of site at El-Muhraka (“the burning”) on the southern half of the Ali. Further, they were of the Isma‘ilite branch of these, ż.e., ridge a short distance south-east of Esfiya. Carmel was evidently sacred both to Yahweh and Baal and they acknowledged the claim to the imamate of Isma‘il the eldest son of the sixth imam. ‘Abdallah taught that from the creation of according to Scylax (Periplus. 42) it was sacred to Jupiter in man there had always been an imam sometimes known, sometimes the days of Darius (6th century B.c.). Tacitus (Hist. ii, 78) hidden. Isma‘il was the last known; a new one was to be looked speaks of its oracle beside an altar and remarks on the absence for. But while the imam was hidden, his doctrines were to be of any divine image. The philosopher Pythagoras went to “the taught by his missionaries (dd‘is). Hamdan Qarmat was one of sacred place of Carmel” to meditate (Iamblichus, Vit. Pyth. ili. these, Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah being nominally the chief. The ad- 5); Vespasian when nourishing secret designs before his aggranherents of this party were initiated by degrees into the secrets of disement was confirmed in his hopes by consulting its oracle its doctrines and were divided into seven (afterwards nine) classes. (Suetonius. Vesp. 5). An ideal retreat, the mount attracted In the first stage the convert was taught the existence of mystery Christian anchorites from early times. As early as 570 there is in the Qur’an and made to feel the necessity of a teacher who could record of a “Monastery of Elisha the Prophet.” The Order of explain it. In the second stage the earlier teachers of Islam were Carmelites was founded in 1156 and the monastery then built, shown to be wrong in doctrine and the imams alone were proved situated at the north-west extremity of the ridge, suffered many to be infallible. In the third it was taught that there were only changes of fortune during the Crusades. A new monastery to seven imams and that the other sects of the Shi'ites were in error. “Our Lady of Mount Carmel” was erected in 1767 and used by In the fourth the disciple learnt that each of the seven imams had Napoleon as a hospital for his soldiers, On his retirement (1799) a prophet, who was to be obeyed in all things. The prophet of the it was burned down. The present building was erected in 1827. last imam was ‘Abdallah. In the fifth stage the uselessness of The graveyard, with its memorial to Napoleon’s soldiers who died tradition and the temporary nature of the precepts and practices there, was desecrated by the Turks during the World War, but of Muhammad were taught, while in the sixth the believer was in- a new monument was set up by the French navy in 1919. The duced to give up these practices (prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, etc.). Turks posted guns there for the defence of Haifa. They were At this point the Carmathian had completely ceased to be a Mus- taken in a charge along the ridge by the Mysore Lancers and lim. In the remaining degrees there was more liberty of opinion the Sherwood Rangers (Sept. 22, 1918). Carmel is included in the re-afforestation scheme of the Palestine Government. allowed and much variety of belief and teaching existed. BIBLIOGRAPHY, —E. Robinson, Bib. Researches (1854, etc.); W. M. The last contemporary mention of the Carmathians is that of The Land and the Book (1878, etc.) ; Sir G. A. Smith, Hist. Nasir ibn Khusrau, who visited them in A.D, 1050. In Arabia they Thomson, Geography of the Holy Land (18094, etc.), and Encyc. Biblica; J. A. ceased to exercise influence. In Persia and Syria their work was Janssen, La Féte de Sainte Elie au Mont Carmel: Revue Biblique taken up by the Assassins (g.v.). Their doctrines are said, how- (1924) 249 f. , CARMELITES, in England called White Friars (from the ever, to exist still in parts of Syria, Persia, Arabia and India, and white mantle over a brown habit), one of the four mendicant to be still propagated in Zanzibar. BrsriocraPHy.—-L. Massignon, “Esquisse d’une bibliographie qar- orders. The stories concerning the origin of this order, seriously put forward and believed in the 17th and 18th centuries, are mate,” in Oriental Studies presented to E. G. Browne, pp. 329-338 (1922); M. J. de Goeje, Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain one of the curiosities of history. It was asserted that Elias estab(1880). lished a community of hermits on Mount Carmel, and that this CARMAUX, a town of southern France, in the department community existed without break until the Christian era and was of Tarn, on the left bank of the Cérou, rom. N. of Albi, under the nothing else than a Jewish Carmelite order, to which belonged the south-western slopes of the central plateau. Pop. (1926), 9,799. Sons of the Prophets and the Essenes. Members of it were present The town gives its name to a coal-basin and has important glass- at St. Peter’s first sermon on Pentecost and were converted, and built a chapel on Mount Carmel in honour of the Blessed Virgin works. in the order. CARMEL. In Palestine, a well-defined mountain ridge (“gar- Mary, who, as well as the apostles, enrolled herself (1628-1714), den orchard”: Arab. Jebel Mar Elyäş, Elijah’s Mount), wedge- In 1668 the Bollandist (g.v.) Daniel Papenbroek shaped, running north-west-south-east, with a length of some 15 in the March volumes of the Acta Sanctorum, rejected these stories had recourse m. and an extreme breadth of about 84 m. where it meets the as fables. A controversy arose and the Carmelites the offending getting in succeeded they Spain In Inquisition. the to heada form to sea the into Samarian hills, its thin end projecting land south of the Bay of Acre. Of the same limestone formation volumes of the Acta censured, but in Rome they were less suc-

888

CARMEN

SYLVA--CARMONA

cessful, and so hot did the controversy become that in 1698 a decree was issued imposing silence upon both parties, until a formal decision should be promulgated—which has not yet been done. The historical origin of the Carmelites must be placed at the middle of the 12th century, when a crusader from Calabria, named Berthold, and ten companions established themselves as hermits near the cave of Elias on Mount Carmel. About 1210 the hermits on Carmel received from Albert, Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, a rule comprising sixteen articles. This was the primitive Carmelite rule. The life prescribed was strictly eremitical: the monks were to live in separate cells or huts, devoted to prayer and work; they met only in the oratory for the liturgical services, and were to live a life of great silence, seclusion, abstinence and austerity. This rule received papal approbation in 1226. Soon, however, the losses of the Christian arms in Palestine made Carmel an unsafe place of residence for western hermits, and so, c. 1240, they migrated first to Cyprus and thence to Sicily, France and England. In England the first establishment was at Alnwick and the second at Aylesford, where the first general chapter of the order was held in 1247, and the institute was adapted to the conditions of the western lands to which it had been transplanted, and for this purpose the original rule had to be in many ways altered: the austerities were mitigated, and the life was turned from eremitical into cenobitical, but on the mendicant rather than the monastic model. The polity and government were also organized on the same lines, and the Carmelites were turned into mendicants and became one of the four great orders of Mendicant Friars, in England distinguished as the “White Friars” from the white mantle worn over the dark brown habit. This change was made and the new rule approved in 1247, and under this form the Carmelites spread all over western Europe and became exceedingly popular, as an order closely analogous to the Dominicans and Franciscans. In the course of time, further relaxations of the rule were introduced, and during the Great Schism the Carmelites were divided between the two papal obediences, rival generals being elected,—a state of things that caused still further relaxations. To cope with existing evils Eugenius IV. approved in 1431 of a rule notably milder than that of 1247, but many houses clung to the earlier rule; thus arose among the Carmelites the same division into “observants” and “conventuals” that wrought such mischief among the Franciscans. Of all movements in the Carmelite order by far the most important and far-reaching in its results has been the reform initiated by St. Teresa. After nearly thirty years passed in a Carmelite convent in Avila under the mitigated rule of 1431, she founded in the same city a small convent wherein a rule stricter than that of 1247 was to be observed. This was in 1562. In spite of opposition and difficulties of all kinds, she succeeded in establishing a number, not only of nunneries, but (with the co-operation of St. John of the Cross, g.v.) also of friaries of the strict observance. The interesting and dramatic story of the movement should be sought for in the biographies of the two protagonists. The idea of the reform was to go behind the settlement of 1247 and to restore and emphasize the austerity and the purely contemplative character of primitive Carmelite life. From the fact that those of the reform wore sandals in place of shoes and stockings, they have come to be called the Discalced, or bare-footed, Carmelites, in distinction to the Calced or older branch of the order. In 1580 the reformed monasteries were made a separate province under the general of the order, and in 1593 this province was made by papal act an independent order with its own general and government, so that there are now two distinct orders of Carmelites. The Discalced Carmelites spread rapidly all over Catholic Europe, and then to Spanish America and the East, especially India and Persia, in which lands they have carried on to this day extensive missionary undertakings. Both observances suffered severely from the various revolutions, but they both still exist, the Discalced being by far the most numerous and

thriving. There are in all some 2,000 Carmelite friars, and the

nuns are much more numerous. In England and Ireland there are houses, both of men and of women, belonging to each observance.

BrBiiocRaPHY.—Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1897), ii. §§ 92—96; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), art. _carmelitenorden”; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art. Karmeliter”; and the Catholic

Encyclopaedia, art. “Carmelites.”

The story of St.

Teresa’s reform will be found in lives of St. Teresa and in her writings,

especially the Foundations.

CARMEN

SYLVA: see ELIZABETH, QUEEN oF RUMANIA.

CARMINATIVES are drugs which aid the expulsion of gas from the stomach and intestines. They act chiefly by producing a mild irritation and increased vascularity in the stomach, thus stimulating the gastro-intestinal movements or by diminishing spasm. Probably some effect is due to suggestion and to the pleasant sensation they cause in the stomach. Some of the com-

monest are certain volatile oils or substances containing them, such as capsicum, ginger, oil of cloves, peppermint, chamomile, cara-

way, aniseed and dill. The last two are very frequently used for children. Other carminatives are chalk, lime water, sodium carbonate and the vegetable bitters such as gentian, orange-peel, etc.

Valerian and asafetida are both occasionally used as carminatives, but the smell of both is unpleasant; camphor is used especially in neurotic persons. Tincture of nux vomica being a bitter, has a carminative action, but it also appears to stimulate the plain muscle in the stomach wall; this enhances its action.

CARMINE, a rich crimson-red pigment prepared from cochineal (g.v.), the dried bodies of the Coccus cacti insects indigenous to Mexico and Central America. The powdered cochineal is digested with a dilute solution of carbonate of soda through which live steam is passed; after boiling for two hours the solution is filtered and the colouring matter precipitated by the addition of a requisite amount of alum and cream of tartar. The “crimson lake” thus formed is brought to the required shade by the addition of freshly prepared hydrate of alumina and the lake is washed, filtered and dried at a low temperature. Scarlet shades are obtained by the addition of genuine vermilion along with the hydrate of alumina, whilst the addition of lime produces lakes possessing a deep purple tone. The use of carmine in water colours is giving way to the aniline dyes.

Chemically, carmine may be said to be an aluminum-calcium compound of carminic acid. As a lake it is used in water colours, in cosmetics and in the preparation of fine coach-body colours, though in this it is being gradually superseded by the more permanent lakes obtained from aniline dyestuffs. (See PAINTS, CHEMISTRY OF.) (R. S. M.; W. E. W.) CARMONA, ANTONIO OSCAR DE FRAGOSA (1859), Portuguese general and statesman, was made prime minister and minister of war in June 1926 by a military pronunciamento. He was virtually dictator of Portugal. Whatever may be said of the irregularity of his accession to power, he undoubtedly commanded general respect. His administration did not make effective the great changes expected in the administration. On Nov. 30 Carmona assumed by decree the position of head of the State, pending the election of a constitutional president. A military revolt against the dictator broke out in Oporto on Feb. 2, 1927, followed by a more serious outbreak at Lisbon. Both were suppressed, Carmona receiving assistance from the monarchical parties. On Aug. 26, 1927, he reconstructed his cabinet. He sought

to consolidate his power by breaking up the party system, but his attempt to organize a party of national union, on the lines of the Spanish Patriotic Union, met with only partial success. Nevertheless, in April 1928, he was elected president of the republic by a plebiscite, and reconstituted his Government, including civil-

ian elements.

He declined a loan, to be arranged by the League

of Nations, for the reconstruction of Portuguese finance, deciding

that the terms were too onerous.

CARMONA, a city of south-west Spain, in the province of

Seville, 27m. N.E. of Seville by rail. It is situated on a ridge

overlooking the plain of Andalusia, from the Sierra Morena, on the north, to the peak of San Cristobal on the south. Pop. (1920)

22,095. The district round Carmona produces the ‘best type of

olives (gordales) ‘and the town trades in oil, wine, grain, fruit

and cattle, and makes soap, rough cloth and pottery.

Carmona (Roman Carmo) was the strongest city of Further

Spain under Julius Caesar (roo-44 B.C.) and a large necropolis

CARNAC with rock-hewn graves; some with vestibules provided with triclinia, an amphitheatre and a rock-hewn temple have been excavated. The finds have been arranged in the local museum. Carmona was greatly strengthened by the Moors and the

present Seville gate was built by them. The parish church, with its Moorish court, is a converted mosque.

In 1247 Ferdinand ITI.

of Castile took the town and Peter the Cruel (1350-69) built the

lofty citadel with its palace, now in ruins.

889

theoretical chronology of the monuments deduced from an evolutionary typology in which the “simple dolmen” of the stone age was a development of the primitive stone kist, and the beehived chamber with entrance-passage was the final achievement of the neolithic era degenerating by way of the allée couverte to the unchambered mound, and the alignments coeval with the “simple dolmen,” has been undermined by Le Rouzic’s methodical exca-

CARNAC, a village of north-western France, in the depart-

ment of Morbihan and arrondissement of Lorient, ọ m. S.W. of Auray. Pop. (1926) 736. It has a church in the Renaissance style of Brittany, but owes its celebrity to the stone monuments

in its vicinity. (See Stone MonumENts.)

The most remarkable

consists of long avenues of menhirs or standing stones; but there are also dolmens and barrows, throughout the whole district. About half a mile to the north-west of the village is the Ménec system, which consists of eleven lines and extends a distance of 3,370 ft. The terminal circle is broken by the houses and gardens of a little hamlet. To the east-north-east there is another

system at Kermario (Place of the Dead), which consists of ten lines about 4,000 ft. in length. Still further in the same direction is a third system at Kerlescan (Place of Burning), composed of thirteen lines, about $ m. in length, terminated by an irregular circle. These three systems seem once to have formed a continuous series; the menhirs, many of which have been broken up for road-mending and other purposes, have diminished in number by some thousands in modern times. The alignment of Kermario points to the dolmen of Kercado (Place of St. Cado), where there is also a barrow, explored in 1863;

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Ménec stands the great tumulus of Mont St. Michel, which measures 377 ft. in length, and has a height of 65 ft. The tumulus, which is crowned with a chapel, was excavated by René Galles in 1862; and the contents of the sepulchral chambers, which include several jadeite and fibrolite axes and Callais beads, are preserved in the museum at Vannes. About a mile east of the village is a small piece of moorland called the Bossenno, from the bocenieu or mounds with which it is covered; and here, in 1874, the explorations of James Miln brought to light remains of a GalloRoman town. Similar traces were also discovered at Mané Bras, a height about 3 m. to the east. The rocks of which these various monuments are composed is the ordinary granite of the district, and most of them present a strange appearance from their coating of white lichens. Carnac has an important museum of antiquities (Musée Miln). See W. C. Lukis, Guide to the Principal Chambered Barrows and other Prehistoric Monuments in the Islands of the Morbihan, etc. (Ripon, 1875) ; René Galles, Fouilles du Mont Saint Michel en Carnac (Vannes, 1864); A. Fouquet, Des monuments celtiques et des ruines romaines dans le Morbihan (Vannes, 1853); James Miln, Archaeological Researches at Carnac in Brittany: Kermario (1881); and Excavations at Carnac: The Bossenno and the Mont St. Michel (1877); Z. Le Rouzic, The Megalithic Monuments of Carnac and Locmar-

iaquer (1908); Bulletin de la Société polymathique du M oe

| MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS The famous stone alignments, chambered mounds, dolmens denuded of mounds, and menhirs of the Carnac district of Brittany are more numerous, compactly grouped, and in greater variety than elsewhere in Europe. Serious study and excavation began under the auspices of the Société Polymathique du Morbihan (Museum at Vannes) with Dr. Mauricet and the brothers Galles, Dr. de Closmadeuc, the Rev. W. C. Lukis of Guernsey, and James Miln, the Scots archaeologist. Miln bequeathed his collection to Carnac, and had for a pupil a Carnac boy, Zacharie Le Rouzic, afterwards conservator of the Miln-Le Rouzic museum, to whose patient researches archaeology owes its present

exact knowledge of the, Carnac monuments. (There are also excellent collections from the Carnac region at the Musée de Saint-

Germain.) 7 The annexed figure shows the denuded dolmens, mounds, stone enclosures (“cromlechs” and “quadrilateral enceintes”), and forts grouped about the alignments, and the relationship of these monuments to the sea-coast and the deep-water inlets. The

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vation and strict attention over a period of 35 years to the association data revealed. It has been demonstrated that the megalithic monuments grouped in the Carnac district were constructed by a mixed population, carrying on trade with the megalithic centres of Grand-Pressigny, of the Iberian peninsula, and of north-west Britain and Ireland, and influenced, culturally, at first by the Aegean and later by immigration from the Danube region. The local maritime people were slightly-built and very long-headed, recalling the Cromagnon-Homme-Mort type. They lived largely by fishing and shell-fish collecting, used roughlyfashioned flint, bone and horn. implements and microlithic flakes, and buried their dead crouched, either in walled-up rock-shelters or in graves made box-fashion of slabs or dug out and lined with boulders; but they also had domestic animals and grain, pottery and polished stone implements, and these two last included styles that are contemporary with the knowledge of metal. Intermingled and interbred with these long-established natives of France were other people anatomically approximating in varying degrees to the more sturdily-built broad-headed folk which is everywhere associated with a metal-using culture. Alongside of crouched inhumation existed the rite of incineration in association with objects contemporaneous with a metal-using culture, and this incineration rite further co-existed with extended inhumation in the same archaeological association. Both burial rites are found in association with every type of megalithic-grave, The constructors of the Carnac megalithic monuments enjoyed a civilization that had spread over the whole of the more populated

890

CARNAC

parts of Europe in the age of transition from a hunting and fishing existence (when metal was unknown) to the culture-complex of which pottery, polished hoes, axes and chisels, agriculture and stock-raising, metallurgy, active trade, and organized religion, formed part. In the Carnac region this civilization assumed a characteristically peripheral aspect in which the wealthy and dominant were comfortably supplied with the products of the potter’s, goldsmith’s and lapidary’s arts, alongside of poorer folk furnished generally with more primitive pots, implements, ornaments, and graves—not because they were ignorant of the finer goods but because they could not compass their possession. Excavation demonstrates that the long, low, extensive mound, indicated by a menhir, covering the rudely walled-in site of numerous funeral hearths, and,as a rule,one or more kists containing votive deposits of flints, pottery, and polished axes, antedates the higher chambered cairns and mounds (more often than not cir-

cular in outline) with entrance-galleries (of which numerous “dolmens” are the denuded ruins) as well as the denuded allées couvertes, but that these low mounds themselves are contemporaneous With the knowledge of metal. Likewise, that kist burial is coeval with every type of megalithic monument. The alignments have been demonstrated to be later than the long low mounds in which keeled bronze-age type pottery is buried in the principal kist. Zacharie Le Rouzic dates these low mounds from 2,500 to 2,000, and the chambered and galleried mounds and allées couvertes, together with alignments and stone enclosures, from 2,000 to 1,200 B.c. Closed chambered mounds he places later still. Beaker pottery is approximately dateable, and definitely contemporaneous with a knowledge of metal. Analysis of the 49 recorded instances of megalithic monuments included in Le

Rouzic’s inventory for the Carnac region, in which caliciform beaker pottery of Spanish and Channel islands facies has been found (irrespective of locally excavated beaker pottery in the museums whose provenance is not ascertainable), is enlightening when considered in reference to the type of monument, the associated objects and the burial rites. Characterless flint flakes and quartzite hammer-stones are general, associated with unused polished local fibrolite, diorite, jadeite and chloromelanite axes, many of them obviously copies of bronze prototypes; with unused scrapers, knives, and barbed, tanged and leaf-shaped arrowheads (in one case with part of a flint saw) in Grand-Pressigny and other imported flint; with callais beads sawn with a metal tool from an evenly bored cylinder, and beads in serpentine, talc, and schist; with rock-crystal; and, in six cases, with fragments of hammered gold ornaments such as head-bands (of identical pattern with those from Ur graves of 3000 B.c.) and button-casing, trampled and crumpled up in circumstances suggesting that finds of this metal would have been more common had scientific excavation of unrifled tombs been generally possible, and had there never existed in the department a private company for the exploitation of gold from melted-down treasure from the megalithic

being contained in one mound (the mounds in this region are frequently multiple-chambered, and 2, 3, or even 4 galleried dolmens, denuded of their mounds, are often found side by side), The horseshoe and circular cromlechs, wherever recent excavation has been undertaken, were enclosures within which there were hearths, as at Erlanic and Kerlescan; hut-foundations, as at Kerlescan; and factory sites for ritual objects, as at Erlanic for hardstone votive axes and the peculiar cylindrical and hollowfooted pot with triangular perforations in the drum or foot, which has been found im situ, almost intact, in the chambered mound of La Hougue Bie in Jersey. (See the report on the excavation of this mound by the Société Jersiaise in 1924 published in their Bulletin for 1925.) Folklore associates them with assemblies and ritual dancing. The alignments remain dubious in intention, though their relatively late date is proved by the excavation of the low mound at Le Manio, over which the alignments run, though their builders respected the tall menhir (graven, and

facing in a different direction) set up as the indicator of the large kist (with an axe sculptured on the lid) in which was deposited chalcolithic carinated pottery. The alignments, therefore, were erected by people to whom metal was already known.

Since the Kerlescan group (13 lines) is 880 metres long with 540 stones, the Kermario group (10 lines) 1,120 metres long with 982 stones, and the Ménec group (rr lines) 1,167 metres long with 1,099 stones—leaving aside all other groups—the selection of “pointers” to bolster up the theory that they were elaborate astronomical instruments is arbitrary in the extreme. (See figure for general orientation.) This, the most extensive group, with its prolongations near Le Lac and Sainte-Barbe, when considered in its relation to the silted-up Sainte-Barbe inlet and the ford over the Crach river (see figure), suggests, rather, a memorial intention carried out along a route. The alignments usually lead up to, or past, cromlechs, the tallest stones, reaching a height of 4 or 5 metres, standing nearest the enclosure.

Unequivocal village sites are doubtful, but hill-top camps of refuge adjacent to channels, and promontory forts, in use from dolmenic to iron-age times, are common. The general grouping of the Carnac monuments, the association of the most important alignments with the navigable channel of the Crach river, and the erection of the greater chambered mounds on the heights where they still serve as mariners’ marks and are visible one from the other across country, suggest that the Veneti, whose great sailing ships so impressed Caesar’s generals, maintained a seagoing tradition dating back to prehistoric times, and followed seatrails to Britain and Spain blazed in the days of the great stone monuments.

The most imposing mounds are Mont Saint-Michel at Carnac (in which bronze was found), the Butte de Tumiac at Arzon, and Mané-Lud at Locmariaquer; and the most interesting of the chambers with sculptured signs (done partly, at least, with a metal tool) are Mané-Lud, Petit-Mont, Gav’r-Inis, Ile Longue, tombs. In 15 cases there was hand-made black ware (lead- and Kercado, with the denuded allée couverte known as Les burnished and unburnished), associated in two cases with bronze Pierres Plates. The mightiest menhir is the indicating granite ornaments and in one case containing a gold ornament. In one monolith of the long, closed mound of Er-Gra’h at Locmariaquer case a lignite bracelet, and in another a segmented blue-green which once stood 20 metres high and appears to have been overfaience bead of the Tan Hill, Wiltshire—Fuente Alamo, Almeria, thrown and broken in three portions by an earthquake in the type was found, the latter in association with a fragment of t7th century. The progressive worsening of the climate as the bronze that is thought likely to have been part of a triangular dry, warm sub-Boreal (placed by C. E. P. Brooks from 3000 to rivetted dagger. (Such daggers with hilts studded with gold 850 B.c. in “The Climate of Prehistoric Britain,” Antiquity, vol. nails have been found in the Loire megalithic district en route I. iv. 1927, p. 412) merged into the wet, cool sub-Atlantic phase, to Grand-Pressigny.) Five of these monuments were allées and the consequent inhospitality of the ocean, were probably concouvertes—in two cases bent, and in one having a port-hole (but tributory factors in the declining importance of this maritime not the only port-hole known in the region), while in another the region, though the principal cause must have been the gradual entrance was closed. Six of the chambers were corbelled, and in occupation of western France by the warlike bronze and ironthree of these cases the vaulted chamber was enclosed in the using broad-heads whom we know later under the name of Gauls, same mound with a chamber of the dolmen type consisting of together with the changed political conditions in the Mediterrasupport-stones roofed over by capstones. In some monuments dry nean basin. masonry was associated with megalithic support-stones, and in See W. C. Lukis, article on the Long Barrow at Kerlescan in Journal one case a natural outcrop of rock had been skilfully used as a of the British Archaeological Association, Vol. xxiv., p. 4o (1868); Z. support-storie in conjunction with ordinary orthostatic blocks. Le Rouzic, Carnac: Fouilles faites dans la région (Campagnes 1909The ground plan of these 49 megalithic monuments included al- 22) a series of reports obtainable from the Carnac museum; M. an St. J. Réquart and Z. Le Rouzic, Corpus des Signes Gravés des Monumost every known European type, sometimes two different types ments Mégalithiques du Morbihan (1927). (V.C. C.C.)

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l. The Menec alignments, containing 1,099 stones in 11 lines, oriented E.N.E. 2. The Kermario (place of the dead) alignments. Here are 10 lines of 9&2 stones, some more than 18 feet high. 3. Mont-Saint-Michel barrow. This mound, 125 métres long and 10 métres high, covers a beehived burial vault, a dolmen, 19 kists and a galleried dolmen. Bones, vases, axe~ heads, callais beads and bronze bells were found in the graves. 4. The

Pierres Plates, stone alley, at Locmariaquer. Thirteen of these stones bear shield-like devices resembling an octopus. 6. Sculptured stones from Pierres Plates, stone alley, Locmariaquer. The device suggests the local octopus, still exported by Breton fishermen. 7. Mound of Le Manio, during excavation. An engraved kist and bronze-age pottery were found here. 8. Sculptures from buried foot of menhir, Le Manio (from cast). This

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CARNARVON—CARNARVONSHIRE CARNARVON,

EARLDOM

OF.

The earldom of Car-

narvon was created in 1628 for Robert Dormer, Baron Dormer of Wyng (c. 1610-1643), who was killed at the first battle of Newbury whilst fighting for Charles I., and it became extinct on the death of his son Charles, the and earl, in 1709. From 1714 to 1789 it was held by the family of Brydges, dukes of Chandos and marquesses of Carnarvon, and in 1793 Henry Herbert, Baron Porchester (1741-1811), was created earl of Carnarvon.

His great-grandson, Henry Howarp Motyneux Hersert, 4th earl of Carnarvon (1831-1890), was born on June 24, 1831. He was educated at Eton and Christchurch, Oxford, and succeeded to the title in 1849, on the death of his father, Henry John George, the 3rd earl (1800-1849). In 1858 he was under-secretary for the colonies, and in 1866 secretary of state, and he introduced in 1867 the bill for the federation of the British North American provinces; but before the measure became law he had resigned, owing to his distaste for Disraeli’s Reform bill. Resuming office in 1874, he endeavoured to confer a similar boon on South Africa, but the times were not ripe. In 1878 he again resigned, out of opposition to Lord Beaconsfield’s policy on the Eastern question; but on his party’s return to power in 1885 he became lordlieutenant of Ireland. He resigned on a question of personal veracity raised by Parnell. He never returned to office, and died on June 29, 1890. He was high steward of the University of Oxford, and president of the Society of Antiquaries. The 4th earl was succeeded by his son, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux (1866—1923), q.v. CARNARVON, GEORGE EDWARD STANHOPE

MOLYNEUX

HERBERT,

5TH EARL oF (1866-1923), Eng-

801

county, called Lleyn, projects as a peninsula separating Carnarvon and Cardigan Bays. The denuded Archaean lowland of Anglesey preserves rocks of

Devonian and Carboniferous age along a low line that crosses it from north-east to south-west and along parts of the Menai Straits; Carboniferous rocks are also preserved at the north-east corner of Anglesey and along the north coast east of the Conway, with the Great Orme’s Head as an outstanding feature. Archaean rocks also form the west side of the south part of Lleyn from near Nevin to the point of Braich-y-Pwll, as well as the island of Bardsey beyond. The area immediately south-west of the Menai Straits shows a zone of Cambrian rocks between Bangor and Bethesda on the north and stretching from Aber, near Bangor, south-westward to Clynnog; it includes a belt of Ordovician rocks and two zones of igneous rocks, all elongated in the north-eastsouth-west direction. The next zone is the highly characteristic mountain range which is the main feature of the county’s geography and is almost unique in showing many features that

elsewhere are met with only at twice the height or more. In it Ordovician grits and shales, interbedded with, and to a larger extent overlaid by, lavas, and also penetrated by intrusive rocks, occur in folds, the summit of Snowdon being structurally a syncline in the upper Ordovician volcanic rocks which dominate the lower grits and shales in the great rock-wall standing above Llyn ddu Arddu. Mynydd Mawr, west of Snowdon, represents the neck of a volcano. The north-eastern end of the main range rises from Conway Mountain (808 ft.) and Penmaenmawr (1,550 ft.), near the north coast, south-westward to Carnedd Llewelyn (3,484 ft.) and Carnedd Dafydd (3,426 ft.), and this section of the range is divided by the deep Ogwen Pass (1,000 ft.) from the next in

lish egyptologist, was born at Highclere, Berkshire, June 26, 1866, and educated at Eton and Trinity college, Cambridge. Always interested in Egyptian archaeology and politics, he began excava- which are Y Glyder Fawr (3,279 ft.) and Y Glyder Fach (3,262 tions near Thebes with Mr. Howard Carter in 1906 and discovered ft.). Elidyr Fawr (3,029 ft.) is a western outpost in this section tombs of the XII. and XVIII. Egyptian Dynasties in the Valley which is bounded on the south-west by another deep zone of of the Kings. A further concession having been obtained in 1914, faults forming the pass of Llanberis (1,169 ft.). South-west of operations in another part of the Valley were conducted after this is Snowdon (Eryri or Yr Wyddfa, 3,560 ft.). The Snowdon the World War, resulting in the discovery by Mr. Carter in Nov. mass again is separated by the pass (651 ft.) above Rhyd ddu 1922 of the antechamber of the tomb of Tutankhamen (g.v.) of pass from three somewhat radially arranged masses which are also the XVIII. Dynasty. On Feb. 16, 1923, the sepulchral chamber separated from one another by deep lines. The most northern of was opened, the actual sarcophagus being discovered on Jan. 3, these three masses is dominated by Mynydd Mawr (2,290 ft.), 1924. Meanwhile Lord Carnarvon had died in Egypt on April 5, the median one by Garnedd Goch (2,301 ft.) and the southerly 1923, from the results of a mosquito bite and pneumonia. See one by Moel Hebog (2,566 ft.). The median one, itself mainly The Tomb of Tui-ankh-Amen by Howard Carter and A. C. of intrusive igneous rock, may be said to be followed by a series of heights, Gyrn ddu (1,712 ft.), Yr Eifl (1,849 ft.) and Garn Mace (1923). CARNARVON, ancient market town, municipal and con- Bodfean (918 ft.) stretching down the Lleyn peninsula. The south-east flank of the main range is marked by another tributory parliamentary borough, seaport and county town of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, 684m. W. of Chester by the coastal deep line, more gentle however than those cross ones which have L.M.S.R. Pop. (1931), 8.469. It stands near the south-western just been named. This drains eastward to the Conway by the end of the Menai straits, at the mouth of the Seiont. The settle- Gwrhyd and Llugwy, on which latter occur the Swallow Falls, ment dates from mediaeval days; though only 4m. away is the and south-westward by the Glaslyn which occupies Nant Gwynant site of the Roman Segontium. Its famous castle, begun for Ed- and drains its two lakes, Llyn Gwynant and Llyn Dinas. After ward I. in 1284, though little more than a shell, is a most impos- receiving a contributor (the Colwyn) from the Rhyd ddu pass on ing monument, occupying some 3ac. at the angle between the the west of Snowdon, the Glaslyn leaves the mountains by the Seiont and the straits. It is now public property, under the care wild gorge of Aberglaslyn emerging on to the lowland of Traeth of a constable. The town walls (1284-85), enclosing an area to the Mawr, partly reclaimed from the sea in recent times. South and north of the castle, are almost intact. To the south-east is Llan- south-east of the Llugwy, Gwrhyd and Glaslyn valleys is a beblig, the mother-church of Carnarvon, with a r4th-century north subordinate range, the directive lines of which are parallel to chapel. From the little harbour a ferry crosses to Anglesey. The those of the valleys and are largely determined by zones of basalt, slates of the Llanberis district are exported. The town has few dolerite and diabase. Here are Moel Siabod (2,860 ft.) and industries; it is best known as a tourist centre for the Snowdon Cynicht (2,265 ft.), the latter a very sharp peak. The deep-cut divisions of the range are one of its most marked country. It is an ancient parliamentary borough contributory to the Carnarvon district of boroughs, returning one member. Near features and along these lines there occur numerous elongated the town is a wireless telegraphy station. The county quarter ses- lakes typically with a morainic dam at the lower end. Contrasting sions and assizes are held in the town, which has a separate com- with these lakes are others higher up the mountain sides occupying deep corries or cwms, that is, glacial cirques. Cwm Glas with its mission of the peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. CARNARVONSHIRE, a county of North Wales (Welsh little lake on the east of Snowdon summit, and Llyn Idwal on the Caer’narfon, for Caer yn Arfon), bounded north by the Irish Sea, north side of Y Glyder Fawr are among the finest of these cirques east by Deribigh, south-east by Merioneth, south by Cardigan Bay, with great precipices more than half surrounding the lakes. The south-west by Carnarvon Bay and west by the Menai Straits. rivers of the range are mostly swift, draining to the Irish Sea and Area, 565 square miles. A small detached portion of the county on the Menai Straits for the most part, with the exception of the The Ogwen, Seint (commonly the north coast of Denbighshire stretches inland some 25 m. Glaslyn already mentioned. between Old Colwyn and Llanddulas. The south-west of the Seiont), and Gwyrfai drain down the passes north-westwards to

802

CARNATIC

the Menai Straits. The Conway, with its feeders Machno, Lledr and Llugwy (which receives the Gwrhyd), is the chief stream and runs in a remarkably straight valley from Bettws y Coed to the sea; it is navigable for about 12 m. from the sea. This valley separates the Snowdon range with its igneous rocks from the Denbighshire plateau of Silurian rocks without igneous intrusions which, like the Welsh highland plateau generally, remains below the 2,000 foot level. The contrast between the Welsh Highland Plateau, with its rounded hill-tops, the remains of a peneplain, and the mountain range above the 2,000 foot contour, with its sharp cirques almost against the very heart of the mountains, is a marked feature of Wales repeated in the Cader Idris range and noticeable elsewhere in greater or less degree in West Wales where the land rises above the 2,000 foot level. On the north-west and south-east flanks of the Carnarvonshire range Cambrian rocks outcrop. Their distribution north-west of the range has been mentioned above; on the south-east of the range they occur from Blaenau Ffestiniog nearly to Criccieth and another outcrop forms the Trwyn Cilan promontory between St. Tudwals Roads and Porth Neigwl. This last is doubtless a continuation of the outcrop farther east, the intervening mass having sunk under Cardigan Bay, the coastline of which, low in places, has Ordovician strata with a number of igneous masses. The argillaceous Cambrian rocks were obviously subjected to intense pressure during the uprise of the folds of the mountain range and, especially towards the junctions of Cambrian and Ordovician, finely cleaved slates of economic importance are found, the chief centres being Bethesda, Llanberis and Penygroes on the north-west and Blaenau Ffestiniog on the south-east. It is usually claimed that the last important movement of land has been a downward one of post-Pleistocene date and that this has not only created the waterway of the Menai Straits but has also given the Lavan and Carnarvon sands, large areas of lost land. The prehistoric relations of Carnarvonshire suggest that the county was of some importance in megalithic times, especially perhaps the zone between Criccieth and Carnarvon. The south-

eastern coastal region has yielded considerable bronze finds and the native hill-top fortresses of Penmaenmawr, Tre’r Ceiri, Dinas Emrys (near Beddgelert) etc., apparently dating from Roman times at least in their present forms, as well as the Roman posts

at Segontium (Carnarvon, g.v.) and Caerhun (Conway, g.v.), show the importance of the region in Roman times. As traditional ways to Ireland lay through the county and Anglesey it may be that the early importance of Carnarvonshire was partly connected with this fact.

Deganwy on the fertile clay soil of the

lower Conway seems to have been of importance in post-Roman times. During the early Middle Ages, Carnarvonshire was divided into four cantrevs, Arfon, the country from the Menai Straits to the heart of the mountains, and the centre of Welsh folk-lore, Arllechwedd from the Ogwen river in the west to Dolgarrog on the lower Conway in the east, a coastal plain with mountains behind, but also including Nant Conway, Lleyn, the south-western peninsula, marked with old roads and hospices for pilgrims to Bardsey, and Eifionydd in the south of the county at the base of the Lleyn peninsula. After the military conquest by Edward I. (1282), the Statute of Rhuddlan converted North Wales, save the lordship of Denbigh, into shire-ground and the king had castles built at several places and notably around the mountain fastnesses at Carnarvon, Conway, Criccieth and Harlech. The 14th century witnessed many disturbances culminating early in the 15th century in the great effort of Owain Glyndwr who made himself master of Wales and

tried to develop a policy of an autonomous church and two universities, a policy which failed through military defeat. English influences spread from the castle towns as well as from the enfranchised manors of Nevin and Pwllheli, and Anglesey became strategically important in connection with Ireland, with the result that English attention was focussed on Carnarvon, and Lleyn lost its Irish links, becoming a region of survival of Welsh speech and old customs. Arfon later became to a large extent Anglican in religion while nonconformity grew strong in Eifionydd and Lleyn.

Industries.—Agriculture, especially sheep farming, is the most

important occupation. The Snowdon area is the great sheep farm. ing area, while Eifionydd is noted for its mixed farming with its market focus at Criccieth. Lleyn centres on Pwllheli and has large

farms growing a little wheat and a great deal of barley. Its cattle are specially good and are exported to other areas in Wales as well as to the English Midlands. North Carnarvonshire is a region of slate and granite quarrying. The chief quarries are at Bethesda, Llanberis and Nantlle, which

send their export of roofing slate and slate blocks to Penrhyn,

Port Dinorwic and Carnarvon respectively. Many of the quarrymen are small farmers as well. There is also a great deal of road-

stone quarrying, Pwllheli being an important centre. There are electrical power works at Dolgarrog and Cwm Dyli, with alumin-

ium works at the former place. Catering for summer visitors is also a feature of the county both in the coast resorts and inland.

Communications.—The G.W.R. runs along the Cardigan Bay coast and terminates at Pwllheli. The Welsh Highland Railway

(narrow gauge) runs from Dinas, south of Carnarvon, to Portmadoc, Blaenau Ffestiniog and Duffws. The L.M.S.R. main line runs along the northern coast, with branches from Llandudno junction to Blaenau Ffestiniog, along the Denbighshire side of the Conway; from Menai Bridge to Carnarvon (thence continuing to Llanberis, or, by another line, to Afon Wen, 4 m. from Pwllheli). Since 1920 road transport has become very important, especially in Lleyn and the west of the county, where poor railway facilities have been supplemented by a good motor-bus service. Administration.—The area of the administrative county is 364,108 acres. Pop. (1921) 128,183, (1931) 120,810. The county as a whole returns two members to Parliament, one for the county and the other for the Carnarvon Boroughs, which include the municipal boroughs of Bangor, Carnarvon, Conway and Pwllheli, the urban districts of Criccieth, Llandudno, Llanfairfechan, Penmaenmawr and the civil parish of Nevin. The assizes are held at Carnarvon and are part of the North Wales circuit. Except a few parishes (in and near Llandudno) in St. Asaph diocese, Carnarvonshire is in the diocese of Bangor and contains sixty-one ecclesiastical parishes or districts, with parts of four others. See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (1874); J. E. Lloyd, The Story of Carnarvonshire, Cambridge County Geographies.

CARNATIC,

a name given by Europeans to a region of

southern. India, between the Eastern Ghats and the Coromandel Coast, in the presidency of Madras. Properly the name applies only to the country of the Kanarese extending between the Eastern and Western Ghats, over an irregular area narrowing northwards, from Palghat in the south to Bidar in the north, and including Mysore. Administratively the name Carnatic (or rather Karnatak) is now applied only to the Bombay portion of the original Karnata, viz., the districts of Belgaum, Dharwar and Bijapur, and the native states of the Southern Mahratta agency, Jath and Kolhapur. History.—The Carnatic was of great importance historically. It extended along the eastern coast of India about 600m. in length, and from 50 to room. in breadth. It was bounded on the north by the Guntur circar, and thence it stretched southward to Cape Comorin. The region south of the river Coleroon, which passes the town of Trichinopoly, was called the Southern Carnatic. The Central Carnatic extended from the Coleroon river to the river Pennar. The Northern Carnatic extended from the river Pennar to the northern limit of the country. The Carnatic, as above defined, comprehended within its limits the maritime provinces of Nellore, Chingleput, South Arcot, Tanjore, Madura and Tineset besides the inland districts of North’ Arcot’ and Trichinopoly. At the earliest period of which any records exist the Carnatic was divided between the Pandya and Chola kingdoms, which with that of Chera or Kerala (q.v.) formed the three Tamil kingdoms

of southern India. The Pandya kingdom practically coincided in extent with the districts of Madura and Tinnevelly; that of the Cholas extended along the Coromandel coast from Nellore to Pudukottai, being bounded on the north by the Pennar river and

CARNATION on the south by the Southern Vellaru. The government of the country was shared for centuries with these dynasties by numerous independent or semi-independent chiefs, evidence of whose

perennial internecine conflicts is preserved in the multitudes of forts and fortresses the deserted ruins of which crown almost all the elevated points. In spite, however, of this passion of the military classes for war the Tamil civilization developed in the country was of a high type. This was largely due to the wealth of the country, famous in the earliest times as now for its pearl

fisheries. Of this fishery Korkai (the Greek Kolchoi), now a village on the Tambraparni river in Tinnevelly, but once the Pandya capital, was the centre long before the Christian era. In Pliny’s day, owing to the silting up of the harbour, its glory had already decayed and the Pandya capital had been removed to Madura (Hist. Nat. vi. cap. xxiii. 26), famous later as a centre of Tamil literature. The Chola kingdom, which four centuries before Christ had been recognized as independent by the great Maurya king Asoka, had for its chief port Kaviripaddinam at the mouth of the Cauvery, every vestige of which is now buried in sand. For the first two centuries after Christ a large sea-borne trade was carried on between the Roman empire and the Tamil kingdoms; but after Caracalla’s massacre at Alexandria in A.D. 215 this ceased, and with it all intercourse with Europe for centuries. Henceforward, until the oth century, the history of the country is illustrated only by occasional and broken lights. The 4th century saw the rise of the Pallava power, which for some 400 years encroached on, without extinguishing, the Tamil kingdoms. When in a.p. 640 the Chinese traveller Hsiian Tsang visited Kanchi (Conjevaram), the capital of the Pallava king, he learned that the kingdom of Chola (Chu-li-ya) embraced but a small territory, wild, and inhabited by a scanty and fierce population; in the Pandya kingdom (Malakuta), which was under Pallava suzerainty, literature was dead, Buddhism all but extinct, while Hinduism and the naked Jain saints divided the religious allegiance of the people. The power of the Pallava kings was shaken by the victory of Vikramaditya Chalukya in A.D. 740, and shattered by Aditya Chola at the close of the oth century. From this time onward the inscriptional records are abundant. The Chola kingdom, which in the gth century had been weak, now revived, its power culminating in the victories of Rajaraja the Great, who defeated the Chalukyas after a four years’ war, and, about A.D. 994, forced the Pandya kings to become his tributaries. A magnificent temple at Tanjore, once his capital, preserves the records of his victories engraved upon its walls. His career of conquest was continued by his son Rajendra Choladeva I., self-styled Gangaikonda owing to his victorious advance to the Ganges, who succeeded to the throne in A.D. 1018. The ruins of the new capital which he built, called Gangaikonda Cholapuram, still stand in a desolate region of the Trichonopoly district. His successors continued the eternal wars with the Chalukyas and other dynasties, and the Chola power continued in the ascendant until the death of Kulottunga Chola III. in 1278, when a disputed succession caused its downfall and gave the Pandyas the opportunity of gaining for a few years the upper hand in the south. In 1310, however, the Mohammedan invasion under Malik Kafur overwhelmed the Hindu states of southern India in a common ruin. But though crushed, they were not extinguished; a period of anarchy followed, the struggle between the Chola kings and the Muslims issuing in the establishment at Kanchi of a usurping Hindu dynasty which ruled till the end of the 14th century, while in 1365 a branch of the Pandyas succeeded in re-establishing itself in part of the kingdom of Madura, where it survived till 1623. At the beginning of the r5th century the whole country had come under the rule of the kings of Vijayanagar; but in the anarchy that followed the overthrow of the ‘Vijayanagar empire by the Muslims in the 16th century, the Hindu viceroys (nayakkas) established in Madura, Tanjore and Kanchi made themselves independent, only in their turn to become tributary to the kings of Golconda and Bijapur, who divided the Carnatic between them. Towards the close of the 17th century the country was reduced by the armies of Aurangzeb, who in 1692 appointed Zulfikar Ali nawab of the Carnatic, with his

893

seat at Arcot. The collapse of the Delhi power after the death of Aurangzeb produced further changes. The nawab allah of Arcot (1710-32) established his independence;

Saadethis successor Dost Ali (1732-40) conquered and annexed Madura in 1736, and his successors were confirmed in their position as nawabs of the Carnatic by the nizam of Hyderabad after that potentate had established his power in southern India. After the death of the nawab Mohammed Anwar-ud-din (1744-49), the succession was disputed between Mohammed Ali and Husein Dost. In this quarrel the French and English, then competing for influence in the Carnatic, took opposite sides. The victory of the British established Mohammed Ali in power over part of the Carnatic till his death in 1795. Meanwhile, however, the country had been exposed to other troubles. In 1741 Madura, which the

nawab Dost Ali (1732-40) had added to his dominions in 1736 was conquered by the Mahrattas; and in 1743 Hyder Ali of Mysore overran and ravaged the central Carnatic. The latter was reconquered by the British, to whom Madura had fallen in 1758; and, finally, in 1801 all the possessions of the nawab of the Carnatic were transferred to them by a treaty which stipulated that a large annual revenue should be reserved to the nawab, and that the British should undertake to support a sufficient civil and military force for the protection of the country and the collection of the revenue. On the death of the nawab in 1853 it was determined to put an end to the nominal sovereignty, a liberal establishment being provided for the family. The southern Carnatic, when it came into the possession of the British was occupied, with doubtful right, by military chieftains called poligars. They were unquestionably a disorderly race; and the country, by their incessant feuds and plunderings, was the scene of continued strife and violence. Under British rule they were subdued and their military establishments destroyed. See Inpa: History. For the various applications of the name Carnatic see the Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908), s.v.; for the early history of the country see V. A. Smith, Early History of India revised by S. M. Edwardes (1924) ; Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) (1900); The Cambridge History of India, ed. Prof. . J. Rapson (1922 e¢ seq.).

CARNATION

(Dianthus

Caryophyllus, family Caryophyllaceae), a garden flower, a native of southern Europe, but occasionally found in an apparently wild state in England. It is held in high estimation for the beauty and the delightful fragrance of its blossoms. The varieties are numerous, and are ranged under three groups, called bizarres, flakes and ficotees. The true carnations, as distinguished from picotees, are those which have the colours arranged in longitudinal stripes or bars of variable width on each petal, the ground colour being white. The bizarres are those in which stripes of two distinct colours occur on the white ground, and it is on the purity of the white ground and CARNATION, A HIGHLY PERFUMED the clearness and evenness of the FLOWER GROWN EXTENSIVELY IN striping that the technical merit THE UNITED STATES The flower has various forms and col- of each variety rests. The fakes ours, its stem supporting grasslike have stripes of only one colour leaves on the white ground. The selfs, those showing one colour only, as white, yellow, crimson, purple, etc., are commonly called cloves. The picotee has the petals laced instead of striped with a distinct colour. The “‘winter flowering” or “perpetual” race is remarkable for the charming delicacy and colouring of the blossoms and for the length of the flower-stalks. This enables them to be used during the dullest months of the year for floral decorations. These varieties are propagated by layers or cuttings or “pipings.”

894

CARNEADES—CARNEGIE

“Marguerite” carnations are remarkable for their beautifully fringed blossoms. They are easily raised from seeds. “Jacks” are seedling carnations with single flowers of no great value or beauty. Carnations are usually propagated by “layering” the non-flowering shoots about the second or third week in July, in the open air. The soil for carnations and picotees should be a good turfy loam, as fibrous as it can be obtained; to four parts of this add one part of rotten manure and one of leaf-mould, with sufficient sharp sand to keep it loose.

CARNEADES

(214-129 B.c.), Greek philosopher, founder

of the Third or New Academy, was born at Cyrene. Little is known of his life. He learned dialectics under Diogenes the Stoic, and under Hegesinus, leader of the academy. The chief objects of his study, however, were the works of Chrysippus, opposition to whose views is the mainspring of his philosophy. In 155, together with Diogenes the Stoic and Critolaus the Peripatetic, he was sent on an embassy to Rome to justify certain depredations committed by the Athenians in the territory of Oropus. On this occasion he delivered two speeches on successive days, one in favour of justice, the other against it. His powerful reasoning excited among the Roman youth an enthusiasm for philosophical speculations, and the elder Cato insisted on Carneades and his companions being dismissed from the city. Carneades, practically a 5th-century sophist, is the most important of the ancient sceptics. Negatively, his philosophy is a polemic against the Stoic theory of knowledge in all its aspects. All our sensations are relative, and acquaint us, not with things as they are, but only with the impressions that things produce upon us; it is impossible to distinguish between false and true im-

pressions; therefore the Stoic davracia karadnrriucn (see SToIcs) must be given up. There is no criterion of truth. In answer to the Stoic doctrine of design in nature, he points to the existence of evil; and against the theory of a divine providence he argues

that the world cannot be shown to be anything but the product of natural forces. While against Stoic theology he points out that individuality is not consonant with infinity, with Aristotle he argues that virtue, as relative, cannot be ascribed to God; and further that neither intelligence, corporeality nor incorporeality, nor in fact anything can be regarded as attributes of God; thus anticipating much in modern thought. The positive side of his teaching resembles in all essentials that of Arcesilaus (g.v.). Knowledge being impossible, a wise man should practise érox7 (suspension of judgment). He will not even be sure that he can be sure of nothing. Ideas or notions are never true, but only probable; nevertheless, there are degrees of probability, and hence degrees of belief, leading to action, according as the impression is merely probable in itself; probable and uncontradicted; or probable, uncontradicted and confirmed by investigation. Carneades left no written works; his opinions seem to have been systematized by Clitomachus. See A. Geffers, De Arcesilae Successoribus (1845); C. Gouraud, De Carneadis Vita et Placitis (1848); V. Brochard, Les Sceptiques grecs (1887); C. Martha, “Le Philosophe Carnéade & Rome,” in Revue des deux mondes, XXix. (1878), and the histories of philosophy; F. Alessio, Carneade (Mondovi, 1890), also ACADEMY, GREEK.

CARNEGIE,

ANDREW

(1835-1919),

American

manu-

facturer, was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, on Nov. 25, 1835. In 1848 his father emigrated to America, settling in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania. He worked as a bobbin-boy in a cotton factory, and then as a telegraph clerk and operator. T. A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad employed him as secretary, and in 1859 made him superintendent of the western division of the line. When the Civil War opened he accompanied Scott, then assistant secretary of War, to the.front. He introduced sleeping-cars for railways, and purchased (1864) Storey Farm on Oil Creek, where much oil was brought in. Foreseeing the extent to which the demand for iron and steel would grow, he started the Keystone Bridge works, built the Edgar Thomson steel-rail mill, bought out the Homestead steel works, and by 1888 had under his control an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425m. long, and a line of lake steamships. In spite of the depression of 1892, marked by the bloody Homestead strike, the

TRUSTS

various Carnegie companies, aided by favourable tariff legislation,

prospered to such an extent that in 1901 they were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation. Mr. Carnegie himself retired from business.

His views on social subjects and the responsibilities which great

wealth involved were already known in a book entitled Triumph. ant Democracy, published in 1886, and in his Gospel of Weali;,

(r900).

He devoted himself to the work of providing capital

for social and educational advancement.

Among these the provi-

sion of public libraries in the United States and Great Britain

(and similarly in other English-speaking countries) was especially prominent, his method being to build and equip, but on condition that the local authority provided site and maintenance.

In IQOI

he founded the Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh, and in 1902 the Carnegie Institution at Washington. In Scotland he established a trust for assisting education at the Scottish uni-

versities, a benefaction which resulted in his being elected lord rector of St. Andrews university.

He was a large benefactor of

the Tuskegee Institute under Booker Washington for negro education. He also established large pension funds—in rgoz for his former employés at Homestead, and in 1905 for American college professors. His benefactions in the shape of buildings and endowments for education and research are too numerous for de-

tailed enumeration, and are noted in this work under the headings of the various localities. But mention must also be made of his

founding of Carnegie Hero Funds, in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908), for the recognition of deeds of heroism : his contribution in 1903 for the erection of a Temple of Peace at The Hague, and for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics. In

191r he established the Carnegie Corporation and endowed it

liberally for the furtherance of civilization. By the close of 1918 he had erected 2,505 library buildings. He supported the movement for spelling reform. He died at Lenox (Mass.), on Aug. II, IQIQ.

Among publications by him are An American Four-in-hand in Britain (1883), Round the World (1884), The Empire of Business (1902), a Life of James Watt (1905) and Problems of To-day (1908).

CARNEGIE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., 6m. S.W. of Pittsburgh, in the beautiful valley of Chartiers creek. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburgh, Chartiers and Youghiogheny and the Pittsburgh and West Virginia railways. The population in 1920 was 11,516; and it was 12,497 in 1930. The principal industries are coal-mining and the manufacture of steel and steel products, lead, glass, structural iron and enamelled ware. The factory output in 1925 was valued at $3,279,952. The borough was formed in 1894 by uniting Chartiers and Mansfield. A few miles south is Bower Hill, the chief scene of violence in the “whisky rebellion” of 1794.

CARNEGIE TRUSTS, the second largest, and in some re-

spects the most remarkable, group of charitable foundations in the world. Andrew Carnegie’s theory of wealth is summed up in the following sentence: “This, then, is held to be the duty of the man of wealth: to set an example of modest, unostentatious living, shunning display or extravagance; to provide moderately for the wants of those dependent upon him; and, after doing so, to consider all surplus revenues which come to him simply as trust funds, which he is called upon to administer . . . the mau of wealth thus becoming the mere trustee and agent for his poorer brethren.” In this spirit he founded the following trusts in the United Kingdom and in America. I. TRUSTS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland

(Edin-

burgh).—Founded in 1901 this has a capital of £2,000,000. One

half of the income is to be applied to the improvement and

expansion of the four Scottish universities, chiefly in the field of research; one half to the payment of the whole or part of the fees of university students of Scottish birth or extraction. Carnegie Dunfermline Trust.—Founded in 1903 with £750,ooo, this is the counterpart of the Pittsburgh Institute (see be-

low). This trust is limited to the founder’s native city of Dun-

CARNEIA fermline, but the income may be spent on anything which tends to bring “sweetness and light” to the community. The trustees are, however, charged to maintain the beautiful park known as Pittencrieff Glen, which was presented by the founder separately.

They have established a number of institutes, a clinic, a craft school, a school of music and a physical training college, and have substantially assisted the public library, the baths, and a large number of local societies, educational, literary and artistic. Carnegie Hero Fund Trust.—This fund is.-administered from Dunfermline by the trustees of the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. Carnegie United Kingdom Trust (Dunfermline) .— Founded in 1913 with a capital of £2,000,000 this is the analogue of the Carnegie Corporation of New York “for the improvement of the well-being of the masses of the people of Great Britain and Ireland by such means as are comprehended within the meaning of the word charitable.” This trust has carried on the founder’s library policy, having erected a number of public libraries, established more than too county libraries and assisted many special

libraries. It has published an edition of Elizabethan music and a number of modern compositions. Grants have been made for the erection of six child welfare model centres, to the Old Vic. and Sadler’s Wells theatres, London, as the nucleus of a national theatre for England, and to many musical and dramatic enterprises. The trust has also taken a prominent part in rural development by founding county community councils, and in 1927 it set aside the sum of £200,000 over four years to encourage the provision of public playing fields. II. TRUSTS

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh.—This consists of a group of cultural and educational departments of the municipal type, library, concert hall, technical college, museum and art gallery. The foundation really dates from 1881 when Carnegie offered to provide a public library; this offer was accepted in 1886. The idea expanded until the institute was finally constituted as such in 1896. It has a capital of $28,000,000.

Carnegie Institution of Washington.—Founded

in 1902,

with a present capital of $32,000,000, this is a great combination of research departments, working in collaboration and including experimental evolution (1903), marine biology (1903), historical research (1902), economics and sociology (1904, discontinued 1917), terrestrial magnetism. (1904), Mount Wilson observatory (1904), Geophysical laboratory (1905), botanical research, including a laboratory in Monterey, Cal. (1905), nutrition (1906), meridian astrometry (1907), embryology (1914), Eugenics Record office (1917), archaeology (1924). The published reports of the institution constitute a highly valuable library of research and are presented in a liberal spirit to all well-established libraries. The numerous voyages of the non-magnetic ship “Carnegie,” designed to test the variations of the magnetic compass, may be specially mentioned. Carnegie Hero Fund Commission (Pittsburgh) .—This is a group of foundations, dating from 1904, designed for the purpose of giving suitable recognition to persons engaged in peaceful occupations who risk their lives in heroic efforts to save others. Recognition takes the form of medals, pecuniary grants, pensions, educational help for children, etc. The funds are: U.S.A., Canada and Newfoundland $5,000,000 (1914), British Isles $1,250,000 (1908), France $1,000,000 (1909), Germany $1,500,000 (1910),

895

in 1910 with a view to “the speedy abolition of international war between the so-called civilized nations,” this has a capital of $10,000,000. It is divided into three sections concerned respectively with “intercourse and education,” “economics and history” and “international law.” The endowment is very broad in its scope, being free to work in any way for the promotion of

good feeling and understanding between the nations. Since the World War one important project has been a series of volumes on European economics in connection with the war and its aftermath. The Division of Economics and History of the Carnegie Endowment

is responsible for the Economic

and Social History

of the World War, under the direction of Dr. James T. Shotwell and Divisional Editors in sixteen countries. An authoritative

record is preserved of the displacement caused by the war in the whole structure of civilized society. Some forty war-time cabinet ministers and over two hundred specialists have contributed to its one hundred and fifty volumes. No such study had ever been made of the phenomena of war previously. This wealth of material is deposited in over seven hundred libraries throughout the world for the study of future generations. Carnegie Corporation of New York.—Founded in torr this is the largest in size and scope of all the Carnegie foundations, its capital being $135,000,000. It exists for “the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding among the people of the United States.” In 1917 its scope was extended to include Canada and the British colonies, $10,000,000 of its capital being set aside for this purpose. It may spend its large revenue through the other five American trusts or through any other suitable channels. Its policy is in fact fluid, the founder having said in the deed, “Conditions upon the earth inevitably change. . . . I give my trustees full authority to change policy or causes hitherto aided when this, in their opinion, has become necessary or desirable.” The corporation has aided American ‘colleges and universities by grants for endowments and buildings, has made large appropriations in the interests of library training and service, has carried on a programme including encouragement of adult education, fine arts, modern languages, and engineering education. Forty-seven per cent of its income has been devoted to other institutions founded by Andrew Carnegie; its largest outside appropriation was to the National Academy of Sciences ($5,000,000). It has also encouraged research in law, economics and medicine. All the above Foundations, except the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the United Kingdom Trust, have functional or local limitations. The two general trusts work largely on the same lines, seeking to promote adult education in the widest sense of the term, to make accessible to the public at large the cultural resources of the community, and especially to finance carefully devised pioneer experiments for which, without practical demonstration, state subsidies and private liberality cannot be expected. See the Annual Reports issued by the various Trusts; Manual of the Public Benefactions of A. Carnegie (1920). See also ET )

CARNEIA, an important Dorian festival (Sparta, Cos, etc.).

While many details of it are obscure, the following are the main features, and are tolerably certain. (1) It was held in the month Karneios (roughly August). (2) The name is connected with Karnos or Karneios (probably = Ram), said to have been a favourite of Apollo, unjustly kiled by the Heracleidae, and therefore Norway $125,000 (1911), Switzerland $130,000 (1911), Nether- commemorated to appease the god’s anger; perhaps an old god lands $200,000 (1911), Sweden $230,000 (1911), Denmark $125,- of fertility displaced by Apollo (cp. HyacıxtHUs). (3) It conooo (191r), Belgium $230,000 (1911), Italy $750,000 (10911); tained an agrarian element. Five young men called xapreĝârar total $10,540,000. were chosen out of each tribe; one man, decked with garlands, ran Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching away and the rest followed him; they were called cragudodpdpuor, (New York).—This was founded originally in 1905 to provide i.e., “‘grape-cluster-runners,”’ hence they very likely carried pensions for teachers in the form of free gifts. The system was at bunches of grapes. It was a good omen if they caught the fugifirst non-contributory, but after elaborate investigation, a new tive, bad if they did not. They were under the direction of a system was adopted by which colleges and teachers both con- priest called aynrfs, or leader. It seems reasonable to suppose tribute on a properly calculated actuarial basis. The Foundation that the person they chased was the temporary incarnation of has undertaken inquiries in the field of education, and issued re- some spirit of vegetation; perhaps to catch him signified that ports. Its capital and reserves amount to nearly $30,000,000. fertility was not allowed to go away, but was secured, to be used for the next year’s crops. (4) It contained an element apparently Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.—Founded

CARNELIAN—CARNIVORA

896

military, since a feast was held by nine groups, each consisting of nine citizens, representing the ®Gai or divisions. BrsriocrapHy.-—S. Wide, Lakonische Kulte (1893) and his and Hfer’s articles in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie (s.v.) ‘“‘Karneios” ; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (1906); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the

Greek States, vol. iv. (1907).

CARNELIAN

or CORNELIAN, a variety of chalcedony

(g.v.), is most generally of a blood-red colour, though included under this name are specimens of a reddish tint varying in colour

from yellow to brown. The colouring matter is probably iron oxide in various stages of hydration, though the particles are so small that only in thin sections under the microscope can they be distinguished from the colourless silica in which they are embedded. Though carnelians are recognized in all shades of red, it is convenient to distinguish three varieties; (1) that coloured flesh-red or burnt-brick—the typical carnelian, (2) the honey coloured and (3) that usually called the sard, which is brown by reflected and deep red by transmitted light.and was formerly the most valued, because of its greater transparency and depth of colour. Among the Greeks and Romans the carnelian was one of the most treasured stones and used especially for intaglios of all kinds, examples of which have retained their high polish to a greater extent than many harder stones. The carnelian was also widely used for signets because, as Pliny says (Nat. Hist., xxxvii; trans. P. Holland, 1634), “it signeth very faire without any of the wax sticking to it.” Carnelians are embellished by various processes, notably burning and dyeing with salts of iron, and for trade purposes the natural colour is of little importance. The chief localities are Ratanpur, India; Campo de Maia, Brazil; Dutch Guiana; Siberia; Warwick, Queensland; Tampa Bay,

Fla., U.S.A., and Chesil Bank, South Dorset.

CW. A. W.)

CARNESECCHI, PIETRO (1508-1567), Italian humanist,

was the son of a Florentine merchant, who enjoyed the patronage of the Medici. At the age of 25 he held séveral rich livings, had been notary and protonotary to the Curia, and was first secretary to the pope. He accepted Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith, though he repudiated a policy of schism. When the movement of suppression began, Carnesecchi found shelter with his friends in Paris. On the accession of Pius IV. (1559) he came to live in Rome. With the accession of Pius V. in 1565 the Inquisition renewed its activities, and Carnesecchi betook himself to Florence, where he was betrayed by Cosimo, the duke, who wished to curry favour with the pope. He was beheaded and then burnt on Oct. 1, 1567.

CARNIOLA, a former duchy and crownland of Austria which centred round the town of Laibach (Ljubljana), on a feeder of the Save and in a fertile basin. With the foundation of the Serb, Croat and Slovene State, Carniola ceased to exist as a territorial unit, being merged in Slovenia. (See YUGOSLAVIA.)

CARNIVAL,

the last three days preceding Lent, which in

Roman Catholic countries are given up to feasting and merrymaking. Anciently the carnival began on the morrow of Epiphany (Jan. 7) and lasted till Shrove Tuesday. It probably represents the Roman Saturnalia. Rome has ever been the headquarters of carnival, and though some popes made efforts to stem the tide of Bacchanalian revelry, many of the others were great patrons and promoters of carnival keeping; notably Paul II., who instituted a great variety of races. Under Julius III. we have long and vivid accounts of bull-baits in the Forum. Even the austere

and rigid Paul IV. (d. 1559) used to keep carnival by inviting all the Sacred College to dine with him. Sixtus V. (1585-1590) set himself to the restraint of excesses and the repression of lawlessness. For the warning of offenders he set up gibbets in conspicuous places. The later popes mostly restricted the carnival to the last six or seven days before Ash Wednesday. The municipal authorities of the city now allow ten days. The carnival sports at Rome anciently consisted of (1) the races in the Corso (hence its present

name, formerly Via Lata); (2) the spectacular pageant of the Agona; (3) that of the Testaccio. . Of other Italian cities, Venice used to be the principal home, after Rome, of carnival. To-day Turin, Milan, Florence, Naples,

all put forth competing programmes.

In old times Florence was

conspicuous for the licentiousness of its carnival.

The carnival

in Spain lasts four days, including Ash Wednesday.

In France

the merry-making is restricted almost entirely to Shrove Tuesday (mardi gras) and to the mi-caréME, Thursday of the third week in Lent.

CARNIVORES

or CARNIVORA,

members of the order

of flesh-eating mammals which includes the most powerful and ferocious beasts of prey, as the lion, tiger, leopard and jaguar, numerous fur-bearers, as the seal, fox and sable, the domesticated cat and dog and other well-known animals. In general, their teeth, especially the four long, piercing canine teeth, are adapted for tearing flesh, and the toes of many species are provided with strong sharp claws for seizing prey. For the most part, the carnivores are very active, intelligent

with a keen sense of sight and smell.

and courageous

animals,

In size carnivores vary

greatly, ranging from small weasels to huge bears, which may weigh a ton. There are about 300 species which, in their rela-

tionships form four well-marked groups: the catlike, the doglike, the bearlike and the seallike or marine carnivores.

Among those

comprising the catlike group are the true cats—the lion, leopard, puma, lynx, domestic cat, etc., and also the civets, genets, mongooses, and hyaenas. In the doglike group are found the dogs, wolves, jackals and foxes. Besides the true bears, the bearlike group includes the raccoons, coatis, weasels, otters, martens, badgers, and the panda. In the seallike group are the true seals, the sea-lions and the walruses. The carnivores are well represented in all parts of the world except the Australian region, which contains only the dingo, a wild dog, doubtfully native. The polar bear and the polar fox range further north than all other land mammals, while sea-lions are found in both arctic and antarctic waters. However, some important groups are restricted in their distribution. The numerous civets, for example, are confined to the Old World; the raccoons, except the panda, occur only in America, while in most of Africa none of the true bears are found. Though some carnivores are destructive to domestic animals, and even to human life, many are valuable fur-bearers, as the sable, otter, marten, mink, fox and fur-seal, and they also hold in check various animals, as rodents, which, if unrestricted in numbers, would become exceedingly injurious to agriculture. Besides, the dog and the cat, which have been household animals since ancient times, the cheeta or hunting leopard, the ferret and the mongoose are domesticated. (See articles on the various ani-

mals mentioned.)

(X.)

The term Carnivora, suggesting that all the animals so designated are flesh-eaters, is not entirely appropriate. Certain highly organized species of the cat, wolf and weasel kind live almost wholly upon the flesh of warm-blooded animals, for the capture of which their habits and structure are admirably adapted; but others, like most bears, are almost wholly vegetable feeders and quite unfitted for the chase. The great variation in diet and mode of life exhibited by the order is accompanied by a corresponding variation. in the limbs and other external organs and by the teeth and skeleton. No single character absolutely distinctive of the group can be named; but by the combination of a number of structural features, it may be distinguished from other orders of mammals. There are never fewer than four toes on each foot; and the first is never opposable to the rest; the digits are typically armed with compressed claws, never with nails or hoofs; there are typically two tufts of tactile vibrissae on each cheek; the tail is never absent; the anus and genital organs open by separate apertures, and the mammae are never wholly pectoral. The cranial portion of the skull is always tolerably capacious as compared with the facial portion and the brain is well or moderately well

convoluted.

There are two sets of teeth, milk and permanent,

differentiated into incisors, canines and cheek-teeth. The incisors are typically six in number above and below, the centrals never being larger than the laterals. The canines are almost always long and piercing in both jaws. The cheek-teeth are rooted, never of persistent growth, and the enamelled crown is raised into simple

or blade-like cusps. The two halves of the uterus are separate and the placenta is deciduate and generally zonary.

CARNIVORA CHARACTERS USED IN CLASSIFICATION Soft Parts.—The facial vibrissae consists of a tuft above each eye (superciliary), two tufts on each cheek (genal), half a dozen or more rows on the upper lip (mystacial), a few isolated on the

chin and a median tuft (interramal) on the throat. As a rule they are well developed both in number and length in predatory species, especially those which hunt in foliage or undergrowth. In vegetable feeders like the typical bears they are, on the contrary, greatly reduced and apparently functionless. Rhinarium.—The nostrils are typically surrounded by a conspicuous area of naked, glandular skin, the rhinarium, continued in front to the edge of the upper lip as a strip of grooved skin, the philtrum. It is subject, however, to considerable variation with habits. Ear.—There is typically a well-developed erect external ear, or pinna, attached by a broad hollowed base of which the walls are strengthened by cartilaginous ridges. One of these, the supratragus, is sometimes valvular, helping to close the ear orifice. Another character of importance is the bursa, a pocket formed by a supplementary flap low down on the posterior margin of the ear. Feet.—In the generalized, and probably primitive, type there are five digits tolerably evenly spaced and forming with their tips a strongly and fairly evenly curved series, the third and fourth being the longest, the second and fifth shorter and subequal, and

the first the shortest. Each is supplied with an inferior digital pad behind the claw; and they are united by a flap of integument, or web, which extends nearly to the digital pads. The sole is provided with a plantar pad composed of four united lobes. Behind the plantar pad there is on the fore-foot a pair of large, lobate carpal pads; and on the hind-foot there is a pair of elongated metatarsal pads, which extend nearly to the heel. This type of foot, called subplantigrade, passes by imperceptible gradations into feet contrasted as digitigrade and plantigrade. The typical plantigrade foot is broad and short, the plantar pad is considerably wider than long, the digits are nearly equal in length and their

pads form a lightly curved row. The typical digitigrade foot is longer and narrower than the subplantigrade foot and has the first digit short and raised off the ground or absent; the plantar is three-lobed and the area above it is hairy. There are two types of claw in the digitigrade foot, the short blunt claw of the dogs and hyaenas and the sharp, retractile claw, found in some civets and most cats, which is modified for laceration of prey. The terminal bone of the digit is retracted by an elastic ligament and the sharp point of the curved claw is protected from wear by lobes of skin which ensheathe it. In the seals the feet are converted into paddles, but their structure suggests that they also are modifications of the subplantigrade foot. Anal Glands—The rectum is typically provided with a pair of glands opening, usually by a single aperture, just within the anal orifice. The secretion probably acts in normal cases as a lubricant or disinfectant; but in some genera, especially of Mustelidae, like the skunks, the secretion is abundant and nauseous and its forcible discharge is an important means of defence. In the bears (Ursidae) the glands are developed to a negligible extent; and they are quite absent in the seals. External Genitalia-——The perinaeal area, lying between anus and generative orifice, varies greatly in extent, especially in the males. It may be small, the penis being short and close to the scrotum. But in most families the perinaeal area is large, the penis being long, with the prepuce remote from the scrotum.

Skull.—The skull is very variable in the length, breadth and height of muzzle and brain-case. The length of the muzzle is correlated with the number and size of the teeth. Its nasal chambers are filled with delicate scroll-like bones, the turbinals. Of these there are two main groups, the mavzillo-turbinals, rising from the sides of the inner surface of the maxillae, in front, and the ethmo-turbinals behind. On the palate there is a pair of orifices, the posterior palatine foramina, which are typically situated on the maxillo-palatine suture but may be in advance of it. The bone containing the ear capsule, is covered by the auditory bulla, composed either wholly or partly of the tympanic bone,

897

which always forms its anterior part. The posterior part is occasionally cartilaginous, but it may be ossified from a separate centre, the entotympanic. In this type of bulla its cavity is always divided into two chambers by a bony partition, which passes from the line of junction of the two bones. Behind the bulla there is an expansion of the occipital bone, the poroccipiial process, and behind the auditory orifice another process, called the mastoid. Low down on the inner wall of the temporal fossa there is frequently a bony channel, the alisphenoid canal, through which passes a branch of the carotid artery. Its incidence is remarkable, and it has been much used in classification. Teeth.—These vary in number and structure in accordance with diet.

The primitive number was 44; three incisors, one canine,

four premolars and three molars above and below on each side, expressed by the formula I$, C+, P4, Mẹ. Very seldom, however, is the full complement retained, and numerical reduction takes place mostly from the suppression of one or more of the front and back cheek teeth. It reaches its extreme in predatory forms

like the cats and weasels where the formula may be P2, M+. The

number, arrangement and shape of the cusps are also subject to great variation, but the extreme types of dentition are derivable from a more generalized intermediate type in which there is a gradual transition in size, shape and cusp-armature throughout the series. In the upper jaw the cheek-teeth increase in size and complexity from the first to the fourth premolar and decrease from the latter to the last molar. The fourth premolar is triangular in shape and the inner portion or lobe is as broad at the base as the

three-cusped blade-like outer portion of the crown. The third premolar and the first molar are also triangular and tolerably similar to the fourth premolar. In the lower jaw the teeth gradually increase in size and complexity from the first premolar to the first molar. The first three premolars have compressed threecusped blades, with the median cusp the biggest. The fourth premolar is broader than those in front and has supplementary cusps on the inner side of the three-cusped blade, the shape of the tooth and the arrangement of the cusps clearly foreshadowing those of the first molar, in which the crown is differentiated into two subequal portions, an anterior armed with three cusps arranged in a triangle, and a posterior lower portion with an outer and an inner cusp. A first lower molar of this type is found in many genera of Carnivora. In this type of dentition the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar, which are opposed in mastication, are approximately similar to the teeth immediately before and behind them in the series, but they are larger, thus attesting the concentration of biting power in the posterior half of the jaw. This difference in size, often accentuated, is found in many terrestrial species and, as a very general rule, these two teeth also differ considerably in shape from the others; and since this modification is an adaptation for shearing raw flesh and is particularly manifest in predatory forms, the teeth in question have been distinguished as the carnassials. In the upper carnassial, on the fourth premolar, the modification is brought about by the reduction in size of the inner portion of the crown to a comparatively small lobe and the increase in size and compression of the median and posterior cusps of the outer portion to form a sharp-edged cutting blade. The lower carnassial, or first molar, is still more altered and may, as in the cats, be wholly converted into a cutting blade formed by the enlargement and compression of the anterior median and the adjoining external cusp of the front portion of the primitive type of lower carnassial. High specialization of both carnassials as shearers, seen in the cats, hyaenas, some weasels and others, is accompanied by shortening of the jaws, suppression of the second upper molar and reduction in size of the first and loss of the second lower molar. CLASSIFICATION

The Carnivora are usually divided into two sub-orders: the Pinnipedia, or seals, with paddle-like feet and the cheek-teeth all alike, and the Fissipedia, or typical forms with paw-like feet and dissimilar cheek-teeth. And the Fissipedia are further divided into two tribes: the Arctoidea, comprising the dogs, bears, raccoons,

weasels and their allies, and the Aeluroidea, or Herpestoidea, com-

CARNIVORA

898

prising the cats, hyaenas, civets, mongooses and others.

But the

feet and the cheek-teeth are too variable and plastic to be used as a basis for the primary division of the order into Pinnipedia and Fissipedia. The whole organization of the seals points to their affinity with and descent from the Arctoid group of carnivores. The old classification must, therefore, be abandoned and the seals referred to the Arctoidea. The Carnivora, then, may be divided into two sub-orders, the

Aeluroidea and the Arctoidea, which are mainly distinguished by cranial characters. Aeluroidea.—In the Aeluroidea the ethmo-turbinals are very large and occupy the greater part of the nasal chambers, extending

forwards between and over the smaller maxillo-turbinals almost to the anterior orifice of the chambers. The auditory bulla is composed of two elements, the tympanic and entotympanic, and when completely ossified, its cavity is divided by a partition springing from the line of junction of the two bones that compose its wall. Cowper’s glands connected with the generative organs of the male

are absent.

The

Aeluroidea

are

divisible

into

the following

families: Nandinudae.—This family contains the African tree civet, Nandinia, which differs from the rest of the Aeluroidea in having the cavity of the auditory bulla undivided and the wall of its posterior portion permanently cartilaginous; in the large size and shelf-like form of the mastoid portion of the skull and the backward direction of the paroccipital away from the bulla, two characters in which it resembles many of the typical Arctoidea. In other characters it shows kinship with the Oriental palm civets, Paradoxurinae, with which it has been affiliated. The body and tail are long, the muzzle elongate and narrow; the full complement of facial vibrissae is retained; the ear has the bursa and a ridgelike supratragus, the legs are short, with the feet subplantigrade, and with short, curved, partially retractile claws, evenly spaced digits, a four-lobed plantar pad, continuous on the forefoot with the bilobed carpal pad and on the hind foot with the metatarsal

area which is naked and has two ridge-like pads. Also, in the skull the palatine foramina are in front of the suture, and the

cheek-teeth are P$, M$ and moderately trenchant.

But it differs

from the Paradoxurinae in having abdominal scent glands in front of the genital organs and especially in the shortness of the penis

and its close proximity to the scrotum. The single species of this genus, W. binotata, sometimes called the two-spotted palm civet, is a spotted, omnivorous, arboreal

animal the size of a small cat, restricted to the forest region of west Africa. It is an extremely interesting primitive type, resembling in many cranial and dental characters, especially in the structure of the bulla, the extinct Miacidae of the Eocene. Viverridae.—The civets, genets and their allies composing this family differ from the Nandiniidae in having the auditory bulla

divided by a partition, the wall of its posterior chamber completely ossified and its posterior surface applied to the paroccipital process, which projects downwards, and in the relatively small size of the mastoid process. Also the scent glands, when present, are either wholly or partly perinaeal, never entirely abdominal in position. The family exhibits great range in structural variation and is divisible into several sub-families. The Paradoxurinae, the Oriental palm civets, closely resemble Nandinia in external form and habits, but in the male the prepuce is far in advance of the scrotum, the intervening area being usually occupied by a large but simple scent-pouch, and in the female the vulva is surrounded by the scent-gland. This group, ranging from India to the Philippines and Celebes, is represented by the genera Paradoxurus, Paguma and Macrogalidia. In a related form, Arctogalidia, the scent-gland is absent in the male, and in the binturong (Arctictis) the tail is prehensile and the teeth, as in Arctogalidia, are not so trenchant as in the typical palm civets. In the three Oriental genera of Hemigalinae (H emigalus, Diplogale, Chrotogale) the teeth are sharper cusped than in the last, the feet are more digitigrade and the scent-pouch is reduced in size in both sexes. The otter-civet (Cynogale), the type of the Cynogalinae, is a fish-eater adapted for aquatic life. The vibrissae are numerous

and rigid, the rhinarium is on the summit of the muzzle, which is

very wide, and the tail is short. The scent-gland is reduced anq

the teeth are modified for holding fish and crushing the shells of crabs and mussels. The genus ranges from the Malay States to Borneo. The Viverrinae, represented in tropical Asia by the civets

(Viverra, Viverricula)

and in Africa by the typical civet cat

(Civettictis) and the genets (Genetta, Poiana), differ from the Paradoxurinae in being digitigrade, generally with retractile claws,

in having more elaborate scent-glands and more trenchant teeth. In the Galidictinae or Madagascar mongooses (Galidia, Gali-

dictis, Hemigalidia), the scent-gland is restricted to the female, the feet are narrow with non-retractile claws, the jaws are short, the teeth sectorial and the bulla has a bony tubular meatus not

found in the other sub-families. In the preceding groups the scent-gland is present in one or both sexes. In the following three it is absent: Fossa, the sole representative of the Fossinae, is a civet-like animal inhabiting Madagascar; digitigrade but with non-retractile claws; Eupleres, the only known form of the Euplerinae, also comes from Madagascar, is remarkable for the degenerate character of the teeth and feeble jaws, and the feet are subplantigrade and fossorial;:

and the linsangs (Prionodon and Pardictis), representing the Prionodontinae, elegant genet-like animals found in south-eastern Asia, with digitigrade feet and retractile claws, are the only members of the Viverridae in which the penis is small and close to the scrotum.

Herpestidae—The mongooses differ from the Viverridae in possessing a glandular circumanal sac into which the anus and anal glands open by separate orifices, and in the absence of the bursa on the ear. They have no perinaeal glands, the penis is short and close to the scrotum and there is a tubular auditory meatus in the skull. The feet are digitigrade or subplantigrade with fossorial non-retractile claws and the toes may be reduced to four on each foot. The teeth also vary, sometimes being bluntly, sometimes sharply cusped and trenchant. The family contains a large number of genera and species found mostly in India and Africa. The best known are Herpestes, the typical mongoose; Mungos, the banded mongoose; Ichneumia; Suricata, and others.

Cryptoproctidae.—The fossa (Cryptoprocta), found in Madagascar, externally somewhat resembles the palm civets of Asia,

but differs in the absence of perinaeal scent-glands, the possession of a capacious circumanal sac and of a large bone in the penis, this organ being highly complex in structure. The jaws of the skull are short and the teeth are sectorial, closely resembling those of the Felidae.

Hyaenidae.—The hyaenas (Hyaena, Crocuta) differ from all the other families of Aeluroidea in the large size of the tympanic bone which composes nearly the whole of the bulla, the partition of the cavity lying far back. The feet are digitigrade, like those of a dog, but there is no pollex. The anal glands open into a capacious subcaudal pouch. There are no perinaeal glands and ihe prepuce is far in advance of the scrotum. The skull is massive and the teeth which are sectorial in type are very powerful. The genus Hyaena is represented by the striped hyaena of south-western Asia and northern Africa and by the brown hyaena of south-western Africa. Crocuta, the spotted hyaena, which differs in the structure of the teeth and genital organs, is restricted to Africa. Hyaenas are mostly scavengers, feeding upon the carcases of big game. Protelidae.—The aard-wolf (Proteles) of tropical and southern Africa, resembles a small striped hyaena in external characters, except for the presence of a pollex on the forefoot. It differs, however, from the hyaenas in the normal structure of the bulla and from all the land carnivores in its remarkable dentition, the cheek-teeth being widely spaced, all alike and peg-like, with the jaws correspondingly weak. It eats carrion and white ants. Felidae.—-The cats are distinguished by the position of the posterior palatine foramina on the mazxillo-palatine suture and the invariable absence of the interramal tuft of vibrissae. As in the linsangs (Viverridae), the penis is small and close to the

scrotum, the vulva close to the anus, and there are no perinaeal

CARNIVORA

899

glands or glandular pouch above or around the anus; but although

Ailuridae-—The common panda (Ailurus fulgens), which occurs

the feet have retractile claws, they are more digitigrade than in the linsangs, the pollex being more elevated, the hallux absent

in southern China and north-eastern India, is a small, long-tailed, arboreal species, with subplantigrade, sharp-clawed, hairy feet with greatly reduced pads, the supplementary bone on the forefoot being quite small. It also differs from the giant panda in

and the plantar pad three-lobed. In the skull the jaws are short and the teeth highly sectorial, the important cheek-teeth being the two blade-like carnassials. There are three sub-families:— the Pantherinae, containing the lion (Panthera leo), the tiger (P. tigris), the leopard (P. pardus), the jaguar (P. onca), and the snow-leopard (P. uncia), which have the larynx loosely attached to the skull by the largely ligamentous suspensorium of the hyoid; the Felinae, containing a large number of genera, Neofelis, the clouded leopard (N. nebulosa); Leopardus, the ocelot (L. pardalis); Puma, the puma (P. concolor); Felis, the wild cat (F. sylvestris); Lynx, the lynx (L. lynx); and many others which have the suspensorium of the hyoid normally ossified; and the Acinonychinae, containing the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), which is distinguished by the absence of integumentary sheaths to the claws, the hyoid being as in the Felinae.

Arctoidea.—In the sub-order Arctoidea, containing the rest of the existing carnivores, the ethmo-turbinals are excluded from the anterior orifice of the nasal chambers by the enlarged maxilloturbinals. The wall: of the auditory bulla is composed solely of the tympanic bone and its cavity is typically undivided. Cowper’s glands are present in the male. The families fall into two series, the Fissipede arctoids, containing the dogs, bears, raccoons, weasels and their allies, and the Pinnipede arctoids, containing the sea-lions, walruses and seals. In the Fissipede arctoids the feet and the teeth are structurally and functionally similar to those of the Aeluroidea. Only in the sea otter are the hind-feet paddle-like. Canidae.—-The dogs, wolves and foxes differ from the rest of the Arctoids in possessing a caecum and a duodeno-jejunal flexure in the intestine, as in the Aeluroids. Also they are completely digitigrade and typically the formula of the cheek-teeth is P4, M3, with the carnassials large and secant. The teeth, however, vary. The genus Canis, containing the dogs, wolves and jackals, many related genera from South America, and the foxes (Vulpes) have the teeth as recorded above; but the Asiatic dholes (Cuon) and the South American bush dog (Speothos) have lost the third lower molar. The most aberrant dentition, however, is found in the fox-like African genus Otocyon in which there are not only four lower and three, occasionally four, upper molars, but the carnassial teeth are not differentiated from the rest either in size or function. Another somewhat aberrant type is the African hunting-dog (Lycaon) in which the ears are large and rounded and the pollex is absent. Ursidae.—Although the bears and the dogs are shown by fossil forms to be modified descendants of the same stock, the living representatives of these families are widely divergent. The bears are heavily built, with broad, plantigrade feet, short tails, protrusible lips, reduced vibrissae and no bursa on the ear. The cheek-teeth, although numerically as in the typical Canidae, are widely different in function and form, being adapted primarily for crushing hard vegetable fibre. The first three premolars above and below are practically functionless, closely crowded or widely spaced, and one or more often deciduous. The upper carnassial is small and not trenchant, and the molars have large flat tuber-

the loss of the third lower molar, in the cheek teeth forming graduated series and being simpler in pattern and in the presence of the alisphenoid canal. The anus is encircled by a glandular pouch and the penis is small and close to the scrotum as in some Aeluroids. Procyonidae.—This family, confined to America, differs from the Ailuridae in having the penis long, the prepuce’ remote from the scrotum and the anal sac and alisphenoid canal absent, in the normally developed pads on the feet and the differentiation of the upper carnassial from the third premolar. There are several sub-families. The Potosinae or kinkajous (Potos) are arboreal vegetable feeders, with a prehensile tail and ventral scent glands; the jaws are massive and the molars flat-crowned. The Procyoninae or raccoons (Procyon) have long unwebbed digits, a shortish tail and a mobile snout; the crowns of the molars are broad and tubercular, recalling those of Ailurus.

The Nasuinae or coaitis (Nasua) have webbed feet, with fossorial claws, a very long tail, an exceedingly mobile probing snout, slender jaws and smaller cheek-teeth than the raccoons but larger tusk-like canines. The Bassariscinae, the cacomistles (Bassariscus) are active, predacious, genet-like animals with small paws, a long tail and trenchant dentition. The Bassaricyoninae (Bassaricyon) closely resemble the kinkajous superficially but the tail is not prehensile and the cranial and dental characters are more like those of the raccoons. Mustelidae-——This family differs from the Procyonidae in the invariable absence of the second upper molar and in the presence, except in the sea-otter, of a wide angular emargination, instead of a notch or slit, between the median and posterior cusps of the upper carnassial. The genera of this family exhibit greater range in structural variation and habits than any family of Carnivora. They are referred to many sub-families, which, setting the otters on one side, may be conveniently assigned to two series. In the first the upper carnassial is not larger than the molar and has a large inner lobe and a more bluntly cusped blade, and the feet are fossorial. The Melinae, or badgers, are heavily built, with short legs and tail and a glandular subcaudal pouch. The upper molar is much larger than the carnassial, and the bulla is undivided and does not open into the mastoid. The true badgers (Meles) are found in

temperate Europe and Asia and the hog-badgers (Arctonyx) in

Burma and southern China. The Mydainae, containing the teledu (Mydaus), found in Java, Borneo, etc., differs from the badgers in the absence of the subcaudal pouch, the skunk-like development of the anal glands, the disc-like rhinarium, divided upper lip, united toe-pads, reduced ear and the opening of the bulla into the mastoid. The Taxideinae, or American badgers (Taxidea) are shown by the structure of the skull to be unrelated to the Melinae. The upper carnassial is larger than the molar, the bulla opens into the culated crowns. There are several well-defined genera: Ursus, mastoid, the metatarsus has no pads, the carpal pad is single and containing the brown bear (U. arctos), the grizzly (U. horribilis}, peculiar glands are associated with the external genital organs in and the black bear (U. americanus); Thalarctos, the polar bear the male and female. The Mephitinae, or skunks, restricted to America and repre(Th. maritimus); Selenarctos, the Asiatic black bear (S. tibetanus); Helarctos, the Malayan sun-bear (H. malayanus); Melur- sented by three genera (Mephitis, Conepatus, Spilogale), are pesus, the sloth bear (M. ursinus); and Tremarctos, the spectacled culiar in having the mesopterygoid fossa long and the penis without a bone. There are no special cutaneous glands but the anal bear (T. ornatus). Ailuropodidae—The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), glands are excessively developed and their nauseous defensive inhabiting Tibet and southern China, resembles a black and white discharge, associated with the conspicuous pattern and fearless bear in appearance, but differs from all the Ursidae in the pres- behaviour of the skunks, has made these mammals the stock inence of a digit-like bone rising on the inner side of the fore-foot, stance of warningly coloured species. The Helictidinae, or ferret-badgers (Helictis, Melogale), found and associated with a corresponding expansion of the plantar pad, and in the absence of the alisphenoid canal and the structure of in south-eastern Asia, are long-tailed like the skunks, but the the teeth. The premolars are not reduced and the molars are even upper carnassial, as in Taxidea, is larger than the molar. There are no special glands and they further difer from the preceding larger and supplied with numerous supplementary cusps.

900

CARNIVORA

sub-families in retaining the bursa on the ear and in having the bulla divided. In the second series the upper carnassial is never smaller than the molar and has a cutting blade and a small inner lobe. The Mellivorinae, or ratels (Mellivora), occurring in tropical Asia and Africa, are badger-like in build and habits, but the anus is sunk in a pouch, and its glands are developed as in the skunks, the ear is reduced and the teeth are sectorial. The Zctonychinae, or African zorillas (Ictonyx, Poecilictis), resemble skunks superficially and differ from Mellivora in being long-tailed, lightly built, more digitigrade, and in having a well developed ear, less sectorial dentition and no circumanal pouch. The Grisoninae, containing the American Grison and Grisonella, differ from the two preceding sub-families in having the bulla low with the tympanic ring in contact with its roof, and its cavity small and divided. They are superficially like polecats and the offensive discharge of their anal glands is associated with warning coloration. The Tayrinae. The South American marten-like Tayra differs essentially from the grisons in having the cavity of the bulla inflated, undivided and not communicating with the mastoid. The ear has no marginal bursa, and the feet are naked with confluent tarsal and metatarsal pads in contact with the plantar pad. The Martinae, containing the martens and sables (Martes, Charronia), are found in Europe, Asia and North America. They differ principally from Tayra in having the metatarsus hairy, the carpal pads separated from the plantar pad, small claws and a well developed marginal bursa on the ear. The wolverene (Gulo)

is a modified type of this group (g.v.). The Mustelinae, or stoats (Mustela), weasels (Ictis), polecats (Putorius, Vormela) and other genera occurring in Europe, Asia and America, closely resemble the martens in the structure of their feet but differ from them in the shortness of the muzzle, more sectorial and numerically reduced dentition and in the spongy texture of the wall of the auditory bulla with which the tympanic ring is in contact. The Lutrinae, or typical otters, represented by many genera (Lutra, Aonyx, Pteronura, etc.), differ from the preceding subfamilies mainly in their structural adaptations to aquatic life, and particularly in having the hind-feet larger than the forefeet, with long distensible digits. The kidneys also are lobulate. The skull in shape resembles that of the Mustelinae, but the upper molar is as large as the carnassial. The family ranges all over the world apart from Madagascar and Australia. The Enhydrinae, or sea-otter (Enkydris), which is restricted to the North Pacific, differs from the Lutrinae in the structure of the feet. The fore-feet have the digits very short and tightly fused, and the hind-feet very large and paddle-like with the digits progressively increasing in length from the first to the fifth. Also the cusps of the teeth are all bluntly rounded. The pinnipede arctoids are characterized by the shortness of the upper portion of the limbs and the development of the feet as swimming paddles, especially the hind-feet, which have the first and fifth digits stouter and longer than the rest. The cheekteeth also are all alike. There are three families. Otariidae.—This family comprises the sea-lions and fur seals; these have small external ears and progress on land in quadrupedal fashion by applying the naked soles of all four feet to the ground. The incisor teeth are present, the canines are of normal size and the cheek-teeth have compressed crowns with one main cusp. They feed mostly on fish. There are seven well-marked species, each of which has received a generic name based on cranial characters. Steller’s sea-lion (Eumetopias stelleri) and the northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) are found in the north Pacific; the Californian sea-lion (Zalophus californianus) ranges from California to Japan; the Australian sea-lion (Neohoea cinerea) inhabits Australia; the Patagonian sea-lion (Ozaria jubata) frequents the coasts of South America; the southern

Odobaenidae.—This family contains the walrus (Odobaenys ‘ restricted to the northern oceans. Its limbs are like those of the Otariidae, but the external ear is absent and the skull is remarkably modified to carry the huge tusk-like upper canines, while the cheek-teeth are flat-crowned for crushing the shells of mus-

sels and oysters upon which the walrus mainly feeds. Phocidae—This family comprises true seals. They are also without external ears, but the hind-limbs are stretched backwards to act as a tail-fin and their soles, which like those of the fore-limh are hairy, are incapable of being applied to the ground. The variation in cranial and dental characters is greater than in the Otariidae, the common seals (Phoca) and the elephant seals

(Macrorhinus) exhibiting the extremes. In Phoca the claws are all well developed, the digits of the fore-flippers are subequal and the first and fifth of the hind-flippers only slightly exceed the

rest and the integument is not produced beyond their tips; the

incisors are #, the cheek-teeth are cusped and mostly two-rooted, the muzzle is normal, its orifice is small and encircled by the long nasals and premaxillae which are in contact. In Macrorhinus the digits of the fore-flippers decrease in length from the first to the fifth, those of the hind-flippers have no claws and the fourth and fifth digits greatly exceed the rest and are lengthened by skin-lobes; the muzzle of the male is developed into a dis-

tensible proboscis; the incisors are 2, the small cheek-teeth have simple crowns and one root, and the premaxillae and nasals are short and widely separated and do not surround the dilated nasal aperture. Phoca and its allies, e.g., Halichaerus, the grey seal, are found in the northern oceans. Macrorhinus, the largest of the pinnipedes, reaching a length of 20 ft., ranges from the Antarctic to California; but there are many structurally intermediate genera occurring in the northern and southern oceans.

(R. I. P.) EXTINCT FORMS Fossil remains of the majority of the common modern genera of Carnivora are found in the Pleistocene formations along with a number of extinct types which were known to prehistoric man. Among these the most remarkable are the sabre-tooth tigers or machaerodonts (see MAacHAERODUS), the Arctotherium or shortfaced bear of South America. The great cave-bear of Europe and the giant tiger Felis mrox of North America much exceeded any living species of Ursus and Felis in size; and the geographic range of hyaenas, lions, Cyon, was then extended to northern Europe, while conversely the wolverine and other northern Carnivora have been found as far south as Arkansas. All of the families of modern Carnivora are represented in the formations of the later Tertiary epochs, most of them by a wider variety of types than those that survive to-day, and the ancestry of many of the modern genera can be traced back through the Pliocene, Miocene and Oligocene into or towards a common ancestral stock which appears to be fairly represented by the Eocene family Miacidae of the Primitive Carnivora or Creodonta (see CREODONTA). The Miacidae, alone among the creodont families,

have acquired the true carnassial or shearing teeth of the fissiped Carnivora, p* in the upper and m, in the lower jaw being enlarged and specialized for this purpose; and on this account they are transferred by some authorities to the Fissipedia. But they have not acquired the consolidated scapholunar bone of the wrist nor

the completely ossified auditory bulla of the Fissipedia, and for these and other reasons may best be regarded as pro-fissiped

creodonts. (See Matthew, 1900, Memoirs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. ix., part vi., pp. 339-340.) In the Oligocene numerous genera of primitive fissiped Carnivora are known from Europe, North America and Central Asia. They all appear to be rather nearly related, but the beginnings of the distinctions between viverroid, musteloid and cynoid groups can be perceived and the felids are already distinct. The faunas of the three regions have much in common and these Oligocene fissipeds are evidently descended from Holarctic Miacidae of the fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus) occurs in the South American, Eocene. They had apparently not yet reached Africa, although South African and Australian seas; and Hooker’s sea-lion (Pho- the Creodonta had preceded them into that region, at least as far carctos hookeri), also in the Australian seas. The family is as Egypt. Neither creodonts nor fissiped Carnivora are found in thus restricted to the Pacific and southern oceans. South America at this time; the Carnivora did not reach the

CARNIVOROUS

PLANTS—CARNOT

Neotropical region until the Pliocene, their place being taken by carnivorous marsupials in the older Tertiary of South America.

All of these Oligocene Carnivora have the scaphoid and lunar bones united. Most of them have the tympanic ring expanded into a complete bulla, but the bulla is not infrequently loosely articulated to the skull and is then usually lost in the fossil specimens.

The cynoid group has the dentition 3-1-4372. the teeth behind

3.1.4.3 the carnassial moderately reduced and of crushing type. Cynodictis with only two upper molars leads through a number of intermediate stages (Vothocyon, Upper Oligocene, Cynodesmus, Lower Miocene, Galecynus and Tephrocyon, Upper Miocene) into the modern Canidae; while Daphaenus with three upper molars leads (through Daphaenodon of the Lower Miocene) into the Miocene Amphicyons or bear-dogs with enlarged crushing and reduced shearing teeth. These equalled the modern bears in size, but were still largely digitigrade with legs of moderate length and long heavy tail. They are connected with the true bears through Hemicyon (Miocene), Hyaenarctos and Indarctos (Pliocene) in which the teeth progressively assume the fully specialized crushing type of the true bears, the limbs become long and straight, the feet plantigrade and the outer digit of manus and pes the largest. How near this series comes to being a direct line of ancestry is not yet settled, but it unquestionably indicates that the bears are derived from primitive Oligocene cynoids. The raccoons also appear to be derived from this primitive cynoid stock, through Cynodon of the Oligocene and Phlaocyon of the Lower Miocene, but it is probable that the modern Procyonidae are several independent parallel branches from this stock rather than a single group. The Oligocene musteloids have the post-carnassial teeth more reduced than in the cynoids and of more or less cutting type.

Their dental formula is 3:1:4-3-271- None of them have acquired

3.1.4—3.2 the expansion of the inner half of m! nor the flattened tympanic bulla that characterize modern Mustelidae; these characters appear in a very rudimentary stage in most of the Lower Miocene and more fully developed in the Middle and Upper Miocene

mustelines, but are assumed independently in a number of separate series that lead up more or less directly into the martens, weasels, wolverines, otters, skunks and badgers. The viverroid group is hardly distinguishable in the Oligocene by tooth characters, but it shows in contradistinction to the cynoids and musteloids a certain tendency to extend the bulla backward and expand the paroccipital process over its posterior end. The well-developed parastyle on the upper carnassial, characteristic of most modern Viverridae and Felidae, is small and inconstant in their Oligocene ancestors, and is moreover not uncommonly found in Tertiary cynoids and musteloids (Aelurodon, etc.). In the Miocene Viverridae the limitation of the postcarnassial teeth to two above and one (the second true molar) below, both well developed, becomes more definite, the bulla more characteristic and the division between viverrine and herpestine genera begins to be distinguishable. A number of intermediate genera in the Miocene and Lower Pliocene (Ictitherium, Lepthyaena, Palhyaena) are transitional to the hyaenas, which are fully developed in the Lower Pliocene and are clearly derivable from primitive civets, although the known species of these intermediate genera are not directly an-

cestral.

Hyaenas and civets are found only in the Old World

Tertiaries, although fragmentary remains of hyaenoid Canidae from the Tertiary of North America have several times (Aelurodon, Borophagus, “Prohyaena,” Chasmoporthetes) been mistakenly referred to these Old World families. The Tertiary canids, on the other hand, are chiefly North American, while the Mustelids and ursids are Holarctic. The Felidae are quite distinct in the Oligocene, and all of them show, but in differing degree, an enlarged and compressed upper canine, reduced lower canine and flanged or angulate chin. They appear to fall into two series; in one these characters and associated special adaptations in skull and skeleton are decidedly more marked and are progressively increased in the Lower and

gor

Upper Miocene to culminate in the Sabre-tooth Tigers of the Pliocene and Pleistocene (see MacHaArropus). In the other series the above noted peculiarities, already much less developed, are progressively reduced to the nearly normal condition of the modern Felidae in which upper and lower canines are nearly equal, and the chin has lost its ange. The clouded tiger of Malaysia is the most primitive living species in these as in some other particulars. Dinictis of the Oligocene, Nimravus and Archaelurus of the Lower Miocene, Pseudaelurus of the later Miocene, are the successive stages in the ancestry of the Felidae, while Hoplophoneus and Eusmilus of the Oligocene and Machaerodus of the Miocene lead into the more highly specialized sabre-tooths Smilodon and Meganthereon of the Pliocene and Pleistocene. In both the feline and machaerodontine series there is also a progressive specialization of the shearing teeth and reduction of the premolars, these teeth in Dinictis being not far beyond the stage reached in the modern viverrid genus Cryptoprocta. (W. D. M.)

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS: See InsectTIvorous PLANTS. CARNOCK, ARTHUR NICOLSON, ist Baron (1849-

1928), British diplomatist, was born in London on Sept. 19, 1849, the son of Admiral Sir Frederick W. E. H. Nicolson, roth Bart. (1815-99). He was educated at Rugby and Brasenose College, Oxford, and in 1870 entered the Foreign Office as assistant private secretary to Lord Granville. In 1874 he was attached to the British Embassy in Berlin, and after occupying a succession of minor diplomatic posts, became in 1885 chargé d’affaires at Tehran. From 1888 to 1904 he held posts in Constantinople, Bulgaria, and Morocco, where he was minister. In 1899 he succeeded his father as 11th baronet. In 1906 Sir Arthur Nicolson went as ambassador to Russia, returning in 1910 to the Foreign Office as Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs. He retired in 1916, when he received a peerage. He published in 1873 a History of the German

Constitution.

He died on Nov. 5, 1928.

CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE

(1801-1888), French

statesman, the second son of L. N. M. Carnot (g.v.), was born at Saint-Omer on Oct. 6, 1801. Hippolyte Carnot lived at first in exile with his father, returning to France only in 1823. He wrote, in 1830, an Exposé de la doctrine Saint-Simonienne, and collaborated in the Saint-Simonian journal Le Producteur. In March 1839, after the dissolution of the chamber by Louis Philippe, he was elected deputy for Paris (re-elected in 1842 and in 1846), and sat in the group of the Radical Left. At the revolution of 1848 he became minister of education in the provisional Government. In proposing a law for free and obligatory primary education he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding that “the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns on which rests the edifice of the republic.” By this attitude he alienated both the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme Left, and was forced to resign on July 5. Under the Empire he refused to sit in the Corps Législatif until 1864, in order not to have to take the oath. From 1864 to 1869 he was in the republican opposition,

taking a very active part. He was a member of the Constituent Assembly of 1871, and in 1875 was nominated a senator for life. He died on March 16, 1888, three months after the election of his elder son, M. F. S. Carnot, to the presidency of the republic. He had published Le Ministère de Pinstruction publique et des cultes du 24° fevrier au 5° juillet 1848 (1849), Mémoires sur Lazare Carnot (2 vols. 1861—64, new ed., 1907), Mémoires de Barère

(with David Angers, 4 vols., 1842-43). A notice by Lefévre-Portalis in vol. xxxviii. of the Séances of the

Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.

CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE (1753-1823), French general, was born at Nolay, Côte d'Or, on May 13, 1753. He entered the corps of engineers, becoming captain in 1783, just after the publication of his first work, an Essai sur les machines en général. In 1784 he wrote his Eloge of Vauban. But as the result of a controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official, or Vauban, theories of the art of fortification, and went over to the “perpendicular” school of Montalembert. He was consequently imprisoned, on the pretext of having fought a duel, and only released when selected to accompany Prince Henry of Prussia in a visit to Vauban’s forti-

go2

CARNOT

fications. The Revolution drew him into political life, and he was elected a deputy for the Pas de Calais. Carnot was a stern and sincere republican, and voted for the execution of the king. In the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 he was continually employed as a commissioner in military matters, his greatest service being in April, 1793, on the north-eastern frontier, where the disastrous battle of Neerwinden and the subsequent defection of Dumouriez had thrown everything into confusion. Carnot was the real organizer of victory for the revolutionary armies. He was a military genius who cast aside the hampering

traditions of the Prussian military school, at that time blindly followed by other European armies. He abandoned the idea of seeking to defend all points, and formed the French armies into large masses able to strike deadly blows at the enemy. The successes of Jourdan, Hoche and Pichegru were largely due to the new conceptions of strategy inculcated by Carnot. The changes he made in army tactics were equally important. Deployment in line gave way to the older system of attack in columns formation, under which full use could be made of the superior quality and intelligence of the French soldier. Side by side with these changes in the art of fighting, Carnot carried out other important administrative changes, notably in the organization of the food supply. Under his new system the French soldier was fed, clothed, and supplied with munitions far more efficiently than before. After his reorganization of the army front Carnot returned to Paris and was made a member of the Committee of Public Safety. He was charged with duties corresponding to those of the modern chief of the general staff and adjutant-general. As a member of the committee he signed its decrees. His whole attention was given

to the defence of the frontiers. He organized 14 armies, which included over a million men, in the course of a single year. His labours were incessant; practically every military document in the archives of the committee was Carnot’s own work, and he was repeatedly in the field with the armies. His part in Jourdan’s great victory at Wattignies was so important that the credit of the day has often been assigned to Carnot. The winter of 179394 was spent in new preparations, in instituting a severe discipline in the new and ill-trained troops of the republic, and in improvising means and material of war. He continued to visit the armies at the front, and to inspire them with energy. He acquiesced in the fall of Robespierre in 1794, but later defended Barére and others among his colleagues, declaring that he himself had constantly signed papers without reading them, as it was physically impossible to do so in the press of business. When Carnot’s arrest was demanded in May, 1795, a deputy cried “Will you dare to lay hands on the man who has organized victory?” Carnot was elected one of the five Directors in November, 1795, and continued to direct the war department during the campaign of 1796. Late in 1796 he was made a member (rst class) of the Institute, which he had helped to establish. He was for two periods president of the Directory, but in its later stages found himself at variance with Barras and his adherents. On the coup d’état of the 18th Fructidor (1797) he was warned in time and took refuge abroad. The ridiculous accusations of conspiracy against the republic drew from him a Réponse au rapport de J. C. Bailleul, which gives an admirable account of the working of the constitution of 1795. Carnot returned to France after the 18th Brumaire (1799) and was re-elected to the Institute in 1800. Early in 1800 he became minister of war, and he accompanied Moreau in the early part of the Rhine campaign. His chief work was, however, in reducing the expenses of the armies. Contrary to the usual custom he refused to receive presents from contractors, and he effected much-needed reforms in every part of the military administration. He tendered his resignation later in the year, but it was long before the First Consul would accept it. From 18o0r he lived in retirement with his family, employing himself chiefly in scientific pursuits. As a senator he consistently opposed the increasing monarchism of Napoleon, who, however, gave him in 1809 a pension and commissioned him to write a work on fortification for the school of Metz. In these years he had published De la

corrélation des figures de géométrie (1801), Géométrie de position (1803), and Principes fondamentaux de lPéquilibre et du mouyement (1803), all of which were translated into German. His great work on fortification appeared at Paris in 1810 (De la défense de places fortes), and was translated for the use of almost every army in Europe. He took Montalembert as his

groundwork. Without sharing Montalembert’s antipathy to the bastioned trace, and his predilection for high masonry caponiers, he followed out the principle of retarding the development of the attack, and provided for the most active defence. To facilitate sorties in great force he did away with a counterscarp wall, providing instead a long gentle slope from the bottom of the ditch to the crest of the glacis. This, he imagined, would compel an

assailant to maintain large forces in the advanced trenches, which he ‘proposed to attack by vertical fire from mortars. Along the

front of his fortress was built a heavy detached wall, loop-holed

for fire, and sufficiently high to be a most formidable obstacle. This “Carnot wall,” and, in general, Carnot’s principle of active

defence, played a great part in the rise of modern fortification. He did not seek employment in the field in the aggressive wars of Napoleon, remaining a sincere republican, but in 1814, when France itself was once more in danger, Carnot at once offered his services. He was made a general of division, and Napoleon sent him to the important fortress of Antwerp as governor. His defence of that place was one of the most brilliant episodes of the

campaign of 1814. He joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was made minister of the interior, the office carrying with it the dignity of count, and on June 2, he was made a peer of France. On the second Restoration he was proscribed. He lived thenceforward in Magdeburg, and died there on Aug. 2, 1823.

His remains were solemnly removed to the Panthéon in 1889. Long before this, in 1836, Antwerp had erected a statue to its defender of 1814. In 1837 Arago pronounced his éloge before

the Académie des sciences. The memory of his military career is preserved in the title, given to him in the Assembly, of “The organizer of victory.” BrBiiocrapHY.—Baron de B..., Vie privée, politique, et morale de L.N.M. Carnot (1816); Sérieys, Carnot, sa vie politique et privée (1816); Mandar, Notice biographique sur le général Carnot, etc. (1818); W. Körte, Das Leben L.N.M. Carnots (Leipzig, 1820) ; P. F. Tissot, Mémoires historiques et militaires sur Carnot (1824); Arago, Biographie de Carnot (1850) ; Hippolyte Carnot, Mémoires sur Carnot (1861-63, new ed., 1907); C. Rémond, Notice biographique sur le grand Carnot (Dijon, 1880); A. Picaud, Carnot, Porganisateur de la victoire (1885 and 1887); A. Burdeau, Une Famille de patriotes (1888) ; L. Hennet, Lazare Carnot (1888); G. Hubbard, Une Famille républicaine (1888); M. Dreyfous, Les Trois Carnot (1888); M. Bonnal, Carnot, d’aprés les archives, etc. (1888); Memoir by E. Charavaray in La Grande Encyclopédie; C. Mathiot, Pour Vaincre, Vie, opinions, et pensées de L. Carnot (1916). The Correspondance générale de Carnot has been edited by Charavaray (1892).

CARNOT,

MARIE

FRANÇOIS

SADI

(Sanr)

(1837-

1894), 4th president of the 3rd French Republic, son of L. Hippo-

lyte Carnot, was born at Limoges on Aug. 11, 1837. He was edu-

cated at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, and then obtained an appointment in the public service. He was entrusted in 1870 with the task of organizing resistance in the departments of the Eure, Calvados and Seine Inférieure, and made prefect of the last named in Jan. 1871. In the following month he was elected to the National Assembly by the department Céte d’Or. In Sept. 1880 he became minister, and again in April 1885, passing almost immediately

to the Ministry of Finance,

which he held under both the Ferry and the Freycinet administra-

tions until Dec. 1886. When the Wilson scandals (see GRÉVY)

occasioned the downfall of Grévy in Dec. 1887, Carnot became a candidate for the presidency, with the support of Clemenceau and others who desired to see a president who had no connection with the politics of the market place. He was elected by 616 votes out

of 827. The internal situation was a critical one, the stability of the State being threatened by the Boulangist agitation, but Boulanger was exiled in 1889. Carnot had but one other serious crisis

to surmount, the Panama scandals of 1892, which, if they greatly damaged the prestige of the State, increased the respect felt for its head, against whose integrity none could breathe a word. On

CARNOT—CARO June 24, 1894, after speaking at a public banquet at Lyons he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Caserio and expired almost immediately. The horror and grief excited by this tragedy were boundless, and the president was honoured with a splendid funeral in the Panthéon, Paris. See EK. Zevort, Histoire de la Troisième République, tome iv., “La Présidence de Carnot”? (Paris, r901); A. A. G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la Troisiéme République (1904, etc.).

CARNOT, NICOLAS LEONHARD SADI (1796-1832), French physicist, elder son of L. N. M. Carnot, was born at Paris.

He was admitted to the Ecole Polytechnique in 1812, and late in 1814 he left with a commission in the Engineers and with prospects of rapid advancement in his profession. But Waterloo and the Restoration led to a second and final proscription of his father; and though not himself cashiered, Sadi was purposely told off for the merest drudgeries of his service. In 1819 he presented himself at the examination for admission to the staff corps (état-major) and obtained a lieutenancy. He then studied mathematics, chemistry, natural history, technology and even political economy. He was an enthusiast in music and other fine arts, and practised all sorts of athletic sports, including swimming and fencing. He became captain in the Engineers in 1827, but left the service altogether in the following year. He died of cholera in Paris on Aug. 24, 1832. He was an original and profound thinker. The only work he published was his Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance (1824). This contains but a fragment of his scientific discoveries, but it is sufficient to put him in the very foremost rank, though its full value was not recognized until pointed out by Lord Kelvin in 1848 and 1849. Fortunately his manuscripts had been preserved, and extracts were appended to a reprint of

his Puissance motrice by his brother, L. H. Carnot, in 1878. These show that he had not only realized for himself the true nature of heat, but had noted down for trial many of the best modern methods of finding its mechanical equivalent, such as those of J. P. Joule with the perforated piston and with the friction of water and mercury. Lord Kelvin’s experiment with a current of gas forced through a porous plug is also given. “‘Carnot’s principle,” that the efficiency of a reversible engine depends on the temperatures between which it works, is fundamental in the theory of thermodynamics (g.v.).

CARNOUSTIE,

police burgh and watering-place, Forfar-

shire, Scotland. Pop. (1931) 4,806. It lies on the North Sea, 10? m. E.N.E. of Dundee by the L. & N.E.R. Bathing and golfIng are good. Barry Links, a triangular sandy tract occupying the south-eastern corner of the shire, is used as a military camping and manoeuvring ground. Its extreme point is called Buddon Ness, off which are the dangerous shoals locally known as the Roaring Lion. On the ness two lighthouses have been built at different levels.

CARNUNTUM,

an important Roman fortress (Kapvoi’s in

Ptolemy), originally belonging to Noricum, but after the rst century A.D. to Pannonia. It was a Celtic town, the name, which is nearly always found with K on monuments, being derived from Kar, Karn (“rock,” “cairn”). Its extensive ruins may still be seen near Hainburg in lower Austria. It was a very old mart for the amber brought to Italy from the north. During the reign of Augustus (a.D. 6), Tiberius made it his base in the campaigns against Maroboduus (Marbod). Later it became the centre of the Roman defences of the Danube from Vindobona (Vienna) to

Brigetio (O-Szény), and (under Trajan or Hadrian) the permanent quarters of the XIV. legion. It was created a municipium by

Hadrian (Aelium Carnuntum). Marcus Aurelius resided there (172—175) during the war against the Marcomanni, and wrote part of his Meditations. Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there (193). In the 4th century it was destroyed by the Germans, and though it was partly restored by

Valentinian I, Vindobona became now the chief military centre. It was finally destroyed by the Hungarians in the middle ages. See J. W. Kubitschek and S. Frankfurter, Führer durch Carnuntum (3rd ed., 1894); Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyclopädie s.v.; Corpus

Inscriptionum Latinarum, iii., part i. p. 550,

CARNUTES,

903 a Celtic people of central Gaul, between the

Sequana (Seine) and the Liger (Loire). Their territory included the greater part of the modern departments of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher. The chief towns were Cenabum (Orléans) and Autricum (Chartres). In the time of Caesar they were dependents of the Remi, but joined in the rebellion of Vercingetorix. As a punishment for the treacherous murder of some Roman merchants and one of Caesar’s commissariat officers at Cenabum, the town was burnt and the inhabitants put to the sword or sold as slaves. They sent 12,000 men to relieve Alesia, but shared in the defeat of the Gallic army. Having attacked the Bituriges Cubi (see Brrurices), who appealed to Caesar for assistance, they were forced to submit. Under Augustus, the Carnutes were raised to the rank of civitas foederata, retaining their own institutions, and only bound to render military service to the emperor. Up to the 3rd century Autricum was the capital, but in 275 Aurelian changed Cenabum into a civitas and named it Aurelianum or Aurelianensis urbs (whence Orléans). BrBLtI0GRAPHY.—A. Desjardins, Géographie historique de la Gaule, ii. (1876~93); article and bibliography in La Grande Encyclopédie; T. R. Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1899). For ancient authorities see Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. 25, 29, vii. 8, 11, 78, viii. 5, 31; Strabo iv.

Pp. 191-193. CARO, ANNIBALE

(1507-1566), Italian poet, was born

at Civita Nuova, in Ancona, in 1507. He became tutor in the family of Lodovico Gaddi, a rich Florentine, and then secretary to bis brother Giovanni, by whom he was presented to a valuable ecclesiastical preferment at Rome. At Gaddi’s death, he entered the service of the Farnese family, and became confidential secretary in succession to Pietro Lodovico, duke of Parma, and to his sons, duke Ottavio and cardinals Ranuccio and Alexander. Caro’s most important work was his translation of the Aeneid (Venice,

1581; Paris, 1760). He is also the author of Rime (1569), Canzone (1553) and sonnets, a comedy named Git Straccioni (1582), and two clever jeux d’esprit, one in praise of figs, La Ficheide

(1539) and another in eulogy of the big nose of Leoni Ancona, president of the Academia della Vertu. Caro’s poetry is distinguished by the freedom and grace of its versification; indeed he may be said to have brought the verso sciolto to the highest development it has reached in Italy. His prose works consist of translations from Aristotle, Cyprian and Gregory Nazianzen; and of letters, written in his own name and in those of the cardinals Farnese, which are remarkable both for the baseness they display and for their euphemistic polish and elegance. His fame is defaced by the virulence with which he attacked Lodovico Castelvetro in one of his canzoni, and by his meanness in denouncing him to the Holy Office as translator of some of the writings of Melanchthon. He died at Rome about 1566. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Caro’s works are published in the Classicz Italiani Series, vols. 74-81 (Milan, 1807-12), and in Scrittori d’Italia, vol. xli. (ed. V. Turri, 1912); G. Cantalamessa Carboni, Ricerche sulla vita del Commendatore Annibal Caro (Ascoli, 1858) ; F. Bernette, Annibal Caro (Porto Civitanova, 1907); V. Cian, La vita e le opere di Annibal Caro (1912); Le più belle pagine di Annibal Caro (ed. F. Pastonchi, Milan, 1903).

CARO, ELME MARIE was born at Poitiers.

(1826-1887), French philosopher,

He was educated at the Stanislas college

and the École Normale, where he graduated in 1848. He came to Paris in 1858 as master of conferences at the École Normale. In 186r he became inspector of the Academy of Paris, in 1864 professor of philosophy to the Faculty of Letters, and in 1874

a member of the French Academy. He married Pauline Cassin, the novelist who wrote the Péché de Madeleine and other popular novels. In his philosophy he was mainly concerned to defend Christianity against modern positivism. The philosophy of Cousin influenced him strongly, but his strength lay in exposition and criticism rather than in original thought. Besides important contributions to La France and the Revue des Deux Mondes, he wrote Le Mysticisme au XVIIIe siècle (1852-54), L’Idée de

Dieu (1864), Le Matérialisme et la science (1868), Jours L'épreuve (1872), Le Pessimisme au XIXe siècle (1878), La Philosophie de Goethe

(2nd ed., 1880), M. Littré et le positi-

visme (1883), George Sand (1887), Mélanges et portraits (1888),

904

CARO—CAROLINE

AMELIA

See E. V. Maumus, Les Philosophes Contemporains i. E. M. Caro (Paris, 1891).

CARO, NIKODEM

(1871-

), German chemist, was born

May 23, 1871, at Lédz. He studied at Berlin University and at the technical high school, Charlottenburg, and founded a public chemical laboratory. He was engaged in agricultural research work, and experimented on peat as a source of power. He interested himself in the problems of calcium carbide and acetylene, and in the liquefaction of water gas for the production of hydrogen, also in ammonia oxidation. In conjunction with Frank, he devoted himself to the development of a process for the fixation of nitrogen (cyanamide) and organized the cyanamide industry founded thereon. Large works for this industry were also erected at Piesteritz and Chovzow. Dr. Caro made a special study of the question of Bavarian sources of water-power with a view to utilizing them in the chemical industry.

CAROL,

a hymn of praise, especially such as is sung at

Christmas in the open air. Diez suggests that the word is derived from chorus. Others ally it with corolla, a garland, circle or coronet, the earliest sense of the word being apparently “a ring” or “circle,” “a ring dance.” Stonehenge, often called the giants’ dance, was also frequently known as the carol. The crib set up in the churches at Christmas was the centre of a dance, and some of the most famous of Latin Christmas hymns were written to dance tunes. These songs were called Wiegenlieder in

German,

noëls in French, and

carols in English. Strictly speaking the word “carol” should be applied to lyrics written to dance measures; in common accepta-

KG apes (l

tion it is applied to the songs written for the Christmas festi-

pi go>

val. Carolling, i.e., the combined exercise of dance and song, found its way from pagan ritual into the Christian church, and the clergy, however averse they might be from heathen survivals, had to content themselves in

es

The third

council of Toledo (589) forbade dancing in the churches on the vigils of saints’ days, and secular dances in church were forbidden by the council of Auxerre in the next year. Even as late as 1209 it was necessary for the council of Avignon to forbid theatrical dances and secular songs in churches. Religious dances persisted longest on Shrove Tuesday, and a castanet dance by the choristers round the lectern is permitted three times a year in the

cathedral

Christmas

of Seville.

festival,

which

The

There are extant numerous carols dating from the rsth century

which have the characteristic features of folksong.

The famous

cherry-tree carol, “Joseph was an old man,” is based on an old legend which is related in the Coventry mystery plays. “I saw

three ships come sailing in,” and “The Camel and the Crane,”

though of more modern date, preserve curious legends. Among 18th century religious carols perhaps the most famous is Charles Wesley’s “Hark, how all the welkin rings,” better known in the variant, “Hark, the herald angels sing.” The modern revival of

carol-singing has produced a quantity of new carols, the best of which are perhaps mostly derived from mediaeval Latin Christmas hymns.

The earliest printed collection of carols was issued by Wynkyn

de Worde in 1521. It contained the famous Boar’s Head carol, Caput apri defero, Reddens laudes Domino, which in a slightly altered form is sung at Queen’s college, Oxford, on the bringing in of the boar’s head. Among the numerous collections of French carols is Noei Borguignon de Gui Barôzai (1720), giving the words and the music of 34 noëls, many of them very free in character. The term noël passed into the English carol as a favourite refrain, “nowell,” and seems to have been in common use in France as an equivalent for vivat. In architecture, the term “carol” (also wrongly spelled “carrel” or “carrol’’) is used, in the sense of an enclosure, of a small chapel or oratory enclosed by screens, and also sometimes of the rails of the screens themselves. It is more particularly applied to the separate seats near the windows of a cloister (g.v.), used by the monks for the purposes of study, etc. The term “carol” has, by a mistake, been sometimes used of a scroll bearing an inscription of a text, etc. BrseLIocrRAPuY.—Among the more important collections of Christmas carols are: Songs and Carols (1847), ed. by T. Wright for the Percy Society from Sloane ms. 2593; W. Sandys, Christmastide, its History, Festivities and Carols (1852) ; T. Helmore and J. M. Neale, Carols for Christmastide (1853-54), with music; Christmas with the Poets (1872); R. R. Chope, Carols (1894), a tune-book for church use, with an introduction by S. Baring-Gould; H. R. Bramley, Christmas Carols, New and Old, the music by Dr. Stainer; A. H. Bullen, Carols and Poems (188s); J. A. Fuller Maitland and W. S. Rockstro, Thirteen Carols of the Fifteenth Century, from a Trinity college, Cambridge, ms. (1891); Edith Rickert, Ancient English Christmas Carols (1910). See also Julian’s Dictionary of Hymnology, s.v. “Carol”; E. Cortet, Essai sur les fétes religieuses (1867).

this, as in many other cases, with limiting the practice.

ELIZABETH

CAROLINE AMELIA ELIZABETH (1768-1821), queen

of George IV. of Great Britain, second daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick-Wolfehbiittel, was born on May 17, 1768. In 1795 she was married to the then prince of Wales (see GEorcE IV.), who disliked her and separated from her after

BY COURTESY

OF THE

WENCESLAS, After

the

CZECHOSLOVAK

KING

14th

century

“good king Wenceslas’?

syn- Cathedral, Prague

OF

LEGATION

BOHEMIA statue

of

in St. Vitus

chronized with and superseded the Latin and Teutonic feasts of

the winter solstice, lent itself especially to gaiety. The “crib” of the Saviour was set up in the churches or in private houses, in the traditional setting of the stable, with earthen figures of the Holy Family, the ox and the ass; and carols were sung and danced around it. The singing of the carol has survived in places where the institutions of the “crib,” said to have been originated by St. Francis of Assisi to inculcate the doctrine of the incarnation, has been long in disuse, but in the West Riding of Yorkshire the children who go round carol-singing still carry “milly-boxes” (My Lady boxes) containing figures which represent the Virgin and Child. That carol-singing early became a pretext for the asking of alms is obvious from an Ang'o-Norman carol preserved in the British Museum ms. (Reg. 16 E, Vili.), Seigneurs ore entendey &

mus, which is little more than a drinking song.

the birth of a daughter, Princess Charlotte Augusta, in Jan. 1796. The princess resided at Blackheath; and as she was thought to have been badly treated by her profligate husband, the sympathies of the people were strongly in her favour. About 1806 reports reflecting on her conduct were circulated so openly that the king appointed a commission to inquire into the circumstances. The princess was acquitted of any serious fault, but improprieties in her conduct were pointed out and censured. In 1814 she left England and travelled on the Continent, residing principally in Italy. On the accession of George IV. in 1820, orders were given that the English ambassadors should prevent the recognition of the princess as queen at any foreign court. Her name was also formally omitted from the liturgy. These acts stirred up a strong feeling in favour of the princess among the English people generally, and she at once made arrangements for returning to England and claiming her rights. She rejected a proposal that she should receive an annuity of £50,000 a year on condition of renouncing her title and remaining abroad, and arrived in England on June 6. One month later a bill to dissolve her marriage with the king on the ground of adultery with an Italian, Bartolomeo Bergami, whom she had taken into favour in Milan, was brought into the House of Lords. The trial began on Aug. 17, 1820, and on Nov. to the bill, after passing the third reading, was abandoned. The

public excitement had been intense, the boldness of the queen’s counsel, Brougham and Denman, unparalleled, and the ministers felt that the smallness of their majority was virtual defeat. The

CAROLINE

WILHELMINA—CAROTO

905

queen was allowed to assume her title, but she was refused ad-

ter, called Begga in later documents, was married to Arnulf’s son, mittance to Westminster Hall on the coronation day, July 10, and of this union was born Pippin II. Towards the end of the 7th 1821. Mortification at this event seems to have hastened her century Pippin II., called incorrectly Pippin of Heristal, secured death, which took place on Aug. 7 of the same year. a preponderant authority in Austrasia, marched at the head of the see A Queen of Indiscretions, the Tragedy of Caroline of Brunswick, Austrasians against Neustria, and gained a decisive victory at Queen of England, trans. by F. Chapman from the Italian of Graziano Paolo Clerici (1907), with numerous portraits, etc.; The Trial at large Testry, near St. Quentin (687). From that date he may be said of Her Majesty ... containing the evidence ... speeches... ete. to have been sole master of the Frankish kingdom, which he governed till his death (714). In Neustria Pippin gave the mayor... printed from the Journals of the House, 2 vols., 1821. Of contemporary authorities the Creevey Papers (1905) throw the most interest- alty of the palace to his son Grimoald, and afterwards to Grimoing sidelights on the subject. ald’s son Theodebald; the mayoralty in Austrasia he gave to his CAROLINE WILHELMINA (1683-1737), wife of George son Drogo, and subsequently to Drogo’s children, Arnulf and II., king of Great Britain and Ireland, was a daughter of John Hugh. Charles Martel, however, a son of Pippin by a concubine Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (d. 1686). Born at Chalpaïda, seized the mayoralty in both kingdoms, and he it was Ansbach on March 1, 1683, the princess passed her youth mainly who continued the Carolingian dynasty. Charles Martel govat Dresden and Berlin, where she enjoyed the close friendship of erned from 714 to 741, and in 751 his son Pippin III. took the ' Sophia Charlotte, wife of Frederick I. of Prussia; she married title of king. The Carolingian dynasty reigned in France from George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, in Sept. 1705. The 751 to 987, when it was ousted by the Capetian dynasty. In early years of her married life were spent in Hanover. She took Germany descendants of Pippin reigned till the death of Louis the a continual interest in the approaching accession of the Hano- Child in 911; in Italy the Carolingians maintained their position verian dynasty to the British throne, was on very friendly terms until the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887. Charles, duke of with the old electress Sophia, and corresponded with Leibnitz, Lower Lorraine, who was thrown into prison by Hugh Capet in whose acquaintance she had made in Berlin. In Oct. 1714 Caroline 991, left two sons, the last male descendants of the Carolingians, followed her husband and her father-in-law, now King George I., Otto, who was also duke of Lower Lorraine and died without issue, to London. As princess of Wales she was accessible and popular, and Louis, who after the year 1000 vanishes from history. See P. A. F. Gérard and L. A. Warnkonig, Histoire des Carolingiens filling a difficult position with tact and success. In the quarrel (Brussels, 1862) ; H. E. Bonnell, Anfdnge des Karoling. Hauses (1866) ; between the prince of Wales and his father Caroline naturally J. F. Böhmer and E. Mühlbacher, Regesten d. Kaiserreichs unter took the part of her husband, and matters reached a climax in d. Karolingern (Innsbruck, 1889, seg.); E. Miihlbacher, Deutsche 1717. Driven from court, ostracized by the king, deprived even Gesch. unter d. Karolingern (Stuttgart, 1896); F. Lot, Les Derniers (C. PF.) of the custody of their children, the prince and princess took up Carolingiens (1891). their residence in London at Leicester House, and in the country CAROLUS-DURAN, the name adopted by the French at Richmond. They managed, however, to surround themselves painter, CHARLES AUGUSTE EMILE DURAND (1837—1917), who was with a distinguished circle; Caroline had a certain taste for litera- born at Lille on July 4, 1837, and died in Paris on Feb. 17, 1917. ture, and among their attendants and visitors were Lord Chester- He studied at the Lille Academy and then went to Paris, and in field, Pope, Gay, Lord Hervey and his wife, the beautiful Mary 1861 to Italy and Spain for further study, especially devoting Lepel. A formal reconciliation with George I. took place in 1720. himself to the pictures of Velasquez. His subject picture “MurIn Oct. 1727 George II. and his queen were crowned. During dered,” or “The Assassination” (1866), one of his first sucthe rest of her life Queen Caroline’s influence in English politics cesses, is now in the Lille museum; but he became best known was Chiefly exercised in support of Sir Robert Walpole; she kept afterwards as a portrait-painter and as the head of one of the this minister in power and in control of Church patronage. She principal ateliers in Paris, where some of the most brilliant artists was exceedingly tolerant, and the bishops appointed by her were of a later generation were his pupils. His “(Lady with the Glove” remarkable rather for learning than for orthodoxy. During the (1869), a portrait of his own wife, was bought for the Luxemking’s absences from England she was regent of the kingdom on bourg. In 1905 he was appointed director of the French academy four occasions, in 1729, 1732, 1735 and 1736-37. Caroline’s rela- at Rome in succession to Eugéne Guillaume. CARORA, an inland town of the State of Lara, Venezuela, on tions with her husband, to whom she bore eight children, were satisfactory. A clever and patient woman, she was very complai- the Carora, a branch of the Tocuyo river, about 45m. W. by S. of sant towards the king, flattering his vanity and acknowledging the city of Barquisimeto, and 1,128ft. above sea-level. Pop. his mistresses, and she retained her influence over him to the end. (1926), 11,200. The town is comparatively well-built and possesses a fine parish church, a Franciscan convent and hermitage. It She died on Nov. 20, 1737. Caroline appears in Scott’s Heart of Midlothian; see also Lord was founded in 1754, and its colonial history shows considerable Hervey, Memoirs of the Reign of George II., ed. by J. W. Croker prosperity, its population at that time numbering 9,000 to 10,000. (1884); W. H. Wilkins, Caroline the Illustrious (1904); and A. D. The neighbouring country is devoted principally to raising horses, Greenwood, Lives of the Hanoverian Queens of England, vol. i. (1909). mules and cattle; and in addition to hides and leather, it exports cofee, rubber and other forest products. CAROLINE ISLANDS: see Paciric Istanns.

CAROLINGIANS,

the name of a family (so called from

CAROTO

or CAROTTO,

GIOVANNI

FRANCESCO

Charlemagne, its most illustrious member) which gained the throne (c. 1480-1555), Italian painter of the Veronese school. He was of France A.D. 751. It appeared in history in 613, its origin being a pupil of Liberale and worked for some time, so Vasari says, traced to Arnulf (Arnoul), bishop of Metz, and Pippin, long called under Mantegna at Mantua. His later works betray the influence Pippin of Landen, but more correctly Pippin the Old or Pippin I. of Leonardo da Vinci, and of Raphael and the Roman school. In Albeit of illustrious descent, the genealogies which represent spite of plagiarisms, however, his art is essentially Veronese in Arnulf as an Aquitanian noble, and his family as connected—by colour, in the character of the figures and in the treatment of more or less complicated devices—with the saints honoured in landscape, in which he was something of an innovator, for he Aquitaine, are worthless, dating from the time of Louis the Pious seems to have loved trees and fields and flowing waters for their in the 9th century. Arnulf was one of the Austrasian nobles who own sakes, and not merely as a background to human interests. appealed to Clotaire II., king of Neustria, against Brunhilda, and Vasari says that Caroto, after having established a certain reputait was in reward for his services that he received from Clotaire tion at Verona, went to Milan in 1505, and was there engaged on the bishopric of Metz (613). Pippin, also an Austrasian noble, had work for Antonio M. Visconti. Between 1513 and 1518 he was taken a prominent part in the revolution of 6r3. These two men employed at Casale Monferrato. But the greater part of his life Clotaire took as his counsellors; and when he decided in 623 to was spent at Verona, where he decorated the churches with fresconfer the kingdom of Austrasia upon hbis son Dagobert, they were coes and painted altar-pieces and smaller pictures, some of which appointed mentors to the Austrasian king, Pippin, with the title are now in the Pinacoteca Communale. His early work recalls the style of his masters, Liberale and of mayor of the palace. Before receiving his bishopric, Arnulf had had a son Adalgiselus, afterwards called Anchis; Pippin’s daugh- Mantegna; “The Madonna in a Landscape with Lemon Trees,”

906

CARP—CARPATHIAN in the

the “Madonna”

dated rsor in the gallery at Modena;

Staedel at Frankfurt, and a “Madonna” in the Louvre at Paris. A fresco signed and dated 1508 of the “Annunciation” reveals Caroto as a follower of Leonardo, whose work he must have seen at Milan. Another Leonardesque picture is the fine “Madonna

and Child flanked by two Angels carrying Lilies,” at Dresden, received at that gallery with a forged signature of Leonardo until Morelli identified it as a work of Caroto. In his later work the

artist becomes Raphaelesque in his design. This is the case in the fine frescoes in the church of S. Eufemia at Verona, representing stories of the angel Raphael, and in the altarpiece painted for the same church, of which the central panel, with large figures of three archangels, is now in the Pinacoteca. Another masterpiece is the picture in S. Fermo Maggiore (1528) with the Virgin and St. Anne in the clouds and four saints standing beneath in a fine landscape. “The Raising of Lazarus” (1531) in the Palazzo

Arcivescovile and the St. Ursula (1535) in S. Giorgio in Braida, are among his last pictures. Outside Verona there are works by the master at Milan (Castello), Mantua (Chiesa Virgiliana), Florence (Offizi, Pitti), Fiesole (Villa Doccia), Modena, Bergamo, Paris, Dresden and Budapest. Caroto also decorated the facades of houses, and it is said that his work can still be seen on one of the houses on the Piazza Erbe. He modelled some medals of fine quality (medal for Bonifazio Palaelogo of Monferrato). GIOVANNI CaroTo (1488-1555?) the younger brother of Giov. Francesco, was an architect and painter. According to Vasari, who knew him personally, he was a pupil of Liberale. He published a book on the antiquities of Verona, with woodcuts after his own drawings. ` BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Vasari-Milanesi, Vite; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in North Italy, ti. (1912) ; Morelli, Italian Masters in German Galleries; Alethea Wiel, The Story of Verona (1910); J. P. Richter, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Old Masters in the Villa Doccia (1907) ; Luigi Simeoni, Verona (1910).

CARP, the typical fish of the family Cyprinidae of the order

Ostariophysi, in which the air-bladder is connected with the internal ear by a chain of ossicles. The Cyprinidae are scaly softrayed fishes with abdominal pelvic fins, with a toothless protractile mouth, and with falciform lower pharyngeal bones bearing a small number of teeth that bite against a horny plate attached to a process of the basal part of the skull. The form, number and arrangement of these teeth are of great importance in classification. About 1,500 species are known from the rivers and lakes of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, but there are no Cyprinidae in South America, in Madagascar, or in the Australian region (including Celebes). Most feed on weeds or on insects, RAN Ñan crustaceans, worms, etc. The Catostomidae (Suckers) of North America, the Cobitidae (Loaches) of Eurasia, and the Homalopteridae of southern Asia and China are related families. Other BY COURTESY OF N.Y. ZQOL. SQCY. CARP, INTRODUCED FROM Cyprinids than the Carp are de- COMMON ASIA INTO AMERICA AND EUROPE scribed under the headings BarBEL, BITTERLING, BLEAK, BREAM, CHUB, DACE, GOLDFISH, GUDGEON, Mawseer, Minnow, RoacH, Rupp, TENCH. The carp (Cyprinus carpio) is characterized by large scales, a long dorsal fin, and a mouth with four barbels. It is a native of eastern Asia, but has been introduced into Europe and North America. It inhabits lakes, ponds, and slow-running rivers, especially frequenting weedy places with a muddy bottom; it is mainly a vegetarian. It attains a weight of 25 Ib. in England, but is said to reach 100 lb. on the continent of Europe. In Germany varieties wholly or partly scaleless are bred and are esteemed for the table. The Crucian carp is smaller and without barbels; it inhabits Europe, Turkistan, Siberia and Mongolia. The goldfish is closely related to the Crucian carp; it is a native of China and Japan. Ta

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c. 1522), Italian painter, was born in Venice, of an old Venetian family. The facts of his life are obscure, but his principal works were executed between 149¢ and r5rọ; and he ranks as one of

MOUNTAINS

the finest precursors of the great Venetian masters. The date of his birth is conjectural. He is first mentioned in 1472 in a will of his uncle Fra Ilario, and Dr. Ludwig infers from this that he

was born c. 1455, on the ground that no one could enter into an inheritance under the age of fifteen; but consideration

of the

youthful style of his earliest dated pictures (St. Ursula” series, Venice, 1490) makes it improbable that at that time he had reached so mature an age as thirty-five; and he was more probably

about 25 in 1490. What is certain is that he was a pupil (not, as

sometimes thought, the master) of Lazzaro Bastiani, who, like the Bellini and Vivarini, was the head of a large atelier in Venice, and whose own work is seen in such pictures as the “S. Veneranda” at Vienna, and the “Doge Mocenigo kneeling before the Virgin”

and “Madonna and Child” (formerly attributed to Carpaccio) in the National Gallery, London. In later years Carpaccio appears to have been influenced by Cima da Conegliano (e.g. in the “Death of the Virgin,” at Ferrara). Apart from the “St. Ursula” series his scattered series of the “Life of the Virgin” and “Life of St. Stephen,” and a “Dead Christ” at Berlin, may be specially mentioned.

See Pompeo Molmenti and Gustav Ludwig, Life and Works of Vittorio Carpaccio, Eng. trans., R. H. Cust (1907); and Roger Fry, “A Genre Painter and his Critics,” in the Quarterly Review (April, 1908). +

CARPATHIAN

MOUNTAINS.

These form the eastern

wing of the central mountain axis of Europe, though they are not so impressive nor so widely known as the Alps. They begin near Bratislava and extend in a huge arc, concave towards the southwest to Orsova on the Danube with a total length and area nearly equal to that of the Alps, but with a much lower mean height and

a maximum

height

(Gerlsdorfspitze—8,737

ft.) of little more

than half that of the Alpine chain. They lack the rugged peaks, the extensive snowfields, the imposing glaciers, the high waterfalls and the numerous lakes characteristic of the Alps though allied to the latter in age and origin. The middle of the arc is marked by a significant decrease in width (from an average of 180 to 60 miles) and height and at this point a number of easy passes con-

nect the headwaters of the Dniester and the Tisza. Here fracture and subsidence have carried the Hungarian plain into the heart of the highlands and it is possible to use this as a convenient division of the system into the Northern and Southern Carpathians. Across this constricted zone have passed many human influences, notably that of the Magyars, from the southern plains of Eastern

Europe and Asia while through the passes here contact is made with the climatic and vegetational types of southern Russia. Ranges.—The Northern Carpathians present the appearance of a very broken mountain mass in which numerous detached blocks are separated by wide and shallow basins. The outer belt, known as the Beskid Mountains, extends from the river Morava to the sources of the river Visé and the Golden Bistritza, in the form of a dissected peneplain of Miocene age and is composed of Cretaceous and early Tertiary sandstones and shales, the so-called Carpathian Sandstone. The surface of this peneplain is dotted with settlements and cultivated tracts but upon it rise parallel lines of monadnock ridges whose steep slopes are heavily wooded, often to the summits though the highest reach several hundred feet above the tree-line and provide summer pastures for the stock of the plateau farms. Among these ridges the best known are the

White Carpathians (Javornik, 3,325 ft.), the Beskids proper (Smrk—4,395 ft., and Ossus—s,106 ft.), and the Arva Magura

group (Babia Gora—s,650 ft.); east of the river Poprad the ridges are generally lower and more forested with firs and beeches.

The inner belt of the Northern Carpathians has a very compli-

cated structure, of which overthrusts are the keynote, and still awaits detailed interpretation. It is seen in its most complex form between the Morava and the Hernad, where, against a core of old crystalline rocks, Carboniferous and older strata have been considerably crushed and folded. On the outer edge of this shat-

tered nucleus rest highly-disturbed Permian and Mesozoic beds but in the inner portion of the belt similar formations show little

disturbance. East of the Hernad river the crystalline complex is absent and the Permian and Mesozoic beds are little folded. The

CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE southern borderland of the Northern Carpathians is in the region of greatest disturbance where faulting and fracture are complicated by the occurrence

of extensive volcanic

outpourings of

Miocene and later date, whereby the folded character of the ranges is almost entirely obscured. This region has also participated in the subsidence that originated the Hungarian plain. Throughout this inner belt dissected massifs of varying heights alternate with broad, terraced depressions having a general east-west grain. The formation of these basins and the neighbouring peneplains appears to be closely connected with the periodic fluctuations of level associated with the formation of the Hungarian plain. The highest massif, the High Tatra (see Tatra Mountatns) has been strongly glaciated and closely resembles the Alpine ranges in its lakes, peaks, cirques and hanging valleys. South of this, the Fatra group and the Low Tatra (Djumbir—6,700 ft.) still show small cirques and minor traces of glaciation. Farther south the ranges decrease in height and continuity and, though still good pasture lands, are more important for their wealth of ores and the fertility of their volcanic soils. Thus the Slovakian Ore Mountains which include the Schemnitz, the Ostrowsky and other groups and the ZipsGömör Ore Mountains are rich in iron, copper and other metallic ores while the Matra, Bükk and Tokaj groups are famed for their scenery and vineyards. The structure of the Southern Carpathians is better known. Extending from the neighbourhood of the Jablonica Pass they widen rapidly to surround the Transylvanian Basin, the southern border of which is formed by the Transylvanian Alps, the most decided range of the whole system. In geological build they differ widely from the Northern Carpathians and only the outer flysch belt is common to both sections. Three subdivisions may be recognized, viz.:—the Moldavian Carpathians, the Transylvanian

Alps and the massifs that fringe the Transylvanian Basin. The Moldavian Carpathians appear to bear a physiographical resemblance to the Beskids in the occurrence of conglomerate relict ridges upon a sandstone peneplain. The Transylvanian Alps extending from Orsova to the Prahova river are broken up by youthful transverse streams above which rise mature flat-topped ridges belonging to three topographical cycles. Here the rocks are mainly schistose in type with small outcrops of Mesozoic strata. Folding, fracturing and overthrust are common and the mode of origin of the present scenery approximates to that of the Alps. Traces of past glaciation are frequent and though the average height is a little less than 6,000 ft. the highest ridges, e.g., the Fagaras, exceed 8,000 ft. The bordering mountains of the Transylvanian Basin are less well understood. Though lower they appear to be closely allied in rock composition and morphology to the Transylvanian Alps and this is especially true of the Bihar Mountains to the west.

They differ, however, In one important

907

Carpathians are peopled mainly by Slavs, pastoralists and foresters, with, however, a strong penetration of Magyars along the valleys opening southwards where topography, climate and a fertile loess soil favour the cultivation of wheat and vine. Commercial routes of continental importance avoid these highlands so that traffic is limited to local movements along the valleys, notably those of the Waag and Hernad; life is therefore very parochial in nature and outlook. Poor communications and lack of coal have restricted the development of the mineral wealth that exists while agriculture and even pastoral and forestry activities reflect in their backwardness the evils of isolation and the long domination of the Slav peoples and their interests by Magyars. Energetic efforts on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to attract tourists and winter sportsmen to the spas and mountains of Slovakia are breaking down the isolation and increasing the prosperity of the southern slopes of this division of the Carpathians. The Southern Carpathians, lying in Rumania, are settled mainly by Rumanians and have the advantage of being crossed by railways through several passes, viz.:—at the Iron Gates, the Vulcan Pass, the Roteturm Pass of the Oltu valley, the Predeal Pass, the Gyimes Pass and the Jablonica Pass. Further large minorities of Magyars and Germans, cattle breeders and mixed farmers, have contributed to the development of this region, particularly in its large loess-covered basins and in such mineral areas as that of the Bihar Mountains. The discovery of coal and petroleum, too, have stimulated human progress so that the lowlands are studded with flourishing farms and agricultural villages with occasional large towns engaged in manufactures of local importance. Contrasted with the large, solid Saxon and Magyar villages are the scattered, wooden homesteads of the Rumanian pastoralists. Sheep-rearing is the dominant form of pastoral industry and seasonal movement to high pastures is on a much more extensive scale than in the Northern Carpathians owing to the proximity of the Wallachian plains. So, too, a more genial climate raises the limit of human settlement here about 1,000 ft. higher than in the northern division (i.¢., to over 3,000 ft.). Though in the remote fastnesses of the Carpathians bears, wolves, lynxes and birds of prey still persist and peasant life clings to the dress and habits of past centuries these highlands have never offered a serious obstacle to human movement, which has been especially easy at the point where the great bow is nearly severed through the Lupkov, Uzsok and Verecze Passes, now crossed by railways. By these passes waves of invasion from Asia effected penetration, while during the World War crossings were made with little difficulty by both combatant groups. The spread of Rumanians into Transylvania is another proof of the weakness of the system as a barrier, while only between Czechoslovakia and Poland does it serve as a frontier. Its broad and fertile depressions have rather acted as nuclei for the development ‘of individual peoples and as refuges for the neighbouring plainsmen in times of strife. Little scientific knowledge of the Carpathians existed until the roth century when organized survey and mapping was undertaken by the Austrian army. Since then the formation of Carpathian societies in Hungary, Galicia and Transylvania has stimulated investigation while the studies of de Martonne have contributed much to our knowledge of the Southern Carpathians,

feature for volcanic masses and debris are widespread, more particularly in the Harghitei complex which forms the eastern boundary of the basin. Climate.—The climate is transitional from central to eastern European type but varies considerably according to altitude and exposure. The higher-lying ridges have raw winters, coldest on the eastern side where winds from the Russian plain are frequent; on the other hand these act as extraordinary heating influences in the summer, especially in the Bukovina district. The enclosed basins suffer great extremes, e.g., Sibiu 1,360 ft., Jan. 24° F, BrsriocGrarHy.—V. Uhlig., “Bau und Bild der Karpaten,” in Bau und July, 67° F. Precipitation varies from an average of 24 ins. in the Transylvanian Basin to 56 in. in parts of the Northern Car- Bild Osterreichs (Vienna, 1903); E. de Martonne, La Valechie (Paris, 1902); sur Pévolution morphologique des Alpes de Tranpathians. Summer is the wettest season when some 40% of the sylvanie Recherches (Karpates méridionales), Rev. de Géogr. Ann. v. i. (1906— total precipitation occurs while a smaller secondary maximum due ov); The Carpathians: Physiographic Features controlling Human to Mediterranean influences appears in October, Vegetation varies Geography, American Geogr. Rev., v. 3. 1917, and works cited under with these climatic conditions. The edges of the mountain zone heading “Karpaten” in Machatschek, Landerkunde von Mitteleuropa (Leipzig and Vienna, 1925). See also PoraANp, RUMANIA, RUTHENIA, fringing the plains are often treeless but oak and beech soon SLOVAKIA, TATRA and TRANSYLVANIA. (W. S. L.) appear, the latter dominating, to a height of about 4,000 ft., above CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE. Under this which fir and pine succeed to 6,000 ft. The loess-covered depresheading is recorded the fighting of the first four months of 1915 sions are generally treeless. Population.—The contrasts in structure between the Northern in the wooded Carpathians, from the Dukla pass, south of Jaslo, and Southern Carpathians are repeated in their human and eco- to the Rumanian border. The average height of the crest of the nomic conditions and for this there are three causes, viz:—dif- main ridge in this section of the range is between 2,500 and | ferences in accessibility, climate and ethnography. The Northern 3,000ft. The slopes are steep on the Galician side, gentler on the

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Hungarian side. The winter climate is extremely severe, the temperature being often many degrees below zero; snowstorms and blizzards are frequent. Why both sides chose these inhospitable highlands for a winter battle—for each side in turn attacked

mately as follows: The Russian III. Army

in great strength—invites some examination. Object of the Operations.—For Austro-Hungary the main motives were the relief of the fortress of Przemysl and the security of the threatened plains of Hungary. But Conrad von Hotzendorf, Chief of the Austrian General Staff, hoped for more; the attacks, if successful, would develop into a large scale offensive against the southern flank of the whole Russian battle line. On the Russian side, the Grand Duke Nicholas sought during this winter to secure his flanks as the necessary preliminary to a direct advance from the Polish salient aimed at the heart of Germany. The undisputed possession of the Carpathian passes, with freedom to debouch at will into the Hungarian plains below, would go far towards breaking the resistance of Austro-Hungary and so safeguarding the Russian southern flank. The grand duke trusted to the greater endurance of his men under winter conditions to give them the advantage over enemies bred in less rigorous climates. He forgot that the Russian is a plainsman, and that hill fighting requires a special aptitude and training. By the end of 1914 a continuous front had been established in the Carpathians only as far east as Baligrod. Thence to the Rumanian frontier the conditions were those of open warfare; detachments on either side attacked and defended points of strategic importance, but no solid battle line had been formed.

pass. Farther east, Webel’s Dniester group (second-line infantry divisions and Cossacks) had pushed up the slopes of the Eastern Carpathians, capturing the Uzsok and Wyszkow passes

Disposition of Troops.—The disposition of the opposing forces when the campaign opened in mid-January were approxi-

(Radko-Dimitriev)

extended from the Vistula, north-east of Cracow, by Tarnév to about Gorlice; on its left came Brusilov’s VIII. Army, which stretched from Gorlice to Baligrod and held the important Dukla

and overrunning the Bukovina. The XI. Army was besieging Przemysl. On the Austrian side, the IV. Army (Grand Duke Joseph Ferdinand) faced Radko-Dimitriev, and Boroevich’s III. Army was opposed to Brusilov. Farther east, Linsingen’s newly formed Southern German Army (four German and two Austrian divisions and two cavalry divisions) had assembled at Munkacs and was moving forward. Farther east still, beyond the Wyszkow pass, the group of Pflanzer-Baltin extended up to Dorna-Vatra on the Rumanian border.

Austrian Offensive.—The Austrian offensive, which opened

the campaign, was made by the right of Boroevich’s III. Army,

by Linsingen’s Southern Army and by Pflanzer-Baltin’s group. The offensive began on Jan. 23, 1915. The attack of the III. Army, after an initial success which carried it to the line of the Upper San, soon lost its impetus. The Russians retaliated with a counter-offensive which began on Jan. 26 against the left of Boroevich’s Army astride the Mez6é Laborcz railway; from now to the end of the battle the Russians maintained the initiative in this part of the field, to which both sides began to transfer forces from other sectors of the front. Linsingen’s Southern Army recaptured the Uzsok and Wyszkow passes and pushed slowly forward on Tuchla, but with the III. Army on its left fall-

CARPATHUS—CARPENTARIA ing back before the Russian

counter-attacks

could accomplish

little. Meanwhile, Pflanzer-Baltin, whose group had been reinforced in the last week of January by a fresh corps, drove the Russians out of the Bukovina with his right wing, while his left wing reached in succession Kolomea, Nadworna, and finally, on Feb. 20, Stanislau. He now purposed to wheel to the left, to come in on the flank and rear of the Russian forces facing Linsingen. This move was checked by the assembly to the north and west of Stanislau of Lechitski’s IX. Army, which had been transferred from the Russian front in Poland. Attempt to Relieve Przemysl.—During the first half of February the Austrians transferred the II. Army (Bohm-Ermolli) from the Polish to the Carpathian front, with the intention of making a last attempt to relieve Przemysl. By the end of February, when this II. Army was ready to advance, the situation of the Austrian forces in the Carpathians seemed critical, in spite

999

quires a degree of individual skill and of tactical leadership which neither side possessed. ° BistiocrapHy.—C. Monckeberg, Unter Linsingen in den Karpathen (1917) ; B. Gourko, Memories and Impressions of War and Revolution in Russia (1918); Sir A. Knox, With the Russian Army ror4-17 (x921); M. Schwarte, Der Grosse Krieg 1914-18 (1921, etc.); J. E. Edmonds, History of the Great War (1922, etc.) ; see also Wortp War: Bibliography.

(A. P. W.)

CARPATHUS: see Karpatuos.

CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE (1827-1875), French sculptor, the son of a mason, was born at Valenciennes, France, on May 11, 1827, and died at the Chateau de Bécon, near Courbevoie, on Oct. 12, 1875. In 1842 he went to Paris, and after working for two years in a drawing-school was admitted to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts on Sept. 9, 1854, where he was a pupil of Rude. The Grand Prix de Rome was awarded to his statue of “Hector bearing in his arms his son Astyanax.” At Rome he of their numerical superiority. The left of Boroevich’s III. Army was fascinated by Donatello, and yet more influenced by Michelhad almost reached breaking point under the continual pressure angelo, to whom he owes his feeling for vehement and passionof Brusilov’s forces, which had captured Mezé Laborcz and the ate action. In his last year in Rome he sent home a dramatic Lupkow pass; Linsingen’s Army held its ground, but could make group, “Ugolino and his Sons,” which made his reputation. It no headway; Pflanzer-Baltin’s Army was threatened by Lechitski’s was cast in bronze and erected in the garden of the Tuileries. concentration; and Przemysl was in sore straits. The offensive This work was a reaction against the prevailing pseudo-classicism. of the II. Army, if it was to restore the situation, required a Carpeaux received many important commissions from the imrapid and striking success. The principal offensive was made in perial family and others. He executed in 1869 one of the four the direction of Baligrod, astride the shortest road to Przemysl.` groups for the facade of the new opera house, this representing At no time did the attack meet with any great measure of success; “Dancing.” and by the middle of March it was stopped as hopeless, the See Ernest Chesneau, Carpeaux, sa vie et son oeuvre (1880); Paul Austrians being completely exhausted by the weather and their Foucart, Catalogue du Musée Carpeaux, Valenciennes (1882); Jules aa” J. Carpeaux (1882); Francois Bournand, J. B. Carpeaux heavy losses. The formations which had borne the brunt of the 1893). assaults had lost over 50% of their strength. Przemysl was now

abandoned to its fate. Meanwhile, during the first fortnight in March, Lechitski’s forces had driven Pflanzer-Baltin some 20m. back from Stanislau and had reached the line of the Prut in northern Bukovina. An opportune reinforcement enabled Pflanzer-Baltin to check the Russian advance. There was some further fighting; but little material change took place in this eastern portion of the battlefield up to the end of April. Russian Offensive.—On March 20 the Russians, now sure of the fortress of Przemysl (it actually fell on March 22) launched a final great offensive against the Austrian III. and II. Armies. The attack was made by the left wing of Radko-Dimitriev’s II. Army, which had been extended eastwards, and by Brusilov’s VIII. Army. For a month their effort lasted. Both the Austrian Armies were driven over the crest of the main ridge. But both managed to maintain their positions on the other side of it, though it was only the arrival of fresh German divisions (the Beskiden corps) which saved the III. Army from breaking. Linsingen’s Southern Army obstinately withstood all shocks and indeed made some ground forward. It held fast to the important Uzsok pass. By April 20 the Russians paused, breathless. They had appreciably enlarged their gains south of the Dukla pass, but their effort to break through the Austrian front had failed. Conclusions.—It is a little difficult to arrive at a just balance of profit and loss between the two antagonists in this long drawnout struggle. The Austrians seem to have attached undue importance to their fortress of Przemysl; their obstinate efforts to relieve it brought them to the verge of collapse and cost them heavier losses in men than did the eventual surrender of the garrison. The Russians, though they secured a “bridge-head” over the barrier of the Carpathians, did not succeed in forcing the obstacle, and squandered valuable resources in men and

munitions by their persistence.

The result showed in fact that both commanders had been ill-advised to embark on this winter battle. On the whole the consequences were more disastrous for the Russians, whose obsession with this Carpathian struggle induced them to withdraw two corps from the right wing of their III. Army, and was thus a direct cause of its crushing defeat by Mackensen at the beginning of May (see Dunajyec-San). No special lessons of tactics can be drawn from the fighting. The conditions of weather and

ground were against elaboration of manoeuvre.

Hill fighting re-

CARPENTARIA,

GULF OF, arelic, to all appearances,

of the inland sea which occupied much of east central Australia in Triassic and Jurassic times, though the Great Artesian Basin appears to have no extensive outlet in this direction and the portion from Cloncurry northwards to the coast may be a separate basin. The gulf occupies a depression in the north-north-east portion of the continental block and is c. 480 m. from north to

south and c. 420 m. (max.) from east to west. Except in the north-west, where the edges of the Arnhem Land plateau have sunk to form a drowned coast with numerous inlets and islands (groote Eylandt: c. 36 m. long, max. elev., 520 ft.), the gulf floor shelves up from shallow depths (average 30-40 fathoms) to form an unindented lowland fringe—perhaps a raised sea-floor—so to roo m. wide in the south-south-west and roo—150 m. in the south and east, with a few off-lying islands (Sir Edward Pellew Group; Wellesley islands). Behind the often dead-flat plains the land rises gradually to the Barkly Tableland (c. 1,000 ft.) in the south and to the highlands of Cape York Peninsula in the east. The plains—the “gulf country” proper—are largely floored with silts and muds washed down by the numerous rivers, some of which (Roper, McArthur, Flinders, Batavia) are fine streams navigable for varying distances inland. They have, however, markedly seasonal régimes: in summer wide areas are flooded and in winter the sea penetrates far up their courses. The soils, except in the alluvial flats and pockets, are perhaps poorer than would be expected and climatic conditions lead to grass-lands—Mitchell grass covers extensive areas—with occasional forest clumps, dense palm groves and mangrove belts near and along the coasts. The rivers abound in crocodiles and game and the gulf waters are said to afford good fishing. The climate is tropical (Mean ann. temp.: 85°-65°; average ann. rainfall 207-40”) and there are only two seasons—the wet (November to April) and the dry. The gulf country is at present, apart from mining in the Croydon area and a little alluvial gold-washing in the Batavia river, devoted entirely to pastoral farming. There are a good many blacks, but the scanty white population lives mainly in the inland cattle stations, in mission stations (¢.g., at some river-mouths) and at such settlements as Normanton (pop. c. 500), Burketown and Borroloola. Normanton, 23 m. up the Norman river, is the port for a large and rich pastoral area, as well as for the mining (gold and silver) field of Croydon, with which it is linked by a railway

(94m.). There is also a weekly air-service to Cloncurry (220 m.).

CARPENTER—CARPENTRAS

QIO

Proposals are entertained for constructing a port on one of the Sir Edward Pellew islands to serve, by°means of a railway, the valuable Barkly Tableland pastoral area.

CARPENTER,

EDWARD

(1844-1929), English author,

was born at Brighton on Aug. 29, 1844, the son of Charles Carpenter, a barrister who had begun life in the navy. Edward Carpenter received a conventional education at Brighton college and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated roth wrangler in 1868, and then became a fellow and lecturer of his college. He took holy orders and acted as curate in a Cambridge church, but the stirrings of revolt against the existing social and religious order were already at work in his mind, and he left Cambridge in 1874, having relinquished both his college appointments and holy orders. The revolutionary change which eventually led to a complete alteration in his conception of life was due to the reading in 1868 or 1869 of Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass and then of his Democratic Vistas. From that moment he felt, to use his own words, that “my life deep down was flowing out and away from the surroundings and traditions amid which I lived—a current of sympathy carrying it westward across the Atlantic.” A holiday in Italy and the revelation of the significance

of Greek art confirmed his desire for a life more in conformity with nature. But when he left Cambridge he was to spend some years in uncongenial surroundings in a series of dingy lodgings before he was able to fulfil his dream. He became a university extension lecturer, and in the course of his visits to the industrial towns of Yorkshire and the Midlands got into touch with working people and with some of the Socialist leaders. His early volumes of verse were still-born, but Towards Democracy (1883) and England’s Ideal and other papers on Social Subjects (1887) found many readers. In 1884 he visited the United States, spent some time with Whitman (see his Days with Walt Whitman, 1906), and met Lowell, Emerson, Charles Norton and others. Shortly afterwards he relinquished his lecturing to lead the simple life at Bradway, near Sheffield, occupying himself with marketgardening, handicrafts, and his literary work and Socialist propaganda. His Socialism was of the school of William Morris, and he was concerned with a revolution in industrial, social and family life rather than with political issues. The second great influence in his life was that of Havelock Ellis, and some of his later writings are concerned with the question of an “intermediate sex.” Although he was something of a recluse at Bradway and later in his Surrey home, many people belonging to “advanced” movements sought him out. Among his works are Love’s Coming

CARPENTER,

MARY

(1807-1877), educational and so-

cial reformer, was born on April 3, 1807, at Exeter, the daughter of Dr. Lant Carpenter. She was educated in her father’s school for boys, learning Latin, Greek and mathematics, and other

subjects at that time not generally taught to girls. In 1829 she and her sisters opened a school for girls at Bristol, but the life-

work of Mary Carpenter began with her activities in organizing, in 1835, a “Working and Visiting Society,” of which she was secretary for 20 years. In 1846 she started a school for poor children in Lewin’s

Mead

and a night-school for adults.

She

published a memoir of Dr. Joseph Tuckerman of Boston, and a series of articles on ragged schools, which appeared in the

Inquirer and were afterwards collected in book form. This was

followed in 1851 by Reformatory Schools for the Children of the Perishing and Dangerous Classes, and for Juvenile Offenders,

which advocated: (1) good free day-schools; (2) feeding indus-

trial schools; (3) reformatory schools. This book drew public attention to her work. She was consulted in the drafting of educational bills, and invited to give evidence before House of Commons committees. To test her theories, she herself started a reformatory school at Bristol, and in 1852 published Juvenile

Delinquents, their Condition and Treatment, which largely assisted the passing of the Juvenile Offenders Act (1854). Miss Carpenter now returned to her plea for free day-schools, contending that the ragged schools should receive a parliamentary grant. At the British Association meeting of 1860 she read a paper on this subject, and mainly owing to her instigation, a conference on ragged schools in relation to Government grants for education was held at Birmingham (1861). In 1866 Miss Carpenter made the first of her visits to India, and drew up a memorial to the governor-general dealing with female education, reformatory schools and the state of gaols. With the co-operation of native gentlemen, she established a model school for Hindu girls. At the meeting of the prison congress in 1872 she read a paper on “Women’s Work in the Reformation of Women Convicts.” Her work now began to attract attention abroad. Princess Alice of Hesse summoned her to Darmstadt to organize a women’s congress. Thence she went to Neuchatel to study the prison system of Dr. Guillaume, and in 1873 to America, where she was enthusiastically received. She died on June 14, 1877.

CARPENTER, a worker in wood. Carpenters are commonly

classified according to the work which they do, e.g., ships’ carpenters, rough carpenters (rough carpentry, an obsolescent phrase, of Age (1896); The Intermediate Sex (1908); The Drama of meaning the erection of the framework of a wooden house), cabiLove and Death (1912), and My Days and Dreams, an auto- net makers, etc. Wood-cutting machinists are more properly biography (1916). He died in England on June 28, 1929. classed as mill-sawyers. In the 18th century carpenters, being CARPENTER, JOHN ALDEN (1876), American still chiefly master carpenters or journeymen, worked by the composer, was born at Park Ridge (IIl.), on Feb. 28, 1876. He piece, but with the growth of general building firms master carwas educated at Harvard university, graduating in 1897, and penter piecework practically ceased. Carpenters are very. strongly joined his father in business in Chicago. Subsequently he studied organized both in the United States, in the United Brotherhood of music in Europe under Elgar, and in Chicago under Ziehn. His Carpenters, and in Great Britain, in the Amalgamated Society of compositions include Gitanjali, a song-cycle with words by Tagore Woodworkers, which has also powerful branches in the dominions, (1914); Adventures in a Perambulator and Concertino for orch- where the older name of Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and estra and piano (1915); a symphony (1917); The Birthday of the Joiners (A.S.C.J.) is often retained. (See BUILDING.) Infanta, a ballet pantomime, produced by the Chicago Opera ComCARPENTRAS, a town of south-eastern France, capital of pany, Dec. 23, 1919; Krazy-Kat, a ballet, produced Dec. 23, 1921; an arrondissement in the department of Vaucluse 16 m. N.E. of and Skyscrapers, a ballet produced at the Metropolitan Opera Avignon. Pop. (1926) 8,438. It lies in a hilly region bordering House, New York, Feb. 19, 1926, which was also given five times the wide valley of the lower Rhone. the following season. His published works also include a sonata Carpentras is identifed with Carpentoracte, a town of Gallia for violin and piano and a number of songs. As a composer of Narbonensis mentioned by Pliny. Its mediaeval history is full of modern tendencies he has displayed great skill in his handling of vicissitudes; it was captured and plundered by Vandal, Lombard the orchestra. and Saracen. In later times, as capital of the Comtat Venaissin, CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840), English Unitarian it was frequently the residence of the popes of Avignon, to whom minister, was born at Kidderminster on Sept. 2, 1780, the son of a that province belonged from 1228 till the Revolution. Carpentras carpet manufacturer. In 1805 he became a pastor of a church in was the seat of a bishopric from the sth century till 1805. The Exeter, removing in 1817 to Bristol. At both Bristol and Exeter highest part of the town is occupied by the church (and former he was also engaged in school work, among his Bristol pupils being cathedral) of St. Siffrein, a late Gothic building Harriet and James Martineau. Carpenter did much to broaden which preserves remains of a previous Romanesque (1405-1519) church. The the spirit of English Unitarianism. The rite of baptism seemed richly sculptured Flamboyant south porch is noteworthy. The to him a superstition, and he substituted for it a form of infant adjoining law-court, built in 1640 as the bishop’s palace, contains dedication. He was drowned on the night of April s, 1840. in its courtyard a small but well-preserved triumphal arch of the

QII

CARPENTRY Gallo-Roman period. The former palace of the papal legate dates from 1640. Of the 14th century fortifications the only survival is the Porte d’Orange, a gateway surmounted bya fine machicolated tower. Water is brought to the town by an aqueduct of fortyeight arches, completed in 1734. Carpentras is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance. Confectionery, honey, wax, fruit, preserved fruits, tin-ware and nails are produced, and there are silk-works and tanneries. There is trade in silk, wool, fruit, oil, etc. The irrigation-canal named after the town flows to the east.

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increased resiliency and immunity from the shading in made-up carpets, so noticeable with the first-named weave. Axminster manufacture consists of two processes, the pile yarn being arranged to form the design before it is put into the loom. The dyed yarn of the various colours for the design is first wound on to a 6in. bobbin. The yarn from this bobbin has then to be wound on to a series of wide spools, the number of which will be the number of the rows of tufts in one complete repeat of the design to be woven, while each spool contains as many ends of yarn as there are squares in the width of the design. This operation is called setting, or sometimes reeding-in. The 6in. bobbins are arranged on a frame on vertical or horizontal pegs in their various colours, corresponding to those of the first row of the design. The yarn is then wound off the bobbins on the 27in. spool, and when the spool is full the operation is repeated as often as is necessary

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FOR

AXMINSTER

LOOM

loom. The Jacquard mechanism causes the colour required for each square of the pattern to be lifted to a certain height. The grippers, mounted on a shaft, are operated so as to seize the ends of the tufts, which are then cut off and inserted at the fell of the

cloth between the chain warp threads, where they are tied down by weft shots. Chenille Carpets.—Chenille Axminster carpeting possesses features which differentiate it from the other kinds of carpets. Like Orientals, it can be woven to any width, up to 33ft., any

reasonable length, any shape, and of any design or number of

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CARTAGENA Next day Scipio encircled the city with ships, throwing a constant stream of missiles, and about the third hour—the Roman day began at sunrise—sent forward along the isthmus 2,000 picked

men with ladder bearers, for its narrowness prevented a stronger force being deployed. Appreciating the handicap of their cramped position if counter-attacked by the yet unshaken defenders, he astutely designed to turn this handicap to his own advantage. The expected sortie came as soon as Scipio sounded the bugle for assault, and a close-matched struggle ensued. “But as the assistance sent to either side was not equal, the Carthaginians arriving through a single gate and from a longer distance, the Romans from close by and from several points, the battle for this reason was an unequal one. For Scipio had purposely posted his men close to the camp itself in order to entice the enemy as far out as possible’——Livy says the Roman advanced troops retired, according to orders, on the reserves—‘‘well knowing that if he destroyed those who were, so to speak, the steel edge of the population he would cause universal dejection, and none of those inside would venture out of the gate” (Polybius). The Carthaginian sortie was driven back, the pursuit being pressed so promptly that the Romans nearly succeeded in forcing an entrance on the heels of the fugitives. Even as it was, the scaling-ladders were put up in full security, but the great height of the walls hampered the escaladers, and the assault was beaten off. Polybius gives a picture of the Roman commander during this phase which reveals how he combined personal influence and control with the duty of avoiding rash exposure: “Scipio took part in the battle, but studied his safety as far as possible, for he had with him three men carrying

large shields, who, holding these close, covered the surface exposed to the wall, and thus afforded him protection.” “... thus he could both see what was going on, and being seen by all his men he inspired the combatants with great spirit.” Scipio had achieved his first object of wearing down the defenders and checking the likelihood of further interference with his plans from Carthaginian sorties. The way was thus paved for his next and decisive move. While at Tarraco, from enquiries among fishermen who knew Cartagena, he had learnt that at certain times the lagoon was fordable. For this project he assembled 500 men with ladders on the shore of the lagoon, and meanwhile reinforced his contingent in the isthmus with both men and ladders, enough to ensure that in the next direct assault “the

whole extent of the walls should be covered with escaladers”—an early example of the modern tactical axiom that a “fixing” attack should be on the broadest possible front in order to occupy the enemy’s attention. He launched this assault simultaneously with a landing aitack by the fleet, and when it was at its height “the water gradually receded from the edge of the lagoon, a strong and deep current setting in through the channel to the adjoining sea, so that to those who were not prepared for the sight the thing appeared incredible. But Scipio had his guides ready, and bade all the men told off for this service enter the water and have no fear. He possessed a particular talent for inspiring confidence and sympathy in his troops when he called upon them. “Now when they obeyed and raced through the shallow water, it struck the whole army that it was the work of some god . . . and theircourage was redoubled” (Polybius). Of this episode Livy says: “Scipio, crediting this discovery, due to his own diligence and penetration, to the gods and to miracle . . . ordered them to follow Neptune as their guide”; but it is interesting to see that, while exploiting the moral effect of this idea, he made practical useof lessdivineguides. The 500 passed without difficulty through the lagoon, reached the wall, and mounted it without opposition, because all the defenders “were engaged in bringing succour to that quarter in which the danger appeared.” “The Romans having once taken the wall, at first marched along it, sweeping the enemy off it.” They were clearly imbued with the principle that a penetration must be promptly widened before it is deepened. Next they converged on the landward gate, already assailed in front, and, taking the defenders in rear and by surprise, overpowered the resistance and opened the way for the main body of the attackers. The walls thus captured, Scipio at once exploited his success. For while the mass of those who had by now scaled the walls set about the cus-

937

tomary massacre of the townsmen, Scipio took care to keep in regular formation those who entered by the gate, and led them against the citadel. Here Mago, once he “saw that the city had undoubtedly been captured,” surrendered. Leaving New Carthage strongly garrisoned, Scipio himself fell back on Tarraco, allowing the moral influence of his success to sink into the minds of the Spanish and thus gain their support before taking the offensive anew. For ancient authorities see Polybius x. 2-20; Livy xxvi. 42. Modern Works: B. H. Liddell Hart, A Greater than Napoleon— Scipio Africanus (1926) ; Kromayer Veith, Schlachtenatlas (1922) for topography.

CARTAGENA, acity, seaport, and the capital of the department of Bolivar, Colombia, South America, on the Caribbean coast. Pop. (1905, official estimate) 14,000; (1918) 51,382. The population of Cartagena is largely composed of blacks and mulattos, which form the predominant type on the lowland plains of northern Colombia.

The well-to-do whites of Cartagena usually

have country houses on the Turbaco hills, where the temperature is much lower than on the coast. The mean annual temperature in the city is 82°, and the port is classed as very unhealthy, especially for unacclimatized foreigners. The harbour is formed by an indentation of the coast-line shut in by two long islands lying parallel to the mainland. There were formerly two entrances to the harbour—the Boca Grande (large mouth) between the low sandy island or peninsula on which the city stands and the island of Tierra Bomba, and the Boca Chica (small mouth) at the south end of the latter island. The Boca Grande was filled with stone after the city had been captured three times, because of the ease with which an enemy’s ships could pass through it at any time, and the narrow and more easily defended Boca Chica, 7m. farther south, has since been used. The city occupies a part of the upper island or peninsula facing the northern end of the harbour, and is separated from the mainland on the east by a shallow lagoon-like ‘extension of the bay which is bridged by a causeway passing through the extra-mural suburb of Xiximani on another island. The old city, about $m. long, north and south, and 4m. wide, is enclosed by a heavy wall, in places 4oft. thick, and is defended by several formidable looking forts, which have long been dismantled, but are still in a good state of preservation. At the mainland end of the causeway leading from the city is the fort of San Felipe, about rooft. above sea-level, adapted as a distributing reservoir in the city’s waterworks; and behind it are verdure covered hills rising to an elevation of sooft., forming a picturesque background to the grey walls and red-tiled roofs of the city. The streets are narrow, irregular and roughly paved, but are lighted by electricity; tramway lines run between the principal points of the city and suburbs. The houses are built with thick walls of stone and brick round open courts, in the Moorish style, and their iron-barred doors and windows give them the appearance of being a part of the fortifications. Among the numerous churches, the largest and most imposing Is the Jesuit church of San Juan de Dios, with its double towers and celebrated marble pulpit; an old monastery adjoins. Cartagena is an episcopal see, and its cathedral dates from colonial times. The city was once the headquarters of the Inquisition in South America, and the edifice which it occupied, now private property, is an object of much interest. The water-supply of the city was formerly obtained from rainwater tanks on the walls or by carriage from springs a few miles inland, but in 1906 a British company received a concession to bring water by pipes from springs on the Turbaco hills, 300ft. above the sea. The commercial importance of Cartagena declined greatly during the period of civil disorders which followed the war for independence, but in later years has revived. In the reign of Philip IT. the Spaniards had opened a canal (“El Dique”) through some marshes and lagoons into a small western outlet of the Magdalena, which gave access to that river at Calamar, about 81m. above the bar at its mouth. During Cartagena’s decline this was allowed to fill up; it was reopened in 1846 for a short time and then was obstructed again by river floods, but it is being reopened for steam navigation. Towards the end of the roth century a railway, 65m.

938

CARTAGO—CARTEL

long, was built between Cartagena and Calamar. With the development of oil exploitation in the Middle Magdalena basin pipe-lines have been laid to Cartagena and oil is being refined and shipped in considerable quantities. The exports of Cartagena consist chiefly of rubber, hides and skins, medicinal forest products, gold, silver and platinum. The aggregate value of the exports in 1925 was $11,931,282. Cartagena was founded in 1533 by Pedro de Heredia. In 1544 it was captured by pirates, who plundered the town; in 1585 by Sir Francis Drake, who exacted a large ransom; and in 1697 by the French, who obtained from it more than £1,000,000. It was taken by Bolivar in 1815, but was surrendered to the royalists In the same year. It was recaptured by the republicans on Sept. 25, 1821, and thereafter remained in their possession.

CARTAGO, the second city of Costa Rica, Central America,

ram. E. of San José on the main line of the Costa Rica railway at an altitude of 4,930ft. above sea-level. The population in 1925 was 37,275. Cartago lies on the plateau of San José at the base of the Irazti volcano (11,200ft.) and is the first city reached by the traveller after leaving the Caribbean coast at Port Limon, g2m. to the east. The climate is subtropical; the temperature averages about 68°. The town is in the heart of the coffee region

dying on April 3, 1901, but the operations of the touring companies which he had founded continued to be carried on with success by his widow, Mrs. Stanley Carr Boulter.

CARTE,

THOMAS

(1686-1754),

born at Dusmoon, near Clifton.

English historian, was

He was secretary to Atterbury,

and spent some time in exile after Atterbury’s

disgrace.

His

General History of England (4 vols. 1747, 1750, 1752 and 1755)

has some value as a storehouse of facts. He also published A Life of James, duke of Ormond, containing a collection of letters, etc. (3 vols. 1735-36; new ed., in 6 vols., Oxford, 1851), and a History of the Revolutions of Portugal, with letters of Sir R. Southwell during his embassy there (London, 1740). His papers became the

property of the university of Oxford, and were deposited in the Bodleian library.

CARTEL

or KARTEL,

a form of combination among

manufacturers, by which the independent firms and establishments in a particular trade or process contract to regulate their output and, in certain cases, their prices. During the last decade before the World War, in Germany and

in other countries cartels were gaining great importance. They were by no means confined to the so-called heavy industries,

which are most suited for the formation of cartels owing to their large scale; industries with smaller units, especially the textile It has been visited by various earthquakes and almost destroyed industries, were also increasingly organized in such groups. ,The a number times, the last disturbance in 1920 being accompanied increasing formation of cartels in merchanting, partly under the by fire. In 1723 water in the crater of Irazu was loosed on the influence of the great industrial cartels, may also be mentioned. During the World War the Government of the German Reich city by an earthquake and in 1841 a severe earthquake destroyed many of the oldest buildings. The ancient churches are still in made use of cartels for supplying the enormous requirements of the army. As the output capacity of the individual undertakings existence, however, and some of the older government buildings. was known, it was possible to allocate orders amongst them in a in Coronado de Vazquez Spaniard the by founded The town was 1522, the present name dating from 1563. It was the capital of satisfactory way. It is true that the sudden demand, even apart Costa Rica until 1823 when the seat of the government was trans- from the scarcity of raw materials, which soon set in, necessitated ferred to San José. The town lies on the main highway to the the grant of higher profits, but the price increases were often Caribbean coast, not always passable by automobiles, but one much higher where application had to be made to individual firms. Many cartels, especially the so-called contracts cartels, were of the oldest highways in Central America, and it is also on the main line of the Costa Rica railway which was built to Cartago formed during the war for the exploitation of urgent army refrom San José in 1871. Famous hot mineral springs are situated quirements, and, later, associations of traders were formed to in Bella Vista, a suburb of Cartago. The chief industry is coffee exploit the increasing scarcity of goods; but the great and well growing in the volcanic soil, the type of land in which the most known cartels were moderate in their price-fixing. The fixing by the State of maximum prices was not so often necessary in their famous of the Central American coffees are cultivated. and was, in any case, more easily effected. Nevertheless the CARTE, RICHARD D’°OYLY (1844-1901), English im- case, Government soon found themselves compelled to intervene in the presario, was born in Soho, London, on May 3, 1844, the son of cartel system, because many cartels failed to show proper consida flautist, who was a partner in the firm of Rudall, Carte and Co., instrument makers. Young Carte matriculated at University eration to consumers. The textile cartels, in particular, were comcollege, London, in 1861, and then entered his father’s business, pelled to reduce prices to the consumer. State Interference.—But State interference with the cartels using his spare time for the composition of operettas. In 1870 he set up in business for himself as a concert and lecture agent, went further, as a rule, in the form of maintaining existing cartels and soon had many famous names on his list. His first important or of compulsory amalgamation. It was recognized that dissolutheatrical venture was the production of Gilbert and Sullivan’s tion of the cartels and return to unregulated competition was ecoTrial by Jury (March 25, 1875). He then formed a small syndi- nomically undesirable, and would render impossible the economic cate to rent the Opéra Comique for the production of other utilization of raw material and labour. Following the precedent Gilbert and Sullivan operas. The enterprise was a huge success. created in the case of the potash syndicate, which in 1910 was After the production of H. M. S. Pinafore (1878) the syndicate compulsorily reconstituted in order to prevent its collapse, the was dissolved, and Carte, Gilbert and Sullivan conducted the German Governments have created compulsory syndicates, espeenterprise as partners, Carte being manager of the theatre. Carte cially in mining. Under the threat of such action the Rhenishthen built a permanent home for light opera in the Savoy Theatre, Westphalian coal syndicate was reconstituted just before the conwhere for many years the Gilbert and Sullivan operas enjoyed tracts expired. The State justly feared that if this great organizaunlimited popularity, making the fortunes of all concerned. For tion fell to pieces the maintenance of a regular supply to the the subsequent course and eventual termination of the partner- consumers and a uniform control, both of export and of internal ship see the articles GILBERT and SurLvan. The last work consumption, would not be possible. The industrialists have, for the most part, not been opposed to which they wrote together was The Grand Duke (1896). After that date Carte relied partly on revivals, and on new combina- such compulsory cartels, because the accompanying rationing of tions of authors and composers. At the same time he organized production, raw materials and marketing also facilitated future touring companies which performed the Savoy works all over monopolistic combination. Herein, however, lies the danger of the country. A less successful venture on his part was the build- these methods, which the State endeavours to counter by granting ing of what was called in the first instance the English Opera the consumer and also the workers certain rights in these organiHouse, with the object of establishing grand opera on a permanent zations, and by consulting with their representatives. The power of the State in relation to industry, which had grown basis in London. For the undertaking, after making a promising start with Sullivan’s Ivanhoe (Jan. 31, 1891), followed by an extraordinarily during the war, was still further strengthened in English version of Messager’s La Basoche, proved a failure, and Germany when the Socialists came into power after the collapse Carte sold the house to Augustus Harris who turned it into the in 1918, and demanded the socialization of these industries. In Palace Theatre. Carte did not long survive his friend Sullivan, practice, however, the existing compulsory syndicates for potash, of Costa Rica and is one of the oldest cities in Central America.

CARTEL coal and iron were merely further extended, and far-reaching

powers for the regulation of prices were given to the Federal coal council and the Federal potash council, on which workers and consumers were represented. In the iron and steel federation

(Eisenwirtschaftsbund) State, intervention was not carried so far. On the other hand, in the electrical industry, where the so-called “mixed undertakings” (whose capital was raised jointly by public and private bodies) had played a great rôle in the production and delivery of power over large areas before the war, the attempt

was made to increase the influence of the Reich and of its constituent states.

TRUSTS IN GERMANY Even before the World War cartels were far from the only form of combination of several undertakings. After the strong cartels in coal-mining had come into being, it was more advantageous for the large iron and steel works to possess their own coal-mines. The so-called “pure” rolling-mills, which had to buy their raw material from the combined steel works, which were also their

competitors in the sale of the manufactured products, were likewise at a disadvantage. Thus the association of raw material producing and manufacturing concerns in a single undertaking became increasingly common. Great combined undertakings arose, above all in the mining industry and in the electrical and other metal industries, which extended far into the finishing industries. The term “trust” made its appearance; but real trusts—the amalgamation of a whole industry into a single monopolistic undertaking——these were not. Such trusts only arose in a few specialized industries: in the dynamite trade, and also in regard to the amal-

gamation of all German rice-mills in a holding company, and in the accumulator industry. With the increase in the number of joint-stock companies in many industries, the tendency to fusion, and still more to the acquisition of participations in other industries, was very active. In banking, the linking of provincial banks to the great Berlin banks had been going on for a long time. Participation and the formation of subsidiary companies was most extensive in the electro-technical industry and in large constructional undertakings. A substitute for cartels is provided in a smaller category of undertakings by the Interessengemeinschaften. These consist chiefly in a pooling of profits to secure an equalization and distribution of risk; they are mostly formed for long periods, and practically exclude competition between those concerned. As a rule there is also an interchange of directors and members of control boards (Aufsichtsrdte), and often participation by the acquisition of shares. After the crisis of 1900 the first important Interessengemeinschaft was the agreement concluded in 1902 for 20 years between the two largest German shipping companies and the International Mercantile Marine Company, which ended at the outbreak of the war. The Chemical Industry.—Of still greater importance were the two great Interessengemeinschaften formed in 1904 in the chemical industry. The first, between the Höchster Farbwerke and the firm of Cassella & Co., took the form of an exchange of shares, the second, between the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, the Elberfelder Farbenfabriken and the Berliner A.G. fiir Anilin-

Fabrikation, took the form of pooling profits in the proportion of 43 :43 : 14. In 1916 these groups combined to make common cause against the fierce foreign competition expected after the war, and two other large factories also came into the combine.

CARTELS AFTER THE WAR In the post-war period, with its economic insecurity and its colossal inflation, financial forms of organization became more prominent, while the cartels lost for the time being in importance. With the shortage of goods and the apparent prosperity due to inflation, high prices could be obtained without cartels. These played a larger rôle in local industry and trade, where it was important to make prompt adjustments to the daily. price increases.

In large-scale industries, however, certain traders and speculators took advantage of the opportunity of buying up whole groups of undertakings with cheap credits. There arose the great vertical combines (Konzerne), such as had already existed in the electrical

939

and mining industries, whose scope was now greatly extended, By the dissociation of the Lorraine and Luxembourg works many of the greatest undertakings had lost their economic basis, and had to be completely reconstructed. Thus Hugo Stinnes created in the Siemens-Rhine-Elbe-Schuckert Union a close Juteressengemeinschaft of three great mining undertakings with the electro-technical Siemens-Schuckert-Konzern. At the same time he built up a great private combine with a number of very distinct undertakings. Other mining combines also, such as the Phönix, Klöckner, Lothringen, etc., were further extended. In the potash, cotton and cement industries great vertical combines were also created. The penetration of wholesale trade, which had made very large profits during the war, into industry is worthy of note; often even very large undertakings suddenly came into the hands of a large trader or speculator. In many cases undertakings were thus grouped together which stood in no organic relation to one another, and which were only kept united by the financial transactions of the founders. In 1926 about 75% of the German coal output, 75% of the coke output, and about 79% of the steel output was produced in the great vertical combines of the mining industry. . With the stabilization of the mark in 1924 and the great scarcity of capital consequent on the destruction of all liquid capital, many of these artificial combines broke down, with great losses for those concerned.

On the other hand the shortage of

capital and the unfavourable economic outlook demanded a great reduction of costs and the most efficient technical and commercial organization. Thus many new amalgamations came into being, mostly in the more rational form of a complete fusion. The seven chemical firms already mentioned as being associated in an Interessengemeinschaft were absorbed by the oldest and largest of them, the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, which increased its capital for this purpose from 176,000,000 marks to 646,000,000 marks, and took the name of Interessengemeinschaft Farben-In-

dustrie A.G. In 1926 the capital was raised to 1.1 milliards marks, and the great explosives ring of the Céln-Kottweil A.G. and Dina-

mit Nobel A.G. were taken into it, through which the I.G. dyestuffs industry came into yet closer relation with the artificial silk industry. There are also relations existing with other German and English artificial silk producers, with the Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., with the two great oil rings (through the German Gasolin Gesellschaft) and with many more German and foreign chemical enterprises. This group had already a monopoly position in many products, so that here we may speak of a real trust.

An equally great concentration of capital is found in the union of several of the greatest vertical combines of the Rhine-Westphalian iron and steel industry, namely, the Phénix A.G., the Thyssen undertakings, the combine of the Gelsenkirchen and German-Luxembourg Mining Company, to which the Bochum Cast Steel Union also belongs, and of the Rheinische Stahlwerke. These transferred their production plants to the newly founded Vereinigten Stahlwerke A.G. (capital 800 million marks common shares, and 125 millions preference shares). They themselves remained in existence, however, as holding companies. The construction is here somewhat different from that of the great chemical industry

Although other large steelworks have been acquired

(Stinnes

Trust), the Vereinigten Stahlwerke (United Steelworks) have no monopolistic position, Their share in the various federations amounts only to 22~53%. In Upper Silesia and Central Germany also there have come about great fusions of steelworks. In other industries, the striving for the greatest possible cheapening of costs of production makes fusion very prevalent. Many great fusions are to be found in the linoleum industry, in jute, cement, and mill construction, and in the watch, clock and photographic industries. In spite of thẹse great amalgamations, the number of cartels has not become less; the desire of employers to restrict competition was further increased by the severe economic crisis. The saying that cartels are children of necessity holds good. The Cartel Court.—For a long time a cartel act was demanded in Germany. In July, 1922 a cartel advisory committee was formed, including members of the Reichstag, the Reichsrat and the

940

CARTER— CARTERET

Federal Economic Council. On Nov. 2, 1923, the Government issued an “order against the misuse of monopoly power.” A cartel court was erected which can be set in motion by the Government as well as by the contracting parties. The chief provisions are as follows: Section 1: “Contracts and regulations which lay down obligations in regard to production and marketing, conditions of business, the nature of price fixing or price lists (syndicates, cartels, conventions and similar agreements) must be made in writing.” Verbal contracts and the like are invalid. Section 4 is the most important: “If a contract or regulation of the type described in Section 1 . . . endangers the economic system as a whole or the well-being of the community, the Federal minister of economics can (1) appeal to the cartel court to declare the contract or regulation to be invalid ... (2) decree that all parties to the contract or regulation can at any time cancel the contract or withdraw from the regulations, (3) demand the submission of copies of all agreements. The welfare of the community is to be regarded as endangered when production or marketing are restricted in an economically unjustified manner, when. prices are raised or kept high, or when price increases are made to cover the risk of currency depreciation, or when economic freedom is inequitably restricted by embargoes on purchase or sale or by discriminating prices or conditions.” These provisions are only permissive, since power is merely given to the Federal minister of economics under certain circumstances to apply for a declaration rendering the contract null and void. Section 8 goes much further. It runs: “Contracts or regulations of the type described in Section 1 can be cancelled without notice where an important reason exists.” An important reason is always to be held to exist if the economic freedom of the cancelling party is inequitably restricted in regard to production, marketing or the determination of prices. Section 9 runs: “Guarantees may not be demanded, nor embargoes or similar prejudicial measures be imposed, in virtue of contracts and regulations of the type described in Section 1, without the consent of the chairman of the cartel court. Those concerned can appeal within a week of the decision to the cartel court.” Hitherto Sections 8 and 9, which are directed against the socalled exclusive contracts (obligations to trade exclusively with members of the cartel, boycotts, embargoes on delivery and the like) have been mainly enforced. But in the summer of 1925 the Government resolved, in connection with its endeavours to bring about a fall in prices, to proceed more energetically against the cartels, and a number of them have been dissolved, while others have been compelled to alter their trading conditions. (See TRUSTS; COMBINES.) BiIBLIOGRAPHY.—-S. Tschierschky, Zur Reform der Industriekartelle (1921); Das Problem der Staatlichen Kartellaufsicht (Mannheim, 1923); H. v. Beckerath, Kräfte, Ziele, und Gestaltungen in der deutschen Industriewirtschaft (2nd ed., Jena, 1924); R. Liefmann, Kartelle, Konzerne und Trusts (7th ed., Stuttgart, 1927); also in French, Swedish, Dutch, Russian and Japanese trans.; LehnichFischer, Hausmann-Hollander und Tschierschky-Isay, Kommentare zur Kartellverordnung. See also Kartellrundschau (1903, ff.) ; Sammlung der Entscheidungen und Gutachten des Kartellgerichts herausgegeben von der Kartellstelle des Reichsverbandes der deutschen Industrie; also the Berichte (Reports) that are issued by the same institution. (R

CARTER,

ELIZABETH

(1717-1806), English poet and

translator, daughter of the Rev. Nicholas Carter, was born at Deal, Kent, on’ Dec. 16, 1717. Dr. Carter educated his children, boys and girls, alike; but Elizabeth’s slowness tired his patience, and it was only by great perseverance and hard work that she acquired her learning. She learned Greek and Latin, and Dr. Johnson said concerning a celebrated scholar that he “understood Greek better than any one whom he had ever known except Elizabeth Carter.” She learned also Hebrew, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic, besides studying astronomy, ancient geography, and ancient and modern history; and yet Jobnson commended her housewifery no less than her learning. In 1734 some of her verses, signed “Eliza,” appeared in the Gentleman’s Magazine, to which she contributed for many years. In 1738 Cave published her Poems upon Particular Occasions; in

1739 she translated

Algarotti’s Newtonianismo

per le Dame,

as Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy explained for the use of the Ladies, in six Dialogues on Light and Colour. Her translation of

Epictetus (1758) was undertaken in 1749 to please her friends, Thomas Secker (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury) and his niece, Catherine Talbot, to whom the translation was sent, sheet by sheet, as it was done. In 1762 Miss Carter printed a second collection of Poems on Several Occasions. She died in Clarges

street, Piccadilly, on Feb. 19, 1806. Her Memoirs were published in 1807; her correspondence with Miss Talbot and Mrs. Vesey in 1809; and her letters to Mrs. Montagu in

1817. See also A Woman of Wit and Wisdom (1906), a biography by

Alice C. C. Gaussen.

CARTER, HOWARD (1873), Egyptologist, was born in Norfolk, and educated privately. After receiving special training in archaeological surveying under Professor Flinders Petrie and others, Carter joined the staff of the Egyptian Exploration Fund in 1890 and engaged in excavations on their behalf until

1899. Later he became inspector-general under the Antiquities Department of the Egyptian Government and found the tomb of King Mentuhetep. Subsequently, when working in collaboration with the earl of Carnarvon (d. 1923), Carter discovered many tombs, among them that of Tutankhamun, during the years 1907—23. He has given an account of his discoveries in The Tomb of Tut-ankh-Amen, The Tomb of Thothmes IV., and in contributions to various archaeological journals.

CARTERET, SIR GEORGE

(c. 1610~1680), English poli-

tician, born between 1609 and 1617, on the island of Jersey, was the son of Helier de Carteret of St. Quen. In 1639 he was made comptroller of the English navy, and during the Civil War was active on the king’s side. Succeeding his uncle, Sir Philip Carteret, as bailiff of Jersey in 1643, he was appointed lieutenantgovernor of the island in the same year. After subduing the Parliamentary party in the island, he was commissioned (1644) a vice-admiral of Jersey, and as such carried on an active privateering campaign in the Royalist cause. Under his rule Jersey was a refuge for Royalists, among them Prince Charles (1646 and 1649-50), who created Carteret a knight and baronet. Parliament branded him as a pirate and excluded him from any future amnesty. In 1651 Carteret, after a seven weeks’ siege, surrendered Jersey to a Parliamentary force, and, joining the Royalist exiles in France, for a time held a command in the French navy. He returned to England at the Restoration, became a privy councillor, sat in parliament for Portsmouth, and served as vicechamberlain of the royal household. From 1661 to 1667 he was treasurer of the navy, but was censured by parliament for his lax method of keeping accounts. In 1667 he became a deputy treasurer for Ireland, and was later appointed a commissioner of the Admiralty and a member of the committee of trade and plantations. Carteret was one of the eight to whom Charles ITI. granted the country of the Carolinas by the charters of 1663 and 1665, while in 1664 James, duke of York, granted his American territory between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Carteret and to

John, Lord Berkeley; this tract was called New Jersey in Carteret’s honour. In 1674 Lord Berkeley disposed of his share of the grant, which finally fell under the control of William Penn and his associates. With them Carteret agreed (1676) upon a

division of the colony into East and West Jersey. He died in

Jan. 1680, and two years later his heirs disposed of his New Jersey holdings to Penn and other Quakers. sir George Carteret married Elizabeth George Carteret, daughter of his uncle, Sir Philip Carteret. George, son of his eldest son Philip, was created Baron Carteret of Hawnes in 1681.

CARTERET, a borough of Middlesex county, New Jersey,

U.S.A., 5 m. S. of Elizabeth; served by the Central railroad of

New Jersey. Pop. (1920) 11,047 (46% foreign-born white, the majority from Austria and Hungary); 1930, Federal census, 13,339. It has important industries, notably the refining of metals

and the manufacture of iron, steel, fertilizer and chemicals. teret was founded

(under the name

Car-

of Roosevelt, later changed

in honour of Philip Carteret, the first governor of the colony) in 1906 and incorporated in 1907.

CARTERSVILLE—CARTESIANS CARTERSVILLE,

941

a city of Georgia, U.S.A., 45m. north-

prediction seems to have been fully borne out in the unhappy and persecuted life of his follower, Geulincx, who completed the Cartesian system with an important treatise on Ethics. Minor Cartesians.—The new Rationalistic philosophy speedily became a subject of admiration for the best scholars of the time, and a ground of persecution for its ecclesiastical detractors. Descartes himself stood aloof from the mélée of enthusiasm and vituperation so far as was humanly possible. Regius (Henry le Roy) had introduced Cartesian physiology into his lectures in medicine at the University of Utrecht, but the worth of his zeal is dubious. CARTESIANISM signifies the philosophy of René Descartes His text-book on physics (Fundamenta physicae) contained so and his followers, more especially Antoine Arnauld, Arnold many unproved assertions and reduced the Cartesian dualism of Geulincx and Nicolas Malebranche. The most characteristic body and mind to a materialism, that Descartes had publicly to views of this whole school of thought are (1) its Dualism, that disclaim responsibility for it. More important is Sylvain Régis, is, the view that minds (or souls) and material bodies are ab- whose System de philosophie (1690) shows the first definite move solutely distinct substances incapable of any interaction, and towards an Occasionalism. God is the only substance, therefore (2) its Occasionalism, that is, the view that all apparent inter- the only genuine cause. Physical and mental events have only action between mind and matter is really due to the direct inter- “secondary” causes, bodies and minds are merely instruments vention of God, who produces a change in the one kind of sub- which manifest God’s causality. The self is not independently stance on the occasion of the occurrence of a change in the other active though it does independently determine the character which kind of substance. >` the communicated activity shall manifest; thus it is a “director” See DESCARTES; CARTESIANS, and the literature given there. but not a “producer” of changes. Body and mind, however, are CARTESIANS, the name by which the followers of the still conceived as separate, events in one occurring collaterally with French philosopher, Descartes, and his school are now generally those in the other. Louis de la Forge maintains substantially the known. The word was taken from the last syllable of the founder’s same view, but with this significant difference. The self is a genuname, and although Spinoza and Leibnitz are sometimes included ine cause of all changes voluntarily and consciously initiated, God among Cartesians, their modifications ultimately exclude them. causing only those changes that are involuntary and unconsciously The accomplishments of Descartes’ followers cannot be properly brought about. Géraud de Cordemoy reaffirms (Dissertations understood or estimated apart from a survey of the deficiencies in philosophiques sur le discernement de ême et du corps) the conhis philosophy that remained to be made good. These may be tention of Régis, that God alone is genuinely causative. Bodies, reduced to five. (1) Descartes concludes that physical bodies and not being possessed of volition, cannot cause changes either in particular selves or minds form two separate classes of substances. other bodies or in minds. Movement is not imparted from one Their existential independence and complete qualitative dissimi- body to another, but from God to each. The self can cause its own larity is guaranteed by the fact that we can have a clear and dis- volitions, though again, their occurrence is only the occasion on tinct idea of each of them without having to think of the other. which God causes an external change to occur, corresponding to But man is, in some sense, “a unity” of the two, an embodied mind. the purpose willed. So the efficient cause of a movement in our In him, these two independent substances co-exist. So one task body, whether willed by us or not, is never our own self, but God. Descartes leaves for completion is that of explaining how, if these We neither produce nor “direct” physical changes or events. For substances are disparate in existence and nature, their unity is to this reason, John Clauberg inferred the uniform correspondence be conceived. Arnauld questioned the validity of this conclusion, between the two orders of events to be a standing miracle. But the but Geulincx, admitting it, supplies an answer to the problem. self can “direct” (determine the character of) the physical activity (2) Minds and bodies being disparate, it followed, Descartes resulting in its own body on the occasion of particular volitions, thought, that there was no causal interaction between them. States though the body cannot likewise determine the character of mental of mind could not cause bodily changes,-nor could the latter cause events occurring in the self it embodies. In this way, Clauberg the former. Descartes restricts himself to this negative conclusion, combines the views of de la Forge and Régis, but deviates from offering no account of the causation of mental or physical events. those of Cordemoy. These are brought to their logical completion The theory of Occasionalism, in the “restricted” form invented by by Geulincx. GEULINCX Geulincx, and in the “complete” form of Malebranche, suppleSo far then, only hesitant moves towards Occasionalism are ments this defect by an extension of Cartesian principles. (3) If body and mind are separate substances, what is their relation to traceable. But with Arnold Geulincx of Antwerp (1625-69), the God? For God also is a substance, and one that is infinite and doctrine is for the first time definitely elaborated. It is no longer complete. But a substance is that which depends on nothing else merely proposed as an hypothesis, but an attempt is made to for its existence, so it should follow that mind and body are inde- formulate it strictly and demonstrate it with certainty. His Metapendent of God. But Descartes had previously argued that their physics falls into three divisions, viz., Autology, or Knowledge of nature and existence depended on God. The contradiction is not Self; Somatology or Rational Physics; and Theology, though it is removed by his subsequent distinction between God as genuine generally agreed that his finest work lies in moral philosophy, viz., substance, and body and mind as “secondary” ones. This verbal the ‘Trâli geavròrv, sive Ethica.” Like Descartes, Geulincx sets emendation is without logical efficacy and simply amounts to a himself methodically to doubt every belief which can be doubted, piece of theological etiquette. It is the Occasionalism of Geulincx with the object of discovering one whose truth being self-evident and Malebranche which removes this difficulty, though only at the constitutes a piece of certain knowledge. This he too finds in the cost of introducing a new one. (4) Descartes’ statements about Cogito, ergo sum; his own existence is the one thing with which he the nature of ideas were deficient in detail. Malebranche considers can be directly and indubitably acquainted. Descartes’ construchimself to supplement them by his theory of ideas and his “vision tive use of the Cogito was to infer from it the epistemological in God.” This emendation is the subject of a controversy with Ar- principle that any other proposition which is equally clear and nauld, which, though violent, had fruitful consequences for all distinct is likewise true and certain, though he did not always subsequent philosophy. (5) Descartes developed no strictly ethi- respect the principle in practice. Geulincx’s constructive use of the cal theory, though his Passions of the Soul would have constituted Cogito is to infer from it the principle that all activity of the self its psychological basis, if he had done so. He writes to Chanut is conscious activity, no unconscious activity can be an activity of (1646), prior to his unfortunate visit to the Queen of Sweden, that the self, and to this he does always strictly adhere. But interrogaethics was a province on which he dared not enter, for professors tion of the self so disclosed to inspection elicits seven clear and dishad fallen into a passion even on account of his harmless principles tinct beliefs, which are true, viz., (i.) that we conceive an external west of Atlanta, on the Etowah river and Federal highway 41; the county seat of Bartow county. It is served by the Louisville and Nashville, the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis and the Seaboard Air Line railways. The population was 4,350 in 1920 (34% negroes), and was 5,250 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is in a productive agricultural and mining region, and ships cotton, lime and limestone rock, iron ore, manganese, barytes, slate, potash and manufactured ochre. The city was founded in 1760 and incorporated in 1859.

of physics; they would give him no rest if he wrote on ethics, This

world, (ii.) of which we form a part, (iii.) that our self is related

942

CARTESIANS

to our body, (iv.) that we did not produce the world, (v.) nor any of the movements in it, (vi.) that we did not produce our own

body, (vii.) nor any of the changes in it. They are ordinary beliefs of common sense, except (v.) and (vii.), which follow by the principle inferred from the Cogito. But self-examination further dis-

closes the presence to mind of very various sorts of thoughts, other than these beliefs, also the occurrence of different kinds of mental events. Hence, two fields of enquiry open out, viz., what is the character of our thoughts, volitions and mental activities generally, and of that which thinks and wills on such occasions? Now the former are of indefinite variely, but the latter is single and simple (i.e., without parts and unchanging). Further examination of the infinite variety of thoughts, volitions and other mental activities shows that though they are all “ours,” they are so in two quite distinct senses. Some mental activities are “ours,” since it is our own self that wills them, or causes their occurrence; hence, they are dependent on our self for their existence. Other mental activities are “ours,” in another sense, viz., that they occur “in” us, but are not caused by us. This distinction among our mental activities, according as they are, or are not, caused by us, is vital for Geulincx. We are the cause of all our mental states of which we know, not merely that they occurred, but also kow they occurred. “Tf you do not know the means by which a thing is produced, it is not you who produced it”; że., if you are not acquainted with the entire course of events which led up to the occurrence of the state in question, it is a state causally independent of yourself. ‘This fundamental principle of Geulincx is taken along with the Cogito, as being self-evidently true, and therefore a piece of certain knowledge. Now the mode of production of all activity that is not caused by our self is to be conceived by analogy with that which is so caused. From which it follows that our independent states or activities are caused in us by some other individual who knows and wills them, and this can only be God. But although the causation

occasions on which a subsequent menial change occurs; they do

not cause it. Physical events and mental events form two closed systems that are not causally related. The occurrence of an event

God causes the occuror in the other. So all are caused by divine “independent” experisimilarly caused. But what causes the occurrence of the self’s “dependent” experiences? Here two views are possible; the one (Complete Occasionalism), that these experiences too (i.¢., volitions and pure thought activ-

in one order is simply the occasion on which rence of another event, either in that order “external” and “internal” physical events volitional activity. And all occurrences of ences, since they depend on the body, are

ity) are caused by divine activity; the other (Restricted Occasionalism), that they, though no other kinds of mental events, are the spontaneous

and

essential

activity

of the self, and

therefore

caused by it. The former was held by Malebranche, the latter by Geulincx. Thus, when I perceive a bodily change and will to perform a certain action in consequence, an action of that kind then ensuing in the physical world, according to Malebranche all these events, physical and mental, are successive effects of divine volition; for Geulincx, though the occurrence of the perceptual act and the physical action are effects of divine volition, the volitional act is caused by myself and not by God, the perception God caused being the occasion on which my self caused its own volition to occur, and this in turn being the occasion on which God caused the external change to occur. My own causal efficacy then is limited to volitional acts. But I may will to do something, or to know something. Hence two sorts of problems arise at this juncture, those of epistemology and of ethics. My empirical knowledge, being dependent on my perception of events in my own or in other bodies, is due to divine causation. But knowledge of a priori truths (e.g., mathematical propositions) is a knowledge of ideas in the divine mind. In so far as we can acquire a systematic knowledge

of such a priori ideas, we attain to a knowledge of the world indeof independent states can be assigned to God, the diversity of their pendently of sense experience, and so to a knowledge of the world characteristics cannot be so explained, for God, like the self, is and its parts as a system of bodies uncharacterized by sensible simple, and thus not the ground of diversity. So, since everything qualities (Rational Mechanics). Ethics.—My own effective causation is limited to my volition. which exists is either God or a self, or a body, and neither God nor a self can be the ground of diversity, it must be due to bodies. But it is possible for me to will, not merely changes whose occurHence the diversity of the extended world is the ground of the rence is not caused by me, but changes which do not occur at all. diversity in my experiences. So God’s activity accounts for the fact Of all possible volitions, some only are effectual, and of these of the occurrence, and Matter for the character, of our inde- again, some only are permissible. And our knowledge of which pendent states or of external events. Pure thought and volition are effectual volitions are permissible depends on discovering the the two properties of the self, extension and mobility those of nature of divine thought and will. Hence virtuous conduct is the result of making our volittons conform to the divine reason, which matter or bodies. But among the many bodies in the world, one I recognize as is the expression of perfect rationality. Virtue is therefore debeing “mine.” It is “mine” in the sense, not that my self can fined as “the unique love of right reason” (cf. Spinoza’s “Inteldirectly cause changes in it, but that it is through this body, and it lectual Love of God’). There are three kinds of love, viz., the alone that I come to have my “independent” experiences. What determination to benefit (1) oneself, or (2) another, and (3) the then is the relation of “my body” to me; what is meant by speak- love of reason. Love of self is the root of all moral evil, and the ing of “my” body? Strictly, Geulincx replies, it is meaningless to attainment of virtue involves both of the self’s proper activities; speak of my mind or self being “united” with my body. Had I no reason, to ascertain what is the will of God, and volition, so as to body, I should still have the idea of movement, though I should will accordingly. Our volition so conformed will be the good will; not experience those sensations that are aroused in me on the occa- we shall will to do what we see to be right simply because we see sion of movement in the outer physical world. A self is related to it to be right. So the source of all virtuous conduct is the good its body in being active or passive in respect of the changes that will, which is simply the determination to will only those actions occur in it. This relationship between self and body, which consti- which conform to reason. It is evinced in four classes of action, tutes the two a human individual, is not initiated by any volition each of which manifests a specific or cardinal virtue, viz., diliof that self. And when that relation ceases to relate its terms, 2.é., gence, obedience, justice and humility. Diligence consists in withat death, the self ceases, not from existing, nor from exercising its drawing our love from the external things of sense and, by means essential activity of thinking and willing, but only from experienc- of self-examination, in becoming attentive to reason, which is ing sensations and memories, for these depend on bodily changes. conceived as an inward disclosure of which actions are right and Hence, to be a man is not to bea self united to a body, but to be a which are wrong. These discovered, it remains to act in conformself which is active and passive, relatively to some one and the ity with them, and such action expresses the virtue of obedience. same material body. Our actions are just in proportion to the exactness with which our Occasionalism.—Geulincx reaffirms that materiality and men- volitions conform to the requirements of reason, which sets the tality are completely disparate qualities. A physical change can- standard or mean. Failure to realize this virtue in our conduct not cause a mental change, nor vice versa. Neither can matter, shows that we have erred, by excess or defect, through yielding to being only extended, cause changes among its parts (z.e., motion). non-rational motives or impulses. But the sum and complete But changes, both physical and mental, do appear to occur: what | realisation of all virtues is humility; if this be attained nothing 1s Changes in our sense organs and nervous sys-

lacking. Humility in conduct is the manifestation through it of a

tem consequent upon physical stimulation, are, it is true, followed by mental changes, but the bodily changes are only the

true recognition and conception of self, and is the outcome of adequate self-examination. To know ourselves as we really are

then causes them?

CARTESIANS renders self-assertion impossible, for we see the futility of worldly desires which, issuing only from self-love, now cease from tormenting us. We realize our dependence on God. We recognize that the performance of our duty is required of us unconditionally, and not because it will conduce to happiness or protect us from harm or suit our convenience in any other way or confer any benefit upon us. The good, which is the end of all action, is defined as that which we rationally love, and evil, as that which we rationally dislike. The useful is only instrumental; the pleasant can only be the aim of self-love, but love of:the good is an imperative of reason. Emotions and desires are really neither good nor bad. When we call them so, we mean simply that they are pleasant or painful. They have no ethical significance except in relation to the love of reason, when, as hindrances to its expression, they are bad. Selfknowledge, then, brings resignation. He who is good and wise in his life renounces the world, its pleasures, honours and riches, and submits to the rational or divine order of life. So the connection

between the nature of self and its place in the world, the relation

between the autology and the ethics, becomes clear. Where we can do nothing we ought to will nothing. Now we cannot produce changes in our own body any more than in the world at large. Hence we should desire nothing for our body; our relation to the body is one of knowledge, not one of action. So renunciation of “the world and the flesh” follows: despectio sut is the consequence of inspectio sui. ARNAULD

f

The first philosophical contribution of worth from Antoine Arnauld (1612—94) is his Objections to the Meditations which Descartes had circulated for criticism prior to publishing. Discussion centres in the main around the distinction between the human body and the human mind. Descartes had maintained that we can infer with certainty from our direct acquaintance with the self that its essential nature was unlike that of physical bodies. His critic admits this may be so but denies Descartes to have proved it. All that his argument establishes is that some trustworthy knowledge of the self is possible independently of any knowledge of the body. This does not warrant his asserting that the quality of being conscious exhausts the nature of the self, therefore he has no right to conclude that the self is not corporeal as well as conscious. Arnauld expresses himself satisfied with Descartes’ reply, though later he seems to return to a view in all essentials similar to that of his Objections. But his principal work in philosophy is undoubtedly the treatise Des vraies et fausses idées (1683), a most detailed and incisive refutation of the doctrine of Representative Ideas contained in Malebranche’s De la Recherché de la Vérité. Malebranche follows Descartes in dividing all existents into two qualitatively exclusive orders, the mental and the physical, and concludes that neither the senses nor imagination can yield us knowledge of external bodies, since the senses can only acquaint us with states of our own mind that occur collaterally with certain physiological changes in the brain. So when we say that we are aware of certain physical objects before us, what our mind is directly related to, Malebranche argues, is not physical objects at all, but certain ideas of them. Physical objects cannot under any conditions cause our minds to know them for four reasons, (i.) because they are inferior in nature to mind, and (ii.) different from our minds in quality. Further, (iii.) causal action between finite existents is in any case impossible (cf. Occasionalism), and (iv.) the “local” difference, or spatial distance of physical objects from minds, renders direct

943

It is this theory of Ideas that Arnauld attacks with consummate logical skill and acumen in his Treatise on True and False Ideas. He first points out there is no sense in asking wky the mind has perceptions, any more than why material bodies have shape, for it is just the nature of mind to be perceptive. Explanation of facts cannot reasonably be required ad infinitum. Malebranche, further, has used the term “idea” in varying senses throughout his arguments, to denote indifferently (i.) perception, (ii.) non-representative entities, (ili.) particular existents, numerically distinct from perceptions and thoughts, yet indispensable for our awareness of material things. So Arnauld first undertakes an analysis of the notion of “idea,” and the result is an important distinction for epistemology. The Malebranche-Armauld controversy then centres around the question whether there are “ideas” in the sense of separate mental entities which exist and represent to our minds what is non-mental, or physical in character. The word “idea” is ambiguous. As popularly used it denotes a perceptual or cognitive act of some self; as used by Malebranche, it denotes a representative entity, numerically distinct from cognitive acts and from physical things. In brief, Arnauld decides that the former sense is permissible, but that the latter is a fiction invented simply on account of the fallacious assumption that mind, being mental, cannot be related by way of knowledge, to what is non-mental. He next examines the grounds Malebranche adduces for demonstrating the indispensability of representative ideas. (1) To the argument that we cannot see an object unless it is present, Arnauld answers that there is a sense in which this is true, and one in which it is false. The “objective presence” and the “physical presence” of an object must be distinguished. To say we perceive, implies that there is something perceived; there must be something present to mind if the mind is to perceive it. But this ‘‘objective presence” is quite distinct from “local presence,” for when I am said to be “thinking of” a person, that person is thereby objectively present to my mind, even though he is “locally” or spatially absent from my vicinity. Whatever I think of or perceive is objectively present by the very fact of my thinking of it, but what is objectively present is often physically or locally absent. Malebranche’s error consists in having supposed that a thing could not be objectively present to my mind, without thereby being also locally present to it. And one of the functions of the representative idea was precisely to make good, by its presence, this absence of the physical body. But imagination and memory furnish countless instances to show the independence of objective presence and local presence. Arnauld does not deny “representation” in every sense. He denies representativeness to ideas in the sense in which, e.g., a photograph “represents” the person whose likeness it is, for such representation, if affirmed of ideas, involves the existence of a separate intermediary between the mind and the physical object represented. But he admits explicitly that there is another sense in which all perceptual activity is representative (or better, “presentative”), viz., the sense in which external objects become presented, when locally near, or “represented”’ when locally absent,-to a mind, by means of that mind’s cognitive activity. (2) Arnauld next deals with the argument that material bodies cannot cause our mind to know them, even when locally present, since, being material, they cannot cause (mental) events in a nonmaterial self. This presupposes that our mind can only know what is capable of acting on it. But to be objectively present to a mind is not to be active on it. The relation of presentation must be distinguished from that of causation, which done, the argument falls. (3) The next argument is that representative ideas are required because, external objects being material, are “too coarse” in nature to admit of being directly perceived. For this, they would have to be “intimately connected” with the mind, but the mind, being spiritual, could not be connected with anything “coarse” like material particles. Hence the supposed necessity of mental intermediaries or ideas which could be “intimately connected” with our minds. Arnauld makes short work of this argument. Even suppos-

knowledge of the former impossible, for “to know” is “to be intimately connected with” what is known, and “intimate” connection is impossible at a distance. So whilst Descartes required four ultimate terms with which to account for our knowledge of the material world (viz., God, selves, external objects and ideas) Malebranche, eliminating external objects, requires only three. Ideas are the only objects we can directly know (though we can be acquainted with our “feelings” and purely subjective states without “ideas”); “God is the source, the reality and the place of ing such “imperfection” in bodies, that would only be a ground for ideas.” So whenever we have knowledge, we are “seeing things in denying that a body could be a percipient, not for denying that it could be perceived. God.”

944

CARTHAGE

The theory of ideas offends against the principle of logical economy that we should not employ more terms than necessary for an adequate explanation of our problem. Arnauld reiterates, again and again, that the idea, as an intermediate entity between the self and the objects it knows, is completely otiose. There is no good reason for denying that we are directly confronted with physical objects themselves, just as common sense believes. Far from explaining, by means of representative ideas, how we come to know external objects, Malebranche in fact explains just how we cannot come to know them. How can we ever know that there do exist independent objects at all, such as our “representative knowledge” is asserted to represent? To call it “representative knowledge” begs the question, for how are we ever to know that any external objects exist? The mind is condemned to a permanent disability from ever knowing material bodies at all. The onus of demonstrating how we come to know of the existence of an external world surely lies with him who denies that we know it by direct perception. And certainly self-inspection does not disclose the presence of any representative or instrumental ideas. Malebranche doubtless foresaw this weighty objection, for he returns the only answer possible, namely, that in point of fact, we do not know particular material objects at all. In believing that we do, we fall into illusion and error. What we really know is not this or that particular body, but the geometrical and formal properties of all body. Matter does not really have, but only appears as having, sensible characteristics. Pure thought alone, and not sense-perception, can give us genuine knowledge of bodies, as distinct from their appearances. By a deft stroke of Occam’s razor, then, Arnauld effaces these representative intermediaries, and therewith the need for “intelligible ideas in the mind of God.” He retains only selves capable of perceptual activity, and external objects. Acts of perception are dually related, viz., to the self, whose states or modifications they are, and to physical bodies, as being directly presented to that self. Before his controversy with Malebranche, Arnauld endorsed his complete Occasionalism, as explaining the occurrence of mental and physical events, but in 1686 (Réflections théologiques et philosophiques), he decided against it, maintaining not only that the self is capable of changes of state independently of divine intervention, but, as against even Descartes, he sees no reason why the self should not cause changes in the physical world. Efficient causation between mental and physical events is thus reinstated. Now as may be anticipated, Arnauld’s view is less explicit and satisfactory where what is in question is our knowledge of univetsals and not of particular bodies. Here he follows the conceptualists, maintaining that universals have significance and reality only in and for our minds: universalia tantum in mente. But he sufficiently answers Malebranche that the conceptual activity by which we represent the notion of infinity, is not itself infinite. Wherever Malebranche departs from Cartesian doctrine, Arnauld is at variance with him, and, proceeding in an empirical way more akin to Reid and the Scottish common-sense school, than to the deductive tendency of Cartesianism, he retains most of Descartes’ conclusions, even in respect of the origin of our ideas, until his later period. His specific problems were those of 17th century French philosophy; his conclusions, and the spirit in which he worked to them, are more suggestive of 18th century thought in

England. Except for his conceptualism, Arnauld may well be regarded as having established some of the basic theses of presentday Realism. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Geulincx, ed. J. P. N. Land

(Haag,

Arnoldi

Geulincx

1891);

E. Gopfert,

Opera

philosophica,

Geulincx’

ethisches

System (Breslau, 1883); J. P. N. Land, A. Geulincx und seine Philosophie (Haag, 1895); E. Terraillon, La Morale de Geulincx (x912); Arnauld, Oeuvres complètes de Messire Antoine Arnauld, 43 vols., mostly theological (Lausanne, 1780) ; Oeuvres philosophiques - d Arnauld, ed. C. Jourdain (1843), ed. Jules Simon (1843); Arnauld and Nicole, La Logique de Port-Royal, ed. A. Fouillée (1877), Eng. trans. T. S. Baynes (1851); F. Bouillier, Histoire de la Philosophie Cartésienne, 3rd ed. (1868); K. Fischer, Descartes and his School (1887) ; N. Kemp Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902). (S. V. K.)

CARTHAGE,

one of the most famous cities of antiquity,

on the north coast of Africa; it was founded about 814—813 B.C.

by the Phoenicians, destroyed for the first time by the Romans in 146 B.C., rebuilt by the Romans

in 122 B.c., and finally de.

stroyed by the Arabs in a.D. 698. It was situated in the heart of the Sinus Uticensis (mod. Gulf of Tunis), which is protected on the west by the promontory of Apollo (mod. Ras Ali el Mekki), and on the east by the promontory of Mercury or Cape

Bon (mod. Ras Addar). Its position naturally forms a sort of bastion on the inner curve of the bay between the Lake of Tunis on the south and the marshy plain of Utica (Sukhara) on the north. Cape Gamart, the Arab village of Sidi-bu-Said and the small harbour of Goletta (La Goulette, Halk el Wad) form a

triangle which represents the area of Carthage at its greatest, in-

cluding its extramural suburbs. Sidi-bu-Said, which stands on On Cape Gamart (Kamart) was Byrsa, was on the hill on which

Of this area the highest point is a lofty cliff about 490 ft. high. the chief cemetery. The citadel, to-day stand the convent of Les Pères Blancs and the cathedral of St. Louis, with a very interesting archaeological museum, containing the results of ihe excavations conducted by Père Delattre, while the objects found in the excavations conducted by the Government are at the Bardo

(see Tunis). The harbours lay about three-fifths of a mile south of Byrsa. The tongue of land, from the site of the harbours as far as Goletta, to the mouth of the Catadas which connects the

Lake of Tunis with the sea, was known as taenia (ribbon, band)

or ligula (diminutive of Lingua, tongue). The isthmus connecting the peninsula of Carthage with the mainland was roughly estimated by Polybius as 25 stades (about 15,000 ft.); the peninsula itself, according to Strabo, had a circumference’ of 360 stades (4r m.). The distance between Gamart and Goletta is about 6 m. From Byrsa, which is only 195 ft. above the sea, there is a fine view; thence it is possible to see how Carthage was able at once to dominate the sea and the gently undulating plains which stretch westward as far as Tunis and the line of the river Bagradas (mod. Mejerda). On the horizon, on the other side of the Gulf of Tunis, rise the chief heights of the mountain-chain which was the scene of so many fierce struggles between Carthage and Rome, between Rome and the Vandals—the Bu-Kornain (‘‘TwoHorned Mountain”), crowned by the ruins of the temple of Saturn Balcaranensis; Jebel Ressas, behind which lie the ruins of Neferis; Zaghwan, the highest point in Zeugitana; HammamLif, Rades (Ghades, Gades, the ancient Maxula) on the coast and ro m. to the south-west the “white” Tunis (Aevxds Tovns of Diodorus) and the fertile hills of Ariana. Harbours.—The ancient harbours were distinguished as the military and the commercial.

The remains of the latter are to be

seen in a partially ruined artificial lagoon which originally had an area of nearly 60 acres; there were, however, in addition a large quay for unloading freight along the shore, and huge basins or outer harbours protected by jetties, the remains of which are still visible at the water-level. The military harbour, known as Cothon, communicated with the commercial by means of a canal now partially ruined; it was circular in shape, surrounded by large docks 164 ft. wide, and capable of holding 220 vessels, though its area was only some 22 acres.

In the centre was an

islet from which the admiral could inspect the whole fleet. The site is traversed by the railway to the north of the village of Douai ech Chott. From this point northward the whole city was laid out in rectangular blocks, each about 130500 feet and numerous streets have been located. See Haverfield, Anctent Town Planning (Oxford, 1913, 113-115). Byrsa.—The hill of St. Louis, the ancient citadel of Byrsa, has a circuit of 4,525 ft. It appears to have been surrounded, at least at certain points, by several lines of fortifications which have been found to a height of over 20 metres; a well preserved

battery for catapults and munition store was also found, but destroyed. See R. Fuchs in Jahrb. d. Instituts xxxii. (1917); Arch. Auz. 3 sqq. It was, however, dismantled by P. Scipio Africanus the younger, in 146 B.C., and was only refortified by Theodosius TI. in AD. 424; subsequently its walls were again renewed by Belisarius in 553. On the plateau of Byrsa have been found the

most ancient of the Punic tombs, huge cisterns in the eastern

CARTHAGE part, and near the chapel of St. Louis the foundations of the famous temple of Eshmun and the palace of the Roman proconsul. To the west are the ruins of the amphitheatre. Rather more than half a mile north-west of Byrsa are the huge cisterns

of La Malga, which, at the time of the Arab geographer, Idrisi, still comprised twenty-four parallel covered reservoirs of which fifteen only remain (312410 feet over all). A more recent theory identifies the site of Byrsa with that of La Goletta and the two ports, the quadrilateral commercial harbour and the circular naval harbour, with the Goletta channel and its basin and with the lagoon of Tunis itself (Pinza in Monumenti det Lincei, XXX. [1925] 5 sqg.). The quarter of Dermèche, near the sea, whose name recalls the Latin Thermis or Thermas, is remarkable for the imposing remains of the baths (thermae) of Antoninus. Not far off is a Byzantine church with a baptistery, ete. A “precinct of Tanit with a large cemetery of infants, small animals and birds, has been also discovered. Farther north are the huge reservoirs of Borj-Jedid which are sufficiently well preserved to be used for the supply of La Goletta. Behind the small fort of Borj-Jedid is the plateau of the Odeum where the theatre and odeum, with fine marble statues of the Roman period and some private houses have been laid bare; beyond is the great Christian’ basilica of Damus-el-Karita (perhaps a corruption of Domus Caritatis); in the direction of Sidibu-Said is the platea nova, the huge stairway of which, like so many other- Carthaginian buildings, has of late years been destroyed by the Arabs for use as building material; on the coast near St. Monica is the necropolis of Rabs where fine anthropoid sarcophagi of the Punic period have been found; while to the north of Damus-el-Karita is the basilica of S. Perpetua. Several extensive cemeteries have been found at various points. In the quarter of Megara (Magaria, mod. La Marsa) it would seem that there never were more than isolated buildings, villas in the midst of gardens. At Jebel Khaui (Cape Kamart) there is a Jewish cemetery. We must mention finally the gigantic remains in the western plain of the Roman aqueduct which carried water from Jebel Zaghwan (Mons Zeugitanus) and Juggar (Zucchara) to the cisterns of La Malga. From the nymphaeum of Zaghwan to Carthage this aqueduct is 61 Roman miles (about 56 English miles) long; in the plain of Manuba its arches are nearly 49 ft. high. The main authority for the topography and the history of the excavations is Audollent’s Carthage romaine (Paris, 1901). A topographical and. archaeological map of the site was published in 1907: but there is no general up-to-date résumé. For a brief bibliography and plan see Pace and Lantier in Monumenti dei Lincei xxx. (1926), 129 sqq. (X.)

HISTORY

The history of Carthage falls into five periods: (1) from the foundation to the beginning of the wars with the Sicilian Greeks in sso B.C.; (2) from 550 to 265 B.C., the first year of the Punic Wars; (3) the Punic Wars to the fall of Carthage in 140 B.c.; (4) the period of Roman and Vandal rule, down to the capture of Carthage by Belisarius (A.D. 553); (5) the period of Byzantine rule, down to the destruction of the city by the Arabs in A.D. 698.

(1) Foundation to 550 B.C.—From an extremely remote pe-

riod Phoenician sailors had visited the African coast and had had commercial relations with the Libyan tribes who inhabited the district which forms the modern Tunis. In the 16th century B.c.

the Sidonians established a trading station called Cambe or Cac-

945

of the hill which afterwards from this episode gained the name of Byrsa (Gr. bursa “hide,” “skin,” play on words with the Phoenician bosra, borsa, “citadel,” “‘fortress’’). In the 6th century, Carthage is a considerable capital with a domain divided into the three districts of Zeugitana, Byzacium, and the Emporia which stretch to the centre of the Great Syrtis. The limit between the settlements of Carthage and those of the Greeks of Cyrene were eventually fixed and marked by a monument known as the “Altar of Philemae.” The destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadrezzar (g.v.) in the first half of the 6th century, enabled Carthage to take its place as mistress of the Mediterranean. The Phoenician colonies founded by Tyre and Sidon in Sicily and Spain, threatened by the Greeks, sought help from Carthage. The Greek colonization of Sicily was checked, while Carthage established herself on all the Sicilian coast and the neighbouring islands as far as the Balearic Islands and the coast of Spain.

(2) Wars with the Greeks.—In 550 B.C. the Carthaginians

led by Malchus, the suffete (see p. 946: Constitution), conquered almost all Sicily. In 536 p.c. they defeated the Phoceans and the Massaliotes on the Corsican coast. But Malchus, having failed in Sardinia, was banished by the Carthaginian senate. He laid siege to Carthage itself, and entered the city as a victor. He was put to death by the party which had supported him. Mago, son of Hanno, of the powerful Barca house succeeded Malchus. He conquered Sardinia and the Balearic Islands, where he founded Port Mahon (Portus Magonis). The first agreement between Carthage and Rome was made in 509 B.c., in the consulship of Iunius Brutus and Marcus Horatius. It assigned Italy to the

Romans and the African waters to Carthage.

Sicily remained a

neutral zone. Mago was succeeded by his elder son Hasdrubal (c. 500) who

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OF

ANCIENT

cabe. Near Bordj-Jedid, unmistakable traces of this early settlewas dement have been found. Carthage was founded about 850 B.c. by collected a fleet of 200 galleys for the conquest of Sicily, and Theron Tyrian emigrants led by Elissa or Elissar, the daughter of the feated by the combined forces of Gelon of Syracuse B.C. the year in Tyrian king Mutton I., fleeing from the tyranny of her brother of Agrigentum under the walls of Himera in 480 It is claimed Salamis. at defeated was fleet Persians’ the which 2.é., Dido, of Pygmalion. Elissa subsequently received the name prisoners. “the fugitive.’ The new arrivals bought from the mixed Libyo- that 150,000 Carthaginians were taken About 460 B.c., Hanno, son of Hamilcar, passing beyond the Phoenician peoples of the neighbourhood a piece of land on which of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), founded settlements Pillars to build a “new city,” Karthadshat, whence the Greek and Roman West African coast, in the modern Senegal and Guinea, the along could as land much “as obtained having Dido, name. the of forms Madeira and the Canary Islands. in even of and skin the cut to be contained by the skin of an ox,” proceeded In Sicily, the war lasted for a century. In 406 B.C. Hannibal a slain ox into strips narrow enough to extend round the whole

946

CARTHAGE

and Himilco destroyed Agrigentum and threatened Gela, but the Carthaginians were forced back on their stronghold in the southwest by Dionysius the Elder, Dionysius the Younger, Timoleon and Agathocles successively, whose cause was aided by a terrible plague and civil troubles in Carthage itself. Profiting by these troubles, Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians at Crimissus in 340 B.c. The subsequent peace was not of long duration; Agathocles besieged Carthage, which was then handicapped by the conspiracy of Bomilcar. Bomilcar was crucified, and Agathocles having been obliged to return to Sicily, his general Humarcus was compelled to carry his army out of Africa, where it had maintained itself for three years (Aug. 310 to Oct. 307 B.c.). After the death of Agathocles, the Carthaginians re-established their supremacy in Sicily, and Mago even offered assistance to Rome against the invasion of Pyrrhus (280 B.c.). Pyrrhus crossed to Sicily in 277 B.c., and was preparing to sail to Africa when he was compelled to return to Italy. Delivered from these dangers, Carthage claimed the monopoly of Mediterranean waters, and seized

every foreign ship found between Sardinia and the Pillars of Hercules.

(3) The Punic Wars.—(See also Rome: History). The first

Punic War (268—241 B.C.) (Lat. Poeni, Phoenicians) was fought by Carthage for the defence of her Sicilian possessions and her supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Romans, victorious at the naval battles of Mylae and Ecnomis (260 and 256 B.c.), sent M. Attilius Regulus with an army to Africa. But the Carthaginians, with the help of the Spartan Xanthippus, captured Regulus. The fighting was then transferred to Sicily, where Hasdrubal was defeated at Panormus (250 B.c.); subsequently the Romans failed before Lilybaeum and were defeated at Drepanum, but their victory at the Aegates Islands ended the war (241 B.c.). Carthage now desired to disband her forces, but the mercenaries claimed their arrears of pay, and, on being refused, revolted under Spen-

dius and Matho, pillaged the suburbs of Carthage and laid siege to the city itself. The genius of Hamilcar Barca raised the siege; the mercenaries were cut down in the defile of the Axe. This war is known as the bellum inexpiabile. Carthage then undertook the conquest of Spain. This operation lasted nine years up to the day of Hamilcar’s death, in 228 B.C. His son-in-law, Hasdrubal Pulcher, built Carthagena in 227 B.C. and concluded with Rome a treaty by which the Ebro was adopted as the boundary of the Carthaginian sphere. On his death the soldiers chose as leader Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. At this period, Carthage, with a population of perhaps 1,000,000, was in the enjoyment of extraordinary prosperity. The manufacture of woven goods was a flourishing industry. In Sicily, Italy and Greece the Carthaginians sold black slaves, ivory, metals, precious stones and all the products of Central Africa. In Spain, they exploited the modern mines of Huelva, Osca and Carthagena. The district round Carthage, with its amazing fertility, was the granary of the city, as it was later that of Rome. In the midst of this prosperity the Second War with Rome broke out. The campaigns of Hannibal (g.v.) in Spain, Italy and Africa have won the admiration of military experts of all ages. In 219 B.C. he captured Saguntum, which was in alliance with Rome. Passing through Spain and Gaul, Hannibal resolved to carry the war into the heart of Italy (218-217 B.c.). The battles of the Ticinus, Trebbia and Trasimene Lake are but stages in the wonderful progress which culminated in the battle of Cannae (g.v., Aug. 2, 216 B.c.). The road to Rome was now open to him, but he did not profit by his advantage, while the Carthaginian senate withheld all further support. His brother Hasdrubal with

his relieving army was defeated at the Metaurus in 207 B.c.; the Romans recovered their hold in Spain, and seeing that Hannibal was unable to move in Italy, carried the war back to Africa. Hearing that Scipio (g.v.) had taken Utica (203 B.c.) and defeated Hasdrubal and Syphax, king of Numidia, Hannibal returned from Italy, but with a hastily levied army was defeated

at Zama (Oct. 19, 202 B.c.). The subsequent peace was disastrous to Carthage, which lost its fleet and all save its African possessions. After the Second War, Carthage soon revived.

The population

is said to have numbered

inspire alarm at Rome.

700,000, and the city never ceased tg

The Numidian, Prince Massinissa, rival

of Syphax and a Roman protégé, took advantage of a clause in

the treaty of 202 B.c., which forbade Carthage to make war without the consent of the Roman senate, to extend his possessions at the expense of Carthage. In response to a protest from Car-

thage an embassy including Porcius Cato the Elder (q.v.) was sent to inquire into the matter, and Cato was so impressed with the city that on returning to Rome he never made a speech without concluding with the warning Delenda est Carthago (“Car-

thage must be destroyed”). At this time, the popular faction, which was turbulent and exasperated by the bad faith of the Romans, expelled the Numidian party and declared war in 149 B.c. on Massinissa who was victorious at Oroscope. Rome then intervened. The third Punic War lasted three years, and after a heroic resistance the city fell in 146 B.c. The last champions of liberty entrenched themselves under Hasdrubal in the temple of Eshmun, the site of which is

now occupied by the chapel of St. Louis.

The Roman troops

were let loose to plunder and burn. The site was dedicated to the infernal gods, and ali human habitation throughout the ruined area, was forbidden. Constitution and Religion.—The narrative may here be interrupted by an account of the political and religious development of Phoenician Carthage. Carthage was an aristocratic republic based on wealth rather than on birth. So Aristotle, writing about 330 B.c., emphasizes the importance of great wealth in Carthaginian politics. The government was in fact a plutocracy. The aristocratic party was represented by the two suffetes and the senate; the democratic by the popular assembly. The suffetes (Sofetim), two in number, presided in the senate and controlled the civil administration. The office was annual, but there was no limit to re-election. Hannibal was elected for 22 years. The senate, composed of 300 members, exercised ultimate control over all public affairs, decided on peace and war, and nominated the Commission of Ten, which was entrusted with the duty of aiding and controlling the suffetes. The commission was subsequently replaced by a council of one hundred (Gr. gerousia). This tribunal, which gradually became tyrannical, met frequently at night in the Temple of Eshmun, on Byrsa, in secret sessions. The popular assembly was composed of those who possessed a certain property-qualification (translated into Gr. as t#mouchot). The election of the suffetes had to be ratified by this assembly. The two bodies were almost always in opposition. The army was recruited externally by senators who were sent to the great emporia or trade-centres, even to the most remote, to contract with local princes for men and officers. Payments were frequently in arrears; hence the terrible revolts such as that of the bellum inexpiabile. It was not till the 3rd century s.c. that Carthage, in imitation of the kings of Syria and Egypt, began to make use of elephants in war. In addition to the mercenaries, the army contained a legion composed of young men belonging to the best families in the state; this force was an important nursery of officers. The religion of Carthage was that of the Phoenicians. Over an army of minor deities (alonim and baalim) towered the trinity of Baal-Ammon, or Moloch; Tanit, the virgin goddess of the heavens and the moon, the Phoenician Astarte; and Eshmun, identified with Asklepios, protector of the acropolis. There were also special cults of Iolaus or Tammuz-Adonis, of Patechus or Pygmaeus,

a repulsive monster

like the Egyptian

Ptah, whose

images were placed on the prows of ships to frighten the enemy,

and the Tyrian Melkhart (Hercules).

The statue of this god

was carried to Rome after the siege of 146 B.c.

From the close of the 4th century s.c. the intimate relations between the Carthaginians and the Sicilian Greeks began to introduce Hellenic elements into this religion. In the forum of Carthage was a temple to Apollo containing a colossal statue, which was transported to Rome. The Carthaginians sent offerings to Delphi, and Tanit approximated to some extent to Demeter; hence on the coins we find the head of Tanit or the Punic Astarte

crowned with ears of corn, in imitation of the coins of the Greek

CARTHAGE Sicilian colonies. The symbol of Tanit is the crescent moon; in her temple at Carthage was preserved a famous veil which was venerated as the city’s palladium. On the votive stelae which have been unearthed, we find invocations to Tanit and Baal-Am-

mon (associate gods). Baal-Ammon or Moloch is represented as an old man with ram’s horns on his forehead; the ram is frequently found with his statues. He appears also with a scythe in his hand. At Carthage children were sacrificed to him, and in his temple there was a colossal bronze statue in the arms of which were placed the victims. The children slipped one by one from the arms into a furnace amid the plaudits of fanatical worshippers. (4) Roman Period.—In 122 3.c., the Roman senate, on the proposal of Rubrius, decided to plant a colony on the site of Carthage. C. Gracchus and Fulvius Flaccus were entrusted with the foundation of the new city, Colonia Iunonia, placed under the protection of Juno Caelestis. But its prosperity was obstructed both by unpropitious omens and by the very recollection of the ancient feud, and about 30 years later Marius, proscribed by Sulla, found the ruins practically deserted (see Marrus). In the neighbourhood were the scattered remnants of the old Punic population. They sent ambassadors to Mithridates, the king of Pontus, assuring him of their support against Rome. Ultimately M. Minucius Rufus passed a law abrogating that of 122 B.c. and suppressing the Colonia Junonia. Julius Caesar, pursuing the last supporters of Pompey, encamped on the ruins of the city. Returning to Rome, he despatched thither the poor citizens who were demanding land from him. Later Augustus sent new colonists, and, henceforward, the machinery of administration was regularly centred there. The proconsuls of the African province had hitherto lived at Utica. In 14 to 13 B.c., C. Sentius Saturninus transferred his headquarters to Carthage, which was henceforth known as Colonia Iulia Carthago. Pomponius Mela and Strabo already describe Carthage as among the greatest and most wealthy cities of the empire. Herodian puts it second to Rome. Virgil, in the Aeneid, celebrated the

94-7

self emperor in Africa, but the garrison of Carthage, which was hostile to the pretender, compelled L. Domitius Alexander to assume the purple. Domitius was however captured by Maxentius and strangled. About A.p 311 there arose the Donatist heresy, supported by 270 African bishops. At the synod of Carthage in AD. 411 this heresy was condemned owing to the eloquence of Augustine. Two years later the Carthaginian sectaries even ventured upon a political rebellion under the leadership of Heraclianus, who proclaimed himself emperor and actually dared to make a descent on Italy itself, leaving his son-in-law Sabinus in command at Carthage. Being defeated he fled to Carthage where he was put to death (A.D. 413). Donatism was followed by Pelagianism also of Carthaginian origin, and these religious troubles were not settled when in May a.p. 429 the Vandals, on the appeal of Count Boniface, governor of Africa, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and invaded Mauretania. Genseric appeared in A.D. 439 before the walls of Carthage, which had been hastily rebuilt by the order of Theodosius. Genseric entered almost without a blow and gave over the city to plunder before departing for his attack on Italy. From this time Carthage became, in the hands of the Vandals, a mere pirate stronghold. Once, in A.D. 470, the fleet of the Eastern empire under the orders of Basiliscus appeared in the Bay of Carthage, but Genseric succeeded in setting fire to the attacking ships and from Byrsa watched their entire annihilation.

(5) Byzantine Rule.—Under Genseric’s successors Carthage

was still the scene of many displays of savage brutality, though Thrasamund built new baths and a basilica. Gelimer, the last Vandal king, was defeated at Decimum by the Byzantine army under Belisarius, who entered Carthage unopposed (A.D. 553). The restored city now received the name of Colonia Iustiniana Carthago; Belisarius rebuilt the walls and entrusted the government to Solomion. At length the Arabs, having conquered Cyrenaica and Tripolitana (A.D. 647), and founded Kairawan (A.D. 670), arrived before Carthage. In A.D. 697 Hasan ibn en-Noman, the Gassanid governor of Egypt, captured the city almost without resistance. But identified ultimately colonists the misfortunes of Dido, whom the patrician Ioannes retook the city and put it in a state of dewith Tanit-Astarte; a public Dido-cult grew up. The religious fence. Hasan returned, defeated the Byzantines again, and decharacter of these legends reawakened the old distrust, and even creed the entire destruction of the city. In A.D. 698 Carthage reconthe forbade up to the invasions of the Vandals, Rome finally disappears from history. Once again only does the name struction of the city walls. The revolt of Clodius Macer, legate appear, in the middle ages, when the French king Louis IX., at At Carthage. by supported warmly was 68, A.D. in of Numidia, the head of the 8th crusade, disembarked there on July 17, 1270. the of the moment of the accession of Vitellius, Piso, governor BreciocrapHy.—Falbe, Recherches sur Vemplacement de Carthage province of Africa, was in his turn proclaimed emperor at Car- (1833); D. de la Malle, Topographie de Carthage (1835); Nathan famous the built was there Davis, Carthage and her remains (1861); Beulé, Fouilles à Carthage thage. Under Hadrian and Antoninus, Zaghwan aqueduct, which poured more than seven million gallons (1861) ; Victor Guérin, voyage archéologique dans le régence de Tunis Sainte Marie, Mission à Carthage (1884); C. Tissot, of water a day into the reservoirs of the Mapalia (La Malga). (1862); E. de de la province romaine d Afrique (1884-88) comparée Géographie forum. the of quarter Under Antoninus Pius, a fire devastated the 2 vol.; E. Babelon, Carthage (1896); Otto Meltzer, Geschichte der In the early history of Christianity Carthage played an auspi- Karthager (1879-96); Paul Monceaux, Les Africons, étude sur la cious part (see CARTHAGE, SyNops oF). The labours of Delattre littérature latine de V Afrique; Les patens (1898); Histoire littéraire (1901-09) ; Rallu de Lessert, Vicazres et comtes have filled the St. Louis Museum at Carthage with memorials of de Afrique chrétienne d'Afrique (1892); Fastes des provinces africaines sous la domination the early Church. From the end of the 2nd century there was a romaine (1896-1901) ; R. Cagnat, L’Armée romaine d'Afrique (1892) ; bishop of Carthage; the first was Agrippinus, the second Optatus. Ch. Diehl, L’afrique byzantine, histoire de la domination byzantine en J. At the head of the apologists, whom the persecutions inspired, Afrique (1896); Aug. Audollent, Carthage romaine (rogor); A. in “Story ọf the Nations” series Carthage Gilman, A. and where Church , amphitheatre the in 203, or 202 A.D. In stands Tertullian. (1886). For the numerous publications of Père Delattre, scattered in Cardinal Lavigerie erected a cross in commemoration, occurred various periodicals, see d'Anselme de Puisaye, Études sur les diverses the martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas. Tertullian was suc- publications du R. P. Delattre (1895); Mabel Moore, Carthage of ceeded (A.D. 248) by a no less famous bishop, Cyprian. About the Phoenicians (1905) ; Stephane Gsell, Histoire ancienne de PAfrique (1920); Dr. Carton, this time the proconsul Gordian had himself proclaimed (A.D. du Nord, vol. IV., la Civilisation carthaginoise

239) emperor at Thysdrus (El Jem).

Shortly afterwards Sabin-

ianus, aspiring to the same dignity, was besieged by the procurator of Mauretania; the inhabitants gave him up and thus obtained a disgraceful pardon. Peace being restored, the persecution of the Christians was renewed by an edict of Decius (A.D. 250). Cyprian escaped, and subsequently caused the heresy of Novatian to be condemned in the council of a.p. 251. In A.D. 257, in a new persecution under Valerian, Cyprian was beheaded by the proconsul Galerius Maximus. About A.D. 264 or 265 a certain Celsus proclaimed himself

emperor at Carthage, but was quickly slain. Probus, like Hadrian

and Severus, visited the city, and Maximian had new baths constructed. Under Constantius Chlorus, Maxentius proclaimed him-

Pour Visiter Carthage (Tunis, Among ancient authorities Livy, Appian, Justin, Strabo; Cyprian, Augustine; (c) for copius and Victor de Vita.

1924). are:— (a) Polybius, Diodorus, Siculus, (b) for the Christian period: Tertullian, the Byzantine and Vandal periods, Pro. BA.

CARTHAGE, a city in the Ozark region of south-west Mis-

souri, U.S.A., on Spring river, at an altitude of gsoft.; the county seat of Jasper county. It is on Federal highways 66 and 71, and is served by the Frisco, the Missouri Pacific and the Southwestern Missouri (electric) railways. The population in 1920 was 10,068; 1930 it was 9,736. The city has much natural and architectural

beauty. There are famous marble and white limestone quarries in the vicinity; also lead, zinc and coal mines. The city has marble and stone-cutting works, a large overall factory, and various

CARTHAGE—CARTHUSIANS

948

other manufacturing industries, with an output valued in 1925 at $3,566,620.

Besides marble and stone, it ships flour, strawberries

and other fruits, live stock, hides and furs. Carthage was founded in 1833; became the county seat in 1842; and was chartered as a city in 1873. On July 5, 1861, an indecisive skirmish took place between 3,500 Confederates and 1,500 Federal troops about 7m. N. of the city.

CARTHAGE, a village of Jefferson county, (N.Y.), U.S.A., 75m. N. by W. of Utica, on the Black river, 742ft. above sealevel, and served by the New York Central railroad. The popujation in 1930 Federal census 4,460. It is in a dairying and cheese-manufacturing region, and is within easy reach of the Thousand Islands and the western Adirondacks. Its industries include several paper-mills and foundries, and plants making paper-mill machinery, paper sizing, sash and blinds and lumber specialties. The village was incorporated in 1841.

CARTHAGE,

SYNODS OF. During the 3rd, 4th and sth

centuries the town of Carthage (g.v.) in Africa served as the meeting-place of a large number of church synods, of which, however, only the most important can be mentioned here. r. In May 251 a synod assembled under the presidency of Cyprian to consider the treatment of the laps: (those who had fallen away from the faith during persecution), and declared that the Japst should be dealt with, not with indiscriminate severity, but according to the degree of individual guilt. These decisions were confirmed by a synod of Rome in the autumn of the same year. 2. Two synods, in 255 and 256, held under Cyprian, pronounced against the validity of heretical baptism, thus taking direct issue with Stephen, bishop of Rome, who promptly repudiated them, and separated himself from the African Church. A third synod, September 256, unanimously reaffirmed the position of the other two. Stephen’s pretensions to authority as “bishop of bishops” were sharply resented, and for some time the relations of the Roman and African Churches were severely strained.

Bruno died in rror. On leaving the Chartreuse he had appointed a successor as superior, and the institute steadily became more settled and developed. There was no written rule before 1130, when Guigo, the fifth prior of the Grande Chartreuse, reduced to writing the body of

customs that had been the basis of Carthusian life (Migne, Patrol, Lat. cliii. 631); enlargements and modifications of this code were made in 1259, 1367, 1509 and 1681: this last form of the statutes is the present Carthusian rule. The life is very nearly eremitical: except on Sundays and feasts, the Carthusians meet only three times a day in the church—

for the Midnight Office, for Mass and for Vespers; once a week, on Sundays (and feasts) they have their meal in the refectory, and once a week they have recreation together and a walk outside enclosure; the rest of their time is passed in solitude in their hermitages, which are built quite separate from one another. Each hermitage is a house, containing living-room, bedroom and oratory, workshop and store-room, and has a small garden attached; the monks are supplied with such tools as they wish, and with such

books as they need from the library. The manner of life has been kept up almost without variation for eight centuries: among the Carthusians there have never been any of those revivals and reforms that are so striking a feature in the history of other orders—“never reformed, because never deformed.” ‘The Carthusians have always lived thus wholly cut off from the outer world, each one in almost entire isolation. They introduced and have kept up in western Europe a life resembling that of the early Egyptian monks, as under St. Anthony’s guidance monasticism passed from the utter individualism of the first her-

mits to the half eremitical, half cenobitical life of the Lauras (see MonasTICIsm ). The first English Charterhouse was established in 1178 at Witham by Selwood Forest, and at the Dissolution there were nine, the most celebrated being those at Sheen in Surrey and at

Smithfield in London. The Carthusians were the only order that made any corporate resistance to the ecclesiastical policy of Henry 3. The “Conference of Carthage” (see Donatists), held by imperial command in 411 with a view to terminating the Donatist VIII. The community of the London Charterhouse stood firm, schism, while not strictly a synod, was nevertheless one of the and the prior and several of the monks were put to death in 1535 most important assemblies in the history of the African church, under circumstances of barbarous cruelty. In Mary’s reign a community was reassembled at Sheen, and on her death it emigrated, and, indeed of the whole Christian church. 4. On the rst of May 418 a great synod (“A Council of Africa,” fifteen in number, to Flanders, and finally settled in Nieuport; it St. Augustine calls it), which assembled under the presidency of maintained itself as a British community for a considerable Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, to take action concerning the errors time, but gradually dwindled, and the last of the old British Carof Caelestius, a disciple of Pelagius (g.v.), denounced the Pelagian thusian stock died in 1831. There is now a Charterhouse in Britain dectrines of human nature, original sin, grace and perfectibility, established at Parkminster in Sussex in 1833; the community for and fully approved the contrary views of Augustine. Prompted the most part is made up of foreigners. At the French Revolution the monks were driven from the by the reinstatement by the bishop of Rome of a deposed African priest, the synod enacted that “whoever appeals to a court on Grande Chartreuse, but they returned in 1816; they were again the other side of the sea (meaning Rome) may not again be re- driven out under the Association Laws of rgo1, and the community of the Grand Chartreuse is now settled in an old Certosa near ceived into communion by any one in Africa” (canon 17). 5. The question of appeals to Rome occasioned two synods, Lucca. Of late years the community of the Grande Chartreuse one in 419, the other in 424. The latter addressed a letter to the has consisted of some 40 choir-monks and 20 lay brothers. Before bishop of Rome, Celestine, protesting against his claim to ap- the expulsions of 1901 there were in all some 20 Charterhouses pellate jurisdiction, and urgently requesting the immediate recall in France. A word may be added as to the famous liqueur, known as of his legate, and advising him to send no more judges to Africa. See Hefele, Church Councils, and ed. Eng. tr. vol. i. and ii, and Chartreuse, made by the monks. At the Revolution the property of the Carthusians was confiscated, and on their restoration they general works on Church History. CARTHUSIANS, an order of monks founded by St. Bruno recovered only the barren desert in which the monastery stood, (qg.v.). In 1084 Bruno and his six companions presented them- and for it they had to pay rent. Thus they were for some years selves before the bishop of Grenoble and explained to him their in want even of the needful means of subsistence. Then the desire to lead an ascetic life in a solitary place. He pointed out to liqueur was invented as a means of supplying the wants of the them a desolate spot named Chartreuse, on the mountains near community; it became a great commercial success and produces Grenoble, rocky and precipitous, and snow-covered during a great a large yearly income. This income the monks have not spent on portion of the year, and told them they might there carry out their themselves, nor does it accumulate. The first charge is the maindesign. They built themselves three huts and an oratory, and gave tenance of the Grande Chartreuse and the other Charterhouses, themselves up to a life of prayer, silence and extreme austerity. and out of it have been built and established the new monasteries After a few years Bruno was summoned to Rome by Urban IIL., of the order, as at Diisseldorf, Parkminster and elsewhere; but by as an adviser in the government of the Church, c. rogo; but after far the largest portion has been spent on religious and charitable a year or so he obtained permission to withdraw from Rome, and purposes in France and all over the world. was able to found in the forests of Calabria near Squillace a sec- _ AuTHORITIES.—Reference to histories, old and new, will be found ond, and later on a third and a fourth monastery, on the same lines in Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1896), i. § 36; Wetzer as the Chartreuse. At one of these south Italian foundations und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), art. “Karthiuserorden”; Herzog-

CARTIER—CARTOON Hauck, Realencyklopidie (ed. 3), art. “Karthauser” and the Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. iii, art. “Carthusians.” For the English Carthusians, see KE. Margaret Thompson, Somerset Carthusians (1895), and Dom L. Hendriks, London Charterhouse (1889). The best account of the actual life is by Algar Thorold (Dublin Review, April 1892), who

spent some months in the noviciate at the Grande Chartreuse.

CARTIER,

SIR GEORGES

ETIENNE,

Bart. (1814-

1873), Canadian statesman, was born in the province of Quebec on Sept. 6, 1814. Called to the bar in 1835 he gained a large practice. He took part in the rebellion of 1837, and spent some time in exile. In 1848 he was elected to the Canadian parliament. In 1855 he was appointed provincial secretary and in 1857 attorney-general for Lower Canada. From 1858-62 he and Sir John Macdonald were joint prime ministers of Canada, and their alliance lasted till the death of Cartier. He promoted many useful measures, such as the abolition of seigneurial tenure in Lower Canada and the codification of the civil law of that province (1857-64). To his energy and fearless optimism are largely due the eventual success of the Grand Trunk railway and the resolve to construct the Canadian Pacific. In the face of great opposition he carried his native province into federation (1864-67), which would have been impossible without his aid. In the first cabinet of Sir John Macdonald he sat as minister of militia and defence, and carried in 1868 an important act establishing the land forces of Canada on a sound basis. Though a devout Catholic, he became involved in a political quarrel with his Church, and was defeated by clerical influence at the general election of 1872. Another seat was found for him, but his health failed and he died on May 20, 1873. The Life, by Alfred O. De Celles (Toronto, 1904), may be suppleaie by the sketch in Dent’s Canadian Portrait Gallery (Toronto, 1880).

CARTIER, JACQUES

(1491-1557), French navigator, dis-

coverer of the Canadian river St. Lawrence, was born at St. Malo in Brittany. Of his early life nothing is known. On the suppression by Admiral Chabot of the trade to Brazil, an expedition consisting of two ships and 61 men was despatched from St. Malo under Cartier on April 20, 1534, to look for a north-west passage to the East. Cartier reached Newfoundland on May ro and entered the strait of Belle Isle. On June 15 Cartier set sail for the south side of the strait, by following which he was led down almost the whole west coast of Newfoundland. Off St. George’s bay a storm drove the ships out into the gulf, but on resuming his course Cartier fell in with the Bird Rocks. The island south of these he

named Brion island, after Chabot (g.v.). Cartier mistook Magdalen and Prince Edward islands for the main shore on the south side of this inland sea. Following the coast of New Brunswick northward he was greatly disappointed to discover Chaleur bay was not a strait. During a ten days’ stay in Gaspé harbour Cartier made friends with a tribe of Huron-Iroquois Indians from Quebec, two of whom he carried off with him. On discovering the passage between the island of Acosti and the Quebec shore it was decided to postpone the exploration of this strait until the following year. Heading eastward along the Quebec shore, Cartier soon regained the strait of Belle Isle and reached St. Malo on Sept. 5. Cartier set sail again from St. Malo with three vessels on May 16, 1536, and passing through the strait of Belle Isle anchored on Aug. 9 in Pillage Bay, opposite Anticosti, which he named the bay of St. Lawrence, a name which spread to the gulf and finally to the river. Proceeding through the passage north of Anticosti, Cartier anchored on Sept. 1 at the mouth of the Saguenay, which the two Indians informed him was the name of a kingdom “rich and wealthy in precious stones.” Again on reaching the island of Orleans they told Cartier he was now in the kingdom of Canada, in reality the Huron-Iroquois word for village. Leaving his two larger vessels in the St. Charles which there enters the St. Lawrence, Cartier set off westward with the bark and the long-boats. The former grounded in lake St. Peter, but in the latter he reached

on Oct. 2 the Huron-Iroquois village of Hochelaga on the site of the city of Montréal. Further progress was checked by the Lachine rapid. On his return to the St. Charles, where during the

winter 25 men died of scurvy, Cartier sought further information

949

about the rich country called Saguenay, which he was informed could be reached more easily by way of the Ottawa. In order to give Francis I. authentic information of this northern Mexico, Cartier seized the chief and 11 of the headmen of the village and carried them off to France. This time he passed south of Anticosti and, entering the Atlantic through Cabot strait, reached St. Malo on July 16, 1537. In the spring of 1541 Cartier set sail with five vessels and took up his quarters at Cap Rouge, gm. above Quebec. The seigneur de Roberval had been chosen to command; but when he did not arrive, Cartier made a fresh examination of the rapid of Lachine, preparatory to sending the men up the river Ottawa. Roberval at length set sail in April 1542, but on reaching St. John’s, Newfoundland, met Cartier on his way back to France. In the summer of 1543 Cartier was sent out to bring home Roberval, whose attempt to make his way up the Ottawa to this mythical Saguenay had proved futile. From 1544 until his death at St. Malo, on Sept. 1, 1557, Cartier appears to have done little else than give technical advice in nautical matters and act as Portuguese interpreter. BrsLiocraPHy.—Cartier’s Brief récit et succincte narration de la navigation faicte es ysles de Canada ... was first printed in 1545; an English translation was made by Richard Hakluyt in his The Principal Navigations, vol. ii. (1600). J. P. Baxters Memoir of Jacques Cartier (New York, 1906), contains an English translation and a detailed bibliography. See also The Voyages of Jacques Cartier, edited by H. P. Biggar (Publications of the Public Archives of Canada,

No. ii.; Ottawa, 1924).

CARTILAGE, the firm elastic and gristly connective tissue in vertebrates.

CARTON,

(See CONNECTIVE TISSUES and JoINTS.)

R. C. (13853-1928), English playwright, whose

real name was RicHARD CLAUDE CRITCHETT, was born in London, the son of a well-known ophthalmic surgeon. He began to play in the provinces at the age of 22, making his first real hit in 1888 at St. James’s hall in a play called Such is the Law, and from that time had considerable success as an actor. He presently entered into partnership with Cecil Raleigh in writing plays, the first of their joint productions being the Great Pink Pearl (1885) with Mrs. Carton (Katherine Mackenzie Compton) as the Russian princess. In 1891 Carton began to write regularly for Sir George Alexander. Many of his later pieces were written for Miss Compton, a good example of these being Lady Huniworth’s Experiment. The Carton plays were a clever mixture of comedy and farce. One

of the best of these light pieces was Lord and Lady Algy (1898). Carton died at Acton, London, on April 1, 1928. Miss Compton’s most successful parts were those portraying the imperturbable great lady, although she also played a number of parts in classic comedy. She made her name in the pieces written for her by her husband. Miss Compton, always known under her maiden name, died on May 16, 1925, at Acton.

CARTON.

A light cardboard box, used for packing small

articles of many kinds, including foods, confectionery, tobacco, stationery, medicines, dentifrices, soaps, household pastes, light hardware, etc. The careful packing of such goods is one of the remarkable changes in industrial and commercial methods which marked the opening of the 2oth century. In the old days, teas, soaps, tobacco, and other such things were weighed at the counter and packed loosely in paper and string, if packed at all. The growth of proprietary articles and special brands, in addition to a desire for cleaner handling, has changed all that, and carton-making has consequently become a very big industry, employing many people in every great industrial nation throughout the world.

(See Box MAKING.)

CARTOON,

originally a preliminary drawing, executed to

full scale and often in colour, of the design to be carried out in tapestry, mosaic, mural painting, or other work of art, and usually upon a heavy or durable paper. The cartoon when used for tapes-

try is usually placed in the loom so that the weaver can see it clearly just below his work, for which it acts as a guide. In the more common parlance of to-day, the word means a drawing, distributed publicly by the press or by means of handbills or posters, which crystallizes some current trend of thought

into pictorial form often humorous and derisive.

(W. E. Cx.)

959

CARTOON

UNITED STATES The political cartoon has come into greater general use in the United States than in any other country. Almost every daily paper uses either a syndicated cartoon or one drawn by a staff artist. The cartoon’s worth is based on its instantaneous exposition of an idea. The very specific character of the drawn picture precludes anything except a direct attack. There is no qualification in it— it says but one thing and that at a glance. Herein lies its virtue and its limitation. The cartoon of approbation is rarely successful. To say a man is a good man in a cartoon carries little force; but if the artist can say that he is corrupt or unworthy, then he is wielding a weighty club. All cartoons, however, need not be bitter to be effective. Humour plays an important part in their appeal. Ridicule is one of the most potent weapons in the world when turned into social and political channels, The cartoon in America roughly divides itself into two schools. In one, the homely, quasi-rural setting and characters are presented somewhat in the manner of the comic “strip.” John Mc-

publican or Democratic Uncle Sam) where they “get off.” In his gayer moments he welcomes transatlantic flyers and channel swimmers and, in his sadder moments, stands with bowed head at the death of a public man of importance. He is ubiquitous, untir-

ing and a good deal of a bore, Yet the management of a daily cartoon would be difficult without his valuable services. The influence of the cartoon is doubtless a very considerable one in the formation of public opinion; for the public at large can comprehend the simple message of the drawn picture, whereas the reading of long editorials entails a much greater sustained effort on their part. A few of the weekly magazines use a political cartoon; but here we find the methods of the comic “strip” used rather than the sterner forms of satire. It would appear that, on

the whole, the editors of the United States feel that a cheerful,

simple, innocuous appeal is preferable to a more mordant presentation of pictorial ideas. Many of the cartoons of the extreme left wing of the Socialist party are of great force, full of bitterness and class antagonism. Because of the restricted circulation of the Cutcheon of the Chicago Tribune is the chief exponent of this, papers in which they appear, they are little known to the public, by far the more numerous, group. The chief characteristics of On the whole, the cartoons of the daily press fairly well represent non-critical, exthese artists are usually a cheerful humour, a multitude of little the mind of the American public in its tolerant, (R. K.) figures engaged in violent action, comic animals and a generous cessively partisan point of view. labelling of persons and objects. In these pictures the sudden imTHEORY OF DESIGN, TECHNIQUE AND MATERIALS pact of the idea is diffused through the multiplicity of incident. “Balloons,” those bits of conversation surrounded with a wire line,

must be read as well as the labels attached to the figures in order that the artist’s idea may be comprehended. The other school deals in a starker form of pictorial representation. Here the meaning explodes at first glance. Everything exterior to the single idea is eliminated. This method is derived from the French of which Forain is the leading exponent. Also, it may be noted that the execution of this second group is of higher artistic merit or at least aspiration. There is a greater sophistication, both in conception and execution in these cartoons, and they imply an audience of more mature thought than do those of the cheery, bucolic nature which abound in the country’s press. Through syndication, cartoons reach even the smallest papers so that the country is thoroughly supplied with its daily picture. The syndicate, however, having to serve all sorts of papers in all sorts of communities, has softened the “attack” quality in most of this product so that the result has been a more or less negative, qualified picture which is guaranteed to offend no one and therefore has lost most of its pungency. Lacking that virility, it has come to be simply a thing of entertainment wherein the annals of the great middle class are set forth in terms of simplicity. There is growing up in the daily press a social cartoon which is based upon a close observation of urban life—a sort of picture which has no relation to politics or public affairs, but sets forth some phase of life with either sympathy or satire. Dennis Wortman of the New York World is the best representative of this interesting form. One of the handicaps which confront the cartoonist is the paucity of symbols through which he must express himself. Through repetition the various devices become worn and threadbare; ‘yet there is no escape from them for they have become established in the public’s mind and any variant or change would obscure the meaning of the message the cartoonist wishes to convey. The G.O.P. elephant; the Democratic donkey (both originated by Thos. Nast in the days when he fought the Tweed ring); the weedy individual labelled “Prohibition”; the round Nihilist bomb with the sputtering fuse; the apoplectic, silk-hatted individual who becomes “Wall Street” or “The Interests” or “The Trusts”; the meek, side-whiskered, spectacled creature who re-

ceives the brick Labour hurls at Capital and who is labelled “The Common People”—all these and more form the standardized little group of puppets with which the cartoonist must work. The figure of Uncle Sam is the most overworked of all. Each day he looks

sternly out at the world from his place on the editorial page and

views with alarm, warns, dictates, with pontifical fervour. Rarely

The word cartoon will no doubt be associated mainly and lastingly with such drawings as have a political or social significance and which, unlike the ordinary run of picture comicalities, stimulate thought on public affairs. Materials and Methods of Reproduction.—To account for the material that cartoonists have used to get the best results one’s field for investigation dates from the first Philipon publications (Paris 1830) to the present time. The instruments used for

drawing cartoons determine to a large extent the technique. The pencil and the pen have been the favourite tools of the cartoonist all along, the pencil holding first place in order of practicability. The pencil is used in learning to draw, and thus pencil drawings have a more intimate appearance than those done with a pen. Pen drawing is more of an acquired art, and is preferred by some masters of the cartoon because of its directness. In a sense, it is shorthand, A line must suggest more than is there; moreover, it must convey the feeling of substance—not merely the edge of something. Take for example the pen drawings of Gulbransson of Simplicissimus and “Phil May” of Punch, the former extremely grotesque, the latter but mildly exaggerated. Both cartoonists give the impression of knowing all about their subject, though they express it with the minimum of linear simplicity. Forain in his early work was another master of brevity, though he used a fine brush much as one would use a pen (see ArT, FAR

EASTERN Metuops).

Caran d’Ache drew pen

and ink outline cartoons that strongly resembled the lines made by an etching needle on copper plate. On the other hand Heinrich Kley of Jugend tossed his pen lines like a juggler, making gestures as if about to miss, but always impressing one with his facility in creating amazing fantasies of nudes and animals, Charles Dana Gibson uses the pen as if cutting his way through his composition, the lines falling casually all about; many go part of the way only, leaving the rest to the imagination of the observer.

Two

political cartoonists, Tenniel of Punch

and Nast of

Harper’s Weekly, produced much of their work on wood-blocks.

When it was later discovered, however, that a cartoon drawn on paper could be photographed on the wood, paper was used almost exclusively. Wood-cut cartoons were line drawings executed with a pen or sharp pencil, the latter quite similar to a pen point. Both

Nast and Tenniel, who were contemporary, put a good deal of shading on their drawings, Nast used the cross-hatch abundantly, a method of shading produced by drawing a lot of more or less parallel lines and then going over them with other lines at right angles. Tenniel cross-hatched sparingly and shaded faces less than

does he laugh, for he is the Federal voice, and as such, deals only in Nast. weighty matters. He tells kings, potentates, labour unions, corrupt office-holders, swindling trusts (depending on whether he is a Re-

Some cartoonists play sketchily with the

pen, while others prefer a rigid outline.

Tenniel had more knowledge of accurate draughtsman-

ship, whereas Nast had a clumsy way of drawing all his own.

Much of his work was comedy, but he had a biting satire and

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1. “Why they dislike him—He will not prove himself a cat’s-paw in the enterprise’ by Bernhard Gillam. This cartoon, printed in September 1884, shows Cleveland defying corruption during his campaign against James G. Blaine for the presidency

LATE

19TH

CENTURY

FROM

PUCK

2. “They Hate the Light but they can’t escape it” by J. Keppler, pubThe Press is represented as throwing the lished March 26, 1890. light of publicity on the secret executive sessions of the U. S. Senate

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KLEY, “SAMMELALBUM,”

SOCIAL 1. “Why don’t they go to the country?” a cartoon which appeared in The Masses, Aug. 1913;

(A. LANGEN),

AND

by George Bellows, an example of the

from a drawing by Alice Beach Winter,

published in

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of that

country.

A giant

satanic

“SIMPLICISSIMUS

POLITICAL

starker form of cartooning which was used widely in this magazine. The meaning is evident at a glance and all details contribute to the impression. Cartoons of this type are usually propagandist, intended to sway popular feeling and bring about reforms

2. “Discrimination”

(4)

figure

is

”

CARTOONS stopping production completely the smokestacks with his hand

by crushing the mil! and blocking

4. “Fiume,” drawing by 0. Guibransson which appeared in Simplicissimus, a Munich weekly, following D’Annunzio’s occupation of Fiume in 1919. D’Annunzio, the figure on the horse, is brandishing his sword and defying President Wilson, who protested that the Italian had no right in Fiume. The picture when published carried the legend, “How easily even the smallest Europeans manage to ride over the greatest American ideas.’’

5. “The Bachelor Girl,” by John Sloan.

The Masses, Feb. 1915

CARTOON naturally the Democratic press sometimes referred to his work as “those nasty cartoons.” What cartoonists draw with or what they draw on is of course not so important as what is drawn and how well it is done. A real artist can produce very good results with an old piece of charcoal on a barn door, but to have his work widely circulated, and that after all is what a cartoonist desires, he has been led to many experiments in reproduction. Daumier was doing his political cartoons and caricaturing life all about him, on stone; Cruikshank, at the same time, was producing his pictorial satires on copper and steel plates, ploughing through the lines of his drawing with an etching needle, making him both designer and engraver. William Blake at an earlier date did most of his work in the same way. Both processes have long since fallen into disuse except for exclusive reproduction. A remarkable facility was acquired by these artists on wood, steel and stone, in spite of the fact that mistakes made on these surfaces were hard to correct. However, the wood could be dug out and another piece glued in, the metal could be burnished and the stone could be scratched, but obviously with tedious effort and loss of time. Most cartoons seen in the publications of the 2oth ‘century are drawn with a black crayon pencil or pen. Some cartoonists use both instruments on the same drawing. A brush is sometimes used for ready distribution of blacks. When the crayon pencil is employed the paper used has a surface similar to the lithograph stone, to all appearances quite smooth, but with a slightly rough surface

(in the technical term, a “tooth” to it). Both pen drawings and those drawn with a crayon lend themselves to that most widely

used process of engraving called zinc-etching (q¢.v.). This is also called the direct process as distinguished from the half-tone process, which is the popular way of reproducing drawings having soft gradations of light and shade, executed with a brush and water colour or rubbed in with the thumb or cloth. Zinc-etching is the universal process for making plates ready for printing cartoons done with a black crayon or pen and ink (see PRINTING). Theory of Design and Technique.—In the handling of pen and ink there are no rules, except those born of the artist’s own feeling. The trite remark, “It is merely a matter of taste,” describes the various degrees that artists go in modelling, shading and the other requirements within the main outline of their pen and ink composition. Materials and methods of reproduction are merely incidental in the world of successful cartooning; the main factors lie in the ability to invent ideas, to compose pictures and to understand the value of emphasis. Creating ideas can become habitual. As the cartoonist looks about him he sees in the every-day walks of life scenes that he thinks might apply to political situations. These ideas he notes and stores away in his subconscious mind, some day to develop and release as cartoons. Like the poet and the dramatist, he gets suggestions from the natural scene, from wide and purposeful reading, or from cartoons that have been produced in another era, endeavouring to improve them. We might say that the cartoonist is like the dramatist and, carrying the simile further, that the surface on which he draws is at once his stage-floor and proscenium arch. Within this area he creates a scene.

951

mythology, Aesop’s Fables and other classics, which were made analogous to situations in the English parliament, the U.S. Congress, or other seats of legislation. Later the ideas, especially in America, became less “high brow.” Ideas that were supposed not to be “above the heads of the people” were thought by editors to be more popular. As if the common man had to know all about Macbeth before the cartoonist could dress up a politician in a Macbeth costume and put a Macbeth quotation underneath his picture! Once the cartoonist has decided on his idea, then comes the composition of the cartoon. Good composing also is something one must feel, as there are no set rules. But just as in literature and all of the arts, to compose well is to feel a balanced harmony or completeness, which means that the cartoonist has relegated to second place the ‘less essential features of the scene and stressed the most important, that he is alive to the value of contrasts and above all knows when it is time to leave off, having said enough. How much caricature or exaggeration to put into one’s cartoon is also a matter of individual preference. What might be called the excessive grotesque appeals to some cartoonists. Others incline more toward a slightly emphasized naturalism, for example Braakensiek of De Amsterdammer. If a public man is fat and his nose is long, good caricature in the opinion of some caricaturists is to magnify these characteristics very much-—to pile Pelion on Ossa. To others the natural is almost funny enough and needs but a subtle emphasis. Cartoon Publications.—From about 1870 to 1890 the political cartoon printed in colours was popular in Europe and became so in the United States during the late ’yos, when Joseph Keppler started Puck. Keppler first experimented with Puck in st. Louis, at that time printing it from the stone in black and white only. When the St. Louis Puck was abandoned Keppler came to New York and drew cartoons on wood for Leslie’s Weekly. In a few years, Adolph Schwarzman, a foreman printer of Leslie’s, joined Keppler in organizing the Keppler and Schwarzman Company, and revived the name Puck for the humorous weekly that later became famous, popular and a financial success. The new Puck resembled the general format of the coloured cartoon papers of Europe, especially La Flaca in Madrid and Barcelona and Humoristische Blätter in Vienna. In Australia, where Phil May started his career and that droll caricaturist Hopkins, “Hop,” was a pioneer, the production of cartoons has been mostly in black-and-white. However, the tendency of these later years on the weekly humorous magazines is the use of one or two colours over pen and ink or crayon cartoons —the result of which is posterized attractiveness. Steinlen was one of the first draftsmen to use red as an accompaniment to black crayon drawings. Wilke, Heine, Thony and others of Simplicissimus use flat colours, as do other cartoonists of Europe, especially in Russia. In Mexico also much of the cartooning is simply coloured. The coloured cartoons of Keppler, like Gillam’s and others on the staff of Puck, were drawn on and printed directly from the stone. The first printing, in black ink, was called the key-plate. Then followed the printing on this key-plate impression from other stones to register reds, blues and other colours in facsimile

Doré was one of the most dramatic draughtsmen of any period of art. Had he succeeded Daumier as a cartoonist instead of be- to the cartoonist’s water-colour design. The decline of the coloured coming the illustrator of literary classics there can be no doubt political cartoons and weekly cartoon magazines in general was he would have been an extraordinary propagandist, a great due, no doubt, to the fact that daily newspapers had begun to portrayer of affairs, for in the realm of both tragedy and comedy employ cartoonists (this was about 1890) and to print coloured and in composing pictures that get “over the footlights,” his work comic supplements. These supplements were “thrown in” for the price of the newspaper. This innovation in newspaper publishing was always “cartoony.” The public will not admit that an actor can be both a tragedian was made possible by the invention of the fast multi-coloured In the beginning, these supplements sometimes and a comedian, but they expect this duality in a cartoonist. printing press. Keppler, Tenniel, Nast, Daumier, Doré, Steinlen, Felicien Rops, printed coloured political cartoons in imitations of those in Puck John Leech and many other draughtsmen of the past were skilful and Judge. As a result of all this the principal humorous weeklies of that in depicting both humorous and serious ideas. The ideas of these early notables in black and white drawing, with few exceptions, day were not so much in public demand. But just as interest in also reveal minds with cultural backgrounds. Most of the political the wood-cut and the lithograph is being revived, so the political cartoonists of the roth century, especially Tenniel, Leech, Nast cartoon in colours may have another day. The cartoon magazine and C. G. Bush of the New York World, often illustrated ideas Life was born a decade later than Puck and Judge. It opened a that were suggested by their reading of Shakespeare, Greek somewhat different field for artists. This magazine never had a

952

CARTOUCHE—CARTWRIGHT

staff in the sense that Punch and Puck were produced by a staff of artists regularly employed. John Ames Mitchell, the founder and first editor, was an artist himself, and in the first numbers of the magazine can be seen his pen and ink drawings. However, he is better known as an author. Life was not as political as its older contemporaries and was printed for many years without the use of colour. It indulged mostly in ridicule of social foibles and surveyed the American scene from the editor’s amiable viewpoint, but not without occasional thrusts at the evils of commercialism, the law, the medical profession and other institutions. While the Latin Quarter artists of Paris issued protesting magazines in the beginning of the present 20th century, it is generally conceded that one of the most artistic and at the same time shocking magazines was published in America. The magazine was called The Masses, the first number appearing in 1910 and: the last in 1918. Its existence was due largely to one fact: an artist is an individualist; he wants to express himself in his own way. Many artists who believed that the sordid and the vulgar, the cruelties and hypocrisies that manifest themselves in this age of the industrial machine, should be ridiculed and caricatured without stint, joined the staff of The Masses. Then, too, the conventional magazine with its trite and formal make-up and its many taboos, was sooner or later doomed to become a target for the iconoclast artists. The pretty girl cover was the vogue when

The Masses was started. One of its earliest cover designs was a picture of two poor, homely girls. One of them is saying: “Gee,

sented to the Government urging the benefits that had been conferred on the country by the power-loom, and the House of Commons voted him £10,000 in 1809. He then purchased a small farm at Hollander, near Sevenoaks, Kent, where he spent many years of his life. He died at Hastings, on Oct. 30, 1823. Other inven-

tions of Cartwright’s included a corderlier or machine for making

rope (1792), and an engine working with alcohol (1797), together with various agricultural implements.

CARTWRIGHT,

JOHN

(1740-1824),

English

parlia-

mentary reformer, was born at Marnham in Nottinghamshire on Sept. 17, 1740, the elder brother of Edmund Cartwright, inventor of the power-loom. He was educated at Newark grammar school and Heath academy in Yorkshire, and entering the navy served at

the capture of Cherbourg, and in the action between Sir Edward Hawke and Admiral Conflans. Engaged afterwards on the Newfoundland station, he was appointed to act as chief magistrate of the settlement (1765-1770). Tll-health necessitated his retirement from active service for a time in 1771. When the disputes with the American colonies began, he was a warm supporter of their cause, and declined to fight against the cause which he felt to be just. “In 1774 he published his first plea on behalf of the

colonists, entitled American Independence the Glory and Interest of Great Britain. In the following year, when the Nottinghamshire Militia was first raised, he was appointed major and in

this capacity he served for 17 years. He was at last illegally superseded, because of his political opinions. In 1776 appeared Mag, think of us being on a magazine cover.” On the art staff his first work on reform in parliament, entitled, Take your Choice of The Masses were John Sloan, George Bellows, Charles A. —a second edition appearing in 1777 under the new title of The Winter, Cornelia Barns, Maurice Becker, Glenn O. Coleman, H. J. Legislative Rights of the Commonalty vindicated. The task of Glintenkamp, K. R. Chamberlain, Boardman Robinson and Art Young. With a natural aptitude for pictorial expression, with patience and hard work, the cartoonist creates ideas, composes pictures

and puts exaggeration or mere emphasis where he thinks they belong. But a cartoonist cannot produce convincing cartoons that will live, more than an author can produce good books, unless he feels the truth of his work. (See also CARICATURE; Comic STRIP; Pen DrawrnG; PencIL DRAWING; ILLUSTRATION.) (AR. Y.)

CARTOUCHE.

The term is applied in architecture to or-

namentation in scroll form, especially to the elaborate, scrolled frames around tablets or coats of arms; by extension, the word is applied to any oval shape, or even to a decorative shield, whether scrolled or not. The word is also used for the oval frame enclosing the hieroglyphs of the name of an Egyptian royal personage, and also for the amulet of similar shape, commonly worn by men and women in ancient Egypt, as a protection against the loss of their names, z.¢. personalities.

his life was thenceforth chiefly the attainment of universal suffrage and annual parliaments. In 1778 he conceived the project of a political association, which took shape in 1780 as the “Society

for Constitutional Information.” From this society sprang the more famous “Corresponding Society.” Major Cartwright was one of the witnesses on the trial of his friends, Horne Tooke, John Thelwall and Thomas Hardy, in 1794 and was himself indicted for conspiracy in 1819, and condemned to pay a fine of £100. He died in London on Sept. 23, 1824. He had married in 1780, but had no children. The Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, ed. by his niece F. D. Cartwright, was. published in 1826.

CARTWRIGHT, PETER (1785-1872), Methodist Episcopal preacher of the United States, was born on Sept. 1, 1785, in Amherst county, Virginia. His father, a veteran of the War of Independence, in 1790 took his family to Kentucky. Here Peter

Cartwright grew up amid the rude surroundings of the frontier, received little education, and was a gambler at cards and horseCARTRIDGE (corruption of Fr. cartouche), a case, of brass racing until 1801, when he heard John Page preach. In June he or other metal, cardboard, silk, flannel, etc., containing an explo- was received into the church; in May, 1802 was licensed as a sive charge, and usually the projectile also, for small arms and regular exhorter, becoming known as the “Kentucky boy”; in ordnance. (See AMMUNITION.) the autumn of 1802 was licensed to form the Livingston circuit CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND (1743-1823), English inven- around the mouth of the Cumberland river; in 1806 was ordained tor, younger brother of Maj. John Cartwright, was born at Marn- deacon by Bishop Asbury, and in 1808 presiding elder by Bishop ham, Nottinghamshire, on April 24, 1743, and educated at McKendree, under whose direction he had studied theology. He Wakefield grammar school and at Oxford university. In 1779 he was presiding elder of the Wabash district in 1812, and of Green became rector of Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire, and in 1786 river district in 1813-16, and, after four years on circuit in Kena prebend in the cathedral of Lincoln. He would probably have tucky and two as presiding elder of the Cumberland district, was passed an obscure life as a country clergyman had not his atten- transferred in 1823 to the Illinois conference, in which he was tion been accidentally turned in 1784 to the possibility of apply- presiding elder of different districts until 1869. Until 1856 he ing machinery to weaving. He invented a power-loom, for which preached about 14,600 times, received about 10,000 persons into he took out a patent in 1785; it was a rude contrivance, though it the church, and baptized about 12,000 persons. He died near was improved by subsequent patents in 1786 and 1787, and gradu- Pleasant Plains, Sangamon county, IN., Sept. 25, 1872. He was a ally developed into the modern power-loom. Removing to Don- typical backwoods preacher, an able, vigorous speaker, a racy caster In 1785, he started a weaving and spinning factory, but in writer and a powerful exponent of “muscular Christianity.” 1793 he had to surrender it to his creditors. A mill at ManchesSee the Autobiography of Peter Cartwright, the Backwoods Preacher, ter, in which a number of his machines were installed, was wil- edited by W. P. Strickland (1856); also D. C. Seitz, Uncommon Americans (1925). fully destroyed by fire in 1791. In 1789 he patented a wool-combing machine, for which he took out further patents in 1790 and CARTWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1835-1912), 1792; it effected large economies in the cost of manufacture, but Canadian statesman, was born in Kingston, Canada, on Dec. 4, its financial results were not more satisfactory to its inventor than 1835, son of an army chaplain. In 1863 he entered the Canadian those of the power-loom, even though in 1801 parliament ex- parliament as a Conservative, but soon after federation in 1867 tended the patent for 14 years. In 1807 a memorial was pre- quarrelled with his party on the question of their financial policy.

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1913 and since reprinted widely. The picture carried 1. Cartoon first printed in The Masses in May go! You're tired. Here | be a-standin’ over a hot this dialogue, “1 Gorry, Pm tired.” “There you ' Price of

stove

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manner

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2. “Beast and Man’? and 3. “The drawing, as distinguished from the cruder

CARTWRIGHT—CARVAJAL By 1870 the breach was complete, and in 1873 he became finance minister of the Liberal ministry of Alexander Mackenzie. From

1878 to 1896 he was the chief financial critic on the side of the Liberal opposition, and on the accession of Sir Wilfrid Laurier to power in 1896 he became minister of trade and commerce. In 1898-99 he represented Canada on the Anglo-American joint high commission at Quebec. In 1904 failing health led to his retirement to the senate. In Sir Wilfrid Laurier’s absence at the Imperial Conference 1907 he was acting premier. Cartwright died on Sept. 24, 1912, at Kingston, Ont.

CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS

(c. 1535-1603), English Puri-

tan divine, studied divinity at St. John’s college, Cambridge; but on Mary’s accession he had to leave the university, and found occupation as clerk to a counsellor-at-law. On the accession of Elizabeth he returned to Cambridge, and in 1569 he was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge; but John Whitgift, on becoming vice-chancellor, deprived him of the post in Dec. 1570, and—as master of Trinity—of his fellowship in Sept. 1571. After his deprivation by Whitgift, Cartwright visited Beza at Geneva. He returned to England in 1572, and might have become professor of Hebrew at Cambridge but for his expressed sympathy with the notorious “admonition to the Parliament” by John Field and Thomas Wilcox. To escape arrest he again went abroad, and acted as clergyman to the English residents at Antwerp and then at Middelburg. In 1585 he returned without permission to London and was twice imprisoned. He died at Warwick, on Dec. 27, 1603. Cartwright’s views were distinctly Presbyterian and he opposed the Brownists or Independents.

CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM

(1611-1643), English drama-

tist and divine, was born at Northway, Gloucestershire. He was educated at the free school of Cirencester, at. Westminster school, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his M.A. degree in 1635. He became, says Anthony 4 Wood, “the most florid and seraphical preacher in the university,” and appears to have been no less admired as a reader in metaphysics. In 1642 he was made succentor of Salisbury cathedral, and in 1643 he was chosen junior proctor of the university. He died Nov. 29 of the same year. Cartwright was a “son” of Ben Jonson and an especial favourite with his contemporaries. His plays are, with the exception of The Ordinary (?1635), fantastic in plot, and stilted and artificial in treatment. They are: The Royal Slave (1636), produced by the students of Christ Church before the King and Queen, with music by Henry Lawes; The Lady Errant (acted, 1635-36); The Siege, or Love’s Convert. Comedies, Tragi-Comedies, with other Poems, by Mr. William Cariwright ... (1651) included the plays mentioned above.

CARUCATE

or CARRUCATE

(from the Med. Lat. car-

rucata, from carruca, a wheeled plough), a measure of land, based probably on the area that could be ploughed by a team of oxen in a year; hence “carucage’” means a tax levied on each “carucate” of land (see Hie).

CARÚPANO,

a town and port of the State of Bermudez,

Venezuela, 65m. N.E. of the city of Cumaná. Pop. (1920), about 11,000. Cartpano is situated on the Caribbean coast on an open roadstead and is a port of call for several regular steamship lines. The country immediately behind the town is rough, but there is a considerable export of cacao, coffee, sugar, cotton, timber and rum.

CARUS,

CARL

GUSTAV

(1789-1869), German phys-

iologist and psychologist, distinguished also as an art critic and a landscape painter, was born in Leipzig on Jan. 3, 1789, and in 1811 became a Privatdocent in the university there. On the subject which he selected (comparative anatomy) no lectures had previously been given at Leipzig. In 1814 he became professor to the new medical college at Dresden, where he spent the remainder of his life. He died on July 28, 1869. In philosophy Carus belonged to the school of Schelling, and his works are thoroughly impregnated with the spirit of that system. He regarded inherited tendency as a proof that the cell has a certain psychic life; and pointed out that individual differences are less marked in the lower than in the higher organisms. Among his

953

works may be mentioned: Grundzüge der vergleichenden Anatomie und Physiologie (Dresden, 1828); Psyche: zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Seele (3rd ed. Stuttgart, 1860); Physis, zur Geschichte des leiblichen Lebens (Stuttgart, 1851). See his autobiography,

Lebenserinnerungen

CARUS, MARCUS

AURELIUS,

und Denkwiirdigkeiten

(1865-66); C. Bernouilli, Die Psychologie von C. G. Carus (1925).

282—283, born probably at Narbona

Roman

emperor A.D.

(more correctly, Narona) in

Illyria, was a senator and had been appointed prefect of the praetorian guard by the Emperor Probus (q.v.), after whose murder he was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers. Although Carus punished the assassins he was suspected of having been an accessory to the deed. He left his elder son Carinus in charge of the western portion of the empire and took the younger, Numerianus, with him on the expedition against the Persians. Having defeated the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube, Carus proceeded through Thrace and Asia Minor, conquered Mesopotamia, pressed on to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and carried his arms beyond the Tigris. But he died suddenly, probably murdered by the soldiers, who

were weary of the war, at the instigation of Arrius Aper, prefect of the praetorian guard. See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chap. XII.

CARUSO, ENRICO

(1873—1921), the most famous Italian

operatic tenor of his day, was born in Naples on Feb. 25, 1873. He was early apprenticed to a mechanical engineer. He began to sing in the choirs at Naples when he was 11 years old, and later studied under Guglielmo Vergine. He made his début in 1894 in L’Amico Francesco at the Teatro Nuovo, Naples, and first won marked success as Marcello in La Bohéme, at Milan, in 1898.

From 1899 to 1903 he was at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in the winter, and in the summer at Buenos Aires. He appeared also in Moscow, Warsaw, Rome, Paris, London and elsewhere. In America he first appeared in 1903 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, where for 18 years he was the leading tenor. Caruso had a very extensive repertory, which was however confined to works of the French and Italian schools; he never appeared in Wagnerian opera, being content with the unrivalled supremacy which he enjoyed in works of the kind best adapted to display his particular powers and with which he was most in sympathy. Among these may be named Aida, Carmen, Les Huguenots, L’Elisir d’Amore, Pagliacci, Rigoletto, Samson and Delilah, and last but not least, Puccini’s La Bohéme in which, to the no less incomparable Mimi of Dame Melba, he celebrated some of his greatest triumphs as Rodolfo. Caruso’s voice was of the purest Italian type, being especially distinguished by the warmth and richness of its quality while in all technical respects his singing was of the highest order. He died of pleurisy on Aug. 2, 1921, at Naples. See D. B. Caruso and T. Goddard, Wings of Song (1928).

CARUTHERSVILLE,

a city in the south-east corner of

Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river; served by the Deering Southwestern and the Frisco railways; the county seat of Pemiscot county. The population in 1920 was 4,750; 1930, 4,781. It is in a cotton-growing and lumbering region, and has cotton gins and compresses, cotton-seed oil mills, planing mills, various woodworking factories, a tomato cannery and a shoe factory.

CARVAJAL, ANTONIO FERNANDEZ (ec. 15901659), a Portuguese Marano (g.v.) or Crypto-Jew, who came to England in the reign of Charles I. He was the first “endenizened” Jew in England (1655), and by his extensive trade with the West Indies rendered considerable services to the Commonwealth. Besides his commercial value to Cromwell, Carvajal was politically useful also, for he acted as “intelligencer.” When Manasseh ben Israel in 1655 petitioned for the return of the Jews who had been expelled by Edward I., Carvajal took part in the agitation and boldly avowed his Judaism. Carvajal may be termed the founder of the Anglo-Jewish community. He died in 1659. See Lucien Wolf, “The First English Jew,” Trans. J ewish Historical Society, ii. 14.

“CARVAJAL, LUISA DE (1568-1614), Spanish mission-

ary in England, was born at Jaraicejo in Estremadura on Jan. 3 1568. Moved by the execution of the Jesuit, Henry Walpole, in

CARVER— CARVING

954

1596, she decided to devote herself to the cause of the faith in England. With her share of the family fortune, she founded a college for English Jesuits at Louvain which was transferred to Watten near Saint Omer in 1612 and lasted till the suppression of the Order. In 1605, she arrived in England and established herself under the protection of the Spanish ambassador, whose house was in the Barbican. From there she carried on an active and successful propaganda. She made herself conspicuous by her attentions to the Gunpowder Plot prisoners, and won converts, partly by persuasion, partly by assisting the poor. She was arrested in 1608. But the protection of the Spanish ambassador, and the desire of King James I. to stand well with Spain, secured her release. In 1613, while staying at a house in Spitalfields, where she had set up a disguised nunnery, she was arrested with all the inmates by the pursuivants of Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury. Her release was again secured by the new Spanish ambassador Gondomar. The Spanish authorities thinking her a political danger, recalled her, but before she could be forced to obey she died without her desired martyrdom on Jan. 2, 1614. See L. Muñoz La Vida y Virtudes de la Venerable Virgen Doña Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza (1632). It is summarized by Southey in his Letters from Spain and Portugal (1808). See also Quatre Portraits de femmes, by La Comtesse R. de Courson (1895), and refs. in Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus, by Henry Foley

(1877-83). CARVER,

JONATHAN

(1710-1780), American traveller,

was born in Weymouth (Mass.), a son of David and Hannah (Dyer) Carver. When he was eight years old his family moved to Canterbury (Conn.), where he gained what seems to have been a fair education, including something of surveying. Here in 1746 he married Abigail Robbins, and a few years later they moved to Montague (Mass.). At the beginning of the French and Indian War Carver joined the Massachusetts provincial troops, serving efficiently until peace was declared and holding the rank of captain the last two years. Part of this period he served in Quebec as a surveyor, and here in the wilderness he may have first dreamed of exploring the great north-western territories, and of finding an overland route to the western sea. Carver’s opportunity came through Major Robert Rogers, newly appointed commandant of the north-western fort and trading post of Mackinac, who entertained similar designs. Rogers sent a number of agents among the more distant Indian tribes to win their allegiance and trade and to learn more of the country. Carver travelled, as one of these, by the Fox-Wisconsin route to the Mississippi and up that river to the Falls of St. Anthony to visit the Sioux tribes. He spent the winter of 1766-67 at one of their villages on the Minnesota river and gained an elementary knowledge of their language and customs. In the spring he started to return fo Mackinac, but at the mouth of the Wisconsin river he met Captain James Tute, in command of a party sent out by Rogers to explore a route to the Pacific ocean. Tute brought orders for Carver to join the party as draughtsman and third in command. They proceeded up the Mississippi and crossed to and skirted the shores of Lake

Superior to the Grand Portage.

There they waited for supplies

from Rogers, but his failure to send them caused Tute to abandon his expedition and return by the north shore of Lake: Superior to the fort, where he arrived in Aug. 1768. Rogers had exceeded his powers in employing these agents, and Carver was never paid. After nine years of misfortune and poverty his book, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America in the years 1766, 1767, 1708, was printed in London (1778). Its success was immediate, but this came too late to bring the author any material benefit. He died in London in 1780, a broken old man, 70 years of age, and was buried in the potter’s field. No narrative of early adventure and travel in America has ever approached the popularity of this work. At least 32 editions in English, French, German and Dutch were printed. The second part, dealing with the life and customs of the Indians, is largely plagiarized from earlier French writers, but this does not warrant discrediting the whole as some historians have done. Carver’s original journals, including a day-by-day log of his journey, are in the British Museum and substantiate the main facts of the first part of his book. Care-

ful comparison leads to the conclusion that the book was written

from memory, with these journals not at hand. Besides the minor inaccuracies, the book is guilty of deliberate falsification when it denies Rogers credit for initiating the expedition and conceals the fact that Tute commanded it. Just how far Carver is responsible

for these deceptions and the plagiarism cannot be determined. See J. T. Lee, A Bibliography of Carvers Travels (Wis. Hist. Soc., Proceedings, 1909, pp. 143-183), and Captain Jonathan Carver: Additional Data (Ibid., 1912, pp. 87-123); W. Browning, “The Early History of Jonathan Carver” (Wisconsin Magazine of History, iii., 291—306); and T. C. Elliott, “Jonathan Carver’s Source of the Name Oregon” (Oregon Hist. Soc., Quarterly, xxiii., 53-59) W.H)

CARVING. In carving a long sharp knife and a two-pronged fork are essential, and a steel should also be provided. Sirloin.—Place the joint with the chine bone to the left and the fillet underneath.

Release the meat from the chine bone and also

from the blade bone for about three-quarters to one inch, according to the number of persons to be served. Then carve in thin

slices the entire length of the joint. To carve the fillet or undercut, reverse the joint, loosen the meat from the bone, and cut in slices at right angles to the blade bone. An alternate method when a large number of portions have to

be served, is to turn the dish so that one end faces the carver and the chine bone is at the opposite end. Release the meat from the

chine bone with the pointed end of the knife, and cut the meat,

slicing vertically the whole length of the joint, commencing at the left hand outside. Leg of Mutton—Place the knuckle end to the left of the dish and turn the joint on the dish in such a way that the part with the most meat is away from the carver. Commence slicing about two or three inches from the knuckle, holding the knife in a slanting position and working from left to right. Continue until the meat on the upper side of the joint is removed. Turn the joint, and with the knife in a horizontal position and parallel with the dish slice off the remaining meat. Shoulder of Mutton.—Place the joint with the knuckle towards the left hand of the carver. Put the fork securely into the knuckle,

raising the joint from the dish. Commence slicing to the left hand side near the fork, carving across the grain in neat slices of about one-quarter to one-elghth of an inch thick. Towards the end of the joint it will be necessary to turn the knife slightly to release the meat from the bone. When as much of the meat as possible has been removed, turn the joint over, keeping the knuckle to the left and the knife in a horizontal position and parallel to the dish, carving thin slices, working from the right to the left. Poultry and Game.—In

the case of large birds, it is well to

remove the wish-bone or merry thought before carving; birds should be placed with the legs turned away from the carver. Turkey.—Remove the legs by cutting through the thin skin which connects the top of the leg and breast. Then gently pull the joint from the carcase and separate it with the pointed end of the knife; the meat should be cut in vertical slices from: the upper

joint of the leg. Remove the wing with a portion of the breast, then carve the latter in long, thin slices. An alternative method is to commence carving the breast after the removal of the leg but before the wings. Capon and large fowl are carved in the same way as a turkey. Chicken.—Remove the legs in the same way as when carving a turkey. Cut the legs in half lengthways, serving the drum-stick

half with the wing and the other part with the breast. Then slice the remainder of the breast. An alternative method, suitable for hotel and restaurant use, and when dealing with small birds, is to divide the carcase in half horizontally, cutting the remainder into two by chopping through the breast bone lengthways, rejecting the back or under-carcase. Pheasant, blackcock, capercailzie and duck are carved in the same way. * Goose-—Remove the legs and wings with a portion of the breast and slice the latter. Release the flesh from the breast bone and carve the breast in thin slanting slices, starting from where the wings have been removed. Pigeons, Partridges and Other Small Game.—When the birds are small and only enough for two portions divide equally into two, cutting through the breast bone with a sharp knife. If available,

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INSTITUTE

METHODS

OF CARVING

1. Carving a sirloin of beef, showing the correct position of the knife and fork with relation to each other and to the grain of the meat 2. Carving a chicken, showing method of cutting slices from the breast

after the removal of one wing

be

SA

VARIOUS

MEATS

3. Carving a turkey, showing, as in Figure 2, the method of removing slices of white meat from the side of the breast 4. Second position in carving a leg of mutton, showing the horizontal

position of the knife.

(Compare with Plate |, Figures 1 and 2)

4

CARVING use game scissors for they facilitate the severing of the back bone. They are also convenient for removing the base of this bone, which should be done before serving. To serve four portions, cut in half along the breast bone and divide each side of the bird in half with a slanting cut from the point where the wing joins the carcase towards the neck end. Wild Duck.—Remove the wings, dissect the entire breast away from the carcase and carve in horizontal slices across the grain. Roast Hare.—Remove a rectangular portion of flesh from the back forming the saddle, and cut in thin slices. Then slice the

flesh from the hind legs.

Carving in Sculpture.—To

TOOLS

955

wood-carvers make them from iron or steel nails, sawing off the

nails and filing the ends into various shapes. Special files, called carver’s rasps (H), are sometimes used for roughing out or smoothing off parts of the work. For the lighter cuts the wood-carver uses the tool with his hands, one hand pushing the tool and the other hand resting on the blade, controlling it. For heavy cuts, usually in preliminary work,

(D. D. C. T.)

carve is to cut, whatever the

material; but more particularly as appertains to the art of sculpture. The name of sculpture (see ScULPTURE) is commonly reserved for the great masters of the art, especially in stone and marble, while that of carver is given to the artists or workmen who execute the subordinate decorations of architecture. The word is also specially applied to sculpture in ivory (g.v.) and its substitutes, and in wood (see Woop-Carvinc) and other soft

materials (see also Gem).

CARVING TOOLS, the various instruments used in the art of cutting wood, stone, ivory, etc., for ornamental purposes. Primitive peoples employed sharpened fish-bones, flint and shells in carving wood and ivory articles, accomplishing results that to-day would seem impossible. After the discovery of steel the tools for carving were developed considerably; however, the principles of many of the oldest tools are still being used, differing only in the quality of steel. ‘The names and uses of the tools employed in the carving of the most important materials, viz., wood, stone and ivory, are given below. Wood-carving Tools.—The history and development of woodcarving tools may be said to follow the history of iron and steel tools. Except for certain refinements in the steel itself, working FIG. 1.—VARIOUS TOOLS USED IN WOOD CARVING. SEE TEXT FOR DETAILS methods, etc., and the better and lighter design of the tools, the wood-carving tools of to-day are practically the same as those he uses a carver’s mallet or maul to drive the tool (F). When used several centuries ago. A professional wood-carver may have clearing away large quantities of wood, as in the preliminary stages well over a hundred tools, most of these varying only slightly in of large work, many carvers use the heavier carpenter’s or woodsize, width and sweep, using them according to the requirements worker’s chisels and gouges, and at times parts of the wood are of his work. Japanese and Chinese wood-carvers do very fine work bored away or entirely through, with a brace and bit, the work with but few tools, a single knife often being employed for many being of course finished up with the regular carving-tools. different purposes. Generally the work that is being carved is held firmly to the Beginners are usually advised to start with a set of tools vary- bench by clamps, or it is clamped in a vice. A wood-carver’s bench ing from 12 to 24, as the other tools are largely only variations of is provided with holes in the top, and the top of the vice, which these In size and sweep, and may be acquired as experience dic- is level with the bench, is also provided with a hole. Pegs fit in tates. The wood-carver’s tools consist: largely of chisels, knives these holes. Flat work is rested on the bench top in such a manand gouges of various shapes and sizes. These are generally lighter ner as to come between a peg in the vice and one or more pegs in in weight and of a design more suitable for wood-carving than the the bench top, the vice being squeezed up to hold the work firmly chisels and gouges used by the carpenter or joiner. Many of the between the pegs. The top of a wood-carver’s bench is here illuscarving tools vary only in the size and sweep of the cutting edge. trated (J). When a wood-carver speaks of the “sweep” of a gouge, he means Wood-carving tools are made of the best grades of fine tool the actual curve at the cutting edge, as made when the tool is steel, forged into the various chisel, gouge and knife shapes by a pressed perpendicularly into a piece of wood. skilled tool-smith, using a charcoal, coal or gas fire in the forge to Chisels and gouges for wood-carving vary from 4; in. to 1 in. heat the steel, usually to a dull red colour. When the tool is in width at the cutting edge, the curves or “sweeps” of the gouges forged into shape, it is again heated to a dull red and hardened varying from that of a half circle, called a deep gouge, to a curve by plunging it into an oil or water bath, after which it is temthat is almost flat, called a flat gouge. The chisels vary in width pered by a slight reheating, the temper being drawn to a lemon at the edge, some of them having the edge straight across or at yellow or a dull straw colour. Authorities differ as to the proper right angles to the blade while others have the edge slanted off at amount of hardness to be left in the edge of a carving-tool and an angle across the tool. many wood-carvers reharden and temper their tools to their own Wood-carving tools are made in two forms: straight-sided (fg. liking. After the tempering process the edge of the tool is ground 1, A) and spade-shaped or fish-tailed (B). The latter conceals down on a grindstone, the tool being well moistened with water less of the wood under the tool and also works into corners where to keep it from so heating as to destroy the temper. The rough a straight-sided tool could not be used. edge thus formed is smoothed down by rubbing it back and forth A straight tool (A) is more generally used than any other. A on a fine-grained oil stone, well moistened with oil, until a very “long bend” tool and a “short bend” are shown also (C and D). keen edge is obtained. Specially shaped stones called “slips,” These two tools are used in places where the straight tool would which are oil stones shaped to fit inside gouges and other tools, are not cut, as in deep hollows. Straight-, long- and short-bend tools used at this stage for the inside sharpening of the tools, the slip may be obtained in the straight-sided or fish-tailed types. Wood- being held in one hand and rubbed against the tool held in the carvers also use especially shaped knives for their work, three other hand. During the sharpening the edge of the tool is fretypes being shown (E). Stamps made of steel are sometimes used quently driven into soft wood to remove the “feather edge,” or by the carver to stamp portions of carved backgrounds into more fringe of steel which forms on the edge of the tool. Slips and small or less regular patterns, two of which are illustrated (G). Some stones are frequently used as above by the carver to obtain very

CARY—CARYOPHYLLACEAE

956

fine and accurate edges, particularly on small tools of all shapes. Many wood-carvers sharpen both sides of the edge, the under side at the usual angle and the top side at a very slight angle, though experts differ as to this. The final edge is given to wood-carving tools by stropping them on a piece of oily leather which is charged with some fine abrasive, such as crocus or rouge, to obtain the very sharp cutting edge necessary for all wood-carving tools. Tools that are used in hard wood are frequently ground and sharpened at a lesser angle than those used in soft wood by professional carvers, who sharpen their tools frequently as they work, never allowing them to become dull. Sharpening is a very difficult art and requires much practice before a satisfactory edge may be had. Instead of a grind-stone many carvers now use a quickcutting, flat, carborundum stone, well charged with oil, on which the tool is rubbed to a rough edge, before finishing up with the finer stones and the strop. Stone-carving Tools.—The stone-cutter’s instruments, as distinguished from those of the wood-cutter, are largely as follow: (1) Chisels, with various shapes, widths, and tempers; (2) tooth

CARYATID,

a draped female figure used as a support,

especially in Greek, Roman and Renaissance architecture.

chisels, for the first or rougher cutting; (3) splitters; (4) handdrills; (5) bow-drills; (6) points; (7) pointing machine; (8) pneumatic tools; (9) rasps; (10) hand hammers, including wooden mallets; (11) dummies, which may be of copper, soft iron or lead. Ivory-catving Tools.—The tools for ivory-carving seem to have remained much the same within historic record. The material requires very hard and sharp tools for cutting; however, it is easily sawed or filed. The average ivory-carver’s tools include the following: (1) bow-saw, or a small-toothed circular saw for the pre-

liminary cutting; (2) float, a tapering tool in a wooden handle; (3) gouge and mallet; (4) rasp and file; (5) chisels; (6) scraper, a distinctive tool of ivory-carving, resembling a wood-carving chisel, and used for removing the substance in shavings, for engraving the most delicate lines or for finishing; (7) miscellaneous tools. such as drills, compasses, groovers and a large selection of knives for paring and finishing. (See also ScuLPTURE TECHNIQUE; IVORY-CARVING. ) (E. Tx.)

CARY, ALICE

(1820-1871), and PHOEBE

(1824-1871),

BY COURTESY (RENOWARD);

OF LAWRENCE, VITRY, “HOTELS

“LATER GREEK SCULPTURE”; MAGNE, “DECOR DE LA ET MAISONS DE LA RENAISSANCE FRANCAISE" (LEVY)

PIERRE”

A, Casino of Pius IV., Rome; B, Villa Guilia; C, Erechtheum in the British Museum; D, Constantinople Museum; E, Milan Cathedral; F, Erechtheum, Athens; G, Cnidian treasury at Delphi; H, Villa Mattei; 1, Grand Theatre, Bordeaux; J, House at Nancy, France; K, caryatids by Jean Goujon, Louvre

CARYOPHYLLACEAE, a family of dicotyledonous plants, containing about 80 genera with 1,300 species, and widely tributed, especially in temperate, alpine and arctic regions. plants are herbs, sometimes becoming shrubby at the base, opposite, simple, generally uncut leaves and swollen nodes.

disThe with The

American poets, were born at Mount Healthy, near Cincinnati (Ohio), respectively on April 26, 1820, and Sept. 4, 1824. Their main axis ends in a flower (definite inflorescence), and flowereducation was largely self-acquired, and their work in literature was always done in unbroken companionship. Their poems were first collected in a volume entitled Poems of Alice and Phoebe Carey (1850). Alice, who was. much the more voluminous writer of the two, wrote prose sketches, novels and poems, the best of which treat the surroundings and friends of her girlhood. Her lyrical poem, “Pictures of Memory,” was praised by Edgar Allan Poe. Phoebe published two volumes of poems (1854 and 1868), but is best known as the author of the hymn “Nearer Home,” beginning “One sweetly solemn thought.” Alice died in New York city, Feb. 12, 1871, and Phoebe in Newport (R.I), July 31 of the same year. _ The collected Poetical Works of Alice and Phoebe Cary were published in Boston in 1886.

CARY, ANNIE LOUISE (1842-1921), American singer, was born in Wayne (Me.), on Oct. 22, 1842. She studied in Milan, and made her début as an operatic contralto in Copenhagen in 1868. She had a successful European career for several years, singing in Stockholm, Paris and London, and made her New York first appearance in 1870. Until she retired in 1882, on her marriage to Charles M. Raymond, she was the most popular singer in America. She died on April 3, 1921, at Norwalk (Conn.).

CARY, HENRY FRANCIS

(1772-1844), translator of the

Divina Commedia, was born at Gibraltar, the son of an army captain, and educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he devoted much time to the study of French and Italian literature. On leaving Oxford he took holy orders. For about rz years he was assistant-librarian in the British Museum, and in 1841 he received a Crown pension. His translation of the whole of the Divine Comedy appeared in 1814, was praised by Coleridge, and passed through four editions during its author’s lifetime. Though Cary’s blank verse hardly reproduces the strength and terseness of

Dante’s terza rima, the translation has great merits.

T

a,

> wh

bs Ck A \

YP

Aye Gl a i! Hd f

FIG. 1.—PINK (DIANTHUS), AND WHITE BLOSSOMS

A SWEET

SCENTED

FLOWER

OF RED OR PINK

CASABIANCA—CASA bearing branches are borne one on each side by which the branching is often continued. The flowers are regular, with four or five

sepals which are free or joined to form a tube in their lower portion, the same number of petals, free and springing from below

GRANDE

957

(campion, L. Flos-Cuculi is ragged robin), and Githago or Agrostemma (corn cockle). Several, such as Lychnis vespertina, Silene nutans and others, open their flowers and become scented in the evening or at night, when they are visited by night-flying moths. In North America the family is represented by about 300 species, most numerous in mountain regions and belonging chiefly to Silene, Arenaria, Alsine and Cerastium. The plants of this family are of little or no economic value.

Dianthus (carnation and pink), Gypsophila, Lychnis and others, are garden plants.

CASABIANCA,

RAPHAEL,

Comte

De

(1738-1825),

French general, was descended from a noble Corsican family, and in 1793 was appointed lieutenant-general in Corsica in place of Pascale Paoli, who was outlawed for intrigues with England. After the 18th Brumaire he entered the senate and was made count of the empire in 1806. His nephew, Lours De CASABIANCA (1762-1798), entered the French navy, and in 1792 was in command of the “Orient,” which at the battle of the Nile bore the flag of Admiral Brueys. When the latter was killed, Casabianca, though badly wounded, fought the burning ship to the end, and perished with most of the crew. His son, Giacomo Jocante, a boy of ten years of age, refused to leave the ship and died in trying to save his father. This heroic act was the subject of several poems, including the well-known ballad by Mrs. Hemans.

CASABLANCA, a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 33° 27’ N., 7° 46’ W. The town is built on the site of the ancient city of the same name, is rectangular in shape, with its

FIG.

2.—PINK

(DIANTHUS),

SHOWING

A. Flowering shoot B. Flower in vertical C. Floral diagram

DETAILS

OF

STRUCTURE

section

the ovary, twice as many stamens, inserted with the petals, and a pistil of two to five carpels joined to form an ovary containing a large number of ovules on a central placenta and bearing two to five styles; the ovary is onecelled or incompletely partitioned at the base into three to five cells; honey is secreted at the base of the stamens. The fruit is a capsule containing a large number of small seeds and opening by apical teeth; the seed contains a floury endosperm and a curved embryo. The family is divided into two well-defined tribes which are distinguished by the character of the flower and the arrangements for ensuring pollination. I. Alsinoideae: the sepals are free and the flowers are open, with spreading petals, and the honey which is secreted at the base of the stamens is exposed to the visits of short-tongued inFree CENTRAL PLACENTA sects, such as flies and small FIG. 3.—DETAIL OF THE MOUSE. bees; the petals are white in col- EAR CHICKWEED (CERASTIUM HIRour. It includes several British SUTUM)

genera, Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed), Stellaria (stitchwort

and chickweed), Arenaria (sand-

A. Pistil cut vertically B. Pistil cut horizontally, and the halves separated so as to show

_ the interior of the cavity of the

wort), Sagina (pearlwort), Sperovary gula (spurrey) and Spergularia (sandwort spurrey).

II. Silenoideae: the sepals are joined below to form a narrow tube, in which stand the long claws of the petals and the stamens, partly closing the tube and rendering the honey inaccessible to all but long-tongued insects such as the larger bees and Lepidoptera. The flowers are often red. It includes several British genera:—. Dianthus (pink), Silene (catchfly, bladder campion), Lychnis

base toward the sea. The central point of the city is the Place de France, from which all the main routes of the city radiate. In recent years Casablanca has become a considerable port, and harbour developments have made it one of the busiest towns of northern Africa, while ships of the greatest tonnage can be accommodated at the quay. Casablanca is now the second town of Morocco, with a popu-

lation of 106,608 (71,624 natives—52,134

Muslims and 19,490

Jews—and 34,984 Europeans, of whom 20,183 are French). The town was originally founded by the Portuguese, on the site of the ancient Anfa, which they destroyed in 1465. It was occupied by the French in Aug. 1907, In consequence of the murdeg of a number of French and Spanish workmen engaged on the harbour works. In 1924 large electric power works, erected in connection with the electrification of the railways, were completed, and further extensions of the harbour works undertaken in 1925 are now completed.

CASA GRANDE,

a national reserve, technically known as

a national monument, in Pinal county, Ariz., which has within its bounds some of the most noteworthy relics of a prehistoric age

and people within the limits of the United States. The ruins are situated near the left bank of the Gila river about 12m. from Florence, Ariz., and 15m. north-east of the station, Casa Grande, on the Southern Pacific railway. It resembles the Casa Grande ruin of Chihuahua, Mexico, with its walls of sundried caliche (a composition of lime, earth and pebbles), and its area of rooms, courts, plazas and pyramids, surrounded by a wall. The first known white man to visit Casa Grande was the Jesuit missionary Kino, in 1694. The house was already a ruin but he described it as large and ancient and certainly four stories high. In the immediate vicinity were the ruins of other houses, and in the country towards the north, east and west were ruins of similar structures. The identity of its builders has been a subject of speculation from the discovery of the ruins to the present day. The age of Casa Grande is unknown but there is reason to believe that settlements on its site antedate most of the present cl dwellings of the south-west. An agricultural economy is indicated by a net-work

of irrigation canals. Jobn Russell Bartlett described the ruins in 1854, and in 1889 Congress voted that it be protected as a government reservation; in 1892 it was set apart by the government. Subsequent excavations have disclosed many facts pertaining to the life and customs of this ancient race. See General Information regarding Casa Grande Ruins, Arizona, a bulletin of the U.S. depariment of the interior.

CASALE

958 CASALE

MONFERRATO,

MONFERRATO—CASATI

a town and episcopal see of

Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, 21m. N.N.W. by rail from the town of Alessandria. Pop. (1921) 20,453 (town); 34,253 (commune). It lies in the plain on the right bank of the Po, 377ft. above sea-level, and is a junction for Mortara, Vercelli, Chivasso and Asti; it is also connected by steam tramways with Alessandria, Vercelli and Montemagno. The fine Lombard Romanesque cathedral, originally founded in 742, was rebuilt 1100o6. The church of S. Domenico is a good Renaissance edifice, and there are some fine palaces. About rom. distant is the Sacro Monte di Crea, with 18 chapels on its slopes containing terracotta groups of statues, resembling those at Varallo. Casale Monferrato was given by Charlemagne to the church of Vercelli, but obtained its liberty from Frederick I. (Barbarossa). It was sacked by the troops of Vercelli, Alessandria and Milan in 1215, but rebuilt and fortified in 1220. It fell under the power of its marquises in 1299, and became the chief town of a small state. In 1536 it passed to the Gonzagas of Mantua, who fortified it very strongly. It has since been of considerable importance as a fortress; it successfully resisted the Austrians in 1849, and was strengthened in 1852. There are large cement factories here.

CASALS, PABLO

(1876-

_+), eminent violoncellist, com-

poser and conductor, was born at Vendrell, near Barcelona, Dec. 30, 1876. He received his first musical instruction from his father, an organist, later becoming a pupil of José Garcia at the Barcelona conservatoire and then studying at Madrid. He made his first public appearance in Barcelona in 1889 but had to wait some years before he obtained general recognition. Thus it was not till 1898 that he was heard in Paris (Lamoureux concerts) and in London (Crystal palace); but thenceforward his fame rapidly extended. His first visit to the United States he paid in roor. Casals is also a distinguished conductor, whose orchestral concerts in Spain are of the first importance; a fine pianist, and a composer, his works include symphonies and symphonic poems. He married first Guilhermina Suggia, and subsequently Susan Metcalfe. See Lillian Littlehales, Pablo Casals (1930).

CASAMARI,

a Cistercian abbey in the province of Rome,

6m. E.S.E. of Veroli. It marks the site of Cereatae, the birthplace of Marius, afterwards known as Cereatae Marianae. The abbey is a fine example of Burgundian early-Gothic (1203-17), paralleled in Italy by Fossanuova alone (which is almost contemporary with it), and is very well preserved. CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, GIOVANNI JACOPO (1725-1798), Italian adventurer and author of the famous Mémoires, was born at Venice in 1725. His parents, taking a journey to London, left him, when he was a year old, in charge of his grandmother, who sent him at 16 to the seminary of St. Cyprian in Venice, from which he was expelled for scandalous and immoral conduct, which would have cost him his liberty, had not his mother procured him a situation in the household of the Cardinal Acquaviva where he remained for a short time before he began that career of adventure and intrigue which only ended with his death. He visited Rome, Naples, Corfu and Constantinople. By turns journalist, preacher, abbé, diplomatist, he was nothing very long, except komme à bonnes fortunes. In 1755, having returned to Venice, he was denounced as a spy and imprisoned. On Nov. 1, 1756 he escaped, and made his way to Paris. Here he was made director of the state lotteries, gained much financial reputation and a considerable fortune, and made a figure in high society. In 1759 he set out again on his travels. He visited in turn the Netherlands, South Germany, Switzerland—where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire,—Savoy, southern France, Florence—whence he was expelled—and Rome, where the pope gave him the order of the Golden Spur. In 1761 he returned to Paris, and for the next four or five years lived partly here, partly in England, South Germany and Italy. In 1764 he was in Berlin, where he refused the offer of a post made him by Frederick IT. He then travelled by way of: Riga and St. Petersburg to Warsaw, where he was favourably received by King Stanislaus Poniatowski. A scandal, followed by a duel, forced him to flee, and he returned by a devious route to Paris, only to find a letire de-cachet awaiting him, which drove him to seek refuge in Spain. Expelled from

Madrid in 1769, he went by way of Aix—where he met Cagliostro —to Italy once more. From 1774, with which year his memoirs

close, he was a police spy in the service of the Venetian inquisitors of state; but in 1782, In consequence of a satirical libel on

one of his patrician patrons, he had once more to go into exile. In 178s he was appointed by Count Waldstein, an old Paris acquaintance, his librarian at the chateau of Dux in Bohemia. Here he

lived until his death, which probably occurred on June 4, 1798. The main authority for Casanova’s life is his Mémoires (12 vols., Leipzig, 1826-1838; many later editions and translations), which were written at Dux. They are clever, well written and, above all, cynical, and interesting as a trustworthy picture of the morals and manners

of the times.

Among Casanova’s other works are Confutazione della

storia del governo Veneto d Amelot de la Houssaye (Amsterdam, 1769) ; and the Histoire (Leipzig, 1788; reprinted Bordeaux, 1884; Eng. trans, by P. Villars, 1892). See Arthur Machen, trans., Memoirs of Casa-

nova; S. G. Endore, Casanova: His Known and Unknown Life (1929) ; M. Rostand, Private Life of Casanova (1929).

CASAS

GRANDES

(“Great Houses”), a small village of

Mexico, in the State of Chihuahua, on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel river, about 35m. S. of Llanos and 150m. N.W. of the city of Chihuahua. The railway from Ciudad Juarez to Terrazas passes through the town. It is celebrated for the ruins of early aboriginal buildings still extant, about half a mile from its present site. They are built of “sun-dried blocks of mud and gravel about 22in. thick, and of irregular length, generally about 3ft., probably formed and dried in sittu.” The walls are in some places about sft. thick, and they seem to) have been plastered both inside and outside. The principal edifice extends 8ooft. from north’to south, and 2s5oft. east to west; its general outline is rectangular, and it appears to have consisted of three separate piles united by galleries or lines of lower buildings. The exact plan of the whole is obscure, but the apartments evidently varied in size from mere closets to extensive courts. The walls still stand at many of the angles with a height of from 40 to 5oft., and indicate an original elevation of several storeys, perhaps six or seven. At a distance of about 4soft. from the main building are the substructions of a smaller edifice, consisting of a series of rooms ranged round a square court, so that there are seven to each side besides a larger,apartment at each corner. The age of these buildings is unknown, as they were already in ruins at the time of the Spanish conquest. The whole region of Casas Grandes is studded with artificial mounds, from which are excavated from time to time numbers of stone axes, metates or corn-grinders, and earthen vessels of various kinds. The earthen vessels have a white or reddish ground, with ornamentation in blue, red, brown, or black, and are of much better manufacture than the modern pottery of the country. Similar ruins to those of Casas Grandes ' exist near Gila, the Salinas and the Colorado, and it is probable that they are all the erections of one people. Bancroft is disposed to assign them to the Moquis. See H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America, of which the principal authorities are the Noticias del Estado de Chihuahua of Escudero, who visited the ruins in 1819; an article in the first volume of the Album Mexicano, the author of which was at Casas Grandes in 1842; Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora and geoes (1854), by John Russell Bartlett, who explored the locality in 1851.

CASATI, GAETANO

(1838-1902), Italian geographer and

traveller in Africa. Born at Lesmo, he entered the corps of Ber-

saglieri in 1859 and took part in the wars of independence against Austria. Subsequently he was employed in the making of the ordnance survey maps of Italy. In 1879 Casati resigned his commission to devote himself wholly to geographical work. In the same year he started for the Bahr el Ghazal province of the Sudan

to join Gessi Pasha (see SupAN: History). He travelled widely

in that region and visited the upper Welle basin of the Congo. He also carried on operations against slave raiders and on the rise of the Mahdi made his way south to Lado, where in 1883 he joined Emin Pasha, under whom he served. He was for some time Emin’s agent in Unyoro. There he was made prisoner and tied

naked to a tree. Left to his fate he managed to escape and rejoined Emin. In 1889 he accompanied H. M. Stanley and Emin to Bagamoyo and returned to Italy. Later he published an

CASAUBON account of his travels (Eng. trans. Ten Years in Equatoria), which had added a good deal to the knowledge of the headwaters of the Nile.

CASAUBON, FLORENCE ESTIENNE MÉRIC (1599-

1671), English classical scholar, son of Isaac Casaubon, was born at Geneva Aug. 14 1599, and completed his education at Eton and Oxford. For his defence of his father against the attacks of certain Catholics (Pietas contra maledicos patrii Nominis et Religionis Hostes, 1621) and against imposters who had published, under his name, a work on The Origin of Idolatry (Vindicatio Patris adversus Impostores, 1624), James I. conferred on him a

prebendal stall at Canterbury. During the Civil War he lived a retired life, and after its conclusion refused to acknowledge the authority of Cromwell, who, notwithstanding, requested him to write an “impartial” history of the events of the period, an offer which he declined. After the Restoration he was reinstated in his benefice. He died at Canterbury July 14 1671. His editions of numerous classical authors, and especially of the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius (also English translation, new ed. by W. H. D. Rouse, 1900), were highly valued. Among his other works

may be mentioned: De Quatuor Linguis Commentatio (1650), Of the Necessity of Reformation (1664), On Credulity and Incredulity in Things natural, civil, and divine (1668).

CASAUBON,

ISAAC

(1559-1614),

French

(naturalized

English) classical scholar, was born in Geneva on Feb. 18, 1550, of French refugee parents. On the publication of the edict of Jan. 1562, the family returned to France and settled at Crest in Dauphiné. Till he was 19, Isaac had no other instruction than could be given him by his father, Arnaud Casaubon, during the years of civil war. His father was away from home whole years together in the Calvinist camp, or the family were flying to the hills to hide from the fanatical bands of armed Catholics who patrolled the country. Thus it was in a cave in the mountains of Dauphiné, after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, that Isaac

received his first lesson in Greek, the text-book being Isocrates’s ad Demonicum.

At 19 Isaac was sent to the Academy of Geneva, and in 1581 became professor of Greek. At Geneva he remained as professor of Greek till 1596. Here he married twice, his second wife being Florence, daughter of the scholar-printer, Henri Estienne. With few books and no assistance, in a city peopled with religious refugees, and struggling for life against the troops of the Catholic dukes of Savoy, Casaubon made himself a consummate Greek scholar and master of ancient learning. His great wants at Geneva were books and the sympathy of learned associates. He spent all he could save out of his small salary in buying books and in having copies made of such classics as were not then in print. The sympathy and help which Casaubon’s native city could not afford him, he endeavoured to supply by cultivating the acquaintance of the learned of other countries. Geneva, as the metropolis of Calvinism, received a constant succession of visitors. It was there that Casaubon made the acquaintance of young Henry Wotton, the poet and diplomatist, and of Richard Thomson (‘“Dutch” Thomson), fellow of Clare college, Cambridge, through whom the attention of Joseph Scaliger, settled in 1593 at Leyden, was directed to Casaubon. Scaliger and Casaubon began in 1594 a correspondence which culminates in a tone of the tenderest affection and mutual confidence. Influential French men of letters, the Protestant Jacques Bongars, the Catholic Jacques de Thou, and the Catholic convert Philippe Canaye, sieur du Fresne, aided him by presents of books and encouragement and endeavoured to get him invited, in some capacity, to France. In 1596 Casaubon accepted an invitation to the university of Montpellier, with the titles of conseiller du rot and professeur stipendié aux langues et bonnes lettres. He held the professorship there only three years as he was badly treated by the authorities. But the love of knowledge was gradually growing upon him and he began to perceive that editing Greek books was an employment more congenial to his peculiar powers than teaching. At Geneva he had first tried his hand on some notes on Diogenes Laértius, on Theocritus, and the New Testament, the

959

last undertaken at his father’s request. His début as an editor had been a complete Strabo (1587), of which he was so ashamed afterwards that he apologized for its crudity to Scaliger, calling it “a miscarriage.” This was followed by the text of Polyaenus, an editio princeps, 1589; a text of Aristotle, 1590; and a few notes contributed to Estienne’s editions of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Pliny’s Epistolae. It is not till we come to his edition of Theophrastus’s Charactéres (1592) that we have a specimen of that peculiar style of illustrative commentary, at once apposite and profuse, which distinguishes Casaubon among annotators. At the time of his removal to Montpellier he was engaged upon the capital work of his life, his edition of, and

commentary on, Athenaeus. In 1598 Casaubon was

` in Lyons, superintending the passage

of his Athenaeus through the press. There he lived in the house of Méric de Vicaq, surintendant de la justice, a Catholic but a man of acquirements whose connections were with the circle of liberal Catholics in Paris. In the suite of de Vicq, Casaubon was presented to Henry IV., who said something about employing his services in the “restoration” of the university of Paris. In 1599 Casaubon was summoned by de Vicq, who was then in Paris, to go to him in all haste on an affair of importance. The business proved to be the Fontainebleau Conference. Casaubon allowed himself to be persuaded to sit as one of the referees who were to adjudicate on the challenge sent to du Plessis Mornay by Cardinal Duperron. By so doing he placed himself in a false position. The issue was so contrived that the Protestant Party could not but be pronounced in the wrong. By concurring in the decision, which was unfavourable to du Plessis Mornay, Casaubon lent the prestige of his name to a court whose verdict, without him, would have been worthless, and confirmed the suspicions already current among the Reformed churches that he was meditating abjuration. From this time onward he became the object of the hopes and fears of the two religious parties; the Catholics lavishing promises and plying him with arguments; the Reformed ministers insinuating that he was preparing to forsake a losing cause and only higgling about his price. At the time it was not possible for the immediate parties to the bitter controversy to understand the intermediate position between Genevan Calvinism and Ultramontanism, to which Casaubon’s reading of the Fathers had conducted him. Meantime the efforts of de Thou and the liberal Catholics to retain him in Paris were successful. The king repeated his invitation to Casaubon to settle in the capital and assigned him a pension. No more was said about the university. The reform of the University of Paris had already closed its doors to all but Catholics. In Nov. 1604 Casaubon succeeded to the post of sublibrarian of the royal library, with a salary of 400 livres in addition to his pension. Casaubon remained in Paris till r6ro. Those ten years constituted the brightest period of his life. He had attained the reputation of being, after Scaliger, the most learned man of the age. He was placed above penury. He had such facilities for religious worship as a Huguenot could have. He enjoyed the society of men of learning. Above all, he had ample facilities for using Greek books, both printed and in ms., which no other place but Paris could at that period have supplied. In spite of all these advantages Casaubon grew restless, and offers came to him from various quarters, from Nimes, from Heidelberg, from Sedan. His friends Lect and Giovanni Diodati wished, rather than hoped, to get him back to Geneva, but the principal source of Casaubon’s uneasiness lay in his religion. The life of any Huguenot in Paris was hardly secure at that time, but Casaubon was exposed to persecution of another sort. Ever since the Fontainebleau Conference an impression prevailed that he was wavering. It was known that he rejected the outré antipopery opinions current in the Reformed Churches; that he read the Fathers and wished for a Church after the pattern of the primitive ages. He was given to understand that he could have a professorship only by recantation. When it was found that he could not be bought he was plied by controversy. By the king’s orders Duperron was untiring in his efforts to convert him. On

g60

CASCADE

MOUNTAINS—CASCARA

the other hand, the Huguenot theologians, and especially Pierre du Moulin, chief pastor of the church of Paris, accused him of conceding too much, and of having departed already from the lines of strict Calvinistic orthodoxy. When the assassination of Henry IV. gave full rein to the Ultramontane Party at court Casaubon began to listen to overtures, which had been faintly made before, from the bishops and the Court of England. In Oct. 1610 he came to England at the invitation of Richard Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury. He had the most flattering reception from James I., who was perpetually sending for him to discuss theological matters. The English bishops were equally delighted to find that the great French scholar was an Anglican ready made, who had arrived, by independent study of the Fathers, at the very vie media between Puritanism and Romanism, which was becoming the fashion in the English Church. Casaubon, though a layman, was collated to a prebendal stall in Canterbury and a pension of £300 a year was assigned him from the exchequer. He still retained his appointments in France, and his office as librarian. In order to retain their hold upon him, the Government of the queen regent refused to allow his library to be sent over. It required a special request from James himself to get leave for Mme. Casaubon to bring him a part of his most necessary books. Casaubon continued to speak of himself as the servant of the regent and to declare his readiness to return when summoned to do so. Meanwhile his situation in London gradually developed unforeseen sources of discomfort. Not that he had any reason to complain of his patrons, the king and the bishops, but he had to share in their rising unpopularity. The courtiers looked with a jealous eye on a pensioner who enjoyed frequent opportunities of taking James I. on his weak side—his love of book talk. His windows were broken by the roughs at night, his children pelted in the streets by day. On one occasion he himself appeared at Theobalds with a black eye, having received a blow from some ruffian’s fist in the street. The historian Hallam thinks that he had “become personally unpopular”; but these outrages from the vulgar seem to have arisen solely from the cockney’s antipathy to the Frenchman. Casaubon could not speak English. This deficiency excluded him altogether from the circle of the “wits”; either this or some other cause prevented him from being acceptable in the circle of the lay learned—the “antiquaries.” Besides the jealousy of the natives, Casaubon had to suffer the open attacks of the Jesuit pamphleteers. They had spared him as long as there were hopes of getting him over. The prohibition was then taken off, as he was committed to Anglicanism. Not only Joannes Eudaemon, Heribert Rosweyd, and Scioppius (Gaspar Schoppe),! but a respectable writer, friendly to Casaubon, Andreas Schott of Antwerp, gave currency to the insinuation that Casaubon had sold his conscience for English gold. But the most serious cause of discomfort in his English residence was that his time was no longer his own. He was perpetually

being summoned to one or other of James’s hunting residences that the king might enjoy his talk. The king and the bishops wanted to employ his pen in their literary warfare against Rome.

They compelled him to write first one, then a second pamphlet on the subject of the day—the royal supremacy.

At last, ashamed

of thus misappropriating Casaubon’s stores of learning, they set him upon a refutation of the Annals of Baronius, then in the full tide of its credit and success. Upon this task Casaubon spent his remaining strength and life. He died July 1, 1614. His end was hastened by an unhealthy life of overstudy, and latterly by his

anxiety to acquit himself creditably in his criticism on Baronius. He was buried in Westminster abbey. The monument by which his name is there commemorated was erected in 1632 by his friend Thomas Morton when bishop of Durham. Besides the editions of ancient authors which have been mentioned, Casaubon published with commentaries Persius, Suetonius, the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. The edition of Polybius, on which he had spent vast labour, he left unfinished. His most ambitious work was his revision of the text of the Deipnosophistae 4Eudaemon was a Cretan, Rosweyd German philologist and critic.

a Dutch

Jesuit; Schoppe, a

SAGRADA

of Athenaeus, with commentary. The Theophrastus perhaps exhibits his most characteristic excellences as a commentator. The Exercitationes in Baronium are but a fragment of the massive

criticism which he contemplated. His correspondence (in Latin) was finally collected by Van Almeloveen (Rotterdam, 1709), who prefixed to the letters a careful life of Isaac Casaubon. But the learned Dutch editor was acquainted with Casaubon’s diary

only in extract.

This diary, Ephemerides, of which the ms. is

preserved in the chapter library of Canterbury,

was printed in

1850 by the Clarendon Press. It forms the most valuable record we possess of the daily life of a scholar, or man of letters, of the 16th century. Brerrocrapuy.—The most complete account of Casaubon is the full biography by Mark Pattison (1875), of which a second and revised ed., by H. Nettleship, was published in 1892; the most recent work on the subject is Jsaac Casaubon, sa vie et son temps, by L. J. Nazelle (1897) ; there is a monograph on the F ontainebleau conference by J. A. Lalot (1889). Casaubon is the subject of one of SainteBeuve’s Causeries, July 30 1860 (a notice of the Oxford edition of the Ephemerides). See also the article in E. Haag’s La France Protestante (1882), and J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. (vol. ii. (ed. 1908), D. 204, et seq.)

CASCADE MOUNTAINS, a continuation northward of the

Sierra Nevada, about soom. across the States of Oregon and Washington, U.S.A., into British Columbia. In U.S. territory the range lies from 100 to 150m. from the coast. The Cascades are separated on the south from the Sierras by deep valleys near Mt. Shasta in California, while on the north somewhat below the international boundary of 49° N. they approach the northern Rockies, mingling with these in inextricable confusion. The Cascades are in general a comparatively low, broad mass surmounted by a number of imposing peaks in Oregon and Washington. Evidences of volcanic activity in comparatively recent geologic time are abundant throughout the length of the range, and all the highest summits are volcanic cones, covered with snow fields and, in a number of instances, with glaciers. The grandest peaks are Shasta

(14,161ft.) at the south, and Rainier (or Tacoma, 14,408ft.) in Washington, two of the most magnificent mountains of America. Other notable summits are Mt. McLoughlin (9,493) formerly Pitt, Mt. Scott (8,938), Diamond Peak (8,807), Mt. Thielsen (9,178), Mt. Jefferson (10,495) and Mt. Hood (11,225), in Oregon; and Stuart (9,470), St. Helens (9,671), Baker (10,750), and Adams (12,307), in Washington. The Fraser river in the far north, the Columbia at the middle, and the Klamath in the south cut athwart the range to the Pacific. The Columbia has cut almost to the sea level through the great mountain mass, the Dalles being only about tooft. above the sea. It is to the cascades of the tremendous rapids at this point that the mountains owe their name. The slopes of the Cascades are clothed with magnificent forests, chiefly of coniferous evergreens: firs, pine, tamarack, and cedar. The Douglas fir, the “Oregon pine” of commerce, often attaining a height of 2s5oft., is one of the most beautiful trees in the world. In 1926 the mountain forests were largely included in 13 national forest reserves, with a total area of nearly 13,500,000 acres, extending from the northern boundary of Washington to the southern boundary of Oregon. See Orecon and Wasuincton;

also G. O. Smith and F. C. Calkins,

A Geological Reconnaissance across the Cascade Range near the FortyNinth Parallel (1904), being U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 253; W. D. Smith, A Summary of the Salient Features of the Geology of

the (reon Cascades, being University of Oregon Bulletin, new series, xiv., No . 16.

CASCARA SAGRADA, the bark of the California buck-

thorn (Rkamnus Purshiana) used in medicine. An active principle anthra-gluco-sagradin has been isolated by Tschirch. Cascara sagrada is one of the most useful laxatives, since not only does it empty the bowel, but acts as a tonic to the intestine and tends to prevent future constipation.

A single full dose of the liquid

extract may be taken at bedtime, or divided doses, ro to 15 minims, three times a day before meals. When a strong purgative is required some drug other than cascara sagrada should be employed, but its use in gradually decreasing doses is indicated after evacuation has been effected by podophyllin or rhubarb. Cascara sagrada is the principal constituent of most of the pro-

prietary laxatives on the market.

CASE—CASEMATE CASE, JOHN

(d. 1600), English Aristotelian scholar and

physician, was born at Woodstock. He was educated at Oxford, but had to resign his fellowship at St. John’s owing to his Roman Catholic sympathies. He subsequently opened a philosophical school in Oxford, which was largely attended. He was in addition an authority on music and a distinguished physician. Most of his works were commentaries on various treatises of Aristotle (Organon, Ethics, Politics, Oeconomics, Physics) under curious titles; they enjoyed a large circulation during his time, and were frequently reprinted. He was also the author of The Praise of Musicke (1586), dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh.

CASE, in law, the common term for a cause or suit brought before a court of justice.

Action on the case means

an action

for the recovery of damages for an injury to the person or property, where the act done was not immediately injurious (see Contract; Tort). A case stated is a statement of facts drawn up by one court for the opinion of a higher on a point of law. A special case is a statement of facts agreed to on behalf of two or more litigant parties, and submitted for the opinion of a court of justice as to the law bearing upon the facts so stated. In the legal systems of the United Kingdom and of the United States decided cases are considered authoritative for courts of at least equal jurisdiction with those in which the judgments were given, but on the continent of Europe the rule is, following that of the Roman law, that they are instructive but not authoritative. A box, sheath, or covering. In building, a “case” is the facing where the backing may be of inferior material; the framework in which a window or door is hung; or the wall surrounding a stair, “staircase” properly signifying the whole structure of and stairs. In bookbinding, a “case” means the boards and in which the books are bound; and in typography, the divided into partitions, containing the type ready for the positor’s use.

CASE

HARDENING.

walls back tray, com-

The process of imparting to steel

961

termed paracasein, as distinct from that precipitated by acids. In all these processes the precipitated curd is separated from the whey, washed with cold water, passed through a press or centrifugal separator, broken up, and dried by currents of dry air or other means. The dry casein is ground and packed for sale. Properties.—Pure casein is a white powder without taste or smell. Chemically it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. The food value of casein is comparable with that of the proteins in meat; its content of amino-acids, some 15 of which have been isolated, contributes to its nutritive qualities, these latter being enhanced also by the presence of vitamins. It is a weak acid, readily soluble in solutions of caustic alkalis and of the carbonates, borates and other salts of the alkali metals. Water dissolves casein only to a very small extent, but causes it to swell. Casein is converted by the action of formaldehyde, or formalin, into a hard material quite insoluble in water. Casein is non-inflammable. Its specific gravity is about 1-26. Commercial casein of good quality is a dry, friable white, or slightly brown powder; casein of inferior quality has an unpleasant smell and is usually moist and dark coloured. Uses.—In many countries casein is produced on a commercial scale, and a large amount is used in the making of confectionery and special foods. Preparations are also used as media for the medicinal administration of quinine, lithium salts, iodides and other drugs. Casein forms the basis of many cosmetics, creams and ointments. It is used to some extent for printing on calico, sizing yarns, and sizing, waterproofing and coating in the paper industry. It is also used largely in the production of cold-water paints and distempers, of cements for porcelain and glass, and of glues for use in bookbinding, wood-working and aircraft construction.

Moulded Products.—The production of casein moulded prod-

ucts or plastics intended to imitate ivory, tortoise-shell, amber, horn, ebony, agate, malachite and other decorative materials is an important industry all over the world. Some thousands of tons

or wrought iron an extremely hard surface. It is of great impor- are made annually in many of the leading countries. Two methods of manufacture are in use, known as the wet and tance in cases, and they are many, in which it is necessary to combine, in an article manufactured of iron or steel, tensile dry processes. In the wet process, casein prepared by acid prestrength with resistance to surface attrition. Case hardening cipitation is dissolved in an alkaline solution and the necessary secures this by carburizing the outer surface of the steel em- dyes and filling ingredients are added; it is then re-precipitated ployed. The article to be case hardened is cast, and the casting by acid, washed, and the curd roughly pressed to remove water. heated in a suitable furnace in which it is exposed to contact with The product is then ready for pressing in moulds of any desired charcoal at a temperature of 800° to goo° C. for from a few hours shape. The moulded objects thus prepared must be “hardened” to a few days. The result of this process is very literally to give a and rendered as waterproof as possible by long soaking in a solu“hard case” or skin to the metal; the body of the article being left tion of formaldehyde. After prolonged drying and seasoning the unchanged in character. For empirical reasons, the charcoal em- article is ready for use. Rennet casein is used in the dry process; it is first ground to a ployed is derived from horn, leather, etc. After carburizing, the articles are usually quenched in cold water. The process amounts fine powder, and about one-third of its weight of water added to a partial application of the principle of cementation. Warships and efficiently mixed. The apparently still dry powder is then are cased in steel which has undergone various surface hardening well kneaded or pressed through a heated screw-press extruding processes of this kind; armour plate of the Harvey type is made machine from which it emerges as a soft plastic dough. This of ductile steel to which a casing of great hardness is given by the dough is then ready for moulding under pressure to the various surface being converted into high-carbon steel suddenly cooled. shapes required. Moulded objects require “hardening” and seasoning, as described for the wet process. (See IRON AND STEEL; CEMENTATION.) Casein plastics are readily machined and polished and can be CASEIN. The milk of all mammals contains casein. Cheese is a modified form of casein. It is a complex product akin to produced in a variety of colours, either opaque or transparent; white of egg, belonging to the class of chemical compounds known they are difficult to ignite, of good mechanical strength, and when as albumins. In milk, casein occurs in combination with lime dry can be used for electrical insulation. A disadvantage, par(calcium oxide) as a calcium salt, and in order to isolate it the ticularly for electrical purposes, is the readiness with which the milk must be broken up by treatment with acid. A white curd is material absorbs water. Combs, beads, buttons, manicure sets, precipitated which is washed and dried, the product thus obtained cigarette holders and umbrella handles are among the objects being sufficiently pure for most technical purposes. From skim which are made extensively of this material. The production of dried casein (skim-milk product) in the milk of average composition, between 3 and 3-25% of casein can United States in 1924 was 20,683,000 lb., according to the Stabe obtained. Processes of Manufacture.—Various acids are used commer- tistical Abstract of the United States, 1925. BrsriocrapHy.—E. Sutermeister, Casein and its Industrial A pplicacially for precipitation, the three main processes are: (1) the tions, Chemical Catalogue Co., New York (1927), a comprehensive rennet process; (2) the process in which an acid, e.g., dilute sul- symposium by various specialists; E. L. Taque, Casein, Its Preparathe (3) and milk; the to added is tion, Chemisiry and Technical Utilization (New York, A D) phuric or hydrochloric acid, self-curdling process, in which the milk is allowed to rest until it CASEMATE (lItal. casa, a house, and matia, dull or dim), is curdled by the action of lactic acid formed from lactose or milk sugar of the milk by the activities of a bacillus (B. acidi lacticz). an armoured vault or chamber or, in field fortification, a bombChemically the substance precipitated by the action of rennet is proof shelter; in architecture, a hollow moulding, chiefly

962

CASEMENT—CASHEW

employed in cornices.

CASEMENT, ROGER DAVID

(1864-1916), British con-

sular agent and rebel, was born at Kingstown, Co. Dublin, on Sept. 1, 1864. After serving in the Niger Coast Protectorate he entered the British consular service, and was appointed consul at Lourenco Marques, then at Loanda and then at Boma. He carried out the investigation ordered by the British Government into the conditions under which the rubber trade in the upper Congo was conducted, and his report, published in 1903, led to the official Belgian commission which resulted in the change in the Government of the Congo. In rgro the British Government commissioned Casement to investigate certain charges brought against the Anglo-Peruvian Amazon Company, and for this service he was knighted (1911). He retired from the service in 1912 and returned to Ireland in 1913. Always a strong Irish nationalist he joined the opposition to Redmond and to the participation of Irishmen in the World War. He thought the circumstances of the war might be used to win Irish independence, and with this in view visited the United States and then in Nov. 1914 Berlin. During 1915 he published various anti-British pamphlets and attempted without success to form a brigade, for service against England, of Irish soldiers who were prisoners of war. He found that the Germans were not prepared to attempt an expedition to Ireland, and conveyed verbal messages to his friends in Ireland to that effect, hoping thus to prevent an abortive rising, although to no purpose. But when he learned of the proposed rising in Easter week 1916 he sailed (April 12) for Ireland in a German submarine, which was accompanied by a vessel laden with arms and ammunition. The latter was captured by a patrol boat. Casement landed in a collapsible boat, was captured on April 24 and brought to London. Tried for treason before the lord chief justice, he was convicted and sentenced to death on June 29, being deprived of his knighthood on the following day. His appeal against conviction was dismissed on July 18, and on Aug. 3 he was hanged at Pentonville, London.

CASEMENT, in architecture, a frame in wood or metal, which holds the glass of a window, and is hung by hinges either at the top, bottom or sides. The term is also used for any hinged window, and for a wide hollow or cavetto employed in late Gothic architecture.

CASERNE, a barrack or lodging for troops in a town (from French caserne and Spanish caserna, casa, a house).

CASERTA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in

NUT

See S. di Giacomo, Da Capua a Caserta (Bergamo, Arti Grafiche,

n.d.) well illustrated.

CASE-SHOT,

a projectile used in ordnance for fighting at

close quarters, now practically obsolete. metal case containing a large number

projectiles (see AMMUNITION).

It consists of a thin

of bullets or other small

Case-shot was formerly called

“canister,” though the present term occurs as early as 1625.

CASH. Originally meaning a box, the word cash, derived from the O. Fr. casse, a box or chest, is now commonly applied to ready money or coin. In commercial and banking usage, “cash” is sometimes confined to specie; it is also, in opposition to bills, drafts or securities, applied to bank-notes. Hence “to cash” means to convert cheques and other negotiable instruments

into coin. In bookkeeping, in such expressions as “petty cash,” “cash-book,” and the like, it has the same significance, and so also in “cash-payment” or ready-money payment as opposed to “credit,” however the payment may be made, by coin, notes or cheque. Cash is also the name given by English residents in the East to native coins of small value, and particularly to the copper coinage of China, the native name for which is żsien. This, the only coin minted by the government, should bear a fixed ratiọ of 1000 cash to one zael of silver, but in practice there is no such fixed value. It is the universal medium of exchange throughout China for all retail transactions. The tsien is a round disc of copper alloy, with a square hole punched through the centre for stringing. A “string of cash” amounts to 500 or 1000 cash, strung in divisions of 50 or roo. The English term is apparently from the Sinhalese Kasi and Tamil Kasi, a small coin.

CASH BOOK: see Book-KEEPING. CASH CREDIT. The Scottish banks long ago established a cash credit system which has worked admirably and had much to do with the wide, popular use of banks in Scotland. The system was begun in 1727 by the Royal Bank of Scotland, which was founded in that year. A cash credit is an advance made to a trustworthy person whose faith is guaranteed personally by two or more competent sureties, who are jointly bound in respect of the advance. Thus a credit is created upon purely personal security. In this way a bank customer is established with a credit account, into which he pays his receipts, and upon which he can draw to the extent of the advance agreed upon, interest being charged to him upon his daily overdraft. Thus a very large number of small businesses have been encouraged, and the foundations of big business securely laid. To the banks also the cash credit system has proved profit-

the province of Naples, situated 21m. N.E. of Naples by rail via Acerra, and 23m. via Aversa. Pop. (1921) town, 21,637; commune, 35,172. ‘The modern town was a mere village belonging to able, enabling them to use their resources to great advantage. the Caetani family of Sermoneta, who were counts of Caserta, CASHEL, city and urban district of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, until its purchase from them by Charles IV. of Naples, and the 96 m. S.W. of Dublin on the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1926) erection of the royal palace, begun by Luigi Vanvitelli (van Wit- 2,945. The town lies at the base of the Rock of Cashel (300 ft.), tel) in 1752, but not completed until 1774 for Charles’s son Fer- the summit of which is occupied by remains of St. Patrick’s cathedinand IV. It forms a rectangle, the south front being 83oft. long dral, a round tower, Cormac’s chapel and an ancient cross, on the and 134ft. high, with 37 windows in each storey. The interior is pedestal of which the kings of Munster were crowned. Of the richly decorated with marbles, almost all of which, except the defences of the rock, a guard-tower and portions of the wall rewhite Carrara marble, are Neapolitan or Sicilian. The staircase, main. At the base of the rock is Hore Abbey, a Cistercian foundathe chapel and the theatre are especially sumptuous. Parts of it tion of 1272, and within the town is a Dominican priory (1243). are now used for an air force officers’ academy and for a comLegend states that the vision of an angel blessing the rock, seen mercial school. The extensive gardens which occupy the hillside by two swineherds in the 5th century, led Corc Mac Luighdheach, behind the palace are adorned with fountains and cascades, the king of Munster, to establish a stronghold here. It became one of water being brought by an aqueduct more than 27m. long with the chief seats of the kings of Munster, but in rror was given three lofty bridges over valleys, the largest being the Ponti della over to the church. Here Henry II. received the homage of Valle near Maddaloni; the botanical garden contains many trees O’Brien, king of Limerick, and, later, Edward Bruce held his Irish from northern climates. Two miles north is St. Leucio, a village parliament. The cathedral was burnt in 1495 by the earl of Kilfounded by Ferdinand IV. in 1789, with large silk factories which dare. Cashel was captured during the wars of 1647. It was reare still engaged in production. The old town (Caserta Vecchia) duced from an archbishopric to a bishopric in 1839 and was disles high (1,310ft.) about 3m. to the north-east. It was founded in franchised in 1870. the oth century by the Lombards of Capua. The cathedral was CASHEW NUT, the fruit of the cashew, cadju or acajou completed in 1153. It is a copy of that of Sessa Aurunca, and pretree, Anacardium occidentale (family Anacardiaceae), a native of

serves the type of the Latin basilica. The campanile, Sicilian in

style, was completed in 1234, while the dome, which betrays similar motives, is even later. Its pulpit is decorated with the richest polychrome mosaic that can be found anywhere in Sicily or

south Italy, and is quite Muslim in its brilliance.

the West Indian Islands. The fruit is kidney-shaped, about an inch in length, and the kernel is enclosed in two coverings, the outer of which is smooth, grey and leathery. Inside this external rind is a dark-coloured layer, containing an acrid juice. The kernels have a bland, oily, pleasant taste. They are much eaten, both raw

CASHIBO—CASHMERE and roasted, in the tropical regions in which the tree is cultivated, and yield a light-coloured, sweet-tasted oil, said to be equal to olive oil for culinary purposes. The fruit-stalk, immediately under the fruit, is swollen and fleshy, and assumes a pear-like shape. This swollen portion of the stalk has a pleasant acid taste, and is eaten as cashew apple. By fermentation it yields an alcoholic beverage, from which a spirit for drinking is distilled in the

of dividends to stockholders.

963 These checks when drawn become 4

credit to the cashier’s account and when returned through the clearing house or other channels become a debit to the same account. CASHIN, SIR MICHAEL PATRICK (1864-1927), Newfoundland politician, was born at Cape Broyle, Newfoundland, on Sept. 29, 1864. He was educated at St. Bonaventure’s College, St. John’s, and afterwards adopted a business career, becoming a fishery merchant at Cape Broyle in 188s. In 1893 he entered politics as Independent member for Ferryland, but in 1895 joined the Liberals, becoming a prominent member of the party. In 1905, however, he broke away again from the Liberals, joining first the Independent Liberal party, and later (1908) the People’s Party, led by Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Morris. He was chosen to represent Newfoundland on the Commission on West Indian Trade held at Jamaica in 1910. From 1909 to 1919 he was Minister of Finance and Customs, and in this position was largely instrumental in raising the Victory loan (1917-18). In r918 he was successively acting Prime Minister during the absence of Lord Morris, acting Minister of Militia, and acting Minister of Shipping, becoming Prime Minister in 1919. During the World War he was a member of the War Finance Committee, and for his services on this and other committees was created K.B.E. in 1918. From 1920 he led the Opposition in the House of Assembly until he retired from public life in 1923, after the longest membership recorded in the House. In 1888 he married Gertrude, daughter of Captain Pierre Mullowney, and had four sons and one daughter. He died on August 30, 1927.

CASH INSURANCE: see Insurance, MISCELLANEOUS. CASHMERE. A textile trade term applied originally to a

BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM BRANCH OF THE CASHEW NUT TREE, SHOWING

FLOWERS

AND

NUTS

West Indies and Brazil. The stem of the tree yields a gum similar to gum arabic.

CASHIBO or CarapacHe (“bat”), a tribe of South American Indians of Pannoan stock, living in scanty numbers on the west side of the Ucayali, Peru.

CASHIER.

(1) (Adapted from the Fr. caissier, one in charge

of the caisse, or money-box), one who has charge of the payment or receiving of money in a business house. The “cashier” may be a high executive official of a banking or mercantile house—thus the name of the chief cashier of the Bank of England appears on all notes issued during his occupation of the post—or he may be merely a clerk, who receives payment for goods sold, and has the right to give receipts for the same. (2) (In origin ultimately the same as “quash,” to annul, from Lat. quassare, to dash or break to pieces, a frequentative of quatere, to shake, but also connected in form and meaning with cassare, to make cassus, empty or void), a military term, meaning originally to disband, and probably adopted from the Dutch in the 16th century. The word in various forms is used in the same sense in most European languages. It is now used in English for the dismissal of a commissioned officer from the army and navy for particularly serious offences, in the words of the Army Act for “‘behaving in a scandalous manner unbecoming an officer and a gentleman.” “Cashiering’” involves not merely the loss of the commission, but also a permanent disqualification from serving the State in any capacity.

CASHIER’S

CHECK

is used in the United States for a

check drawn by a bank upon itself and signed by its cashier. It is a direct obligation of the issuing bank and is payable when presented to that institution. It is frequently used as a form of remittance by persons who have no bank accounts or who wish to give assurance that the check will be paid. In such cases the cashier’s checks are bought from the bank by paying the face value, sometimes with a small fee for the service. Cashier’s Checks are also used by the bank to pay its own obligations, such as payment for securities, bills of exchange, discounting notes, purchase of supplies and often, though not always, for payment

type of soft woollen dress fabric of very light texture, woven from yarn spun from the fine and long fleece of the Cashmere goat. The modern Paisley shawls, manufactured in the Scottish town of that name, are beautiful reproductions of the shawls woven by the natives of Cashmere on primitive handlooms. The term “Cashmere,” however, has lost its original significance and is now applied without discrimination to a variety of dress fabrics whether composed of wool, cotton, or a combination of both types of fibres. Until the year 1857 the word “Cashmere” does not appear to have been applied to any kind of cloth manufactured in England; though cotton dress goods described as “Mousseline-de-laine” (Muslin-de-laine) were woven in the Colne valley (Lancs.) as early as 1837, and the term Cashmere was probably first used in the dress-goods trade to describe the fine twilled dress fabrics produced from the true fleece wool of the native Cashmere goat. From this date, however, the popularity of the original Cashmere fabric led to the production of inferior and cheaper fabrics first by substituting the fine Merino wool of the Spanish breed of sheep in place of Cashmere wool, and then by weaving fabrics of similar texture by employing weft either of Cashmere or else Merino wool in combination with warps produced from cotton yarn of fine counts; and, finally, by employing cotton yarn entirely both for warp and weft, though still retaining the original description of “Cashmere.” In the Bradford trade the term Cashmere is applied to several distinct varieties and qualities of dress fabrics of light-weight texture, of which one example is a special type of twilled dress goods woven with a cotton warp in combination with Merino (Botany) worsted weft. If a similar style of fabric were woven with both warp and weft of Botany worsted it would be described as “French” or “all-wool’” Cashmere; and if woven with a silk warp and Botany worsted weft it would then be termed “Henrietta,” or “silk-warp” Cashmere, and of which a good quality contains 72 warp threads per inch of 70/2 spun silk, and 168 picks per inch of 82’s Botany worsted weft. The usual variety of Cashmere is a light dress fabric produced either with warp of fine cotton or worsted yarn with weft of fine Botany wool, and

woven with the three-end weft-face (;——~) regular twill weave. This weave develops a distinct twill effect of diagonal lines on the face of the cloth, owing to the preponderance of the weft yarn on that side, though the reverse side of the fabric, which displays a preponderance of warp yarn, has the appearance of the plain

964

CASH

ON

DELIVERY—CASH

calico weave, without any resemblance whatever of a twill effect. “French Cashmere” differs from the usual variety in that it 1s based on the four-end two-and-two (2—) ““Cassimere” or “Har-

vard” twill weave structure, as distinct from the usual three-end weft face (;——) twill weave, and of which one quality 1s woven

with 60 warp threads per inch of 40’s Botany worsted yarn, and per inch of 52’s Botany worsted weit, approximately.

REGISTER

lishment of the system between the post office of the United King. dom and Cyprus, Egypt, Malta and certain British postal agencies abroad. A wide extension of the arrangement soon followed and the post offices of India, New Zealand and most British colonies and protectorates entered the scheme. In the relations between the British and various foreign post offices the arrangement was introduced generally in 1919 and 1920 and the service is now

140 picks in operation between the United Kingdom and many European Some varieties of Cashmere dress fabrics are produced entirely countries as well as with China. state “grey” the in woven weft, and warp for from cotton both Owing to the striking development of the service abroad and to and afterwards dyed; whilst others are printed to imitate a mix- the fact that experience had shown that the apprehensions of ture or “union” texture woven from warp and weft yarn spun small retail traders were groundless it was eventually decided to from a blending of wool and cotton staple fibres. One quality of introduce the scheme in the United Kingdom. An inland cash on cotton Cashmere contains 72 warp threads per inch of 36’s T delivery service, limited as in the case of the numerous external (H. N.) and 140 picks per inch of 28’s weft. services to the parcel post, was accordingly instituted in March popservice, delivery on cash The CASH ON DELIVERY. 1926. It proved an instant success and the continuous increase of ularly known as C.O.D., is designed principally to provide a means the traffic, which at the end of 1927 was at the rate of nearly two and securing delivery through an agent against

of ordering goods payment in cash instead of on credit or prepayment. In most countries the system is a feature of the postal organization, but the facility may also be provided by private agencies or even by joint arrangement between a post office and a private agency. To the trader the system offers a ready means of supplying distant customers without risk of loss. To the customer the system offers equal attractions, not merely by providing with the minimum of trouble for the prompt delivery of, and the payment for, goods that may be ordered by post or otherwise, but by eliminating any risk involved in payment before receipt of the goods. Its essential merit is that it gives to both seller and buyer access to wider markets at a minimum cost: in conjunction with advertising it becomes a distinctive method of retail trade. It might be thought that the system would offer particular advantages to residents in rural and sparsely populated areas and would therefore prove most popular in countries of wide territory, but experience has shown that the service is no less attractive in town and urban districts. The most striking development of the service has taken place in the United States where more than sr million domestic cash on delivery parcels were dealt with by the post office in 1926. This, however, is not so much due to the extent of the territory as to the growth in the U.S.A. of the mail-order business and the establishment in 1913 of the postal cash on delivery service. In nearly every European country, and in many countries outside Europe, a cash on delivery service has been in operation for many years. As long ago as 1849 the Swiss post office instituted an internal service and three years later it was made the subject of a postal arrangement with Austria and with certain German Principalities. But it was not until the Postal Congress held at Lisbon in 1885 that regulations were laid down for the exchange between postal administrations of cash on delivery parcels and regulations for a similar exchange by letter post were added at the Postal Congress of Vienna in 1891. The extension of the system to the letter post, first in internal services and later in international postal relations, has enormously widened the scope of the scheme by providing for the collection and remittance of the value of articles that may be sent by letter post or for the collection and remittance of charges on goods consigned by rail or otherwise. The service, under the name of “Value payable,” was introduced by the post office of India in 1877 and over 12 million articles of the total value of 28 crore of rupees were dealt with in 1926. In Australia the system was established also in 1877 and in 1922 and 1925 the arrangement was introduced by the post offices of Canada and South Africa, respectively, although a system of postal drafts presenting some features of the cash on deme scheme was in operation in South Africa considerably earlier.

The delay in the adoption of the cash on delivery service in the United Kingdom was due, not to the opposition of the British post office, but rather to the hostility of retail trading interests. Owing to this hostility a proposal in 1904 to introduce a cash on delivery service as part of the inland parcel post had to be abandoned, but negotiations subsequently opened resulted in the estab-

million parcels a year, is evidence of its growing popularity. The scheme has proved particularly attractive to motor and general

engineers for the transmission of motor and machine parts, and drapers and outfitters also make considerable use of it. The maximum amount that may be collected under the arrangement is fixed in the United Kingdom and generally by the post offices of other countries at the limit for money orders, settlement with the sender being effected by means of a special order. For the services of collection and remittance a fee is charged on an ad valorem scale, in addition to the postage. As against this, the vendor saves the cost of collection and the purchaser that of re-

mittance. The British service has been found to pay its way on the existing scale of fees.

In April 1928 the British inland cash on delivery service was extended to packets sent by registered letter post as well as to consignments sent by rail to any part of Great Britain. In each case the limit of value is the same as that applicable to inland cash on delivery parcels, viz., £40, and payment is effected by means of a special order. The service by rail is conducted jointly by the British post office and the four main British railway groups, the latter undertaking conveyance and the former being responsible for the collection from the consignee of the amount due and for the transfer of this sum to the sender. The essential feature of the scheme is that the sender, having consigned his goods by rail, forwards to the

consignee in a cash on delivery letter which is handed to him on payment of the amount due, a document enabling him to obtain delivery of the goods from the railway company. The cash on delivery registered letter post is intended to provide facilities for the despatch of small articles which are more appropriate to the letter than to the parcel post. In the case of the railway service there is practically no weight restriction. The

scheme

is particularly

suitable

for consignments too heavy or too bulky for the parcel post as well as for garden and dairy pro-

duce for which the parcel limit of rr lb. may be inadequate.

CASH

REGISTER,

a re-

cording, calculating and checking THE FIRST CASH REGISTER, IN- machine used to assist the retail VENTED BY JAMES RITTY OF OHIO salesman and for other purposes. IN 1879. THE RECORD WAS SHOWN In various forms it has come into BY THE HANDS ON THE DIAL very wide use in Great Britain, the United States and elsewhere. The machines make records, facilitate the giving of change in small transactions, and prevent mistakes and dishonesty. Sometimes the records are made by holes punched in a roll of

BY COURTESY

OF NATIONAL

CASH

REGISTER CO.

paper; in other cases they are shown on dials by the aid of adding

mechanism. A common form has a number of keys, each representing a particular sum and each attached to a counting mechanism which records how many times it has been used. By pressing

CASILINUM—CASIMIR appropriate combinations of these keys the amount of any purchase can be registered, and the combined records of all the count-

ing mechanism give the total that has been passed through the machine in any selected period. Each key when pressed also raises an indicator which informs the customer how much he has to pay. In the accompanying illustration, one of the latest forms of the machine is shown. It can be fitted with as many as nine separate QNITIAL OF ASSISTANT SERVING

Rou, oF BLANK TICKET PAPER

TOTAL OF EACH ASSISTANTS

GRAND TOTAL OF ALL CASH

BY

COURTESY

OF

NATIONAL

CASH

REGISTER

CO.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MECHANISM OF THE MODERN CASH REGISTER This machine will register 9 separate adding totals and 1 genera! total, so that 9 assistants, in a shop or store, can

record their individual sales

adding totals and one main adding total, which would receive any or all of the records made on the nine totals. These totals or counters can be used for nine assistants’ takings, or, say, six assistants and separate records of credit sales, money received on a/c., and money paid out. The keyboard will register from a farthing to £9.19.114, or from one penny to £99.19.11d. The amount is added to the appropriate counter, both in the grand total and on the separate adding counter; “1” is added to the assistant’s industry counter showing the number of customers the assistant has served, and opens the assistant’s individual cash drawer. Each drawer is fitted with a different tone gong, and ensures that all the money in the drawer has been handled by that one particular assistant. Locks are provided, so that in the event of the assistant leaving the register, he can prevent the use of his counter and his drawer. No cash drawer can be opened without leaving a definite record inside the machine.

CASILINUM, an ancient city of Campania, Italy, 3m. N.W. of the ancient Capua. Its position at the point of junction of the Via Appia and Via Latina, and at their crossing of the river Volturnus, gave it considerable importance under the Roman republic. In the Second Punic War it was occupied by Fabius Cunctator in 217 B.c., taken by Hannibal after a gallant defence by troops from Praeneste and Perusia in the winter of 216-215, but

recaptured in the following year, serving the Romans as their base of operations against Capua, and losing its independence. It seems to have been united with Capua before the time of Vespasian. Pliny speaks of the morientis Casilini reliquiae, “the remains of dying Casilinum,” and only its position at the junction of the roads redeemed it from utter insignificance.

CASIMIR IIL, called “Tue Great,” king of Poland (1310-

1370), son of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland, and Jadwiga, princess of Kalisch, was born at Kowal in Kujavia. He was educated at the court of his brother-in-law, Charles Robert of Hungary, where he had a reputation for frivolity and lack of personal courage. When he became king of Poland in 1333 his kingdom, consisting of the lately reunited provinces of Great and Little Poland, was at war with the Teutonic Order and with

John of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, who claimed the Polish

crown. But Casimir was a man of genius, who trusted in a wise diplomacy and not in bloodshed which had brought so much trouble to Poland. He began by tying the hands of the Teutonic

Order by the truce of Thorn, and he induced the king of Bohemia to relinquish his claims to the Polish throne by leaving him a free

hand in Silesia (conference of Trencsén, early in 1335). At the congress of Visegrád, where both princes were entertained by the king of Hungary, the differences between them were finally

IV.

905

adjusted, and peace was made between the king of Poland and the Teutonic Order on the basis of the cession of Pomerania, Kulm and Michalow to the knights, who retroceded Kujavia and Dobrzyn; the kings of Hungary and Poland agreed to help each other in acquiring Halicz or Red Russia (nearly corresponding to the modern Galicia), Casimir also paid over much money and renounced Polish claims to sovereignty over Masovia, a central province. The pope, jealous of the house of Luxembourg, tried unsuccessfully to set aside the decrees of Visegrád by urging Casimir to fight the knights again. Casimir, who had no male issue, recognized Louis, Charles Robert’s son, as the successor to the Polish crown, Louis contracting to confirm the privileges of the Polish gentry and clergy, and to rule Poland through natives only. In 1340 the death of George II. of Halicz, and the ravaging of that fruitful border principality by the Tatars, induced Casimir and Charles Robert to establish their joint influence there, and in 1344. the Red Russian boyar, Demetrius Detko, was appointed starosta, or governor, in the names of the two kings. In 1353 Lubart of Lithuania disputed the sway of Poland in that principality. Hungary coming to the assistance of Poland, Lubart was defeated and taken prisoner; but Casimir, to avoid a bloody war with Lithuania’s Tatar allies, came to a compromise with Lubart whereby Poland retained Halicz with Lemberg (Lwow), while Vladimir, Belz and Brzesc fell to Lithuania. With the Teutonic

knights, Poland’s worst foe, Casimir always preserved peace. He used the Luxembourgers against them at Rome; but the disputes between Poland and the order were settled by the peace of Kalisz (July 23, 1343), when the knights engaged for the first time to pay tribute to the Polish crown. Casimir had trouble with John of Bohemia over Silesia, now split up into 17 principalities, and when he invaded that country, took Wschowa, and captured Prince Charles of Bohemia, war broke out and he was besieged in Cracow by the Czechs. But Hungary hastened to his assistance, and the Holy See restored peace in 1346. The death of the adventurous John at Crécy, and the election of his son the peaceful Charles IV. as emperor, improved the situation. Casimir, aided by Jaroslaw Skotowicki, archbishop of Gnesen, formerly a professor at Bologna, codified the laws of Great and Little Poland in 1347 and in 1356 a supreme court of appeal was established. Casimir, the “Peasants king,” relentlessly put down, often by death, aristocratic oppression and promulgated the severe statute of Great Poland to this end. He also did much for education. Stimulated by the example of Charles IV., who had founded the university of Prague in 1348, Casimir on May 12, 1364, established and richly endowed the first university of Cracow, which has five professors of Roman law, three of Canon law, two of physics, and one master of arts. Casimir reorganized the State finances. He introduced the conscription of landowners for national defence. He founded towns, and protected home industries with tariffs, which led to a tariff war with Bohemia. Ardent Polish patriots complained of his Germanizing policy, but the “German right” which he introduced was the foundation of Polish prosperity; he also encouraged the Jews. He developed architecture, and gave Poland “brick for wood.” He unified Poland, making “one law, one king, one currency.” In the course of bis reign he subdued Volhynia, Podolia, the palatinates of Brescia and Beltz, beat the Russians as well as the Lithuanians and Tatars, and finally acquired control over Masovia. He set up a cordon of fortresses on his north-east borders. Casimir’s last political act was the conclusion of a fresh alliance with Louis of Hungary against Charles IV. at Buda in 1369. He died on Nov. 5, 1370, from a hunting accident. He was the only Polish king called “Great.” BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See

Jan Leniek, The

Congress of Visegrád

(Lem-

(Cracow,

The above are all in Polish.

berg, 1884); J. K. Kochanowski, Casimir the Great (1900) ; Kazimierz J. Gorzycki, The Annexation of Red Russia by Casimir the Great (Lemberg, 1889); Stanislaw Kryzanowski, The Embassy of Casimir the Great

to Avignon

1900).

See also R. Dyboski, Outlines of Polish History (1928).

CASIMIR IV., king of Poland (1427-1492), second son of Wladislaus II. Jagiello, was appointed as a lad grand-duke of Lithuania by his father, and crowned king of Poland at Cracow

CASIMIR-PERIER—CASINO

966

in June 1447, three years after the death of his elder brother, Wladislaus III. Throughout life Casimir aimed at the preservation of the union between Poland and Lithuania, and the recovery of the lost lands of old Poland. Owing to his steadfast adherence

to these principles Poland in the 15th century became a great

power, but his essential unwarlikeness, and his impartiality be-

tween the two countries over which he ruled made him unpopular with both; while his anti-German policy, on which the future safety of the dual state depended, could only be carried through by the most humiliating concessions to patrician pride and greed. By confirming, under threat of deposition, the privileges of the nobles, he established the disastrous principle of elective monarchy in Poland. He also acquiesced when the senate decreed that the king was not to make war without their permission. He finally subjugated the Teutonic Order after a 13 years’ war, during which his subjects troubled him more than his enemies. In Oct. 1453 the Prussian cities and gentry, in dispute with the Order, which had been excommunicated by the Pope and banned by the Empire, placed themselves beneath the overlordship of Casimir; on Feb. 4, 1454, they renounced their allegiance to the Order, and captured 57 towns and castles. On March 6, 1454, Casimir incorporated the Prussian provinces with Poland, with a guarantee of autonomy and of freedom from taxation. This aroused little enthusiasm in Poland, and the Order gradually recovered ground from the incompetent Polish gentry. The king, irritated by the suicidal parsimony of the estates, threatened to retire to Lithuania, but after the bloody victory of Puck (Sept. 17, 1462) fortune favoured Poland. Finally the Holy See intervened, and by the second peace of Thorn (Oct. 14, 1466) all West Prussia was ceded to Poland, while East Prussia was held by the knights as a fief of the Polish crown. Casimir had previously profited by the rivalry of two popes to acquire the right of appointment of bishops by the Crown; and his resistance to papal claims had naturally caused hostility at Rome. The Curia changed sides in order to enlist Casimir against the Turks. Casimir took advantage of this to get his son Wladislaus made king of Bohemia instead of the Hussite Podébrad. But his ambitions were frustrated by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, who roused the Order against him. Casimir died in June 1492. Casimir founded the Polish diet in 1467, and his reign was a Golden Age of culture for Poland. Public schools were established for citizens, serfs and nobles. There was liberty of opinion and of the press, and the many printing presses published books banned elsewhere. Poland was a refuge of scholars, and Copernicus came to Cracow in 1492. See Jan Dlugosz, Opera (Cracow, 1887); August Sokolowski, Jl/ustrated History of Poland (Pol.) vol. ii. (Vienna, 1904); R. Dyboski, Outline of Polish History (1920).

CASIMIR-PERIER, JEAN PAUL PIERRE (18471907), sth president of the French Republic, was born in Paris on Nov. 8, 1847, and was the grandson of Casimir Peérier, the famous premier under Louis Philippe. He represented Aube in the Chamber of Deputies until he became president, and he joined the Republicans of the Left. He abstained from voting on the question of the expulsion of the princes in 1883 owing to personal connections with the House of Orléans. From Aug. 1383 to Jan. 1885 he was under-secretary for war, vice-president of the chamber from 1890 to 1892, president of the chamber in 1893, and prime minister in the same year. His ministry only lasted six months, and after his resignation in May 1894, he was

re-elected president of the chamber.

On June 24 he was elected

president of the Republic but on the fall of the Dupuy ministry, six months later he resigned, complaining that he had been improperly treated by the ministers. Abandoning politics, he devoted himself to business until his death on March 11, 1907.

CASINO or CASSINO, a card game for two, three or four (in partnership) players.

A full pack is used.

four cards are dealt to each player in rotation, two at a time. Before taking his own cards, on each round the dealer places

two cards face upwards on the table. The remainder of the pack

goes face downwards at the dealer’s left. After four cards have

been played from each hand, four more cards are dealt to each player, two at a time, but none are dealt to the table. These intermittent deals continue until the pack becomes exhausted or until some player counts game. The deal passes to the left. An exposed card or an incorrect number dealt to any player is cor-

rected by taking cards needed from the top of the pack or by

returning to the middle of the pack surplus or exposed cards. A

card exposed on the final round of deals must be taken by the dealer; in exchange, the owner of the exposed card draws one from

the dealer’s hand. Senior makes the opening play. (1) He may match cards; i.e., lay down a king from his own hand on an exposed king and place both face downwards before him, or he may match two or three fives on the table with a card of that denomination from his hand. (2) He may total a combination; i.e., lay down a 6, for example, taking with it any cards of which the combined pips amount to 6, as 5 and ace, 4 and 2, two 3S, Or several of these

combinations; should the player’s card win all those exposed, the sweep gives him one point, which is noted for final scoring by facing one card taken in. (3) He may call a combination; i.e., having two ss he may lay one of them on top of an exposed 5,or on an ace and 4, or 2 and 3, or place one 5 on more than one combination of ss, by calling “fives,” after which none of these stacked cards can be won by anything except a card of the denomination “called.” On the next round a caller must take up his call: unless he can add to it another card of the same denomination; add to it one card from his own hand and one or more cards from the table whereof the sum equals the call (to 5s may be added an exposed ace and trey with an ace from the caller's hand); or match some exposed card (the caller may allow his 5s

to stand by matching an exposed queen). Failure to exercise one of the preceding four options forfeits the caller’s rights, causing his stacked cards to become exposed and liable to any play. Any holder of a card of the denomination called may take up a call. (4) Senior may build, by stacking one or more exposed cards with one from his hand, to equal the denomination of another card held; i.¢., holding an 8, an exposed 3 and 4 may be stacked with an ace from the player’s hand, calling “building 8s.” On the next round the builder has four options; he may take up his build ; he may add to his build (either by stacking thereon another 8 from his hand or by adding an exposed 5 with a 3 from his hand); he may build higher; i.e., holding a Iro, he may add a deuce from his hand, or an ace from his hand with an exposed ace, announcing “building 10s”; he may match an exposed card with one from his hand. Failure to exercise one of his options forfeits the builder’s rights to maintain the cards stacked; they become exposed and subject to the same treatment as other cards on the table. Any holder of a card of the denomination built may take up the build of another player.

A combination called cannot be built higher (a stack of two 4s or a stack consisting of one 4 and two 2s, called “4s,” cannot be built into 9s by adding an ace). Any player may build higher a single combination, provided he holds the card needed the combination to the denomination of another card his hand (one player’s build of a single 8 may be raised another player holding both an ace and a 9; after that player with an ace and a 10 might add his ace to the

to raise held in to 9 by another pile and

call “building ros”). Failure to call aloud the purpose of cards stacked forfeits the stacker’s rights to those cards, which may be separated by another player for such play as he chooses. A card

played out of turn becomes dead; it must be laid aside until the

turn of its owner to play arrives, when he must expose it on the table instead of making any other play. An attempt to win with

Players cut for

a card of incorrect denomination may be corrected, if the player

deal; low deals; king is the highest and ace is the lowest card.

holds a card of correct denomination; otherwise he must expose upon the table the card he attempted to play instead of making any more desirable play. If a player calls a combination or builds, without holding the proper card to do so, his error must be

Senior (eldest hand or elder) sits at the dealer’s left; junior (youngest hand, younger, pone or pony) sits at the dealer’s right. The dealer shuffles and junior cuts. Commencing with senior,

CASINUM—CASKET corrected; his stacked cards must be broken up and each card played since the error must be restored to its original position; after which the player in error must expose a card on the table in lieu of any more desirable play, and the game proceeds. If senior can neither match cards, total a combination, call a combination, nor build, he must frail, by exposing a card upon the table. Each player after senior may exercise the same five options in play. Game is ordinarily 21 points won by a single player or by partners; sometimes game is the highest score made on each hand played. Nothing is scored until the end of a hand. Players may keep mental score and the first to reach 21 points may claim and prove game. At the end of each hand, cards taken in are reviewed by each player; points are scored as follows: cards (the greatest number) 3, spades (the greatest number) 1, Bzg Casino (ten of diamonds) 2, Little Casino (two of spades) 1, aces 1 each, sweeps 1 each. In counting out a 21 point game or in settling a tie, precedence follows the order given above. Strategy requires the holders of important cards to retain them as long as possible, so that these cards may be utilized to match, total a combination or capture stacked cards, utilizing less valuable cards for trailing or building. When both the pack and players’ cards are exhausted, any cards still exposed on the table go to the player who made the last winning play. Draw Casino requires the balance of the pack to be placed face downwards, after the first four cards have been dealt, and each player of a card at once replaces it by taking the top card from the pack, until that is exhausted. Failure to draw in turn is corrected by, drawing two cards at the next turn. Royal Casino differs from Casino only in valuing jacks at 11, queens at 12, kings at 13, and aces as either 1 or 14 points. These ‘higher numbers increase combinations and allow higher building. Spade Casino adds to the ordinary scoring of 11 points, one point for each spade taken in (13 added points). Points are scored as made, except cards, which are scored at the end of the hand. Game is 61 points (once around a cribbage-board and into the game-hole, permitting handy scoring on a board, unless players prefer a score-sheet). (E. V. S.) CASINUM, an ancient town of Italy, probably of Volscian origin. When it came under Roman supremacy is not known, but it probably received the citizenship in 188 B.c. It is situated on the Via Latina about 4om. N.W. of Capua. Varro possessed a villa near it, in which later Mark Antony held his orgies. Strabo speaks of it as an important town; Varro mentions the olive-oil of its district as especially good. The older Volscian Casinum must have stood on the hill (1,715ft.) above the Roman town (148ft.), where considerable remains of fortifications in Cyclopean masonry, of finely cut blocks of limestone, still exist. The site is now occupied by the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino

(g.v.), founded by St. Benedict himself in 529. The wall runs south-west and west, starting from the west side of the monastery, for a total length of about 300 yards. The Roman town lay at the foot of the mountain, close to the Via Latina. The amphitheatre, erected by Ummidia Quadratilla (mentioned by Pliny), is still existing and is approximately circular in plan. The external walls are soft. high. Above it on the hillside is a theatre less well preserved. Close by is a building converted into the Cappella del Crocefisso, originally perhaps a tomb on the Via Latina; it is a chamber in the form of a Greek cross, constructed of large masses of travertine, with a domed roof of the same material. On the opposite bank of the river Rapido are the ruins attributed to the villa of Varro. The mediaeval town of S. Germano, which resumed the name Cassino in 1871, lies a little to the north. The cathedral was founded in the 8th century, but the present building was constructed in the 17th century. Above the town is a picturesque mediaeval castle.

CASIRI, MIGUEL

(1710-1791), a learned Maronite, was

LETTERS

967

the library of the Escorial; it also contains a number of quotations from Arabic works on history. The second volume gives an account of many geographical and historical mss., which contain valuable information regarding the wars between the Moors and the Christians in Spain. Casiri’s work is not yet obsolete, but a more scientific system is adopted in Hartwig Derenbourg’s incomplete treatise, Les Manuscrits arabes de l’Escorial (1884).

CASK: see COOPERAGE. CASKET, a small box or chest, commonly used for jewels,

money, papers or other objects of value. History and literature are full of references to the often disconcerting contents of these famous receptacles. The “Casket Letters” (q.v.) are one of the mysteries of history. Harpagnon’s casket plays an important part in Moliére’s L’Avare; Bluebeard gives his too-curious wife the keys of his caskets filled with precious stones; the contents of Sainte-Croix’s casket brought about the trial and condemnation of the marquise de Brinvilliers, the poisoner. This very ancient

piece of furniture was no doubt derived from the chest, which was the original wardrobe. It was an object of great value, covered with ivory, enamel or stamped leather, enriched with precious metals, or encrusted with jewels. One which belonged to St. Louis° and is preserved in the Louvre is covered with enamelled shields of arms and other decorations.

In the 16th and 17th centuries

secret hiding-places were sometimes concealed in the thickness of the lid or in a false bottom. (See also Box.)

CASKET LETTERS, the name given to eight letters and

a series of irregular sonnets asserted by James, 4th earl of Morton, to have been found by his servants in a silver casket in the possession of a retainer of James, 4th earl of Bothwell, on June 20, 1567, six days after the surrender of Mary, queen of Scots, to her rebels at Carberry Hill. If they are genuine they prove Mary’s full complicity with Bothwell in the murder of her husband, Henry, Lord Darnley, in the preceding February. The contents of the casket were produced at Westminster, on Dec. 14, 1568, before a body of English Commissioners appointed by Queen Elizabeth to investigate the charges brought by Mary, then a prisoner in England, against the rebel Scottish lords and by them against her. The originals were in French, but translations had already been made into Scots, and further translations were made into English. After the Conference, the casket and its contents

were brought back to Scotland and entrusted to Morton’s care; after his execution in 1581, they passed into the possession of William, rst earl of Gowrie, who refused to comply with Elizabeth’s request that they should be sent to England. Gowrie was executed for treason in 1584, and there is no further trace of the originals. Elizabeth’s Commissioners gave no decision about the authenticity of the documents, and, until comparatively recent years, controversy as to their genuineness has been complicated by doubts as to the text actually produced at Westminster in 1568. Translations into Scots, English, Latin and French were published within a few years of the close of the Conference, and it was assumed that these French translations represented the text shown to the English Commissioners. Walter Goodall proved in 1754

that the printed French text was derived from the Scets or the Latin, and this unquestionably strong argument for forgery remained a main factor in the case of Mary’s defenders for over a century until the discovery of contemporary French copies of the letters in the Record Office and at Hatfield. This discovery undermined the position taken up by John Hosack in his Mary, Queen of Scots, and her Accusers (and ed. 1870-74). Hosack also made a very telling attack upon the most incriminating of the letters (Letter II.), on the ground of collusion with a declaration made by Thomas Crawford, a servant of Darnley, which was also produced at Westminster, and his argument for forgery was widely accepted uhtil the publication of an article by Harry Bresslau

born at Tripoli (Syria). He studied at Rome, where he lectured in the Historisches Taschenbuch (1882) and of T. F. Henderon Arabic, Syriac and Chaldee. In 1748 he went to Spain, and son’s Casket Letters and Mary, Queen of Scots (and ed. 1890), in 1763 he became principal librarian at the Escorial, a post which the latter of which traversed Hosack’s theory of collusion between he appears to have held until his death. Casiri published a work Crawford’s deposition and Letter II., of which no contemporary entitled Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis (1760-70). French copy has been found. A further development of the conIt is a catalogue of above 1,800 Arabic mss., which he found in troversy followed the discovery of a number of documents, notes

of information, and indictments of Mary, which had originally been written for, or by, Darnley’s father, Matthew, 12th earl of Lennox, and are preserved in the University library at Cambridge. Transcripts of the Lennox documents were lent by Father Pollen, S.J., to the late Mr. Andrew Lang, who used them in his Mystery of Mary Stuart (1900-04). Portions of these documents have since been printed by Maj.-Gen. R. H. Mahon in his Indictment of Mary, Queen of Scots (1923) and his Mary, Queen of Scots:

a Study of ihe Lennox Narrative (1924). In the light of the new

evidence, Lang came to the conclusion that “the least difficult theory is that Letter II. is in part authentic, in part garbled.” This conclusion was controverted by Henderson in his Mary, Queen of Scots (1904), and in the Scottish Historical Review (Oct. 1907), Lang, on different grounds from those of his critic, retracted his own earlier view, and admitted that his hypothesis, that Letter II. was partly based on Crawford’s deposition, was impossible. Mary, he was convinced, “wrote the whole letter.” This conclusion he elaborated in the rith ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica (Art. Casket Letters). The authenticity of Letter II. is the central point of the controversy, and the question is ‘not seriously affected by exposures of false statements made in other connections by Mary’s accusers. To the arguments of Henderson and Lang no systematic reply has yet been made, and the controversy remains where they left it, though General Mahon in his two books has advanced some arguments against the genuineness of Letter IT. CR. S. R.)

CASLON, the name of a famous family of English typefounders. WrrLram CAsLoN (1692—1766), the first of the name, was born at Cradley, Worcestershire, and in 1716 began in London as an engraver of gun locks and barrels, and as a bookbinder’s tool-cutter. Being thus brought into contact with printers, he was induced to ft up a type foundry, largely through the encouragement of William Bowyer. The distinction and legibility of his type secured him the patronage of the leading printers of the day in England and on the Continent. The use of Caslon types, discontinued about the beginning of the 1oth century, was revived about 1845 at the suggestion of Sir Henry Cole, and used for printing the Diary of Lady Willoughby (a pseudo-17thcentury story) by the Chiswick Press. He died on Jan. 23, 1766. His son, WitLiam CaSLon (1720-1778), who had been partner with his father for some years, continued the business.

CASPER, the second city of Wyoming, U.S.A., on the North Platte river, in the central part of the State; the county seat of Natrona county. It is on Federal highways 20 and 87E, and is served by the Burlington and the Chicago and North Western rail-

ways. In 1900 the population was 883; in 1920, 11,4473; and in 1930 Federal census

SEA

CASLON— CASPIAN

968

16,619.

It is the industrial, financial and

trading centre for a large part of the State, and one of the largest oil-refining centres in the country. Great quantities of petroleum products, wool, sheep and cattle are shipped. Teapot Dome and Salt Creek (20,000ac.) oil-fields lie about 4om. N.; Big Muddy field, 20m. east. The city has four refineries, which use an average of over 50,000 bbl. of crude petroleum daily. The assessed valuation of property (exclusive of the refineries) was $22,394,240 in 1927; bank debits in 1926 amounted to $153,855,000. The city owns a park of 400ac. on top of Casper Mountain, 8m. to the south, and Old Fort Caspar, which guarded the principal crossing of the river in the days of the covered wagon, now belongs to the city. Goose Egg Ranch, a social centre in the early days of the cattle kings, is r4m. S.W.; Hell’s Half Acre, a county park of scenic marvels, 45m. W.; and 51m. S.W. is Independence Rock, a great mass of black granite, a landmark on the old Oregon Trail, on which many of the pioneers cut their names, with dates as far back as 1832. Until 1847 the site of Casper was known as The Upper Crossing of the Platte; from 1847 to 1858 as The Mormon Crossing and Ferry; from 1858, when a bridge was built, to 1865, as Platte Bridge Crossing. In 1865 the fort was renamed in honour of Lieut. Caspar Collins, who was killed in an attack on _ the Indians on July 26, 1865. The town was founded on June 16, 1888, when the first railway train arrived, and was incorporated in 1889. The. spelling of the city’s name is due to a mistake on the part of a railway clerk. s

CASPIAN LANGUAGES,

the designation of one division

of the Iranian group of Indo-European languages, a division com-

prising (a) Mazandarani, (b) Gilaki, (c) Talishi, (£) Tāt and (e) Samnani. Mazandarani has been a literary tongue since the middle ages and is used in poetry. General View.—The phonology of the Caspian tongues is, in general, that of the north Iranian group. Maz. aš (a bear) may be traced from Avesta areša (cf. modern Persian kirs); kana

(might, power), Avesta Kóran and modern Persian kun-ad. Morphology.—The grammatical structure of the languages again follows that of the north Iranian group. Sex is indicated by prefixing or affixing, for masc., nar, and for fem. mada. The adjective precedes the noun, e.g., Maz.;—pira mard (an old man), surxa gul (a red rose); Talishi, serxe sevi (a red apple); droza my (a long hair). The plural (in modern Persian indicated by the suffix -ãn) is in Maz. -tin, e.g., birariin, the brothers (modern Persian, biradar, a brother, biradardn, biradan, brothers). There is an oblique case having many duties. It is marked in the different languages thus: Maz. Gil.

~—a-, —e, -t; Plural -ani, —haz -a, -e,-i,-a; Plural —Gne, -äni Tal. -i -0 — — Sam. -7 In Mazandarani this case usually marks the accusative, some-

times the genitive case. In Gilaki and Talishi it usually marks the dative and in the former it is also occasionally used as a locative mark. The comparison of adjectives is similar to that of modern Persian. The suffix -tar or -ter is used. (Cf. Persian bihtar, better.) Numerals.—These in most of the Caspian languages, follow. the Persian forms fairly closely. In Talishi they are (1) i, (2) dé,

ee 3 (4) chd, (5) peny, (6) shash, (7) haft, (8) hesht, (9) nav,

Io) da. Pronouns.—The pronouns are very similar to those of modern Persian, as will be seen from the following: Mazandarani

Gilaki

Tat

Talishi

|Sing.

Man, mi

mu, mya

First Plur. Person

ama (ha),

maya, Invi

E

J

a

O t oO v

NA

g

E93

Samnani

ma

Sing.

tu, ta

tu

bit

Plur.

shama

shumu

shama

Sing.

vË, vi

y“ , u

vashun

yun, üi

E o

j Plur.

The languages also make use of sufñxed pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are ki (who), in all five languages

and cha (what, Maz. Tat and Samnani), chi (Talishi and Gilaki). Verbs, Adverbs, etc.—The conjugation of verbs follows the Iranian group very closely. The auxiliary, root bū- (to be), cf. Persian budan, etc., is used as in the cognate languages. _ Adverbs, conjugations, prepositions and postpositions are not declined. Many of them are almost identical in form with Iranian and modern Persian forms and betray extensive borrowings. See Geiger and Kubn, Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie, xı Band, 2 Abt. (Strasbourg, 1898—1901). (A. N. J. W.)

CASPIAN

SEA, an inland sea between Europe and Asia,

extending from 37° to 47° N., and from 47° to 55° E. Its

length is 1,280 km. from north to south, and its breadth 160 to 440 km., and its area reaches 438,690 sq.km. (a little more than the area of the Baltic), of which 2,340 sq.km. belong to its islands.

It fills the deepest part of a vast depression, sometimes known as the Aralo-Caspian depression, once an inland sea, the Eurasian Mediterranean or Sarmatian Ocean. At the present time its surface lies 26 metres below the level of the ocean and 76 metres below the level of the Aral. Hydrography and Shores.—The hydrography of the Caspian

Sea has been studied by von Baer, by N. Ivashintsev in 1862-

CASPIAN 1870, by O. Grimm, N. I. Andrusov (1895), and by J. B. Spindler (1897), N. von Seidlitz and N. Knipowich (1904 and 1912-15). It has three sections—(1) A northern, forming in the east the very shallow Gulf of Mortvyi Kultuk which is being gradually silted up by the sedimentary deposits brought down by the rivers Volga, Ural and Terek. The Caspian steamers, for example, must lighten their loads nearly 40 miles away from the Volga mouth. The western shore, from the delta of the Volga to the mouth of the Kuma is gashed by thousands of narrow channels or lagoons, termed limans, from 20 to 50 km. in length, and separated in some cases by chains of hillocks, called bugors, in others by sandbanks. These channels are filled, sometimes with

sea-water, sometimes with overflow water from the Volga and the Kuma. The coast-line of the Gulf of Mortvyi Kultuk on the north-east is, on the other, hand, formed by a range of low calcareous hills, constituting the rampart of the Ust-Urt plateau, which intervenes between the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. (2) South of the line joining the Bay of Kuma with the Manghishlak peninsula in the East, in 44° 10’ N. lat., the western shore is higher and the water deepens considerably, over one-half of the area 100 metres is reached while the maximum depth (between 41° and 42° N.) reaches 768 metres. This, the middle section of the Caspian, which extends as far as the Apsheron peninsula, receives the Terek and several smaller streams that drain the northern slopes of the Caucasus. At Derbent, just north of 42° N., a spur of the Caucasus approaches so close to the sea as to leave room for only a narrow passage, the Caspiae Pylae or Albanae Portae, which has been fortified for centuries. The eastern shore of this section of the sea is also formed by the UstUrt plateau, which rises 150 to 250 metres above the level of the Caspian; but in 42° N. the Ust-Urt recedes from the Caspian

and circles round the Gulf of Kara-boghaz or Kara-bugaz. This subsidiary basin is separated from the Caspian by a narrow sandbar, pierced by a strait only 100 to 150 metres wide, through

which a current flows continuously into the gulf at the rate of 2-5 to 8 km. an hour. To this there exists yo compensating outflow current at a greater depth, as is usually the case in similar situations. The area of this lateral basin being about 18,400 sq.km., and-its depth but comparatively slight (z to 12 metres), the evaporation is very appreciable (amounting to 1 metre per annum), and sufficient to account for the perpetual inflow from the Caspian. South of a line joining Baku with Krasnovodsk begins (3), the southern and deepest section of the Caspian

separated from the middle section by a submarine ridge (66 metres of water), which links the main range of the Caucasus on the west with the Kopet-dagh in the Transcaspian region on the east. This section of the sea washes on the south the base of the Elburz range in Persia, sweeping round from the mouth of the Kura to Astarabad at an average distance of 60 km. from the foot of the mountains. A little east of the Gulf of Enzeli, which resembles the Kara-boghaz, though on a much smaller scale, the Sefid-rud and several smaller streams pour into the Caspian the drainage of the Elburz range. Near its south-east corner the Caspian is entered by the Atrek, which drains the mountain ranges of the Turkoman (north-east) frontier of Persia. In 1894 a subterranean volcano was observed in this basin of the Caspian in 38° ro’ N. and 52° 37’ E. The depth in this’ section ranges from 25 to 700 metres, with a maximum of 946 metres. The mean

SEA

969

the level has undergone great non-periodical oscillations, as well as seasonal ones. It is lowest in December and highest in June. If 285 cm. is the normal figure at Baku at present it was in 1306

1638

1715 1815

1,305 cm.

763

305

5I5

1845

3

1847

»

1900

»

1853

216 cm.

207

254

296

>

55

,,

Thus in 1306 the level was more than rr metres higher than it is now and the variations are large and irregular. The sea was so low in 1915 as to cause difficulties of navigation in the north. The level of the Caspian, however, was formerly, in prehistoric times, about the same as the existing level of the Black Sea, although now some 26 metres below it. This is shown by the evidences of erosion on the face of the rocks which formed the original shore-line of its southern basin, those evidences existing at the height of 20 to 25 metres above the present level. Large portions of the vast region comprised between the lower Volga. the Aral-Irtysh water-divide, the Dzungarian Ala-tau, and the outliers of the Tian-shan and Hindu-kush systems are actually covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits, nearly always a yellowishgrey clay, though occasionally they assume the character of a more or less compact sandstone of the same colour. These deposits attain their maximum thickness of 30 metres east of the Caspian, and have in many parts been excavated and washed away by the rivers (which have frequently changed their beds) or been transported by the winds, which sweep with unmitigated violence across those wide unsheltered expanses. The typical fossils unearthed in these deposits are shells of species now living in both the Caspian and the Aral, though in the shallow parts of both seas only, namely (according to Ivan V. Mushketov 1850-1902) Cardium edule, Dreissena polymorpha, Neritina liturata, Adacna vitrea, Hydrobia stagnalis, in the Kara-kum desert, and Lithoglyphus caspius, Hydrobia stagnalis, Anodonta ponderosa and the sponge Metchnikovia tuberculata, in the Kizil-kum desert. The exact limits of the ancient Aralo-Caspian sea are not yet settled, except in the north-west, where the Ergeni Hills of Astrakhan constitute an unmistakable barrier. Northwards these marine de-

posits are known to exist 128 km. away from Lake Aral.

The

eastern limits of these deposits lie about 160 km. from Lake Aral. Southwards they have been observed without a break for 250 km.

from Lake Aral, namely in the Sary-kamysh depression.

Hence

in late Tertiary, and probably also in Post-Tertiary, times the Aralo-Caspian Sea covered a vast expanse of territory and embraced very large islands (e.g., Ust-Urt), which divided it into an eastern and a western portion. More than this, the Caspian was also, it is pretty certain, at the same epoch, and later, in direct

communication with the Sea of Azov, no doubt by way of the Manych depression; for the imans or lagoons of the Black Sea share with the Caspian:—-Archaeobdella, Clessinia variabilis, Neritina liturata, Gmelina, Gammarus moeoticus, Pseudocuma pectinata, Paramysis Baeri, Mesomysis Kowalevskyi and M. intermedia, Limnomysis Benedent and L. Brandti, Gobtus, Clupea and Acipenser. In early Tertiary times the Caspian belonged to the Sarmatian Ocean, which reached from the middle Danube eastwards through Rumania, South Russia, and along both flanks of the Caucasus to the Aralo-Caspian region, and westwards had open communication with the great ocean. Before Pliocene times the Sarmatian Ocean was divided into sections, one of which was the AraloCaspian sea. During the Pleistocene Ice Age the Caspian flowed over the steppes that stretch away to the north, and was prob-

depth of the whole Caspian is according to Knipowich (1922) 182 metres. The volume is 79,320 cubic km., rather more than those of the North Sea and Baltic combined. Drainage Area and Former Extent.—The catchment area from which this greatest inland sea is fed is 3,733,000 sq.km. and ably still connected with the Black Sea (itself as yet unconextends to a very much greater distance on the west and north nected with the Mediterranean). After the great ice cap had than it does on the south and east. From the former it is entered thawed and a period of general desiccation set in, the Caspian by the Volga, which is estimated to provide % of the river supply, began to shrink in area, and simultaneously its connections with t.e., about 301 cubic km. per annum), the Ural, the. Terek, the the Black Sea and the Sea of Aral were severed. Fauna.—The fauna of this sea has been studied by Eichwald, Sulak, the Samur; as compared with these, there comes from the south and east the Kura and Aras, draining the south side of the Grimm, Kessler, Sars and Wikotitsch. Marine elements include Caucasus, and the Sefid-rud and the Atrek, both relatively short. the herring (Clupea), and freshwater elements, species of Knipowich showed (1922) that without evaporation the level Cyprinus, Perca and Silurus, also a lobster. Rhizopoda (Rotalia would rise 1-3 metres annually; evaporation counteracts this, but and Textillaria), the sponge Amorphina, the Amphicteis worm,

CASQUE—CASS

G72 the molluscs

Amphipods

Cardium

edule

and

other

Cardidae,

and

some

(Cumacea and Mysidae), are marine forms which

either tolerate variations in salinity or are especially characteristic of brackish waters. Species not found elsewhere include Protozoa, three sponges, Vermes, twenty-five Molluscs, numerous Amphipods, fishes of the genera Gobius, Benthophilus and Cobitis,

references; Ivashintsev, Hydrographic Exploration of the Caspian Sea (in Russian), with atlas (2 vols., 1866) ; Philippov, Marine Geography n of the Caspian Basin (in Russian, 1877) ; Memoirs of the Aral-Caspia the St. Expedition of 1876-1877 (2 vols., in Russian), edited by

Petersburg Society of Naturalists; Eichwald, Fauna Caspio-Caucasica (1841); Seidlitz, “Der Karabugas Meerbusen,” in Globus, with map, vol. Ixxvi. (1899) ; Knipowich, “Hydrobiologische Untersuchungen des; (1922) Kaspischen Meeres,” Internat. Revue der Hydrobiologie, Bd. 10 W. Halbfass, die Seen der Erde (1922).

and one mammal (Pkoca caspia). This last, together with some of the Mysidae and the species Glyptonotus entomon, exhibits Arctic CASQUE, a covering for the head, a helmet; mediaeval procharacteristics, which has suggested the idea of a geologically armour for the head. The ancient Greeks and Romans tective of recent connection between the Caspian and the Arctic, an idea of brass and sometimes of skins. Casques were helmets wore which no real proofs have been as yet discovered. The Knipothe open usually had a bar descending from closed; or open either depth the below life wich expeditions found no traces of organic the face against transverse sword cuts. protect to forehead the of 400 metres except micro-organisms (zooplankton) and a single with visors hinged above the ears; fitted were casques Close Fishrich. is on phytoplankt the level that Oligochaete, but above covered the mouth and chin only. which fitted was beaver a in yielded eries off the mouths of Volga, Ural, Terek and Kura provided for ventilation and vision. also were ons perforati or Slits 1925 about 22 million tons, i.¢., much less than in 1913. The catch patterns of casques, ¢.g., chapelle-deseveral been have There (42-2%), herring (445%), included vobla (a kind of roach) iron hat, worn by light horsemen under Edward I.; sturgeon (four varieties) and salmon (1-2%), carp, bream, perch, fer, or or burgonet, made to the shape of the head; bacinet, tench and pike. The marked drop in the sturgeon and salmon bourguinote resembling a basin; salade, salet or celate, a light helmet light a provided is storage catch is due to destructive exploitation. Cold headpiece for archers; castle, protecting the hufken, casque; in Astrakhan, Makach-Kala and Derbent, but the export of fresh morion, open, resembling a hat, worn by head; the of whole salted, and transport, refrigerator of lack fish is hampered by s; pot, iron hat with a broad brim. harquebussier and musqueteers sturgeon smoked or dried fish, with caviare and isinglass from the HELMET.) (See are the chief exports. Seals are hunted in Krasnovodsk bay. The CASS, LEWIS (1782-1866), American general and statesman, northern section with great rivers has a salinity 10% or less and Oct. 9, 1782. He was educated at the water in the north-west corner is drinkable. In Mortvyi was born at Exeter, N.H., on his father at Marietta, Ohio, about joined academy, Exeter Phillips open the In 30%. above rises salinity east, the on gulf, Kultuk office of Return Jonathan Meigs the in there law studied 1799, Of sea. Black the Caspian it averages 12-8%, less than that of bar at the age of twenty. the salts present common salt (NaCl) forms only 62% against (1765-1825), and was admitted to the Ohio legislature. Durthe of member a became he later years Four 5%. against 24% (MgSOx) sulphate 78% in the ocean, magnesium Hull, whose surWilliam Gen. under served he 1812 of War the ing conIn the Kara-bugaz gulf into which the Caspian water streams and under Gen. W. H. tinuously to be evaporated, salinity rises to 200% and large quan- render at Detroit he strongly condemned, to be tities of Mirabilite (NazSO.-+10H,0) are deposited, to be dis- Harrison, and rose from the rank of colonel of volunteers a brigadier-general solved afresh in summer. Below a level of 300 metres Caspian major-general of Ohio militia and finally to be he was appointed govwater contains practically no oxygen, but some HS, as is the case in the regular United States army. In 1813 of which was much area the Michigan, of territory the of ernor the in life in the Black Sea. This accounts for the absence of larger than that of the present State. This position gave him the depths of both. Currents and Climate—Currents (Knipowich, 1922) follow chief control of Indian affairs for the territory, which was then there being only 6,000 white the coasts in counter-clockwise direction, the east-west section occupied almost entirely by natives, he held this post he renwhich in years 18 the During settlers. deeper and shallow between boundary the near crossing the sea to the nation. His relaand territory the to services valuable dered water. Through these currents the Volga water spreads southwards authorities in Canada after the War of 1812 on the west and lowers the general temperature. Average temper- tions with the British as these officials persisted in searching ature of the air in winter is about 16° in the north and 46° in the were at times very trying, Lakes and in arousing the hostility Great the on vessels American south, for the summer the average figures are 73° and 82° reof the Indians of the territory against the American Government. at remains temperature the metres 300 of depth a At spectively. To those experiences was largely due the antipathy for Great about 41°-43°. Near the Volga mouth the Caspian is frozen for Britain manifested by him in his later career. He was secretary of 112 days on an average, and winter in the northern basin is very severe with frequent falls of temperature to —13°, and to ~22°, war in President Jackson’s cabinet in 1831-36, and it fell to him, Seminole and lower still, on the Ust-Urt plateau. The north and east wind therefore, to direct the conduct of the Black Hawk and contribute to winter’s severity; summer winds are variable, often wars. In 1836 Gen. Cass was appointed minister to France, and westerly, with frequent alternation of land and sea breezes during became very popular with the French government and people. In the day. Navigation.—Transport is hindered by antiquated vessels 1842, when the Quintuple Treaty was negotiated by representatives for, dry cargo freightage of timber, salt, sugar, fish and dried of England, France, Prussia, Russia and Austria for the suppresfruit, and by the silting of the Volga. There were in 1925 81 sion of the slave trade by the exercise of the right of search, Cass motor-driven vessels, freightage 112,049 tons, 162 oil barges, freightage 246,000 tons, 75 dry cargo steamers, 38,400 tons and 63 line steamers and tugs with 18,300 horse power.

The total

freightage carried 1925—26 was in dekatons 402,552 632,214 in 1913. It consisted of—

as against

attacked it in a pamphlet which was probably instrumental in preventing the ratification of the treaty by France. In this same year the Webster-Ashburton treaty between Great Britain and the

United States was concluded, and, as England did not thereby relinquish her claim of the right to search American vessels, Cass felt himself in an awkward position, and resigned his post. His ' Petroleum products . . 353,328 attitude on this question made him very popular in America. From Grain ; 15,081 1845 to 1848 and from 1849 to 1857 he was a member of the U.S. Salt 6,183 Senate, and in 1846 was a leader of those demanding the “re-annexFish. 4,608 ation” of all the Oregon country south of 54° 40’ or “war with EngTimber 3:515 Iron 44I land,” and was one of the 14 who voted against the ratification of Coal. woa a 87 the compromise with England at the 49th parallel. He loyally supOther freights . i 19,309 ported Polk’s administration during the Mexican War, opposed the and the number of passengers was . Wilmot Proviso, and advocated the Compromise Measures of 1850 ` BrsrrocrRaAPpHy,—sSee works quoted under Arar; also von Baer, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. “Kaspische Studien,” in Bull. Sci. St. Pétersbourg (1855-59) ; Radde, In 1848 he received the Democratic nomination for the presiFauna und Flora des siidwestlichen Kaspigebietes (1886); J. V. Mushketov,

Turkestan

(St. Petersburg,

1886), with bibliographical

dency, but owing to the defection of the so-called ““Barnburners”

CASSABA—CASSAVA

gy

(see Free-Sor, Party) he did not receive the united support of

by Alexander the Great, transformed Therma into Thessalonica,

his party, and was defeated by the Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor. On account of his eminently conservative attitude on all questions concerning slavery, General Cass has been accused of pander-

See Diod. Sic. xviii., xix., xx.; Plutarch, Demetrius, 18. 31, Phocion, 3I; also MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.

ing to the southern Democrats in order to further his political aspirations. His ideas of popular sovereignty, however, were not inconsistent with the vigorous Democratic spirit of the west, of which he was a typical representative, and it is not clear that he believed that the application of this principle would result in the extension of slavery. As the west became more radically opposed to slavery after the troubles in Kansas, Cass was soon out of sympathy with his section, and when the Republicans secured control of the legislature in 1857 they refused to return him to the Senate. President Buchanan soon afterward made him secretary of state, and in this position he at last had the satisfaction of obtaining from the British government an acknowledgment of the correctness of the American attitude with regard to the right of search. In Dec. 1860 he retired from the cabinet when the president refused to take a firmer attitude against secession and he remained in retirement until his death at Detroit, Mich., on June 17, 1866. He wrote for the North American and the American Quarterly Reviews, and published Inquiries Concerning the History, Traditions and Languages of Indians Living Within the United States (1823), and France: Its King, Court and Government (1840). See W. T. Young, Life and Public Services of General Lewis Cass (Detroit, 1852); W. L. G. Smith, Life and Times of Lewis Cass (1856). The best biography is by A. G. McLaughlin, Lewis Cass (revised edition, Boston, 1899) in the “American Statesmen” series. See also General Lewis Cass, 1782-1866, Cass Canfield, compiler (1916); Benjamin Freeman Comfort, Lewis Cass and the Indian Treaties (1923); and John Spencer Bassett, “Lewis Cass on Nomination of Andrew Jackson,” American Antiquarian Society Proceedings, n.s. vol. xxxiii., pp. 12—33 (1924).

CASSABA or TORGUTLU, a town of Asia Minor in the vilayet of Sarukhan, 63 m. E. of Smyrna, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1927) 31,105. It has considerable local trade, and exports the products of the surrounding district. Cotton is the most important article, and there are ginning factories in the town; the silkworm is largely raised and exported; and the “melons of Cassaba” are sent not only to Smyrna but to Constantinople.

CASSANA, NICCOLO (1659-1714), often called Nuco-

LETTO, Italian painter, was born at Venice, and became a disciple of his father, Giovanni Francesco Cassana, a Genoese, who had been a pupil of Bernardino Strozzi (“il Prete Genovese”). Having painted portraits of the Florentine court and of some of the English nobility, Nicoletto was invited to England and introduced to Queen Anne, who sat to him for her portrait. He died in London in 1714. One of his principal works is the “Conspiracy of Catiline,” now in Florence.

CASSANDER.

(c. 350-297 B.C.), king of Macedonia, eldest

and built the new city of Cassandreia upon the ruins of Potidaea.

CASSANDER

or CASSANT,

GEORGE

(1513-1566),

Flemish theologian, born at Bruges, studied at Louvain, and taught theology and literature at Bruges. He studied the differences beiween the Catholic and Protestant bodies with a view to facilitating reunion, and in 1561 published anonymously De Officiis pit ac publicae tranquillitatis vere amantis viri in hoc dissidio religionis (Basle), in which, while holding that no one, on account of abuses, has a right utterly to subvert the Church, he disapproves of exaggerated papal claims. He appeals to Scripture explained by tradition and the fathers of the first six centuries. Such a book pleased neither party; but the German emperor Ferdinand asked him to publish his Consultatio de Articulis Fidei inter Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis (1565), in which, like Newman at a later date, he tried to put a Catholic interpretation upon Protestant formularies. While never attacking dogma, he criticizes the papal power and makes reflections on practices. The work, attacked both by the Louvain theologians and by Calvin and Beza was put on the Index in 1617. He died at Cologne on Feb. 3, 1566. His works were published at Paris in 1616.

CASSANDRA,

in Greek tradition, daughter of Priam and

Hecuba. In legend she was beloved of Apollo, who promised to bestow on her the spirit of prophecy if she would comply with his desires. Cassandra accepted the proposal, and then refused her favours. Apollo revenged himself by ordaining that her prophecies should never be believed. On the capture of Troy she was ravished by Ajax, the son of Oileus, in the temple of Athena. In the distribution of the booty, Cassandra fell to the lot of Agamemnon (qg.v.) and was murdered with him. It is to be noticed that there is no mention in Homer of her prophetic gifts. Together with Apollo, she was worshipped under the name of Alexandra.

CASSANO

ALL*IONIO, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the

province of Cosenza; its railway station (6m. S. of the town) is 37m. N. by E. from the town of Cosenza, while it is 6m. W. of Sibari, on the line between Metaponto and Reggio. Pop. (1921) 7,002 (town), 9,222 (commune). It is very finely situated 82o0ft. above sea-level; the rock above it is crowned by a mediaeval castle. See also COMPSA.

CASSATION, in music, the name of a type of orchestral

work, consisting of several short movements of a light character, popular in the 18th century, serenade and divertimento being other names for much the same kind of composition. Mozart wrote three works so named. In law, cassation signifies quashing, annulling or reversing, hence Court of Cassation as the name for a court of appeal.

CASSATT, MARY

(1855-1926), American artist, was born

at Pittsburgh, (Pa.), a sister of A. J. Cassatt, president of the Pennsylvania railroad. In 1875 she went to Europe to study art, spending some time in Spain, afterwards proceeding to Paris, where she was greatly influenced by Manet, Renoir, Degas and the Impressionist school. Her first exhibition in Paris was in 1893 at the gallery of M. Durand-Ruel, where in later years her works were frequently exhibited. She also contributed to the various exhibitions of the Impressionist school, but never to the salons. Her work was warmly appreciated in French artistic circles. chief subjects of soon after slain by Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great. Mothers and babies or children were to her the by great firmness Cassander at once marched against Olympias, and, having forced inspiration, and her pictures are distinguished As a pastellist she her to surrender in Pydna, put her to death (316). Left master in drawing and boldness of tone and colour. have been held in works her of s , Exhibition Lysimachus with rank. attained high of Macedonia, Cassander joined in a coalition ed in the public Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against Antigonus; In 311 a peace was New York and Pittsburgh, and she is represent collections. She private in and States of general United as the of recognized was galleries art concluded by which Cassander therefore, died in June, 1926. Europe during the minority of Alexander IV. In 310, Mères: Mary See Achille Legard, Un Peintre des Enfants et les he murdered the young king and his mother. In 303, Cassander, Cassatt, Painting; Bulletin of the Mary (1913); ed illustrat Cassatt, s, Poliorchete Demetrius by The Cassatt alarmed at the liberation of Greece Rhode Island School of Design, vol. v.; L. W. Hanemeyer, renewed the coalition, and, when Antigonus was defeated and Exhibition; Pennsylvania Museum Bulletin, 1927, vol, xxii. killed in 301, was recognized as king of Macedonia. He died of two plants of the spurge CASSAVA, the farinaceous root ofbitter dropsy in 297. Cassander was a man of literary taste, but cassava, Manihot

son of Antipater, first appears at the court of Alexander at Babylon, where he defended his father against the accusations of bis enemies. On the death of Antipater, who had passed over his son and appointed Polyperchon regent of Macedonia, Cassander alied himself with Ptolemy Soter and Antigonus, and declared war against the new regent. Most of the Greek states went over to him, and Athens also surrendered. He further effected an alliance with Eurydice, the ambitious wife of King Philip Arrhidaeus of Macedon. Both she and her husband, however, were

violent and ambitious.

He restored Thebes after its destruction

family

(Euphorbiaceae,

g.v.),

the

974

CASSEL

utilissima, and the sweet cassava, M. Ati, both important sources of food starches. They are herbaceous or semi-shrubby perennials

the League of Nations Finance Committee in Sept. 1921 (printed together with the first under the title of The World’s Monetary

with very large fleshy, cylindrical, tapering roots as much as 3ft.

Problems.

long and 6 to gin. in diameter, and filled with milky juice. The slender stems, 5 to oft. high, bear large spreading long-stalked leaves, with the blade divided nearly to the base into three to seven long narrow segments. The plants are probably natives of South America, but the bitter

connected with the financial crisis of 1920.

cassava, which is the more impor-

tant of the two in an economic sense, has been introduced into most tropical regions, and is ex-

1921), he discussed the questions

By this time he had

come to be regarded as one of the world’s leading authorities on foreign exchanges. Cassel was attached to the Swedish delegation

as a financial expert at the 1922 Genoa Conference and was a delegate at the meeting of International Chambers of Commerce in London in 1921 and 1922. He was again a delegate at the International Economic Conference held at Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations in 1927. Among Cassel’s published works are: The Nature and Necessity of Interest (1903); Theoretische Sozialdkénomie (1918); Money and Foreign Exchanges after rorg (1922); Weltwirtschaft und Geldverkehr unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Valutaproblems (1920);

tensively cultivated in west tropical Africa and the Malay Archipelago, from which, as well as from Brazil and other South American States, its starch in the form of tapioca is a staple article of export. The sap of the bitter cassava root contains hydrocy-

Fundamental Thoughts on Economics (1925).

CASSEL, a town of northern France in the department of

Nord, on an isolated hill, about 12 m. E.N.E. of St. Omer. Pop. (1926) 2,158. It was a Roman station Castellum Menapiorum,

anic acid, and the root, being therefore highly poisonous, cannot be eaten in a fresh condition; while on the other hand the sweet cassava is perfectly innocuous, and is employed as a table vegetable. Exposure to heat dissipates the poisonous principle, and the concentrated juice is in that state used as a basis of cas- CASSAVA, A TROPICAL PLANT, SHOWING THE SWOLLEN ROOTS sareep and other sauces. From WHICH STORE STARCH the bitter cassava roots many This starch forms the Brazilian arrowdifferent food preparations are root, and, when dried, is known as made in Brazil. The roots are tapioca preserved for use by being cleaned, sliced and dried; from such dried slices manioc or cassava meal, used for cassava cakes, etc., is prepared by rasping. The starch also is separated and used for food under the name of Brazilian arrowroot; and this, when

agglomerated into pellets on hot plates, forms the tapioca (g.v.) of commerce. CASSEL, SIR ERNEST JOSEPH (1852-1921), AngloGerman financier, was born at Cologne, on March 3, 1852, the

son of a small banker in that city, and at the age of 16 became a clerk in the banking firm of Elspacher. In 1870 he went to London and entered the foreign banking house of Bischoffscheim and Goldsmid. There he attracted notice by his skilful disentanglement of the accounts of the Khedival loans. In 1884 he set up for himself and became interested in South-American finance. He re-organized the finances of Uruguay and issued three Mexican loans, as well as acquiring the Royal Swedish railway and financing enterprises such as Vickers’ absorption of the MaximNordenfelt Co. and the building of the Central London railway. He also raised a Chinese loan after the war with Japan. His principal achievement was, however, the financing of the Nile irrigation work, and in connection with that the founding of the National Bank of Egypt. During the World War, though he had long been a naturalized British subject, an unsuccessful attempt was made to have his name removed from the privy council. Sir Ernest retired in roro and died in London on Sept. 21, 1921. His daughter married Col. W. W. Ashley, M.P., Minister of Transport, and their daughter; who inherited much of her grandfather’s great wealth, married Lord Louis Mountbatten. Cassel’s public benefactions to hospitals and for educational purposes have been estimated at two millions sterling. He helped to found the King Edward VII. sanatorium for consumptives at Midhurst, Kent, the Radium Institute, and created an educational trust for specified purposes, among these being facilities for workers’ education.

CASSEL, GUSTAV (1866— ), Swedish economist, was born at Stockholm on Oct. 20, 1866. He became in 1904 professor of economics in the Högskola at Stockholm. His memorandum on “The World’s Monetary Problem” at the Brussels Conference in 1920 attracted great attention.

Two Memoranda,

In another memorandum

to

as numerous remains of the Gallo-Roman period attest, and an important centre of roads. It was the scene of important battles in 1071, when Robert, count of Flanders, vanquished his rival Arnulf; 1328, when Philip of Valois defeated the Flemish; and 1677, when William of Orange was defeated by Philip, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. It was the headquarters of Gen. Foch in 1914-15 and of Gen. Plumer in 1916-18, and was bombarded, though not seriously damaged, in 1918. The former dtel de ville (1634), the hétel de la Noble Cour, once the seat of the jurisdiction of maritime Flanders, now the town-hall, and the hotel des ducs d’Halluin are the historic buildings of the town. Its industrial establishments include tanneries and oil-mills, and there is trade in cattle and butter.

CASSEL

(also Kasser), a city of Germany, capital of the

former electorate of Hesse-Cassel, and, since its annexation by Prussia in 1866, capital of the province of Hesse-Nassau. Pop. (1925) 171,486. The earliest mention of Kassel is in 913, when it is referred to as Cassala. The town passed from the landgraves of Thuringia to the landgraves of Hesse in the 13th century, becoming one of the principal residences of the latter house in the 15th century. The burghers accepted the reformed doctrines in 1527. The fortifications of the town were restored by the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous and his son William IV. during the 16th century, and it was greatly improved by the landgrave Charles (1654—1730), who welcomed many Huguenots. The latter founded the upper new town. In 1762 Kassel was captured by the Germans from the French; after this the fortifications were dismantled and New Kassel was laid out by the landgrave Frederick II. After changing hands several times in the nineteenth century, it was made in 1867 the capital of the newly formed Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.

It is situated on both sides of the river Fulda, a tributary of the Weser, over which a stone bridge leads to the lower new town. The river is navigable for barges, and railways connect the town with all parts of Germany. The streets of the old town are narrow and crooked, and contain many gabled houses, generally of the ryth century. The principal modern streets are

the Königsstrasse, the Schöne Aussicht and the Stände-platz.

The Friedrichs-platz is 1,000 by 45o ft. in area. In it stands a marble statue of the landgrave Frederick II. The former resi-

dence of the electors (Residenzschloss) fronts this square, as well as the Museum Fridericianum. The museum contains a collection of clocks and watches. Among other public places and buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the K6nigs-platz, the Karls-platz, with the statue of the landgrave Charles, and the Martins-platz, with a large church—St. Martin’s—containing the burial-vaults of the Hessian princes. The gallery of paintings contains one of the finest small collections in Europe, especially rich in the works of Rembrandt, Frans Hals and Van Dyck. The descendants of the French refugees who founded the upper new town have a church and hospital of their own. A new Rathaus (town-hall) has been erected. The town has museums of natural history and ethnography, an industrial exhibition hall and and industrial art school. The town’s command of routes

CASSELL—CASSINI explains its importance in mediaeval times, its fluctuating political fortunes in the nineteenth century and its modern development as a railway centre. It has connections with the manufacturing centres of the Ruhr, with Koblenz, with Frankfurt, with Miinchen, with Leipzig and Dresden, and with Berlin. The industries embrace engine-building, the manufacture of railway carriages and plant, scientific instruments, porcelain, tobacco and cigars, iron-

973

Cassia pulp, used as a laxative, is obtained from the pods of Cassia Fistula, or pudding pipe tree, a native of Africa which is cultivated in both the East and West Indies. Some confusion occasionally arises from the fact that Cassia is the generic name of an extensive genus of leguminous plants, which, in addition to various other medicinal products, is the source of the senna leaves which form an important article of materia medica.

founding, jute-spinning and other textiles.

CASSIANUS,

JOANNES

EREMITA

or JOANNES

MASSILIENSIS (360-435), a celebrated recluse, and one in Manchester on Jan. 23, 1817. His father was the landlord of the founders of monasticism in the west. His early life was of a public-house, and John was apprenticed to a joiner. He spent in the monastery of Bethlehem and after dwelling for was self-educated, gaining by his own efforts a considerable several years among the ascetics of the Nile desert, in 403 he acquaintance with English literature and a knowledge of French. repaired to Constantinople where he was ordained deacon by He came to London in 1836 to work at his trade; in 1847 he Chrysostom. Becoming a priest at Rome, he journeyed to established himself as a tea and coffee merchant, and about 1850 Marseille (after 410), where he founded a convent for nuns and started a publishing business with the object of supplying good the abbey of St. Victor. Cassianus was one of the first Semiliterature to the working classes. From the offices of the firm, Pelagians, maintaining that while man is by nature sinful, some which became in 1859 Cassell, Petter, Galpin and Co., were issued good remains in him, and that, while the immediate gift of grace the Popular Educator (1852-55), the Technical Educator (1870- is necessary to salvation, conversion may begin by the exercise of 72), the Magazine of Art (1878-1903), Cassell’s Magazine (from man’s will. He further asserted that God gives grace to all who 1852) and numerous editions of standard works. A special seek it, though He sometimes bestows it without its being sought. feature of Cassell’s popular books was the illustration. At the At the request of Castor, bishop of Apt, he wrote two treatises time of the Crimean War he procured from Paris the cuts used on the monastic life. The De Institutione Coenobiorum describes in L'Illustration, and by printing them in his Family Paper the daily life, the discipline and the special spiritual dangers of (begun in 1853) secured a large circulation for it. The frm was monasticism. The Collationes Patrum, a series of dialogues with converted in 1883 into a limited liability company, under the the pious fathers of Egypt, deal with the avoidance of these name of Cassell and Company, Limited. John Cassell died in dangers. At the desire of Leo (then archdeacon of Rome) he wrote against Nestorius his De Incarnatione Domini. London on April 2, 1865.

CASSELL, JOHN (1817-1865), British publisher, was born

CASSEROLE, a covered earthenware dish in which meat and

vegetables are cooked in the oven. The heat penetrates the porous dish thereby insuring an even temperature for all its contents. The cover prevents any of the flavour from escaping as steam so

that food cooked in casseroles retains all its juices and savour. Glass casseroles which withstand oven heat, and are attractive to the eye, are also obtainable.

CASSIA, VIA, an ancient high-road of Italy, leading from

Rome through Etruria to Florentia (Florence). At the r1th mile the Via Clodia (see Cropta, Vra) diverged north-north-west,

while the Via Cassia ran to the east of the Lacus Sabatinus and then through the place now called Sette Vene, where a road, probably the Via Annia, branched off to Falerii (q.v.) through Sutrium (where the Via Ciminia, running along the east edge of the Lacus Ciminius, diverged from it, to rejoin it at Aquae Passeris, north of the modern Viterbo), Forum Cassi, Volsinii (novi), Clusium and Arretium, its line being closely followed by the modern high-road from Rome to Florence. The date of its construction is, at earliest, 187 B.C., when the consul C. Flaminius constructed a road from Bononia to Arretium (which must have coincided with a portion of the later Via Cassia). Cicero speaks of the existence of three roads from Rome to Mutina (Modena), the Flaminia, the Aurelia and the Cassia. As milestones show, it was repaired partly by Trajan, partly by Hadrian. One stretch was called the Via Nova Traiana, but it was not a distinct road (Year’s work in Classical Studies, 1925-26, T21).

CASSIA,

the aromatic bark derived from Cinnamomum

Cassia (family Lauraceae). The greater part of the supply coming from China, it is sometimes termed Chinese cinnamon. The bark is much thicker than that of true cinnamon; the taste is more pungent and the flavour less delicate, though somewhat similar to that of cinnamon. The properties of cassia bark depend on the presence of a volatile oil—the oil of cassia, which is imported in a fairly pure state as an article of commerce from Canton. Cassia bark is in much more extensive demand on the Continent of Europe than in Great Britain, being preferred to cinnamon by southern nations. The chief use is for flavouring liqueurs and chocolate, and in cooking generally. When ground as a spice it is difficult to distinguish cassia from cinnamon (g.v.), and it 1s a common practice to substitute the cheap common spice for the more valuable article. Cassia Buds, which have a pleasing cinnamon flavour, are believed to be the immature fruits of the tree which yields Chinese cinnamon. They are brought in considerable quantities from Canton, and used as a spice and in confectionery.

Epirions.—Douay (1616) by Alardus Gazäus, with excellent notes; Migne’s Patrol. Lat. vols. xlix. and 1.; M. Petschenig in the Vienna Corpus Script. Eccles. Lat. (2 vols. 1886-88; Eng. trans. in the Library

of Nicene Fathers, vol. xi.). See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, v. 246 ff., 253 ff.; A. Hoch, Dze Lehre d. Joh. Cassian von Natur und Gnade (Freiburg, 1895).

CASSINI, the name of an Italian family of astronomers, four generations of whom succeeded each other in official charge of the observatory at Paris. GIovANNI Domenico CASSINI (1625-1712) was born at Perinaldo near Nice on June 8, 1625. Educated by the Jesuits at Genoa, he was nominated in 1650 professor of astronomy in the University of Bologna. In 1671 he became director of the Paris observatory, and became a French subject in 1673. Between 1671-84 he discovered four Saturnian satellites, and in 1675 the division in Saturn’s ring (see SATURN); made the earliest sustained observations of the zodiacal light, and published, in Les Éléments de Vastronomie vérifiés (1684), an account of Jean Richer’s (1630-96) geodetical operations in Cayenne. Certain oval curves which he proposed to substitute for Kepler’s ellipses as the paths of the planets were named after him “Cassinians.” He died at the Paris observatory on Sept. I1, 1712. A partial autobiography left by Giovanni Domenico Cassini was published by his great-grandson, Count Cassini, in his Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des sciences (1810).

Jacoues Cassını (1677-1756), son of Domenico Cassini, was born at the Paris observatory on Feb. 8, 1677. Having succeeded to his father’s position at the observatory in 1712, he measured in

1713 the arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to Perpignan, and published the results in a volume entitled De la grandeur et de la figure de la terre (1720) (see Gropesy). He wrote besides

Eléments dastronomie (1740), and died on April 18, 1756, at Thury, near Clermont. The first tables of the satellites of Saturn were supplied by him in 1716.

César Francois CASSINI or Cassini DE THuRY (1714-1784),

son of Jacques Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on June 17, 1714. He succeeded to his father’s official employments,

continued the hereditary surveying operations, and began in 1744 the construction of a great topographical map of France. The post of director of the Paris observatory was created for his benefit in 1771, when the establishment ceased to be a dependency of the Academy of Sciences. Cassini de Thury died at Thury on

Sept. 4, 1784. His chief works are: Méridzenne de Pobservatoire de Paris (1744), Description géométrique de la terre (1775), and Description géométrique de la France (1784).

CASSIODORUS—CASSITERITE

974 Jacoves Dominique

Casstnr,

Count

(1748-1845),

son of A. Thorbecke

César Francois Cassini, was born at the observatory of Paris on June 30, 1748. He succeeded in 1784 to the directorate of the observatory; but his plans for its restoration and re-equipment were wrecked in 1793 by the French Revolution. He spent some months in prison in 1794, and then withdrew to Thury, where he died on Oct. 18, 1845. He completed his father’s map of France, which was published by the Academy of Sciences in 1793. It served as the basis for the Atlas National (1791), showing France in departments. Count Cassini’s Mémoires pour servir à Phistoire de Pobservatoire de Paris (1810) included the autobiography of his great-grandfather, the first Cassini. See J. FE. S. Devic, Histoire de la vie et des travaux de J. D. Cassini (1851); J. Delambre, Histoire de l’astronomie au XVIIe siècle; C. Wolf, Histoire de ’observatoire de Paris (1902).

CASSIODORUS (not Cassroporrus), the name of a Syrian family settled at Scyllacium (Squillace) in Bruttium, where it held an influential position in the sth century A.D. Its most important member was FLAVIUS MAGNUS AURELIUS CASSIODORUS SENATOR (c. 490-585), historian, statesman, and monk. “Senator” (not a title) is the name used by himself in his official correspondence. His father attached himself to Theodoric, who appointed him corrector (governor) of Bruttium and Lucania, and praefectus praetorio. The son at an early age became consiliarius (legal assessor) to his father, and (in 507) quaestor, his chief duties being to act as the mouthpiece of the ruler and draft his despatches. In 514 he was ordinary consul, and later corrector of his native province, At the death of Theodoric (526) he held the office of magister oficiorum (chief of the civil service). Under Athalaric he was praefectus praetorio, a post which he retained till about 540, after the entry of Belisarius into Ravenna, when he retired. He founded two monasteries—Vivarium and Castellum—in his ancestral domains at Squillace (others identify the two monasteries). The special duty which he enjoined upon the inmates was the acquisition of knowledge, both sacred and profane. He also collected and emended valuable mss., which his monks were instructed to copy, and superintended the translation of various Greek works into Latin. As he is stated to have written one of his treatises at the age of 93, he must have lived till after 580. His works are (1) historical and political; (2) theological and grammatical.

(Heidelberg, 1867) and A. Franz (Breslau, 1872);

Ebert, T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, i., p. 280, iv. p. 348;i.; A.TeuffelAllgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, ; G. A. Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), Section 483 DicSimcox, Hist. of Latin Literature (1884) : W. Ramsay in Smith’s tionary of Greek and Roman Biography; J. B. Bury’s edition of Church Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, iv. 180, 522; R. W. Church in ofthe Classical

Quarterly Review, x. (1880); J. E. Sandys in Hist. (2nd ed. 1906); A. Olleris, Cassiodore, conservateur des livres de Pantiquité latine (1891); G. Minasi, M. A. Cassiodoro . ..

Scholarship

r. vicerche storico-critiche (1895); and C. Cipolla in Memorie della L. M. Accademia delle scienze di Torino (2nd ser. xliii. pt.2, 1893); (1899), 2. pt. i. Hartmann in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopddie, with note on the musical section of Cassiodorus’ Institutiones by i

C. von Jan.

CASSIOPEIA, in Greek mythology, the wife of Cepheus of the

and mother of Andromeda; in astronomy, a constellation northern hemisphere, easily recognized by the group of five stars forming a slightly irregular W. The most brilliant Nova (tem-

porary star) on record broke out in this constellation in 1572 when it was observed by Tycho Brahe.

CASSIRER,

ERNST

(18747

), German philosopher,

was born at Breslau, and educated at the universities of Berlin, Leipzig, Munich, Heidelberg and Marburg.

professor at Hamburg.

In 1919 he became a

Cassirer’s chief interests lie in the history

of transcendental philosophy, in the theory of scientific knowledge and in the formation of concepts. His most important works are Descartes Kritik der math. u. naturwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis (1899) ; Leibniz’ System (1902); Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Phil. u. Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit, 3 vols. (1906-20); Kants Leben u. Lehre (1921); Zur Einstein’schen Relativitats-

theorie (1921); Idee u. Gestalt. Goethe, Schiller, etc. (1921);

Philosophie der symbolischen Formen (1923); and Substanzbegrif

u. Funktionsbegrif (1910, Eng. trans. 1923).

CASSITERIDES, in ancient geography the name of islands

regarded as being situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe (from the Gr. xaccirepos, tin, t.e., “Tin-islands”). Herodotus (430 B.C.) had dimly heard of them. Later writers, Posidonius, Diodorus, Strabo and others, call them smallish islands

off (Strabo says, some way off) the north-west coast of Spain,

which contained tin mines, or, as Strabo says, tin and lead mines. A passage in Diodorus derives the name rather from their nearness to the tin districts of north-west Spain. While geographical knowl1. (a) Variae, his most important work, published in 537, contains edge of the west was still scanty and the secrets of the tin-trade the decrees of Theodoric and kis successors Amalasuntha, Theodahad, were successfully guarded the idea of tin-producing islands easily and Witigis; the regulations of the chief offices of State; the edicts arose. Later, when the west was better explored, it was found that published by Cassiodorus himself when praefectus praetorio. It is the north-west Spain and Cornbest source of our knowledge of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy tin actually came from two regions, wall. Neither of these could be called ‘‘small islands” or described (ed. T. Mommsen in Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Auctores ane xii., 1894; condensed English translation by T. Hodgkin, as off the north-west coast of Spain, and so the Cassiterides were 1886). not identified with either by the Greek and Roman geographers. (b) Chronica, written at the request of Theodoric’s son-in-law they became a third, ill-understood source of tin, conInstead, Eutharic, published in 519. It is an inaccurate compilation, unduly as distinct from Spain or Britain. Recent archaeological of ceived partial to the Goths (ed. T. Mommsen in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant., xi. pt. i, 1893). research has enlarged our knowledge of early sources of tin, appar(c) Panegyrics on Gothic kings and queens (fragments ed. L. ently obtained by “streaming,” and islands off the coast of Traube in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Ant., xii.). Brittany which have tin-bearing sands have been suggested as the 2. (a) De Anima, a discussion on the nature of the soul, in which original Cassiterides. It may well be however that the name the author deplores the quarrel between Goths and Romans. It seems to have been published with the last part of the Variae. represents merely early and vague knowledge of the Greeks that (b) Institutiones divinarum et humanarum litterarum, an encyclo- tin was found overseas somewhere in or off western Europe.

paedia of literature and the arts for the monks. BreriocraPuy.—Herodotus iii. 115; Diodorus v. 21, 22, 38; Strabo (c) A commentary on the Psalms and short notes (complexiones) ii. 5, iii. 2, 5, v. 11; Pliny, Nat. Hist., iv. 119, vii. 197, Xxxiv. 156-158, on the Pauline epistles, the Acts, and the Apocalypse. the chief references in ancient literature. T. R. Holmes, Ancient (d) De Orthographia, a compilation made by the author in his are Britain (1907), appendix, identifies the Cassiterides with the British ọ3rd year from the works of 12 grammarians, ending with his con- Isles. temporary Priscian (ed. H. Keil, Grammatici Latin, vii). CASSITERITE, the mineralogical name of tin-stone, SnO», The Latin translations of the Antiquities of Josephus and of the ecclesiastical historizs of Theodoret, Sozomen, and Socrates, under the the common ore of tin (from the Gr. xagcirepos, tin). It title of Historia Tripartita (embracing the Years 306-439), were carcrystallizes in the tetragonal system, usually in prisms with four ried out under his supervision. or eight sides, terminated by pyramids. Twinning is common, as Of his lost works the most important was the Historia Gothorum, which appears to have brought the history down to the death of shown by re-entrant angles on the crystals, certain slender prisTheodoric. His chief authority for Gothic history and legend was matic crystals are called “sparable tin” and “needle tin” in CornAblavius (Ablabius). The work is only known to us in the meagre wall, where the usual name for the ordinary mineral is “black abridgment of Jordanes (ed. T. Mommsen, 1882). tin,’ The banded and fibrous mineral of the same composition BrsriocrapHy.—-Editio princeps, by G. Fornerius (1579); J. Garet known as “wood tin” is probably formed by precipitation from the (Rouen, 1679; Venice, 1729), reprinted in J. P. Migne, Patrologia colloidal state. It is common in Cornwall and Bolivia. Cassiterite

Latina, \xix., Ix . On Cassiodorus generally, see Anecdoton Holderi, excerpts from a treatise of Cassiodorus, edited by H. Usener (Bonn, 1877), which throws light on questions connected with his biography; T. Mommsen, preface to his edition of the Variae; monographs by

varies from colourless to dark brown or black, the darker shades being commonest. It has a brilliant adamantine lustre: hardness about 6-5 and density 7. It is also very stable and therefore

CASSIUS—CASSOCK readily concentrated in residual and alluvial deposits, from which

975

consul of Hither Spain, to whom Cassius had applied for assistance, arranged with Marcellus that Cassius should go free with the legions that remained loyal to him. Cassius sent his troops into winter quarters and took ship at Malaca, but was wrecked at the mouth of the Ebro. His tyrannical government of Spain had greatly injured the cause of Caesar.

in fact most of the ore is obtained. Primary cassiterite occurs in disseminations, segregations, lodes and veins in and around granites, In association with tourmaline, topaz, lithia-mica, fluorspar, beryl, and other minerals of pneumatolysis (q.v.), and is often accompanied by wolframite. It is believed to be formed at a late stage in the cooling of the granite by a reaction between tinsee Dio Cassius xli. 15, 24, xlii. 15, 16, xliii. 29; Livy, Epit. TIL; Appian, B.C. ìi. 33, 43; Bellum Alexandrinum, 48—64. fluoride and water. Cassiterite is found in all parts of the world. 5. Garus Cassrus Loncrnus (ist century A.D.), Roman jurist, CASSIUS, the name of a distinguished ancient Roman family, consul in 30, proconsul of Asia 40-41, and governor of Syria under originally patrician. Its most important members are the fol- Claudius 45-50. He was banished by Nero (65) to Sardinia. He lowing: was recalled by Vespasian, and died at an advanced age. Cassius _ 1. SPURIUS Casstus, surnamed Vecellinus (Vicellinus, Viscel- was a pupil of Masurius Sabinus, with whom he founded a legal linus), three times consul, and author of the first agrarian law. In school, the followers of which were called Cassiani. His chief work his first consulate (502 B.c.) he defeated the Sabines; in his second was the Libri Iuris Civilis in ten books, which was used by the (493) he renewed the league with the Latins, and dedicated the compilers of Justinian’s Digest. See Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 7-9; Suetonius, Nero, 37; Dio Cassius lix. temple of Ceres in the Circus; in his third (486) he made a treaty with the conquered Hernici. His agrarian law was clearly intended 29; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature, 8 298, 3. to benefit the needy plebeians (see AGRARIAN Laws), and was CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. av. 175), Roman general, a violently opposed both by the patricians and by the wealthy plebe- Syrian by birth, lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. He ians. Cassius was condemned and executed. According to Livy, distinguished himself during the Parthian War (4.p. 162~165), his proposal to bestow a share of the land upon the Latins was and was apparently appointed military governor of Asia, though regarded with great suspicion. According to Mommsen (Römische the actual extent of his jurisdiction is doubtful. In 172 he was Forschungen, ii), the whole story is an invention of a later age, sent to Egypt, where he put down a rising of the Bucolici, the founded upon the proposals of the Gracchi and M. Livius Drusus, robber herdsmen of the delta, after which he returned to Syria. to which period belongs the idea of sharing public land with the In 175 Aurelius fell ill, and his wife Faustina, to secure her position in case of his death, offered her hand and the throne to CasLatins. See Livy ii. 33, 41; Dion Halic. v. 49, viii. 69-80; Cicero, Pro Balbo, sius. A rumour of Aurelius’s death having reached Syria, Cassius 23 (53), De Republica, ii. 27 (49), 35 (60); Val. Max. v. 8.2. proclaimed himself emperor. The senate declared him a public The following Cassii are all plebeians. It is suggested that the enemy, and Aurelius set out for the east. While in Illyria, he sons of Spurius Cassius either were expelled from, or voluntarily received the news that Cassius had been slain by his own officers. left, the patrician order, in consequence of their father’s execution. See Dio Cassius lxxi. 2—4, 17, 22—28, 30, 31; Fronto, Letters, i. 6; 2. Garus Casstus LoNcINvs, consul 73 8.c. With his colleague, Lives of Marcus Aurelius, Verus, and Commodus in the Scriptores Augustae, and ihe special biography of Avidius Cassius in Terentius Varro Lucullus, he passed a law (lex Terentia Cassia), Historiae the same by Vulcacius Gallicanus. The various letters and documents the object of which was to give authority for the purchase of corn in the last-named are very probably spurious. See also article in at the public expense, to be retailed at a fixed price at Rome. Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyklopädie, i. pt. 2. See Cicero, In Verrem, iii. 70, v. 213 Livy, Epit. 96; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv. 28; Orosius v. 24.

3. Gatus Casstus LoncINuS, prime mover in the conspiracy against Julius Caesar. In 53 B.c. he served in the Parthian campaign under M. Licinius Crassus, saved the remnants of the army after the defeat at Carrhae, and for two years successfully repelled the enemy. In 49 B.c. he became tribune of the plebs. The outbreak of the civil war saved him from being brought to trial for extortion in Syria. He at first commanded part of Pompey’s fleet. After Pharsalus he became reconciled to Caesar, who made him one of his legates. In 44 B.c. he became praetor peregrinus with the promise of the Syrian province for the ensuing year; yet he was one of the leading conspirators against Caesar, taking an active part in the actual assassination. In September he left Italy for Syria, where he raised a considerable army, and defeated P. Cornelius Dolabella, to whom the province had been assigned by the senate. On the formation of the triumvirate, Brutus and he, with their combined armies, crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped near Philippi in Macedonia. Their intention was to starve out the enemy, but they were forced into an engagement. Brutus was successful against Octavian, but Cassius, defeated by M. Antonius (Mark Antony), gave up all for lost, and ordered his freedman to slay him.

See Plutarch, Brutus, passim, Crassus, 27, 29, Caesar, 62, 69; Dio Cassius xl. 28, xlii. 13, xliv. 14, xlvii. 20; Vell. Pat. ii. 46, 56, 58, 69, v0, 87; Cicero, Philippics, xi. 13, 14, ad Att. v. 21, xiv. 21, ad Fam. xi. 3, 15, 16; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. iii., 113, ili. 2, 8, iv. 60-62, 87, 90,

iii. 13, 132; Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii. ror.

4. Quintus Cassrus Lonernus, the brother or cousin of the murderer of Caesar, quaestor of Pompey in Further Spain in 54 B.c. In 49, as tribune of the people, he supported the cause of Caesar, by whom he was made governor of Further Spain. His oppression of the provincials Jed to an unsuccessful insurrection at Corduba. Cassius punished the leaders with merciless severity, and made the lot of the provincials harder than ever. At last some of his troops revolted and proclaimed the quaestor M. Marcellus, governor of the province. The king of Mauretania and the pro-

CASSIUS, GAIUS, called Parmensis from his birthplace Parma, was one of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and after his death joined the party of Brutus and his namesake Cassius. In 43 B.C. he was in command of the fleet on the coast of Asia, but after the battle of Philippi he joined Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. When Pompeius was defeated at Naulochus by Agrippa and fled to Asia, Cassius went over to Antony, and was present at Actium (31). He afterwards fled to Athens, where he was put to death by Octavian (Suetonius, Augustus, 4). Cassius is credited with satires, elegies, epigrams and tragedies. Some hexameters with the title Cassii Orpheus are by Antonius Thylesius, an Italian of the 17th century. Horace seems to have thought well of Cassius as a poet. (Epistles, i. 4.3.). The story in the Horace scholia, that L. Varius Rufus took his tragedy Thyestes from a ms. found amongst the papers of Cassius, is due to a confusion.

See Appian, B.C. v. 2,139; Cicero, ad Fam. xii, I3; Vell. Pat. ii. 875 Orosius, vi. 19; see also the diffuse treatise of A. Weichert, De L. Varii ; et Cassii Parmensis Vita et Carminibus (1836).

CASSIVELAUNUS or CASSIVELLAUNYTS, a British chieftain, the ruler of the country north of the Thames, who led Caturellauni against Julius Caesar on his second expedition (s4 B.c.) (see Britain). After several indecisive engagements, Caesar took the camp of Cassivelaunus, who was obliged to make peace on condition of paying tribute and giving hostages. See Caesar, B.G. v. 11-22; Dio Cassius xl. 2, 3; Orosius vi. 9.6; for the etymology of the name see J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, pp. 289-290 (1904) ; C. I. Elton, Origins of English History (1890).

CASSOCK,

a long-sleeved, close-fitting robe worn by the

clergy and others engaged in ecclesiastical functions. Originally applied to the dress of soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life, the name came into ecclesiastical use somewhat late (as a translation of subtaneum, vestis talaris, toga talaris, or tunica talaris); and it now survives in this sense alone. The word is derived through the French from Ital. casacca, or “a frock, a horseman’s cote, a long cote; also a habitation

dwelling” (Florio, Q. Anna’s New World of Words, 1611), and

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CASSONE—CASTE

this in turn is perhaps derived from casa, a house (cf. chasuble). on fruits and herbs, and occasionally on small animals. The A Slav origin has also been suggested, and the Cossack horseman mooruk, or Bennett’s cassowary (Casuarius bennetti), is a may have given to the West both garment and name. Or it may shorter and more robust bird. It differs further in having its be derived from casequin (Ital. casecchino), rather than vice head crowned with a horny plate. It has only been found in versa, and this in turn from Arabic kazdyand (Pers. kashéyand), New Britain. When captured shortly after being hatched, and a padded jerkin (Lagarde in Gött. gelehrte Anzeiger, April 15, reared by hand, it soon becomes tame. The adult bird is exceed‘ingly shy and, owing to its great fleetness and strength, is rarely 1887, p. 238). caught. It eats voraciously, and, The cassock, though part of the canonical costume of the like the ostrich, will swallow clergy, is not a liturgical vestment. Originally the ordinary dress whatever comes in its way. (See of lay-people as well as clergy, it has survived only among the EMU.) latter. In mild weather it was the outer garment; in cold weather CAST, a throw, or something it was worn under the tabard or chimere (g.v.); the latter name OW Wi thrown (a word of Scandinavian was sometimes given to it as well as to the sleeveless upper robe. f A W S ? VAATE,9 io LAI i origin, cf. Dan. kaste, throw), In the Roman Catholic Church the cassock (Fr. soutane, Ital. é.g., a throw of dice, with the sotiana) must be worn by the clergy both in ordinary life (except > vF figurative sense of a chance; the . in Protestant countries) and under their vestments in church. It | Dh, spreading out of hounds in search varies in colour with the wearer’s rank: white for the pope, red i ee! HB j smR of a lost scent; with the meaning for cardinals, purple for bishops, black for the lesser ranks. In May ANA (Nea eS of a twisted throw or turn, a the Church of England the cassock, prescribed in 1604 as the i NY MaBevin i (Ai) | i ON slight squint in the eye. A “cast” canonical dress of the clergy, has been continuously, though not universally, worn by the clergy since the Reformation. It is now, COMMON CASSOWARY, A RUNNING js a measure of fish, being the amount taken in two hands to be however, usually only worn in church, at home, or within the BIRD ALLIED TO THE OSTRICH thrown into a vessel, and similarly a potter’s measure for a certain precincts of the parish. See the Report of the sub-committee of Convocation on the Ornaquantity of clay. It is also a term for the coils of earth thrown up ments of the Church and its Ministers (London, 1908), and authorities by earthworms, and in fly-fishing for the casting line of gut. The there cited. phrase “to cast up an account” is probably derived from the old CASSONE, in furniture, the Italian name for a marriage method of calculation by counters which were thus thrown into a coffer. The ancient and once almost universal European custom of heap. The word is also used of a mould for casting metals, or of providing a bride with a chest or coffer to contain the household the copy of an original statue or relief, taken from a mould, and linen, which often formed the major part of her dowry, produced similarly of fossils for the mineral filling of the empty mould left in Italy a special type of chest of monumental size and artistic by the organism. The casting of a play is the assignment of parmagnificence. The cassoni of the people, although always large ticular parts to the actors and actresses. CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL (1390-1457), Italian painter in size, were simple as regards ornament; but those of the nobles and the well-to-do mercantile classes were usually imposing as of the Florentine school, was born in 1390, probably at Castagno, regards size, and adorned with extreme richness. The cassone was in the district of Mugello, and died in Aug. 1457. He imitated almost invariably much longer than the English chest, and even Masaccio and the naturalists of his time in boldness of attitude. at a relatively early period it assumed an artistic finish such as The charge that he treacherously assassinated his colleague, Dowas never reached by the chests of northern Europe, except in the menico Veneziano, in order to monopolize the then recent secret case of a few of the royal corbeilles de mariage made by such of oil painting as practised in Flanders by the Van Eycks, has artists as Boulle for members of the house of France. Many of the been proved to be untrue. Domenico died four years after Andrea. earlier examples were carved in panels of geometrical tracery, The latter is commonly called “Andrea (or Andreino) degl’ Imbut their characteristic ornament was either intarsia or gesso, piccati” (of the hanged men), in consequence of his being comor a mixture of the two. Bold and massive feet, usually shaped missioned in 1435 to paint, in the Palazzo del Podesta in Florence, as claws, lions, or other animals, are also exceedingly charac- the fallen leaders of the Peruzzi and Albizzi. One of his principal teristic of cassoni, most of which are of massive and sarcophagus- works now extant (most of them have perished) is the equestrian like proportions with moulded lids, while many of them are figure of Nicola di Tolentino, in the cathedral of Florence. adorned at their corners with figures sculptured in high relief. CASTALIA or FONS CASTALIUS, a celebrated fountain The scroll-work inlay is commonly simple and graceful, consisting in Greece, now called the Fountain of St. John, which rises in a of floral or geometrical motives, or arabesques. The examples chasm of Mount Parnassus near Delphi. It was sacred to Apollo coated with gilded gesso or blazoned with paintings are, however, and the Muses, and its water was used in the religious purificathe most magnificent. They were often made of chestnut, and tions of pilgrims. From its connection with the Muses it is mendecorated with flowers and foliage in a relief which, low at first, tioned by late Greek writers (e.g., Lucian, Jup. Trag. 30) and Latin became after the Renaissance very high and sharp. The panels poets (e.g., Ovid, Am. i. 15. 36) as a source of inspiration, and of the painted cassoni frequently bore representations of scrip- this has passed into a commonplace of modern literature. tural and mythological subjects, or incidents derived from the CASTANETS, instruments of percussion, introduced through legends of chivalry. The arms of the family for which the chest the Moors by way of Spain into Europe from the East. Caswas made might also be emblazoned upon the front. These chests tanets, always used in pairs, one in each hand, consist of two pearrarely bear dates or initials, but it is often possible to determine or mussel-shaped bowls of hard wood, hinged together by a cord, their history from their armorial bearings. the loop being passed over the thumb and first finger. The two CASSOWARY (Casuarius), a genus of ostrich-like birds, halves are struck against each other by the other fingers giving only inferior in size to the emu and ostrich, and approximating out a series of hollow clicks of indefinite musical pitch. Castanets to the extinct moas of New Zealand. The species is characterized were used by the ancient Greeks, and also by the Romans to acby rudimentary wings, bearing four or five barbless shafts, a few company the dances in the Dionysiac and Bacchanalian rites. inches long, and apparently useless; and by loosely webbed CASTE CINDIAN). The term caste is in English hardly feathers, short on the neck, but of great length on the rump and older than 1800, before which year it was spelt “cast.” Borrowed back, whence they descend over the body, forming a thick hair- from the French “caste,” itself an adaptation of the Portuguese Pf

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like covering. They possess stout limbs, with which they kick, and have the inner toe armed with a long, powerful claw. The common cassowary (Casuarius galeatus) stands sft. high, and has a horny, helmet-like protuberance on the crown of its head; the front of the neck is naked, with two brightly-coloured wattles. It is a native of the island of Ceram, where it lives in pairs, feeding

“casta”? (also Spanish) meaning “breed” or “clan,” it was used by the earlier Portuguese travellers in the sense of tribe or even race, being often applied to the lowest Indian classes in contradistinction to their overlords. The word is probably derived ultimately from the Latin castus, “pure.” It has no general equivalent in modern India.

CASTE A caste is in India fairly definable as an endogamous group or even as a collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, whose members follow traditionally a single occupation or certain cognate occupations, have by fact or fiction a common origin and are generally deemed to form a homogeneous unit, whose constituent parts are more closely allied to one another than to any other section of society. This definition is, however, only applicable to modern India, and even so may be subject to qualifications. In ancient India caste in this sense probably did not exist, but we have no real knowledge of pre-Aryan India, and it is not until we reach the Vedic Arya period (c. 1200 B.C.) that any records are as yet available. The social system of these Aryas resembled that of their kindred in Iran. It is fairly certain that the penetration was a long drawn out process, possibly at times peaceful, though in the main effected by tribes or military confederacies under adventurous leaders perhaps of different race, who succeeded from time to time in welding larger forces together, though none founded any lasting dynasty or permanent kingdom. The invaders, it may be inferred from the earliest hymns of the Rig-Veda, were a pastoral folk, loosely organized into groups of related families or clans which, aggregated, formed tribes. Authority over these vested in chieftains and a nobility, the mass of the tribes being designated the “clans” or “peoples” always in the plural—foreshadowing the use of “caste” by Portuguese writers—while priests mostly conducted the public sacrifices of the tribe, leaving family worship entirely in the hands of its head and his consort. But as yet there was no restriction of even the privilege of tribal sacrifice to a sacerdotal class, since it could be solemnized by a scion of a ruling family and occasionally others disputed the priestly claims. Hence we can at most distinguish three nascent orders, the noble, the priest and the mass of the clansmen; all three excluding the aborigines or Dasyus. In the latest Vedic literature, the Brahman is represented as the incontestable head of society with the noble next and below him the “clans” or third estate; while the lower classes form the lowest or fourth order in which it would seem are merged the Dasyus, or such of them as survived. This organization was confined to quite a small area of Northern India, Kurukshetra and the adjoining lands, roughly in Moghul days the province of Sirhind. Within it lay Brahmanarta, the peculiarly holy land between the Sarasvati and the Drisbachvati; the Bicharshidisha was quite a small part of the extensive Aryaland, Arydvarta. After the Vedic period the principal document is the Laws of Manu, compiled soon after the Christian era but most probably going back to a much earlier epoch. This specifies the four cardinal varnas, “complexions,” of Indian society, viz., the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas (the twice born) and the Sidras, and appears to deny or forbid the existence of a fifth one. To reconcile fact with this classification, however, Manu apparently resorted to a strange device, assigning to the fruit of mixed marriages certain lowly avocations and tribes of impure descent. In so doing he recognized two main principles: (i.) that while the ideal spouse for a man is a bride of his own caste (endogamy g.v.), marriage to a woman of a caste below his (hypergamy q.v.) is by comparison a venial offence against the endogamous rule, the chief penalty for it being a diminution of the son’s shares in the inheritance;

Cii.) that the union of a woman with a man of higher status was, in some circumstances, an unpardonable sin, disinheriting their children and relegating them to a degraded caste. Manu allotted a name to almost all castes in this scheme. In it, for instance, the son of a Kshatriya lady by a Brahman husband seems to be a Brahman but forfeits a fourth of his heritage. But a Brahman’s son by a Vaisya wife would be an Ambashthan (mod. Ambattan), an unpretentious barber-surgeon, while his son by a Sudra became a Nishada, normally a fisherman but in the text a Parasava, a living corpse. Since the fisherman’s trade must have existed before Manu, he is regarded as defining the status of fratiloma sons in terms of existing occupational groups. Similarly he defines a Vaisya’s son by a Kshatriya wife as a Magadha, or man of Magadha, z.e., S. Behar, while his son by a Brahman wife is to be a Vaideha, or man of Videha, otherwise

977

Mithila, mod. Tirhut in Behar. For the Abhira, a generic name for tribes of the north-west, he finds a status as sons of a Brahman by an Ambashtha’s daughter, and so for the Sairandhras, apparently the people of Sirhind in the E. Punjab, a much lowlier origin, nearly, if not as degraded as that of an Andhra, a man of Telingana which lay far to the south. But while disparaging tribes of non-Aryan or not purely Aryan blood as mixed castes, Manu also branded a number of quite cleanly avocations, such as carpentry, as disreputable. The postVedic caste system had some merits. The Brahman was the priest and scholar who was to teach the other castes, and if he awarded himself great privileges including benefit of clergy for criminous clerks, he had renounced by a self-denying ordinance all pretensions to temporal authority. The function of the Kshatriya was defence of the realm, and if to it was added all administrative power under the king, himself a Kshatriya, that power was to be exercised under Brahman counsels, even the king’s conscience being kept in a manner by Brahman advisers. The Vaisyas were the graziers, yeomen and burgesses of the community, while the

Sūdras were to serve all the other castes. To which of the four Manu assigned the mixed castes is not clear but few of them can have ranked above the Sūdras, though he recognized the principle that the children of an anuloma union could by marrying in the paternal caste regain their father’s status in six generations. For the fruit of pratiloma unions there was no hope of promotion in the social scale. In all Manu recognizes more than a score of mixed castes as already existing, and it is self-evident that two new mixed castes could on his principles be formed by old ones if sufficiently remote in status. If, in the event, mixed castes were not multiplied Manu had paved the way for the creation of new castes on an extended scale by creating degrees of legitimacy based on disparities of status, by bastardizing the issue of pratiloma unions, and recognizing function as a factor in caste-formation. From the midland the influence of his laws spread all over India, and in the south acquired new vigour by being grafted on Dravidian institutions. After Manu’s time the history of caste in India enters on a period of obscurity except in the north-east, where we get light from the Buddhist writings. This part of India had rejected the Brahmanism of the midland. Thus in Buddha’s time and after it we find in N.E. India a social stratification which is astonishingly western and almost modern in essentials. The Kshatriya forms the highest class, and Buddha himself claimed Kshatriya birth, being a scion of the princely Sakyas of Kapilavatthu, Kapilavastu in the Buddhist Madhyadesa or “Midland” which lay to the east of the Aryan midland. But a legend tells us that Buddha in a previous incarnation had in his mind debated whether he should be reborn as a Kshatriya or a Brahman, and he decided to be re-incarnated as a Kshatriya as the then higher of the two. We find the term Kshatriya of Magadha and its adjacent principalities applied to the ruling classes in general and thus corresponding to the Vedic title of Rajanya. The Kshatriya was a warrior, a civil functionary and a teacher. His education was fully equal to that of a Brahman and youths of princely families trudged on foot from the north-east to distant Taxila, in the north-west, then the great university where all sciences were im-

parted to princes and Brahmans by famous teachers—one of them a fermer incarnation of Buddha himself. Thus equipped, the Kshatriya held his own against the Brahman’s pretensions and even acted as his instructor. The Kshatriya had played a similar part in the profound teachings of the Upanishad, wherein he had been the Brahman’s teacher, and was again to assume that rôle, after the lapse of centuries in the remote Punjab, as the founder of Sikhism. The Buddhists, carrying on keen propaganda in their witty Birth Stories (the Jatakas), invented a dialogue between Buddha and Ambattha, a Brahman with a surely plebeian name, in which the latter admits that a Kshatriya’s son by a Brahman wife would be recognized as a full Brahman by his caste fel-

lows but not by the Kshatriyas, among whom purity of blood, nay more, purity of Kshatriya descent, was of cardinal importance. The Brahmans occupied in the Buddhist society of the northeast a curiously anomalous position. They were in fact or in Buddhist theory divided into two groups, the true Brahman and

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CASTE

the worldling. The Brahman who adopted the life and practices of a homeless ascetic, who sought no worldly wealth and attained to the ideals of his own scriptures was reverenced, whereas he who prided himself on birth, erudition in the Vedas and sacrifices performed, was contemned. But the Brahmans regarded themselves as almost a caste in the modern sense. Birth, not calling, was the prime condition of its membership. A Brahman might change his vocation and pursue the lowest without loss of “caste,” which could, however, be forfeited by a mésalliance or by eating defiled food. Yet we read of nothing like an organization of the “caste.” It had as yet no head and no council. Exclusion from it was apparently enforced solely by general sentiment—which was, indeed, strong enough to drive a Brahman, who when starving had devoured a Chandala’s leavings, to suicide. In the Buddhist writings, however, the Brahman’s distinctive

calling was his function as officiant in sacrificial rites, in exorcism and the interpretation of dreams and omens. Buddhism condemned animal sacrifices, and when a king, terrified by a fancied

portent, orders a fourfold sacrifice of that type completed with its four human victims, a Birth Story explains away the evil omen and discomfits the Brahmans, whereupon the king destroys the place of sacrifice. Yet we find all classes from the king downwards invoking a Brahman’s aid when menaced by evil signs or in domestic events. The Brahmans as a body played an influential part in social life; they were well educated and many acquired wealth, often owning villages, bestowed on them by grateful kings as fees for their ministrations. Above all was the Brahman of the northwest held in respect. In Buddhist times we find no Vaisya caste in the Vedic sense. Originally in the oldest Vedic days a term applied to the Aryan settlers engaged in cattle raising and cultivation, the Vaisya was made to fit into the Brahmanical scheme of caste, but comprised in fact an almost indefinite number of social groups. The principal of these included the householders, grikapati, the lower landed gentry and the wealthier and more prominent burgesses of the cities. In this class the foremost rank was taken by the Masters of the Guilds, the sreshtins, mod. seth, whose wealth and office brought them into close touch with the court, where they represented the commercial interests of the kingdom and often wielded great influence as personal friends of a king, while their sons were playmates of his sons and sharing in their education. The sreshéin, indeed, often appears as a country gentleman having doubtless made money and purchased an estate. But his wealth was based on commerce, and we find him financing businesses, é.g., a tailor’s and a spirit-seller’s, without any apparent loss of repute. Yet the sreshtins as a group are careful to marry their sons in their own class and their office was hereditary. Neither the sreshtin nor the grihapati formed a caste in any real sense. Almost a synonym for the latter term is kutumbika. They too formed a class of capitalists lending money to rural clients and carrying on such trades as grain dealing. They were found both in the towns and in the villages whence their daughters were sought in wedlock by leading townsmen of presumably their own class. Of Siidras in Buddhist literature we read little but the name. That the “caste” exists is tacitly assumed. Buddha did not seek to abolish classes. He stressed their spiritual equality, their ability to attain mirvdéna, “emancipation,” by righteous conduct. In his teaching even the outcasts, the Chandala and the Pukkusa, could be virtuous and self-controlled since none among those who had won peace of soul was higher or lower than his fellows. But what avocations were included in the term Sidra does not appear, an indication that it was quite vaguely used in practice of all the lower orders, excluding those which stood below the social scheme. The depressed classes were undoubtedly remnants of the conquered races of Eastern India, speaking their own dialect or dialects, and relegated to hamlets outside the villages, and confined to uncleanly functions. To them generally the term Chandala was applied until it became a term of abuse. Yet lower than the Chandala ranked the Pulkasa or Pukkusa, trappers who lived by snaring animals which dwelt in holes. The hunter was also degraded probably because he destroyed life, but he did not constitute a

class and could, seemingly, rise in social esteem by taking up the higher pursuits. On the other hand the Nishada, fisher as well] as hunter, could not. He, too, dwelt apart, but in a hamlet of his own, not with the Chandala and Pulkasa. The origin of the name is unknown but they are assuredly not occupational terms. In N. E. India the Buddhist times held certain crafts in disrepute. The basket maker and wheel-wright, the weaver, tanner, potter and barber were all despised. The Vena who wove articles of willow and cane ranked on a level with the builder of carts, and the joiner, whose abode was outside the town by the gates, graded between the Chandala and the Pulkusa, or at least no higher than those “out-castes,” though one imagines that even if the basketmaking Vena was a gipsy he was less impure than an aboriginal out-caste, even though his mode of life set him below the carpenter to whose craft a needy Brahman could occasionally resort, All these groups bore occupational names and the Buddhist writers speak of the sippas or “arts” without disparagement (the word is applied to all the 18 “sciences” taught at Taxila), while seeming to draw some distinction between the jazz or tribes of the aborigines and those who were so designated. In a very similar scheme, to the carpenter (Ayogava) Manu assigns a semi-servile status, emphasizing his duty to serve the twice-born castes, his inability to own property (at least when in a Brahman’s service) and his obligation to serve. The king’s service was then as now a highly important numerous body. The royal ministers formed a class apart, being neither Brahmans nor Kshatriyas, but holding heritable offices, At their head stood the senapati, in war commander-in-chief, in peace the chief judiciary. His relations with the other ministers

of justice and magistrates are vaguely defined; but the principal of them could on occasion intervene to rectify a decision wrongly given by the king in person. The judicial council as a body could

be asked to give legal advice. These functionaries might be Brahmans by birth but are quite clearly distinguished as a class apart, having precedence over the Brahmans as well as the other classes. A salaried cadre of officials, surveyors, tax-collectors, treasurers, executioners and watchmen is also mentioned. But for all these

officers we find no general term. Each seems to have formed a separate hereditary body, in which the king could appoint or dismiss at will, without regard to birth or standing. Finally, outside the pale of class, were the homeless ascetics, those who had chosen an anchoret’s life and had by so doing abandoned all worldly ties. They were recruited from all classes,

from the king down to the barber, even to the Chandala and the Pukkusa. The Kings and Caste.—In the Vedic period we find few traces of the royal power regulating “caste.” The king was doubtless the fountain of honour but he hardly seems to have directly interfered with caste. In more modern times, the king found ways to influence caste a good deal. Various legends declare that a Raja was often compelled to create new Brahmans—to increase the number which sacerdotal etiquette demanded should be fed at some great

occasion—by issuing invitations to recognized and unrecognized Brahmans alike and thus elevating the latter to Brahmanhood in the lower degrees. But as a rule these new creations were either of suspected descent or of status lowered by function, or, less frequently, tribal priests of local indigenous deities. Contrariwise a ruler could on occasion lower a caste, if we are to credit legends like that of Raja Balla] Sen of Eastern Bengal

who deprived the Suvarnababikas, “traders in gold,” once acknowledged to be Vaisyas of high standing, of the right to wear the sacred thread, and with them degraded their Brahmans too. Occasionally a king would enfranchise a servile caste which had rendered him good service in the field, or restore privileges formerly confiscated. The chief privilege bestowed was the right to wear the sacred thread. That the king exercised considerable authority over caste affairs is, however, beyond question. The caste assembly or council, or the guild, judged offences against its rules, but it might be

unable to enforce its decrees, whereupon the king could either

execute its decisions or reverse them. The Brahman could pre-

CASTE scribe penances for such breaches or for religious offences but he had to hand the offender over to the secular arm to secure their

enforcement. On the whole the king interfered little with caste constitution. His policy was to uphold the existing social order. Any attempt to interfere with caste equilibrium might have dissolved the whole system with results not to be foreseen. The social organization of Buddha’s time displays a keen con-

sciousness of class and position, pride in birth and strong prejudice against the lowest orders as impure. On the other hand we find no line of demarcation between the victorious invaders and their conquered subjects. Occupation is the dominant factor in fixing a man’s standing or at least a conventional fashion of defining it. Marriage is limited to one’s own class but of the hard and fast demarcation between the castes of modern times in regard to food and touch we find but the faintest symptoms. Above all we fail to discern many premonitions of the individual man’s inability to win social promotion. Education was free to any respectable class, and even the depressed classes could attain spiritual prominence. The Brahmans held a position of influence but not of authority. In the spiritual field they met with a counterpoise in the ascetics. In the temporal they had successful rivals in the Kshatriya and the royal officials. While the king’s chief minister, his guide in secular and religious matters, should be a Brahman he was by no means invariably of that class. The only royal office which the Brahmans held as of right was that of the king’s domestic priest, but if a weak king fell wholly under his influence a ruler with a will of his own kept his purohita, his chaplain, in his place. Brahmans who had already taken to worldly pursuits could, naturally, exercise them in the royal service. Of the transition from the older system to the new but few facts emerge. A noteworthy incident in the process of change is the disappearance of the Kshatriya caste. A myth informs us that Parasurama, an incarnation of Vishni, literally axed them repeatedly. What historical event is concealed in the myth it is | impossible to say, but the fact remains that of this, the most important lay caste of ancient Hinduism, hardly a trace remains to-day. The Kshatriyas never founded a great landed class as far as we know. Though Indra was a divine Kshatriya and the welfare of the Brahmans was regarded as dependent on their maintaining good relations with the Kshatriyas, their social extermination was complete and the only caste which preserves their name is the Khatris, a trading caste localized in upper India. THE MODERN CASTE SYSTEM

It follows from the definition of caste that the homogeneity of a unit and its consciousness of a closer alliance between its members than exists between it and other units, finds expression in definite social rules or even in outward and visible signs. The exclusiveness of caste, then, has led to prohibitions on intermarriage between castes or eating, drinking and smoking with members of castes other than one’s own and even to differences in attire. It may be asked how such restrictions and precepts could be enforced. The reply is to be found in the mentality of the people. In India individuality is weak. Indian society admits of no compromise. Its principles are pushed to their extremest conclusions. In such matters as food and drink, material considerations have accentuated and to some extent justified this attitude. The Indian is by instinct cleanly. He has invented many effective devices to protect himself from personal defilement. If many of his precautions have become ceremonial rather than hygienic he has nevertheless modified them in practice on commonsense lines. Thus a,caste will sometimes refuse to inhale smoke from the kuga mouth piece of a lower caste, but it makes a funnel of the hand and substitutes it for the infected tube. It will

decline to drink from the drinking cup but will take water poured into the hands from the waterskin which has not come into actual contact with the unclean lip. It will not eat soft food from a common dish but it will accept dry biscuit which is obviously less easily contaminated. | But where matrimony is concerned the feeling that the caste must be absolutely isolated is stronger, and it has strengthened

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by lapse of time. The Kshatriyas admitted, at least in theory, a maiden to choose her husband in the swayamvara, a festive ceremony at which her suitors were assembled and the one who found favour in her eyes was garlanded by her own hand. No doubt this freedom of choice was often replaced by the bride’s capture or a contest in wit or warlike skill in which the prize was her hand. But whatever forms the usage took it has fallen into complete abeyance, its last traditional observance being ascribed to Prithiraj of Delhi, late in the rath century A.D. Modern usage denies to a girl any say in the choice of a husband by the simple device of betrothing her at a very early age, sometimes, indeed, before birth to a “suitable” bridegroom, who must be selected not merely within the caste but in certain groups inside it. The ancient hypergamous rule which allowed a woman to be married to a man of a higher class has also been modified so that she is now only eligible to wed in a higher group within the caste. On the other hand the Hindus and their offshoots have maintained the old exogamous principles which prevent in-breeding, though in south India cross-cousin marriage is largely practised. Hence Hindu society is endogamous restricting marriage to a group, while it is more rigidly exogamous in that it disallows it within the blood kin. It is only hypergamous to a limited degree. Complex as caste has become, its guilding principles are simple and are only departed from occasionally. It has resulted in the creation of some 3,000 or 4,000 social units, many of which are, however, not altogether homogeneous, so that these figures do not represent all its ramifications. It has accentuated the weakness of Indian individuality. The system of caste has made it virtually impossible for an individual citizen to raise himself in the social scale; but it has made it fairly easy for groups to do so. Its burden, however, lies heaviest on the women. It has made premature marriage a necessity. It has led to an embargo on the remarriage of widows, even virgin widows, because the strictest monogamy being the ideal of the highest castes, the lower have been forced to adopt it as a token of social advance. It has often so narrowed the field of selection that brides command a high and increasing price, and marriages are arranged without regard to the future wife’s welfare or that of her offspring but to gratify parental greed.

Even after death the individual is all but forgotten.

Passing by

an Indian hamlet the traveller can readily tell if it is Mohammedan or Hindu. In the former there will be a cemetery, however rude. In the latter the only graves will be those of the very young who died of small-pox and the memorials of holy men who died to the world on entering some religious order. The village fanes contain no tablets to the ashes of the dead. Cremation consigns human personality to oblivion. So faint is the memory of it that the next brother of a soldier killed in action will step into his place, take his wife and name, his regimental number and his land with hardly a formality. And if the widow display any tendency to revolt and a preference for another man, even for a near kinsman of the dead husband, all the influence of the caste will be employed to bring her to acceptance of the age-long custom. The Brahman.—To the definition of caste given above the Brahmans certainly do not conform. In a very limited unreal sense the Brahman stands at the head of modern Hindu society owing to his congenital sanctity. But he does not form a horizontal stratum overlying it. He forms a stratified cone which penetrates it vertically from top to bottom. Divided into great territorial groups, 5 in the north, and 5 in the south, the former are the Gauda, the latter the Dravida. Northern Groups.—Gaur, from Gauda in Oudh, Kanaujia, Central Doab, Saraswata, on the upper Jamna-Maithila, from Tirhut, Utkala in Orissa. Southern Groups.—Maharashtri, Deccan, Karnata, Mysore, Andhra, Telingina, Dravida, Tamil, Gurjara of the west. The northern groups do not all hold a position of unchallenged superiority over those of the south. The Brahmans of Maharashtra, the modern Mahratha country, do not form an organized body and mostly follow such professions as medicine, law, teaching and

government service. Even those who are priests are not always well versed in the vedas, and the later Hindu scriptures. Yet the prominent subgroup, the Chitpawan, “oure-hearted,” caste of the

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Konkan, which leads Mahratha society, used to feel polluted by the food of a Saraswata Brahman because the latter ate fish, a diet forbidden to the former. They despise the Brahmans of Guzerat, the Gurjara, as water carriers and those of Telingana as cooks, and those of all other parts of India as unable to pronounce Sanskrit correctly.

Of the territorial Brahman groups it is impossible to say which

really holds the leading place. The traditional centres are still occupied by the Gaur, the Kanaujia and the Saraswata, yet their supremacy is not acknowledged by the other groups. The Kanaujia and the Gaur are probably the purest in blood, but the former exhibit the acme of subdivision combined with or based on ceremonial exclusiveness. The least divided are those of the Dekkan. Hence it has been justly said that the Brahmans form “the most heterogeneous collection of minute and independent subdivisions that ever bore a common designation.” Never organized into a tribe on a territorial basis the Brahman was, from the beginning,

parasitic upon other “classes” of the communities which conferred their patronage upon him in return for his varied services. As in Vedic times the Brahman followed the fortunes of his chief, so later a village sending forth a segment of its tribal owners to found a new hamlet would send with it a detachment of its hereditary village servants including Brahmans of the section attached to the tribe; and to every group within a caste is conjoined a specific group of Brahmans whose precedence is fixed by its patrons’ standing in the caste. Hence if a group lost ground socially its Brahmans also lost ground, though they had the option of declining to serve it if it dropped out of caste altogether. This new disintegrating force is ever at work. Lastly, just as function fixed or lowered or raised the positions of castes and subcastes, so it altered the status of Brahmans within their own caste. Good samples of such will be found in Bengal where the Agradani Brahmans who conduct funeral rites and accept the offerings of the dead, and the Acharji, fortune-teller, palmist and maker of horoscopes and the Bhat, a rapacious genealogist and bard living largely on blackmail, are degraded by function to a level nearly as low as the Pirali whose ancestors were forced some 400 years ago to eat or at least smell beef cooked for a Brahman converted to Islam when he became chief minister to a Mohammedan ruler of Jessore. Degradation may indeed go further for it ranks the Vyasokta so low that even his patrons the Chasa-Kaibartta, fishermen and cultivators, refuse to touch food in his house. But the Brahman may abandon all Brahmanical functions altogether and take to a secular calling as a lawyer, school-master, engineer or less willingly as a physician. Land-owning is, however, of as good repute in Brahman eyes, and when grants of land were made by grateful rulers or nobles for secular service or spiritual benefits to a Brahman his descendants would often set up as plain country gentlemen farming their estates through serfs of aboriginal or lowly origin. Such Brahman squires are the Nambutiri of the Malabar coast, the Haiga or Havika in Kanara, and the Masthin of Orissa and Guzerat, and scattered representatives of this class exist everywhere. If, however, the estate was of poor soil or became too minutely sub-divided among its heirs the Brahman had perforce to turn farmer himself, like the Babhan or Bhiinhar of Bengal, the Taga of the Punjab. Further, when economic pressure is severe, the Brahman may descend to agricultural labour, domestic cook or any vocation not involving actual defilement, without loss of caste. Military service is equally open to him, a notable example being the Nuhial of the Punjab, a group which has entirely given up sacerdotal functions for soldierly careers; while the Panre subdivision of the

Kanaujias of the United Provinces prior to the Mutiny of 1857 enlisted freely and with their title anglicized as Pandy acquired a terrible notoriety. Yet it is as hard for a Brahman as it is for a Mohammedan Saiyid to divest himself of his personal sanctity by turning his hand to any reputable employment. He will lessen or lose it far more readily by other means, by ministering to an unclean caste, or by eating the sins of a dead Raja and taking upon himself the pollutions they have caused. To the latter the term Acharaj has

come to be applied though it originally meant only a spiritual

guide or teacher, and he is also styled Maha-Brahman or “great Brahman,” doubtless to avoid the ill effects of calling him by his real and less auspicious title. The Maha-Brahmans are endogamous, having been excommunicated by all the other Brahmans because they accepted alms made within 13 days of a death. But his functions touch even a lower depth. Occasionally he used to take food from the hand of a corpse on the funeral pyre, but this usage is dying out, and he is now paid merely to eat as much as he can in the belief that the more he consumes the better it will fare with the soul of the dead. Even lower is his own sin-eater, the Par-Acharaj who accepts from the Acharaj those gifts which the latter takes from the Hindus. But sometimes the Acharaj makes these gifts to Saniasis who being dead to the world are seemingly beyond the reach of defilement; or they are made to his daughter or son-in-law with what consequences is not known. Naturally the touch of an Acharaj pollutes, since he never visits a house save at or after a death which has defiled it. But the Brahmans who have taken to crime as a profession are

merely degraded, not unclean.

Such are the Tagiis on the upper

Jamna. They form a criminal tribe, yet seclude their women, wear the sacred thread, plead “benefit of clergy” on conviction

and make vows for success in crime to a Muslim saint. They fell because their forefather married a widow of his own caste. Well above them stand the Taga in the same locality. Gaur Brahmans by origin, they abandoned sacerdotal functions and took to farming, but they are bad farmers, strictly secluding their women and wearing the sacred thread. A notable tradition says they received a big grant of real estate in lieu of offerings, so other Brahmans

refused to marry with them or even to take bread from their hands. They have in fact to employ Brahmans for their own sacerdotal business. Yet their social standing is high and the holy Jamna has spared Taga hamlets when changing her course, while floods have swept away those of other castes. The Modern Khatris.—Scattered over N. India the Khatri caste derives its name from the Kshatriyas, but holds a very different place in Hindu society, being the leading commercial caste. In religion it is mostly Hindu, but the founders of Sikhism belonged to it and many of its members are Sikhs (q.v.). In its modern organization the caste presents features unknown to the Kshatriyas and of obscure origin. It is graded in three main groups, the Bari or “12,” the Bunjahis or “‘52” (suggesting some solar basis) and the Sarin, possibly guildsmen. Not one of these groups is absolutely endogamous, but they tend to become so. Each group comprises in theory certain specified exogamous clans which strive to form yet further subgroups, by refusing to give daughters to clans of lower status, and even families rise and fall as they evolve scruples in this respect. The Sarin group is not permitted even to smoke with the two higher. No less than 500 Clans are named but even folk-etymology has failed to explain many of them; é.g., the Khokharain sub-group of the “s52”s claims descent from a son of Manu, but it is possibly named from the Khokhar Rajputs, and several clan-names are traced to military terms in support of the claim to Kshatriya descent. Probably the caste had a Kshatriya nucleus and its lowest group, the Sarin, was affiliated to it when it took to trade. But the above do not exhaust the Khatri sub-groups. Territorial groups cross-divide the status groups, so that a Lahoria or Sirhindia Khatri will not bestow his daughter ona man of the eastern group; some of the Sarin clans have risen high in status because they gave guriis or pontiffs to Sikhism, and these tend to coalesce into a subgroup, intermarrying one with another, or even splitting a clan into two exogamous septs, so as to make it possible to find equal mates for daughters. As a caste the Khatris are singularly heterogeneous in usage, many clans have special social rites at weddings and the like; and several septs possess inherited powers of curing disease, affect particular Sikh saints or even Muslim usages. The Khatri organization has been adopted more or less imperfectly by other castes. Thus the Brahmans who are clients of Khatri clans for ceremonial purposes are graded inter se on the Khatri scheme and their purohits are invariably Saraswati Brahmans. Thus, when Parasurama axe’d the Kshatriyas, a pregnant

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widow of the exterminated caste found a refuge with a Saraswati and gave birth to a boy who espoused 18 Kshatriya wives whose male offspring refounded the caste, assuming the names of as many Hindu saints. Hence the Khatri gotras are identical with

affiliated from lower classes akin to them by occupation, it is impossible to decide; but they are minutely subdivided. Caste and Occupation.—In different groups the smiths will be known by different names, but as yet mere community of vocathose of the Brahmans, though they are seemingly ignored in tion would not make a smith’s daughter of Madras marriageable practice. to a Punjabi smith’s son. Indeed the smiths of much smaller terriAtoras.—Similarly the Arora, a trading caste which traces its tories than a Province would not tolerate equal alliances outside origin to Sindh, is in part organized on the Khatri model and their own territorial subgroups. At best the smiths of a territory claims a like origin; but its clan names are frequently totemistic esteeming itself superior to those of another might accept daughae in its ranks Sikhism only counts a substantial minority of ters from an inferior territory. But the smiths were, it would ikhs. seem, recruited from many sources. Some were, or asserted a Bhatias.—The Bhitias, yet another trading caste which has claim to be, originally of a high caste like the Rajpit, or respectoverspread the Punjab from the south-east displays still further able middle-class yeomen. The recollection of superior origin traces of Khatri influence, but it is stricter in its Hinduism, would die hard and the clan name would be carefully retained, so eschews widow remarriage and claims Rajput origin. Though it that the families so descended would only marry with families has no territorial groups the caste tradition is that while brides of equal descent—or at best accept brides from those not more may be taken from the east, the western clans should avoid the than a degree lower. Again there are grades of occupational reconverse concession. The Bhatias comprise 84 septs, 12 at the pute among smiths. Some may gain rank by pursuing a higher top and a group of “s52”s below, with a mixed clan styled Gond, calling, as armourers. Economic pressure may turn others into “defiled,” sprung from widows remarried or Arora mothers. Nat- nomad smiths or tinkers. The former will assume a new trade name, almost a surname, describing their skilled handicraft and urally the latter are only served by Pushkar Brahmans. Banias.—The great trading caste of the Banias or Mahajan, the white-smiths will now intermarry still preserving their old “great folk,” spread all over N.W. India and Rajpitana, is obvi- clan exogamy. Popular speech will dub the nomads tinkers or ously organized on a scheme of its own. It is split into three terri- even gipsies and they will have perforce to accept it, but they will torial groups, of which the principal are the Aggarwal from West- be glad to give daughters to settled smiths, people who still form ern, and the Oswal (who became Jains) from Eastern Rajpiitana. an integral factor in the village community and may even hold But the offspring of Aggarwals by handmaidens form a kind of land of it as a retaining tenure for keeping up the village smithy. “half-score” subcaste whose clans are named after their mothers’ Other smiths may get engineering qualifications or build up big clans. The pure Aggarwals only number 17 clans, descended from businesses but that will not raise them, at least not at all speedily. as many snake maidens, but to these must be added the Gond, a But to the outside world they will drop the caste name of smith, half clan, due to an unwitting breach of the exogamous law, and and use the one they have ready to hand; 7.e., their old clan name another due to a marriage with a low-caste wife, with which last which may denote descent from a historic stock. In two or three other Banias will not smoke. Finally a subcaste said to be quite generations they may succeed in obtaining at a price brides from distinct, descends from tanners who took to trade. Small wonder impoverished families of a similar stock, thus taking the first step then that the Banias in the mass are admitted to be of pure Vaisya towards the recognition of their long-lost and not convincingly descent, eschew widow remarriage, wear the sacred thread and re- authenticated status. But such social progress is tedious as well fuse food and drink at the hands of the yeomen who despise them. as costly and may halt halfway, the new subgroup finding it easier Sectarian differences have also cross-divided the Banias, since to intermarry with its equals until it becomes strictly endogamous while Vaishnava and Jain families intermarry the Shaiva or and forms a sub-caste. Yet again a number of similar families Maheshri stand, or are kept, aloof. Yet the disruption is not ab- may be converted to a new sect recognized as Hindu but stresssolute, for the Jains have made converts from groups other than ing certain Hindu doctrines on social usages which mark it off the Osw4l and these with the Osw4l seem to have assumed in the from the rest of the caste. It, too, will tend to intermarry but Punjab the ancient title of Bhabra, now applied to any Bania may continue to accept brides from the unregenerate members of from Rajpiitana whether Jain or not. Jain Bhabras profess strict the caste. Political parties when they become stabilized may some monogamy. All these trading castes of N. India contain enter- day produce still further cross-divisions among the smiths. Meanprising elements, Khatris and Aroras being found in the Pathan while the smiths show little inclination to become Smiths by surborderland, Afghanistan and even in Turkistan. One Khatri clan, name and probably the future history of Indian surnames will the Merwaha, claims its origin from Merv. As an owner of land not disclose the full extent to which the craft is followed in India. acquired by moneylending, he is a progressive landlord, but the Still less likely is it that it will ever see hyphenated Smiths, since Arora when allowed a chance runs him close. On the Punjab subcastes with social ambitions will discard any surnames reflectborderland the latter has been for centuries treated as a denizen ing their traditional calling, and metronymics have rarely found of the Ghetto, forbidden to wear a turban, and only allowed to favour in India. The present tendency is to retain or revive the old clan names bestride an ass, to carry on petty trade and lend money. Never permitted to employ his capital in developing commerce or im- which makes it quite easy to avoid breaches of the exogamous proving agriculture, he has invested it in usury of the harshest principles, or adopt titles of offices held, even if they were Mohamtype and is equally hated and despised, dubbed a Kirar till that medan assumed under the Moghul overlords. Bhois.—A caste of some size (about 60,000 in number) is that term has come to imply all that is mean and cowardly. of the Bhois in Bombay. The term is also used to denote a litterKayasth.—In the plains of Hindustan and Bengal the Kayasth may be called the Khatri’s substitute. The term simply means bearer and some Mahars style themselves Bhois. In some parts accountant or scrivener and in old days the Kayastha kept up of Khandesh the Bhois are confused with Kahars, an immigrant court records, collected taxes and administered finance. These caste of fishermen from northern India. Elsewhere they are functions brought him into collision with the Brahmans as in known as Maharia and are very often called Koli on account of Kashmir. The present stronghold of the Kayasth caste is in Lower similarity of occupation. In the Deccan they differ little from Bengal where tradition plausibly describes it as an importation the Mahratha Kunbis in looks, dwellings, etc., and indeed in of the oth century into that country; but it was not organized until Nasik they called themselves Kunbis and some of that caste eat the rrth when Ballaél Sen forbade the immigrants to intermarry with them. One authority says that they sprang from a Brahman with their indigenous caste-fellows. But he apparently failed to father and a Parasar mother, and terms them Paushtikas. Yet do more than stabilize existing usage which permitted the former they have dark complexions and amongst them totemism surto take brides from the latter. However this may be, the Kayasth vives, chiefly among the Khandesh Bhois, whose totems are either imitated the Brahmans’ Kulinism or, quite conceivably, leaves of trees. The Bhois are divided broadly into five groups, founded that system which the Brahmans adopted. Whether the each again subdivided into endogamous sections. Many of these

Kayasths were

originally all Kshatriyas or comprise elements

are again subdivided but are able to eat together though they

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cannot intermarry. The exogamous sections are numerous but are merely surnames, many of which are found also among the Mahrathas. Fairly strict Hindus, they yet have the custom of burying the dead, especially the unmarried. Modes of Life.—-An Indian’s mode of life varies with his caste and occupation, and the climate of the part to which he belongs. His vocation and his ceremonies may be said to fill his life, and they are of equal importance. The cultivator has to work on the land in due season, but his hours of leisure are taken up by the countless rites which accompany birth, marriage and death, and by fairs and festivals, so that he does not feel the want of much else to instruct or amuse him. A birth, especially a boy’s birth, is the occasion for observances which occupy his family for years, and by family here is meant his sept rather than his parents and their closer kindred. A marriage is a quasi-public event and so is a funeral. Hence to abolish or reduce ceremonial would deprive the people in the mass of their employment, for there is as yet little or nothing to replace it. The sequence begins at pregnancy, which is solemnized by a series of observances often obscure in origin, but intended to result in a safe confinement, to revere ancestors, to ensure a lucky life for the child, and so on. They are continued at birth, twins being occasionally unpropitious, and certain sequences, as e.g., a birth of one sex after three of the other being peculiarly so, and requiring special observances to avert their effects. An eighth child is most ill-omened to its parents. Other untoward births affect other near relatives. At birth astrology is called in to determine the child’s future, and often it is sought to decide its future calling, a choice already largely made for it by its caste. Its head may in places be moulded, but otherwise little is done for it physically. Naming is an important rite and so is the first tonsure which may mean a journey to some distant place for certain septs. These and other minor rites lead up to the investiture with the sacred thread for boys of the twice-born castes, a rite of initiation wherein they become pilgrims, at least potentially.

Marriage absorbs more rites and usages than all the rest put together. Betrothal begins with numerous minor rites, even when it is itself a binding ceremony, sometimes known as “little wedding,” the shédé or a similar expression, the popular term for wedding meaning literally “rejoicing,” but older terms are still in use. The wedding is the occasion for usages to ensure its fertility, for games to decide which of the parties is to be the dominant partner and for luck in the new household. Important réles are assigned to women, and men whose spouses are still alive, to the best man, to the mother’s brother and others. The death of a bride-to-be or a newly-wedded wife is peculiarly inauspicious. Many usages are probably survivals of obsolescent customs. At a Hindu wedding, the binding rite is often the seven-fold circumambulation of the sacred fire, as fire, like the other elements, is a witness. In many forms of marriage rite, the wedded pair are treated as a god and goddess, or are crowned like them. There are also degrees of marriage varying among different castes, and equally degrees of legitimacy, relics of ancient usages. In strict practice a bride must be a virgin, can only be ritually married once and should be given by her father without price to the bridegroom. But, as a fact, brides are usually bought or exchanged, unless the hypergamous rules compel the purchase of the groom. Widows are remarried, if custom permits, by observances which are civil rather than religious or merely by co-habitation with the dead man’s next of kin. In places her children by the first husband are brought into the new one’s family, but this usage is rare and the right of the widow’s son to succeed as his heir is now usually contested. It is not unusual for the bride to be formally admitted into her husband’s sept. Consummation is sometimes deferred, the bride remaining in her parents’ house for one, three, five or even 11 years and then being brought to her new home by a rite known as mukhlawa (‘disclosing the face”), gauna and so on. But this usage is by no means universal and the Legislature has fixed a more advanced age for the legal consummation of marriage. But the difficulties of dealing with such a matter by statute are immense. The community of a married pair is emphasized in the Central Provinces, where they perform the business of their caste or an imitation of it.

Death ritual is not quite as intricate or as costly. Cremation is far and away more prevalent with Hindus than burial, but some

castes bury the dead, and infants are almost always buried, though they may be exposed. The lower grades of Brahmans playafairly extensive part in death rites, taking most of the alms offered by the dying man or his heirs. The popular theory is that as the funera]

rites can only be validly performed by a man’s next heir, he who fulfils them will inherit and, despite innumerable decisions to the

contrary, the idea dies hard. In Bengal the Hindu law of inheritance follows the sacerdotal law which regulates the sacrificia] efficiency of the heirs, each in his degree.

Post death rites for the dead continue for months or even years, and their non-observance may cause harm not merely to the dead but to the living. The spirit of a sonless man is particularly liable to be malignant. Hindus believe in Put, “Hell,” which is reconciled to the doctrine of metempsychosis, making it a temporary

place of abode like Svarga, “Heaven.” After the term therein decreed to the soul by Yama, it will be reborn, the form of its rebirth depending on its kerma (g.v.), or the accumulated energy of past actions which is not wholly removed by its sojourn in Heaven or Hell. Funeral feasts, usually eaten at the grave and immediately after the funeral, are common among low castes in the Central Provinces and are probably non-Aryan in origin though also practised by Bishnois. Seasonal Rites.—The life of a pastoral tribe is often nomadic. To find pasture, flocks and herds are taken to the hills or to lands beside the rivers in the hot season, and there is no respite for the herdsmen. Their festivals have to be held on such dates as fit in with their movements. For the cultivator things are easier, yet, even in his case, the great festivals are all held at times when manual work is slack. Thus the Holi falls in early spring when the crops are ripening and the Dasehra (g.v.) in autumn when the work is again slackening. Among Mohammedans the festivals and fasts, being determined by the lunar year, fall at times in the midst of the busy season and, therefore, seriously affect agricultural efficiency. Economic Effects.—In a country where agriculture more or less supports over 72% of the population, the caste prejudices and habits of the mass of the workers prevent their taking up other occupations to utilize their spare time. A man may have insufficient land to support his family but if he is of good caste he cannot take to weaving or work for hire because that would lower his social status. This difficulty is enhanced by the laws as to tenantright which have subdivided holdings until they are minute in area. This fact compels the tenant of a fighting caste in the Punjab and Hindustan to seek employment in the army, but in Bengal he is shut out from such a vocation. Nor does he seek work on the tea estates of Assam or the indigo plantations of Bihar. Only in the coal-fields of Bengal do the Rajpits and even Brahmans find employment as skilled coal cutters. In southern India the conditions are apparently much the same. Obviously the lowest castes have a great advantage over the middle, even the lower middle, ones in their capacity for migration. Similar is the case of jutespinning and weaving, the most important manufacture in Bengal. Only a fourth of the skilled workers in this industry are natives of that province. A province like Bengal where the population is already dense absorbs about 1,200,000 souls from other parts of India. The root cause of the Bengal cultivators’ poverty has been attributed to his not having enough work to fill in his time. In spite of the extension of canal-irrigation in the Punjab ithe same remark applies to the lowest castes of that province.

Caste Government.—Caste government may have been im-

posed from without and not be of spontaneous growth.

In N.

Arcot (southern India) the eighteen right-hand castes, which in-

clude few landed elements, used to obey the Desiis, intendants of a desh or circuit-area, who are Chettis (Sethi) of the great Telugu trading caste, the Balija, and some humbler castes still submit to

them. Entitled the “protector of wealth,” Dhanapdéla, the Chetti

deals with moral delinquencies (in both sexes), his badge of office

being a brass cup-shaped spoon round which a carved figure repre-

sents each caste. The post is saleable and is worth thousands of rupees, but it is kept in the Balija caste.

CASTE The Uriya, “of Orissa,” carpenter caste has an official hierarchy in its mahardna, “great prince,” dondopato mahdardna, his criminal deputy, swangso mahdrdna, and others, as the agopothiria, whose

983

ras, a woman who has had seven husbands is much respected: in the Himalayas,

a widow’s

son provided he be born in her hus-

band’s house, is regarded as the husband’s son even if obviously he is not: and a Jat will conceive it a duty to put away his wife in again, Here, caste. to re-admitted man a function it is to eat with for grave cases, representatives of five castes, equal or superior to order to fulfil the higher obligation to marry a brother’s widow. Divorce.—As a general rule, among the higher Hindu castes the carpenters’ own, are called in to sit with the caste officers and act as assessors. The Gaudo of the Uriyas in Ganjam does not no divorce is recognized, but where it is recognized it is not decall in outside assessors, but it, too, has a series of officials, includ- pendent on judicial decree but on the husband’s will, and no countervailing privilege is accorded to the wife. Yet, in fact, all castes ing the desia who re-admits to caste. Marriage and Remarriage.—The age for marriage is largely would recognize the expulsion from caste and consequent annula matter of social status as well as of caste. Generally it is lowest ment of a marriage in case of a wife’s misconduct or misfortune among the high castes, but even in their case may be almost adult such as violation. Where divorce is permissible it becomes capriopinion is because their girls are more secluded, it may be difficult to arrange cious and often degenerates into sale, but as a rule caste remarkably is marriage and abuses grave prevent to enough strong On recognized. be may unions premature of evils the or betrothals, the other hand, among the Cherumans, agricultural serfs in permanent. Even among the humbler castes a man who had put to find a Cochin, a girl not married before puberty is regarded as polluted, away a wife without grave cause would find it difficult is usual consent mutual by marriage a of Dissolution one. new old the In out-casted. and known,” is age as a woman “whose effected then is and tribes backward or castes inferior among only to her days she was handed over to a headman who could marry cutting of a his own son or sell her into slavery. The prejudice in favour of by a simple rite such as the breaking of a stick, the intervention is infant marriage is strongest in Lower Bengal, where a religious melon in two or the like. Even the caste council’s compulsion for it has been discovered by the Brahmans in the superfluous. Polygamy.—aAs an institution polygamy (g.v.) is the excepscripture which consigns to hell the father who lets his daughter of caste and attain puberty unwed. But the scripture may have sought a reli- tion. It is almost the privilege of wealth, irrespective often discountenanced by important sects. Its principal justificagious explanation of an aboriginal prejudice. the wife first wedded Over the problems of its origin and effects and reform, contro- tion is sonlessness in the wife. Very generally suffer various dismay co-wife the and position favoured a holds Marriage, versy has raged for over a century without much result. social status, on underindeed, does not necessarily imply co-habitation, which may not abilities but much depends on her relative first bride is acquired and so on. take place till one or any odd number of years up to 11 after the standings arrived at when the that she shall not be given a stipulate may parents her or bride A wedding, so that often the earlier the latter ceremony the agreements in restraint of matrimony, void to zeal its in but rival, usage the that likely however, not, is It marriage. later the actual also invalidated covenants in restraint will spread much. Too many factors militate against reform. A the Indian Legislature has stipulations have been judicially declared of horde of parasites, the go-between, the bards, priests, artisans, of polygyny, so such is sometimes advocated by childless wives prostitutes, almost every caste gets perquisites at betrothals, no avail. Polygyny of an heir and ready, if not eager, to adopt birth the see to anxious The connected. weddings, funerals, and the social rites therewith inheritance may arise in families where all dullness of village life and the inconceivable ennui of the secluded him. A curious rule of the inheritance being by top-knots, each wife’s zenana, among the classes which regard the emancipation of the wives have sons, share collectively, irrespective of their equal an getting sons which women with horror, are only brightened by the excitements number. he for, paid be to has bridegroom a When events. domestic attend Adoption.—The intense desire for a son to inherit and to solprobably costs less if his bride is a child. When a bride has to be his father’s funeral rites necessary to the welfare of his emnize bought her price is high and going higher. The father of sons must led to adoption in various forms in the regions under has soul, peasant The aw. daughters-in-l secure would he if buy quickly influences; and to various species of substituted sons. al Brahmanic the to resort to have youth who finds himself unwed at 20 may which probably drew largely on primitive ideas of laws, Manu’s thoroughly disreputable matrimonial agents who abduct girls from that in default of a real son, the wife’s son born allow paternity, young discontented harbour excess, in are localities where females previously born or begotten, the son of a remarson her secretly, excellent at wives or buy up low caste damsels, disposing of them foundling or a son purchased, should inherit in a and wife, prices to purchasers who are careful not to enquire too closely into ried principle of legitimation, per subsequens matrithe Yet, place. his will standing good of family a in antecedents. A single scandal enunciated and its rare occurrence is conexpressly not is monium, revolution undo years of reform propaganda; and nothing but a by Brahmanism. Manu accepted influenced little fined to tribes in female education will alter things. man could appoint his wife or sonless a whereby rule niyoga the is marriage premature of Closely interwoven with the problem could designate a daughter to he as just heir, an him bear to widow that of widow remarriage. Like sati (q.v.) the dislike to it as a must be a near agnate kinshowever, chosen, The man social stigma is based on idealism. But the ideal is the enemy that end. husband and one son only could be begotten by him. the of man of the real. Arya Samaj (g.v.) has inculcated a great extension of this In southern India, a group of the Mārāns, temple servants, The removing all Manu’s restrictions. In one passage Manu stand higher than other sections of that caste because they forbid practice, not #iyoga but the levirate (g.v.) whereby the husband’s condemns higher or a widow to remarry, but permit her to take a Brahman impose the duty of raising an heir to him without could caste paramour. They are in consequence known as Orunul, “one- kinsmen seems to say that if a son is born under the and ent, appointm to India upper of Jats the among string.” So great is the dislike husband’s property must be absolutely surdeceased the levirate that her remarriage even with the husband’s younger brother, the son by niyoga, Manu assigns the term To him. to they generally avoid espousing the widow, so that she remains ten- rendered in allusion to the question discussed by him on, “field’’-s a, Kshetraj concubiin kept is and ant-for-life of the dead husband’s land, whether a crop grown from seed sown on debated, much still and nage. If, however, she takes advantage of her position to elope with the sower or the owner of the land. He to alien field belongs another, she is claimed by her husband’s nearest kinsman on the an it, in the absence of a contract to the owns latter the that decides sacrament the plea that she was informally wed to him. Generally is more important than the soil, but seed the although of marriage being only once possible for a woman, her remarriage contrary, other jurists differed from him. Sociologically the results is a purely social rite unsanctified by priestly recognition. Never- clearly rules have been evil. Their principles have come down Manu’s of attheless the general dislike of widow remarriage and the stigmas have modern custom in countless forms, their complexities tached to it make the acquisition of a child-bride a social necessity, into litied protract and costly in resulting been fostered by advocacy cost what it may. Several of the terms for “widow” connote illdemand for credit beThe debt. l universa in ing culminat gation, and in repute or ill-luck. But when the prejudice has once been overborne ing insatiable has had to be met by the capitalist castes, capital the widow remarried may rank higher than the ritual wife. Thus. Indian industry, financing the absence of opportunity for in the eyes of the Gavara, a respectable cultivating caste in Mad-

984

CASTE

has followed the line of least resistance, lending at customary rates which it is folly to regard as usurious. An inveterate tendency to procrastinate and evade repayment of a loan has rendered security nugatory. The distinction between an assured debt and one totally unsecured is unknown to the borrower, carefully ignored by the lender and disregarded in legislation, so that a man of substance pays almost as dearly for accommodation as a man of straw. Land hunger is not confined to the cultivating classes. It is keenly felt among all. In more than one province the Legislature has been compelled to protect the peasantry en masse from economic serfdom and expropriation of its age-long tenures, just as it has had to

check the abuses of landlordism and create fixity of tenant-right. The usurer has realized the utmost in kind, and for the still huge balance has been able to extort personal service extending even to jus primae noctis and creating an unrest which has found a vent in such jacqueries as occurred in the Punjab in 1914-15. ‘The usage of niyoga has been attributed to customs of group marriage (q.v.) or to polyandry (g.v.), which in India is not common save among primitive groups or in tracts where women and land are scarce, as in the Himalayas, it is a precaution against fragmentation of holdings and is almost invariably fraternal. Elsewhere when custom bids a widow espouse her husband’s brother or his agnatic cousin, suspicion of polyandrous practices may be justified, a theory supported by the popular view that adultery within the caste is much more venial than infidelity outside it. Among the Nairs (g.v.) of Madras, polyandry in the strict sense does not prevail. The rule is that a woman can have but one lawful spouse. To a man more is allowed. Among the Madu in Madras he may be polygamous in one village and polyandrous in another. Matriarchate.—The matriarchate (g.v.) can hardly be traced in India, but in the south polyandrous practices make it inevitable that descent should sometimes be traced by the female line and a man’s heir is then his uterine sister’s son. Women, however, rarely manage property even when it vests in them and the duty is entrusted to the eldest male of the family. The Bants of S. Kanara furnish a conspicuous instance to the contrary, doubtless because the men were a feudal body like the Nairs incessantly engaged in war, and still great sportsmen, though excluded from the army.

Disdain for cultivation may indeed degenerate into sheer idleness, all fieldwork being left to the women while the men knit as a pastime. Yet the purchase of wives as workers is rare.

Ritual and Caste—A fruitful source of caste formation and ramification, especially in the south, is the complexity of ritual. Each grade of priest tends to form a separate subcaste, and every ministrant in a fane belongs to a caste-group. The bent of the barber for music in Malabar has led to his employment as a temple bandsman which function has raised him to semi-sacerdotal status with Ambalavasi, “temple-resident,” rank. The latter may trace descent in the male or female line, are divided into a number of functional castes each actively fissiparous, and employed in many rites outside the temples, leading to further disintegration. The question whether they are Brahmans degraded by function or Stidras elevated by it is insoluble.

Criminal Tribes.—Like any other calling in India, crime tends to become hereditary and as sanctified by custom, almost respectable. ‘This tendency has been strengthened in two ways, the protection of the criminal by territorial magnates and the patronage of a goddess. The notorious Thugs furnish the classic instance in Bhawani, the goddess who received homage from the fraternity. Similarly in Madras the Donga-Dasuri take omens for thieving

excursions from their goddesses and also from Hanuman. Templewomen.—A feature of South Indian religion is the dedication of women of many castes to a temple where they live

immoral lives. Thus, when a Bedar family has no sons or a girl child falls ill, a vow is made that she or the next girl baby shall become a Basawi and she is branded if vowed to a male deity and styled “male Basawis”: if vowed to a goddess girls are known as female Basawis. The son of a Basawi is, however, affiliated to her father’s family; but a daughter also becomes a Basawi. In some places a Basawi lives in her parents’ house and is hand-fasted to a man, the sole object in this case being to prevent extinction of the family. The Devidasis, a god’s handmaidens, are less reputable

and

are

divided

into

right and

left hand,

the former

only

consorting with men of the former faction while the latter only draw the line at the lowest castes. It is hard to say how these usages arose. Possibly not earlier than the oth century A.D., the temples seem to have taken over an older state-controlled instity-

tion. Basawi is the name also given to a cow dedicated to Shiva, but Devadasis also serve in Vishnu’s temples. The latter are divided into seven classes including the Vikrita who sells herself, the Bhritya who wishes to enrich her family, and the Bhakta who joins

a temple out of devotion, but the Gopika or Rudraganika are simply hired by it. Both Gopika and Bhakta suggest a connection with Krishna.

Traces occur in Northern India of girls of low caste be-

ing wedded to a god, and in Southern India both Basawis and Devadiasis are so united to the idol by wedding rites. They are often highly accomplished, learning to read and write as well as sing and dance. Their attainments have in fact given female education a distinct tinge of disrepute. Poor law relief exists in India in embryo. The practice of handing over deformed infants to religious mendicants is widespread. Thus in Madras infirm children are claimed by the Mudavandi or “lame” Andis, a special sect of professional beggars of the Shaiva persuasion who are subsidised by the Vellalas, a land-holding class, for this service. The children are well-treated and adopted into the Andi families. Generally a deformed child is supposed to be handed over to a god in fulfilment of a vow for male issue, but quite possibly the vow is an apologetic fiction. Microcephalous infants are thus “vowed” to a so-called Muslim saint in the Punjab and are styled “Shah Daula’s rats.” They are exhibited by peripatetic beggars, but not maltreated. Owing to the intensity of family and caste solidarity the aged and unfortunate are almost universally given maintenance or found work. In famines, of course, much hardship is endured, especially by secluded women of high castes who cannot “break their purdah,” i.e., emerge from privacy to find work. Some castes,

like the Nuttukottai Chattis, are as noted for charity as for acquisitiveness, and alms-giving is an atonement for every sin including covetousness. That it is indiscriminate and ill-directed is undeniable, religious mendicancy having made begging reputable. An odour of sanctity attaches to all forms of feeble-mindedness, and cruelty to the insane is rare though demoniacal possession may

be deemed curable by flogging. Slavery.—It is only of quite recent years that slavery in India has ceased, and marked traces of it can still be found from the

Afghan borderland to the extreme south. It often originated in debt, a freeman selling himself for an advance of money or to pay off a debt, but praedial serfs like the Cheruman of Malabar and the Holeya of Mysore are races enslaved by conquest. Among the latter, local capitalism devised a system of hand-fasting female serfs to serfs lest marriage in a better caste should lead to emanci-

pation. Yet the serf often enjoyed strange privileges. ‘Thus in South Travancore for some time after harvest a Pulaiyar who succeeds in casting a stone at a high-caste woman after sunset, unless escorted by a male over three years old, caused her excommunication and could compel her to accompany him. In 1695 a royal edict abrogated this usage under pain of death. Less extreme privileges of Saturnalia are common. Feudalism.—The chronic warfare of India has played its part in the formation of castes. To defend their frontiers the kings of the great realm of Vijayanagar employed Mutrachas, now a caste, with the title of Palaiyukkaram, now Paligar, holder of a palatyan or feudal estate (no connection with modern Greek palleka). A Telugu caste following various callings from agriculture down to palanquin-bearers, the Mutrachas are largely watchmen, but some having been petty chiefs claim Kshatriya status. They have a special tutelary goddess but little or no marriage, forming unions often permanent with women of their own caste. Another caste of Paligars is the Maravar and they stoutly defended Tinne-

velly against the British up to the beginning of the roth century. They claim descent from the boatman who ferried Rama over to Ceylon, and the Raja of Ramnad, their head, has the title of

Satupati, or “lord of the bridge,” but inscriptions indicate that the title originated about a.p. 1400 though coins may antedate it by a couple of centuries.

The Maravars are now mainly culti-

CASTE vating sub-tenants, but contain a large criminal element which till recently virtually ousted the police at Tinnevelly as detectives, acquiring considerable popularity. Another feudal caste is the Bedar Kanarese-speaking and the Telugu-speaking Boyas who once formed a homogeneous caste, but many of their septs bear names which indicate that once it was a fusion of many elements. Both Bedar and Boya are now crossdivided into Uru or villagers and Myasa or grass-land men each subdivided into buffalo-men, men of the herd, of the flower and fish-men, with each its own god. Caste government is to a great extent carried on by priests, a Vaishnava Brahman or officiants at shrines of Hanuman and other gods. But they have also such groups as Nayaka and Pallagar and as infantry were recruited not only by the Paligars but by Haidar Ali himself who had raised himself from the rank of ndyaka in the Mysore service largely by their aid. At one time they seem to have been forced or converted into partial acceptance of Islam, since some of them eat beef, but not pork, and circumcise boys. Yet they are still Hindus, worshipping both Shiva and Vishnu, with many other gods, and observing Hindu rites. The Paligars proved so lawless that they had

985

divisions exist, distinguished one from another by local customs. At some time or other the Kolis probably obtained caste promotion which took the form of sumptuary privileges granted by the local Rajas or chieftains for services rendered. Batwials.—Westward, in and near Chamba State, the position of the Diagis is held by the Batwals who in the Kangra hills form a true caste. The term is said to mean “‘tax collector,” and everyone so employed is thus styled, but a true Batw4l is probably a Barwala, a maker of winnowing fans and mats, who was enlisted as a soldier and in the lower hills the latter term is applied to a man of any low caste employed as a watchman or messenger, another name for him being satwég, “bearer of burdens,” or kirauk “convener of men for forced labour.”

But as soon as we reach the

plains we find the occupational Barwālas forming a caste though each section of them has its own temple, merely a mound of earth at which sacrifice is offered in the eldest son’s honour. Although both the castes are Hindus they do not employ Brahmans but Meghs at weddings. The Batwāl tradition is that they are descended from a Raja’s daughter who went astray and was married by a Chuhra, the lowest caste, and that the name is really Betwal, “son of a daughter,” but in Chamba they claim descent from a to be dispossessed. In the Central Provinces the castes formed by military service deified ascetic. Meghs.—The Meghs are numerous in Sialkot and ramify all seem to be mainly derived from non-Aryan tribes. With the into the submontane. Mahrathas the Khandaits received grants of land as a reward for, along the borders of Jammu (Kashmir) attempts have been made and strong is feeling caste them Among the above somewhat rank and service, such of, or a condition fraternity by avoiding the use of dead cultivating castes. The Rautias of Chota Nagpur formed mainly to raise the standing of the of a low degree the from Kol tribes are in much the same position, while the Paiks, animals and so on. Employing Brahmans being by occupaand own their of prayer-sayers have also Meghs rank grants, such received having not “footmen,” and Taonlas, further to the indeed Kabir; of cult the affect weavers largely tion or below those castes. The Bangi Dhangars, “spear-shepherds,’’ for Julaha, “weaver”; but Hatkars, enlisted in Maratha armies and still rank slightly higher westward megh seems to be a synonym they have also a priest of their own and his decision is final in than other shepherds (Dhangars). social as well as on religious points and he has local agents. There THE MODERN LOW CASTES are also two superior sections which hold aloof from the mass of and Meghs In the Punjab Himalayas the Hinduism is of a primitive type the caste. It is impossible to say whether the Barwalas their posiare so, but and presumably caste is so likewise. Here we find the Dagi, also are by origin occupational. Probably they ranges down into commonly called Koli, and in the higher mountainous regions tion all along this borderland from the inner high débris of supare they that suggests feet, their at styled plains are the trade Betus, while those who have taken to any specific which have preserved barhai, carpenter, dhogri, iron-smelters, pumba, woolcomber, and pressed races or fragments of ancient states barara, basket maker, etc., and these names stick to families something of their primitive pride.. Central Provinces.—In the Central Provinces we have a more long after they have abandoned these crafts. These families do strata. Occupation is not form castes. Probably Chamars and Lohars are merely developed system of caste among the lower of the castes precedence social and divisions the of basis smith’s, real and the tanner’s the as trades Dagis who once took to such grassmerely not are Ghasias Udia the Thus lowest. the or to down though in some parts a Dagi will not eat with the former work and are looked scavengers’ do and hides raw cure but of cutters, flesh the eat will he though even latter, the marry with The Pardhis or “sportsmen” are dibears and monkeys and all, except the Lohar, that of cattle which down on by other Ghasias. firearms; Phansas, who use snares; use who have died a natural death. The term Dagi seems to be derived vided into Sbikaris and Gayakas who employ bullocks leopards; tame who Chitewalas, Kanet the below always is Dagi a and from dég, a blemish, of Dhimars, “fishermen,” are sub-caste The game. stalk to hills. and the Ghirth, the yeoman or cultivating castes of these Tankiwala who sharpen grindstones, waternuts, grow who Singaria depends It varying. is and varied has status his se But inter Bansia or Saraia, “anglers,” and others. for example on religious influences as round about the temple of Jhingar or prawn catchers, more active, yet other factors occupation of difference is Nowhere Nirmand the Kolis will only marry with a family of Koli tanners Chamārs wash out the undigested Gohardhua The operate. also touching from refrain but also Dagis themselves who still style grain from the droppings of cattle to eat, and the Chungia group dead cattle. to whom smoking is prohibited, use the Kolis.—But the Kolis are still more numerous than the Dagis. of the Satnāmi Chamārs Nagle, or naked, Khonds wear only a the pipe; leaf or chongi old The senses. distinct three in used is The term Koli indeed and the Makaria Kamars eat monclothes of amount negligible in be to appears Rajas of Kulu were known as Koli Rajas, and it taint of illicit birth is also a freThe despised. are all fact a territorial name; secondly it denotes the Dagi just de- keys: and less temporary, group within the or more new, a of cause quent Cham4rs of used is it Thirdly scribed, and, in Chamba, the Sippi. as a rule a new subcaste subsists and among the Kumin the south-east plains of the Punjab who have taken to weaving. caste. But hand-using potters are still separate from those who use Of the term Koli several explanations are given. It is supposed hars the though hand-made pottery is now unknown. Lastly we wheel, the Sudra of i.¢., to be derived from kulin, “degraded from a family,” adopted into other, even lower, castes, such as the groups status and so on; just as the Dagi is said to be a degraded off- find Koris, “weavers,” received into the Chamārs, “tanshoot of the Kolis. In one part of the hills sumptuary rules restrain Kor-Chamärs, Khatris admitted into the dyers and printChhipas, Khatri cers”; instruthe Kolis and Dagis from wearing gold and using certain in the Dangris and tailors, probably owing groups similar ments of music; in the lower hills both castes may use them, ers; and not, however, find caste so much in procdo We origin. similar a a becomes shoes makes though Chamars may not, and a Dagi who formed; though the Satnami Chamars already as formation of ess Chamiar. Further the Kolis are divided into two classes, the true s, the Kabir-panthis only tend endogamou now district are (sacha) Kolis from whose hands water may be taken by higher of one so. be to the from castes; and the rest. Another tale divides the Kanets ers and The Naiyadis, or hunters, of Malabar are the dog-eat Dagoli and Thakur, the latter descended from a Kanet who killed y, humanit of ns specime le Miserab lowest of the Hindu castes. a bullock in a passion, and were degraded a degree further the Act deprived them of Arms the but shots, t excellen be to used they sub-

because they eat and drink with Muslims.

Further local

986

CASTELAR

Y RIPOLL—CASTELLAMMARE

their weapons and they now work at rope-making, slings, mats and so on, with occasional cultivation. Yet they have succession in the male line and adultery is abhorrent to them. Some have been converted to Christianity and others to Islam, the latter maintain themselves by begging from Mohammedans. Their chief priest, Muppon, is hereditary. He enquires into all matters affecting the community and can excommunicate a guilty person. In the Central Provinces the subdivision of labour is well exemplified. Objection is taken to the growing of hemp and so Kurmis who descend to it form the Santora (from san, “hemp”) subcaste, and so on. The Indian madder-dye (dl) is likewise offensive on account of its blood-like product, so we have Alia subcastes of the Kachhis, who grow vegetables, and of the Banias. Similarly Barais grow the betel-vine, and various groups of the Malis, “gardeners,” specialize in flowers, cumin and turmeric. The arts of weaving also divide castes. Thread is spun by a special caste, the Katias. Cotton is cleaned by the Mohammedan Bahnas, and coarse cloth is woven by groups of the low castes, such as the Mahiars, Gandas and Koris; while the finer kinds are again the work of separate castes, the Patwas embroidering in silk and braid; Tantis; Koshtis, the latter having a separate sub-caste of Salewars, “‘silk-weavers.” Metal workers and even bangle-makers are divided on identical lines. Breviocrapuy.—Sir H. H. Risley, The People of India (1915). Ethnographic Survey of India:—R. E. Enthoven, Tribes and Castes of Bombay (Bombay 1920); H. A. Rose, Tribes and Castes of the Punjab (Lahore); R. V. Russell, Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces (London, 1916), and E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (1909, Madras). The volumes for the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Rajputana, etc., have not yet been published. Sir D. C. J. Ibbetson, Punjab Castes (reprint, Lahore, 1916). The Census Reports, Imperial and Provincial, for r901, 1911, 1921, also contain much valuable information. (H. A. R

CASTELAR Y RIPOLL, EMILIO (1832-1899), Spanish statesman, was born at Cadiz, on Sept. 8, 1832. He received the doctorate in philosophy and letters at Madrid in 1853, and from the time of the Spanish revolutionary movement of 1854 became active in politics, radical journalism, literary and historical pursuits. After his defeat in the first rising of June 1866, he fled to France to escape death, returning after the successful revolution of 1868 and entering the cortes as deputy for Saragossa. At the same time he resumed the professorship of history at Madrid. His demand for a federal republic in the constituent cortes of 1869 was realized on the abdication of Amadeus, but it lasted only from Feb. 11, 1873, to Jan. 3, 1874. Disorder was so rife that the president of the executive, Figueras, deserted his post. The doctrinaires, Pi y Margall and Salmeron, in successive attempts to govern, received no support from influential Spaniards. Finally at the beginning of September the federal cortes made Castelar chief of the executive and virtual ruler of Spain. He at once reorganized the army and sent forces to cope with the 60,000 Carlists in arms, and the cantonal insurrectionists around Alcoy and Cartagena (those of Cordoba, Seville, Cadiz, and Malaga

had been already quelled under Salmeron). Castelar next turned his attention to the Church. He put a stop to persecutions of the Church and religious orders and enforced respect of Church property. He attempted to restore order in the administration of finance, with a view to covering the expense of the three civil wars, Carlist, cantonal, and Cuban. The Cuban insurgents gave him much trouble, the famous Virginius incident nearly leading to a rupture with the United States. Castelar sent out reinforcements to Cuba and a new governor-general, Jovellar, whom he instructed to crush the mutinous spirit of the Cuban militia. At the end of 1873 Castelar had reason to be satisfied with the military operations in the peninsula, with the assistance he was

getting from the middle classes and even from the non-republican elements. On the other hand, the extreme republicans openly dissented from his conservative and conciliatory policy. Hence when the federal cortes resumed its sittings (Jan. 2, 1874), it passed a vote of censure on Castelar. He resigned, and on the following day Pavia, the captain-general of Madrid, forcibly ejected the deputies, closed and dissolved the cortes, and called upon Marshal Serrano to form a provisional government.

A pronunciamiento

DI STABIA

put an end to Serrano’s government in

Dec., 1874, when Generals Campos at Sagunto, Jovellar at Valencia, Primo de Rivera at Madrid, and Laserna at Logroño, pro-

claimed Alphonso XII. king of Spain. Castelar then went into voluntary exile for 15 months, at the end of which he was elected

deputy for Barcelona. He sat in all subsequent parliaments, During that period he became more estranged from the majority

of the republicans, because he elected to seek the realization of

the programme of the Spanish revolution of 1868 by evolution,

and legal, pacific means. Hence the contrast between his attitude from 1876 to 1886, during the reign of Alphonso XII., when he stood in the front rank of the Opposition to defend the reforms of that revolution against Canovas, and his attitude from 1886

to 1891 when he acted as a sort of independent auxiliary of Sagasta and of the Liberal party. Besides the unfinished history of Europe

in the roth century he left:—La civilisación en los cinco primeros siglos del cristianismo (1875); Vida de Byron (1873); Cartas

sobre politica europea (1875); and other works. Castelar died near Murcia, on May 25, 1899. See D. Hannay,

Life of Castelar

(1896);

Butler

Clarke, Modern

Spain (1906); Correspondencia de Emilio Castelar 1868-98 E. Varagnac, Emilio Castelar, un grand Espagnol (x920).

(1908);

CASTELFRANCO DELL’ EMILIA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 16 m. northwest by rail from the town of Bologna. Pop. (1921) 2,925 (town), 17,215 (commune).

The churches contain some pictures by later Bolognese artists. Just outside the town is a massive fort erected by Urban VIII. in 1628, on the frontier of the province of Bologna, now used as

a prison. Castelfranco either occupies or lies near the site of the ancient Forum Gallorum, a place on the Via Aemilia between Mutina and Bononia, where in 43 B.C. Octavian and Hirtius defeated Mark Antony.

CASTELFRANCO VENETO, a town and episcopal see of

Venetia, Italy, in the province of Treviso, 16m. W. by rail from the town of Treviso. Pop. (1921) 4,240 (town), 15,881 (commune). The older part of the town is square, surrounded by mediaeval walls and towers constructed by the people of Treviso in t199 (see CITTADELLA). The painter Giorgio Barbarelli (Il Giorgione, 1477-1512) was born there. The cathedral contains his Madonna with SS. Francis and Liberalis (1504), one of his finest works, in the background of which it is possible to see the town walls.

CASTELL,

EDMUND

(1606-1685),

English orientalist,

born at Tadlow, Cambridgeshire, entered Emmanuel college, Cambridge, but removed to St. John’s, where he compiled his Lexicon Heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, Aethiopicum, Arabicum, et Persicum (1669), on which he spent 18 years, working (if we may accept his own statement) from 16 to 18 hours a day, and employing 14 assistants. He was in prison in 1667 because he was unable to discharge his brother’s debts, for which he had made himself liable. His own fortune had been spent on the Lexicon. A volume of poems dedicated to the king brought him preferment. He was made prebendary of Canterbury

and professor of Arabic at Cambridge. His mss. he bequeathed to the University of Cambridge. He died in 1685 at Higham Gobion, Bedfordshire, where he was rector.

The Syriac section of the Lexicon was issued separately at Gottingen in 1788 by J. D. Michaelis. Trier published the Hebrew section in 1790-92.

CASTELLAMMARE DI STABIA, a seaport and episcopal

see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 17m. S.E. by rail from the town of Naples. Pop. (1921) town, 28,340; com-

mune, 39,188. It lies in the south-east angle of the bay of Naples, at the beginning of the peninsula of Sorrento, and owing to the

sea and mineral water baths (12 different springs) and its attractive situation, with a splendid view of Vesuvius and fine woods on

the hills behind, it is a favourite resort of Neapolitans in summer. The ruined castle from which it takes its name, on the hill to the south of the town, was built by the emperor Frederick II. There is a large royal dockyard (3,000 workmen), and a small-arms factory; there are also ironworks, cotton, flour and macaroni mills. An electric tramway leads along the coast to Sorrento.

CASTELLESI—CASTELLON CASTELLESI, ADRIANO

(1460?-1521), Italian cardinal

and writer, known also as CorNneEToO from his birthplace, was sent by Innocent VIII. to reconcile James III. of Scotland with his subjects. While in England he was appointed (1503), by Henry VII., to the see of Hereford, and in 1504 to the diocese of Bath and Wells, but he never resided in either. Returning to Rome, he became secretary to Alexander VI. and was made cardinal (May 31, 1503). Soon after the election of Leo X. he was implicated in the conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci against the pope. He confessed his guilt, fled from Rome and was deposed from the cardinalate. As early as 1504 he had presented his palace (now the Palazzo Giraud-Torlonia) to Henry VII. as a residence for the English ambassador to the Holy See; and on his flight Henry VIII., who had quarrelied with him, gave it to Cardinal Campeggio. Of Adrian’s subsequent history nothing is known. As a writer, he was one of the first to restore Latin to its pristine purity; and among his works are De Vera Philosophia ex quatuor doctoribus ecclesiae (Bologna, 1507), De Sermone Latino (Basle, 1513) and a poem, De Venatione (Venice, 1534). See B. Gebhardt, Adrian von Corneto

(Breslau, 1886).

CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRANZ (1781-1862), Austrian dramatist, was born at Vienna on March 6, 1781. During the Napoleonic invasions his war song, Kriegslied fiir die Osterreichische Armee, was printed by order of the archduke Charles and distributed in thousands. For this Castelli was proclaimed by Napoleon in the Moniteur. In 1815 he went to France as secretary to Count Cavriani, and, after his return to Vienna, resumed his post in the government service. In 1842 he retired to his estate at Lilienfeld, where he devoted himself to literature. Castelli’s dramatic talent was characteristically Austrian; his plays were well constructed and effective and satirized unsparingly the foibles of the Viennese. But his wit was local and ephemeral. His excellent Gedichte in nieder österreichischer Mundart (1828) are still read. He died at Lilienfeld on Feb. 5, 1862. Castells Gesammelte Gedichte appeared in 1835 in 6 vols.; a selection of his Werke in 1843 in 15 vols. (2nd ed., 1848), followed by 6 supplementary volumes in 1858. See his autobiography, Memozren meines Lebens (1861-62); new ed. Aus dem Leben eines Wiener Phadken (1912).

CASTELLO, BERNARDO

(1557-1629), Genoese portrait

and historical painter, born at Albaro near Genoa, was the intimate friend of Tasso, and designed the figures of the Gerusalemme Liberata, published in 1592; some of these subjects were engraved by Agostino Caracci. CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500?-1569?), Italian historical painter, architect and sculptor, was born near Bergamo in 1500 or perhaps 1509, and is hence termed Il Bergamasco. He belongs, however, to the school of Genoa, but does not appear to have been related to the other two painters named Castello, also noticed here. He decorated the Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, the saloon of the Lanzi palace at Gorlago, and the Pardo palace in Spain. His best-known works are the “Martyrdom of St. Sebastian” and the picture of “Christ as Judge of the World” on one of the vaultings of the Annunziata. In 1567 he was invited to Madrid by Philip II., and there he died, holding the office of architect of the royal palaces. The date of death (as of birth) is differently stated as 1569 or 1570.

CASTELLO, VALERIO

(1625-1659), Italian painter, was

the youngest son of Bernardo Castello (g.v.). He surpassed his father, and particularly excelled in painting battle scenes. He painted the “Rape of the Sabines,” now in the Palazzo Brignole, Genoa, and decorated the cupola of the church of the Annunciation in the same city.

CASTELLO

BRANCO,

CAMILLO, Visconde pe Cor-

REIA BOTELHO (1825—1890), Portuguese novelist, was born out of wedlock and lost his parents in infancy. He spent his early years in a village in Traz-os-Montes. He learnt to love poetry from Camoens and Bocage, while Mendes Pinto gave him a lust for adventure, but he dreamed more than he read, and grew up undisciplined and proud. He took minor orders, but his restless nature prevented him from following one course for long and he soon returned to the world, and henceforth kept up a feverish literary activity to the end. He was created a viscount in 1885

DE LA PLANA

987

in recognition of his services to letters, and when his health finally broke down he received a government pension. When, old and blind, he died by his own hand in 1890, it was recognized that Portugal had lost the most national of her modern writers. Apart from his plays and verse, Castello Branco’s works may be divided into three sections. The first comprises his romances of the imagination of which Os mysterios de Lisboa, in the style of Victor Hugo, is a fair example. The second includes his novels of manners, a style of which he was the creator and remained the chief exponent until the appearance of O Crime de Padre Amaro of Eça de Queiroz. In these he is partly idealist and partly realist, and describes to perfection the domestic and social life of Portugal in the early part of the īọth century. The third division embraces his writings in the domain of history, biography and literary criticism. Among these may be cited Noites de Lamego, Cousas leves e pesades, Cavar em ruinas, Memorias do Bispo do Grão Para and Bohemia do Espirito. Knowing the life of the people by experience and not from books, he was able to fix in his page a succession of strongly marked and national types, such as the brazileiro, the old fidalgo of the north, and the Minho priest. Among the most notable of his romances are O Romance de un Homem Rico, his favourite, Retrato de Ricardina, Amor de Perdição, and the magnificent series entitled Novellas do Minho. Many of his novels are autobiographical, like Onde está a felicidade, Memorias do Carcere and Vingança. No other Portuguese author has shown so profound a knowledge of the popular language as Castello Branco. Though nature had endowered him with the poetic temperament, his verses are mediocre, but his best plays are cast in bold lines and contain really dramatic situations, while his comedies are a triumph of the grotesque, with a mordant vein running through them that recalls Gil Vicente. BwrrocrAaPayY.—The Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, vol. ix. p. 7 et seq., contains a lengthy but incomplete list of Castello Branco’s publications. See A. Pimentel, Romance do Romancista (1890), a badly put together but informing biography; also a study on the novelist by J. Pereira de Sampaio in A Geração Nova (Oporto, 1886); Theophilo Braga, As Modernas Ideias na litteratura Portugueza (Oporto, 1892); Padre Senna Freitas, Perfil de Camillo Castello Branco (S. Paulo, 1887); Paulo Osorio, Camillo, a sua vida, o seu genio, a sua obra (Oporto, 1908).

CASTELLO BRANCO, a Portuguese episcopal city, 1,560ft. above the sea, on the Abrantes-Guarda railway. Pop. (1925), 10,486. The city has many Roman remains and is dominated by a ruined castle, and partly enclosed by ancient walls; its chief buildings are the cathedral and episcopal palace. Cloth is manufactured, and there is a flourishing local trade in cork, wine and olive oil. The administrative district of Castello Branco coincides with the south-eastern part of Beira; pop. (1920), 239,167; area, 2,582 sq.m.

CASTELLON DE LA PLANA, a province of eastern

Spain, formed in 1833 of districts formerly included in Valencia; bounded on the north by Teruel and Tarragona, east by the Mediterranean sea, south by Valencia, and west by Teruel. Pop. (1920) 306,886; area, 2,495sq.m. The province is mainly occupied by mountains which increase in height westward and culminate in the peak called Pefiagolosa (5,945ft.). Lowlands occur only along a narrow coastal belt and up some of the river valleys. The interior is dissected by the valleys of many streams flowing to the Mediterranean. The chief rivers are the Cenia, the Vinaroz and the Mijares with its tributary the Monlleo, separated from the Palancia by the Sierras de Espina and de Espadan. The coast-line is unbroken by any marked inlet and there is no first-class harbour. The climate is cold and variable in the hilly districts, temperate in winter and very warm, in summer in the lowlands. Here irrigation supplements the scanty rainfall and cereals, including rice, the vine and olive, vegetables and hemp are cultivated but fruit and, above all, oranges are the chief products. Cork and locust beans are obtained from the mountain regions where marble is quarried, and fishing is important off the coast. Lead, zinc and iron and other ores are known to be present but in 1924 only three mines operated, producing about roo tons of lead ore. The chief industries are fish-curing and the manufacture of woollen,

988

CASTELLON

DE

LA

PLANA—CAS1 BLSAKKADIIN

linen and silk goods and of porcelain. Oranges, wine, oil and beans are exported. The Barcelona-Valencia railway skirts the coast, passing through Castellón the capital; and the Calatayud-

Sagunto line crosses the southern extremity of the province. A light railway from Onda links Castellón with its port of El Grao. Castellón (pop. 1920, 34,457), Villareal (16,770), Burriana (13,895) and Peñiscola (2,975), a town of some historical interest, are described in separate articles. The other chief towns are Vall d’Ux6 (8,807), Vinaroz (7,846), Villafamés (7,356), Almazora (7,273), Benicarló (7,012), Onda (6,631), Segorbe (6,555), Nules (5,874), Alcald de Chisbert (5,855) and Morella (5,498). (See also VALENCIA.) CASTELLÓN DE LA PLANA, a city of eastern Spain, capital of the province described above, on the Barcelona-Valencia railway, 4m. from the Mediterranean sea. Pop. (1920) 34,457. Castellón lies on a fertile plain irrigated from the Mijures estuary, 5m. S.E., by a rock-hewn Moorish aqueduct. The town, partly encircled by ruined walls, is mainly modern, but contains several ancient convents, an old octagonal bell-tower, 130ft. high, and a

t4th century church with an interior painting by Francisco Ribalta, who was born here in r555. Castellón manufactures porcelain, leather, rope, paper and clothing. Its harbour, El Gráo de Castellón, 4m. E., and lately improved, is annually entered by some 400 small vessels, mainly engaged in shipping oranges, almonds and locust beans to Britain and hemp to other parts of Spain. The chief imports are coal and chemical manures. A light railway from Onda connects Castellón and its port with the orange groves to the south-west. Under the Moors Castellón occupied a hill to the north of its present site; its removal to the plain by James I. of Aragon (1213-76) gave the town its full name, “Castellon of the Plain.”

CASTELLORIZO,

the ancient Megiste, an island of the

Dodecanese. It was included by the Turks in the privileged group known as “the Dodecanese” (g.v.), but did not form part of the Italian “Dodecanese” occupied during the Libyan War of 1912. The outbreak of hostilities against Turkey during the Worid War gave the Italians an opportunity of adding Castellorizo to their Dodecanesian possessions, after the French had occupied it on Dec. 27, 1915. Articles 122 of the Treaty of Sévres in 1920 and 15 of the second Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 provided that “Turkey renounces in favour of Italy all rights and title . . . over the island of Castellorizo.” Its population is entirely Greek. See Peace Handbooks, vol. xi. No. 64; The Turkish Islands (1920).

CASTELNAU, EDOUARD DE CURIERES DE (1851), French soldier, was born at Saint-Affrique, Aveyron, Dec. 24, 1851, third son of the Marquis de Curiéres de Castelnau. He entered the military school of St. Cyr, near Versailles, in 1869; and during the Franco-German War took part in the Loire campaign. Captain in 1876 and commandant in 1889, he was appointed by Gen. de Miribel in 1893 to a post in the chief department of the general staff; later, as head of the department he built up the vast system of French mobilization. In roro he became general of division, and in June rorr assistant to the chief of the general staff. On the outbreak of the World War he commanded the II. Army in Lorraine. After the French offensive had failed at Morhange in Aug. 1914, General Castelnau in turn successfully repulsed the Germans at the Trouée de Charmes and the heights of the Grand Couronné. On Sept. 18 the II. Army was moved to, the west between the Somme and.the Oise in the abortive attempt to outflank the German armies—known as the “race to the sea.” On June 13, 1915, Gen. Castelnau took command of the group of four armies which constituted the French centre, and directed the September offensive in Champagne. In the following December he became chief of the general staff under General Joffre. He was next sent to Salonika on a tour of inspection, returning by way of Athens and Rome. Three days after the opening of the German attack at Verdun on Feb. 21, 1916, Castelnau was sent there on an emergency mission, with full powers, and appreciating the danger, gave orders that the right bank of the Meuse should be held at all cost; he returned to Chantilly only when the position

was secure.

On the appointment of Nivelle in place of Joffre,

Castelnau was sent on a mission to St. Petersburg in Jan. 1917. On

his return he was given command of the group of armies in the east with a view to directing the large-scale operations which were anticipated in Nov. 1918, and which the Armistice happily fore-

stalled. After the war General Castelnau entered the Chamber as deputy for Aveyron; he acted as president of the army committee, and allied himself to the group known as the Entente démocrati-

que et sociale. See Victor Giraud, Castelnau (1921).

CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, SIEUR DE LA MAUVISSIERE

(c. 1520~1592), French soldier and diplomatist, was born in Touraine. After some service in the French army in Italy he entered the service of the Cardinal of Lorraine. He was employed on a series of important diplomatic missions, and after the death of Francis II. accompanied his widow, Mary Stuart, to Scotland in 1561. During that year he sought in vain to effect a reconciliation between Mary and Elizabeth. During the next ten years he was employed alternately in the army and in diplomacy. In 1572 he was sent to England by Charles IX. to allay the excitement created by the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the same year he was sent to Germany and Switzerland. Two years later he was reappointed by Henry III. ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, and he remained at her court for ten years.

Castelnau used his

influence to promote the marriage of the queen with the duke of Alençon, but Elizabeth made so many promises only to break them. that at last he refused to accept them or communicate them to his Government. On his return to France he found that his

chateau of La Mauvissiére had been destroyed in the civil war: and as he refused to recognize the authority of the league, the duke of Guise deprived him of the governorship of Saint-Dizier. He was thus brought almost to a state of destitution. But on the accession of Henry IV., the king, who knew his worth, and was confident that although he was a Catholic he might rely on his fidelity, gave him a command in the army, and entrusted him with various confidential missions. Castelnau died at Joinville in 1592. His Mémoires rank very high among the original authorities for the period they cover, the Ir years between 1559 and 1570. They were written during his last embassy in England for the benefit of his son; and they possess the merits of clearness, veracity and impartiality. They were first printed in 1621; again, with additions by Le Laboureur, in 1659; and a third time, still further enlarged by Jean Godefroy, in 1731. Castelnau translated into French the Latin work of Ramus, On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Gauls. Various letters of his are preserved in the Cottonian and Harleian collections in the British Museum. His grandson, JAcquES DE CASTELNAU (1620—1658) distinguished himself in the war against Austria and Spain during the ministries of Richelieu and Mazarin, and died marshal of France. See G. Hubault, Ambassade de Castelnau en Angleterre (1856); Relations politiques de la France ... avec Ecosse au seizieme siècle, edited by J. B. A. T. Teulet (1862) ; and De la Ferrière, Les Projets de mariage Q’ Elisabeth (1883).

CASTELNAUDARY,

a town of south-western France, in

the department of Aude, 22 m. W.N.W. of Carcassonne, on the railway to Toulouse. Pop. (1926) 6,131. It probably represents the ancient town of Sostomagus, taken during the sth century by the Visigoths, who, it is conjectured, rebuilt the town, calling it Castrum Novum Arianorum, whence the present name. Early in the 13th century the town was the scene of several struggles during the war against the Albigenses. It is finely situated on rising ground in the midst of a fertile and well-cultivated plain, on the Canal du Midi, which here widens out into an. extensive basin lined with warehouses. The church of St. Michel (14th century) has a street running beneath its tower. There is a number of flour-mills, as well as manufactories of earthenware and tiles; trade is in lime, timber, grain, fruits, wine, cattle and farm implements.

CASTELSARRASIN, a town of south-western France, cap-

ital of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 12m. W. of Montauban. Pop. (1926), 2,826. The name appears in the r3th century. Castrum Cerrucium, Castel-sur-Azine (from the neighbouring stream, Azine) and Castellum Sarracenum are

CASTI—CASTILE suggested derivations. The town is situated on the left bank of the lateral canal of the Garonne about a mile from the right bank of the river. Promenades occupy the site of the old fortifications. Its chief building is the 13th century brick church of St. Sauveur, typical of the Tolosan style.

CASTI,

GIOVANNI

BATTISTA

(1721-1803),

Italian

poet, a native of Montefiascone, entered the Church, but surrendered his chance of preferment to the pleasure of visiting the courts of Europe. From 1782—96 he was poet-laureate at the Austrian court. The rest of bis life was spent in Paris, where he died on Feb. 6, 1803. He wrote lyrics, the libretti of many cantatas and operas and a satire in 26 cantos, Gi Animali parlanti (1802), which was translated into many languages (Eng. version

989

markets and rural scenes with animals. Noah and the animals entering the Ark was a favourite subject. He also executed a number of etchings, which earned for Castiglione the name of “a second Rembrandt.” “Diogenes searching for a Man” is one of the principal of these. The Presepio (nativity of Jesus) in the church of San Luca, Genoa, ranks among his most celebrated paintings, the Louvre contains eight characteristic examples, and works of his are also to be found in Rome, Venice, Naples, Florence, Genoa and Mantua. In his closing years he lived in Mantua, painting for the court, and died there in 1670. His brother Salvatore and his son Francesco excelled in the same subjects.

CASTIGLIONE DELLE STIVIERE, a town in Lombardy, 22 miles N.W. of Mantua, was the scene of a battle on Aug. 5, 1796, between the French Army of Italy under Napoleon by W. S. Rose, Court and Parliament of Beasts, 1819). CASTIGLIONE, BALDASSARE (1478-1529), Italian Bonaparte and the Austrians under Wurmser. The latter’s attempt diplomatist and author of J] Cortegiano, was born at Casanatico to relieve the fortress of Mantua, which had been besieged by the _ near Mantua, and was educated at Milan under the famous pro- French since the middle of July, by an advance in two columns fessors Merula and Chalcondyles. In 1496 he entered the service on both sides of Lake Garda, met with such initial success that of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, returning to Mantua in 1500 Bonaparte had been compelled to raise the siege. Having defeated when Lodovico was carried prisoner into France. In 1504 he was the Austrian right column at Lonato, he then turned eastwards attached to the court of Guidobaldo Malatesta, duke of Urbino, against Wurmser, who with his left column had entered Mantua and in 1506 he was sent by that prince on a mission to Henry on Aug. 1, and now deployed his 25,000 men for battle with his VII. of England. He also served Malatesta’s successor, Francesco right at Solferino and his left at Medole. Bonaparte, who had in Maria della Rovere, for whom he obtained the command of the all some 31,000 men at his disposal, now made use for the first papal troops. Charged with the arrangement of the dispute be- time of a plan of battle typically his own; it consisted in a series tween Clement VII. (Medici) and Charles V., Castiglione crossed, of holding attacks along the whole of the enemy’s front, to pin in 1524, into Spain, where he was received with honour, being down his forward troops and induce him to engage his reserves; afterwards naturalized, and made bishop of Avila. In 1527, how- a thrust into the rear of one of his wings by a detached force called ever, Rome was seized and sacked by the Imperialists under Bour- up from a distance to the battlefield designed to shake his morale bon, and in July of the same year the surrender of the castle of and disorganize him; and a decisive frontal assault on the hostile Sant’ Angelo placed Clement in their hands. Castiglione had been wing so threatened, which completed his defeat. On this occasion tricked by the emperor, but there were not wanting accusations Bonaparte deployed Masséna and Augereau against Wurmser’s of treachery against himself. He had, however, placed fidelity front, while Serurier’s blockading troops, which after the raising highest among the virtues of his ideal “courtier,” and when he of the siege of Mantua had retired to Marcaria, some 15 miles died at Toledo on Feb. 7, 1529 it was said that he had died of south of Medole, and had been ordered to march all night, struck grief and shame at the imputation. The emperor mourned him as into his rear at Guidizzolo. Wurmser was taken by surprise by the sudden appearance of this new enemy, and Bonaparte seized “one of the world’s best cavaliers.” Castiglione wrote little, but that little is of rare merit. His his opportunity to throw a picked force of grenadiers under Kilverses, in Latin and Italian, are elegant in the extreme; his maine against the Austrian left centre. The result was the complete defeat of the Austrian army, letters (Padua, 1769—71) are full of grace and finesse. But the book by which he is best remembered is the famous treatise, Z} which having lost 2,000 men and 18 guns, retreated eastward Cortegiano, written in 1514, published at Venice by Aldus in over the Mincio into Tirol. Strategically Wurmser had in part 1528, and translated into English by Thomas Hoby, the Courtyer achieved his object in securing an additional lease of life for the of Count Baldessar Castilio as early as 1561. This book, called fortress he had been sent to relieve; but he had failed to seize by the Italians J] Libro d’oro, is one of the great books of 16th the chance offered him of decisively defeating the French, whose century European prose literature; it describes the Italian gentle- brilliant recovery from an apparently desperate situation and man of the Renaissance under his brightest and fairest aspect, tactical victory on the battlefield left the honours of the campaign and gives a charming picture of the court of Guidobaldo, duke of with them, and greatly enhanced their morale and prestige. (See Urbino, “confessedly the purest and most elevated court in further FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) Italy.” In the form of a discussion held in the duchess’s drawingCASTIGLIONE OLONA, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in room—with Elizabeth Gonzaga, Pietro Bembo, Bernardo Bib- the province of Como, 27 m. N.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1921) biena, Giuliano de’ Medici, Emilia Pia, and Ceretino the Unique 834 (commune) 2,168. The choir of the collegiate church, among the speakers—the question, what constitutes a perfect erected about 1428 by Cardinal Branda Castiglioni, contains fine courtier, is debated. With but few differences, the type deter- frescoes by Masolino of Florence. There are other works by the mined on is the ideal gentleman of the present day. same master in the baptistery. The tomb of the cardinal (1443) The best edition of IJ Cortegzano is that of V. Cian (Florence, 1894). is good. The church of S. Sepolcro is also in the village. See P. L. Ginguené, Histoire littéraire de ore vi., vi; J.A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy (1875); Hare, ” Courts and Camps of the Italian Renaissance (1908); Tulia Cartwright, B. Castiglione, the Perfect Courtier (1908, bibl); The Book of -the Courtier, Everyman ed. (1928).

CASTIGLIONE, CARLO OTTAVIO, Count (17841849), Italian philologist, was born at Milan, and died at Genoa on April 10, 1849. He assisted Cardinal Mai in editing the fragments of Ulphilas’ s Gothic version of the Scriptures discovered by the cardinal in 1817, and himself edited separately between 1829 and 1839 the Gothic texts of various books of the New Testament. See Biondelli, Carlo Ottavio Castiglione (Milan, 1856).

CASTIGLIONE,

GIOVANNI

BENEDETTO

(1616-

1670), called in Italy Il Grechetto, and in France Le Benédette, Italian painter of the Genoese school, was born in Genoa, and studied for some time under Vandyck. He painted portraits, historical pieces and landscapes, but chiefly excelled in fairs,

CASTILE,

an ancient kingdom of Spain, bounded on the

north by the Bay of Biscay, north-east by the Basque provinces and Navarre, east by Aragon, south-east by Valencia and Murcia, south by Andalusia, west by Estremadura and Leon, and northwest by Asturias. Pop. (1926) estimated 4,494,872. Area, 53,307 sq.m. The name is said to be derived from the numerous frontier forts (castillos), erected as a defence against the Moors. The territorial extent of mediaeval Castile grew with progressive conquests from the Moors. From a mere county in the north

(Old Castile) the kingdom

extended to include the whole of.

central Spain. The final successful resistance of Asturias was followed by the liberation of Galicia and Leon and in the time of Ferdinand I. of Castile (1035-1065) the kingdoms of Leon and Castile were united. New territories were annexed on the south and the capture of Toledo in 1085 saw the formation of New Castile.

99°

CASTILHO— CASTING plete mastery of the Latin language and literature. His first work of importance, the Cartas de Echo e Narciso (1821), belongs to

The centre of Old Castile is the basin of the Upper Douro, that of New Castile the trench-like upper basins of the Tagus and Guadiana. In 1833 Old Castile was divided into the provinces of Avila, Burgos, Logroño, Palencia, Santander, Segovia, Soria and Valladolid; while New Castile was similarly divided into Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Madrid and Toledo (qq.v.).

the pseudo-classical school, but his romantic leanings became ap-

parent in the Primavera

(1822) and in Amor e Melancholia

(1823), two volumes of honeyed and prolix bucolic poetry. In the poetic legends A noite de Castello (1836) and Cuimes do bardo (1838) Castilho appeared as a full-blown Romanticist. A fulsome epic on the succession of King John VI. brought him an office of profit at Coimbra. Going to Brazil in 1854, he there wrote his famous “Letter to the Empress.” Though Castilho’s lack of

The entire area extends for about 300 m. from north to south,

and 160 m. from east to west. It is a plateau, with average altitude about 2,50o0ft. and a natural frontier of high mountains on all sides, except on the borders of Leon, Estremadura and Murcia. On the north-west are the Sierra de Culebra and the high plains of Leon, on the north the Cantabrian mountains, on the east the Sierra del Demanda and its offshoots. The Sierra de Gaudarrama, Sierra de Gredos and Sierra de Gata extend across the centre in a south-westerly direction, forming the southern boundary of Old Castile. The Sierra de Albarracin and Sierra de

strong individuality and his over-great respect for authority pre-

vented him from achieving original work of real merit, yet his translations

of Anacreon,

Ovid and Virgil, and the Ckave

do

Enigma, explaining the romantic incidents that led to his first marriage with D. Maria de Baena, a niece of the satirical poet, Tolentino, and a descendant of Antonio Ferreira, reveal him as a master of form and a purist in language.

Cuenca continue the mountain girdle of New Castile on the east, with parts of the Sierra Morena forming its southern boundary. The mountains on the south-west are less definite and include the minor ranges that more or less unite the Sierra de Gredos, Sierra de Guadelupe and Sierra Morena. This highland region,

See Memorias de Castilho, ed. Julio de Castilho

(1881-1903); In-

nocencio da Silva in Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez, i. 130 and

viii. 132; Latino Coelho’s study in the Revista contemporanea de Portugal e Brazil vols. i. and ii.; Theophilo Braga, Historia do Romantismo (1880); and F. de Figueiredo, Historia da litteratura romantica portuguesa 1825—70 (1913).

shut off from the sea, is exposed to extremities of heat and cold. Snow falls early and lies late on the mountains of the north and there is a heavy rainfall in the north-west. The southern regions of New Castile are more arid with a rainfall rarely exceeding r0 inches in the year. The country is swept by bitter gales in winter and scorching dust-laden winds in summer. In both the Castiles the plateau-soil is naturally fertile, and after rain a luxuriant vegetation appears; but drought is common. In the neighbourhood of Valladolid, Palencia and in the Mesa de Ocaña, where heavy loam underlies the porous surface, moisture which elsewhere is absorbed remains available. On the mountains surrounding the plateau vast tracts are useless except as pasture for sheep, and the severe winters drive the sheep to migrate yearly

CASTILLEJO, CRISTOBAL DE (1490-1550), Spanish

poet, was born at Ciudad Rodrigo. When quite young he entered a Carthusian

monastery,

but in 1525 he became

secretary to

Charles V.’s brother, Ferdinand of Austria, in whose service he spent the rest of his life, mostly outside Spain. He died and was buried at Vienna. Castillejo’s poems are interesting, not merely because of their intrinsic excellence, but also as being the most powerful protest against the metrical innovations imported from Italy by Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega. He adheres to the native metres except when parodying the new school—as in the lines Contra los que dejan los metros castellanos. He excels by virtue of his charming simplicity and his ingenious wit, sometimes cynical and sometimes urbane. His plays are lost; the best text of his verses is that printed at Madrid in 1926.

into Estremadura (g.v.). On the wheat-growing lands arose centrally situated cities, like Valladolid, Palencia and Toledo, while arranged around them at the foot of the mountain passes grew up a ring of smaller centres, mediaeval market towns where the produce of the plains was exchanged for that of the highlands. In Old Castile we have Leon, Burgos, Segovia, Avila and Salamanca; in New Castile, Guadalajara, Cuenca, Albacete and Ciudad Real. Salamanca, linked with the Moorish south, became the historic university of Christian Spain, while Toledo was a link between north and south—Christian and Moor. At Alcala de Henares was established in 1510 another university. Castilian is the literary language of Spain, and with certain differences, of Spanish America also. It is spoken in Old and New Castile, Aragon, Estremadura and the greater part of Leon; in Andalusia it is subject to modifications of accent and pronunciation. Cut off on all sides from the sea and full of memories of the bitter struggle with the Moors, this region has preserved many mediaeval features in its life. Madrid (qg.v.) grew up following the defeat of the Moors, and has little relation to the evolution of Castile. CASTILHO, ANTONIO FELICIANO DE (1800-1875), Portuguese man of letters, was born at Lisbon. He lost his sight at the age of six, but the devotion of his brother Augusto, aided by a retentive memory, enabled him to go through his school and university course with success; and he acquired an almost com-

e SN IQIO).

L. Nicolay, The Life and Works p

of Cristóbal de Castillejo

CASTILLO SOLORZANO, ALONSO DE (1584?-1647), Spanish novelist and playwright, issued his first work, Donaires del Parnaso, two volumes of humorous poems, in 1624—25, but his Tardes entretenidas (1625) and Jornadas alegres (1626) proved that he was a novelist by vocation. He published in quick succession three clever picaresque novels, two of which, La Niña de los embustes, Teresa de Manzanares (1634) and Las Aventuras del Bachiller Trapaza (1637), were used by Lesage in Gil Blas. To these shrewd cynical stories he owes his reputation. He was also popular as a playwright both at home and abroad. His Marqués del Cigarral and EL Mayorazgo figurón are the sources respectively of Scarron’s Don Jophet d’Arménie and L’Héritier ridicule.

Among his numerous remaining works may be mentioned Las Harpias en Madrid (1633), Fiestas del Jardin (1634), Los Alivios de Casandra (1640) and the posthumous Quinta de Laurel (1649); the witty observation of these books forms a singular contrast to the prim devotion of his Sagrario de Valencia (1635).

CASTING AND FINISHING: see SCULPTURE. CASTING or FOUNDING. The process of giving shape

to or reproducing an object by pouring its material in liquid form into a mould. (See FOYNDING.)

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