Encyclopaedia Britannica [4, 14R ed.]

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NCYCLOP. BRITANNICA Mi

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Encyclopcedia Britannka is published

with the editorial advice of the faculties

of The University of Chicago

and of a

committee of members of the faculties of Oxford, Cambridge

and London

universities

and

of a committee

at The University of Toronto

KNOWLEDGE GROW FROM MORE TO MORE AND THUS BE HUMAN LIFE ENRICHED."

"LET

A New Survey of Universal Knowledge

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 4 Botha

to

Carthage

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. WILLIAM BENTON, PUBLISHER

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO •

•

•

GENEVA SYDNEY TOKYO •

•

^

1966

BY Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright

Conventions by Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. printed in the

u.

Library of Congress Catalog Card

s.

a.

Number: 66-10173

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 4

Botha

to

BOTHA, LOUIS

(1862-1919), South African general and statesman, who, as the first prime minister of the Union of South Africa, strove to reconcile the Buers and the British, and to create a unified nation, was born on a farm near Greytown, Natal, on Sept. 27, 1862. In 1S69 the family moved to the Orange Free State where Louis was brought up as a typical Boer farmer's son. He had little formal education, and he never acquired much taste for reading or confidence in the use of the English language; but he did flair for getting on with people. In 1SS4 he took part in the formation of the New Republic in the Vryheid area and settled on a farm to which he took his bride, Annie Emmett, in 1886. The New Republic was incorporated in

possess a natural

Republic in 1888, and in 1897 Botha was elected to the volksraad (parliament where he sided with those who. led by Piet Joubert, were critical of President Paul Kruger's policy toward the Uitlanders. But when the South African war broke out in 1899, Botha, who had been appointed field cornet of not hesitate \'ryheid in 1894, did to do his duty by his country. Service in the South African War. Botha gained rapid promotion, and commanded the southern force investing Ladysmith with verve and success. His force ambushed an armoured train, the South .African

)

—

taking Winston Churchill

among

the prisoners.

It

was

his strategy

which drove back General Buller at Colenso, and his determination brought success at Spion Kop and Vaal Krantz. In March 1900, after Joubert s death, Botha was appointed commandant general of the Transvaal. He could do nothing to prevent Lord Roberts' march to Pretoria because British reinforcements were streaming into the country, and General Cronje had surrendered with a large force at Paardeberg in Feb. 1900. After the fall of Pretoria he organized guerrilla warfare, and became a brilliant exponent of it. He entered into negotiations with Lord Kitchener at Middelburg in March 1901, but was not satisfied with the terms of the British peace offer and continued the increasingly hopeless struggle. At the conference of representatives of the Boer commandos at Vereeniging in May 1902 he recommended that they should come to terms, since further resistance would be suicidal. This was done, and he was a signatory of the peace agreement. Prime Minister of the TransvaaL After the war Botha, assisted by Jan Christian Smuts, took the lead in organizing the

—

Carthage Transvaal Boers for political action. He agitated for self-government and against the importation of Chinese labourers; he became chairman of Het Volk ("The People") when the party was founded in 1905 and when self government was granted in 1907 he became prime minister of the Transvaal. He believed that the divisions and bloodshed of the past should be forgotten; that Boer and British South .\frica should fuse into a new nation; that the four British African colonies should be united and, like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, should have full control of their internal affairs but he linked with Great Britain and the rest of the empire These were probably his hopes even for defense and for trade. ;

1902; the generosity of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and self-government to the Transvaal and the Orange River Colony in 1907 made them his ardent convictions, and for the rest of his life he steadfastly adhered to them. His patent sincerity gradually gained him the respect and the confidence of many British white South Africans and of the British government and people. Although Smuts was mainly responsible for the detailed labours which produced the Union of South Africa, Botha's personality and tact were also a major factor. He intervened decisively in several crucial debates in the national convention (1908-09) in favour of a unitary and not a federal constitution, for the mainin

his cabinet in granting

tenance of an absolute political colour bar in the northern provand to make Pretoria the administrative capital of the Union. And he, more perhaps than anyone else, persuaded the English-speaking delegates in the convention and a large majority of the English-speaking electorate that union was not a plot for Afrikaner domination of South Africa, but a wise and necessary

inces,

basis for nationhood and prosperity.

Prime Minister

—

of South Africa. Botha was the natural prime minister of the Union. He assumed the office on May 31. 1910, and held it until his death. He included Englishspeaking politicians in his Union cabinet, as he had in his Transvaal cabinet, and in the general election of Sept. 1910 his government was given a clear majority. The official opposition was the Unionist party, led by L. S. Jameson and supported by most of In 1911 Botha founded the South the English-speaking voters. African party, an amalgamation of the anti-imperialist parties which had been in power in the Cape Colony, the Transvaal and choice as

first

BOTHE— BOTHWELL the Orange River Colony before Union. The challenge to Botha's policy came not from the British but

from the Afrikaner side. Already before Union some Afrikaners had thought that Botha's conciliatory policy toward British South Africans and Great Britain was being carried too far; that it endangered the survival of Afrikaners as a distinct national group and sacrificed the interests of South Africa for those of Great Britain.

Through

his firm hold over the

Het Volk party organi-

Botha had kept such people under control in the Transvaal colony; but the Orangia Unie party in the Orange River Colony was strongly influenced by the former president M. T. Steyn, who was inclined to brood over the past, and led by men like J. B. M. Hertzog, who emerged as a prophet of an Afrikaner revival, unThe cracks were papered over when sullied by alien influences. Hertzog joined Botha's government in 1910. but within three years the paper had torn apart and Hertzog had founded an Afrikaner zation,

Nationalist party eroding Botha's Afrikaner support.

This process was accelerated during World War I. Botha unhesitatingly accepted the fact that once Great Britain was at war with Germany, so was South Africa; he offered that South Africa should undertake its own defense, so that the imperial troops could be used elsewhere, and when Britain asked that South African forces should deal with the German radio station at Windhoek and occupy German South-West Africa, he agreed. This decision precipitated a rebellion of about 12,000 Afrikaners, led by heroes of the South African War, including C. F. Beyers and C. R. De Wet. and not publicly repudiated by Steyn and Hertzog. Though

philosophy in 1914. Later he taught in the universities of Berlin, Giessen and Heidelberg. In 1934 Bothe was appointed director of the Institute of Physics in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (later the Max Planck institute) for Medical Research, Heidelberg, and from 1946 he also held He introthe chair of physics in the University of Heidelberg. duced coincidence methods into counting techniques in modern physics and with Hans Geiger he applied these methods to study With W. Kolhorster in 1929 he devised a the Compton effect. new method for the study of cosmic rays by passing these rays Geiger counters, it was found possible arranged suitably through to establish the presence of penetrating charged particles and to In define more or less accurately the path of individual rays. 1930 Bothe discovered an unusual radiation emitted by beryllium bombarded by alpha rays, and this was later identified by He died on Feb. 8. 1957, at Sir James Chadwick as the neutron. (D. McK.) Heidelberg. 4th Earl of (c. 1536-1578). duke of Orkney and Shetland (May 12. 1567), was instrumental in the murder of Lord Darnley, second husband of Mary Stuart, whom he himself subsequently married. He was born c. 1 536. the son of Patrick. 3rd earl of Bothwell, whom he succeeded in 1556, and of Agnes, daughter of Henry, Lord Sinclair. Although a Protestant, Bothwell supported the Catholic regent, Mary of Lorraine, for whom he led a successful raid into England in Dec. ;

BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN,

1558. and seized,

Elizabeth

I to

in Oct. 1559. £1,000 sent secretly the Protestant lords of the congregation.

by Queen The queen

Botha mastered the rebellion and extended clemency to the rebels, he was thenceforth regarded by extreme Afrikaner nationalists as having missed a glorious opportunity to regain the republican

regent having died in June 1560, Bothwell joined Queen Mary at Paris in September and was sent to Scotland as a commissioner to summon parliament. He was chosen a privy councilor in Sept.

independence which had been lost at V'ereeniging. After the surrender of the last rebels in Feb. 1915, Botha organized the conquest of South-West Africa. He himself took command of the Union forces and his well planned campaign resulted Back in the in the surrender of the territory on July 9, 1915. Union, he had to fight an election in which the Nationalists cast doubts upon his personal integrity and increased their representation in the house of assembly to the point where he became dependent on the support of the Unionists for the measures necessary Botha remained in South Africa, the for the conduct of the war.

1561, but became involved in partisan feuds and in March 1562 was accused by the deranged earl of Arran of plotting to seize the queen. He w-as imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, but escaped in Aug. 1562, and after a period of detention in England, reached France in Sept. 1564. After Mary's marriage with Lord Darnley (July 29, 1565), Bothwell was recalled to Scotland to help suppress the earl of Moray's rebellion. He married Jean Gordon, sister of George, Lord Gordon (afterward restored to his father's forfeited title of earl of Huntly),

object of continuous Nationalist criticism, until after the armistice. He then went to Paris, where he supported the claims for the recognition of the dominions as international entities and, with for lenient terms for the vanquished. signed the treaty of Versailles with misgivings and then returned, a sick man, to South Africa. He died in Pretoria on Aug.

memories of 1902, pleaded

He

27, 1919.

Character.

—Like

most Boers who had grown up

in a

19th-

century republican environment, it was natural for Botha to believe that political power in Africa should be a white monopoly; and it was during his premiership that the Natives Land act (1913), limiting the areas in which natives could purchase land, was enacted. He spoke Zulu and Sesuto fluently, and was humane in his personal dealings with Africans, but his vision for the future of his country was of a white minority ruling a nonwhite majority.

The murder of his consistent ally. Mary's secretary. David Rizzio. on March 9. 1566. with Darnley's connivance increased the queen's dislike of her treacherous husband; and Bothwell. whose loyalty and resource during the crisis had done much to preserve her throne, acquired a growing ascendancy over her affections. His appointment as keeper of Dunbar castle (1566) and other marks of royal favour made him the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland and encouraged him to aspire to Darnley's place. The disposal of Darnley was discussed at Craigmillar in Dec. 1566, by a group that included the queen, Bothwell and Lord Gordon; it was later asserted that a murder bond was afterward signed by Bothwell and others. There is undoubted proof that Bothwell himself superintended the preparations for the murder of Darnley at Kirk-o'-Field on the night of

who thenceforth became

Feb. 9-10, 1567. Public opinion soon accused Bothwell of the crime and

Mary

of

Botha's greatness lay in his magnanimous and wholehearted attempt, first to end the century-old friction between Boer and Briton in South Africa by promoting their fusion into a single nation, and second, to draw united South Africa out of its potentian isolation into effective membership of the evolving British

guilty foreknowledge, but after his acquittal at a mock trial on April 12. her intention to marry him was made public; on April

gradual alienation from

But a coalition of Protestant and Catholic nobles forced in June to flee to Dunbar, whence they marched in force on Edinburgh, the rival armies meeting on June 15 at Carberry Hill. After Bothwell had been forbidden by Mary to engage in single combat, desertions from the queen's army made her surrender inevitable. Botliwell, however, was allowed to escape; he went north, visited Orkney and Shetland and finally escaped to Kami sound in Norway (then ruled by the Danish kings ). He was sent to Copenhagen in Sept. 1567. and removed to Malmo in Scania (a Danish province in Sweden), but King Frederick II. possibly influenced by his offer to restore the Orkneys and Shetlands to

Commonwealth.

many

of his

estimated.

His tragedy

lies in his

own Afrikaner people, whose exclusiveness he underSee also South Africa, Republic of: History.

—

Earl Buxton, Bibliography. H. Spender, General Botha (1916) General Botha (1924) F. V. Engelenburg, General Louis Botha (1929) (L. M. T.) Basil Williams, Botha, Smuts and South Africa (1946). ;

;

;

BOTHE, WALTHER WILHELM GEORG FRANZ (1891-1957). German physicist, was awarded with Max Born (q.v.). the 1954 Nobel prize for physics, for his invention of the coincidence method and his discoveries with this method. Bothe was born at Oranienburg, Ger.. on Jan. 8, 1891. He was educated at the University of Berlin, where he obtained his doctorate of

19 he obtained the consent of the leading Protestant nobles. His probably collusive kidnapping of the queen on .\pril 24 was soon followed by his divorce and their marriage on May 15 by Protestant rites.

them

Denmark, refused repeated requests

for his extradition or execu-

BOTHWELL— BOTTICELLI tion.

Mary and Bothwell are said to have corresponded at this may have assented to the annulment (Sept. 1S70) of

time; and he

After the final collapse of the queen's cause in Scotland, Bothwell was in June 1S73 placed in soUtary confinement in the castle of Dragsholm in Zeeland, where he died, probably

their marriage.

insane, on April 14, 1578.

Bothwell's association

with Queen Mary proved

Missolonghi during the first siege (1822-23). On the night of Aug. 21, 1823, at Karpenisi, he led 350 Souliots against the 4,000 Albanians who formed the vanguard of the army advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks was complete, but Botsaris was killed.

BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO disastrous to

(1766-

action, he possessed virtues of personal courage

1837), Italian-born historian and politician who supported Napoleon, was born at San Giorgio del Canavese, Piedmont, on

crown, both conspicuously lacking in his a political figure, his lax morality and reckless violence proved fatal to his high ambition. See also

Nov. 6, 1766. Having graduated in medicine at Turin in 1786, he was in his youth greatly inspired by the ideas of the French

both.

As a man of

and absolute loyalty leading

to the

contemporaries;

Mary (Mary

as

Stuart). Les Affaires du Comte de Boduel (Bothwell's account, written Jan. 1568; published 1829) Sir James Melville, Memoirs, ed. by T. Thomson (1827); Prince A. Labanoff, Pieces el documents George Buchanan, The Tyrannous relatijs au comte de Bothwell (1856) Reign of Mary Stewart: ed. by W. A. Gatherer (1958). (J. Im.) a town in Lanarkshire, Scot., lies on the right

Bibliography.

—

;

;

BOTHWELL,

bank of the Clyde, 9 mi. E.S.E. of Glasgow.

Pop. (19S1) 3,180.

At Bothwell bridge a monument commemorates the Covenanters who fought in the battle of June 22, 1679, when the duke of Monmouth crushed the VVestland rising. The restoration (1898) of the 14th-century chancel of the collegiate church of St. Bride and the renovation (1932) of the early 19th-century nave have provided an impressive setting for the stained glass windows designed by Sir Edward Burne- Jones. A mile beyond St. Bride's, the towers and walls of Bothwell castle (mainly 13th century) crown a riverside cliff of red sandstone. At Orbiston, 2 mi. N.E. of Bothwell, some of Robert Owen's disciples attempted to carry out (1825) his ambitious project of communal living. BOTOSANI, a town of northeast Rumania in the Suceava Pop. region, lies in a rich farming district of northern Moldavia. (1956) 29.593. Botojani was founded in the 14th century, taking its name from Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, who occupied the country in the 13th century. The St. George's church dates from 1551. Botojani is an important commercial centre with extensive flour mills. Industrial developments after World War The II include factories for textiles, clothing and vegetable oils. town is on the highway between Bucharest and Chernovtsy, U.S.S.R., and on a branch line from the railway linking them. (BoDHi Tree), the name given by the Buddhists of India and Ceylon to the pipal (peepul) tree, or sacred fig (Ficiis religiosa). It was a tree of this species beneath which the Buddha is traditionally supposed to have attained enlightenment, at Buddh Gaya {q.v.), still the most important site of Buddhist pilgrimage in India. The bo tree at Anuradhapura {q.v.) in Ceylon, grown from a branch of the parent tree sent to Ceylon by King Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., also is venerated by thousands of pilgrims every year. See also Fig. BOTRYTIS, a minute fungus which appears as a brownishgray mold on decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under a magnifying glass it is seen to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks which are branched at the tips, each branchlet being crowned with It is very common, growa naked head of pale-coloured spores. ing everywhere in the open or in greenhouses, and can be found Some species are known to cause destrucat almost any season. tive plant diseases. The fungi placed in the genus Botrytis are in part stages in the life history of members of the genus Sclerotinia. These are characterized by the possession of a sclerotium, which is a compact mass of fungal filaments from which a cuplike ascophore arises. See Fungi; Ascomycetes (Sac Fungi). (Italian Marco Bozzaris) (c. 1788BOTSARIS, 1823 ), a hero of the War of Greek Independence, was born at Souli in southern Epirus of a leading Albanian family. In 1803, after the capture of Souli by Ali (q.v.) of Janina, Markos, with the remnant of the Souliots, crossed over to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took service in an Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the Greek patriotic society known as the Hetairia

BO TREE

MARKOS

made common cause with Turkish sultan's government. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he fought as a partisan leader in the fighting in western Hellas and was conspicuous in the defense of Philike.

In 1820, with other Souliots, he

Ali of Janina against the

Revolution. Arrested as a spy in 1794, he left Italy for France the following year and from 1796 to 1798 served as a doctor in Napoleon's campaigns against Italy and Corfu. He published a history of Corfu in 1799 and in the same year became a member An ardent supof the Franco-Italian government of Piedmont. porter of Napoleon, though he later contributed to his fall, he W'as elected vice-president of the French legislative assembly in 1808.

In 181 5 he became a French citizen and was subsequently appointed rector of the academies of Nancy and Rouen. He died His main work is a fanciful history in Paris on Aug. 10. 1837. of the American Revolution, though it is based on contemporary documents and material supplied by Lafayette. An English translation, History of the War of the Independence of the United States of America, was published in Philadelphia (1820-21). In

work the American revolutionaries are compared to the French and Washington to Napoleon. Other works were a history of Italy from 1786 to 18 14 and monographs on Savoy and Piedmont. this

—

Bibliography. C. Dionisiotti, Vita di Carlo Botta (1867); C. Scipione Botta, Pavesio, Carlo Botta e le sue opere storiche (1874) Vita privata di Carlo Botta (1877). ;

BOTTICELLI,

SANDRO

(properly Alessandro di MariFiLiPEPi) (1444/5-1510), one of the greatest of the Italian Renaissance painters, was born at Florence in 1444/5, ^^^ son of a tanner. The name Botticelli, by which he was generally known, derives from his eldest brother Giovanni, who bore the

ano

DI

Vanni

A tax return prepared by 1458 describes Botticelli as aged 13, backward, and weak in health. At some uncertain date, probably before 1460, he was apprenticed to Fra Filippo Lippi, and a number of his earliest works (among them the Guidi da Faenza Madonna in the Louvre, Paris, and half-length Madonnas in the Museo di Capodimonte, Naples, the Accademia in Florence, the Musee des BeauxArts at Strasbourg and the National gallery, London) reflect Lippi's types and compositional schemes. Before 1470 Botticelli seems to have become associated with the workshop of Verrocchio, and the latter's style is the dominant factor in his first dated work. This is a figure of Fortitude forming part of a series of* seven paintings of Virtues (now in the Uffizi, Florence) commissioned to Piero del Pollaiuolo for the Mercanzia at the end of 1469. The commission for the "Fortitude" was withdrawn from PoUaiuolo and allocated to Botticelli in May 1470 at the instance of Tommaso Soderini, perhaps on the instructions of Lorenzo de' Medici; this was the first official recognition To the period about 1470 belongs the S. of Botticelli's work. Ambrogio altarpiece in the Accademia, Florence, and a painting of the Trinity designed for the high altar of the church of the ConIn the four vertite (Courtauld gallery. University of London). predella panels of this altarpiece (Philadelphia Museum of Art) there appears for the first time the linear figure style with which the name of Botticelli is associated. To the same date may be assigned two small paintings, "Judith With the Head of Holofernes" and the "Assyrians Discovering the Body of Holofernes" in the Ufiizi. The nude figure of Holofernes in the latter is in turn connected with a painting of St. Sebastian executed for Sta. Maria Maggiore in 1473-74 (Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin). Before 1470 Botticelli also executed the first of his many paintings of the Adoration of the Magi, on an oblong panel, in the National gallery, London. A second, circular painting of the same nickname

"Botticello". (little barrel).

his father in

subject in the

same

gallery

is

of

somewhat

later date

and was

followed in about 1476 by BotticeUi's best-known rendering of the subject, a painting in the Ufiizi, commissioned for Sta. Maria Novella by Guaspare di Zanobi del Lama and containing portraits

BOTTICELLI Almost a of the Medici family and a self-portrait. decade later Botticelli painted two more pictures of the Adoration One of these is in the National Gallery of Art, of the Magi. Washington, D.C., and the other in the Ufhzi. In both cases the by the S. Donato a Scopeto "Adoration of is influenced scheme

members

of

The changes in the Ufhzi. sequence of paintings form an index to the development of Botticelli's style between about 1468 and 1485. The commission for the "Fortitude" and the portraits in the Uffizi "Adoration of the Magi" provide the earhest evidence of Magi"

the

Leonardo da Vinci now

of

that can be traced in this

the association with the Medici that inspired some of Botticelli's Among these, pride of place belongs to the greatest paintings.

"Allegory of Spring" and the "Birth of Venus" (both in the Uffizi). The first, painted probably in 1478 for the villa of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici at Castello, owes its title of "Primavera" to a passage in G. Vasari's life of Botticelli. Representing Venus in a flowery meadow against a grove of trees with, on the left, the three Graces and Mercury, and on the right, Flora, a zephyr

maiden generally identified as that of Spring, complex humanist program probably drawn up by Marsilio Ficino. Of somewhat later date is the "Birth of Venus," also painted for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. This, Botticelli's masterpiece, appears to have been inspired by descriptions of the lost "Aphrodite Anadyomene" of the Greek painter Apelles, and to depend primarily and the it

figure of a

illustrates a

on

poem "La Giostra"

the

of

spired works.

With the experience

of these frescoes behind him,

was summoned to Rome,

in the

summer

Botticelli

of 1481, to undertake, in

the company of Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli, the frescoed decoration of the Sistine chapel, and between this time and Oct. 1482 executed three frescoes of the "Purification of the Leper and the Temptation of Christ," the "Youth of Moses" and the "Destruction of the Sons of Korah." Though filled with incidental beauties, these crowded and conventional designs do not represent

the painter's talent at

its

most

felicitous.

Botticelli's development after his return to Florence may be charted in terms of a number of altarpieces. The first of these, a "Virgin and Child Enthroned With the Two SS. John," painted for This was S. Spirito in 1485, is in the Kaiser Friedrich museum. followed by a larger and more ambitious altarpiece painted for predella of S. Barnaba (Uffizi); one panel from the beautiful this altarpiece, the "Vision of St. Augustine," has acquired uni-

versal popularity.

Both paintings were

Politian.

In 1474 Botticelli visited Pisa, in connection with a proposed commission for frescoes in the Campo Santo, and iji 1480 executed, on the choir screen of the Ognissanti, a fresco of "St. Augustine A companion fresco of "St. Jerome in His Study" in His Study." was painted at the same time by Ghirlandaio. The virile forms and ambitious space construction of the St. Augustine find a counterpart a year later in a fresco of the Annunciation painted for S. Martino alia Scala, which ranks with Botticelli's most in-

From

the years 1488-90 date the great altar-

piece of the "Coronation of the Virgin" in the Uffizi (painted for S. Marco) and an Annunciation in the same gallery painted for the

originally planned as Neoplatonic

and not as simple narbut their enduring fame due to their lyrical treatment and to their transcendent quality as works of art. To the same group of Medicean commissions belongs the "Pallas and a Centaur" in the

Several of BotticelU's best-known paintings

allegories

convent of Cestello.

ratives,

of the Virgin and Child in half-length date from these same years. Among these are the "Virgin and Child With an Angel," in the

is

Gardner museum, Boston, and the "Virgin and Child With Young St. John'' in the Louvre, as well as two circular panels of the "Madonna of the Magnificat" and the "Madonna and Child With Six Angels," both in the Uffizi. All four paintings are remarkable for their intimate personal sentiment, and those in the Uffizi are at the same time some of the most sophisticated 15th-century exam-

a political allegory dedicated to Lorenzo de' Medici, and the "Mars and Venus" in the Na-

Uffizi,

tional

With London. be grouped a

gallery,

these works

employment of the tondo, or circular, form. After about 1490 expressive line plays an increasingly imporFirst apparent in the later Dante tant part in BotticeUi's style. illustrations, and subsequently in the scenes from the legends of Virginia Romana and Lucretia (Accademia Carrara, Bergamo, and Gardner museum, Boston and four scenes from the life of St. Zenobius (National gallery, London; Gemaldegalerie, Dresden;

ples of the

may

lost cycle of frescoes

painted in

the villa of Lorenzo de' Medici at

)

Spedaletto near Volterra by Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Filippino Lippi, and two allegorfrescoes

ical

from

the

Villa

Lemmi now

in the Louvre, genthought to have been painted in i486 for the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni and Giovanna degli Albizzi but perhaps

erally

rather earlier in date.

The

picture of Botticelli as a

humanist

artist

may

be completed

reference to 19 woodcuts which he designed for an edition of Dante's Divine Comedy with

with

the

commentary

Magna

in

1481.

Detail from primavera." showing FLORA AND SPRING. BY SANDRO bottecelli. in the uffizi gallery. Florence, italy

by Lorenzo della work was paid for by that he was responsible for

of Landino, printed at Florence It is possible

that this

Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco, and certain commissioning a later series of 96 drawings illustrating the Divine Comedy (now distributed between the Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, and the Vatican library). In these drawings Botticelli's supreme achievement as a draftsman the imagery of the Divine Com.edy is reinterpreted in Neoplatonic terms. Their execution seems to fall within the decade 1485-95. Before the commencement of

—

this series, Botticelli

—

designed the engraving of the "Triumph of

Bacchus and Ariadne" (single example in the British museum, London ) Concurrently with the latest of the drawings, he painted, for Antonio Segni, the "Calumny" (Uffizi), inspired by Lucian's description of a lost painting by Apelles. .

Metropolitan museum. New York), this recourse to visual distortion prepared the way for the late style which Botticelli developed under the inspiration of Girolamo Savonarola, after 1498. The painter's brother, Simone di Mariano, who returned to Florence in 1493 and lived with Botticelli in the Via Nuova, became an avowed follower of Savonarola. Botticelli himself seems to have been associated with the movement only after Savonarola's death in 1498. The influence of Savonarola's teachings and prophecies is directly reflected in two paintings. The first of these, an "Adoration of the Shepherds" in the National gallery, was painted in 1500-01 and contains a Greek inscription in which the period between 1498 and 1500 is identified with the second woe of the Apocalypse. The second, in the Fogg Art museum, Cambridge, Mass., represents the Crucifixion with the Angel of Justice flaying the Florentine marzocco and the Magdalen prostrate beneath the Cross. In addi-

number of Botticelli's late paintings reveal the oblique influence of Savonarola in heightened emotionalism and in expresThe two subjects which appealed particularly sionistic imagery. tion, a

to the painter's mystical

temper at

this

time were the suffering

Christ (best version in the Accademia Carrara) and the Lamentation over the Dead Christ (best version in the Alte Pinakothek,

Munich). Botticelli died

on

May

17, 1510,

and was buried

in the

Ognis-

santi, Florence.

Throughout his life BotticelH was also active as a portrait Notable examples of his portraits exist in the National Gallery of Art, the National gallery, the Uffizi and the Accademia

painter.

Carrara.

BOTTLE-BRUSH—BOTTLES —G.

by Gaston du C. de Vere, vol. Hi {1912); F.Uppmann, Zeichnungen von Sandro Botticelli zu Dante's Goettlicher Komoedie {m4~S7y A. Warburg ''S^^^^^ Bottice IS 'Geburt der Venus' und Fruhling, " m Gwammrife ScAn/ten. vol. i (1932); B. Berenson, The Italian Painters of the Renaissance, 4th ed. (1952), and The Drawings of the Florentine Painters, 2nd ed. (1938); H. P. Home, Alessandro Filipepi, Commonly Called Sandro Botticelli (1908); A. Venturi, II Botticelli interprete di Dante (1922); Y. Yashiro, Sandro Botticelli, 3 vol. (1925); J. MesnU, Botticelli (1938); E. H. Gombrich, "Botticelli's Mythologies" in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, viu (19'iS). (J. W. P.-H.) comprise two genera of Australian plants, known botanically as Callistemon and Melaleuca, belonging to the myrtle family (Myrtaceae; q.v.). They take their name from the resemblance of the head of flowers to a bottlebrush Although known in greenhouse culture, they are commonly grown out-of-doors in parts of Florida and California for the beauty of their highly coloured stamens which vary from lemon to crimson. M. leucadendra is known as the cajeput or punk tree. Its bark is pale buff and peels off in many thin layers. It is durable and almost impervious to water. (J. M. Bl.) BOTTLES. This article discusses bottles (defined as narrowBibliography.

Vasari, Lives

.

.

.

,

trans,

^A _ ^WT .^at^~

A^l^. gff .jj^ hIH^C* :£# "O^feaS^y

in

The

gourd is widely used for holdwhere its shape and ornament are often imitated in vessels of pottery. In southern Turkey, crude long-spouted bottles are still carved from pine logs. Glass.—Tht use of glass for making containers has been traced back to both the Egyptians and Syrians prior to 1500 B.C. The early Egyptian method consisted of winding strings of molten glass around a core of silica paste on a metal rod, or dipping the core into molten glass. When the glass hardened, the silica paste was dug from it. The blow pipe method, the first major improvement in the art of making glass containers, was developed shortly before the time of Christ. In this process, which is still used to produce special, high-value glass containers, the glass blower dips the end of a hollow tube into molten glass to collect a gob, and then blows and manipulates the gob to produce a finished object. Metal molds were introduced to speed up the production of mouth-blown glass containers. (5ee Glass Manufacture; Glass Forming Procstore water.

shell of the bottle

ing liquids, especially in Africa,

esses:

Hand

Processes.)

Developments in glass manufacturing that contributed importantly to the growth in the use of iv u »• -^ glass containers were the substig^ tution of hydrocarbon fuels (first fip coal and later natural gas) for wood and the discovery of lead wM ^^ ^P crystal. The use of hydrocarbon ,

A W S

,^

j

^H

i^

contributed primarily to lowering the cost of glass, while the discovery of lead crystal fuels

greatly improved glass quality.

oA j^^L

^^^ ^y' of the Balkan (1859-70). Memoires geologiqiies et paleontologiques states (1832) and La Turqide d'Eiirope, four volumes (1840). BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANgOIS, Due DE (1644-1711), marshal of France, distinguished in the last of the Dutch Wars, in the War of the Grand Alliance and in the War of the Spanish Succession, was born Jan. 10. 1644, of an old Picard family that held the marquisate of Boufflers in Ponthieu. As a guards officer he was at the first French landing in Algeria, at Djidjelli (1664). In 1669 he bought the colonelcy of the royal dragoons, a new arm much favoured by the king, Louis XIV, who noted the young After good service under Turenne and under colonel's exploits. Fran(;ois de Crequy on the German frontier, Boufflers was made colonel-general of dragoons (1679-92) and promoted lieutenantgeneral 1681 ). Wounded in the trenches at Mons in 1691, he was made colonel of the French Guards (1692-1704). With that high honour he was made marshal of France in 1693 and created due (

de Boufflers in 1694. In 1695. when he shared the army command in Flanders with the marshal due de Villeroi, Boufflers was the soul of the defense of Namur, where 8,000 of his garrison perished before he surrendered. In 1702, in command of the main French army, he began with a sharp blow at the Dutch before Nijmegen but was then maneuvered out of the Rhine-Meuse area by Marlborough. In 1703 his cavalry

He was apraid on the Dutch near Antwerp checked their plan. pointed to command the royal bodyguard in 1704. Boufflers had been governor of Lille since 1694. and in 1708, when Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy were threatening He did so just beit. he asked for leave to take up his post there. fore the siege began (Aug. 1), and with 14,000 men he made another memorable defense. On Dec. 9 he marched out from the citadel with the full honours of war. The next year he volunteered to help the marshal due de Villars, his junior, and in the battle of Malplaquet (q.V-) found himself in command when Villars was wounded; he led the household cavalry with great spirit, took the decision to retreat and kept the army in such control that he reported defiantly that they were ready to fight again. He died at (I. D. E.) BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN, Chevalier de (173S-1815), French man of letters, described as "the Voiture of His mother, his age,'' was born in Lorraine on May 31, 1738. Marie Catherine de Beauvau-Craon, marquise de Boufflers, was the mistress of the duke of Lorraine, Stanislaw Leszczynski (the dispossessed king of Poland), at whose court in Luneville the boy was brought up. While studying theology at Saint-Sulpice in Paris, he wrote Aline, reine de Golconde (1761), the charming tale of a milkmaid. Aline, who after a series of improper adventures becomes queen of Golconda. This tale won immediate

Fontainebleau on Aug. 22, 1711.

1

BOUGAINVILLE— BOUGHTON BOUGAIN'VILLE,

1

the largest of the

Solomon Islands

(q.v.),

success in fashionable circles but led to his expulsion from SaintSulpice, whereupon he joined the Knights of Malta so as to combine qualification for ecclesiastical benefices in Lorraine with the

is

freedom of a military career. For the next 24 years he was either campaigning in Europe (often with the Austrian armies) or establishing his reputation for wit in the Parisian salons, where in 1777 he fell in love with feleonore de Jean de Manville, comtesse To restore his finances he served two terms (1786 de Sabran. and 17S7) as governor of Senegal, where he showed interest in developing the country's resources but was reluctant to exploit the Elected to the Academie Fran(;aise in 1788, he was slave trade.

Measuring 127 mi. by 49 mi., Bougainville has a rugged (g.v.). and heavily forested mountainous core containing two active volcanoes, Mt. Balbi (8,502 ft,) and Mt, Bagana (5,730 ft,), (Jn the east coast there is a narrow plain in the vicinity of Kieta, the chief settlement, and there are situated most of the coconut plantations that constitute the island's principal economic activity. The native population numbers about 40,000. The island was named for the French explorer, Louis Antoine de Bougainville (g.v.).

deputy for the nobility of Nancy in the states-general of 1789, but emigrated to Prussia in 1791, With the loss of his benefices his celibacy became pointless, and he married Mme de Sabran at Breslau in 1797, Returning to France in 1800, he supervised an edition of his complete works (1803). He died in Paris on Jan. 18, 1815.

There are editions of BoufHer's Contes and of his Poesies by Octave Uzanne (1878 and 1886) and of his letters to Mme de Sabran by Paul Prat (1891). See N. H. Webster, The Chevalier de Boufflers (1916). (1729-1811), BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS French navigator, commander on land and at sea, colonial organizer and explorer who, in his voyage of circumnavigation (1766-69), made important discoveries in the Pacific ocean, was born in Paris on Nov, II, 1729, He showed an early aptitude for mathematics and published a treatise on integral calculus (1754-56), Having entered the army at the age of 24, he went to Canada in 1756 as aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm and distinguished himBougainville then undertook to self in the war against England, colonize the Falkland Islands for France at his own expense. He

diver ses

ANTOINE DE

established his colony in Jan. 1764, but in Jan, 1765

Commodore

John Byron planted an English colony in another part of the islands, and the French government agreed to cede the group to Spain in April 1767. Bougainville, commissioned by his government to make a voyage of discovery round the world, sailed in Dec. 1766 in the frigate "La Boudeuse" accompanied by a storeship. He traversed the Straits of Magellan and sailed northwest He visited Tahiti, discovered in June 1767 by to the Tuamotus. Capt. Samuel Wallis, and named it La Nouvelle Cythere. Saihng west he touched at Samoa (Archipel des Navigateurs) and the New Hebrides (Lcs Grande s Cyclades). He then took a westerly course toward New Holland, in waters not previously navigated by any European ship. On the fringes of the Great Barrier Reef he turned north without sighting Australia and passed through the Louisiade archipelago and the edge of the Solomon Islands to New Britain. Since his men were now suffering from scurvy and his ships needed a refit, he repaired to Buru in the Moluccas (Sept. 1768), and thence to Batavia. In March 1769 he arrived at St. Malo, having

On

his

lost

return

only seven

men

Bougainville

since leaving France.

was promoted chef de vaisseau

(1770) and appointed secretary to the king (1772). In 1779-82, as chef d'escadre, he served in North America; and after the French defeat at the battle of the Saints, off Martinique (April 12, 1782), he was court-martialed and banished from court. He returned to the army, and after the peace he settled in Paris. He obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, having escaped from the massacres of Paris, he retired to his estate in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the Institute at its formation, and became a member of the board of longitude. Napoleon I made him a senator, count of the empire and member of the Legion of Honour. He died in Paris on Aug. 31, 181 1. Bougainville was characterized by courage and resource in action, by urbanity in personal relationships and by a scientific His name was given to the largest of the cast of intelligence. to the strait between Malekula and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides group. The South American climbing plant Bongainvillea, often cultivated in greenhouses, is also named after him, Bougainville's Voyage autour du monde (1771) was translated into EngUsh by J, R, Forster (1772). His personal papers were

Solomon Islands and

dispersed by sale in

London

in 1957.

(R. A. Sn.)

situated near the northern end of the chain and, together with Buka, forms part of the Australian trust territory of New Guinea

(D.

BOUGAIN'VILLEA,

W,

a genus containing a dozen or

South American shrubs, often woody cHmbers, belonging

F,)

more to the

The leaves are simple, family (Nyctaginaceae), petioled, alternate, ovate to elliptic-lanceolate and commonly enThe small and inconspicuous flowers are enclosed by showy tire. mauve, magenta, purple or red corollalike bracts that constitute the decorative value of the plants. Formerly Bougainvillea glabra and B. spectabilis, with their varieties, constituted the forms four-o'clock

chiefly

known

in cultivation in the

United States, but B. its

several varieties,

widely grown.

trolli, is

now

with also

All the species are

highly sensitive to frost and thus can be grown successfully outdoors only in regions that are essentially frost free.

They may be

grown in greenhouses, however, where the climate does not permit year-round outdoor culture. The young stock, obtained from half-ripened or old wood, can be started in pots and grown in the field during summer. During early autumn the potted plants must be lifted and brought

Under greenhouse. the proper care these plants should into

bloom the following spring. In most of Florida, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and in bougainCalifornia, used extensively as a BRANCHLET OF BOUGAINporch cover, on pergolas, arches PENDANT VILLEA (B GLABRAl and as hedge or fence plants. They may also be planted at the base of trees, up which they climb to make beautiful displays of colour. All species and varieties withstand drought extremely well and may be pruned heavily without risk of injury. (J. M. Bl.) (1833-1905), AngloU.S. painter, born on Dec. 4, 1833, near Norwich, Eng., was brought up in Albany, N.Y. After studying art in Paris during 1861-62, he settled in London and was much influenced by Frederick Walker. His pictures of early American colonial life and scenery were especially characteristic, and subject pictures such as "Weeding the

southern villea

is

BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY

Pavement" (Tate gallery, London) had a great success. Boughton executed many fine book illustrations, notably those for Rip Van He became lVi?ikle (1893) and Knickerbocker History (1886). a royal academician in 1896, and died in London on Jan, 19, 1905, (D, L. Fr.) (1878-1960), English composer concept of Wagnerian the influenced by work was opera, whose of the music drama, was born at Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, Jan, 23. 1878, He studied at the Royal College of Music in 1900 but was

BOUGHTON, RUTLAND

otherwise self-taught. He had the idea of writing a series of works based on Arthurian legends, and of creating a festival theatre for After a long struggle (1914their performance at Glastonbury, 24) with inadequate resources he abandoned the attempt to establish the theatre, but had some success in London and elsewhere. His most popular work was the tuneful romantic opera, The Immortal Hour (1913), which had a run of 216 performances in Lon-

BOUGIE— BOUILLON

12 Among

were Bethlehem (191S), Alkestis (1922), The Queen of Cornwall (1924) and The Lily Maid 1934). After 1939 little was heard of his music, but this did not discourage him from composing, and between 1943 and 1946 he wrote two more Arthurian music dramas, Galahad and Avalon. Besides operas, he wrote choral works, symphonies, concertos and chamber music. He published a book on Bach (1907) and, with Reginald Buckley, his partner in the Glastonbury scheme, The Music Drama of the Future (1908). He died in London, Jan. 25,

don

in 1922.

his other successes

(

(Co. Ma.) 1960. a seaport in the Setif departement of Algeria, with the finest position on the Algerian coast, lies at the mouth of the

BOUGIE,

Wadi

(river)

Sahel-Soummam, sheltered from the winds

of the

west and north by the peninsula of the Jabal Guraya and Cape Carbon. Its deep and majestic gulf is dominated by the wellwatered mountains of the east of the Djurdjura Kabylia and of Formerly centre of a subprefecture, it bethe Babor Kabylia. came chief town of a prefecture; it is, however, a secondary port. Pop. (1954) 29,750 of whom 6,340 were Europeans; 42,830 including the rural Kabyle suburbs. The upper town, much altered by the French, is built on the slope of the Guraya; the lower and more modern town containing the business and industrial quarter lies east of the railway station and of an old Spanish fort, and along the road to Algiers. Bougie is linked by rail and road with Algiers, Constantine and Bone and by coastal road with Philippeville. It The port is an important market town for the Kabyles (q.v.). exports the iron ore from the mines of the Guergour and the Babor, the phosphates of the Jebel Mzaita (south of Setif), the wine of the Soummam valley, the olive oil and cork of the Kabyle areas, and the grain of Setif. Its imports were confined mainly to building materials and fuels but the arrival of the Sahara oil pipeline from Hassi Messaoud in 1959, changed the trend of its commerce. The Roman Saldae, probably on this site, and the Arab town which succeeded it were small, but the town gained importance after 1067 when the Hammadite sultan En-Nasir chose it as his capital, and merchants and corsairs enlivened the port, then closed by the "Saracen gate," which still exists. It declined after conquest by the Almohads in 1152, but revived under the Hafsids of Tunis from the 13th to the 15th centuries, when it had naval shipyards, privateering and trade with Europe. Spanish occupation (151055 ) achieved its ruin. Algiers, chosen as capital by the Turks, hindered Bougie's revival, and in 1833 when occupied by the French there were only about 2,000 inhabitants and a few fortifications and ruins. (J. -J- Ds.) (1698-1758), French scientist, took part with C. M. de la Condamine in an expedition to measure an arc of the meridian near the equator in Peru (1735-43) and used the results in a new determination of the figure of the earth (see Gravitation), a full account of this operation being given in 1749 Born at Croisic in lower Britanny on in La Figure de la terre. Feb. 16, 1698, he succeeded his father, Jean Bouguer, as regius professor of hydrography at Croisic and in 1730 became professor at Le Havre. As a hydrographer he wrote on ships, maneuvering and navigation. He might also be called a geodesist and a physicist. As a physicist he worked on problems connected with the passage He conof light through the atmosphere and on photometry. structed tables of atmospheric refraction based on his own theory and the adopted refraction on the horizon, and at 26° altitude. He

BOUGUER, PIERRE

made some

of the earliest

measurements

in

astronomical photom-

etry and investigated the absorption of light in the atmosphere, the

which inquiry he published in his Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere (1729). In optics he constructed an early form of the instrument later called the heliometer. Bouguer died results of

at Paris

on Aug.

15, 1758.

BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM

(J.

Jn.)

(1825-1905),

French painter, whose academic renderings of allegorical religious and genre themes were highly considered by his contemporaries, was born at La Rochelle on Nov. 30, 1825, and died there on Aug. 18, 1905. From 1843 to 1850 he studied at the fecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix de Rome scholarship with P. J. A. Baudry. On his return from Rome in 1855 he was employed in decorating

from the frescoes at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Bouguereau took a medal of honour Most of at the Paris exhibition of 1878 and in the Salon of 1885. his works, especially "The Triumph of Venus" (1856) and "Charity," were popularly known through engravings. His subjects and formulas received severe criticism after the general several great houses, deriving inspiration

acceptance of impressionist trends.

DOMINIQUE

(1628-1702), French gramBOUHOURS, marian and literary critic, notable as an extreme purist, was born Having May 1628. taken vows as a Jesuit in 1662, in Paris on 15, he was entrusted with the education of the sons of the due de Longueville and subsequently with that of the marquis de SeigneHis first book (1668) was an attack on the lay, Colbert's son. Jansenists of Port-Royal. He began to advance his ideas on the French language in Les Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugdne (1671), but this book, which also included another attack on Port-Royal, was banned by the government. Thereafter he developed his linIn the name of guistic and literary doctrine in a series of works. purity of language he required such caution and circumspection in the choice of words and in sentence-building as would in practice make great writing no longer possible. This was made clear enough sur le sujet de la Princesse de Cloves (1678; in the Lettres on Mme de La Fayette's masterpiece), which were written by J. B. du Trousset de Valincour but inspired by Bouhours. Bouhours had great influence in his time and was the teacher of the Jesuits who were later to edit the Journal de Trevoux. He died in Paris on .

May

.

.

27, 1702.

See A. Adam, Histoire de la littirature fran(aise au XVIle Steele, v (1956) also G. Doncieux, Un Jesuite homme de lettres au XVIIe (Ae. A.) Steele (1886). vol.

;

BOUILLON, known

a

town

in

Belgium, province of Luxembourg,

for the ducal title connected with

it.

Bouillon in the

Uth

century was held by the counts of Ardennes, five of whom, between 1012 and 1069, were invested with the dukedom of Lower Lorraine by the German kings. As Bouillon was their principal stronghold, it became usual to designate these dukes, loosely, as dukes of BouilGodfrey the Hunchlon, though Bouillon itself was not a duchy. back (d. 1076) left Bouillon to his nephew Godfrey, who pledged raise funds for his crusade. bishop of Liege to the it in 1096 to Thereafter the bishops of Liege occasionally styled themselves dukes of Bouillon. In 1482, however, Guillaume de La Marck got Bouillon in pledge from Liege and installed his brother, Robert I Robert II (d. 1536) had (d. 1487), lord of Sedan, as chatelain. to restore Bouillon to Liege in 1521, but Robert IV (d. 1556), with French support, began to style himself due de Bouillon in 1548 and actually got possession of the place in 1552. His son, Henri Robert de La Marck (d. 1574), had to restore Bouillon to Liege again in 1559, but he and his son Guillaume Robert (d. 1588), continued to style themselves dukes of Bouillon. Their heiress, Charlotte, brought the title to her husband, Henri de La Tour

d'Auvergne (1555-1623),

in 1591.

his successor, Frederic Mau1605-52), were particularly formidable to the French government whenever they chose to conspire against it. Frederic Maurice lost Sedan in 1642 when his role in the conspiracy of Cinq-Mars came to light, but during the Fronde the French government, in order to conciliate him, undertook to promote his claim to Bouillon as soon as practicable. Accordingly, French troops having taken

As sovereigns of Sedan, Henri and

rice

(

the place (1676), his son Godefroy Maurice (1641-1721) was set up by Louis XIV as independent sovereign there (1678). The next

dukes of Bouillon, in direct succession, were Emmanuel Theodose (1668-1730), Charles Godefroy (1706-71), Godefroy Charles Henn (1728-92) and Jacques Leopold (1746-1802). The last named who was to lose Bouillon in 1794 when it declared itself had always been a republic (it was annexed to France next year) sickly, so that his fathe'r had in 1786 recognized as eventual heir a descendant of Philip D'Auvergne, lieutenant, an English naval the medieval counts of Auvergne. On the defeat of Napoleonic

—

—

France, D'Auvergne in Aug. 1814 set himself up as sovereign in Bouillon, but the congress of Vienna in Nov. 1815 gave the place, with Luxembourg, to the Netherlands. D'Auvergne killed himself in 1816, and the ducal title was adjudged in 1818 to Charles de

,

BOULAINVILLIERS— BOULE

13

Rohan, due de Montbazon (a great-grandson of Charles Godef roy) On the partition of Luxembourg in in whose family it remains. 1831, the town of Bouillon passed to Belgium. Pop. (1955 est.)

Prince Napoleon at Prangins in Switzerland. His name was removed from the army list, but almost immediately he was elected deputy for the Nord. In June 1888 his proposals for revising the

(J. G. R.-S.) de Saint-Saire

constitution were rejected by the chamber, whereupon he resigned.

3.063.

BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI, Comte

An

altercation with Charles Floquet led to a duel (July 13) in inflicted a severe wound on the

equally the rise of the absolute monarchy and the idea of government by the people. He was born on Oct. 21, 1658, at St.-Saire, Normandy, where he spent most of his life, devoting his time to historical research and becoming acquainted with the due de Saint-Simon.

which the elderly prime minister

His systematic though paradoxical mind was admired by Voltaire. the manuscripts of his works were known to his contemporaries none of them was published during his lifetime. He wrote several works on the history of the French nobility, extolling the excellence of the feudal system. His writings on economic affairs were practical and instructive. His books were quoted both by those who defended the principle of authority, and later, with

whelming majority, and he became an open menace to the parliamentary constitution, which he sought to modify to suit his ambitions. But a new government under Pierre Tirard, with Ernest Constans as minister of the interior, decided to prosecute Boulanger, and within two months the chamber was requested to waive the general's parliamentary immunity. To his friends' astonishment, Boulanger fled from Paris on April 1, going first to Brussels and then to London. He was tried in absentia for treason by the senate as high court and condemned on Aug. 14, 1889, to deportation. In the elections of 1889 and 1890 his supporters received a setback, and public enthusiasm for his cause dwindled away. On Sept. 30, 1891, Boulanger committed suicide in Brussels at the cemetery of Ixelles, over the grave of his mistress, the vicomtesse de Bonnemain.

(1658-1722). French

who deplored

political writer,

Though

more

effect,

He was

by the revolutionaries.

also interested in

occult sciences, prophesied the date of death of Louis

XIV

and

wrote a life of Mohammed. He died in Paris on Jan. 23, 1722. See R. Simon, Vn revoke du grand Steele (1948).

BOULANGER,

the

name

Jean

of several French artists:

606-1 660). a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an academy at Modena; his cousin Jean (1 607-1 6S0), a celebrated line engraver; the latter's son Matthieu, another engraver; Louis (1807-1867), a subject painter, friend of Victor Hugo and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best known, Gustave Rodolphe Clarence (1824-1888), a pupil of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of oriental and Greek and Roman subjects and a member of the Institut de France (1882). who decorated the Foyer de la Danse of the Paris Opera with terpsichorean subjects; and Clement (1805-1842), a pupil of J. A. D. ( 1

Ingres.

BOULANGER, GEORGES ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891 ties

),

French general and minister whose

political activi-

constituted a grave danger to the republican regime in the

was born

1880s,

army

at

Rennes on April

29,

1837.

He

entered the

and Cochin China (IndoHe was made a brigadier general in 1880 on the recommendation of the due d'Aumale (Henri d'Orleans), and his expressions of gratitude on this occasion were remembered against him in 1886, when, as minister for war, he erased the duke's name from the army list as part of the campaign in 1856,

served

in Algeria, Italy

china) and in the Franco-German War.

against the princes of formerly sovereign dynasties residing in

France.

Boulanger became director of infantry in 1882 and two years was appointed to command the army in Tunisia, but was recalled because of differences of opinion with Pierre Paul Cambon, the political resident. Returning to Paris, he began to take part in politics under the aegis of Clemenceau and of the Radical party. In Jan. 1886 he entered Charles de Freycinet's government as

later

minister for war.

By introducing reforms for the benefit of all ranks and by courting popularity openly, Boulanger came to be accepted by the people as the man destined to avenge France's defeat in the FrancoGerman War.

He

thus became a tool in the hands of the groups On Freycinet's defeat in Dee. 1886. Boulanger was retained at the ministry of war by the new prime minister, Rene Goblet, though Clemenceau by this time had withdrawn his patronage from the obviously too hostile to the existing republican dispensation.

compromising general.

On

Goblet's retirement from office in

May

1887, the Paris populace clamoured for their "brav' general," but Maurice Rouvier, who had long been hostile to Boulanger, refused him in his government, and the general was sent to Clermont-Ferrand to command the XIII corps. A Boulangist "movement." however, was now in full swing. The Bonapartists (except the empress Eugenie had attached themselves to the general, and the royalists were led to support him by the duchesse d'Uzes (Marie Anne Clementine de Rochechouart-Mortemart), who contributed large sums to the general's political fund. Boulanger was deprived of his command in 1888 for coming three times to Paris without leave and in disguise, and for visiting

to include

)

Neither this humiliation nor Boulanger's failure as an orachecked his followers' enthusiasm, and throughout 1888 his

general. tor

personality dominated French politics. In Jan. 1889 Boulanger was returned for Paris by an over-

—

Bibliography. B. Weill, Grandeur et decadence du geniral Boulanger (1931); A. Dansette, Le Boulangisme (1938); Duchesse d'Uzes, Souvenirs (1939); P. Barlatier, L'Avenlure du general Boulanger (1949).

BOULDER,

a city of Colorado, U.S., on Boulder creek, just

east of the continental divide, 30 mi.

N.W.

of Denver, at an ele-

vation of 5.354 ft.; the seat of Boulder county. (For comparative Protected population figures see table in Color.ado; Population. by mountains from the winter winds, and cooled in summer by breezes from glaciers to the west, the average monthly mean temperature ranges from 32.5° F. (Jan.) to 73.6° F. (July); the sun )

shines almost every day.

The water supply comes from the Arapahoe glacier, which is owned by the city, thus making Boulder perhaps the only city in the nation with such a water supply. The Rocky Mountain National

park of 378 sq.mi.

is

velt National forest lies a

40 mi. to the northwest and the Roosefew miles west. Boulder canyon and

others in the vicinity have great scenic beauty, and the city

owns

6.000 ac. of mountain park lands. The first settlement there was made late in 1858, and placer gold was discovered nearby in 1859. The town was laid out in 1859; the first city charter was secured in 1871; and a city-

manager form of government was adopted

in 1917.

Once supported by mines of coal, precious and rare metals, the city later attracted important industrial and research organizations. For several years after 1900 most of the tungsten mined in the United States came from the Nederland region, 18 mi. W. of Boulder. The Colorado chautauqua, one of the oldest and largest independent chautauquas in the country, has its permanent grounds on a site 400 ft. above the city. The University of Colorado, incorporated in 1861 and opened in 1877, is in Boulder, except for its medical school which is in Denver. The university buildings are constructed of native sandThe university has an annual enrollment of more than stone. (L. R. Ha.) 10.000 students. (Till see Glacier. (1861-1942). French BOULE, (PIERRE) geologist, paleontologist and physical anthropologist, a specialist on fossil man. was born Jan. 1. 1861. at Montsalvy. Educated at Toulouse and Paris as a geologist, his interests broadened to in-

The

city adjoins a rich agricultural area.

BOULDER CLAY

)

:

MARCELLEN

clude paleontology and,

became

eventually,

lecturer on geology at Paris

human

and then

paleontology.

He

assistant professor at

Clermont-Ferrand. In 1892 he was appointed laboratory assistant French National Museum of Natural History, where he served as professor from 1902 to 1936. In that capacity he made extensive studies on human fossils from Europe, north Africa and Palestine, and he reconstructed the first complete Neanderthal skeleton (1908), from Chapelle-aux-Saints. His broad background

at the

BOULE

14

enabled him to correlate geological and archaeological evidence in establishing a chronological sequence for remote eras. He was president of the French Geological society; founder of the Institute of Human Paleontology and of the Annates de Palcontologie ; and editor of L'Anthropologie. He received the Legion of Honour (commander) and many academic honours. He died July 4, 1942, at Montsalvy. Boule's best-known work was Les Hommes fossiles (1921; 1952); his monograph, "L'Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints," in Annates de Pateontotogie (1911-13), remains a model of its kind. Among his many other works were La ptateau de Lanemezan (189S); Les volcans de la France centrate (1900) and Les Grottes de Grimaldi ;

(L. C. B.)

(1906-19).

BOULE,

Greece the council of a city or other body Each politic (as distinct from the general assembly, or ecclesia). Greek league or confederacy also had a council, sometimes called boule but more often called synhedrion {see Achaean League; Boeotia; Greece: History). The name boule was more often used for the council of a democratic state, whereas gerousia was normally reserved to an aristocratic council, but there is no sharp distinction between the two terms. The councilors were respectively called bouteutai and gerontes, but other names were also used (timouchoi at Massalia, probotdoi at Delphi, etc.). This article gives a general survey of the development of the institution of the boule; for further details on aristocratic councils see Gerousia. Kings in archaic Greece, as elsewhere, were surrounded by a council of elders. A gerousia (according to one interpretation) is alluded to in Mycenaean documents. In Homer the elders, who ate on formal occasions with the king, also had judicial functions. It is

not

in ancient

known how

the kings chose their councilors.

In Sparta,

under the dual kingship, the 28 gerontes were elected by the people from among those over 60 years old; the Spartan gerontes led and controlled the deliberations of the assembly and had wide judicial powers, but the assembly was summoned by the kings or, later, by the ephors. In purely aristocratic states the council was supreme. At least in some cases it perpetuated itself by electing the magistrates of the city and co-opting former magistrates. According to one theory, the Areopagus {q.v.) in Athens before Solon (q.v.) worked on these principles. The individual councilors were appointed for life and were not accountable to the general assembly for their actions.

Transition to democracy was effected either by modifying the by replacing them with new ones or by opposing council to the old one. In Corinth (q.v.) after the fall of

old councils or a

new

the tyrants at the end of the 6th century B.C. there seems to have been a council (perhaps yearly) of SO, of whom 8 functioned in turn as chairmen. In the Sth century Argos had an aristocratic council of 80 together with a more democratic council. In Athens in 594 B.C. Solon did not abolish the Areopagus, but (according to one view) transferred the elections to the assembly and created a new boule of 400 to guide the work of the assembly. The new boule was later (508 b.c.) connected by Cleisthenes (q.v.) with his new ten tribes and increased to 500 members. Coexistence of two councils was probably also to be found in Chios, at least from about 550 B.C., and Solon may have based his reform on Ionian models. A gerousia and a boule are found together in Hellenistic Cyrene and elsewhere. The individual cities of the Boeotian league c. 395 e.g. had four councils; each of them took its turn in preparing the business to be put before the other three. One-fourth of the councilors acted as the real boule; the others had the function of a primary assembly. This type of organization must have inspired the Athenian project for the so-called "constitution of five thousand" in 41 1 (see Theramenes). At Delphi, in the 4th century B.C., 30 yearly councilors were divided into two groups, each in charge for six months of the general conduct of affairs; another group of councilors (under the name of prytaneis) was in charge of finances throughout the year. There were also two secretaries, making a total of 40 members; councilors could be re-elected. The Athenian boule, after the reforms of Cleisthenes, was elected by lot every year, except during the brief periods of oligarchic reaction in 411 and 404 B.C. Each tribe provided 50 coun-

cilors

who were

cilors

was

at least 30 years old; a certain

allotted to each

deme

number

of coun-

of the tribe in rough proportion

to its size. The functions of the council were defined (and perhaps limited) by the oath for the members introduced in 501 B.C. A man chosen by lot was not obliged to serve. Since poorer citizens might be unwilling to serve, this explains why, especially in the 4th century B.C., men of property prevailed in the council, though property qualifications did not operate before 322 B.C. The councilors were paid (in the 4th century, 5 obols). They met (normally in the special building, boideuterion) every day of the year except on feast or unpropitious days. The councilors belonging to each tribe functioned in turn as a general purposes committee for a tenth of the year; they summoned the others and prepared the agenda for the council. They were called prytaneis and were presided over by an epistates. One-third of the prytaneis The sat in permanence in a building of their own, the tholos. epistates would change every day, keep the seal of the state and the key to the treasury for the day; he was what might be called the one-day president of the Athenian republic. In the Sth century the epistates also presided over the assembly in the 4th century the presidency of the assembly was left to a man chosen by lot from the councilors who were not prytaneis. The most important task of the Athenian boule was to draft the The deliberations for discussion and approval in the assembly. ;

draft (not necessarily a recommendation)

was called proboiileuma. discuss a topic unless the boule had passed But any Athenian in the assembly could amend the proboideuma and make new proposals; he could also privately ask the boule to put an item on the agenda. There were moreover constitutional rules for the inclusion of certain routine items of business in the agenda for certain meetings of the ecThe proboideuma regulated, but did not impede, the priclesia. vate initiative of any Athenian. The council was assisted by one and later by more than one secretary, provided by lot in turn from each tribe; after about 360 the secretary was no longer a member of the council. The boule could fine up to 500 drachmas

The assembly could not

a formal resolution.

or initiate a trial in the judicial courts. It controlled the farming of public revenues and it dealt with debtors to the state; it controlled the

maintenance of the

fleet

and of the cavalry; judged

the fitness of the magistrates-elect; it received foreign ambassaIt could be dors and advised the strategoi in military matters.

given special powers by the assembly in an emergency. The boule, even after Ephialtes (q.v.), never totally replaced the Areopagus The Areopagus recovered influence in in political importance. Hellenistic and even more in Roman times when the Areopagus and the boule shared the government of the city, the boule being the minor partner. In the Hellenistic age property qualifications were intermittently required for the councilors, and their number was increased to 600 in 307 B.C., to 650 in 229, and again returned to 600 from 200 B.C. until the age of Hadrian, when the number of 500 was restored; later still the number went up to 750. The Athenian boule is still mentioned in sources of the 4th century A.D.

The Athenian system largely influenced the organization of the councils of other cities in the Hellenistic period but other types In Argos and Rhodes the survived or were newly introduced. council remained in office only six months and in Cyrene the to have sat for two years, and the council to have

members seem

been renewed by halves every year. Under the Roman emperors annual election gradually became purely formal and eventually By the end of the 3rd century a.d. the councils disappeared. Hereditary membership were everywhere permanent bodies. gradually replaced the recruitment of councilors by lot or election or selection by magistrates. The councils of the east became increasingly similar to the curiae of the western part of the empire {see Curia).

—

Bibliography, C. Hignett, A History of the Athenian Constitution End of the Fifth Century (1952) A. Andrewes, Probouleusis (1954) J. A. O. Larsen, Representative Government in Greek and Roman Historv (1955); A. H. M. Jones, Athenian Democracy (1957), The Greek Citv From Alexander to Justinian (1940); V. Ehrenberg, The Greek State (1960) W. S. Ferguson, .ititenian Tribal Cycles in the Hellenistic Age (1932) ; F. F. Abbott and A. C. Johnson, Municipal Adto the

;

;

;

—

BOULLE— BOULTER Roman Empire

ministration in the

BOULLE

(Boule;

(A. D.

(1926).

incorrectly

Buhl),

Mo.)

,

ANDRE

CHARLES

(1642-1732), French cabinetmaker, who gave buhlwork, was born in The son of Jean Boulle, a member of a 11, 1642. family of cabinetmakers, he became very famous and was indeed who acquired the first was Jean Mace the second cabinetmaker individual renown. At the age of 30 he had already been granted one of those lodgings in the Louvre set apart for the most talented Boulle was given the deceased artists employed by the crown. Jean Mace's own lodging by Louis XIV. In the patent conferring this prixalege he is described also as ''chaser, gilder and maker of

name

his

to a fashion of inlaying, boulle or

Paris on

Nov.

—

—

marquetr>'."

young man Boulle had studied drawing, painting and sculppf his drawings, influenced by Charles Le Brun and Jean Berain, are preserved in the Louvre and the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris. A collection of line works of art was lost when his workshops caught fire in 1720. Boulle was employed for several years at Versailles, where he produced what was regarded as his most remarkable work; the flooring in "wood mosaic." the paneling and the marquetry in the private study (no longer existing) of the Grand Dauphin. Boulle received numerous commissions from the French royal family, princes, noblemen and financiers in France and from foreign

As

ture.

a

Some

courts throughout Europe.

Though

He

died in Paris on Feb. 29, 1732.

the type of marquetrj-

named

after

him

is

derived

from Renaissance models, Boulle elaborated it with a skill never surpassed. His furniture, sumptuous and full of colour, often has an architectural quality. Some e.xamples have inlays of brass on tortoise shell or tortoise shell on brass; others have inlays of natural woods portraying landscapes with figures, flower pieces or Splendid bronzes sometimes added the crowning arabesques. touch to his work. There are four magnificent wardrobes in this and the Wallace collection, London, contains in Louvre; style the exceptionally fine examples of his manner. BouUe's style was continued successfully in France during the iSth century and also under Napoleon III. Such was its popularity that any piece with some copper inlay on a black or red ground

came

to

be described as "buhl."

See H. Havard, Les Boulle (1893) du XVIII' siecle (iqsi)-

;

FranTnpiad establishment of the famous games by Iphitus about 880 B.C.

Olympic victors. A which combined bo.xXXV Olympiad (oS2 B.C.). In the XLI Olympiad boxing competition for youths was added. There were no weight divisions, and size and strength were prime

Onomastos of Smyrna was one of the

first

sport called pankration ("complete contest" ing and wrestling, was introduced in the

),

qualifications for the pugilist always.

The first Greek fighters were not paid; glory was the only reward they sought. Later wealthy men trained their slaves as boxers and had them perform for special entertainments. In the

Romans

forced their cestus-clad slaves gruesome perversion of sport for the entertainment of crowds who thronged to arenas to see the With the rise of Christianity and the concurrent decline kill. of the Roman empire, pugilism as entertainment apparently ceased ist

century of Christianity

to bludgeon one another to death in a

no record of

is

it.

a type of encounter With the rise of London as a major city Prize fighters were strong men of different called a prize fight. sections of the city, whose admirers were willing to bet that they could beat one another and arranged fights to settle the issues. The fighters performed for whatever purses were agreed upon plus

At

first

there were few tactics which were not

it was common to fall on a was common practice to hit a man who was down. The fighters wore no gloves of any kind and welcomed variations upon punching because their hands could not take the hard punishment implicit in delivering many hard punches conNevertheless, one man by 1719 had so far captured secutively. public imagination that he was acclaimed champion of England. His name was James Figg {q.v.) and he held the title for a span which may have been as great as 15 years, turning back during Dethis time an Italian challenger named Tito Alberto di Carni.

Wrestling was permitted and

foe after throwing him.

spite the

appearance of

It also

this foreigner in the records, for

only outstanding fighters were English. or American

came

to

came more frequent

London

years the

Occasionally an Irishman These invasions be-

to ply his trade.

as the popularity of prize fighting (and the

size of prizes offered) increased.

The first fighter greatly to aid the sport itself was Jack Broughton (1704-89), a 200-lb. Englishman who won the championship of his country sometime between 1734 and 1740 (versions differ) and lost it in 1750 to a foul, unskilled brawler named Jack Slack. Broughton's reign was long enough and his character good enough win a new respect for prize fighting. He preferred to discard the barroom techniques which his predecessors favoured and rely primarily on his fists. (He did, however, like all fighters of the time, also use wrestling holds. He brought some degree of order out of a brawling chaos not only by the way he fought but by a set of rules which so clarified the proper conditions for a bout that they governed boxing, with only minor changes, until 1838 when the more detailed London Prize Ring rules superseded them. Under Broughton's rules, a round continued until a man went down after 30 seconds of rest he had to square off a yard from his opponent or be declared beaten; he could not hit an opponent who was down or grasp him below the waist. Broughton capitalized upon his good name among sportsmen by that wholly British conducting classes in "the mystery of boxing art," as he advertised it for gentlemen at his Haymarket academy in 1747. To attract pupils, he devised "mufflers," ancestors of modern boxing gloves, with the assurance that these would be used This conin all bouts to protect against bruised faces and hands. to

)

;

.

.

.

his

Brain.

The man who succeeded Brain was

the

first scientific

fighter in

He was

an English Jew named Daniel Mendoza (i 763-1836) who weighed only 160 lb. (a middleweight by modern standards) but beat the best and biggest fighters in England. Mendoza had good, quick footwork and a swift straight left (a jab). By combining agility with the bothersome jab, he easily befuddled his lumbering opponents. After losing his title to John Jackson, known as "Gentleman Jackson," in 1795, Mendoza opened a school in London at which he coached young noblemen in fighting techniques. Jackson was a clever boxer, although he achieved his championship by grabbing Mendoza's long hair with one hand and

the history of pugilism.

clubbing the smaller man with the other. But his chief interest was to use boxing as a way to meet and hobnob with the gentry of his time. He was a masterful teacher and claimed among his pupils Lord Byron, who referred to him in Hints from Horace:

And men Must go

unpractised in exchanging knocks to Jackson ere they dare to box.

Jackson's chief contribution, in the transformation of prize fighting into boxing, was to gain friends of distinction for the sport of fist fighting people who were interested in seeing it progress

and who could give

came

allowed.

establishes

—

THE BARE-KNUCKLE ERA

stakes (side bets").

alone

Slack, however, inaugurated a period of dishonesty

When

knighthood was in flower it was a poor fellow indeed who did not do his battling with horse, sword, armour and all the other trimmings.

to exist for there

importance to modern boxing. and foul play in which one fixed bout followed another and sportsmen lost faith entirely in the sport. Finally it was re-established in good repute by Tom Johnson, who became champion in the 1780s and finally lost the title, in an unquestionably honest bout in 1791, to Ben tribution

It is it a badly needed aura of respectability. that the Pugilistic club was organized in Jackson's rooms. The organization attempted to create orderly procedures to be followed at every fight and raised funds for making matches and for prizes. At the first meeting Sir Henry Smith presided and many noblemen, including Lord Yarmouth, were present. Of the bare-knuckle champions who followed, the first to assure himself sports immortality was Tom Cribb (1781-1848), and he did so largely by defeating two American-born former slaves. Bill Richmond 1 763-1829) and Tom Molineaux (1784-18 18 ). Richmond was the first man born in America to win acclaim in England as a first-class pugilist. Gen. Earl Percy, who commanded some of the British troops occupying New York, discovered Richmond's talents and took him to England in 1777. Cribb beat Richmond in 90 minutes in 1805. Later, after winning the English championship, he twice beat Molineaux in his greatest performances. In 1839 the new London Prize Ring rules were first used in a championship fight, the one in which James ("Deaf") Burke lost the English title to William Thompson ("Bendigo"). These rules (revised in 1833) provided for a ring 24 ft. square and bounded by ropes. When a fighter went down the round ended. He was helped to his corner. Time was called after 30 seconds and if he

significant

(

could not get unaided to a mark in the centre of the ring by the end of 8 additional seconds, he was declared "not up to scratch" and beaten. Kicking, gouging, butting with the head, biting and low blows were all declared fouls. The London rules governed pugilism in England and America for over 50 years. By i860 America had produced a number of good fighters. One of them, the handsome John C. Heenan, was not content with the championship of the United States. He challenged English champion Tom Sayers. They met at Farnborough, Eng.. ."Xpril 1 7, 1S60. There was a great difference in weights 195 lb. for Heenan to the Englishman's 149 lb. but Sayers held Heenan to a 42-round draw, the last five rounds fought after a crowd entered the ring. Although the Heenan-Sayers bout attracted a good deal of attention, the brawling which distinguished old-time pugilism continued to alienate most of the better people of England and it became apparent that if a widely, popular sport was to emerge and endure it would have to be extracted from rather than preserved in the hurly-burly of prize fighting. When John Graham Chambers of

—

—

Amateur .Athletic club devised a new set of rules he tried to emphasize the aspects of pugilism which Daniel Mendoza had first These attributes that is, the science and skill of it. exploited were expected to draw a better class of patron than the old London the

—

rules.

—

:

BOXING The rules appeared in 1867 and differed from the London rules in four major respects: contestants wore padded gloves; each round consisted of three minutes of fighting followed by a minute of rest; wrestling was illegal; any fighter who went down had to get up unaided within ten seconds and. if he could not do so, was declared knocked out of time and the fight was over. John Sholto Douglas, 8th marquess of Queensberry (18441900). had lent his name to Chambers' rules so that they would be associated with the nobility. At first professionals regarded them askance and thought practitioners of the new code somewhat effete. But gradually, although championships among professionals continued to be decided by the London rules, more and more fighters who were quick with their hands and feet and preferred punching Prominent among to wrestling learned the Queensberry style. these was James ("Jem") Mace (1831-1910) who. though weighing only 160 lb., won the English heavyweight title in 1861 through judicious use of a good left jab and a quick pair of feet. Having proved that he could win under the London code he was more or less free to do as he pleased and he chose to do two things which had a vast influence on the course of boxing history. The first was to go abroad to fight. The second was to show growing interIn regard to the first est in the Queensberry style of fighting. move, Nat Fleischer explains its background in his book The Heavyweight Championship (G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1949) this time the good people of England, following the example of Queen \'ictnria. were in a state of almost orRiastic virtue. reform wave swept the country. The clcrsy preached sulphurous sermons against the "ruffians of the ring." Prize fighting was becoming daily a more perilous pastime as the magistrates, falling in line with the popular trend, imposed heavier and heavier jail sentences on persons brought before them who were in any way associated with the ring. .•\ great e.-sodus followed. [Ned] O'Baldwin, Tom .Mien, Joe Wormald, Joe Goss, and a host of lesser lights sailed for the United States. In a sense, they were jumping out of the frying pan into the fire, for the transatlantic brand of \'ictorianism differed only in detail from the native variety. The fistic tide, nevertheless, set strongly toward the United States.

At

their blessed

A

It

was only a matter of time before Mace arrived,

too.

He

when sparring with gloves. His enthusiasm gave the Queensberry code a real advantage, for it was generally conceded that there was nothing effete about Jem Mace. Jem fought his last bout in 1890, in England. Meanwhile, both the London and Queensberry rules were followed by a new generation of fighters in America and the time for decision between them was near. Queensberry rules had gained favour steadily. Jack McAuliffe, who held the American lightweight title 1885-96, learned these rules and largely fought under them, although sometimes using skintight gloves instead of padded ones. "Nonpareil" Jack Dempsey, the first world middleweight champion, fought under both London and Queensberry rules but saw the latter gain in popularity toward the end of his reign (1884-91). John L. Sullivan (g.v.), who claimed the world's heavyweight championship, was more famous and ruled a more popular division than either McAuliffe or Dempsey and it was, therefore, up to him to make the move which finally aligned professional fighters on the side of the Queensberry rules. He did so not out of a desire to benefit sport. He did so because he felt he could not afford to do

actually was at his best for glove fighting

otherwise.

Having won the American heavyweight

title at

the age of 24,

Sullivan squandered remarkable speed of hands and feet on the

London

when these

were less appreciated than might later have been the case. Luckily, he also had great strength and a mighty punch. These latter qualities made and kept him a bareknuckle champion. Public authorities had. however, grown increasingly hostile to pugilism. In 18S9. when Sullivan defended against Jake Kilrain in the last heavyweight championship bareknuckle fight to be held in America, prize fighting (London rules) was illegal in every state of the union. Subsequent to the Kilrain fight Sullivan was arrested and plagued with legal actions which era.

interfered with his

plained that

qualities

making a living him $18,670 to

for the next year.

He com-

match. Therefore when at the age of 34 a dissipated, slow John L. agreed to defend his title against quick, clever "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, it

cost

settle for the Kilrain

41

Sullivan insisted on Queensberry rules. John L. lost to the epitof Queensberry skill. Corbett in a five-year reign (1892-97) proved that a big man could be highly scientific. He launched boxing on a lucrative new era.

ome

MODERN BOXING

—

Divisions In Sullivan's time the welterweight, featherweight and bantamweight divisions also were active although the weight limits varied with the champions, since it was then a champion's prerogative to adjust the weight to suit his own convenience, as long as he did not go to extremes. The light heavyweight class, called cruiserweight in Great Britain, was created in 1903 to include all boxers weighing over the middleweight limit and not more than 175 lb. In 1910 the flyweight class was created in Britain,

recognized also in the United States, to provide an ofticial division for the smallest boxers. The weight limit was set at 108 lb., later

The divisions became heavyweight (over 175 to 112 lb. heavyweight or cruiserweight (over 160 lb. and not over middleweight (over 147 lb. and not over 160) welterweight 175 lightweight (over 126 lb. and not (over 135 lb. and not over 147 over 135) featherweight (over iiS lb. and not over 126) bantamweight (over 112 lb. and not over 118); and flyweight (not over 112 lb.). Following World War I and World War II boxing w^as so popular in the United States that two other divisions, junior lightw-eight (class limit 130 lb.) and junior welterweight (140 lb.) changed lb.

)

light

;

)

;

;

)

;

;

;

also existed briefly.

Economic Impetus.

—

When the bruisers of Victorian times England, they went not only to the United States but to AusThe tralia and Canada and, occasionally, to continental Europe. reasons that professional boxing became centred in the United States were chiefly two an expanding economy made it possible for promoters to conduct bouts fairly regularly for the entertainment of factory hands, miners, lumberjacks and the other workers who flooded into the new country demanding excitement in their off hours; and successive waves of immigration provided husky, hungry boys who had little education and were willing to fight for quick cash. Boxing became, as it remains, a short cut to riches and social acceptance for those near the foot of the economic lad-

left

:

der.

The famines which drove thousands of Irish to seek refuge in America furnished important raw material for the greatest era Before 1915 the Irish had beprofessional boxing has known. come dominant in every division from heavyweight through bantamweight.

Oppression, especially in big

cities,

sent into the ring

whole neighbourhoods of Irish-American boys. Terry McGovern, "Philadelphia" Jack O'Brien, Mike ("Twin") Sullivan and his brother Jack, Packey McFarland. Jimmy Clabby, Jack Britton these were only a few of the colourful, courageous and highly skilled boys who made a profession of boxing. Meanwhile, the American Negro, free but discriminated against in the land of his birth, turned to boxing also, hoping quite literally And foreign-born Negroes (such as to fight his way to the top. Peter Jackson, Sam Langford, Joe Walcott and George Dixon) came to capitalize on the boxing boom. Lightweight Joe Gans, born in Baltimore, was perhaps the cleverest boxer, pound for He became a world champion pound, in professional annals. (1902-08), as did heavyweight Jack Johnson (1908-15). German, Scandinavian and central European immigration, which increased after the political troubles of 1848, also contributed greatly to this golden age of boxing in the United States. Polish-American Stanley Ketchel and German-American Billy Papke. Frank Klaus and Frank Mantell dominated the middle-

Danish-American Battling Nelson and German-American Ad Wolgast ruled the lightweights 190S-12. Such outstanding Jewish fighters as Joe Choynski, Abe Attell, Battling Levinsky, Harry Lewis were active, but even more outstanding Jewish fighters were active from 1915 to 1930, when Benny Leonard, Sid Terris, Lew Tendler, Al Singer, Maxie Rosenbloom and Max Baer were in the ring. Beginning about 1920 Italian-Americans assumed an importance

weight division 1908-13.

Their influence has continued great and has produced in boxing. such champions as featherweight and lightweight Tony Canzoneri,

BOXING

42

heavyweight Rocky Marciano, featherweights Johnny Dundee (nicknamed the "Scotch Wop") and Willie Pep. The influence of the Negro was continual from the 19th century, although prejudice against him at times was great. John L. Sullivan found it convenient to "draw the colour line" in refusing to defend against Peter Jackson, and Jack Dempsey would not fight American Negro Harry Wills. But during his professional career Joe Louis {q.v.) won complete acceptance and his reign as heavyweight champion (1937-49 was one of the most popular in boxing history. Greatly encouraged, and further prompted by the rigours of depression years, Negroes flooded into the ring beginning in the mid- 1930s to start a domination comparable to that enjoyed by the Irish prior to 1910. Among them were Henry Armstrong, who held the featherweight, lightweight and welterweight titles simultaneously; Ray Robinson, welterweight and middleweight champion; Archie Moore, light heavyweight champion; and heavyweight champions Ezzard Charles, "Jersey" Joe Walcott, Floyd Patterson, Charles "Sonny" Liston and Cassius Clay. Purses. John C. Heenan and Tom Sayers fought for $2,500 a side and a championship belt in 1S60. John L. Sullivan fought Corbett in 1892 for a $25,000 purse and a $10,000 side bet. The man who made boxing big business was George ("Tex") Rickard, After staging the world's lightweight its first great promoter. championship bout between Joe Gans and Battling Nelson to publicize the mining town of Goldfield, Nev.. in 1906, he saw that boxing Through clever press as a spectacle had great potentialities. agentry Rickard made it fashionable to be seen at ringside at major bouts. Five of the fights he promoted for Jack Dempsey (q.v,). heavyweight champion 1919-26, drew over $1,000,000 in receipts. They were the two bouts against Gene Tunney (1926 and 1927) and a match each against Georges Carpentier of France (1921), Luis Angel Firpo of Argentina (1923) and Jack Sharkey (1927). A natural showman and gambler, Rickard made an art of boxing ballyhoo, playing on people's prejudices in pitting Negro against white (Gans-Nelson and Jack Johnson-Jim Jeffries), alleged slacker against war hero (Dernpsey-Carpentier) and American His fortunes were tied to against foreigner (Dempsey-Firpo ). Dempsey's, however, and after Jack's retirement he lost over $150,000 on Gene Tunney 's 1928 title defense against Tom Heeney )

—

of

New

;

time.

When James D.

Norris and Arthur Wirtz succeeded Jacobs as America's outstanding promoters (1949) with their International Boxing club, boxing was undergoing a great change brought about by televising of bouts. Attendance fell off sharply for all but the most attractive matches, people preferring to watch televised bouts Therefore receipts from the crowd atat home or in theatres. tending became steadily of less importance. When Rocky Marciano defended his heavyweight title against Archie Moore in 1955, the attending crowd paid $948,117. But television receipts gave the bout a gross of $2,248,117. Some lucrative bouts also were being staged outside the United States. British light heavyweight Freddie Mills drew $200,000 and $182,000 respectively in London bouts against Americans Gus Lesnevich and Joey Maxim. In 1953 English Randy Turpin drew $238,000 in London against French Charles Humez. When Thai bantamweight Chamrern Songkitrat developed into a contender for the world championship, he drew receipts of over $200,000 in 1954 Bangkok bouts against Australian Jimmy Carruthers and Frenchman Robert Cohen.

made

fortunes, especially in the years be-

income taxes were levied on their earnings. Gene Tunney made almost $1,000,000 from the second Dempsey fight. Dempsey earned $2,402,500 in eight title bouts. But the $2,722,000 which Joe Louis earned in 2 7 title bouts was heavily taxed. Spread of Boxing. As the English traveled they took boxing with them to the nooks and crannies of the world. It had attained some popularity in continental Europe before World War I but this popularity increased when American soldiers, who learned boxing as part of their training for bayonet fighting, showed great enthusiasm for the sport. Boxing w-as a feature of the Inter- Allied games held in Paris in 1919 and not many years afterward future world heavyweight boxing champions Primo Camera and Max Schmeling of Germany launched their profes-

—

sional careers.

The

sport gained popularity

In Thailand

of Asia.

it

more slowly

in sections

developed alongside a traditional native

sport similar to the old French savate, in which blows were delivered with feet as well as hands.

During the first half of the 20th century, world champions from the following countries other than England and the U.S. were crowned: Canada, Germany, Italy, France, Ireland, Greece, Australia, Philippine Islands, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Spain, Puerto Rico, South Africa, Hawaii, Algeria, Wales, Tunisia, Scotland, Japan and Argentina.

MODERN WORLD HEAVYWEIGHT CHAMPIONS

SUCCESSION OF

Primo Camera

1882

Max

Baer

James

J.

Braddock

Joe Louis (retired undefeated 1949) Ezzard Charles Jersey Joe Walcott

Rocky Marciano (retired undefeated 1956)

Floyd Patterson Ingemar Johansson Floyd Patterson Charles Sonny Liston Cassius Clay

Zealand.

In the depression years which followed, receipts from bo.xing shows dwindled greatly. The financial centre of boxing remained the United States, although the bout between Primo Camera of Italy and Paulino Uzcudun of Spain fought in 1930 in Barcelona drew more ($110,000) than all but a few U.S. bouts that year. In 1935 Mike Jacobs, who had been associated with Rickard, signed Louis to a contract and thus launched a new boxing boom. With Louis fighting exclusively for him, Jacobs had the best drawing card since Dempsey. In two years he was promoting for Madison Square Garden in New York. Louis fought in three bouts that grossed over $1,000,000: Max Baer (1935); Max Schmeling (1938) and Billy Conn (1946). In 1945 the receipts from a year of boxing at Madison Square Garden exceeded $2,000,000 for the first

Individual boxers fore

—

Changing

Styles. Styles of boxing underwent great changes became highly individual and generally less circumscribed by convention. The classic style, popular at the turn of the century, was fought from a straight stand-up stance, with The the emphasis upon straight blows and long-range boxing. straight left jab was used prominently both in attack (to pile up points and wear an opponent down) and in defense (to beat the opponent to the punch). Scientific boxing was an art appreciated Corbett. not a heavy as such by the fight fans of that time. puncher, was adept at blocking (stopping a punch with his gloves moving his body while keeping (avoiding it by or arms) slipping

after 1892,

;

ducking; feinting; parr>'ing (knocking a blow and side-stepping. His own attack was comprised of sharp, quick punches that were timed to keep his opponent off balance. Young Griffo, Australian claimant of the world featherweight title, was such a clever defensive boxer that he could stand on a handkerchief and avoid the blows of an attacker who enjoyed freedom of

his feet stationary)

aside

)

;

;

movement. Lightweight Joe Gans glided on perfectly co-ordinated feet as he blended skill and power into a smoothly efficient style. With these men and their contemporaries, boxing was very much a defensive skill as well as an offensive one. With the increase in popularity of the sport as a spectacle,

howcrowds began more frequently to demand the knockout. When Jack Dempsey was heavyweight champion he and promoter Rickard demonstrated, that there was no substitute for a knockout punch at the boxing box office. Dempsey did more, too. He ever, the

helped to revolutionize the style of boxing. Dempsey was a beautifully co-ordinated athlete who kept on the offensive almost continually, bobbing up and down and moving from side to side as he delivered short, swinging blows out of a crouch at blinding speed. His constant movement and the speed of his attack constituted his defense. He had little patience with

BOXINCt

Plate

I

Corbelt v. Sullivan. New Orleans, La., 1892. This was the first world heavyweight bout under the Queensberry rules which required gloves instead of bare

Richard Humphries

v.

Daniel Mendoza, London, 1790.

fists

Mendo

figure in early British pugilism

18TH-CENTURY PUGILISM AND EARLY BOXING Johnson v. Jitfru-, the world heavyweight

(-:.

Dempsey

v.

Willard, Toledo. 0.,

1919

i

i.

Ni.'

title

1910.

Johnson was the

first

Negro

to

hold

Plate

II

Louis V. Schmeling, N.

BOXING

BOXING— BOXWOOD and less with long-range lighting, preferring the infighting to which his powerful, short hooks were adapted. This spectacular style of boxing as practised by Dempsey had a wide appeal because it often resulted in a knockout and because it reduced defensive maneuvering, which had to be understood to be appreciated, to an absolute minimum. The wider the boxing audience became, the less it cared for the refinements of the old school, the more it the jab

roared for the knockout. Because crowds paid to see heavy punching, professional boxers, especially in the United States, began to stress aggressiveness and punching, even if they had to "take two to land one." The typical stance became a slight crouch (not so pronounced as Dempsey 's) and there was an increasing emphasis on infighting. Cleverness was not lost for featherweight Willie Pep, who won the world title in 1942 and again in 1949, and Ray Robinson, w-ho won the welter-

weight

title in

1946 and the middleweight

title in

1951 (twice), in

1955, in 1957 and in 1958, rank among the all-time great tacticians of boxing. Joe Louis was an expert boxer as well as a paralyzing puncher. There have been still others. With the advent of home

emphasis went still more to punchHousewives and clerks who had never been to boxing bouts now were part of the audience. They were chiefly interested in a good show that is. plenty of action. The refinements of skilled boxing did not interest them enough to make skill a requisite for television in the late 1940s, the

ing.

rule

Amateur.

— From the time when the old English bare-knuckle

champions began teaching their sport to English gentlemen, there have been enthusiastic amateur pugilists. At first they fought for the pure pleasure of it. Warren Barbour, an extremely competent heavyweight, won the U.S. championship in 1910 but refused to turn professional although some fight experts were confident he could beat the great Negro champion. Jack Johnson. In 191 9 another promising American heavyweight, Edward Eagan, won the national title and also refused to become a professional. But the amateur ring nevertheless increasingly became a training ground for professional boxing. The British Amateur Boxing association was established in 1884 to control amateur boxing in Great Britain. The Amateur Athletic union, established in 1888 in the United States, began that year Annual collegiate competitions to conduct annual competitions. have provided some contenders for A.A.U. honors. In 1923 still another amateur competition was started by a Chicago newspaper. Called the Golden Gloves (the name was first used in New York in 1927), it grew quickly into a national competition rivaling the A.A.U. Such world professional champions as Joe Louis, Ray Robinson, Joey Maxim, Floyd Patterson, Ezzard Charles and Rocky Marciano got valuable experience in amateur competition. Boxing in seven divisions was introduced into the modern OlymIn 1920 light heavyweight competition was pic games in 1904. added and in 1952 the classes became ten with class limits as follows: flyweight, 112 lb.; bantamweight, iig; featherweight, 125; lightweight, 132; light welterweight, 139; welterweight, 147; light

middleweight, 156; middleweight, 165; light heavyweight, 178; heavyweight, over 178. The spread of amateur boxing is reflected by the number of countries represented by boxers winning Olympic titles over the years (see Olympic Games").

RULES

—

ProfessionaL Uniformity has been notably lacking in the under which professional boxing matches are conducted in different countries and in different states of the United States. Generally speaking, however, bouts take place in a "ring" which is 20 to 24 ft. square and surrounded by three strands of ropes. Each bout is comprised of rounds of three minutes of fighting followed by a minute of rest. Rounds range in number from 4 to Padded 20, with 15 the usual length of a championship fight. gloves, ranging from six to eight ounces in weight are worn by the rules

Fouls include hitting below the belt, butting with the head, hitting with one hand while holding the opponent with the other, hitting an opponent who is down and using the "rabbit punch," a blow delivered to the base of the skull. Penalties for these infractions vary greatly. In the United States a "no foul"

fighters.

Max

Schmeling won the heavyweight cham-

pionship on a foul claim of doubtful validity in 1930. Under this rule all fighters must wear protective cups. If a boxer strikes below the belt he is only penalized by loss of the round unless his infraction is flagrant and repeated, in which case he is disqualified. Outside the United States a low blow usually brings disqualification.

In general. United States referees permit more infighting and are less strict about holding, butting and other roughing up at close

A bout can end in a knockout, when officials. knocked down and does not regain his feet before the

range than European a boxer

is

count of ten (seconds); in a technical knockout, when a boxer is judged by the referee incapable of defending himself even though he has not been counted out; in a draw; in a decision, when a bout goes the scheduled distance and is won on points; or in a no contest, when the referee feels that for some reason the boxers are not putting up a good bout. In the United States in bouts that go the scheduled distance a referee and two judges have equal votes in determining the winner, in some states the vote being in terms In of points scored; in some, rounds won; and in some, both. Britain and most of continental Europe the referee has the whole responsibility.

—

the bouts they saw.

43

was adopted after

Amateur.

—The

rules for conducting

amateur boxing are very

similar in Great Britain, the United States and continental Europe, Perhaps the although there are some national idiosyncrasies.

most notable is that United States referees permit much more infighting and clinching than the others and go between the boxers to cause them to break up a clinch, instead of e.xpecting them to break on voice command. Bouts are fought in rings 16 to 20 ft. square and eight- to ten-ounce gloves are used. Bending below the w-aist is prohibited by international rules because it may lead to butting w'ith the head. The voting, under international rules, is done entirely by three judges; the referee simply supervises the Here again the rules of the A.A.U. specify otherwise fighting. There two judges and the for United States amateur bouts. referee score each bout by rounds and points and vote for the winIn 1952, however, the A.A.U. did adopt the ten divisions accepted under international rules and began conducting competitions in them.

ner.

TECHNIQUE Stance and footwork are the basis of good boxing for they make it possible for the boxer to keep his balance while punching and moving. The left foot of the right-handed boxer should be a step ahead of the right, the toes of both feet pointed slightly toward the right. Both knees are bent slightly. The weight of the body

on the right leg. The right heel lifts when a punch In advancing the left leg leads, the right follows. In The chin is usually sunk retreating, the reverse takes place. slightly behind the left shoulder. The left hand is advanced, ready is held close to the body, the right hand parry, and to strike or rests largely is

delivered.

sometimes

The

left

in front of the chin.

jab

delivered by straightening the left elbow with a

is

the key blow of boxing, used in both attack and defense. Other basic punches are the left and right hooks, delivered with bent elbow; the right cross, a straight punch delivered with the

snap.

right

It is

hand; and

left

and

right uppercuts. short, swinging

blows

Swings, which are longer than hooks, are delivered also with bent elbows but are not usually so eft'ective since a good boxer can avoid them. When a boxer has co-ordinated footwork with punching he is able to get He is never off the maximum body weight behind each punch. balance. Chief targets for the knockout punch are the chin, the that

come up from

the direction of the ring floor.

temples and the stomach. Bibliography. Bohun Lynch, The Prize Ring (1925); N. S. Fleischer, Black Dynamite, vol. i-vii (1938-47), [Ring] Record Book N. S. Fleischer (annual, 1941), Heavyweight Championship (1949) (ed.), Ring Record Book and Boxing Encyclopedia (1960). (M. M. W.) the name given in Great Britain to the first weekday after Christmas, on which Christmas "boxes" or presents, are given to errand boys, postmen, etc. It is a bank holiday iq.v. ). the wood obtained from the genus Buxus, the

—

;

BOXING DAY,

BOXWOOD,

BOYACA— BOYCE

44

principal species being the well-known tree or shrub B. sempervirens, the common box, in general use for borders of garden walks, ornamental parterres, etc. Even more important in gardens is the dwarf variety sitffruticosa, which does not too rapidly

The cold-hardier B. microphylla koreana is used in northern gardens. The other source of the ordinary boxwood of commerce is B. halearica,

overgrow the proportions of the parterre.

which yields the variety known as

Turkey bo.xwood. The common box is grown throughout Great Britain

chalk

(perhaps native in the of the south of Eng-

hills

land), in the southern part of the

European continent generally, and extends through Iran into India, where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. Only a very small proportion of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great Britain. is

The box

a very slow-growing plant, add-

ing not

more than one and one-

two inches to its diameter 20 years, and on an average attaining only a height of 16 ft. with a mean diameter of 10^ in. SEMPERhalf or in

(BUXUS

The

leaves

of

species

this

are

small, oval, leathery in texture,

and of

deep glossy green colour,

B. balearica is a tree of considerable size-, attaining to a height of SO ft., with leaves three times as large as those of the common box. It is a native of the islands of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor and around the shores of the Black sea. The wood of both species possesses a deUcate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the purposes of the wood engraver. A large amount is used in the a

manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instruments, flutes and other musical instruments, for turning, for inlaying and for small carvings. The use of box^vood for turnery and musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.

BOYACA,

a densely-settled department in the

Andes moun-

Colombia. Area 23.217 sq.mi.; pop. (1961 est.) 844.890. Most of the population lives in the cool uplands of the Andes, cultivating potatoes, wheat, barley, haba beans and the lesser .Andean root crops under a system of tenancy inherited from the colonial era. Dense forests on mountain slopes yield fine wood. Besides the capital city of Tunja, the principal towns are Chiquinquira. Sogamoso and Moniquira. A few miles south of Tunja, near the village of Boyaca, was fought the decisive battle in New Granada's war for independence on Aug. 7, 1819. The famous Muzo emerald mines are located in the western part of Boyaca. At Paipa, 30 mi. north of Tunja. there are famous mineral springs. Colombia's first integrated iron and steel plant (capacity 122.000 tons) was built at Paz del Rio, 5 mi. N. of Sogamoso at an elevation of nearly 9.000 ft. Iron ore, coal and limestone are in ample supply but major consuming markets are so distant that the project has frequently been criticized as uneconomic. The larger part of the department of Boyaca lies within the llmios or low plains between the Andes and the Orinoco river. This vast area was for a time separated from Boyaca as the Comisaria de Casanare, but it was reincorporated into Bovaca in tains of eastern

1950.

(Js. J. p.) (Russ. boyarin, plur. boyare). The boyars formed the upper stratum of society and of the state administration in medieval Russia. In Kievan Russia of the 10th-12th centuries

BOYAR

they constituted the senior group in the princely retinue (dnizhhia). occupying the higher posts in the armed forces and in the civil administration.

The boyar

vised the prince in

all

council (boyarskaya duma usually adimportant matters of state, although its com)

and competence were not defined by law.

position

In Novgorod, democratic constitution, the prosperous boyars were and in the local economy. In the northeastern Russian principalities, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the boyars formed a privileged class of rich landowners who were also the prince's aides and councilors; they retained, however, the right to leave their sovereign and enter another prince's service without losing their landed estates. From the 15th to the 17th centuries the boyars of Muscovy formed a closed aristocratic caste that surrounded the throne of the grand prince (later the tsar) and ruled the countrj' together with him. They were drawn from the ranks of about 200 families descended from former appanage princes whose possessions had been annexed by Moscow, from old Moscow boyar families, or from aristocratic newcomers from other lands. The rank of boyar did not belong to all members of these families, but only to those senior members to whom the tsar granted this title. Below the boyars stood the group of okolnichie. Together they formed the boyar council, which, together with the tsar, directed all internal and foreign affairs of the state. According to the code of laws iSudebnik) of 1550, the decisions of the boyar council, as confirmed by the tsar, were recognized as the normal form of legislation. The boyars and okolnichie ser\'ed as heads of the most important government ofiices (prikazy), as governors of the most important provinces, as military commanders and as chiefs of the most important foreign embassies. The tsar, however, did not have a free hand in the choice of despite

its

influential in political life

He was bound by

his chief aides.

the peculiar aristocratic custom

This was a complicated system of servicerelationships between the aristocratic families of Musco\'y. They were ranked in a definite genealogical order according to their called mestnichestvo.

relative seniority, while posts in the civil

tion

were arranged

highest posts in his

much

consider not so his

genealogical

and military administra-

in a similar hierarchical scale.

In

filling

the

army and

administration, the tsar had to the candidate's personal merits but rather

seniority

defined

as

by

precedents.

earlier

Mestnichestvo, which hampered the choice of the right man for the right position and caused endless quarrels among the boyar families over seniority, was finally abolished in 1682. After Ivan the Terrible's reign and the "time of troubles," the social and political importance of the boyars declined throughout the 17 th centurj'. Peter the Great abolished the very rank and title of boyar and made state service the sole means of attaining a high position in the bureaucratic hierarchy.

—

Bibliography. V. O. Klyuchevski, Boyarskaya Duma Drevnei Rust ("The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia"), 4th ed. (1909), A History of Russia, Eng. trans, by C. J. Hogarth, vol. 2 (1912), and Kurs Russkoi Mestnichestve (1S79) Istorii, vol. 2 (1957). See also A. Markevich, and Istoriya Mestnichestva (1888) V. Sergeevich, Drevnosti Russkogo Prava ("Antiquities of Russian Law"), vol. i, 3rd ed. (1909); G. Vernadsky, Russia at the Dawn of the Modern Age (1959). ;

(S.

BOY BISHOP, according to a

custom widespread

G. Pu.)

midwas chosen in connection with the festival of Holy Innocents. In England the boy bishop was elected Dec. 6. the feast of St. Nicholas, the patron of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day (Dec. 28). The boy and his colleagues took possession of the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and Several ecclesiastical councils had attempted ofiices except Mass. to abolish or to restrain the abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council of Basel in 1431. It was. however, too popular to be easily suppressed. In England it was finally abolished by Elizabeth I. An analogous custom survived until late in the 18th century in Germany, where on March 12, in honour of St. Gregory, the patron of schools, a schoolboy was elected bishop. See also Fools, Feast of. in the

dle ages,

See E. K. Chambers, 'r/ze Medieval Stage, vol.

BOYCE, WILLIAM

i,

pp. 336-371 (1903).

(1710-1779), one of the foremost Eng-

composers of church music, notable also for his sjTnphonies as an organist and musical editor. He was probably born in London in 1710, and was a chorister under Charles King at St. Paul's cathedral, and later a student of Maurice Greene, the organist there. He became organist of the Oxford chapel, Vere lish

and

—

BOYCE— BOYD London, in 1734. Other appointments about this time included that of conductor of the Three Choirs festival (1737). Boyce's career as a composer was closely related to his many official positions. He became composer to the Chapel Royal in 1736 and many of his anthems and church services were written for use there and at the London churches of which he was organist St. Michael's, Cornhill. 1736-68. and All Hallows, Thames street, 1749-68. He also composed secular music for the stage, an early example being the music for Lord Lansdowne's masque. Peleus and Thetis, first produced in 1740. The serenata Solomon (1743) is among the best of such works; it contains the once-popular tenor scena "Softly rise, o southern breeze." His next published work was Twelve Sonatas for two Violins with a Bass (1747), which achieved an instant and lasting popularity. In about 1745 he began the publication of the first of several volumes of the collection In 1 749 he reof his own songs and cantatas. Lyra Britannica. ceived his doctorate of music from the University of Cambridge be joyfor his setting of William Mason's ode and of the anthem In the ful for the duke of Newcastle's installation as chancellor. The Chaplet, musical entermusic for "a same year he wrote the tainment" by Moses Mendez, which long remained popular. The next year, 1750, saw a revival of Dryden's Secular Masque, with music by Boyce. including the well-known Son^ of Momus to Mars. In 1751 came another musical entertainment by Mendez and Boyce street,

breeding. While the laboratories are equipped and manned on the basis of techniques, the problems are generally attacked as projects, focusing all techniques on them necessary for their solution,

even adding new lines of technique for particular problems when needed. The institute has sufficient land available for field plots so that A large laboratory findings can be tested out on a field basis. arboretum gives adequate opportunity for the study of problems of forest and ornamental plants, including propagation, diseases, insect pests, soil adaptation and hardiness. The institute has held the view that research on plants should contribute alike to science and to practice and that real progIt is world famous ress in either requires a fundamental attack. These infor its researches in certain phases of plant science. organs and the effect clude chemicals for forcing dormant plant of such chemicals

Greene's death in 1755. Boyce succeeded him as master of the King's Band of Music and thereafter composed the music for the annual new year and birthday odes by the poet laureate. In 1758

he became one of the organists at the Chapel Royal and in 1759 he composed the music for the pantomime. Harlequin's Invasion, by Garrick, which includes his most famous song. Heart of Oak. In 1760 appeared his Eight Symphonys, orchestral works selected from his odes, operas, etc. They had some success, but ten years later, when he published a second set, the Twelve Overtures, the more exciting symphonies of the Mannheim school were in vogue and Boyce's shapely and tuneful "ancient style" symphonies were regarded as out of date. Meanwhile, he had begun to publish his famous collection of Cathedral Music, 3 vol. (1760-73). Based in part on materials collected by Greene, it was a landmark in the history of church music, the first collection since the Restora-

Boyce performed his tion, and the first to be printed in score. well by the standards of his time, and his collection, which covered three centuries, was only superseded in the mid- 19th cen-

work tury.

Boyce had been long afflicted by deafness, and in 1769 he gave He was all appointments except that at the Chapel Royal. still able to teach, however, and his pupils included the child prodigies, Charles and Samuel Wesley. He died in London, Feb. 7. up

1779.

As a man Boyce was respected and loved. As a composer, his fame long rested mainly on his church music; his anthems are still sung. Later, the vigour of his symphony-overtures was increasingly recognized and many have been reprinted and performed. Some, arranged by Constant Lambert, were used for the ballet The Prospect Before Us, first produced at Sadler's Wells, London, in 1940.

See his Overtures, ed. by G. Finzi, in Musica Britannica (1957). (Cs. Ch.)

BOYCE THOMPSON INSTITUTE FOR PLANT RESEARCH, INC., of Yonkers, N.V., was founded and endowed by Col. William Boyce Thompson of Yonkers. The institute was formally opened on Sept. 24. 1924. It is a foundation for research on plants and plant products, insecticides and fungicides. The results of the foundation's research are published.

The greenhouses and other growing chambers

give accurate con-

growth conditions for plants, including light (quality, daily duration and intensity), humidity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration of the air. This apparatus is on sufficiently large scale to permit plants to be grown to maturity in large numbers. Special attention is given to adequate equipment so that researches may be carried forward with facility and accuracy. The laboratories are adequately equipped for researches in physiology, patrol of

upon plant metabolism; germination and storage

of seeds, especially those offering difficulties in practical fields such as conservation, forestry, horticulture and seed trade; plant hormones and other chemicals that regulate plant development,

movement and metabolism;

virus and yellows diseases of plants;

and synthesis of cellulose by plant cellw^lls.

— The Sheplierd's Lottery. On

45

thology, morphology and anatomy, biochemistry, microchemistry, physical chemistry, entomology, organic chemistry and plant

cells

and structure of primary (W. Cro.;X.) (1832-1897),

BOYCOTT, CHARLES CUNNINGHAM

English estate manager who achieved notoriety during the agitation over the Irish land question when he became the originator of the word "boycott." Born in Norfolk on March 12, 1832, the son of a parson, he retired from the army with the rank of captain and in

1873 became agent for the earl of Erne's estates in County Mayo, The Land league, formed in 1879 when bad hars-ests threatened a new famine (see Ireland; History), soon told Boycott that he must reduce rents and in 1880 made a concerted de-

Ireland.

In Sept. 1880, after Boycott had urged that without resort to violence the tenants should avoid any communication with those who refused their demands. This tactic was first used

mand

for a

attempted

25%

reduction.

to serve writs for eviction, C. S. Parnell

its success was demonstrated when he needed the help of 50 volunteers from Ulster, working under an armed escort of 900 soldiers, to harvest his crops. Boycott left Ireland the same year, but conditions quickly eased after Gladstone's Land act of ISSl had set up fair rent tribunals. Boycott became an agent for

on Boycott, and

estates in Suffolk in 1886

and died there on June

19, 1897.

After 1880 the term "boycott" soon came into common use and was at first used to describe all forms of nonviolent intimidation; it is now generally synonymous with "sending to Coventry." (D. G.)

BOYD,

the name of an old and distinguished Scottish family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, had fought with William Wallace and Robert I (the Bruce), and later acquired the barony (1592) and earldom (1661) of Kilmarnock. Robert Boyd (d. c. 1481), Lord Boyd, a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1430), was created a peer c. 1454 and was one of the regents of Scotland during the minority of James III. He secured the person of the young king in 1466 and was appointed governor of the realm (1466)' and chamberlain (1467). He arranged the marriage (1469) between James III and Margaret, daughter of Christian I, king of

secured the cession by Norway to Scotland of Orkney and Shetland. But Boyd's great power aroused jealousies, and he was attainted of treason and sentenced to death probably in Nov. 1469; he escaped to England, and died c. 1481,

Denmark and Norway, which

at

Alnwick, Northumberland.

Thomas Boyd

(d. c.

1473), earl of Arran, Robert Boyd's eldest

son, received his title in April 1467. on his marriage with Mary, for the sister of James III. and was principal envoy to Denmark

negotiations of 1468-69. On his return with King James's bride escaped in July 1469 he learned of his family's fall from power and with his wife to Denmark. He was forfeited by parliament in Nov. 1469, and is thought to have been dead by 1474, the date of his

widow's marriage to Lord Hamilton, from whom the Hamiltofi earls of Arran were descended. Robert Boyd (c. 1517-90), Lord Boyd, was prominent in Scot-

;

BOYDELL— BOYLE

46 tish politics

from

his succession to the title in 1551 or 1558.

At he favoured the reformed reHgion, but was afterward a trusted Mary Stuart and supported her at the battle of Langside (1568). During the queen's captivity he was often employed on diplomatic errands and was suspected of participation in the

to have been due to his work with the FAO. Knighted in 1935, he received a barony on Jan. i, 1949. His writings include The National Food Supply and Its Influence on Public Health (1934) Nutrition in War (1940); Fighting for What? (1942); Food and the People (19431: Food the Foundation of World Unity

murder of the regent Moray. He was in favour under the regent Morton, but was banished to France in 1583 for a short while, for

(1948); and The White Man's

his share in the raid of

poet of Swedish modernism, was born at Goteborg on Oct. 26, 1900. She studied at the universities of Uppsala and Stockholm, became a leading figure in the Clarte socialist movement inspired by Henri Barbusse and worked on Spektrum, a review propagating psychoanalytical theory and modernistic literary views. Her five collections of poems (beginning with Moln, 1922) show the evolution of her outlook and style from the simple expression of a middle-class girl's dreams and a young radical's eager acceptance of life to bolder images, wider perspectives and feeling for the tragic problems of mankind. Among her novels are Kris 1934J, based on her discovery of her own deviant sexual inclinations, and Kallocain (1940), which describes the insupportable oppression of

first

adviser of

on Jan.

3,

Ruthven, a plot

to seize

James VI.

He

died

1590,

Several descendants of the 1st Lord Boyd held the office of chamberlain of Kilmarnock, Thomas Boyd (c. 1547-1611), Lord Boyd, resigned his whole estate to James VI, and on Jan. 12, 1592, was granted the lordship and barony of Kilmarnock. His greatgrandson William Boyd (d. 1692 ), Lord Boyd of Kilmarnock, was created earl of Kilmarnock on Aug. 17, 1661, and the barony was in this title until both were forfeited by the attainder of his great-grandson, William Boyd (1705-46). 4th earl of Kilmarnock,

merged

who was captured

Edward, the Young PreApril 1746, He was beheaded

fighting for Charles

tender, at the battle of Culloden in on Aug. 18, 1746. William Boyd's second but first surviving son, James Boyd (1726-78), succeeded to the estates but not to the title of his father. On the death of his maternal great-aunt, he became, in 1758, 15th earl of ErroU, adopting the ErroU family name of Hay. The barony of Kilmarnock was revived in favour of William George Hay (1801^6), 18th earl of Erroll, and the title Lord Kilmarnock was thereafter used by the eldest son of the earl of Erroll. JossLYN Victor Hay (1901-41), 22nd earl of Erroll, was succeeded in the earldom of Erroll by his daughter, and in the barony of Kilmarnock by his brother, Gilbert Allan Rowland Hay (1903), who resumed the name of Boyd.

BOYDELL, JOHN

(1719-1804), English publi.sher, engraver and lord mayor of London, whose good taste and liberality as a publisher of engravings exerted an extensive influence on English art, was born at Dorrington, on Jan. 19, 1719. At the age of 21 he went to London and was apprenticed for seven years to an engraver. In 1 746 he published a volume of views in England and Wales and started in business as a print seller. He was sheriff in 1785, and in 1790 became lord mayor of London. In 1786 he published, by subscription, a series of prints illustrating Shakespeare's plays. The pictures from which these were made were commissioned from the most famous artists of the day and were exhibited in Boydell's own galler>' in Pall Mall. In 1802, the year of_the production of Boydell's Shakesprarf, the gallery contained 102 pictures, including canvases by Reynolds, Romney, Opie, Barry. Fuseli, Angelica Kauffmann, Stothard and others. Toward the close of his life Boydell sustained severe losses and was compelled to dispose of his Shakespeare gallery by lottery. He died on Dec. 12, 1804, in London.

JOHN BOYD

BOYD-ORR, ORR, ist Baron, of Brechin Mearns, in the county of Angus (iSSo), British scientist and authority on nutrition who was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1949. Born at Kilmaurs, Ayrshire, Scot,, on Sept, 23, 1S80, he was educated at Glasgow university, where he went on to the study of nutrition after enrolling as a theological student.

In 1914 he went to Aberdeen university as director of the Institute of Animal Nutrition and in 1929 founded the Imperial Bureau of Animal Nutrition at Rowett. Boyd-Orr first became well-known following the publication of Food, Health and Income (1936 ), the report of a dietary survey by income groups made during 1935. It

showed that the cost of a diet fulfilling basic nutritional requirements was beyond the means of half the British population and that 10% of it was badly undernourished. The findings of this report and of others conducted by the Rowett institute formed the basis of the British food rationing system during World War II, when Boyd-Orr was a member of the cabinet's scientific committee on food policy and held the chair of agriculture at Aberdeen. In 1945, the year in which he became rector of Glasgow university and a member of parliament for the Scottish universities, he was elected director-general of the United Nations Food and .Agriculture organization (FAO). He held this post until 194S, and his Nobel award the following year was generally considered

—

BOYE, KARIN MARIA

Dilemma (1953). (1900-1941), the leading

woman

(

a totalitarian society of the future.

Karin Boye committed suicide

at Alingas

on April

24, 1941.

(L, G. G. T.)

BOYER, JEAN PIERRE A

Haiti.

France.

(c. 1773-1850), president of mulatto, he was born in Port-au-Prince and educated in After the first Haitian revolts, he served under Gen. Andre

Rigaud, who ruled part of southern Haiti and opposed Toussaint L'Ouverture (q.v.). He fled to France after Rigaud's defeat, returned with the French army in 1802, and then joined the revolt that established Haiti's independence. He was private secretary to .Mexandre Sabes Petion and then chief of the presidential guard.

When

Petion died, Boyer's friends in the

army forced

the senate

him as president for life. Boyer occupied northern Haiti after Henri Christophe's death in 1820 and in 1822 conquered the former Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, thus becoming ruler of the entire island. In 1825 France recognized Haiti's independence in return for a promise, not fully carried out, to pay a $30,000,000 indemnity. Boyer was honest and able but his autocratic policy made him unpopular in later years, especially among the younger generation. He was ousted by a revolution in 1843 and died in poverty at Paris, July 9, 1850, He was responsible for much important legislation includto elect

See also Haiti: History. (D, G, Mo.) (1627-91), English natural philosopher, BOYLE, was one of the founders of modern chemistry. He was the 7th son and 14th child of Richard Boyle, the great earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore castle. Ire,, Jan. 25, 1627. While still a child he learned to speak Latin and French, and he was only eight years old when he was sent to Eton, In 1638 he went to travel abroad with a French tutor. Visiting Italy in 1641, he remained during the winter of that year in Florence, studying the "paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo. On returning to England in 1644 Boyle devoted his life to study and scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College," who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy." They met often in London, at Gresham college; some of the members also had meetings at Oxford, and Boyle went to reside in that city in 1654. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air pump, he set himself, with the assistance of Robert Hooke. to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "pneumatical engine," finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air. An account of the work was pubhshed in 1660 as New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring oj ing the basic law codes of Haiti.

ROBERT

Air and Its Effects.

Among the critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595-1675), and it was while answering his objections that Boyle enunciated the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure, which among Englishspeaking peoples is usually called after his name, though on the continent of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte. who did not publish it till 1676. In 1663 the "Invisible College" became the

—

BOYLE— BOYS' BRIGADE "Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge," and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II named Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths. In i658 he moved to London, where he died on Dec. 30, 1691. Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried out the principles which Bacon preached in the Novum Organum. Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of any other teacher. He performed experiments in the hope of

and he was instrumental

effecting the transmutation of metals,

in obtaining the repeal, in 16S9, of the statute of

With

multiplying gold and silver.

all

Henry IV against work he ac-

the important

complished in physics— the enunciation of Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the e.xpansive force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, etc. chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first book on the subject was The Sceptical Chemist, published in 1661, in which he criticized the "experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and Mercury to be the true Principles of Things." He advanced toward the view that matter was ultimately composed of "corpuscles" of various sorts and sizes capable of arranging themselves into groups, and that each group constituted a chemical substance. He distinguished between mixtures and compounds and showed that a compound might have

—

different qualities

from those of

its

He

constituents.

studied the

chemistry of combustion and of respiration and made experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered by the "tenderness of his nature" which kept him from anatomical disBesides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle was interested and in 1665 w'ould have received the provostship of Eton, if he had taken orders. He learned Hebrew, Greek and Syriac in order to pursue his scriptural studies and spent large in theology,

sums on

By

he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian religion against "notorious biblical translations.

his will

pagans, Jews and Mahommedans," with the proviso that controversies between Christians were not to be mentioned.

infidels, viz., atheists, theists,

(See also Chemistry: History of Chemistry.) incomplete and unauthorized edition of Boyle's works was published at Geneva in 1677, but the first complete edition was that of Thomas Birch, with a life, published in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second edition appearing in 1772 in six volumes, quarto.

An

Boyle bequeathed his natural history collections to the Royal sowhich also possesses a portrait of him by the German painter, Kerseboom (1632-90). See also references under "Boyle, Robert" in the Index volume.

ciety,

Friedrich

See F. Masson, Robert Boyle, a Biography (1914) L. T. More, Lije and Works of the Honourable Robert Boyle (1944). ;

BOYLE

(Mainistir na Bl'ille), a town

County Roscommon. Republic of Ireland, 106 mi. W.N.W. of Dublin and 24 mi. S.S.E. of Sligo by road. Pop. (1961) 1,739. It is situated on both banks of the Boyle, a tributary of the Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key, at the foot of the Curlew hills. Three bridges connect the two parts of the town. Trade is mainly agricultural. To the north of the town stand the extensive ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161 and suppressed in 1569, including remains of a cruciform church, with early Gothic and

Romanesque arches carved There

is

a large

in

down the long nave. road toward Lough Gara.; many

in beautiful detail

dolmen by the

prehistoric remains, including dugout boats, have been found in the lake.

Sainte-Marie-des-Fleurs, the definitive edition (1907). an autobiographical love story, had appeared in 1897. Then came tourangeaiix Mademoiromans known the series as the powerful selle Cloqiie (1899), La Becqnee (1901), L'Enfant a la balustrade (1903; Eng. trans. The Child at the Balustrade, 1929) and La Jeune Fille bien elevee (1909) w^hich although ostensibly works of imagination, reveal Boylesve as the historian par excellence of rural and urban society in the west of France during 1870-1900 half in

—

—

and at the same time, a poet. Mention should also be made of his most famous and least understood work. La Le his cabin is said to have been the first built by a white man west of

the

\

the Alleghenies.

Incorporated as a borough

in 1867,

Braddock's

growth was primarily a result of the industrialization of the Pittsburgh region in the post-Civil War period. Most of the work Braddock was force is engaged in primary steel production. named for Gen. Edward Braddock (q.v.), who in 17SS was am(P. R. J.) bushed there by the French and Indians.

BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH

(1837-1915), English for her popular melodrama, Lady Audley's London, Oct. 4, 1837. Her first novel was The Trail of the Serpent (1861). In 1862 she produced her threevolume novel Lady Audley's Secret, originally written serially at the request of John Ma.xwell for his magazine Robin Goodfellow. A lurid story of crime in high society which yet did not transgress

novelist, best

Secret,

owed some of her success to the fact that critical attacks on her novels merely served to increase her sales, in her later novels especially she shows a capacity for social satire and a skill in conveying atmosphere which causes regret that her talent for storytelling should have overpowered her latent sense of style. Her She died at Richmond, last novel was The Green Curtain (1911). Surrey, on Feb.

4.

1915.

WILLIAM

(c. 1560-1630), English violist and BRADE, composer who was one of the most important of the group of Eng-

lish

musicians living

Germany

in

known

was born

in

in the early

1

He

7th century.

worked in many places in Germany (including Berlin, Gottorf, Hamburg, Halle and Giistrow). and also at Copenhagen, and finally returned to Hamburg in 1626. His music, which greatly inlluenced his German contemporaries, including S. Scheldt and J. H. Schein, is often unorthodox: his more experimental dance suites incorporate, among other features, unusual rhythms, which tend to obHowever, scure the normal characteristics of the dance forms. he also composed suites in which the dance types are clearly differentiated. His music, largely consisting of dance suites and fancies (called caiizoni was published between 1607 and 1621 in contemporary collections at Hamburg, Liibeck, Berlin and Ant(A. D. F.) werp. He died at Hamburg. Feb. 26, 1630. BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?-15S5), Enghsh Protestant paymaster Manchester. was deputy at the martyr, was born at He 1 544 and studied law in the Inner Temple siege of Montreuil (1547 ), when, influenced by a fellow student. Thomas Samp.-^on, he "sold his chains, rings, brooches and jewels of gold," giving the proceeds to the poor. Determined then to study theology, he entered St. Catherine's hall, Cambridge (1548), received his M..-\. degree (1549) and was appointed a fellow of Pembroke hall. Nicholas Ridley, bishop of London, ordained him deacon and made him his chaplain (1550 and a prebendary of St. Paul's (1551) as a chaplain (1553) to Edward VI, he became a popular preacher. Soon after Queen Mary's accession he was imprisoned on a charge 1

(

Holdsworth, A History of English Law, vol. ii and vi. (1936, 37); "The Bracton Memorial," Law Times, vol. i.vS, (W. T. Ws.) pp. 302-303 (1923)See Sir

new

Victorian ideas of propriety, it was a sensational financial success. She subsequently married John Maxwell, published over 70 further novels, and edited several magazines. Although she may have

)

)

;

of sedition (Aug. 1553). examined, mainly on his eucharistic beliefs (Jan.

1555

).

and burned as a heretic before

Smithfield on July

1,

1555, in his last

a large

crowd

moments encouraging

at his

young companion, John Leaf. See

A Town.send

(ed.).

The Writings of John Bradford (1S4S-S3).

BRADFORD, WILLIAM

(1590-1657), governor and historian of the Plymouth colony in colonial America, was born at .\usterfield, Yorkshire, Eng.. probably in March 1590. A year after Bradford's birth, his father died and he was reared by his grandfather and uncles who trained him in farming. At the age of 12, Bradford read the Scriptures and, against his friends' advice, became a Separatist (see Congregationalism). He joined the harassed nonconformists when they migrated to Holland in 1609 In spite of his comparative youth, in search of religious freedom. Bradford became a leader of the group of Pilgrims who sailed to America in 1620. A passenger on the "Mayflower," he signed the

Mayflower compact, helped locate the spot for settlement, and recovering from serious illness, was unanimously elected governor in 1621 upon the death of Gov. John Carver. Though he urged rotation in office, he w'as re-elected 30 times, serving every year except five from 1621 to 1656. Under Bradford's judicious guidance, Plymouth was put on a sound basis both economically and politically. Some historians have objected to the broad extent of the powers exercised by Bradford in the first years of the Plymouth settlement. Others, more realistically, have shown that under his leadership Plymouth was essentially democratic, that the powers he exercised were given to him by the pgople in annual elections, and that the people could have chosen another governor had they been dissatisfied. A self-taught man, a Calvinist and a congregationalist, Bradafter

ford was skilled in languages and literature.

No

portrait of

him

but the inventory of his estate shows a man who liked fine, colourful clothes. He married twice and was the father of four children. He died at Plymouth on May 9. 1657. Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620-1647, a journal of the exists,

BRADFORD— BRADFORD-ON-AVON Pilgrims, ranks among the major literary achievements of his time and remains our best source of knowledge of the Pilgrims. Though not published until 1856, contemporary historians such as Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson used it in manuscript Bradford also wrote several Dialogues and some poetry, form. and collaborated with Edward Winslow in writing the journal known as Mourt's Relation. See also Mass.^chvsetts: History.

See Samuel Eliot Morison (ed.) 0/ Pl\mouth Plantation (1952); (B. K. B.) Bradford Smith, Bradford of Plymouth (1951).

BRADFORD, WILLIAM printer,

was born

in

(1663-1752). American colonial

Leicestershire. England, on

May

20,

1663.

London and in 16S2 emigrated where in 16S5 he introduced the "art and mystery" of printing. His first imprint was an almanac, Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America's Messenger (1685). In 1690. with William Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in Roxboro (Pa. I. now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill in America. In the spring of 1693 he moved to New York, where he was appointed royal printer for the colony, a position that he held On Nov. 8, 1725, he issued the first for more than 50 years. number of the Xew York Gazette, the first paper established in New York and from 1725 to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford died in New York on May 23. 1752. See Newsp.^per; Early Papers in Philadelphia and New York. BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), U.S. marine painter whose pictures attracted much attention by reason of their novHe elty and colour effects, was born at New Bedford. Mass. was a Quaker and a self-taught artist, painting the ships and the marine views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts. Labrador and Nova Scotia; he went on several arctic expeditions with Isaac Hayes and was the first American painter to portray the frozen His "Steamer 'Panther' in Melville Bay. regions of the north. under the Light of the Midnight Sun" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1875. Bradford was a member of the National Academy of Design, New York; he died in that city on April 25, 1892. His style was somewhat influenced by .Mbert van Beest, who worked with him at Fairhaven for a time, but Bradford is observant of minute detail whereas Beest's aim was general effect. John Greenleaf Whittier's poem "Amy Wentworth" was inspired by a Bradford painting and is addressed to him. BRADFORD, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary

He

learned the printer's trade in

to Pennsylvania,

borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng.. 9 mi. W. of Leeds by road. Pop. (1961) 295.768. Area 38.9 sq.mi. The centre of Bradford is in a small valley opening southward from that of the Aire and the outskirts extend into the surrounding hills. Bradford's situation on the lower eastern spurs of the Pennines had much to do with its history and development. Bradford is mentioned as haying belonged before 1066 to one Gamel and appears to have been almost destroyed before 1086. By that time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, in whose family it continued until the death of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in 131 1. Already Bradford was becoming an important market centre. A charter for a market every Thursday was granted to Edmund de Lacy in 1251 and a fair of five days' duration was granted in addition in 1294. The inquisitio post mortem taken in 131 1 shows that the earl had there a hall or manor house, a fulling mill, a market and a fair. Edward IV granted or confirmed to certain feoffees, in whom he had vested his manor of Bradford, a market on Thursdays and two yearly fairs. The church of St. Peter, which occupies the site of a previous Norman church, dates from 1458 and has a fine original roof of oak. After the diocese of Bradford was formed in 1919. out of those of Ripon and Wakefield, the parish church of St. Peter was made the cathedral. The grammar school existed in the 16th century and received a charter of incorporation from Charles II. From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible to surmise that woolen manufacture had already begun. By the reign of Henry \TII it had become an important industry and added much to the status of the town. John Leland in his Iti>ierary says that Bradford is "a praty quik Market Toune. It standith much by clothing." Toward the end of the 17th and beginning of the

57

18th century the woolen trade decreased, and worsted manufacture began to take its place. On the introduction of steam power and machinery the worsted trade advanced with great rapidity. The first steam-powered mill in Bradford was built in 1 79S by the early 1960s there were about 400 mills serving the textile and clothing ;

industry alone. In 1836 Titus (later Sir Titus) Salt developed the alpaca manufacture in the town; mohair was shortly aftenvard introduced: and the great works at Saltaire were opened. Later. S. C. Lister (Lord Masham) introduced the silk and velvet manufacture, having invented a process for manipulating silk waste whereby what was previously treated as refuse was made into goods that could compete with those manufactured from the perfect cocoon. The Bradford wool exchange is the chief wool-buying centre, and Bradford's commercial relations with South America and Australia It is the chief centre for wool-combing and are very important. the worsted industry and has a conditioning house for testing all kinds of textiles. The local water much of which is brought from after draining through peaty the Nidd valley about 32 mi. away soil, is very soft and consequently is specially suited to wool washing and other manufacturing processes. There are deposits of coal and iron in the vicinity. The technical college was opened in 1S82. The Mechanics' institute was founded in 1825, and in 1871 the present building, near the town hall, was opened. The Cartwright Memorial hall contains an art gallery and museum and commemorates Edmund Cart-

— —

wright

(

q.v.

I.

Other public buildings are Boiling hall (14th century), the ancestral home of Edith Boiling, wife of Pres. Woodrow Wilson, and opened in 191S as a museum of English social history. St. George's hall (1833), the wool exchange (1867), the Gothic town hall (1873). the market hall (1S7S) and Britannia house (1933). The

Margaret McMillan Memorial Training college for the training Most of of infant and nursery teachers was completed in 1956. the buildings in Bradford are built with freestone quarried locally, There are smoke. influence of which blackens easily under the about 2.000 ac. of parks and open spaces. Bradford was incorporated in 1847. created a county borough in 1888 and a city in 1S97. The council is presided over by a lord mayor, a dignity conferred in 1907. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1832 until 1885. when three were returned.

Since 1918, four

members

represent Bradford.

(W. H. Lm.)

BRADFORD,

McKean

county. Pa., U.S., near the northern border of the state, 85 mi. S.E. of Buffalo, N.Y.. on the forks of Tunenguant creek. (For comparative population figures a city of

see table in Pen.vsvlvani.^: Population.) Bradford is the commercial and industrial centre of Pennsyl-

The first oil well was drilled in 1861 and production began in 1875. Production increased rapidly to a peak in 1881 when the area was producing 40% of the world's output. Production declined at the end of the 19th century, but increased after 1906 when a flooding process was introduced. After mid-20th century there were 35,000 w'ells in production in the county. The city's principal industries centre about the oil industry and include the refining of oil (two pipelines also carry oil to the seaboard), and the production of greases, gasoline, oil well supLumber, brick and wooden articles plies, tools and machinery. are manufactured from the products of the surrounding hills. Cutlery, carbon brushes for electrical machines, steel sections, cigarette lighters, paper containers and component parts for television are also manufactured in Bradford. Bradford was established about 1827 by settlers from New England. It was called Littleton after Col. Lebitt C. Little, an early resident, until 1873 when it took the name Bradford for the NewHampshire town from which many early settlers came. It was incorporated as a borough in 1873, and chartered as a city in 1879. The 65.000-ac. Allegheny state park is 3 mi. from Bradford. The Cornplanter Indian reservation, the only remaining Indian vania's richest

commercial

oil field.

oil

reserve in Pennsylvania,

is

15 mi. to the west.

BRADFORD-ON-AVON,

an urban

(W. A. C.) the West-

district in

—

BRADLAUGH— BRADLEY bury parliamentary division of Wiltshire, Avon 9 mi. E.S.E. of Bath. Pop. (1961) gray Cotswold stone rise up the steep sides river is spanned by a nine-arched medieval

Eng., on the 5,757.

Its

Bristol

houses of

and the bridge on which is a

of the valley,

advanced radical in 1880. A long and sensational parliamentary struggle now began. He claimed to be allowed to affirm under the Parliamentary Oaths act, and the rejection of this pretension, and the refusal to allow him to take the oath on his proas an

chapel.

fessing his willingness to do so, terminated in Bradlaugh's victory

Bradford was the scene of a victory of Cenwalch of Wessex over rebels in 652. A monastery existed there of which St. Aidhelm w'as abbot when he was made bishop of Sherborne in 705. In Abbey yard probably the site of the monastery stands the Saxon church of St. Lawrence, considered by Edward Freeman to be "the most perfect surviving church of its kind in England, if not in Europe." It consists of a nave, chancel and porch and was only rediscovered in 1856 when it was carefully restored. Up to the string-molding it is almost certainly St. Aldhelm's original In 959 the witan (q.v.).OT witanagemot was held at Bradfabric. ford. The monastery was sacked by the Danes in 1003, but the abbess of Shaftesbury, to whom the monastery and manor was given for refuge in 1001, held the manor until the Reformation. Bradford appears as a borough in Domesday Book. The town was at one time the centre of the west of England wool trade and was famous for its broadcloth and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being especially suitable. Flemish merchants settled there during the reign of Edward III. Despite the introduction of weaving machinery in the 17th century and the great prosperity

in 1886.

—

—

of the 19th century, there

came

a decline in the 1840s;

the last

cloth mill in Bradford closed in 1905.

The main industry

rubber with subsidiaries such as the making of ledgers. The 12th-century parish church of Holy Trinity has had continued additions; the 14th-century stone-tiled tithe barn, one of the best in the country, is preserved as a museum of agricultural implements; Kingston house, restored and called the Hall, was built about 1600 and later used for a time as a wool is

store.

BRADLAUGH, CHARLES

(1833-1891), English freethinker and radical, prominent during the second half of the 19th century for his championship of individual liberty, was born at Hoxton, London, on Sept. 26, 1833, the son of a poor solicitor's clerk. He earned a living by odd jobs, and came into contact with a group of freethinkers who were disciples of Richard Carlile. At the end of 1850 he enlisted as a soldier, but in 1853 was bought out with money provided by his mother. He then found employment as a lawyer's clerk, and gradually became known as a free thought lecturer, under the name of "Iconoclast." He edited the National Reformer for several years from 1860, and displayed much resource in legal defense when the paper was prosecuted by the government on account of its alleged blasphemy and sedition in 1868-69. The passing of the Evidence Amendment act in 1869 was the result of another legal contest (1867-69) as to whether Bradlaugh, being an atheist, and so unable to take the oath, could give evidence in a court of law. Bradlaugh played a prominent part in the republican movement which enjoyed a certain amount of popular support in the early 1870s. In 1874 he became acquainted with Mrs. Annie Besant, who soon became co-editor of the National Reformer. In 1876 the Bristol publisher of an American pamphlet, on the population question, called Fruits of Philosophy (see Knowlton, Charles), was indicted for selling an indecent work, and, pleading guilty, was lightly sentenced; but Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant took the matter up, in order to vindicate their ideas of liberty, and aggressively republished and circulated the pamphlet. In the prosecution which resulted they were convicted and sentenced to a heavy fine and imprisonment, but the sentence was stayed and the indictment ultimately quashed on a technical point. The affair, however, had several side issues in the courts and led to much prejudice against the defendants, the distinction being ignored between a protest against the suppression of opinion and the championship of the particular opinions in question. Mrs. Besant's close alliance with Bradlaugh terminated in 1885, when she drifted from secularism, first into socialistic and labour agitation and then into theosophy as a pupil of Mme Helena Bradlaugh himself took up politics with increasing Blavatsky. fervour. He had been unsuccessful in standing for Northampton in 1868, but he was returned by that constituency to parliament

But this result was not obtained without protracted scenes house of commons. In July 1880 Bradlaugh was unseated; Aug. 1881, having been re-elected, he attempted to force his

in the in

way

into the house, but was ejected. In 1882, at the opening of the session, he entered the house and, producing a Bible from his pocket, administered the oath to himself. After several reelections

and exclusions, and much

torious in Jan. 1886,

when

litigation,

Bradlaugh was vic-

new speaker insisted on When< the long struggle was the

his being

allowed to take the oath. over, the public had gradually got used to Bradlaugh, and his transparent

honesty and courageous contempt for mere popularity gained him increasing respect. He died in London on Jan. 30, 1891. Hard, arrogant and dogmatic, with a powerful physique and a real gift for popular oratory, he was a natural leader in causes which had society against them, but his sincerity was as unquestionable as his combativeness.

BrBLioGRAPHY. Ckarles Bradlaugh by his daughter Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner and J. M. Robertson (1894); J. M. Robertson, Ckarles Bradlaugh (1920) J. P. Gilmour (ed.), Champion of Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh (1933). (A. Bri.) ;

BRADLEY, FRANCIS HERBERT tial

(1846-1924), influen-

British philosopher prominently associated with the Absolute

movement. He was born in Clapham (London; then in Surrey), on Jan. 30, 1846, a son of the Rev. Charles Bradley, an Evangelical preacher of some note w^ho fathered 22 children in all.

Idealist

He was

educated

college, Oxford,

He was

afterward he invalid

Cheltenham, at Marlborough and at University where he took second-class honours in Greats.

at

elected to a fellowship at for

fell

ill

Merton

Shortly a semiretained his fellowship at college in 1870.

of a kidney disease which

the rest of his

life.

He

made him

Merton, which involved no teaching duties, until his death on Sept. 18, 1924. Three months before, he had been appointed to the Order of Merit, being the first philosopher to receive that distinction. He was unmarried. Bradley came upon the British philosophical scene at a time when the empiricist theories of J. S. Mill and others were under attack from writers sympathetic to the ideas of Kant and Hegel, and much of his early work consisted in pressing home this attack. In Ethical Studies (1876; 2nd ed., 1927), his first major book, he exposed the confusions of the doctrine of utilitarianism as held by Mill; and in The Principles of Logic (1883; 2nd ed., 1922, corrected 1928), where his mastery of philosophical prose the slovenly is at its most evident, he trenchantly denounced psychologism and uncritical reliance on the principle of the association of ideas which was all that the empiricists could In both works Bradley acknowledged offer in the way of a logic. his debt to German writers and disclaimed originality, but he was never the simple "Hegelian" that some critics took him to be. Thus while one of the most striking essays in Ethical Studies, that on "My Station and its Duties," was .devoted to a brilliantly persuasive exposition of the Hegelian conception of "social ethics," Bradley did not hesitate to point out the shortcomings of this doctrine if taken as a complete account of the moral life; and in The Principles of Logic, where, without accepting formahsm, he tried to treat logic as a special science distinct from psychology on the one hand and from metaphysics on the other, his break with Hegelian doctrine, if not with Hegelian ways of thinking, was still more obvious. Professing to write "from a level not much above that of common sense," he tended to treat topics independently -and without much system; there was, moreover, manifest throughout the work a persistent suspicion of thought in all its forms as a source of mere abstractions, a suspicion which Bradley perhaps derived from R. H. Lotze. Later, under the influence of Bernard Bosanquet, Bradley repudiated some of the central ideas of this book, but his emphasis on the ultimate "failure" of thought remained.

Bradley's work in the fields of ethics and logic

made him, much

BRADLEY against his will, the leadiiig figure in a particular philosophical school, and this fact is of importance in assessing the effect of his third and most ambitious book, his "metaphysical essay" AppearBradley's followers ance and Reality (1893; 2nd ed,, 1897). expected from this book a demonstration of the spiritual na-

vindication of the truths of religion and of the superior reality of the soul. What they got was, in the author's own words, "a critical discussion of tirst principles," meant "to stimulate inquiry and doubt." Reality was indeed spirture

the

of

universe,

a

it was, said Bradley, a harmonious system of experience, a spiritual unity in diversity. But though this result was certain, If to demonstrate it in detail was beyond human capacity.

itual;

was made inevitable by the

nothing else ensured this conclusion, it fatally abstract nature of human thinking, once again insisted Immediate feeling could give us an idea of reality as a on. harmonious whole, individuated yet undivided, but the idea could not be worked out at the conceptual level. The outlook for any constructive metaphysics was accordingly bleak. Nor could Bradley's admirers lind much consolation in his treatment of religion and the self. Religion, he declared, was "not final and ultimate" but, in the end, a matter of practice: the philosopher's absolute

had

little to

do with the God of religious men.

As

for the self,

the idea was beset with at least as many difficulties as any other popular metaphysical notion. To say that souls were the only realities,

or

that

they were more real than other things, was

definitely false.

The immediate effect of Appearance and Reality was thus to encourage rather than to answer doubt; and in general it has been the negative and critical side of Bradley's thought which has proved influential. Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore, who led the attack on idealism in the early years of the 20th century, had each benefited from his sharp dialectic; important parts of the new logic which these philosophers introduced were already to be found in Bradley. Not that Bradley himself was prepared to accept their criticisms or ways of thinking: on the contrary, he protested to the last that they and other critics misrepresented him. But, rightly or wrongly, he failed to establish his position on this point. He is valued less for his conclusions than for the manner in which he reached them, for his determination to let nothing stand in the way of an honest enquiry into truth. Besides the fields mentioned above, Bradley did notable work in philosophical psychology, while his early essay on The Presuppositions of Critical History (1874) is still worth consulting. See also references under "Bradley, Francis Herbert'' in the Inde.x volume. B.iBLioGRAPHY. Bradley's psychological essays and minor writings were put together in Collected Essays, 2 vol. (iq.^5). In addition to the works named in the text he himself published Essays on Truth and Reality (1Q14). For biographical details see \. E. Taylor, "Francis Herbert Bradley," in the British Academy's Proceedings, IQ24-2; See further: B. Bosanquet, Knowledge and Reality (188.^); (1926). J. H. Muirhead, The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy Scepticism and Construction (1931); R. W. A. Campbell, C. (1931); Church, Bradley's Dialectic (1942) ; J. Pucelle, LTdealisme en An-

—

gleterre

(iPSO.'

BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE

(W. H. W.)

n82l-l903

),

Eng-

headmaster and liberal Anglican clergyman, was born at High on Dec. 11, 1821. He was educated at Rugby school under Thomas Arnold and then at University college, O.xford, where he became a fellow in 1844. At once he returned to Rugby, whence, having proved his ability both as teacher of classics and administrator, in 1858 he took orders and succeeded his former Rugby colleague G. E. L. Cotton as head of Marlborough college, a new public school which was then in an unsatisfactory condition. He soon eliminated disorder, improved finances and raised teaching to equality with the best. Subsequently, as master of University college (1870 to 1881), he elevated both the personal quality of its students and their academic standards. In 1881 he succeeded his close friend A. P. Stanley as dean of Westminster abbey, the buildings and finances of which his efforts restored. He died in London on March 13, 1903. Bradley's works include the standard Life and Letters of Stanley (1892) (with R. E. Prothero), two sets of lectures on Ecclesiastes (1885) and Job (1887) and a revision (published in 1881) of lish

Wycombe

59

Thomas

Arnold's Latin Prose Composition. See F. D. How, Six Great Schoolmasters (1904). (G. F. A. B.) (1693-1762), English astronomer and third astronomer royal, who discovered the aberration of light, was

BRADLEY, JAMES

at Sherborne, Gloucestershire, and educated at Balliol colOxford, His early astronomical observations were made at the rectory of Wanstead in Essex, under the tutelage of his uncle, i66()-i724), and he was elected a fellow the Rev. James Pound of the Royal society on Nov. 6, 1718. He was appointed Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford in 1721. His discovery of the

born lege,

(

made while attempting to detect a stellar paraU was communicated to the Royal society in Jan, 1729, but he withheld announcement of the supplementary discovery of the nutation until Feb. 14, 1748. when he had tested its reality by careful observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the moon's nodes. He succeeded Edmund Halley as astronomer royal in 1742 and while holding that office made fundamental contributions to both the instruments and techniques of observational astronomy. aberration of light, lax,

He

observed the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites for correct the existing tables, which he then used to

many make

years to accurate

determinations of the longitudes, from Greenwich, of Lisbon and New York, He retired in broken health in 1761 to Chalford, Gloucestershire, where he died the following year, on July 13. His observations, which are often considered to mark the beginning of the modern era in physical astronomy, were the subject of an ownership dispute, but were finally published in two volumes

(1798-1805) at Oxford, See S. P. Rigaud. Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of (0. J. E.) James Bradley. D.D. (1S32). BRADLEY, JOSEPH P (1813-1892), justice of the U.S. supreme court from 1S70 to 1892, whose opinions dealing with the commerce clause of the constitution (art. i, sec, 8) were of notable significance. He was born at Berne, near Albany, N,Y., on March 14, 1813. A farm boy with an insatiable thirst for learning, he managed to find a way to Rutgers college and thence to the New Jersey bar. He grew to be both a reflective master of the law and an active participant in large undertakings; the Camden & Amboy railroad was his most important client. In 1870 he was appointed to the supreme court and assigned to the 5th (southern) circuit, where he at once came to grips with the problems of Reconstruction. His advent made a bare majority to sustain the validity of the legal tender legislation of the Civil War. commission of 1877, it was his decisive vote that B.

Hayes

president.

partisan charges.

Each As

of these episodes produced unwarranted

power of congress to enforce racial amendments, his original views "were

to the

equality, under the postwar

much

In the electoral

made Rutherford

modified by subsequent reflection."

In 1883. in the

rights cases, he held invalid the statute wherein congress

had

civil

for-

bidden discrimination on grounds of colour in inns, public conveyances and places of amusement: the 14th amendment is directed at state, not private action. Throughout his 22 years on the court, Bradley was the great exponent of the proposition that the commerce clause makes the nation a single free-trade area a design which parochial legislation may not defeat. He was influential in

—

bringing the court to uphold state regulation of the rates of railroads and grain elevators. His was one of the most acute and Bradley died on powerful minds in the court's entire roster. Jan. 22, 1892, in Washington, D.C. His Miscellaneous Writings were compiled and edited by Charles Bradley (1902). Bibliography. Five essays by Charles Fairman approximate a biography: "Mr. Justice Bradley's .\ppointment to the Supreme Court and the Legal Tender Cases," Harvard Law Review, .^4:977-10,54, 112S-55 (1941); "The Education of a Justice: Justice Bradley and Someof His Colleagues," Stanford Law Review, 1:217-55 (i94q) "What Makes a Great Justice? Mr. Justice Bradley and the Supreme Court, 1870-92," Bacon Lectures on the Constitution of the United "The So-Called Granger Cases, Lord Hale, and States, 425-485 (1953) "Mr. JusJustice Bradley," Stanford Law Review, 5:587-679 (195,3) tice Bradlev," Mr. Justice, pp. 69-95, ed. by A. Dunham and P. B. Kur(C. Fn.) land (1956').

—

;

—

;

;

BRADLEY, OMAR NELSON commander II,

was born

of the 12th in

army group

in

Clark, Mo., on Feb. 12,

the United States Military

academy

in

(1893)• U.S. soldier, Europe during World War 1893, On graduation from 191 5 he was commissioned

BRADMAN— BRADY

6o

second lieutenant of infantry. At the opening of World War II he was commandant of the Infantry school, later commanding the 8:nd and the 2Sth divisions. In 1943 he led the 2nd corps in In the fall of that north Africa and in the Sicilian campaign. year he took command of the U.S. ist army in the United Kingdom and started planning for the Normandy invasion. He led the ist army in the landings in France and in the early battles of 1944, relinquishing this 1

2th U.S.

command

army group.

in

August

Under

to

assume command

his leadership,

the

ist,

of the

3rd, gth

and 15th armies, the largest force ever placed under a U.S. army group commander, carried on operations in France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Czechoslovakia. From 1945 to 1947 Bradley was administrator of veterans' afHe fairs, and from 1948 to 1949 chief of staff of the U.S. army. was the first chairman of the joint chiefs of staff after unification of the armed services. 1949-53, and was promoted to the rank of general of the army while in that post. In 195 1 he published a

volume

of reminiscences.

BRADMAN,

SIR

.4

(F. C. Pe.

Soldier's Story.

DONALD GEORGE

)

(1908-

),

Australian cricketer, perhaps the most remarkable batsman of

all

Cootamundra, New South Wales, on Aug. 27. 1908. He perfected his timing and quickened his eyesight by hitting a soft ball against a corrugated water tank and first played for New South Wales in 1927. Bradman scored 6,996 runs in test matches, in which his average of 99,94 runs was unparalleled. His judgment bordered on the miraculous and this, allied with incredibly deft footwork, enabled him to pulverize good-length bowling. In England in 1930, when he made the then test record of 334, no bowler could subdue him, but sticky wickets (rainaffected pitches) and fast, short-pitched "body-line" balls, as bowled by H. Larwood in Australia in 1932-33, momentarily checked him. A brilliant outfieldsman and a shrewd and successful captain, he retired from lirst-class cricket in 1948 and was knighted in 1949. See also Cricket. time,

was born

BiBLiOGKAPHY.

at

— D.

to Cricket (1950) J. H. (1949); A. G. Moyes, Bradman

Bradman, Farewell

Fingleton, Brightly Fades the (1948).

Don

;

(J.

H.

Fl.)

BRADSHAW, JOHN

(1602-1659), president of the "high court of justice" which tried Charles, I, was the second son of Henrv Bradshaw, of Marple and Wibersley in Cheshire and was baptized on Dec, 10, 1602, He was admitted into Gray's inn in 1620 and was called to the bar in 1627, becoming a bencher in 1647. On Sept. 21, 1643, he was appointed judge of the sheriff's court in London. In Oct. 1644 he was counsel, with William Prynne, in the prosecution of Lord Maguire and Hugh Macmahon, imphcated in the Irish rebellion; in 1645 for John Lilburne in his appeal to the lords against the sentence of the star chamber; and in 1647 In 1647 he was made in the prosecution of Judge David Jenkins. chief justice of Chester and a judge in Wales, and on Oct, 12, 1648, he was presented to the degree of sergeant-at-law. On Jan, 2, 1649, the lords threw out the ordinance for bringing the king to trial, and the small remnant of the house of commons which survived Pride's Purge (see English History) determined to carry out the ordinance on their own authority. The leading members of the bar of both parties having refused to participate in the proceedings, Bradshaw was selected to preside. The king refused to plead before the tribunal, but Bradshaw silenced every legal objection

and denied

to Charles

an opportunity to speak

in his

own

defense. -Bradshaw also conducted the trials of several royalists,

including the duke of Hamilton and Lord Capel.

He was

ap-

pointed, in 1649, attorney general of Cheshire and North Wales and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and on March 10 he be-

came president of

the council of state.

When,

after the expulsion

of the long parliament (April 1653) Oliver Cromw-ell came to dismiss the council, Bradshaw is said, on the authority of Edmund to have confronted him boldly and denied his power to He refused to sign the "engagement" drawn up by Cromwell pledging members of the parliament of 1654 to support the Protectorate, and in consequence withdrew from parliament. After the abdication of Richard Cromwell. Bradshaw again became a member of the council of state and on June 3, 1659, was appointed a commissioner of the great seal. He died on

Ludlow,

dissolve the parliament.

was buried in Westminster abbey. (c. 1290-1349), archbishop Canterbury and savant, noted as a theologian and mathematician, called the "profound doctor," was educated and taught at Oxford, where he became professor of divinity and chancellor. In 1335 he left the university and successively held important church offices. After serving as chancellor of the diocese of LonOct, 31, 16S9, and

BRAD'WARDINE, THOMAS

of

became a chaplain of Edward III during the early part of Hundred Years' War. He distinguished himself by his apostolic labours among the soldiers and served as a peace commissioner in 1347. Returning to England he became archdeacon of don, he the

Lincoln in 1347, and after a contested election, archbishop of Canterbury in 1349. He was struck down by the Black Death 40 days after Ills consecration. Among his disciples were Nicholas of Autrecourt, John Wycliff and John of Mirecourt. Bradwardine's most famous work was a treatise on grace and free will entitled The Cause of God Against Pelagius, in which he so stressed divine concurrence with all human volition that his folBradwardine lowers concluded from it a universal determinism. also wrote works on mathematics, entitled Speculative Geometry; Practical Arithmetic ; Proportions and Squaring the Circle, printed 1495-1530, as well as an unpublished Art of Memorization. .

See

W.

F.

Hook, Lives

.

.

;

of the Archbishops of Canterburv, vol. iv.

(D. D. McG.) B. (c 1823-1896). probably the best known photographer in U.S. history, was born in New 'V'ork state, as he himself said, "in the Lake George country about 1823-24." Through his friendship with William Page, the artist, he met Samuel F. B. Morse, who taught him to take daguerreotypes. In 1844 Brady opened his first New York gallery. Although Brady's name is synonymous with famous battlefield pictures of the Civil War, his career prior to the war is as important to history as his

BRADY,

MATHEW

accomplishments. as 1844 Brady won awards for his skilful daguerreotypes. In 1851 he was awarded a medal for a collection of 4S uncoloured daguerreotypes which he exhibited at the Crystal Palace exhibition in London. It was not only his skill as a photographer which won him everlasting fame, but also his plan, begun in 1845, to take portrait photographs of every great man and woman. The scope of his career is shown by his collection of presidential portraits; he photographed every president of the United States from John Quincy Adams, the sixth president, to William McKinley, with one exception, William Henry Harrison, who died only a battlefield

As early

month

after his inauguration in 1841. cover the Civil War, Brady spent his entire fortune of almost $100,000 to hire and equip a corps of photographic teams which covered every phase of the conflict and became the forerunner of the 20th-century newsphoto services. Many of his photographers later photographed the west for the Union Pacific railroad and as official photographers for government railroad sur-

To

veys.

Although his main activities were directing his cameramen from Washington office and supervising the operation of his fashionable galleries in New York and Washington, Brady also photographed the battlefields. He was at the first battle of Bull Run in 1S61 and at Antietam in 1862 and photographed the battlefields of Gettysburg shortly after the battle had ended; he was at Fredericksburg in 1862 and was under cannon fire at Petersburg in 1864. He also took the memorable photographs of Abraham Lincoln and of Robert E. Lee at Lee's house in Richmond after he had surrendered his army to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox. The Civil War project ruined Brady financially. To meet one In the financial bill he gave the creditor a set of his war views. panic of 1873 he was forced to sell his New York gallery and became bankrupt. He -was unable to pay the storage bill for his negatives, and the plates were sold at public auction on July 31, 1S74, when they were purchased by the war department for $2,his

840.

Through field,

Benjamin F. Butler and James Garcongress finally appropriated $25,000 for continued with his Washington gallery but most of the

the efforts of Gen.

later president,

Brady,

He

work was done by

assistants

and

his

nephew. Levin Handy.

BRADY— BRAGANZA On Jan. 15, 1896, Brady died alone and forgotten ward of the Presbyterian hospital in New York city.

in the

See James D. Horan, Mathew Brady: Historian With a (195S); Rov Meredith, Mr. Lincoln's Camera Man (1946). (Js.

alms

Camera

D. H.)

BRADY, NICHOLAS

(1659-1726), Anglican clergyman and poet, author, with Nahum Tate (q.v.). of a well-known metrical version of the Psalms, was born at Bandon, County Cork, on Oct. 28, 1659. He graduated at Trinity college, Dubhn, and became prebendary of Cork. In 1690 Brady prevented the burning of the town of Bandon, after James II had given orders for its destruction. He soon afterward settled in London, where he held the livings of

Clapham and Richmond.

Brady and Tate's

New

Version of the Psalms was licensed in

1696 and largely displaced the old version of T. Stemhold and J. Hopkins. Among Brady's other works was a blank verse translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1726). He died at Richmond, Surrey, on

May

20, 1726.

BRADY, WILLIAM

A. (1863-1950), U.S. actor, manager and motion-picture producer, was born in San Francisco, Calif., his He made debut as an actor there in 1882 and June 19, 1863. by 1888 was touring with his own company. He had considerable success as Svengali in Trilby. In New York city, at the Manhattan, 48th Street and Playhouse theatres, he produced over 250 plays, including Way Down East, an all-star revival of Uncle Tom's Cabin, and Street Scene. Grace George, his second wife, starred in many of them. An early motion-picture producer, he was president of the National Assembly of the Motion Picture Industry, 1915-20. He died Jan. 6, 1950, in New York. Alice Brady (1892-1939), Brady's daughter by his first wife, Rose Marie Rene, after a period in operetta, became a leading One of her greatest performances was actress in straight plays. as Lavinia in Mourning Becomes Electra (1931). She also acted (B. Ht.) in a number of motion pictures.

BRAEMAR,

6i

and anticlericalism at Coimbra university where he graduated in law in 1868, After attempting to secure a professional chair in law, Braga became professor of modern literatures in the Curso Superior de Letras in Lisbon in 1872. Of a buoyant, pugnacious temperament, he Wrote profusely on literary, social, historical and political subHe was influenced by French jects, and produced some verse. 19th-century writers and his Visdo dos Tempos (1864) was inJean Michelet spired by Victor Hugo's Legende des siecles. stirred his nationalist enthusiasm for the medieval and popular elements. in literature, and later he was a firm upholder of Auguste Comte's positivism. Braga's investigations ranged widely over the whole of Portuguese literature but, owing to his lack of a sense of proportion and his determination to fit the facts to his own sociological and philosophical theories, the valuable material he accumulated is often swamped by digressions and theorizings which have lost much of their validity. Nevertheless, a number of his works remain important: his Historia do Romantismo em Portugal (18S0) is still the most comprehensive picture of the Romantic period, and his studies of Almeida Garrett, Garrett e Romantismo (1904) and Garrett e os Dramas Romanticos (1905), are valuable, as are also the books on the iSth-century poets, Bocage, sua vida e epoca literdria (1877) and A Arcadia Lusitana (1899), and his Historia da Poesia Popular Portugucsa (1867). An unswerving Republican, Braga became president of the provisional government which set up the Republic of 1910; he held In spite of blindness he never enthusiasm and was planning another major work just before his death, at Lisbon, on Jan. 28, 1924. the presidential office again in 1915. lost

See J. de Carvalho, "Teofilo Braga," in Perspectiva da literatura portuguesa do .seculo XIX, vol. II (1948) A. J. Saraiva and O. Lopes, (N. J. L.) Historia da literatura portuguesa (1954). ;

BRAGA, a of

city in the district of the

same name and the

capital

head of a Pop. (1960) Braga is the

Minho province

in northern Portugal, stands at the

a district in southwest Aberdeenshire, Scot., extending 24 mi. from Ballater (east) to Glen Dee (west), with a breadth of 3 to 6 mi. Glen Dee lies among hills from 1,000 to nearly 3,000 ft. high. The villages and clachans (Gaelic for hamlets) from 600 to more than 1,000 ft, above the sea, have pure, bracing air. The deer forests comprise the royal forests of

railway from Oporto, about 30 mi. N.E. of that city. 98,012 (mun.). The city is an archiepiscopal see. Roman Bracara Augusta, capital of the Callaici Bracarii, or Bracarenses, and a centre for military roads. In the early 5th century The it was taken by the Suevi and about 485 by the Visigoths. city

is

Balmoral and Ballochbuie, Glen Ey forest. Mar forest and Invercauld forest. Castles, mansions and lodges, mostly in Scottish baronial style, include Balmoral (q.v.) and Abergeldie castles belonging to the crown, Invercauld house, Braemar castle. Mar lodge and Old Mar lodge. Braemar (officially Castleton of Braemar) is The the foremost village, the capital of the Deeside highlands. well-known Braemar gathering for highland games is held in August in Princess Royal park near the village. Not far from the spot where the brawling Clunie rivulet joins the Dee the earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in 1715. His seat, Braemar castle, reputed to be a hunting lodge of Malcolm Canmore, was forfeited along with the estates. The new castle built by the purchasers in 1720 was later acquired by Farquharson of Invercauld, who gave

and

Priscillianist heresies.

the

government the use of

it

after the battle of Culloden.

an ancestor of poker BRAG, From 3 to 12 may play, using the regular 52-card pack. {q.v.}. There are three wild cards, called braggers ace of diamonds, jack of clubs and nine of diamonds. The dealer antes and then deals three cards to each player, face down. Each player in turn may drop, call or raise; if no player calls, dealer collects one chip from each. At the conclusion of betting there is a showdown. Three of a kind and pairs are the only combinations of value, and natural cards outrank equal combinations made with a bragger. (For example, three natural aces would beat an ace, jack of clubs and nine of diamonds.) There are several variants, including one in which all jacks and nines are braggers. (R. L. Fv.) an old English game which

is

—

BRAGA, (JOAQUIM) TEOFILO (FERNANDES) (1843-1924), Portuguese literary historian. Republican statesman, and poet, the first to attempt a complete history of Portuguese literature, was born at Ponta Delgada in the Azores on Feb. 24, 1843. His family was Catholic and monarchist by tradition, but he himself soon became noted for his intransigent republicanism

noted as the place where the Visigoths renounced the Arian Its archbishops are primates of Portugal and long claimed supremacy over the Spanish church. From the Moors, who captured Braga early in the 8th century, the city was retaken in 1040 by Ferdinand I, king of Castile and Leon; and from 1093 to 1147 it was the residence of the Portuguese court. Its 12th-century cathedral was rebuilt during the 16th century in the blend of Moorish and florid Gothic styles known as Manueline. The church of Santa Cruz has a handsome facade, which dates from 1642. There are several convents and a library containing many rare books and manuscripts. On a hill about 3 mi. S.E. stands the celebrated sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte, visited at Whitsuntide by many thousands of pilgrims, and about one mile beyond it is Mt. Sameiro (2,535 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin Mary and commanding a magnificent view of the mountainous country, which culminates in the Serra do Gerez, on the northeast. The principal manufactures of the city are firearms, jewelry, Large cattle fairs are held in June cutlery, cloth and felt hats. and September. Braga District has an area of 1,054 sq.mi.; pop. (1960) 617,162.

BRAGANZA

(Port.

Braganqa), the name of an administra-

extreme northeast of Portugal. an episcopal see since 1764, is situated on a branch of frontier, and consists of Spanish of the 8 mi. S. the Sabor river, a walled upper town, containing the castle and cathedral, and of a lower or modern town. Area (district) 2,527 sq.mi. pop. ( 1 960) district 238,588; town 38,387 (mun,). Historically, the town is important as the seat of the house of Braganza which provided the kings of Portugal from 1640 to 1910 and the emperors of Brazil from 1822 to 1889. Afonso (d. 1461), tive district

The

and

its

capital in the

city,

;

an illegitimate son of John

I

of Portugal, was

made duke

of

BRAGG— BRAKE

62

Braganza in 1442, having previously acquired considerable estates and hereditary rights by his marriage with Beatriz, daughter of the constable, Nuno Alvares Pereira, Successive dukes Fernando I (d. 1478), Fernando II (d. 1483), Jaime (d. 1532), Teodosio I (d. 1563), Joao I (d. 1S83), Teodosio II (d. 1630) and Joao II— enlarged their patrimony by matrimonial alliances. Joao I, moreover, married Catherine, a niece of King John III of Portugal and, after 1580, a claimant to the Portuguese throne (see Portugal: History). Finally, when the national revolution of Dec. 1, 1640, terminated the union with Spain, Joao II became king of Portugal as John IV. Subsequently the title duke of Braganza was borne by the heir presumptive to the throne. The new dynasty lasted until the deposition of Manuel II and the proclamation of a republic on

—

Oct.

5,

1910.

Meanwhile, with the proclamation of Brazilian independence in 1822, the house of Braganza had provided two heads of the new empire. Pedro, the elder son of John VI of Portugal, was emperor

from 1822

and his son, Pedro II, was emperor from 1831 on the proclamation of the Brazilian republic in 1889. With Pedro II's death in 1891 the male line of this branch of the family became extinct. (For the house of OrleansBraganza or Bourbon-Brazil see Bourbon.) Manuel II, who died in England, without issue, on July 2, 1932, bequeathed the possessions of the house of Braganza to the Portuguese state. The property was made into a quasi-autonomous administrative unit, supporting the Funda^ao da Casa de Braganga. This foundation supports a library, museum and lecture centre housed in the palace of Vila Vigosa, which from the 16th century was the principal residence of the Braganza family. (Da. a. p.) BRAGG, (1817-1876), Confederate officer in the American Civil War, was born at Warrenton, N.C., March 22, 1817. After graduating from West Point in 1837 he served as an artillery officer in the Seminole Wars of 1837 and 1841, and under Gen. Zachary Taylor in the Me.xican War. In 1862, as a major general in the Confederate army he led a bold advance from eastern Tennessee across Kentucky to Louisville. Tactically the ensuing battle of Perryville (Oct. 8) was a draw; unwilling to fight to a decision, Bragg withdrew into Tennessee. Though he was bitterly censured, the personal favour of Pres. Jefferson Davis kept him at the head of the army of Tennessee, and on Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863, he fought the indecisive battle of Murfreesboro (or Stone River) against Rosecrans. In the campaign of 1863 Rosecrans constantly outmaneuvered the Confederates and forced them back to the border of Georgia. Bragg, however, inflicted a crushing defeat on his opponent at Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20) and for a time besieged the Union forces in Chattanooga. But large forces under Grant were concentrated upon the threatened spot, and the great battle of Chattanooga (Nov. 23-25) ended in the rout of the Confederates. Bragg was now deprived of his command, but President Davis made him his military adviser. In 1864, he led an inferior force from North Carolina to Georgia to oppose Sherman's march. In Feb. 1865, he joined Gen. Joseph Johnston, and he was thus included in the surrender of that officer to Sherman. In spite of his want of success Bragg was a brave and at times a skilful officer, but he lacked the resourcefulness, dash and craftiness of Lee. His irritability prevented him from securing the loyalty from subordinates that military commanders need, but the Confederates had in the west no organizer to equal him. Bragg's greatest military fault was in not following up his successes. His victories were fruitless. After the war Bragg was a civil engineer in Alabama and Texas. to 1831,

until his deposition

BRAXTON

He

died at Galveston, Tex. on Sept. 27, 1876. See also references under "Bragg, Braxton" in the Index vol-

ume. See Don C. Seitz, Braxton Bragg, General of the Confederacy (1924) Bragg Manuscripts, Western Reserve Historical Society. (G. D. Le.)

BRAGG, SIR (WILLIAM) LAWRENCE (q.v.), in the

his

),

worked with his father Sir William Henry Bragg study of crystals by means of X-ray diffraction. was born on March 31, i8go, in Adelaide, Austr. He received education at Adelaide university and Trinity college, Cam-

British physicist,

He

(iSgo-

;

where he became a fellow in 1914. After receiving his degree from Cambridge, he joined his father in the study of X-ray

bridge,

diffraction. As a result of the Braggs' work, the structures of many kinds of crystals were discovered with the aid of the X-ray spectrometer. "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays" the Braggs were awarded the Nobel prize for physics in 1915.

During World War I the younger Bragg served as technical adsound ranging in the map section of British army headquarters in France. He was elected to the Royal society in 1921, and he was Langworthy professor of physics at the Victoria university of Manchester, Eng., from igig to 1937. During ig37-38 he was director of the National Physical laboratory, and in the latter year was made Cavendish professor of experimental physics In addition to various papers on crystal structure, at Cambridge. he published with his father X-Rays and Crystal Structure in 191 5. Other writings include The Crystalline State (1934); Electricity (1936); and Atomic Structure of Minerals (1937). viser on

BRAGG, SIR WILLIAM HENRY

(i862-ig42), British by means of X-ray diffraction. He was born at Wigton, Cumberland, July 2, 1862, was educated at King William's college, Isle of Man, and Trinity college, Cambridge. In 18S6 he was appointed professor of mathematics and physics at Adelaide, Austr., where he carried out his earlier researches in radioactivity. In igog he was appointed Cavendish professor at Leeds and in igi5 Quain professor of physics in the University of London. His researches upon physicist,

is

best

known

various radioactive

for studies of crystal structure

phenomena and

his

power of

lucid exposition

brought recognition from scientific bodies both at home and abroad: in igo6 he was elected a fellow of the Royal society; in igiS he received the Nobel prize for physics and the Barnard Gold medal (Columbia university), both of which distinctions he shared with his son William Lawrence Bragg {q.v.). The joint work of father and son went far toward elucidating the arrangements of atoms and crystals, an achievement rendered possible by their development of the X-ray spectrometer. In 1923 he was appointed Fullerian professor of chemistry at the

Royal institution and director of Davy-Faraday research

lab-

oratory; subsequently he became director of the Royal institution.

He was

president of the British Association for the

of Science, 1928-29,

Royal

society.

He

and from 1935 died

March

to

Advancement

1940 was president of the

12, 1942.

In addition to many publications, chiefly upon radioactivity and crystallography, in the Philosophical Magazine and the Proceedings of the Royal Society, he also wrote The World of Sound (ig2o); Concerning the Nature of Things (1925) and The Universe of Light (1Q33). ;

BRAGI,

according to Norse mythology, is a god of poetry and the son of Odin. Evidence that he actually was worshiped is scant, and some authorities believe that he should be identified with the poet Bragi Boddason the Old, who worked in Norway in (G. T.-P.) the 9th century.

BRAHE, Swedish noble family, descended in the female line from the Danish family of Brahe and a senior member of the Swedish nobility through marriage into the house of the Vasas. Per Brake (1520-1590), the nephew of Gustavus I Vasa, wrote a historical work Per Brake den dldres jortsdttning aj Peder Svarts kronika (pub. 1897) and Oeconomia (1677 and 1920), a manual Created count of Visingsborg in 1561 by for young noblemen. Eric XIV Vasa, he was the first Swedish count. Per Brake the younger (1602-1680), a grandson of Per Brahe, was born on Feb. 18, 1602, at the castle of Rydboholm, near Stockholm. During the war with Poland he served in Prussia from 1626 to 1628 and was a colonel of horse from 1628 to 1631. At the diet of 1629 Brahe was president of the nobility {lantmarskalk) and becamea privy councilor (riksrdd) in 1630. From 1632 to 1644 he was a member of the regency council for Queen Christina, concluding the armistice with Poland of 1635. As governor general of Finland from 1637 to 1641 and from 1648 to 1654 he reformed the administration, promoted urban, commercial and agricultural developments and founded the university of Abo (Turku) in 1640, being its chancellor from 1646 to 1680. Between 1641 and 1680 Brahe was lord high chancellor and as such

1

BRAKE— BRAHMA was an

member of the XI. He died on

influential

regency council from 1660 to

Sept. 12, 1680, at his castle of 1672 for Charles Bogesund, near Stockholm. Per the younger's brother. Count Nils Brake (1604-1632), was born at Rydboholm on Oct. 14, 1604. He served as a general under Gustavus H .\dolphus and was appointed a colonel of the "yellow regiment." the king's renowned life guard, in 1631. He

distinguished himself at the crossing of the Rhine at Oppenheim (Dec. 1631 and at the battle of the Lech (April 1632). At the )

(Nov. 16. 1632 where he commanded the Swedish was mortally wounded and died on Nov. 21, 1632, at Naumburg. The marriage of his son. Adm. Count Nils Brake battle of Liitzen

)

centre, he

the younger (1633-16991. to a daughter of C. G. Wrangel, the lord high constable, brought Skokloster castle, near Stockholm, to the family. Count Magnus Brake (1790-1844), a close friend of Charles

XIV

John (the former French marshal Bernadotte). exercised a secret but preponderant influence on public affairs from 1828 onward, being marshal of the kingdom from 1834 to 1844. When the last count, Magnus Brake (1849-1930), died. Skokloster and with their great art collections, passed to the family of von Essen, related to the Brahes by marriage; the earlier archives from both castles are however in the Swedish public record office (riksarkivet') in Stockholm.

Rydboholm

castles,

BiBLiocR.^PHY.

—On

Per Brahe the younger see P. Nordmann, Per

C. M. Schybergson, Per Brahe och Abo akademi, 2 vol. 1940); "Per Brahes brevvaxling rorande Abo akademi," (1915, ulgivna av Svenska Litleratiirsdllskapet i Finland (1922, 1932, Skrijter 1938); P. Sonden (ed.), "Per Brahes bref till rikskansleren Axel Oxenstierna, 1633-1651," Rikskansleren Axel Oxenstiernas skrijter och brefvexling, vol. iii (1S90). On Nils Brahe the elder see Sveriges Krig 1611-1632, vol. v and vi (B. O. H. H.) (1938, 1939).

Brake (1904)

;

BRAHE, TYCHO

Danish astronomer, the discoverer of the "new star" in Cassiopeia and one of the great practical astronomers of the later Renaissance, was born on Dec. 14, 1546, at the family seat of Knudstrup in Scania. Den. He studied at Copenhagen, Leipzig, Rostock and Augsburg, and in 157 (1546-1 601

Stella (1573), in

moon, contrary

which he proved that the

star

was beyond the

to the general belief.

He gave lectures in Copenhagen, by royal command, in 1574 and traveled to Germany and Italy in 1575. He returned to Denmark island of

fact

in the following year when Frederick II granted him the Hven. near Copenhagen, together with ample means to

found an observatory there. In return. Tycho acted as astrologer and almanac maker for the royal family. The corner stone of Uraniborg ("castle of the sky") was laid in 1576 and the finished building provided working spaces, living quarters and instruments on a scale much greater than had previously been available to

that

Aristotle and Ptolemy in his Dialogue on the. Two Systems of the World, although he expresses admiration for Tycho's observational results. In Astronomiae instauratae Mechanica, lycho published at

Wandbeck.

and and

his observations

their continuity. See J. L. E. Drever, Tidsskr. (1046).

(

together

on Hven are characterized by their accuracy Txcho Brahe (1890)

;

E. Stromgren, Nord. astr. (O. J. E.)

'

BRAHMA AND BRAHMAN. first

member

of the

Hindu

Brahma (masculine)

trinity, the creator-god

is

the

whose Vedic

prototype was Prajapati, the lord of the creatures. The other members of the trinity are Vishnu and Shiva, and with the rise of Shivaism and Vishnuism in the Epic period as the two most popular cults, the

Gods). that at

importance of Brahma declined (see also Hinduism:

Only one prominent temple dedicated Pushkar, near Ajmer, India.

to

Brahma

remains,

The familiar picture of Brahma is that of a four-faced and fourarmed bearded deity seated on a lotus seat below which is placed a swan. The four faces represent the four Vedas, the chief Hindu The sacrificial spoon, a string of beads and a manuscriptures. hands indicate that he is the God of His consort is Sarasvati, the goddess of learnand the first-born, and he is lotus-born ing. He is known as the described as the grandfather of gods and men. His mind-born sons, the sages Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatana and Sanatkumara, are the exemplars of the path of renunciation, while his worldly sons such as Daksha are charged with the duty of perpetuating the script that he holds in his

wisdom and

is

—

1598, a description of his instruments,

He substantially errors and the averaging of accidental errors. corrected the received value of nearly every astronomical quantity

1601.

work, Astronomiae instauratae Progymniismata, 2 vol. 1602-03 ). was edited by Kepler. The first volume trea'ted of the motions of the sun and moon and gave the places of this number was increased to 1,000 by Kepler in 777 fixed stars 1627 when he published his "Rudolphine Tables." The second

in

with an autobiographical account of his career and discoveries, including the outstanding one of a new variation in the motion of the moon. His Epistolae Astronomicae, printed at Uraniborg in 1596, were embodied in a complete edition of his works issued He was the first to allow for the effect at Frankfurt in 164S. of refraction, by the earth's atmosphere, on astronomical observations and introduced methods for the correction of instrumental

species.

principal

precise observations showed no sensible relative stars, but Galileo was unconvinced and groups

Tycho with

astronomers. Uraniborg. together with a later building, Stellaborg, is the forerunner of the great modern observatories. The appearance of the new star in 1572 had given Tycho the idea of forming a precise star catalogue which, together with most of his other work, was carried out on Hven between 1576 and 1596, In 1596 Frederick was succeeded by Christian IV who was less tolerant of Tycho's arrogance and heaw drain on the royal treasury. Tycho's pensions having been withdrawn, he left Denmark in 1597 and finally reached Prague in June 1599, where he was assured of favour and protection by the emperor Rudolph II. who granted him the castle of Benatky. near Prague, together with an ample pension. Although most of his instruments were moved from Hven to Prague, and Kepler joined him in Jan. 1600, very few observations were made and Tycho died there on Oct. 24,

Tycho's

his

motion of the fixed

),

was permitted by his maternal uncle, Steno Belle, to install a laboratory at his castle of Herritzvad, near Knudstrup. where on Nov. II, 1572, he discovered the famous "new star" in the constelHis observations were published in De Nova lation Cassiopeia.

63

volume, which had been privately printed at Uraniborg in 1588 with the title De Mundi aetherii reccntiorilms phaenomcnis, was mainly concerned with the comet of 1577 which, Tycho showed, as he had for the new star, possessed no appreciable parallax and was therefore an extra-terrestrial phenomenon. This volume also includes an account of the Tychonic system in which a middle ground was sought between the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems. The immobility of the earth was retained from the Ptolemaic system but the other planets were made to revolve around the sun, which, with these planets, annually circuited the earth. In both the Tychonic and Ptolemaic systems, the sphere of the fixed stars performed a diurnal rotation. Tycho. in correspondence, tried to convert Galileo from the Copernican system on the basis of the

piety.

the supreme reality that upholds the uniword probably meant "prayer" or "speech" from the root brh, "to burst forth." It also means that which is great and mighty. The seers of the Upanishads seem to have arrived at the conception of Brahman when inquiring into the origin of the objective universe. When they adopted the method of sub-

Brahman

(neuter)

is

verse.

Originally the

jective

investigation,

Atman

(the soul or self).

they concluded that the root principle is Finally Brahman is identified with

Atman, and defined in one of the Upanishad texts as "that whence all beings come into existence, wherein they reside and where unto they return at the end." Brahman is thought of in two ways: as the all-inclusive sustaining spirit of the universe, or as the reality of which the universe only the surface appearance. The former is the cosmic view (saprapanca) according to which Brahman is endowed with attributes (saguna), postulated by the theistic schools of Vedanta. The latter is the acosmic view {nishprapanca) which considers Brahman to be unconditioned and attributeless (nirguna) andis held to be a more adequate view of Brahman by the absolutist

BRAHMAGUPTA— BRAHMANAS

64 schools.

Since

Brahman

is

the unconditioned reality,

it

can be

indicated only negatively as "not this, not this." This, however, does not mean that Brahman is "nothing." It is the plenitude of being (sat), consciousness (chit) and bliss (ananda). Although

both the theistic and the absolutistic standpoints are to be found in the Upanishads themselves, the most outstanding exponents of these in the systematic period of Indian philosophy were respec-

Ramanuja

in the 11 th century a.d. and Shankara in the 9th (See also Indian Philosophy.) Of the two conceptions, that of the personal God Brahma and that of the impersonal Absolute Brahman, it is difficult to say which was earlier. The seeds of both are to be found even in the Rigveda. The term Brahma also refers to one of the four principal priests that officiate at Vedic sacrifices. His functions are to supervise the ritual acts and to set right any mistakes. The expression brahmana means fl) the parts of the Veda which are concerned with sacrifices (see Brahmanas) (2) one who has realized Brahman; (3) "a Brahman"; i.e., member of the Brahman caste.

tively

century

a.d.

;

—

Bibliography. M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy Symposium on History J. Gonda, Notes on Brahman (1950) and Western, ed. by Sir S. Radhakrishnan et al., vol. i, ch.3 (1953). (T. M. P. M.) (\9i2)

;

;

of Philosophv, Eastern

BRAHMAGUPTA

(S88-c. 660), Hindu mathematician and astronomer. He set forth the astronomical system of Brahma in verse form, the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (c. 628). Two of the chapters in this work are devoted to mathematics, including an arithmetical progression, a quadratic equation and proofs of various geometrical theorems on the right-angled triangle, on areas of triangles and quadrilaterals and on surfaces and volumes. These two chapters were translated into English by H. T. Colebrooke in his Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, from the Sanskrit of Bramegiipta and Bhascara, preceded by a dissertatio7i on the state of science as known to the Hindus (1817). Another translation is given in P. C. Sengupta, The Khandakhddyaka, an Astronomical Treatise by Brahmagupta (1934). (0. Oe.)

BRAHMAN,

the highest-ranking group in the

Hindu hierThe elevated

archy of hereditary castes (see Caste [Indian]). position of the Brahman goes back to the first millennium B.C. when the Aryans who had settled in northern India were already divided into Brahmans or priests, warriors, traders and husbandmen, and menials, and the Brahmans had gained prominence among the three upper classes known as "twice-born." Since then there has been no fundamental change in their position and they still enjoy great prestige and many advantages, though their claim to tangible privileges is no longer officially admitted. The basis of the age-old veneration of Brahmans is the belief that they are inherently of greater ritual purity than members of other castes and that they alone are capable of performing certain vital religious tasks. The study and recitation of the sacred scriptures was traditionally reserved for this spiritual elite and for centuries all Indian scholarship was in their hands. Because of their high prestige and their intelligence and learning, Brahmans wielded influence even in secular affairs, and although political power lay normally with members of the warrior caste they acted frequently as advisers and ministers of ruling chiefs. During the period of British rule Brahmans largely retained their role as intellectual leaders

—

at first in the service of

government

and later in the nationalist movement. After India achieved independence (1947) Brahmans continued to lead the Congress party, and dominated the central government, but in many states there developed a reaction against their dominant position in the administration, and in southern India, where Brahmans were particularly firmly entrenched, an anti-Brahman movement gathered considerable strength. This does not, however, affect their traditional position as priests, ministering both in temples and at domestic rites. Every orthodox Hindu of clean caste must have a Brahman family priest (purohita), to whom he pays customary dues in return for services at weddings, funerals and other ceremonial occasions. The ritual purity of the Brahmans is maintained through the

observance of numerous taboos, many of which relate to diet and contact with lower castes. Most Brahman castes are strictly vegetarian and their members must abstain from certain occupations. They may not plow or handle any impure material, such as leather or hides, but they may farm and do such agricultural work as does not offend against these specific restrictions. They may also accept employment as domestic servants and many well-to-do Hindus have Brahman cooks, who are useful because members of all castes may eat the food they prepare. Orthodox Brahmans spend much time on religious practices, which consist of recitations and prayers, a daily ritual bath and the regular worship of household deities. Brahmans never bow to other castes but others bow to them in recognition of their high ritual status. At an early age boys are invested with a sacred thread made of three strands of cotton, which is worn next to the skin over the left shoulder. Those who have undergone this initiation rite are known as Duija ("twice-born"). Most Brahmans are strict in the observance of marriage rules, and while polygamy is permitted traditionally to Brahman men. Brahman women who have been widowed or deserted by their husbands are not allowed to remarry. Well into the 19th century Brahman widows sometimes committed sati or self-immolation on the husband's funeral pyre, a pious act approved by public opinion.

The Brahmans

of India are divided into ten main territorial which are associated with the north and five with the south. The northern group consists of Saraswati, Gaur, Kanauj, Maithil and Uthkal Brahmans and the southern group of Maharashtra, Andhra, Dravida, Karnata and Gurjara Brahmans. Within each of these groups there ar« sectarian divisions based on an emphasis on the study of specific Vedas, and also endogamous Each of these subcastes, most of which have local associations. subcastes is again divided into exogamous clans or gotra, believed divisions, five of

to consist of the descendants of certain legendary saints or rishi. Despite this variety of sects and regional divisions, Brahmans represent the only caste group whose status is constant throughout India, and recognition of their supreme ritual status is one of the marked features of Hindu unity. Outside India Brahmans are also found in Nepal and in small numbers in the Tamil-speaking parts of Ceylon. See Brahma and Brahman Hinduism. See also references under "Brahman" in the Index. (C. v. F.-H.) treatises in prose explaining the significance of the Vedas as used in ritual sacrifice (see Sanskrit Literature; ;

BRAHMANAS,

Vedic Religion i. The word brahmana (otherwise meaning "a Brahman"; see Brahma and Brahman) is derived from brahma in its Vedic sense of devotion or prayer.

The brahmanas belong

to the period

800-500

B.C.,

acquired a position of sanctity.

They

when hymns had

a time

the collections into samhitds ("books") of the sacred

represent a digest of ac-

cumulated teachings, illustrated by myth and legend, on various matters of ritual, and on hidden meanings of the sacred texts. Assuming complete familiarity with the ritual, they do not form a guide to sacrificial procedure. The oldest brahmanas are found in the Krsnayajur-veda, where the samhitd is interspersed with prose comments. In the Katha and Maitrayaniya schools such comments form the only extant brahmana, whereas the Taittiriya school has a supplement, in three books, entitled the Taittiriya Brahmana. The last portion of the Taittiriya Brahmana (together with the beginning of the Taittiriya Aranyaka has been incorporated bodily from the prose portions of the Katha sartihitd. The treatises designated as aranyaka ("forest treatises") represent a subsequent development in brahmanical discussion, being more theosophical in content, and were either to be studied by pious )

Brahmans who, having

no longer partook in were to be imparted by teacher to pupil Aranyakas act as a in the forest; i.e., away from the village. link between the brahmanas and the upanisads, the latter often retired to the forest,

ritual sacrifice, or else

being inserted in the aranyaka.

The Sdmaveda owns numerous brahmanas, but. properly there two, the Pancavimsa ("25 book"), Tandya or Praudha Brdhmatia of the Kauthuma school and the Jaiminiya Brahmana are

;

BRAHMANISM— BRAHMAPUTRA These show almost complete accordance in their exposition of the gavdmayana "going of cows" ceremony), the jyotistoma, itkthya, and atiratra (Soma \q.v.'\ ceremonies), the dvddasdha ("12 days' rite"), and finally the difThe last chapters of the ferent rites lasting from 1 to 12 days. Sadvimsa (26th book), called the Adbhuta Brdhmana, as also the Brdhmana, describe the atonements conclusion of the Jaiminiya required where mistakes or evil portents have occurred during sacrifices. The Jaiminiya wanders into digressions, quoting long anecdotes, whereas the Pancavimsa Brdhmana adheres more of the Jaiminiyas or Talavakaras.

(

rigidly to the order of the sacrifice, indulging occasionally in state-

hostile to the Kausitaki school of the Rigveda. The Kausitaki (or Sdhkhdyana) Brdhmana, in 30 chapters, explains

ments

"setting up the of the agnyddhdna agnihotra ("daily morning and evening sacrifice"), the new and full moon rites, and the cdtiirmdsyas ("four months' rites"). Most of the brdhmana, as also of that of the Rigvedic Aitareyins, is then occupied with the agnistoma ("the one-day rite of the soma"). The Aitareya Brdhmana, in eight

the

significance

religious

(

sacrificial fire"), the

books of

five

dvdda-sdha.

chapters each, also treats the gavdmayana and the The remaining three books deal with the agnihotra

and with the

rites for the installation of kings.

The Aitareya and Kausitaki Aranyakas begin with

the

soma

but turn to speculation concerning the world-soul under the names of prdna and puritsa, a theme dealt with in the Kausitaki Upanisad, which, hke the Aitareya Upatiisad, is contained ritual,

brdhmana.

in the

To the Suklayajurveda belongs the Satapatha Brdkmajta (of 100 "paths"), consisting of 100 lessons. Ranking next to the Rigveda in importance, this brdhmana survives in two slightly differing Kanva and

recensions, the

the

of the samhitd exactly, the

Madhyamdina, following nine (Madhyamdina,

first

the order ten) sec-

tions corresponding to the first 18 divisions of the samhitd.

The

remaining sections, besides complementing the earlier portions, introduce elements more connected with domestic ritual; the last section introduces the Brhaddrdnyaka, which concludes with the Brhaddrdnyaka Upanisad. Finally, to the Atharvaveda belongs the comparatively late Gopatha Brdhmana. Relating only secondarily to the sanihita and borrowing considerably from other samhitds and brdhmanas, it is partly concerned with the role played by the Brahman, the priest who presides over sacrificial procedure, (J. E. B. G.)

BRAHMANISM:

see

BRAHMAPUTRA

Hinduism. Tsamgpo;

(Tibetan,

Chinese,

Ya-lu-

ts'ang-pu CHIANG), a great river of Tibet, northeastern India (Assam) and East Pakistan, with a total length of about 1,800 mi. Its source, in about 82° 10' E., 30° 30' N., is in a great glacier

mass

Kailas range of the Himalayas, just south of the lake in western Tibet. Tributaries join the infant river from near the pass of Maryum La (16.900 ft.), which separates its basin from the Manasarowar lake district, in which two other great Indian rivers, the Indus and Sutlej, have their source. in the

called

The

Gunkyud Tso

river flows through southern Tibet for about 700 mi., keep-

ing a course roughly parallel to, and 100 mi. from, the of the Himalayas. It is known there as the Tsangpo,

Tibetan "the purifier," but applied to any large river; ferent

names

main chain meaning in is not a distinctive name, for it is the Tibetans themselves call it by difthis

in different parts of its course.

It

receives

many

which the most important are: on the left bank, the Raka Tsangpo, which joins it west of Zhikatse, and the Kyi Chu, on which stands Lhasa; on the right bank, the Nyang Chhu, which flows by the large trade centre of Gyangtse and joins the Tsangpo at Zhikatse. Zhikatse is the principal place on the Tsangpo itself and the second town of Tibet, with the great monastery of Trashi Lhumpo, formerly the seat of the Tashi Lama. From Lhatse Dzong (Janglache) in 87° 37' E. to a day's journey below Tsethang (11,850 ft.) SO mi. S.E. of Lhasa the Tsangpo has a wide navigable channel. It is one of the most remarkable inland systems of navigation in the world, for boats navigate it for 400 mi. at a height of 12,000 ft. and more above sea level. The boats are coracles made of hide stretched over frameworks of slender branches. Large ferry boats, shaped like oblong boxes, ply tributaries, of

some

65

Elsewhere there are suspension bridges made mainly of bamboos and in a few cases with heavy chains: some have a 300-ft. span. At Tsela Dzong the Tsangpo is joined from the north by the Gyamda, 2 mi. wide at the point of junction. Further east at Pe (9,680 ft.) the river is still a broad placid stretch of water, 660 Then turning abruptly to the northeast and north it yd. wide. makes its way by a succession of stupendous gorges between the huge mountain masses of Gyala Peri (23,458 ft.) and Namcha Barwa (25,446 ft.), which are in one place only 8 mi. apart. Through these deep narrow gorges the Tsangpo rushes tumultuously down in a series of cascades and rapids, turning the flank of the range in a hairpin bend. It takes up from the north the Po Tsangpo, a swift torrent 80 yd. wide, and then, turning to the south and southwest, emerges from the foothills as the Dihang. It flows into Indian territory across the North East Frontier agency (administered by the governor of Assam as agent for the president of India and into Assam proper west of Sadiya town. Near Sadiya it receives from the north the Dibang and the Sesiri and from the east the Luhit, which, as it flows in the same direction as the main river, is wrongly called by the Assamese the Brahmaputra. From the point of junction the mighty river, which is now for the first time known by the Indian name of Brahmaputra, i.e., the son of Brahma, rolls majestically down the Assam valley for 450 mi. Its channels oscillate from side to side over a bed about 6 mi. wide and it forms many islands, one of which, Majuli, has an area of 485 sq.mi. In times of flood it overflows its banks and resembles an inland sea. Sweeping round the spurs of the Garo hills, the river enters the alluvial plains of East Pakistan, through which it flows for another 150 mi. until it joins the Ganges at Goalundo. From the confluence of the Tista to Goalundo it is called Jamuna. The united stream of the two rivers then flows southeast under the name of the Padma and makes its exit into the Bay of Bengal by the broad estuary of the Meghna. Till the end of the 18th century the Brahmaputra flowed through the centre of the district of Mymensingh to join the Ganges near Bhairab Bazar, but early in the next century, as this channel became choked with silt, the stream deserted it and moving westward across the friable soil of the delta cut its channel along the western boundary of Mymensingh. It has well been said that the Brahmaputra for its size and utility ranks among the most important rivers in the world. It is 250 mi. longer than the Ganges. It drains an area of 361,000 sq.mi. and its flood discharge during the rainy season, when its level rises 30 to 40 ft., has been estimated at 500,000 cu.ft. per second. It not only builds up land, but also fertilizes it and distributes its produce. It is the highway of commerce through the fertile valley of Assam and East Pakistan. Unbridged throughout its length in Indian and Pakistan territory it is navigable by steamers as far as Dibrugarh, 800 mi. from the sea. The upper course of the Brahmaputra was long an unsolved mystery; it was even thought at one time that the Tsangpo might be the upper channel of the Irrawaddy and might thus have no connection with the Brahmaputra. The explorations of Kinthup, an in

places.

)

Indian surveyor, along the Tsangpo as far as Pemakochung in 1884 J. F. Needham up the Dihang in 1886 first established the identity of the Tsangpo and Brahmaputra beyond reasonable doubt. Capt. C. G. Rawling, with Capt. C. H. D. Ryder, Capt. H. Wood and Lieut. F. M. Bailey marched up the Tsangpo from Zhikatse to its source in 1904-05; but its course from Pemakochung through the Himalayas to its debouchment in the Abor hills of Assam remained a mystery. It was known that after flowing at a level of 12,000 ft. on one side of the range it reappeared at 1,000 ft. on the other; and it was thought that there might be tremendous waterfalls hidden in the mountains. Exploration was barred by the hostility of mountain tribes, but in 1913, after the Abor expedition had inspired them with wholesome respect, Bailey and Capt. H. T. Morshead explored 100 mi. of the river and found marvelous gorges and rapids but no falls higher than 30 ft. A gap of 50 mi. still remained, but in 1924 Capt. F. Kingdon Ward found that in this part of its course also the river descends not by great waterfalls but by rapids and cascades pent in towering cliffs and

and of

BRAHMO SAMAJ— BRAHMS

66

narrowing in one place to a width of 30 yd. See Siang Frontier Division. See also references under "Brahmaputra" in the Index volume.

—

Bibliography. Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908) Sir T. H. Holdich, India ("Regions of the World" series, 1903) C. H. D. Ryder, "Exploration and Survey with the Tibet Frontier Commission," Geog. J. (1905); C. G. Rawling, The Great Plateau (1905); F. M. Bailey, "Exploration on the Tsangpo or Upper Brahmaputra," Geog. J. (1914) F. Kingdon Ward, The Riddle of the Tsangpo Gorges (1926). ;

;

;

(L. D. S.)

BRAHMO SAMAJ ("Association for the Worship of God"), a

protestant

was founded

movement within the fold of Hinduism, Calcutta in 1828 by Ram Mohun Roy (q.v.).

theistic in

It does not accept the authority of the

Vedas, has no faith in avatars and does not insist on belief in karma and rebirth. It discards Hindu rituals, adopts some Christian practices in its worship and, influenced by Islam and Christianity, denounces polytheism,

worship and the caste system. It has no authoritative canon of its own and relies more on reason than .on faith. It has preserved neither the comprehensiveness and philosophic depth of orthodox Hinduism nor the concrete appeal of the older theisms connected with the worship of Vishnu, Siva and Sakti. Whereas Ram Mohun Roy wanted to reform Hinduism from within, his successor, Debendranath Tagore {q.v.}, broke away in 1850 by repudiating Vedic authority and making reason and intuition the basis of Brahmoism. However, he tried to retain some of the traditional Hindu customs, and a radical group led by Keshub Chunder Sen (q.v.) seceded and organized the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1866. The new branch became eclectic and cosmopolitan idol

and was

also most influential in the struggle for social reform. It sponsored the Band of Hope temperance society, encouraged the education of women and campaigned for the remarriage of widows and for legislation to prevent child marriages. When Keshub arranged for his daughter to marry the prince of Cooch-Behar, though both parties were under age and he was thus violating his

own

reformist principles,

many

of his followers rebelled and in

1878 formed a third samaj, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. While Keshub attempted to establish a new universal religion called Nava Vidhan (the New Dispensation), the Sadharan Samaj gradually reverted to the teaching of the Upanishads and carried on the work of social reform. Although the movement has lost force in the 20th century by the second half of the century it embraced only 0.2% of the Indian people it has been partially successful in that its fundamental social tenets are now accepted by Hindu

—

—

society.

See Sitanath Tathvabhushan, The Philosophy of Brahmaism (1909) Sivanath Sastri, History of Brahmo Samaj, 2 vol. (1911-12). (D. S. Sa.)

BRAHMS, JOHANNES and one of the great masters of at

Hamburg, on

—His

Life.-

May

7,

;

(1833-1897), German composer musical forms, was bom

classical

1833.

had founded and edited many years bewhich Brahms was proclaimed as the coming man, the who would lead music to new and glorious achievements. That generous appreciation of a young, totally unknown beginner by an acknowledged master is rare in the history of music. Better auspices for the opening of an artist's career would be difficult to imagine. Schumann's recommendation provided instant attention and interest for his protege and a publisher for his first works, which appeared by the end of that same year, 1853. Already on that occasion young Brahms showed his selfcritical seriousness by suppressing some of the works Schumann had recommended for publication to his own publishers, Breitkopf fore, in

great prospective master

& E

Hartel in Leipzig. The three pianoforte sonatas, the Scherzo in flat minor, the first book of songs which he did publish at that

and mature for a composer of his youth and his lack of practical experience, and worthy of an artist whose whole output throughout his life was guided by a conscience of incomparable objectivity and vigilance. The young composer's career, after such a dazzling opening, was somehow hindered for a number of years, probably by personal as much as external causes. In February 1854, on learning of the mental illness that was to end in Schumann's death two years later, Brahms moved to Diisseldorf in order to help Clara and her children in those tragic circumstances, and he stayed there for several years, living on piano lessons, working incessantly but publishing only a few works. These, his formative years, were continued in Hamburg, where he returned after Schumann's death in 1856; during them he shaped his style and developed his technique by the most comprehensive study of the great masters. His personal situation at that time was by no means satisfactory; except for a modest temporary appointment at the court of Detmold, where he gave piano lessons and was in charge of a choral society for some months of the winter, he had to live on private teaching and could not find a suitable position of any kind. Performances of his music were few and rarely successful until, in 1862, a visit to Vienna resulted in a radical change of his circumstances; he could present himself there with a number of important, mature works the Serenade in D major, the Pianoforte Quartets in G minor and A major, the Variations on a Theme by Handel for piano, the String Sextet in B flat major -and he made an immediate and decisive impression as a composer, a performer and a personality. He was appointed conductor of the Vienna Singakademie, an oratorio society. That appointment did not last very long, nor did a later one as conductor (1871-74) of the most prominent concert institution in Vienna, the Gesellschajt der Musikjreunde. But he had found in Vienna the surroundings that, for the musician as for the man, seemed as congenial as possible, and Vienna remained his main residence henceforth. After the tretime, are amazingly original

—

—

of his Requiem in 1868, his fame rose, giving him, few years, a dominating position in the musical life of cenEurope and secure material conditions. A confirmed bachelor, he lived comfortably in Vienna during the winter, traveling usually in spring when he would appear as a performer, playing and conducting mainly his own works, and retiring for prolonged summer vacations, usually to the Swiss or Austrian Alps, where he was

mendous success in a

Johann Jakob Brahms, of peasant ancestry, settled in Hamburg in the 1820s and made his living as a musician, playing the double bass at weddings and dances, in coffee houses and music halls. When Johannes, his eldest son, revealed remarkable musical talent as a child, it seemed the obvious thing to destine him for the same profession. Fortunately a betterequipped musician, Otto Cossel, became interested in the gifted child, and some years later Cossel's teacher, Eduard Marxsen, took charge of his musical education and gave him an equally sound father,

training in the rudiments of composition as in the techniques of

Johannes was an accomplished pianist and already composer of distinctive style when he set out, aged 19, in 1853 on his first adventure, a concert tour with the violinist Eduard Remenyi, a Hungarian political refugee; and this journey was to be a decisive event in the young musician's career. He met Joseph Joachim, who, his senior by only a couple of years, was already famous as a violinist and became one of his closest friends; and Joachim gave him a letter of introduction to Robert Schumann at Dijsseldorf who, as much as his wife Clara, the famous pianist, was enormously impressed by that young visitor's genius. Under the heading Neue Bahnen ("New Paths") Schumann piano playing. a

wrote a sensational article for the Neue Zeitschrift

Leipzig, the periodical he

fiir

Musik

in

tral

totally life

absorbed

are in no

in his creative

way memorable;

work. its

The

reality

external events of his is

the mountain range

of great works he created during those years of quiet, singleminded devotion, unaffected by honours of all kinds and an almost mythical fame, as simple and unassuming as ever in his personal

His indefatigable creative activity, after a life of robust off by the first attack of the deadly disease, a cancer of the liver, to which he finally succumbed, after nearly a year's illness, in Vienna on April 3, 1897. Aims. With contributions of momentous importance to practically all branches of music with the exception only of opera, Brahms has taken his place alongside the very greatest composers of the past, and general appreciation of his work seems to have become even greater in the 20th century than it was at the time of his death. If comparatively little of his work has faded so far, this is certainly as a result of his ow^n strict censorship, which never allowed anything to pass that might fall short of his own habits.

health,

was cut

—

—

—

BRAHMS For example, a pianoforte trio in E flat, composed when Brahms was in his SOs, delighted two of his most expert and respected friends, Clara Schumann and Theodor Billroth, yet it never appeared, because the composer judged it unsatisfacfastidious claims.

An extraordinary awareness of his own limitations or shorttory-. comings was probably the reason for a prolonged period of apprenticeship, of assiduous studies that followed the publication of his first works. Like some of his predecessors, such as Schu-

mann or Chopin, and with similar resulting difficulties, Brahms had grown up with the piano as his main medium of musical communication. Not without continued struggle was he able to master the problems of different instrumental combinations, the secrets His corof string technique, of orchestral, of choral writing. respondence with his much more experienced friend Joachim during those formative years, which, strictly speaking, were only concluded with the Requiem, shows on every page the ardent The most ambitious desire to learn and an incredible humility. work of that period, the Pianoforte Concerto in D minor, went to Joachim over and over again for criticism and advice, and the composer is never satisfied, always feeling keenly the gap between Throughout his monumental vision and its actual realization. these years, in company with Joachim, whom he tried to stimulate in his activity as a composer, he continued to train himself systematically in the most involved and scholastic techniques of counterpoint, feeling this to be the most essential foundation of the art of composition, with the final result of an unsurpassed master\' of writing. Like Schumann's and Chopin's, Brahms's idiom appears already amazingly personal in the very first works he published. All the same there is a steady development of style, progressing throughout his long creative career. But there is hardly any wavering of the course he pursued: his principles, his ideals seem to have been set from the start. Glancing chronologically through his works, one is struck by the methodical deliberation with which he established himself in one branch of music after another, with a never-failing sense of responsibility and an uncanny consciousness of the individual problems involved. Style. An artist's style results from a complicated interaction of two basic components his artistic heritage and his own gradually emerging individual way of expression. This applies to Brahms as it applies, say, to Beethoven or Schubert. If in the case of Brahms the traditional, the inherited elements of form and style seem to predominate, at least at a superficial examination, this is due in part to a peculiar historical situation. Brahms was the first great composer who grew up at a period when, as never before in the history of music, the heritage of the past, and even of the remote past, had become a vital factor in the growth and gradual development of a musician's mind and consciousness. The complete edition of Bach's works that began to appear in 1850 was a more important event for Brahms than anything that happened in the field of music during his lifetime, and early in his 20s his keen interest in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, of Giovanni da Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso and Heinrich Schiitz, added another layer of the utmost importance to his background.

—

:

67

losophy and the convictions of the radical progressive party, the neo-German school, presided over by Liszt, and propagating the "music of the future," Against such tendencies Brahms maintained a stubborn opposition throughout his life. He found sparks of spirit and originality in Berlioz, whom he met in Leipzig in 1853. He fully understood Wagner's genius, both as a dramatist and a musician, and he liked to call himself "the best Wagnerian," although he could never swallow Wagner's theories and loathed his grandiloquence and extravagance. But Liszt, whom he found incomparable as a pianist, he refused to take seriously as a composer and. time and again, speaks of his music as "swindle." This feud caused the only deplorable act of rashness in his hfe of which we know: a declaration he circulated among his friends, intended as a public pronouncement against the "music of the future" and its representatives and against the claim to general acceptance of their ideal of descriptive music as realized in Liszt's and his Owing to disciples' symphonic poems and program-symphonies. some indiscretion the draft was published prematurely by a Berlin newspaper with only the signatures of the proposers, Johannes Brahms, Joseph Joachim and two others, and so the whole enterprise lamentalDly misfired, with the only result of exposing Brahms to a lifelong vendetta with the "musical futurists" and their very It was the first and the last time active supporters in the press. Therein his life that he became involved in public polemics. even after some spiteful personal attacks after he remained silent,

by Wagner. In Brahms's early

—

style as represented in the three pianoforte sonatas (1851-53) or the Pianoforte Trio in B major (1854) The music is the impression of romantic exuberance prevails. imbued with the spirit of the German romantic poetry of Joseph Eichendorff or Johann Ludwig Uhland. Here is the point of intersection where young Brahms, with the ecstatic expressiveness of his music, stands

by no means

The slow movement

far

from

his antipode.

Wagner,

F minor (1853), quite in neo-German Lisztians. even

of the Sonata in

Hne with the poetic tendencies of the By a strange bears a love poem by Sternau as an inscription. coincidence, the movement actually contains a striking allusion to an episode in Wagner's Mastersingers (Der Vogel, der heiit' saiig}. written ten years later.

At

this stage,

however, the young

composer's control of form and texture is not yet sufficiently reIt took him another ten years liable to avoid occasional lapses. to impose on his work the strict discipline of classical form that he felt to be essential. Many years later, he rewrote the grandest, most ambitious work of his early years, the Trio in B major of The totally recon1854, which had never fully satisfied him. structed

new

version

— considerable

parts are cut

—

down

to

the

In the language of his maturity, Brahms is a romanticist with unmistakable classical and preclassical features; in his vocal music,

new thematic material was published one of the most striking demonstrations of a great master's critical approach to an immature work of genius. Works. Still, during his 20:i, Brahms seems sometimes to stand undecided between the romantic and the classical ideals, between extravagance of expression and formal restraint. Only toward the end of that period does the synthesis seem to be achieved, the conflicting forces brought into balance. He has successfully mastered the problems of instrumental and vocal style and technique, but

especially in his music for

he

unaccompanied

voices, the style of the

golden age of vocality, of the masters of the 16th century, has a noticeable imprint; and his fondness for the German folksong in point of fact a romantic fashion of his early years adds an element of melodic obviousness and simplicity to the in-

made

—

tricate, subtle structure of his songs.

With

all

that, there

is

never

any feeling of eclecticism the complicated genetic components of his music are amalgamated with an unsurpassable sense of style and with a noble, virile e.xpressiveness that permeates every strain of a rich, impeccably controlled texture. From his deep study of the masters, Brahms, with ever-increasing consciousness, became aware of the organic connection of the present with the past, of music as a living continuity. He saw and felt himself as a humble descendant of a glorious ancestry whose achievements, impossible to equal, imposed a tremendous task on the latecomer and an almost crushing sense of responsibility. There is an unbridgeable chasm between this kind of phi:

roots and redeveloped with in 1891,

—

balks at what he regards as the most demanding tasks, symphony. With the growing practical e.xperience of his activity as a conductor of choral and orchestral still

the string quartet and the

music

in

Em

Vienna, he achieves the

first

great climax of his creative

As his most monumental conception, this work is one of his most popular achievements; as to frequency of performance, it has found its place alongside the foremost standard works of its kind. The Requiem not a work written for the church but a kind of sacred oratorio on words from opens a period during which Brahms concentrated the Scriptures particularly on choral and orchestral composition: Rinaldo 1868 ), Rhapsodie for contralto and male chorus (1869), SchicksalsUed (1871) and Triumphlied (1871) followed the Requiem and some years later came Ndnie (1881) and Gesang der Parzen (1882), Brahms was 40 when he published his first two string quartets and 44 when, 15 years after he had made his first drafts, he completed his First Symphony, Hans Biilow, the greatest conductor of that life,

Deutsches Requiem.

—

—

{

—

;

BRAHUI— BRAID

68

"the 10th," a true successor of Beethoven's nine symphonies. Preceded (1873) by the Variations on a Theme by Haydn, the symphony is the iirst of a galaxy of symphonic works in which Brahms fully expressed his genius for highly organized instrumental music. As a symphonic composer, he stands on time, hailed

as

it

Beethoven's shoulders. This applies as much to the structure as In his First to the whole conception of symphony as an art form.

Symphony, the progress from the

movement

stress

and

strain of the first

finale corresponds to a Beethoven's Fifth and Ninth. When similar curve of emotion he made use of the archaic device of a passacaglia "variations on a ground bass") in the finale of the Fourth Symphony, he himself

to the jubilant

triumph of the

in

{

pointed out. in justification of himself as it were, that Beethoven had used a similar technique in the finale of the Eroica symphony. What he has added to Beethoven's pattern of possibilities is mainly Brahms's based upon the polyphonic component of his style. process of inventing is always stimulated by contrapuntal elements. In the first movements of the First, Second and Third symphonies, the opening main subjects are contrapuntal inventions, subject and countersubject in a close construction that works as a thematic accumulator, a shaping force of dynamic power. More than on Beethoven's "thematic work," with motive cells germinating and coalescing, Brahms's process is based on variation of motives, on the infinite possibilities of widening, condensing, transforming a phrase. the two overtures, the second piano conthe violin concerto and the concerto for violin

The four symphonies,

B

certo in

flat,

and violoncello have become classics in the most exact sense. The same term can be applied to the chamber music, the songs, the piano music, motets and part songs, the creations of his mature

When

Biilow in the 1880s proclaimed his belief in "the Bach, Beethoven and Brahms he anticipated a three great Bs" valuation which has hardly seemed exaggerated. Achievement. It is undeniable that Brahms, as sturdy and original a character as any of the very great, was rather a preserver years.

—

—

—

than an innovator. This is a result of the historical situation in which he found himself, with his deep consciousness of a glorious tradition and as the last exponent of the great creative period that, from Bach to Brahms, has contributed more than any other Intrinsic parts of his greatness are to our living musical heritage. the modesty with which he accepted his position and the energy and honesty of his struggle for perfection that seemed almost out of reach to the latecomer. The philosophical skepticism and pessimism of the late 19th century found their noblest expression in the work of this composer, whose belief in the immortality of great music and the sovereignty of human thought was his religion. See also references under "Brahms, Johannes" in the Index

volume. Briefwechsel (Letters) of J.

BiBLioGR.'U'HY.

Brahms published by

the Deutsche Brahmsgesellschaft, in 16 vol. (1907-22); M. Kalbeck, Johannes Brahms, 4 vol. (1904-12) Florence May, The Life of Johannes Brahms, 2nd ed. (1948) J. A. Fuller-Maitland, Brahms (1911) R. H. Schauffler, The Unknown Brahms (1933) K. Geiringer, Brahms: His Life and Works (1936) R. Specht, Johannes Brahms (Eng. trans. 1930) A. Orel, Johannes Brahms, Ein Meister und sein Weg (19S0); H. Gal, Johannes Brahms (1961); A. H. Dietrich and Sir G. J. V. Widraan, Recollections of Johannes Brahms (1899) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Henschell, Personal Recollections of J. Brahms (1907). (H. Ga.) a tribal confederacy in Baluchistan, West Pakistan,

BRAHUI,

with about 150,000 members, mostly nomadic goat herdsmen, distributed from the Bolan pass through the Brahui hills to Cape Monze on the Arabian sea. The Brahui language iq.v.) is a far northwestern outlier of the Dravidian family of languages, all of whose other members are located in peninsular India; it has borrowed heavily from Sindhi, but remains in unexplained isolation among Indo-Iranian dialects, to which it bears no genetic relationship. Physically the Brahui tribesmen resemble their Balochi and Pathan (qq.v.) neighbours, for the confederacy has been a highly absorptive one. The Brahui tribes are all Muslim by creed and Sunnis by sect, Muslim rites being thickly overlaid upon social customs which are essentially Indian. Women are not strictly secluded.

The Brahui

owing a khan of Kalat, the "Fort," which

tribes are organized along Balochi lines,

loose allegiance to the Brahui

has long been knit up with the confederacy's destinies. A group of seven or eight endogamous lineages form what is believed to be the original Brahui nucleus and constitute about one-eleventh of the Brahui population. These nuclear lineages claim descent, as do the Balochi tribesmen, from Mir Hamza, the Prophet's uncle, who according to orthodox Islamic tradition left no issue. First among the nuclear lineages stands the Ahmadzai. the ruling Uneage, and last among them, the Rodeni, of semiservile descent. To this nucleus have been affiliated many indigenous and captive peoples, their lineages classed as Baloch, Pathan, Persian, Jat. etc., according to the reputed origin of its ruhng set. Thus the Pathan group among the Bangulzai comprises Rind-Balochi and Arab lineages. Even the nuclear Brahui lineages are of similarly mixed origin.

Documentary knowledge of Brahui history begins with the capby the Moguls and its recapture by the Brahuis with

ture of Kalat

Pathan

aid, in the ISth to 16th century. Incessant warfare with Balochi and Jats ensued, but eventually, in the 1 7th century, Mir Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadzai lineage, welded or rewelded the various tribes into a confederacy. Under Nasir the Great, who took the title of khan, the confederacy attained its zenith in the 18th century (see Baluchistan: History). On that ruler's death

1795 anarchy revived and the confederacy disintegrated, the Pathan elements taking a full share in its disruption, but closely followed by the Balochi and Persians. Modern Brahui history shows repeated fission. in

—

Sir Denys Bray, Census Report of India, vol. iv, (1913), The Life-History of a Brahui (l913) and The 2 vol. (1909-34). (M. Ma.)

Bibliography. Baluchistan

Brahui Language,

BRAHUI LANGUAGE.

Spoken

in Baluchistan in

West

Pakistan, the grammatical system discloses the secret of its parentage. The use of suffixes, most of which are traceable to the same

source as Dravidian (in southern India), the essential forms of the personal pronouns and striking analogies in the pronominal terminations of the plural in the verb, in the formation of the

above all, in the organic negative conjugation, all that the language has sprung from the same source as the Dravidian group. "It has freely absorbed the alien vocabulary of Persian, Balochi, Sindhi and other neighbouring languages, but See its grammatical system has preserved a sturdy existence." casual, and,

show

also

Dravidian Languages.

—

Bibliography. Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv, pp. 619-636 Sir Denys Bray, The Brahui Language (1909) J. Bloch in A. Meillet and M. Cohen, Les Langues du Monde, new ed., pp. 488, 491-503, maps xi A and xi B (1952). (J. Wh.) ;

BRAID, JAMES

(1795-1860), Scottish surgeon and scienwas bom in Fifeshire, educated Braid's interest in at Edinburgh and practised in Manchester. when he attended several convermesmerism was aroused in 1841 Initially skeptical toward the sazioni of an itinerant mesmerist. phenomenon of mesmeric sleep, he began his own experiments; he became convinced that genuine sleep can be induced by a fixed In 1843 he published his stare at a bright inanimate object. Neurypnology, or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep, Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism, introducing the term neurohypnotism or hypnosis and proving conclusively that hypnotic "phenomena are induced solely by an impression made on the nervous centers" without any fluid or other influence passing from operator to patient. By this means he hoped to "acquire a power tific

investigator of hypnotism,

of rapidly curing many functional disorders," otherwise deemed He reincurable and generally labeled "nervous complaints." ported successful treatment of tic douloureux, paralysis, aphasia, rheumatism, headache, palpitation, skin diseases and other functional and organic diseases and advocated the use of hypnotism and pain. At first his views met with violent opposition, but they were later taken up by Paul Broca, J. M. Charcot, A. A. Liebault and H. Bernheim and thus provided a major impetus to the development of the French school of neuropsychiatry. Braid died at Manchester on March 25, 1860. (I- V.) See also Hypnosis. (1870-1950), British golfer and one of the BRAID, greatest players of his time, was born at Earlsferry, Fife, Scot., in surgery to alleviatp anxiety

JAMES

BRAILA— BRAIN

69

on Feb. 6, 1870. He learned golf as a caddie and wished to become a professional, but his parents apprenticed him to a joiner. In 1893 he became a club maker in a large department store in London and two years later achieved sudden fame by halving with the reigning champion, J. H. Taylor. In 1896 he became professional at the Romford golf club and quickly established himself He won the open championship five times: as a player of note. Muirfield (1901 and 1906); St. Andrews (1905 and 1910); Prestwick (1908); and the News of the World match-play tournament

Midbrain and Thalamencephalon 5. Development of the Pituitary Body 6. Pineal Organ or Epiphysis B. Comparative Anatomy 1. Cyclostomes

four times.

C.

Braid. H.

Vardon and Taylor

w-ere the

4.

modern town, compactly

built;

its

principal

building

Chiscani,

5

8.

11.

Physiology of the Brain A. Vertebrate Evolution 1. Increased Integration 2. Control of Environment

the

3. 4.

Hindbrain Midbrain

5.

Forebrain

6.

Developmental Stages

7.

From Subhuman

C.

By

iDy

the Turks,

who

Brain Stem Reflexes Sensory Conduction Through the Brain Stem Motor Conduction Through the Brain Stem 4. Regulation of the Internal Environment 5. Regulation of the Central Nervous System D. Nutrition of the Brain 2.

built five concentric walls

around

it.

war

of

1S2S-29, Braila was returned to Walachia. A little upstream of the city are remains of the piles of a bridge attributed by doubtful tradition to Darius (c. 500 B.C.). BRAILLE, LOUIS (1809-1852). to whom the blind owe their alphabet, was born in Coupvray, France. At the age of three, while cutting leather in his father's shop, the knife slipped and Sympathetic ophthalmia and blindness fol-

plunged into his eye. lowed.

In 1819 he went to Paris with a scholarship to attend the InstiAveugles, whose founder, Valentin

tution National des Jeunes

discovered that the blind could decipher texts in emletters. In 1821 Charles Barbier, an artillery captain, exhibited there an apparatus by which a message, coded At age 15 in dots and dashes, was embossed on thin cardboard. Braille worked out an adaptation that adequately met the needs of the sightless. After extending his six-dot code to musical notation,

Haijy,

ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

is of interest primarily because in the central nervous system, perhaps more than anywhere else, morphology sets certain easily seen limits to function. Nerve cells can do only one thing: send out rather uniform signals. For a given cell these signals will all be of roughly the same strength, determined by the amount of energy developed in that cell and having no clear relation to the energy of the impulse that releases This survey of the anatomy of the brain deals very that cell. briefly with the first stages of its development, then its comparative

anatomy and,

of the brain

finally,

A.

Roman

See also J. Roblin, The Reading Fingers (Les doigts qui lisent), Eng. trans, by R. G. Mandalian (19S3). (J. E. Ln.)

BRAIN.

The

brain

is

that part of the central nervous system

invertebrates are included in This article deals almost exclusively does not include the invertebrates and considers the brain of the lower vertebrates only in so far as it can is

I.

The anatomy

first

he published expositions of his system in 1829 and 1837. Braille became a dedicated teacher in his school and a talented church organist. For the last 17 years of his Ufe he was ill with tuberculosis. His remains, sent to Coupvray, were returned to Paris in 1952 to rest in the Pantheon. See Blind, Training and Welfare of: Systems of Reading.

that

4. The "Motor" Cortex The Brain Stem

3.

the treaty of Adrianople following the Russo-Turkish

bossed

lodged

in the skull or, if the

the definition, the head.

with the brain of man;

Human

1.

of art.

Braila is first mentioned in a document of 1368 issued by the prince of Walachia and permitting merchants of Brasov to transIn 1554 it was port their goods on the Danube through Braila.

conquered

to

B. Experimental Investigations 1. Lessons of ^\nimal Behaviour 2. Reflexes 3. The Cerebral Cortex

an important industrial centre, with metalworking, At footwear and food-processing factories. mi. S.S.W., pulp and paper are made from reeds. There

museum

Medulla Oblongata Pons Varolii Cerebellum The Midbrain Cerebral Hemispheres Cerebral Cortex Weight of the Brain

10.

clothing,

are a state theatre and a

Ventricles

4.

7.

capacity. is

3.

9.

Braila is conlink it with the salt Lake Sarat, 6 mi. S.W. nected by rail with Ploesti and Bucharest, and with Galati (20 mi. N.N.E.). It is the second largest port of Rumania, being accessible to seagoing ships and having a large grain and warehousing Braila

2.

Marsupials and Insectivores Higher Mammals of the Adult Human Brain General Structure Membranes of the Brain

Anatomy

6.

and

textile,

Monotremes

6.

town

is

Electric streetcars intersect the

Birds

5.

5.

(formerly Ibraila), a Danubian port of southeast Rumania in the Galati region, lies in flat country on the west bank of the Danube, 106 mi. from its mouth at Sulina and 229 km. (142 mi.) N.E. of Bucharest. Pop. (1956) 101.424. Braila is mostly cathedral of St. Michael.

Amphibians and Reptiles

4.

1.

dominating figures of the

in the early years of the

BRAILA

a

Fishes

3.

7.

20th century and they were known In 1905 Braid as "the great triumvirate" {see Golf: History). played with Sandy Herd a famous foursome over 72 holes against Vardon and Taylor, the latter pair winning by 13 to 12. He was Braid professional at Walton Heath, Surrey, for over 45 years. (B. Dn.) died in London on Nov. 27, 1950.

game

2.

it

throw light on the structure of the human brain. organized as follows: I. Anatomy of the Brain A. Development of the Brain 1, Early Stages 2. Further Differentiation ,3. Hindbrain and Roof Plate

The

article is

In as

an

all

the

anatomy of

the adult

human

brain.

Development of the Brain

vertebrate embryos the central nervous system originates ectoderm covering the dorsal surface

axial thickening of the

This is the neural or medullary plate and continuous on each side with the ectoderm that will become the epidermis. The edges of the neural plate soon become raised, so that the axial band is converted into a longitudinal groove. This is the medullary groove and already at its anterior end show's three enlargements that are separated by two constrictions. These indiof the embryonic area. is

cate the site of the primary divisions of the embryonic brain,

namely, the forebrain or prosencephalon; the midbrain or mesencephalon; and the hindbrain or rhombencephalon. There is also an indication on each side of the forebrain of the optic vesicle. The medullary groove later becomes converted into a closed tube, which is named the medullary or neural canal, by the folding inward and union of its edges. The union begins in the region of the neck and extends headward and tailward. The lumen of this tube is dilated at the head to form the ventricles of the brain, while in the rest of its extent it remains narrow and forms the centra! canal of the spinal cord. As the margins of the medullary groove unite to form the medullary canal, a continuous lamina of epithelium grows outward on each side of the spinal cord and posterior part of the brain. This is the neural crest. It afterward becomes segmented and gives origin to the sensory ganglia on the posterior

BRAIN

70

roots of the spinal nerves, the sensory fibres of the spinal nerves, and the ganglia and nerve fibres of the sympathetic system. It

some of the ganglia and nerve fibres The neural crest cells appear also to give thus explaining in a simple way why so many animals are lighter on the belly than on the back. {See Nervous takes part in the formation of

of the cranial nerves. rise to

pigment

cells,

System Embryology, Human. The hypoglossal (last cranial) nerve, which in the adult is a purely motor nerve for the muscles of the tongue, in the embryo has a posterior or sensory root with a rudimentary ganglion upon )

;

it (Froriep). This afterward disappears, but its temporary presence in the embryo indicates that the nerve was primarily composed of both motor and sensory fibres and that it is homologous with the spinal nerves. 1. Early Stages. In the early stages of development the brain

—

presents certain flexures which involve the longitudinal axis of the neural tube. The first of these is the cephalic flexure, which is

a

forward bend round the anterior end of the notochord.

It

followed by the cervical flexure at the junction of the brain with the spinal cord, which is also in a forward direction. Between the pontine flexure, which is in the reverse direction and does is

is

not involve the whole thickness of the neural tube. The stage with three primary vesicles soon becomes modified by subdivision of the forebrain into an anterior telencephalon and a posterior diencephalon (including thalamencephalon) the hind;

brain also divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The telencephalon gives rise to the olfactory lobes and hemisphere

The thalamencephalon forms the region of the brain surrounding the posterior part of the third ventricle behind the foramen of Monro. It includes the thalamus proper, divisible into a sensory dorsal and a motor ventral part, the pineal organ and the habenula dorsally and the hypothalamus and the cerebral lobe of the pituitary ventrally. The metencephalon comprises the pons Varolii, part of the fourth ventricle and the cerebellum; the myelencephalon corresponds to the medulla oblongata. In transverse section the developing medullary tube is seen to consist of left and right lateral plates, between which is the cenvesicles.

tral

canal of the spinal cord.

The

lateral plates are joined at

margins by a thin roof plate and along their ventral margins by a similar thin floor plate. These close in the central canal behind and in front. A cross section of the canal at this stage of development is diamond-shaped, with the dorsoventral diameter much longer than the transverse diameter. The wide angles on each side of the diamond correspond to a longitudinal groove on the inner surface of each lateral plate. This is the posterior median sulcus (sulcus limitans and runs the whole length of the spinal cord. It is continued forward on the floor of the fourth ventricle, to the sides of the aqueduct of Sylvius in the midbrain. Its end in the thalamencephalon is not quite clear. The groove marks off the ventral or basal part of the brain and spinal cord, which gives origin to motor nerve fibres, from the dorsal or alar part, which receives the sensory fibres. 2. Further Differentiation.— The developing neural tube shows three important zones: an inner or germinal zone, a middle or mantle zone and an outer or marginal zone. The germinal zone is characterized by actively dividing nuclei. The middle zone forms the central gray matter of the cord and contains a large number of oval nuclei embedded in the supporting tissue. The marginal zone consists at first only of a fine network of supporting or neuroglial fibres. Later, it is traversed by white meduUated fibres forming the columns of white matter. These zones are present in the early stages throughout the whole extent of the neural tube, but the primary relations are considerably modified in the brain by the migration of nerve cells and nerve fibres from one zone into the other. Thus the inner zone forms the ependyma or lining membrane of the central canal of the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain. In certain places in the brain, however, the ependyma is invaginated into the cavities of the ventricles and modified so as to form the choroidal epithelium. Moreover, that part of the gray matter that forms the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres and of the cerebellum is situated on the surface of the brain, superficial to the white matter. their dorsal

)

This is brought about by the migration of cells from the mantle zone into the superficial strata of the marginal zone. White fibres may also invade the territory of the gray matter, as in the formation of the internal capsule. Portions of gray matter may thus be displaced from their original position, so that the primary position of the parts becomes obscured. In the later stages of development the primary flexures of the brain become, to a large extent, straightened out, and the whole form of the brain becomes modified by the enlargement of the cerebral hemispheres. 3. Hindbrain and Roof Plate. In the hindbrain a remarkable change occurs in the position of the lateral walls of the neural tube, whereby their dorsal margins formed by the alar laminae become widely separated. Each lateral plate is rotated outward through an angle of 90° by a hinge movement, as in opening a book. The surfaces originally directed toward the median plane

—

thus become directed dorsally and now form the floor of the lozenge-shaped fourth ventricle. The sulcus limitans still separates the basal (motor) and the alar (sensory) region, but these, instead of being ventral and dorsal, are now internal and external. The roof plate also becomes greatly modified, becoming thinned out and stretched so as to form a delicate epithelial lamina, which is blended with the overlying pia mater. A part of this membrane becomes infolded just behind the cerebellum to form the choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle. The anterior part of the roof plate with the adjoining portion of the alar lamina becomes thickened to form the cerebellum, which is thus connected with the sensory tracts and, more especially, with incoming impulses from the vestibular portion of the eighth cranial nerve. Median and lateral openings in the roof of the fourth ventricle are formed, secondarily, by a breaking down of the epithelial membrane. The cerebrospinal fluid is thus able to pass from the ventricles into the spaces of the subarachnoid tissue outside (see Ventricles, below). 4. Midbrain and Thalamencephalon.— The midbrain in a ten-millimetre large size of

human embryo

its

surface of the brain. it

At a

of tracts of nerve fibres

characterized by the relatively

is

and

its prominent position on the owing to the growth through from the cerebral hemispheres, cerebel-

central canal

later stage,

Varolii, the walls of the canal become greatly increased in thickness, and the lumen becomes relatively small. Moreover, in the later months of fetal life, the midbrain becomes completely covered over and concealed by the backward growth

lum and pons

and cerebral hemispheres. The thalamencephalon appears to undergo less change from the primary form of the neural tube than either the midbrain or hindbrain. In the early stages of development the roof of the thalamencephalon is exposed on the superficial aspect of the brain. About the third month, however, the cerebral hemispheres, with the developing corpus callosum and fornix, grow backward over the thalamencephalon, mesencephalon and cerebellum, carrying with them a covering of pia mater. This fuses with the pia mater, covering the thalamencephalon so as to form a triangular fold, the velum interpositum. or tela chorioidea, from which the choroid plexuses of the third and lateral ventricles are formed. The hemisphere vesicles are at first quite small and open by a relatively large aperture, the foramen of Monro, into the third ventricle. The latter is hmited in front by a thin membrane, the lamina terminalis, so named because it at first forms the anterior end of the brain. Later the hemispheres grow forward on each side of it, and it is left at the bottom of the great longitudinal fissure. As the hemispheres enlarge forward, upward and backward, nerve fibres are developed between them, which cross in or near the lamina terminalis. These form the anterior commissure, the hippocampal commissure of the fornix, and the corpus callosum. 5. Development of the Pituitary Body.- ^The pituitary (or hypophysis) has two parts: an oral or anterior lobe, glandular in structure; and a cerebral or posterior lobe, composed of neuroglia. The organ is present in all vertebrate animals and is developed very early. Thus in the human embryo of four weeks the oral portion appears as a flattened, flask-shaped diverticulum, the pouch of Rathke, which arises from the ectoderm of the primitive mouth cavity or stomodeum. This comes in contact with the neural ectoof the corpus callosum

—

BRAIN derm, forming the floor of the third ventricle behind the optic decussation and in front of the anterior end of the notochord. Later the neural ectoderm gives rise to a hollow diverticulum, the posterior lobe, which is connected to the brain by a funnel-shaped The infundibulum then becomes surstalk, the infundibulum. rounded on the front and sides by the vesicular part of the pouch That part of the pouch that comes in contact with of Rathke. the cerebral lobe is called the paraneural part or pars intermedia. The parts on each side which become applied to the infundibular part of the floor of the third ventricle are the lateral or tuberal lobes.

The

vesicular part of the pouch soon

the roof of the

mouth

becomes cut

cavity by the degeneration of

off its

from stalk.

About the seventh or eighth week the vesicle becomes further modified by the outgrowth from it of numerous branching processes which invade the surrounding tissue. The processes are at Later the mesodermal first hollow and lined by epithelial cells. tissue between the processes becomes vascularized, and the lumina of the processes and the main central cavity gradually become obThe cavity of the posterior lobe also disappears, with literated. the exception of a small recess in the floor of the third ventricle, corresponds which In to the attachment of the infundibulum. the adult the interior of the posterior lobe is occupied by a loose network of supporting neuroglia and contains no nervous tissue, except fibres of the sympathetic system which accompany the vessels.

The meshes of the network contain a clear fluid. In the paraneural part or pars intermedia, the epithelium is frequently arranged in the form of closed vesicles containing colloid material, and this substance has sometimes been observed in the posterior lobe and in the region of the third ventricle, close to the infundib-

ulum, more especially in those animals in which the lumen of cerebral lobe persists and remains in continuity with the The origin of the pituitary gland presents one of the most interesting problems of comparative embryology, references to the literature on which will be found in any of the standard works on zoology and embryology mentioned in the the

cavity of the ventricle.

(See also Pituitary Gland.) Pineal Organ or Epiphysis. The pineal body of the brain is a small conical structure that springs from the .posterior part of the roof of the third ventricle and projects backward over the superior quadrigeminal bodies. It consists of bibliography.

—

6.

human

rounded epithelial cells that are arranged in an alveolar manner. Between the alveoli or follicles is a supporting tissue enclosing thin-walled blood vessels and frequently containing also deposits of calcareous salts. These form small spherical bodies which show, on section, a concentric laminated structure. They are known as brain sand and in old subjects are commonly found also in the choroid plexuses, pia-arachnoid and other parts of the brain. The pineal body of man is a vestigial organ w'hich represents a more highly evolved apparatus in lower types of living vertebrates EPIPHYSIS -

OLFACTORY LOBE-^_ ,_^,

1

C-

71

FOREBRAIN

MIDBRAIN

(

HINDBRAIN

BRAIN

72

additional outgrowth in front of the pineal organ, the paraphysis. The pituitary body is formed from a single median pouch, the

which opens primarily on the ventral aspect of the head, between the olfactory sac in front and the primitive mouth behind. pituitary sac,

Later the pituitary sac sends out small follicular processes that fuse with the infundibulum and form, with the latter, the com-

pound pituitary gland.

In the course of development the original openings of the pituitary and olfactory sacs are displaced from the ventral to the dorsal aspect of the head. In the hindbrain a rudimentary cerebellum is present, which appears as a transverse bar at the anterior boundary of the roof of the fourth ventricle. The choroid plexuses are well developed

and consist of three invaginations, an anterior from the roof of the third ventricle, a middle in relation with the midbrain, and a posterior from the roof of the fourth ventricle. 2. Fishes. The Chondrichthyes, to which belong the sharks and the rays, are the lowest vertebrates that swim freely about in the water. Although the eyes are fully developed, smell is probably the dominant sense, since the olfactory bulbs and tracts are enormous and project as large hollow outgrowths from each side of the forebrain. There is also a remarkable development of the

—

cerebellum voluted.

(fig.

The

2).

The

cerebellar cortex

cerebral hemispheres are

is

often highly con-

much

larger than in the

lamprey, the corpus striatum is developed and a roof plate or pallium is present; but as yet there is no differentiation of cortical layers. There is only one pineal stalk. The fibres of the optic nerves cross one another as compact bundles.

The brain of the Teleostei, or fishes having a bony skeleton, some respects not so far advanced as that of the cartilaginous fishes. The cerebral hemispheres and olfactory lobes are small. The optic lobes are enormously developed, however, and the optic is

in

nerves cross one another completely. In the mud fishes, or Dipnoi, the brain

is elongated and tubular form, the olfactory lobes large and the cerebellum small. The brain, as might be expected, resembles in some respects that of

in

the Amphibia.

The

cranial nerves

and

their nuclei are arranged in

SPINAL NERVES

MEDULLA OBLONGATA OLFACTORY LOBE SPINAL NERVES

FIG. 4.

— BRAIN OF A PIGEON:

(1-12)

CRANIAL NERVES

But the cranial nerves were numbered before this was The anterior roots in higher forms are four

arches.

clearly understood.

number: the 3rd pair or oculomotor, the 4th or trochlear, the 6th or abducens and the 12th or hypoglossal nerve. The posterior

in

roots are the Sth or trigeminal, the 7th or facial, the 9th or glos-

sopharyngeal, the 10th or vagus and the 11th or accessory nerve. 1st or olfactory, the 2nd or optic and the Sth or acoustic are nerves that go to special sense organs and are neither anterior nor

The

posterior roots.

—

3. Amphibians and Reptiles. In the Amphibia the brain is tubular and does not show any distinct advance on the type characteristic of fishes; in some respects, e.g., the development of the cerebellum, it is distinctly inferior to that of Scyllium. The olfac-

tory lobes are large and in the frog's brain are fused in the median In the lamina terminalis there is an anterior or ventral

two columns: a dorsal or, in the fourth ventricle, lateral one; and a ventral or medial one. In the spinal cord the two roots unite and form to-

plane.

gether the peripheral nerve. In the brain they remain separate, the anterior root giving rise to the innervation of the mesoderm, the posterior root giving sensory and visceromotor innervation to

of cells in the superficial stratum of the median wall of the pal-

the skin and the internal organs, including the muscles of the

gill

OLFACTORY BULB

commissure and a dorsal or hippocampal commissure.

indication of the hippocampal present in the larva disappears in the adult animal. There is a well-developed infundibulum and hypophysis. The optic tracts and lobes are of large size. The cerebellum appears as a small transverse bar in the anterior part

This

lium.

is

regarded as the

The epiphysis

cortex.

that

first

is

of the roof of the fourth ventricle and closely resembles that of the

human embryo

In the Reptilia differentiated.

-OPTIC TRACT

The forma-

tion of the latter corresponds to the appearance of a small layer

at the fourth

(fig.

3

)

week.

the cerebral hemispheres are

The mesial surface

more highly

of each hemisphere shows an

upper hippocampal zone, a lower olfactory tubercle and an intermediate part, the paraterminal body or precommissural area. On the upper part of the outer or lateral surface is a limited area, termed by G. Elliot Smith the neopallium. This is the forerunner of the neocortex, which forms the main part of the cerebral hemiBelow the neopallium is the spheres in the higher mammalia. pyriform lobe, which is olfactory in function and corresponds to the uncus of the human brain. The corpus striatum is large, and there is an indication of differentiation into caudate nucleus, globus pallidus and putamen. In the Lacertilia the pineal organ is more highly developed than in any other living vertebrate animal. There is, however, no evidence of its use as an organ of sight.

—

4. Birds. In birds (fig. 4) lobes and cerebellum are large.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA OLFACTORY BULB

SPINAL NERVES' 3

PITUITARY

LATERAL

FIG. 3.

— BRAIN

the cerebral hemispheres, optic The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is smooth, and their bulk depends largely on the great size of the corpus striatum. The cerebellum consists of a large central lobe or vermis, crossed by a series of parallel fissures, and on each side a small but well-defined flocculus. The olfactory lobes are extremely small, and, judging from the early development and large size of the optic vesicles and the optic nerves and tracts, vision

OF AN ALLIGATOR:

(1-12)

CRANIAL NERVES

5.

is

the dominant sense.

— In the lowest Mammalia, represented by the

Monotremes.

;

BRAIN

73 TENTORIUM

duckbilled platypuses and the spiny anteaters, the cerebral hemispheres are well developed. They extend forward over the olfactory lobes and backward over the thalamencephalon, midbrain and cerebellum. Convolutions and fissures appear. There are a dorsal and a ventral commissure, fimbria and gyrus dentatus. The cerebellum is well developed, presenting numerous folia and a conspicuous flocculus. In the spiny anteater, which is nocturnal in its habits, the optic nerves are extremely small, but there is an enormous development of the olfactory bulbs and tubercles. 6. Marsupials and Insectivores. In the Marsupialia the type of brain varies much, apparently according to the habits of

FALX CEREBRI

CEREBELLI

—

Thus in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophiliis), described by G. Elliot Smith as an "offal eating animal," there is an enormous development of the olfactory bulbs and the region of the brain termed rhinencephalon; in kangaroos (Macropodithe different species.

dae) there lum.

is

a great development of the

neopalUum and

cerebel-

The

Insectivora are remarkable for the very large size of their olfactory organs and for the fact that they possess a corpus cal-

losum. Most of the lower mammals are macrosmatic; i.e., have In the mole the optic nerves a well-developed olfactory organ. and tracts and the superior corpora quadrigemina are poorly deThe influence on the brain of change of habit in two veloped. members of the same family, the jumping shrew and the tree shrew, is

striking.

Higher Mammals.

7.

—The surface

of the brain in

mammalian

animals varies greatly with regard to the convolutionary pattern. In some the hemispheres are smooth, e.g., the manatee, the lesser anteater and the marmoset; in others highly convoluted, e.g., whales, dolphins and certain ungulates, such as the elephant; others are intermediate in this respect. The degree of convolution is partly dependent on the size of the body. As a rule large animals have highly convoluted brains, small animals smooth

between the number of white fibres in the centre of the hemispheres and the number of nerve cells in the gray cortex on the surface. brains.

There

is

also a definite relation

—

SAGITTAL VIEW OF HUMAN BRAINPAN SHOWING FIG. 5. TITIONS BETWEEN HALVES OF THE BRAIN

MEMBRANOUS

PAR-

system also includes certain nerve centres and nerve fibres that, without our conscious knowledge of the processes concerned, control the vital functions of the body, such as circulation of the blood and respiration. This system, since it acts to a large extent independently of the will, has been termed the autonomic system. It includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Through communicating branches the brain is capable of influencing organs that are sujsplied by the autonomic system; e.g., the salivary glands and heart, both of which may be acted on by fear, hunger, etc. Ordinarily, however, the functions of the internal organs are carried out without the person's being conscious of the processes involved. The halves of the brain are separated by membranous partitions (fig. S) that are continuous with the three membranes covering If the membranes are removed, the the substance of the brain. brain's surface is seen to be moist and of a grayish-white colour.

In some animals, e.g., the Cetacea, with a highly convoluted pattern, the gray cortex is very thin. In the higher types of animals it is usually thicker and much more highly differentiated. Primates are microsmatic; i.e., have a poorly developed organ of smell. The brain of the chimpanzee closely resembles the con-

It is characterized

volutionary pattern of the human brain. In most apes there is an extension forward of the striate (visual) and peristriate areas

of nerve fibres called commissures. The largest of these crosses the middle of the great longitudinal fissure and is called the corpus callosum. In addition to the hemispheres and cerebellum, the

of the cortex on the outer side of the occipital lobe.

This encroaches on and overlaps the parietal lobe and occipitoparietal fissure. It thus produces a transverse or lunate sulcus. This is the simian fissure or aft'enspalte and is sometimes represented in

human

by sinuous foldings of the superficial stratum These are the gyri or convolutions, and they are sepaThe main part of the brain is subrated by grooves or sulci. divided by a deep longitudinal fissure into right and left hemispheres. The hemispheres are connected by transverse bands or cortex.

brain comprises the interbrain or thalamencephalon, the midbrain or mesencephalon, the pons Varolii, which forms a transverse

bridge between the two cerebellar hemispheres, and finally the medulla oblongata, which is situated below the pons and cerebellum

subject by a small and variable fissure which usually lies some distance behind, and external to, the external parietooccipital fissure and is not continuous with it. The human brain is

and connects these with the spinal cord, 2. Membranes of the Brain. These are an outer, tough,

distinguished anatomically from that of the higher apes by

its

fibrous layer, the dura mater; a thin, intermediate, weblike tissue,

and great development of the parietal regions. Mentally, man is distinguished from the apes by the faculty of speech and by much greater powers of reasoning, concentration and appreciation. (See Mammal; Primates.)

the arachnoid; and a soft, vascular inner covering, the pia mater.

the

large size

Bibliography.

— D.

J.

Cunningham

(ed.),

Textbook of Anatomy, 8th

ed. (1943); H. H. Donaldson, The Growth of the Brain (1897); G. C. J. Herrick, An InElliot Smith, Evolution of Man, 2nd ed. (1927) troduction to Neurology, 4th ed. (1927) F. Keibe! and F. P. Mall (eds.), T. Enibryologv, vol. ii Manual of (1912) J. Parker and \V. A. Haswell, A Textbook of Zoology, vol. ii, 6th ed. (1948) J. Quain, Ele;

;

Human

;

;

ments of Anatomy, ed. by E. A. Schafer et al., vol. iii, part i (1908) C. U. Ariens Kappers et al.. Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Vertebrates, Including Man, 2nd ed., 3 vol. (1960) N. Becarri, Neurologia comparala (1943); H. VVooUard, Recent Advances in ;

Anatomy

(1927)

C.

;

F. Tilney,

The Brain From Ape

to

Man

(1928).

Anatomy of the Adult Human Brain

General Structure.

—

The lowest part of the brain, the continuous through- the foramen magnum with the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system, whereas the nerves passing to and from the central nervous system form the peripheral cerebrospinal sysThe nervous tem. (See also Nervous System; Spinal Cord.) 1.

medulla oblongata,

is

—

(See also Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid,) The dura mater lines the cranial cavity. On its outer surface are meningeal arteries and veins that serve for the nutrition of the bone. If the dura mater is torn in an injury to the skull, an effusion of blood may occur between the dura mater and the bone, which may, by exerting pressure on the underlying brain, cause paralysis of the opposite side of the body. The inner surface of the membrane which is in relation with the brain is smooth and moist. The dura mater also forms partitions between the hemispheres of the brain and cerebellum. These septa are folds of the dura mater and consist of two layers; blended where they touch but separated along the attached borders of the septa to form venous channels or sinuses, by which blood and also excess of cerebrospinal fluid is drained from the brain into the great veins of the neck, which carry it back toward the heart. The secretion from the pituitary gland is also carried away into the general blood stream by small venules, which open into

Absorpthe neighbouring cavernous and other venous sinuses. tion of the cerebrospinal fluid is carried out, to a large extent,

by small

villous

processes of the arachnoid membrane,

which

BRAIN

74

project into the venous sinuses and spaces of the dura mater and are most

numerous

neighbourhood of the sagittal sinus. prevented or retarded, the intracranial pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid rises, and one form of hydrocephalus ig.v.) results. In old age the arachnoid villi enlarge Between the dura mater and the to form Pacchionian bodies. subjacent arachnoid membrane is an interval called the subdural space. It contains a small quantity of fluid that serves to lubricate the smooth inner surface of the dura mater. Beneath the dura mater is the arachnoid membrane, which, although thin, is not permeable to fluids. It is separated from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space. This is traversed by a network of delicate fibrous bands. The meshes of this network are filled by the subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid, while the larger thin-walled cerebral arteries and veins covering the surface of the brain lie in the thin bands of fibrous tissue forming the net. The pia mater is the delicate vascular membrane which forms the immediate investment of the brain and dips down into the fisIf this

absorption

in the

is

sures between the convolutions.

It

In the lower part of the roof of the fourth ventricle are three openings in the arachnoid membrane: a median, the foramen of Magendie; and two lateral, the foramina of Luschka. These form a communication between the cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain and that contained in the subarachnoid space. Obliteration of these openings by meningitis produces an obstructive hydrocephalus, in which the accumulation of fluid is entirely intra-

—

3. Ventricles. These are cavities containing fluid situated in the substance of the brain and lined by a thin membrane, the ependyma. The true ventricles are four in number, namely, the right and left lateral ventricles, which are contained in the cerebral hemispheres; the third ventricle, situated in the thalamencephalon; and the fourth ventricle, in the hindbrain. Each lateral ventricle is connected with the third ventricle by a small opening, the interventricular foramen of Monro; and the third ventricle is joined to the fourth by a narrow channel, the aqueduct of Sylvius in the midbrain. The fourth ventricle communicates below with the central canal of the spinal cord and with the subarachnoid space by the foramina of Magendie and Luschka. The cerebrospinal fluid, which is contained in the ventricles and subarachnoid space, acts as a mechanical support to the brain

CENTRAL CANAL

FUNICULUS CUNEATUS

INTERNAL

ARCUATE FIBRES

NUCLEI OF MEDIAL AND

LATERAL PARTS OF DORSAL FASCICLE

MEDIAL LONGITUDINAL TRACT

FIG. 6.

PYRAMIDAL DECUSSATION POSTERIOR CEREBELLAR NOTCH

contains the smaller arterioles

and venules which supply the subjacent corte.x of the brain. A large triangular fold of pia mater (velum interpositum) is included in the great transverse fissure lying between the corpus callosum and fornix above and the roof of the third ventricle and optic thalami below. This pyramidal fold contains the two great cerebral veins of Galen, which drain the blood from the interior of the brain. Vascular fringes at the margin of the fold project into the lateral ventricles, and similar fringes project from the under surface of the fold into the third ventricle. These fringes are the choroid plexuses of the lateral and third ventricles, and a similar choroid plexus is found in the roof of the fourth ventricle. They are covered by a secretory layer, called the choroidal epithelium, which secretes the cerebrospinal fluid.

ventricular.

12~ OCCIPITAL LOBE

FIG. 7.

— BASE OF BRAIN

and spinal cord; it also takes the part of the tissue fluid and lymph found in other parts of the body. The blood is supplied to the brain by two paired arteries: the two internal carotids and the two vertebral arteries. These are in communication with each other at the base of the brain, where they form the so-called circle of WiUis, which, however, in about The details do not matter too 25'^c of all cases is incomplete. much, but it should be pointed out that the venous return is arranged not alongside the arteries as almost ever>'\vhere else

in the

body but through a system of dural sinuses that go to the jugular foramen and from there to the internal jugular veins. (See Arteries; \'eins.) 4.

Medulla Oblongata.—This

posterior part of the cranial cavity

upward

is

situated in the lower and

(fig.

6).

It

appears to be a

from this arrangement of the fibres composing the nerve tracts and gray matter. It contains the important vital centres known as the cardiac, vasomotor and respiratory centres. These are situated in the lower part of the floor of the direct continuation

of the spinal cord but

difl[ers

in the

in the disposition of the

fourth ventricle. Longitudinal bundles of nerve fibres connect the medulla oblongata with the pons Varolii, and two diverging bundles of fibres called restiform bodies join it to the cerebellum.

The

principal longitudinal tracts

the medulla on each side are:

which connect the pons with

(1) the pyramidal tract, (2) the

medial longitudinal bundle; and (3) the medial lemniscus or fillet. Pyramidal Tracts. The pyramidal tracts consist of motor fibres, each of which descends from the motor area of the cerebral cortex through the internal capsule, midbrain and pons to the anterior part of the medulla. Here they form two parallel strands, one on each side of a median vertical groove. In the lower part of the medulla oblongata the greater number of the fibres of the pyramidal tract cross over to the opposite side of the spinal cord, where they form a bundle of descending fibres called the crossed pyramidal tract. The remaining fibres are continued downward on the same side of the cord as the direct pyramidal tract. Even(See Spinal tually these fibres also cross to the opposite side. Cord.) The crossing of the motor nerve fibres in the medulla oblongata is called the decussation of the pyramids (fig. 7); and since, with few exceptions, all motor fibres, and also sensory fibres, cross to the opposite side, each cerebral hemisphere dominates the muscles of and receives sensory impulses from the opposite side of the body. Medial Longitudinal Bundles. These are paired tracts of nerve fibres which have their cells of origin in the vestibular nuclei of the brain stem, and end in the nuclei of the muscles of the eyes and those for the neck muscles of the same and the opposite side. By means of these tracts the position of the eyes and the head can be adjusted to each other, and coordinated in such a way that the eyes remain fixed on a given object, regardless of the

—

—

— CROSS SECTION

position of the head.

THROUGH MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Medial

Fillets

(Lemnisci).

—Each

medial

fillet

is

a

longi-

BRAIN tudinal tract of ascending sensory fibres lying close to the median plane between the pyramidal tract and the medial longitudinal bundle. The fibres of the right and left tracts cross the median plane, forming the sensory decussation. This lies above the level of the motor or pyramidal decussation. The sensory impulses coming from the spinal cord end in cellIt is stations in the medulla: the gracile and cuneate nuclei. from these that the superficial arcuate fibres; which pass to the

cerebellum,

The

origin.

75 PURKINJECELL

^PARALLEL

FIBRE

MOLECULAR

UYER

COLUTERAL

and the deep arcuate fibres (medial fillets) take form one link or relay in the main sensory

latter thus

tract to the cortex.

Immediately lateral to the pyramidal tract on the anterior The olive aspect of the medulla is an oval swelling, the ohve. lies over a folded lamina of gray matter in the substance of the medulla; this is the inferior olive. It is connected with the op-

by fibres that cross the middle line and reach the cerebellum by means of the restiform body. The superficial origin of the cranial nerves from the 3rd to the 12th the nuclei from which the motor fibres originate is shown in fig. 7 and those in which the sensory fibres terminate lie in the substance of the medulla and pons. Like the spinal nerves, they are connected by tracts of nerve fibres with the opposite cerebral posite cerebellar hemisphere

FIG.

;

hemisphere. 5. Pons Varolii.

—This

9.

— DIAGRAMMATIC

SECTION OF CEREBELLAR CORTEX

going finally to the reticular substance of the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum receives impulses from the equilibratory organ middle ear, from muscle spindles, from the exteroceptors of the skin, from the eye and from the ear (acoustic organ), as well as from the cerebral cortex. These impulses reach the gray matter of the cortex of the cerebellum and are believed to pass

in the

area

lies

between the medulla oblon-

gata and midbrain on the ventral side (fig. 8). It forms, by its posterior surface, the upper half of the floor of the fourth ventricle. It contains the nuclei of origin or termination of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th cranial nerves. A conspicuous band of transverse fibres

and crosses beneath or ventral to the pyramidal fibres, which pass through the pons from the internal capsule and midbrain to the medulla oblongata. Some of the transverse fibres, however, lie more deeply and intersect the longitudinal fibres of the pyramidal tract. Most of the transverse fibres arise from nuclei of the pons which are connected with the cortex of the frontal and parietotemporal lobes of the cerebrum on the same lies superficially

side and, crossing the mid-line, eventually reach the cortex of the

opposite cerebellar hemisphere.

The most important

longitudinal

convoluted lamina of gray substance of each cerebellar hemisphere. ascends to the opposite red nucleus and thalamus (see below for midbrain). The superficial surface of the cerebellum differs from that of the cerebral hemispheres. In place of convolutions, the vermis and hemispheres of the cerebellum are crossed by numerous transverse fissures, which mark

from there

to the dentate nucleus, a

matter situated

From

in the

this a relay of fibres

The general arrangement of these is seen in a median section through the vermis, which presents a branched appearance called the arbor vitae. The surface of the cerebellar hemispheres and central lobe is subdivided into lobes off a series of folds or folia.

must be

tracts of nerve fibres traversing the pons are the pyramidal tracts,

and lobules by deep

the longitudinal bundles and the ascending sensory fibres of the medial and lateral fillets. The lateral fillet is the main auditory tract which ascends to the midbrain. 6. Cerebellum. This consists of a central part, known as the vermis, and two lateral hemispheres (fig. 8). Each hemisphere is connected with the brain stem by three peduncles: (1) the inferior or restiform body to the medulla; (2) the middle or brachium pontis; (3) the superior or brachium conjunctivum. The last-named joins the cerebellum to the midbrain and conveys efferent fibres, one bundle leaving the cerebellum and ascending to the contralateral red nucleus and to the thalamus, another bundle

sought in textbooks of anatomy. The cortex of the cerebellum consists of a superficial stratum, the molecular layer; an intermediate layer, w'hich contains the cell bodies of branched Purkinje cells (fig. 9); and an inner deep stratum, the granular layer, which rests upon the central white matter. The latter is formed by medullated nerve fibres, which course to and from the gray matter. The Purkinje cells are re-

—

fissures, a full description of w-hich

their large size and extensive connections. The cell bodies are pear-shaped and arranged in a single layer. From the outer end of each cell arise processes that branch out in the molecu-

markable for

lar layer.

These processes (or projections), are the dendrites, and the RIGHT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

CENTRAL SULCUS

CINGUUTE SULCUS PRECUNEUS OR QUADRATE LOBULE

CINGULATE GYRUS

SUPERIOR FRONTAL GYRUS

CINGUUTE SULCUS

'V

/,

branching takes place chiefly in a plane at right angles to the The dendrites longitudinal axis of the folium in which it lies. of the Purkinje cells are intersected at right angles by parallel These fibres are fibres that run in the direction of the folium. derived from axons of the granule cells in the inner stratum of the cortex, which pass outward and divide in the molecular layer The bodies in a T-shaped manner into right and left branches. of the Purkinje cells, moreover, are surrounded by a network of fibres that originate from basket cells in the molecular stratum; and the Purkinje dendrites are also accompanied by delicate climbing fibres, which are afferent nerve fibres from the white matter.

Although areas of the cerebellar cortex cannot be mapped out by response of particular groups of muscles to electrical stimulation, it is possible on morphological grounds, by means of experimental work and by the tracing of tracts of nerve fibres entering

SEPTUM PELLUCIDUM OPTIC CHIASMA PITUITARY

the cerebellum, to locate areas of the cortex according to the

HYPOTHAUMIC SULCUS MAMMILLARYBODY

fibres

OCULOMOTOR NERVE

erally

which they receive from particular parts. Thus it admitted that the head and neck are represented

is

in

genthe

anterior part of the vermis, the trunk in the posterior part and FIG.

8.

— MEDIAN

SECTION THROUGH BRAIN

the limbs in the apical region of the vermis and hemispheres. References to literature on cerebellar localization will be found in

BRAIN

76 AQUEDUCT OF SYLVIUS

ROSTRAL COLLICULUS

showing that the kind of control exercised by the cerebral cortex

MEDIAL LONGITUDINAL

MEDIAL LONGITUDINAL

changes

mammalian

in the course of

The

evolution.

red nucleus

is

TRACT

also connected with the central ganglia of the brain, in the first

RED NUCLEUS

place with the inferior olive. By means of these connections, it is believed that the cerebral hemispheres control the more reflex movements carried out by the spinal cord, such as balancing move-

FASCICULUS

SPINOTECTAL TRACT

MEDIAL

GENICULATE BODY

ments and the maintenance of posture. In the tegmental part of the midbrain are longitudinal association tracts, longitudinal bundles;

known

also situated the

as the dorsal

and medial

the fountain decussation, which connects

body

nuclei in the superior quadrigeminal

of one side with the

nuclei of cranial nerves of the opposite side of the brain; and,

and roots of

and part of the 5th cranial nerves in the gray matter surrounding the aqueduct of Sylvius. {See Nerve.) finally, the nuclei

8.

Cerebral Hemispheres

origin of the 3rd, 4th

—One

of the

most

distinctive fea-

human brain is the large size of the hemispheres and the high degree of specialization in the microscopic structure of the cortex. The surface of each hemisphere is subdivided, for tures of the

FIG. 10.

— SECTION

THROUGH UPPER PART OF MIDBRAIN

descriptive purposes, into lobes and lobules.

Certain fissures and which are arbitrarily drawn between these are employed for demarcating the boundaries of these areas. The names of the principal fissures and lobes are indicated in figs. 11 and 12, and it will be necessary only to draw attention to certain of the more important ones. Thus the central fissure, or fissure of Rolando, is situated on the lateral surface and separates the frontal from the parietal lobe. The lateral fissure or fissure of Sylvius marks off the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes. On the median surface are the callosomarginal, parieto-occipital and calcarine fissures, which limit the frontal, limbic, parietal and occipilines

C. J. Herrick,

An Introduction

7.

to

Neurology (1927)

;

H. Woollard,

Anatomy (1927); and Jansen and Brodal, Anatmny (1954). The Midbrain. The midbrain (mesencephalon) connects

Recent Advances

in

Aspects of Cerebellar

—

the pons and cerebellum with the forebrain (fig. 10). It is traversed by the aqueduct of Sylvius. The part that lies above the aqueduct, called the roof plate or tectum, is subdivided by a cruci-

form sulcus

rounded swellings. These are the colliculi The upper pair of these bodies receives nerve fibres from the retina, which reach them through the optic tracts. They are concerned in the regulation of the movements of the eye and in the pupillary reflexes. The lower pair serves as a cell station in the path of the auditory impulses which pass from the cochlea to the cortex of the temporal lobe. The gray matter in the roof of the aqueduct receives an important tract of nerve fibres from the spinal cord, known as the spinointo four

or corpora quadrigemina.

tectal.

A similar bundle, the spinothalamic tract, also traverses the midbrain. Both tracts convey the more primitive sensations of pain, heat and cold to the receptive centres in the brain. These have been described by Head as protopathic sensations, to distinguish them from the finer and more recently evolved sensations of touch, which he terms epicritic. The latter ascend in the posterior columns of the spinal cord to the gracile and cuneate nuclei. From these a relay of nerve fibres ascends through the medulla oblongata and, crossing in this to the opposite side of the brain, passes as the medial fillet through the pons and midbrain to the thalamus. From the thalamus another relay of fibres carries the sensory impulses to the cortex of the brain. These fibres diverge as they traverse the white matter of the brain, thus forming

tal lobes.

The

central, or Rolandian,

of the important

cortex.

movements

is normally initiated Injury to the same part causes paralysis of the corresponding muscles. The cortex of the occipital lobe which surrounds the posterior part of the calcarine fissure is the visuosensory area for reception The visuosensory area is of visual impulses from the retina. surrounded by a marginal zone which extends on to the outer {See aspect of the occipital lobe, termed the visuopsychic area.

of groups of muscles, the action of which

and controlled by the part stimulated.

Vision or Sight.) The middle part of the first temporal gyrus and the adjacent gyri on the lower lip of the fissure of Sylvius are concerned with hearing.

The auditory

area of the brain receives sensory impulses

by way of the auditory radiation from the medial geniculate body of the same side. These, the lower auditory centres, are connected with the opposite ear by means of the lateral fillet.

The

front part of the

the uncus,

hippocampal gyrus, with

its

hooklike end,

the higher cortical centre for the sense of smell.

is

PRECENTRAL GYRUS

OPERCULAR PART INFERIOR FRONTAL SULCUS

SUPERIOR FRONTAL GYRUS

POSTCENTRAL GYRUS ,

CENTRAL SULCUS SUPERIOR PARIETAL LOBULE

SUPERIOR FRONTAL

^INTRAPARIETAL SULCUS

SULCUS

NFERIOR PARIETAL

LOBULE

MIDDLE FRONTAL

GYRUS TRIANGULAR PARTi

ORBITAL PART LATERAL FISSURE '

SUPERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS

thalamus.

From

the red nucleus a tract of nerve fibres descends to the cord, where it forms connections with the motor cells (See Spinal Cord.) gray matter of the anterior cornua. This is the rubrospinal tract of Monakow. Large in lower forms, it dwindles into an insignificant strand of a few fibres in man, spinal

limit

Electrical stimula-

tion of particular parts of this area produces definite

part of the corona radiata.

The most ventral part of the midbrain forms the crura cerebri. These are two diverging limbs which ascend as it were from the pons Varolii to the right and left cerebral hemispheres. They are partly the pyramidal tract that descends from the motor area of the cerebral cortex to the opposite side of the spinal cord and partly the cortico-pontine fibres which pass from the frontal and temporal lobes to the pons. Behind or dorsal to the crura is a lamina of pigmented nerve cells (substantia nigra") that separates the pes pedunculi from the tegmentum. The latter consists of two symmetrical halves connected by a median raphe. This is traversed by decussating fibres, the greater number being the cerebellar fibres already mentioned as issuing from the dentate nucleus, traveling by the superior peduncle to the midbrain and then crossing to the red nucleus of the opposite side and to the

marks the posterior

fissure

motor area of the

SUPERIOR TEMPORAL SULCUS MIDDLE TEMPORAL GYRUS MIDDLE TEMPORAL SULCUS

in the

FIG.

II.

—SOME GYRI AND SULCI OF LEFT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

—

BRAIN BODY OF fORNIX

MAMMILLOTHALAMIC TRACT CINGULATE GYRUS

PRECUNEUS

CORPUS CALLOSUM MAMMILLARY BODY

CRUS OF FORNIX

SUPERIOR FRONTAL

GYRUS

CUNEUS

,

MEDIAL OCCIPITOTEMPORAL

ANTERIOR

COMMISSURE

GYRUS ~^

DENTATE GYRUS'

HIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS

OLFACTORY BULB

^ OLFACTORY TRACT

"

LATERAL OCCIPITOTEMPORAL GYRUS

FIG. 12.

MEDIAL SIDE OF LEFT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

the most primitive of the special senses.

It is closely

associated with the sense of taste and is both relatively and absolutely more highly developed in lower types of vertebrate animals than in man. That part of the brain which is concerned

and

complex emotional reIn addition to these, there is a large area behind the central fissure that extends forward onto the motor area. This is the cutaneous sensory, or tactile, in the sense of smell,

sponses,

is

also in certain

called the rhinencephalon.

area.

The

between the different senses and as centres

memory

and cu-

of associated sensations

is

stored.

The

in

which the

prefrontal re-

connected by association fibres with all the various sensory and motor areas and, more especially, with that part of the adjacent motor area which is concerned with the movements of the gion

evolution attained by the particular species. The cortex is thicker and more highly evolved in man and the higher types of mammals than in lower forms. In the development of the cortex, stratification begins about the sixth month of fetal life, when the confirst appear, and differentiation continues not only during the later months of fetal life but for a considerable period after birth. The more superficial strata containing the pyramidal

volutions

cells are

is

eyes.

It is

therefore believed that this part of the cortex

may

movements which

are dependent on impulses reachfrom the eyes and which require close attention and a knowledge or memory of past experiences for instance, such movements as those of the lips and tongue, or of the hand, which have given man the powers of speech and of writing. If the upper and lower lips of the fissure of Sylvius are separated, a triangular area of submerged cortex will be exposed. This is

control skilled

ing the brain

—

the island of Reil, or insula. It lies over the outer aspect of the corpus striatum, and the lips of the fissure which overlap it are called the opercula insulae. In the human fetal brain, and the

brains of most animals, part of this area of the cortex

The

basal ganglia are masses of gray matter

cerebral hemispheres.

They

is

exposed.

embedded

developed latest. of the Brain.

Weight

10.

areas of cerebral cortex lying between the special

taneous sensory areas are believed to function as association centres

one another. They also connect conveying sensory impulses reaching the cortex from the central ganglia or other parts with the cells which give rise to the efferent or outgoing impulses. Certain of these efferent, corticifugal fibres spring from the basal ends of the large pyramidal cells of Betz, present in the motor region of the cortex and other smaller pyramidal cells. Some efferent fibres remain on the same side as their origin and pass to distant parts of the cerebral cortex, while others cross, by the corpus callosum, to the cortex of the opposite cerebral hemisphere. In animals the degree of lamination and differentiation of the nerve cells in the cortex appears to correspond with the stage of fibres

HIPPOCAMPUS

is

corticipetal fibres and originate from nerve cells in the central ganglia or from other parts of the cerebral cortex. The nerve fibres of the superficial lamina, and other strata in which the fibres are arranged tangentially, serve as association fibres, connecting different areas of the cortex with

FIMBRIA OF

This

77

small and large pyramidal cells contained in the subjacent strata of the cortex; others are the terminal branches of nerve fibres passing into the cortex from the white matter. These are called

race.

It is also influenced

by

congestion of the blood vessels, degenerative changes and atrophy. At birth the brain weighs approximately 3S0 g. and is 12.4'^ of the body weight.

The

entire brain, w'ith the pia-arachnoid, of

adult British male weighs approximately 1,409

g.,

an

or 49.6 oz.; that

of a female, 1,263 g., or 44.5 oz. The average stature and body weight of the female, however, are less than those of the male, and when these factors are allowed for, the size and weight of the brain in the two sexes are approximately equal. The influence of age on brain weight is considerable. The growth of the brain is very rapid during the first three years but slightly less rapid up to the 7th year, when it is not far off its full weight. After this the increase is very gradual, its prime being usually attained in males by the 20th year and in females somewhat earlier. From this period onward, in both sexes, there is a continuous diminution in the average brain weight of approximately 1 g. per year. Tall persons have heavier brains than short persons, but, relative to their height, short persons have larger heads and brains than tall persons. Many men of conspicuous ability have had

in the

include the optic thalami and the

caudate and lenticular nuclei. The optic thalamus is a receptive centre for primary sensory impulses, and an important cell station in the path of sensory messages to the cerebral cortex. The caudate and lenticular nuclei, w-ith the white matter which surrounds the lenticular nucleus, form the corpus striatum. The white fibres lying to the inner side of the lenticular nucleus are called the internal capsule; those to its outer side

—The weight of the brain varies with

body weight, sex and

age, stature,

form the external

The former consists of sensory fibres passing to the motor fibres of the pyramidal tract passing from it, and association fibres passing between the nuclei. (See fig. 13.) 9. Cerebral Cortex. The cortex is the stratum of gray matter capsule.

cortex,

—

CORPUS CALLOSUM

NTERHEMISPHERIC FISSURE

HEAD OF CAUDATE NUCLEUS INTERNAL CAPSULE SYLVIAN FISSURE

EXTERNAL CAPSULE ROSTRAL COMMISSURE ^^-_

CLAUSTRUM

INSULA -— THAUMUS

CUUSTRUM PUTAMEN

that covers the central white matter of the hemispheres. sists of

nerve

cells,

tissue, the neuroglia.

nerve

fibres,

of nerve cells and nerve fibres.

main

It conblood vessels and a supporting

It e.xhibits a definite stratification into layers

CORNU OF LATERAL VENTRICULE OCCIPITAL

In sections of the fresh brain, the

strata are easily recognizable

by the unaided

eye,

and more

CHOROID GLOMUS CALCARINE SULCUS

especially so in the visual cortex, or area striata.

Various zones be distinguished in this way, and it is found that the naked eye appearances correspond closely with the finer details revealed by microscopic preparations. The superficial lamina, or outer fibre layer, is largely composed of nerve fibres running tangentially to or parallel with the surface.

may

Many

of these fibres are branches of the peripheral processes of

VERMIS OF CEREBELLUM

SPLENIUM CORPORIS CALLOSI INTERHEMISPHERIC FISSURE

—

SECTION THROUGH BRAIN (SEEN FROM ABOVE): RIGHT HALF FIG. 13. THROUGH THE LEVEL OF THE INTERVENTRICULAR FORAMEN; LEFT HALF THROUGH THE LEVEL OF THE ROSTRAL COMMISSURE

BRAIN

78

brains of large size, e.g., Georges Cuvier, 1,830 g., but on the other hand the brain of Anatole France, who died at the age of 80,

weighed, without the membranes, only 1,017 g. by adding 60 g. for the weight of the membranes and 61 g. to allow for shrinkage due to age, his brain may be estimated to have weighed, at the age of 20, no more than about 1,138 g. Averages calculated from groups, e.g., scholarship winners and persons of average and below average ability, show statistically that there is only a very slight correlation between large size of head and a high intelligence. (R. J. G.; G. V. B.) ;

n.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN

If by physiology of the brain is meant the study of the biological function of that organ, the state of exact knowledge regarding it is still extremely inadequate, although there exists a vast body of detailed fact. Inferences as to function drawn from morphological and phylogenetic data are therefore a permissible and welcome help, although often of the nature of suggestion rather than demonstration. It is with the vertebrate brain that the following account is concerned.

is

it means when still

that

react to an object

from

this

The progressive development

ability on the part of the animal to

it and allows an intercan go far to influence the success of the animal's behaviour in regard to that object. The reactions initiated and guided by the distance receptors are all steps toward final adjustments, which latter are consummations often of critical importance for the existence of the animal (e.g., attainment of food) or of its species (e.g., fertilization). This time interval and its series of steps, along with the vicissitudes of relation between things of changing position reacting one on an-

distant

val for preparatory reactive steps;

—

external relation. The integration combines, into great unitary harmonies, reactions originally scattered and local and semi-independent acts. It organizes the several segments and segmental regions into a well-knit individual. The establishment in the central nerve cord of, so to say, a headquarters station for receipt of calls from many directions and for dealing through subsidiary parts of the nervous system with the motor machinery of the animal, as a whole, imbues the organism with individuality of a higher kind. It is this that the advent of the brain foretells.

The brain is that part of the nervous system that is constructed upon and evolved alongside the distance receptors. The importance of this

commerce with the environment, and some of these dominate the environment more variously and extensively than others, including their own ancestry, have done. In this sense they are higher forms. The earliest animal forms have included none of these highest, and some of the very latest are also the very highest forms achieved. As judged by dominance of the environment, man, although quite a recent form, is the highest as yet. The key to this evolutionary feature is furnished largely by the evolutionary history of the brain and its functions. 1. Increased Integration. A factor, and in some respects a decisive one, both in the accomplishment of greater functional solidarity of the animal and of its higher mastery over the environment, is the progressive development in the nervous system of a dominant part. The organization of the central nerv-ous system is thus enhanced as an integrator of the animal in its life of

of the brain increasingly secures ad-

vantages.

The

success seems partly a matter of

mere increase

of centrali-

The receptor apparatus of the head acquires increased coordinative guidance of the body. The body tends to become a

zation.

locomotor and, later, a secondary prehensile train and a digestive appanage attached to the head, with, as inalienable possession, the reproductive organs. The brain in this respect merely takes with

other at a distance, conspire to give to the distance receptor refie.xes a multiformity and a complexity unparalleled by the reflexes from other receptors. This interval affords much more

further specialized success the general role assigned to the nervous system from its earliest appearance and onward throughout evolutionary history, namely, the welding of the body's com-

copious opportunity for adjustment and side connection as occasion demands. It gives freer play for the afliixing of new-conditioned, i.e., individually acquired, reflexes to the primal inborn reflexes. Further, the time interval allows opportunity for vari-

ponent parts into one consolidated mechanism facing as a united entity the changeful world about it. The work of this kind done for the "higher" animal by its brain presents the acme of animal integrative achievement. Hence is it that each of us, though made up of myriads of cell lives individually feeding and breathing, and of manifoldly differing activities, constituting scores of organs, yet appears to himself a single entity, a unity experiencing and acting as one individual. That the particular body system which is specialized for integration, and whose sole function is integration, and that that portion of it where integrative function is at its highest should be the seat of mind, even from the dim mental beginning, and that mind should remain there localized and despite all mental growth stay restricted in seat there along millions of years, on into ourselves today, indicate the scope and crowning importance of nervous integration and the brain. In regard to attainment of 2. Control of Environment. wider mastery over the environment, no less than in respect of organizing the indi\-idual, phylogenetic development of the brain has played a decisive part. The more numerous and extensive and

initiated

ations of behaviour to be failures and yet recovered from and. conversely, allows greater chance for successful reaction variations to be selectively preserved.

A. Vertebr-ate Evolution

As we pass from lower vertebrates

to higher, we find, broadly taken, a progressive increase in the relative size of the brain. This fact stands related to two features which characterize the vertebrate evolution and seemingly also that of other phyla as well. One

of these features

is

that,

broadly speaking, the course of verte-

brate evolution has tended to produce a more and more unified individual, an individual of greater functional solidarity, although still

consisting of individually living cell units.

the two

main

Consistently with

biological requisites of the individual animal

life,

namely, its preservation and that of its species, the closer functional welding of the parts of the animal individual into an integrated whole seems, as we look along the vista of geological time

and of geographical spread,

to

have been a steady outcome of

evolution.

The other feature is not unrelated to the foregoing one. It is that evolution, though with checkered history, has resulted in animal forms possessing successively greater dominance over their environment. Organisms are commonly spoken of as "lower" and "higher." The lower are usually the simpler, the higher the more complex; but the lower need not the less perfectly fulfill their primary biological requisites: presers^ation of self and species. There are brachiopods that have without visible change maintained themselves in and upon their environment from the era of the earliest fossil-bearing rocks till today, and they are lower animals. Such commerce with and maintenance in the environment must be as admirably adjusted as any imaginable so far as concerns persistence of life. Yet, in the course of time, evolution has produced animal forms which pursue a far richer and more manifold

—

the better co-ordinated the responses

actions of the world around upon

its

made by

a creature to the

receptors, the

more com-

bundle of reflexes (which from one standpoint the creature in its life of external relation is) figure the complexity of the environment and meet widely and successfully its situations. And at the root of the success of the brain as an integrator there lies something more than is represented in its expressing merely a more highly organized centralization. Over and over again in the evolution of the brain there is instanced the importance, for the process of integration, of connecting together nerve structures that might or do react concurrently but are originally unconnected. The simultaneous components of a "reflex-figure" (C. S. Sherrington, 1906) tend to stamp in a neural pattern. The functional "reflex-figure" with its simultaneously reacting parts proceeds along with (as its structural counterpart) a neural pattern which may become innate or be an pletely will the

individual acquirement; e.g., mammalian cortex. A keystone of the principle of integration is that the concurrent

BRAIN more than the simple sum of separate component parts. Thus, in psychical

activity of related parts results in

the activity of the

But

integration, the single touch gives experience of itself alone.

a double simultaneous touch, e.g., compasses, gives experience of two touches and, which is new, an untouched space between. The integration results in more than the mere sum of the components. Again, the uniocuhr field gives experience of some amount of

"depth"; but when

combination with the other uniocular field such an enhancement of the third

in

to a binocular, there is yielded

dimension as amounts to a new

result, the "depth"' of stereoscopic vertebrate after advent of the brain the animal's reactive behaviour shows in increased measure the important quahty of modifiability by experience, using this last term without of necessity any psychological connotation. Late in vertebrate de-

vision.

And

in the

in a restricted number of forms, all mammalian and nearly related one to another, and relatively very recently evolved, this modifiability of behaviour has become greatly more effective. Its highest outcome appears perhaps as the rational guidance of

velopment

human It

is

conduct. not of course

that either the fuller integration of the

individual animal or the higher animal's wider dominance of the

environment

is

the result entirely of the brain or of the cerebral

adjunct "mind."

Contributory to the latter result has been the mechanism ("partly nervous) for ensuring a constant temperature environment for the tissues of the body, enabling the individual's activity to be uninterrupted by season and largely independent of latitude; also contributory has been the gestation arrangement which protects the young within the mother until a relatively late stage, providing exceptional prenatal care for the offspring. Nevertheless the extreme importance of the contribution by the brain is shown by the degree of dominance over the environment obtained by man as compared with that of other, even the highest other, placental

mammals.

The vertebrate brain brain.

Hindbrain.

consists of a hindbrain, midbrain

and

fore-

well-recognized afferent nerves, regulated

by

is

it

also activated

stimuli arising autochthonously within

trinsic stimulation

is

perhaps generated and

by the chemical condition (degree

is

and partly

it.

This

in-

certainly influenced

of acidity) of the blood.

other centre in this basal part of the hindbrain

is,

An-

in higher verte-

which influences the general circulation of the blood, by regulating the contraction of the muscles of the arterial tubes and to some extent of the heart itself. There he also in this region reflex centres which maintain postural contraction of the extensor muscles of the hmbs and trunk in response to passive stretch of these muscles. In the erect attitude of the animal these muscles are subjected by the weight of superincumbent parts to stretch, and they are termed antigravity muscles; this hindbrain region, therefore, executes a crude reflex standing, traces of which can be executed even by the isolated spinal cord itself (dog). Further forward still this part of the hindbrain receives the nervous impulse from the labyrinth organs and enables still more perfect rebrates, one

flexes of standing.

Cerebellum.

—The

hindbrain has

further

portion, the cerebellum, so called because in

an important roof it seems, on gross

man

inspection, a small repUca of the great cerebral hemispheres in

The cerebellum has

and phylogenetically, in the primary receiving stations of the receptive nerve from the labyrinth, an organ largely controlling the postures of the head in regard to the vertical (line of gravity). The activity of the primitive cerebellum rests further on nerve tracts from the spinal cord. It acts on the muscles of the body. Traced up from the fish through amphibians and reptiles to birds, the relative size of the cerebellum differs in even nearly allied groups but bears evifront.

developments are added to the pre-existent, unpaired median portion. Each of these lateral additions is functionally an annex of the new mammalian neopallium of the contralateral cerebral hemisphere, and with this latter go considerable developments in the median (paleo) cerebellum also. The surface sheet of the cerebellum has a peculiar and characteristic minute structure, found in both the paleocerebellum and the neocerebellum, although the history of the two seems so different and though the genesis of the neocerebellum is separated by many millions of years from large lateral

that of the paleocerebellum. To all appearances the neural chains of the cerebellum are a collateral path that, as regards those of the

paleocerebellum, belongs to the afferent limbs of reflex arcs actuating skeletal movements but, as regards those of the neocerebellum, belongs to the efferent central path of "volitional" movements.

The excitabihty of the cerebellar surface by electricity was once denied, but later studies confirmed that considerable areas of the surface are truly excitable by electrical stimuli. The excitable paleocerebellar and causes inhibitory relaxation of certain

field is

active postures;

e.g.,

of extension-abduction of limb.

of the paleocerebellar region, which receives in

its

cradle, ontogenetically

Destruction

mammals

proprio-

ceptive spinal tracts, causes exaggeration of the stretch reflexes of the limb extensors.

duces

its

Disease with cerebellar defect in

most obvious detectable

cular acts.

The accuracy

man

results in the field of willed

of execution of the

movement

is

pro-

mus-

impaired

by overshoot, abruptness of start and stop, ill-sustained contraction and undue liability to fatigue. Cerebellar ataxia seems to contain the following three factors: (1) diminished fineness of postural adjustment; (2) excessive intensity of postural activity; and (3) complication of the two foregoing by voluntary efforts at correction.

—

The hindbrain, as traced upward from the lamprey, shows two main functional divisions. Of these, one, the basal, closely resembles the spinal cord of which it is the continuation in the posterior head segments. In air-breathing vertebrates this basal portion contains a centre regulating the movements which ventilate the lungs. This mechanism presents the interesting physiological feature that while "reflex" in the sense of being driven and controlled by nervous impulses arriving at it by 3.

79

dent proportion to range and power of skeletomuscular motility. In forms that crawl and creep it is small, but in the great swimmers and fliers it is large, even very large. With the mammaUan series, however, a steady progress in cerebellar size occurs along with ascension to higher forms and culminates in the ape and man. Two

—

Function of the Cerebellum. Acute unilateral damage of the cerebellum in man brings as characteristic symptoms ( 1 ) the :

sideways toward the side of injury, especially if the eyes are closed; (2) the hand in reaching toward a point goes too far or stops too short; (3) in alternating movements the limb on the side of the lesion cannot alternate its phases with normal quickness and accuracy it starts late and ends late for each phase; (4) with eyes shut the hmb tends unconsciously to slip from an adducted into an abducted posture; and (5) the position of the limb is often misperceived, its degree of abduction being underestimated. There is, however, no impairment of skin sensations or of superficial or deep pain sensation. Strangely enough, congenital absence, total or almost so, of the cerebellum has been found in persons who have hved their lives without suspicion of any nervous defect. How the defect is compensated remains unanswered. Obviously the function of the cerebellum is still obscure, although it is a large organ, weighing in man more than the entire spinal cord. Proprioceptive recepts seem at the base of paleocerebellar function and suggest for it an adjusting co-operation in the execution of muscular acts, the acts themselves being initiated and directed by centres other than the paleocerebellum, probably mainly those of the midbrain. The neocerebellar function may lie inferred to be similar in character to that of the paleocerebellum but to be adjuvant to movements of a newer physiological order (voluntary), initiated and directed by the neopallium (cerebral cortex). The neopallium in activating these movements probably

tendency to

fall

—

activates collaterally

The

the associated neocerebellar

status of the cerebellum in the

motor

co-operation.

acts seems merely that

of an executive instrument of them; the purpose and object of

them are none of its affair. Cerebellar reactions are unconscious. The destruction of the cerebellum entails no loss of sensation, although cerebellar disturbance may occasion some proprioceptive misperception. 4.

Midbrain.

—The midbrain,

centres intrinsically

passing through

it

like the hindbrain, is

made up

of

own, as well as of conducting tracts merely to connect centres extrinsic to it. Its main its

BRAIN

8o intrinsic apparatus is collected in its roof.

This receives a great

from the retina and also from the receptive centres of the hindbrain and spinal cord. It distributes efferent paths to neighbouring motor stations, including those of the eye muscles; afferent path

many

of these paths decussate.

forward

It

sends also

some longer paths

and backward into the spinal cord. It has interconnections. By means of its midbrain the

to the forebrain

also rich intrinsic

mammal, even

after destruction of the forebrain,

is

able to execute

and maintain the erect posture and with better adjusted muscular tone than by means of the hindbrain alone. It is able further to assume the erect posture from other positions passively imposed upon it. It can right itself. The mere motor execution of these reflexes is a matter of high complexity. Maintenance of standing involves duly adjusted simultaneous activation of many hundreds of thousands of motor units. The righting reflexes themselves are chain reflexes. In a chain reflex the result of a foregoing reflex's execution is to evoke execution of the next succeeding one. This means due and successive activations of appropriate different great combinations of motor units reaching at last the "standing com-

which forms an equilibrium, and, until disturbed, an end {See also Equilibrium, Animal.) The cat retaining the midbrain but deprived of the forebrain

plex," point.

reacts to sounds, although without giving indication of the direction whence they come. The midbrain is in fact a large exchange where messages from the retina are associated with those from various other receptive nerves of the head and, via the spinal tracts, from the body (especially skin). In responding to these messages the midbrain uses efferent paths by which it can operate upon motor centres, especially of the eyes and mouth and also of the neck and body. Severe impairments of motility and of normal posture are therefore produced by injury of the midbrain roof. Although relatively large in lower vertebrates, the midbrain becomes relatively dwarfed in the mammalian brain. There is some evidence

that in the course of vertebrate evolution along the

branch the

mammalian

importance of the midbrain as a dominating centre becomes smaller, not only relatively but absolutely. The supreme control of behaviour becomes located progressively more forward, passing from the midbrain (most fishes) to the thalamus and corpus striatum (reptiles and birds) and then to the cerebral intrinsic

cortex (mammals).

Forebrain.

—In

main constituents are They are the thalamus, olfactory lobe, corpus striatum and pallium. The latter three belong to the end5.

the forebrain four

strikingly distinguishable. brain, so called because

cord

itself.

Tlialamtes. is

it is

—Throughout

the actual terminal piece of the nerve

regulation of the

mechanism

(vascular, glandular, etc.)

by which

animals of constant temperature (birds, mammals) the body temperature is maintained steady despite environmental changes, a result contributing enormously to evolutionary success. In addition to this so to say essentially vegetative function, the hypothalamic region is concerned with visceral nerve relays, putting them in touch with taste and smell (from in front) relays. It is therefore relatively large in lower vertebrates, while the thalamus, analogous with it but in an exteroceptive and somatic rather than a visceral field, gains on it in higher vertebrates. In the bird the thalamic forebrain independently of the cerebral hemispheres seems to operate large reflex reactions to injurious agents and to hunger, thirst and temperature and possibly elaborates mental concomitants of these. But even in the highest mammals tonic activities of the sympathetic, essentially a visceral, system are traceable to this region. The nexus between sympathetic and visceral reactions on the one hand and affective and emotional mental experience on the other makes the close relation between thalamus and hypothalamus the more significant. The dog or cat deprived of the forebrain except the thalamus does not react even when hungry to food placed before it. The muzzle has to be dipped into the food or the food put into the mouth for the feeding to occur. Food doctored with quinine, etc., is rejected. Pain stimuli to skin, etc., evoke biting, barking, miaowing and withdrawal of the threatened part. Yet in all this defensive behaviour there may be little or no indication of the locality of the offending stimulus. The animal, it has been inferred, can experience pain; it is not, however, able to acquire the simplest conditioned reflex. Its behaviour is confined to the stereotjTDed inborn reflexes. Its reflex behaviour is modifiable, however, to the extent that having hurt one foot it limps upon three legs until the hurt foot is healed. Its reactions, indicative of pain, may possibly be pseudoaffective reflexes without psychical adjunct. But there is evidence from clinical studies that pain is among the reactions of the thalamus. Affective and emotional disturbances are recognized as part of the syndrome of thalamic in

disease. The inference is therefore that the cerebral seat of mind does in some measure include and so to say overlap upon the thalamus, even in higher mammals. {See also Thalamus.) Olfactory Lobe and Corpus Striatum. Of the three great components of the endbrain (cerebral hemisphere) one is the olfactory lobe, the reflex centre for the organ of smell, whose afferent nerve is so to say the segmental nerve for this region. Another

—

—

—

is

the corpus striatum, a large correlating centre, of easily recog-

nizable beginnings in fish and of further development in reptilia.

the vertebrate

series

a structure for correlating messages relayed

the

thalamus

up from receiving

In birds in

it

becomes the

mammals

whereas dwarfed by the develop-

largest element of the hemisphere,

although large

it is

relatively

mammals.

stations corresponding with all the various classes of receptor or-

ment of

gans of both head and body; eminently so with the retinal, whence the term optic thalamus. Besides providing machinery for interconnecting these and bringing their recepts to bear on the motor centres of the midbrain and hindbrain, it is itself a relay station for transmissions to the corpus striatum. Whereas in mammalia the neopallium is large, the thalamus becomes a relay station for routes thither, and on an enormous scale. In lower mammals it is subdivided into regions (nuclei) each preponderantly representa-

Birds, therefore, offer best opportunity for detecting striatal func-

some

tion, the

the pallium, especially the neopallium of higher

more

so perhaps since in

greatly reduced.

them the

olfactor>' region

is

In the pigeon, destruction of the hemispheres

other than the corpus striatum leaves the feeding, mating and rearing reflex acts, as well as walking and flying w-ith avoidance of obstacles, intact but open to occur with less discrimination of stimuli. Conditioned reflexes can be acquired and attached to the innate But if the corpus striatum is deones: feeding or avoidance.

specific set of receptors (retinal, auditory, tactual-

stroyed, the hen loses irrecoverably her maternal behaviour of

proprioceptive, etc.) and each in give-and-take connection with especially some one field of the neopallium (cerebral cortex).

man the subdivisions become more complex The thalamus of lower vertebrates certainly mediates the simpler types of modification of behaviour by trial-and-error learning; after removal of the whole forebrain the frog, for instance,

incubating and rearing. So, similarly, the hawk caged with mice turns its gaze toward them when they move, but on their ceasing to move reaction ceases on the part of the bird. Neither does their movement excite attack upon them. The bird will starve in presence of its natural prey. It seems clear that in birds the corpus striatum operates complex though stereotyped behaviour and pro-

incapable of acquiring a very simple maze adjustment. But the feeding chain reflex remains, the retinal reflex orients the frog to the fly and, if the fly moves again, the simultaneous spring and

vides in some measure acquisition of individual modification (by experience) of such behaviour. Passing to the lower mammals, the corpus striatum is relatively

snap reflex follows, to be followed, if successful, by the swallow reflex. The thalamus is of itself quite incompetent in the hen for the instinctive behaviour of the maternal uprearing of the

Conformably with mammalian ancestry is ancient and olfactory and probably ser\'es higher correlations of smell with taste and touch for locomotor and head reflexes involved in feeding. Another part, also ancient, receives exteroceptive and proprioceptive tracts (from the thalamus) but no olfactory; it operates movements through

tive of

In higher apes and still.

is

chick. is an underlying struchypothalamus, among whose ascribed functions is nervous

In close association with the thalamus ture, the

smaller than in birds.

some

of the corpus striatum

BRAIN an emissive path to the midbrain. To these old parts there is a new addition of undetermined function. The cat, with neopallium lost but corpus striatum (and archipallium ) retained, localized the direction of sounds. In man destructive disease within the corpus striatum is thought responsible for the syndrome of Parkinson's disease, characterized by tremor and tonic spasm. Pallium {Cerebral Cortex). In fish and many amphibians the pallium is nonexistent or present only in traces. It exists clearly though rudimentarily in reptiles. In view of the great importance ultimately assumed by the pallium it is well to remember that, in entire absence of a pallium, not only is complex instinctive behaviour but also modification of innate behaviour by individual experience clearly evidenced in fishes and lower amphibians, not to speak of Invertebrata. From early reptihan stock came, it is held, the mammalian stock, as did, independently and somewhat later in geological time, the In the course of bird evolution the pallium has progressed birds. little or not at aU, perhaps in correspondence with the avian lack of olfactory development, the pallium tracing its origin partly to nerve centres for smell. In mammals on the other hand the pallium taken over with primitive potentialities has proceeded to large and ultimately in some forms (apes and man) enormous development. Hence a progressive divergence might be expected between the courses of development of behaviour in birds and mammals, respectively. The progress of bird behaviour to its highest types might be expected to show little qualitative difference from beComparison of birds with haviour of the paleencephalic type. bony fishes reveals in both groups a great diversity of specialized forms with specialized behaviour evolved by hereditary organization, behaviour highly and rigidly stereotyped and fixed in characIn this respect ter and httle imbued with individual plasticity. both groups resemble the insects. The fish, however, reveals more individual modifiability, e.g., docility, than does the insect; and the bird on the average leads individually a more diversified life and has more power for conditioned molding of innate instinctive behaviour than has the fish. Yet, there is a similarity of the behaviour of the two. Nothing essentially new in behaviour, not even in instinctive type, sunders the later group from the earlier. Mammalian behaviour, on the other hand, in its course of evolution reveals attainment of certain additional new types of reaction, types different perhaps even radically from anything paleencephalic. Indications of this are the replacement in some respects of "trial-and-error" learning by methods of "seeing through" or of "stopping to think" about a situation. Another is the "tooldom," if one may so call it, of man. And there is the specific human behaviour involving concepts and symbolic thinking and employing complex speech. Of all this the development of the pallium is the

—

correlative.

Neopallium.

—The

pallium that the

mammalian stock derived

is an associating mechanism for from olfactory organs on the one hand and receptive organs of the mouth and muzzle on the other. This, called the archipallium, therefore promotes in some way the be-

directly

from

its

reptilian ancestry

recepts relayed to

it

haviour reactions in regard to feeding, including the food finding. No sooner, however, has the mammalian career of the pallium been entered on than a further formation adds itself to the archipaOium. This is the neopallium, a correlation mechanism of still more decisive and capital importance, destined in man to exceed in size the total rest of the central nervous system. In man it is the seat of all that is exclusively human in the mind. It is a structure in which are brought together paths from less comprehensive correlating centres; e.g., those of the thalamus. The archipallium correlates recepts from the olfactory distance receptor with others from the skin, mucous membrane and muscles of the mouth region. The neopallium working on a grander scale brings together recepts from all the various species of receptors, distance receptors and others alike.

But is

it is never reached by any receptive nerve immediately; it reached only through relay systems that climb to it via succes-

mechanisms. The recept patterns that enter the neopallium (cerebral cortex) are therefore always greatly changed from those furnished to the first receiving stations by the groups

sive correlating

8i

of receptor nerves themselves. tive

mammals,

just as the

Yet, as

is

clear in the

more primi-

thalamus shows some subdivision into

regions individually concerned with recepts predominantly of one kind of source, retinal, auditory, cutaneous, etc., so in the neo-

pallium connected with the underlying thalamus there are individcomposed predominantly of

ual territories which receive patterns

—

—

be it this or that of receptive recepts traceable to one kind source. There is thus some localization of function in the neopallium

in correlation

with some at least of the sets of receptor orsome at least of the modalities of

gans, or, psychologically put,

an instance. Developmental Stages. Vision

sense. 6.

is

—

and a help toward scheme of life biological history that were

It is of interest

broad evaluation of the place of the brain to trace, so far as possible, the steps in

specially

in the

momentous in favouring or determining the vertebrate onward to its capital development in man.

brain's evolution

is judged to have been the emancipation from an aquatic existence achieved partially by amphibians with conversion of paired fins into limbs and development of lungs for air breathing. The body's greater need for support in air than in water made of the limb a jointed motor prop for locomotion with movement of diverse direction and with fingers and toes for clasping and other use. The limb and the evolving nervous system conspired so to say to draw advantage from this. The conquest of

One

of these steps

the land completed

by the

increase of the forebrain.

reptiles

was accompanied by

The land may be regarded

relative

as a habitat

of more varied difficulty and opportunity. Yet, launched from that stock, the primitive mammal was completely equipped for a land existence. Its forebrain as judged from primitive e.xistent forms was able, and grew more so, to learn with fewer repetitions and better retention; not only so, but its warm constant body temperature provided for cerebral and other activities uninterrupted by seasonal abeyance. One great branch of this stock, developing a

mechanism (placenta) of nutrition and protection for the young within the mother's body (ultimately in the human case nine months long), entered into active and successful competition with other land forms and, indeed, upon great competition within itself. We learn, by comparison of the fossil members of this great group with its present members of similar kind, that even with regard to allied forms the cerebral neopallium has become relatively much larger since the Early Tertiary period. That is to say that in this group the modern individual has relatively more neopallium than had its ancient ancestor of like form and body bulk. The ancestry proper of 7. From Subhuman to Human. man is thought traceable to some shrewlike placental that became arboreal in habit. Modes of arboreal life put a premium on movements of varied range and a.ccurate adjustment of both hmbs and body and also on sight. The evolving of a limb as a tool for uses

—

additional to locomotion gives opportunity for limb and brain to interact. Physical opportunities beget mental opportunities, and

Fruits picked and insects caught will be handled and examined under combined touch, muscular sense and sight. The hand became a testing organ additional to and of greater range than the snout. Some lemurlike type arose, followed by some monkeylike type. The brains corresponding with these are known, and their increased scope of reaction and behaviour can be judged. Parts of the brain concerned with sight and manual dexterity inThe crease- greatly in transition from the lemurs up to the ape. freeing of arm and hand from exclusively locomotor use and their employment for grasping and presenting objects to the eyes and mouth, along with correlative change of the visual axes to parallelism, greatly amplifying and enhancing stereoscopic vision, are thought to have been of great moment for advance toward the

conversely.

stage of brain. A core of three-dimensional space neighbouring upon and centred at the animal then became visually, tactually and proprioceptively explorable by and familiar to experience on a scale of accuracy hitherto unapproached in animal Correlated with this is perhaps the curiosity characteristic of life. monkeys. The free hand itches to be employed. Later some form belonging to the ape group, though not any existent ape, with anthropoid characters, came to live less in the trees and indeed

human

far

more on the ground, probably on the

grasslands.

'With this

BRAIN

82

went a greater attainment of the erect position, a more complete freeing of tlie arm and hand as a universal tool and a loftier point of vantage for the stereoscopic gaze. So an immediately subhuman and then, less than 500,000 years ago, a human brain was reached. B.

by training become a

Experimental Investigations

laboratory observers control carefully the conditions surrounding an observation, simplify its factors, exclude extraneous variables, describe the resultant behaviour as objectively as possible and arrange the experiments so as to permit quantitative statement.

In a good deal of this work

it

is

customary

to

apply the term

normal animal; e.g., dog. Previously the application of the term reflex in physiology and in medicine was to reactions, through the nervous system, that in man were known reflex to the acts of the

was cogent reason to believe were, unaccompanied by mental experience. The extension of the term reflex to such an act on the part of one's dog as its coming when called by name may be taken to mean not that the observer denies that mental action attaches to the dog's behaviour but that the observer explicitly disregards it and is studying the behaviour solely as neuromuscular bodily reaction, hoping thus to study the brain, much on the lines along which the spinal cord may be studied. 2. Reflexes. All purely spinal and hindbrain and midbrain reflexes of the placental mammal seem to be innate. They are transmitted by heredity and are the common property of the speto be, or that in animals there

—

cies, often of the genus. They include not only such simple acts as mastication, swallowing, the blink reflex, the knee jerk, the scratch

crude sexual acts,

but also standing, stepping, the falling in maturity, but reflexes, they form the basis of much instinctive behaviour. Besides this type of reflex reaction the individual animal is able to develop other responses operating through its central nervous system. Thus, when the skin of the foot is subjected to a hurtful electric shock, retraction of the foot ensues. If along with or just preceding this some other stimulus, e.g., a sound, is given, then after a number of regular repetitions of this concurrence, the sound itself evokes the retraction of the foot. The response to such an associated stimulus is called an associated or conditioned or individual reflex. The associated reflex is (in the dog) a response for which the neopallium is a sine qua non. In entire absence of the neopalUum (cerebral cortex) the dog is incapable of acquiring any such responses and loses any such as it has already acquired. A dog's normal everyday behaviour is largely composed of such responses which the common happenings and experiences of its life as an individual from puppyhood onward have taught it. By loss of the pallium this stock of reactions is woefully reduced; it cannot maintain even its base existence. Its behaviour is cut down to a few rigidly fixed reactions. This is exemplified by Pavlov's decorreflex,

cat's righting reflex, etc.

they are innate.

Built

etc.,

They may develop only

up into chain

signal evoking a particular movement or a The training required is that the agent act several times concurrently with the act of movement or secretion, or immediately before it or. which is much less favourable, just after it. The

secretion.

—

Lessons of Animal Behaviour. Lloyd Morgan showed that the newly hatched chick pecks at things of all sorts, as well as food, and that it learns to feed by profiting from the experience of the gustatory results of its random pecking. For this behaviour in the bird the corpus striatum in absence of the pallium suffices; it forms an instance of a modifiable behaviour in which one (a pleasurable) result stamps in the step which led to it, while another (an unpleasurable) result eradicates itself by stamping out an act which led to it. Similarly, the dog, caught by too hot a morsel, fights shy of a next one. In the case of the dog, more than the corpus striatum is at work; the pallium is necessary. Those who study the functions of the pallium look largely to animal behaviour as their key. The behaviour tests consist chiefly in training or learning of one kind or another: a simple form of maze with alternative paths, one leading to food and another not, or one evoking an electric shock and the other not; food that can be reached only by opening the tilt latch or other fastening of a spring; or the learning by experience that some stimulus, e.g., a sound, signals the coming of food or some other event with which in the animal's training it has been regularly associated. Such observations touch somewhat the same topics as do many of the anecdotes of sportsmen and animal lovers. They have the difference, however, that 1.

ticated dogs, which were not able even to feed unless food was placed in the mouth, and by J. G. Dusser de Barenne's cats, although one of those, in which the archipallium had been spared, still found its food by smell and fed itself. By means of the pallium any agent which acts on a receptor can

movement

or secretion to which the extraneous stimulus becomes attached as a signal is called the ground act or unconditioned reflex. In using the latter term it must be remembered that the protective movement in response to a hurtful stimulus is not. itself entirely a reflex in the usual physiological sense of that term. It is true that in the protective ground act there is a kernel of reaction evocable even when only the spinal cord remains, and it is therefore purely reflex. But to this in the protective act evoked by a similar stimulus in the intact animal there is much added. In

and cortical reactions are superadded to is therefore a behaviour response far more complex than that which is usually denoted physiologically this latter case cerebral

The ground

the reflex. a reflex.

If

we

act

face the full biological situation,

it

includes, instead

of merely a pure physiological reflex, a large psychical reaction as well.

It

must, so to say, reverberate through wide regions of

the pallium (cerebral cortex).

Similarly, the secretion of the saliva response to food in the mouth has been greatly used as a ground act (Pavlo.v). and in terming it an unconditioned reflex it must be in

remembered

that although secretion of saliva can after severe curtailment of the nervous system be obtained as a pure reflex, it yet,

as obtained in the feeding response of the intact animal,

is

but one

component of an immense reaction with emotional and other mental accompaniments inevitably involving wide regions of the pallium. These ground acts as reactions to the essential stimulus, e.g., food in the mouth for sahvation, are innate inherited reactions, although possessing cortical extensions. The attaching of them to other stimuh. by training in the individual, constitutes the socalled conditioned reflex of Pavlov and the individually acquired

and also involves the pallium, At commencement of the acquiring of an individual reflex, the response tends to be evoked not only by exact repetition of the par-

reflex of Beritoff

ticular stimulus but also

by other

though not necessarily very

closely.

stimuli broadly resembling

The

individual reflex

is

it

said

then to be in the generalized stage. Further training brings greater precision, in the sense that the response occurs only to more precise repetitions of the specific stimulus. This process is differentiation. By this means it has been ascertained that the brain of the dog can discriminate between notes only one-eighth of a tone apart and can hear notes of much higher pitch than the highest audible to man. It exhibits discrimination between figure patterns of relatively slight difference; e.g., a thicker and a thinner capital T. It fails, however, to discriminate colours, although well discriminating different luminosities.

The

individually acquired reflex

is

termed a deferred

reflex

when

the beginning of the conditioned stimulus considerably precedes that of the ground response, although continued until that of the ground response has begun. The individual reflex so acquired

brings its effect, e.g., salivation, only after the conditioned stimulus has endured for a time practically corresponding with that employed in the repetitions giving the training. The name trace reflex is given to individual reflexes in which the conditioned stimulus is allowed to lapse before the stimulus for the ground response be-

The trace reflex differentiates its stimulus relatively slowly and poorly; it is also less durable. It is noteworthy that although pain stimuli have inborn defensive reflexes at command, such stimthe uli are difficult for inSuction of individual acquired reflexes training is long and uncertain, although sometimes successful. This suggests paucity of pain-receiving afferent connections with the cortex in spite of probable wealth of connections with the gins.

—

thalamus. If

some unusual stimulus

is

employed concurrently with an

es-

tablished conditioned stimulus and in face of this concurrence

the ground stimulus

is

omitted, the individual acquired reflex oc-

BRAIN curs only weakly or not at

The stronger

all.

this foreign stimulus,

83

behaviour,

maze or the entrance fastening to a food box, upon them of pallial destructions. With learning of

e.g.,

for a

the greater its inhibitory effect. This inhibitory result wears off under repetition of the same foreign stimulus. It was shown in

and the

Pavlov's laboratory that the degree of inhibition exerted by the foreign stimulus is directly proportional to the intensity of the investigatory reflex that it excites. By investigatory reflex (Beri-

any one-third of the cortex, and similarly is retained. which two alleys to food are offered, one lighted, the other dark, the food being attainable always by the lighted and never by the dark one, bilateral destruction of the occipital third

by

all

—

the reaction agrees with Head's "vigidenoted an attitudinizing of the head, which is excited sorts of stimuh but on repetition of the same stimulus rapidly orientation reflex

toff's

lance")

is

tends to die out. It may accompany various individual reflexes. It is destroyed by destruction of the pallium. It has been noted that incidental activity of a natural innate skin reflex (e.g., the scratch reflex)

may

sufSce to inhibit an acquired reflex belonging to quite

another distant skin region

(e.g.,

The Cerebral Cortex.

3.

struction of

With

a test in

(visual) of the pallium abrogates totally the successful behaviour already learned but offers no impediment to acquiring it as quickly as in the original training. With a more complex test for entrance to a food box the learned solution of it and its reacquisition are disturbed, but not completely abolished, by bilateral destruction of either the frontal or occipital regions.

Turning from mammals lower than the dog to others higher, the

of forefoot).

—The

effect

a simple maze, acquisition occurs at normal rate after bilateral de-

effect of variously situated par-

upon acquired

was

older experiments on the monkey, while showing greater impair-

ment

motor behaviour than

this as conclusive against the

gave evidence of conIn monkeys the destruction of the precentral gyrus, the motor area of both hemispheres, the animals having previously been trained in habits of manipulation, re-

teaching that one special field for association exists in the cortex. extirpation of a part of the cortex of whatever region temporarily upsets the conditioned reflexes, and with selective disturb-

paralysis recur on destruction of the corpus striatum subsequent

destructions of the cerebral cortex

tial

The

studied by Pavlov. field

destruction of no one single even large

of cortex precludes totally or permanently

individual reflexes.

refle.xes

Pavlov regarded

all

acquisition of

The

ance of them.

After bilateral removal of the occipital region dog never again directs its movements by sight and Full and bilateral fails to distinguish size and distance of objects. destruction of this region in man and monkey causes total blindness; but the dog after removal of even greater portions of both occipital regions still discriminates light from dark, and good con(visual) the

ditioned reflexes are acquired with light difference as a stimulus. Bilateral removal of the temporal lobes (acoustic precludes ac)

quired reflexes to sounds, but only for a time; conditioned reflexes to single sounds, and even with some discrimination of tone sequences, can later be established. Yet after loss of the temporal lobes dogs cease permanently to respond to their names. Bilateral destruction of the parietal and motor area regions especially impair acquired reflexes trained on touch

is

found to

and proprio-

ception, respectively, and especially those in the limbs. After bilateral removal of the frontal lobes, formerly acquired visual and auditory conditioned reflexes return, and new ones can be established soon after the operation.

There ensues a persistent super-

sensitivity of the skin.

In sum. localized damage to cortical areas affects acquired reselectively according to the species of receptor of their stimulus (psychologically, their sense modality) and to the topographical seat of the lesion in the field of the cortex. Pavlov conflexes

cluded that the motor area of the cortex is merely the area of proprioceptive receptors. He denied to the cortex any special association area. "The cerebral cortex should be regarded as the essential organ for the maintenance and establishment of conditioned reflexes." It may be added, on the basis of older experiments, that total destruction of the pallium of only one hemisphere in the dog impairs its behaviour relatively little. Instinctive behaviour was defined by Lloyd-Morgan as "that which is, on its first occurrence (in the individual) independent of prior experience; which tends to the well-being of the individual and the preservation of the race; which is similarly performed by

members

same more or less restricted group of anibe subject to subsequent modification under guidance of experience." It is an innate behaviour trend which a certain more or less complex group of stimuli of external and internal origin can call forth. The e.xperiments of Ceni showed that in the hen the train of behaviour corresponding with incubatory and maternal rearing of the young is not obviously disturbed by destruction of the whole palUum. In the bitch, on the contrary, not only does complete destruction of the pallium cause all maternal instinctive behaviour to disappear but also bilateral destruction, even when confined to the frontal region, does so. Inherited behaviour, as well as individual acquired behaviour, is therefore laid up in the cerebral cortex of the

all

mals, and which

of the

may

the dog.

The observations on rat

by Lashley

the dog

may

be compared with those on the and retention of learned

in regard to ability to learn

of

in the dog,

siderable powers of recuperation.

vealed, on subsidence of the temporary paralysis, perfect retention

of these habits, as demonstrated by Lashley.

Nor

did even the

from the diplegia. Even in the manlike apes the temporary arm paralysis caused by destruction of the cortical excitable area for the arm produces no permanent impairment of individually acquired motor habits executable by that arm. The peeling and other manipulations in eating a banana, the taking and holding of a cup of water to drink from and the learned handshake with a Further, the recovery is not frustrated visitor are all recovered. or undone by additional removal of the arm area of the opposite hemisphere or of the postcentral gj'rus of the same side. But these are relatively restricted lesions, and in the manlike apes, as in man. objective study solely by means of motor behaviour apart from speech of the effects of damage to this or that field of the neopallium (cerebral cortex) becomes less and less adequate to the complexity of the phenomena if all reference to psychical accompaniment is omitted. The fully developed pallium To a spectator otherwise unis mainly so to say a mental organ. acquainted with the play. Hamlet in dumb show would convey but meagrely that play's contents. The experiments of Thorndike and others showed that lower mammals give little evidence for their possession of images in the form of ideas; or in their learning of mazes, door fastenings, etc., of doing so even by imitation. There is, it is found, some power of imitation, though not so much as has been generally supposed, in monkeys, and a questionable existence of image ideas. A situation before which a cat is helpless will be grasped by a monkey. A chimpanzee will solve a situation by making use of some object present at hand as an implement; will recall the position of an object it has seen placed in hiding a day previously; will in some cases fetch an object, remembered though out of sight, to serve as an implement suitable for solving a newly arisen situation; and has been observed to pause in a waiting attitude, trying, as it were, to "see" how to attain indirectly an objective to recovery

unattainable directly, somewhat as a man stops to think. It is inferred that the manlike apes form and retain memory images not essentially dissimilar from man's memory images. It would seem that no gross lesion of the neopaOium occurs without inflicting a certain degree of lasting disturbance upon mental reactions. It may be that that impairment will, by improved analysis of the conditions, be found to be essentially of the same kind for all regions of the pallium. Be that as it may, it is already certain that disturbances predominantly in this or that sphere of sense are related regularly to spatially separate areas of the human cortex and that impairment of the performance of willed movements by the muscles, especially of limbs and face, in the opposite

from damage of a particular pallial region- the preman just as in the ape, and more severely. Speech per se, without any paralysis of the motor mechanisms of its production, is affected very commonly by injury of the cerebral cortex. The manner and degree of the disturbance of speech so produced side, results

central gyrus in

differ greatly in differently placed structural lesions. The study of these lesions, although difficult, affords perhaps the best opportu-

;

BRAIN

84

nity for analytic examination of the mental functions attaching to the neopallium in man. They form a theme too large and also too special to be entered 4.

upon adequately

than the pyramidal

here.

The "Motor" Cortex.—-Electrical

stimulation, so useful a

physiological agent in the case of nerve trunks and many of the fails in its application to most parts of the surface

nerve centres,

of the pallium, especially in the higher animal forms. tain of the areas of the cortex,

however,

it

does,

From

cer-

and especially

in

motor responses with regularity. The main such area occupies in ape and man the "precentral convolution" and is called the motor area. The movements evoked occur the highest forms, evoke

body. The particular muscular field motor response differs for different parts of this area, and for each such part is fairly constant. Thus flexion of the arm will be excitable from one set of points; the extension of the arm from another set; opening of the jaw from one set; movement of the tongue from another; and so on. in the crossed half of the

yielding the

of these movements is that they tend to Thus when the point for the thumb is stimulated, the movement will begin in the thumb, then under continuance of the

One

characteristic

spread.

may spread to the fingers, then to the wrist, the elbow and shoulder, and even to the face and leg as well, so that the musculature of one entire side of the body may thus be simulThis spread is called the march, because taneously convulsed. it resembles a feature, termed, by Hughlings Jackson, the march, in the epileptic seizure. Strong and prolonged stimulation of a motor cortical point is apt to be followed by a clonic (convulsive) spasm

stimulus

resembling that of the true epileptic seizure. The representation of certain fields of the musculature of the body is more liberal than that of others. Variety of movement rather than power of movement seems to determine the extent of the cortex. The cortical area for the thumb (gorilla and chimpanzee) is larger than those for the whole of the abdomen and chest combined. The cortical area for the tongue (anthropoids) is larger than that for the whole of the neck. Only in very few cases is the movement bilateral, i.e.,

both right and

left,

these rare instances

from unilateral is

cortical stimulation.

One

of

that of the vocal cords, which bilaterally

adduct (phonation). Another is that of the eyelids, which blink for both eyes. A condition for obtaining the motor responses from this motor field of the pallium is that the narcosis under which the animal is necessarily placed at the time of experimenting must not be too deep. It is known from observations in man by surgeons (Harvey Gushing and others) that no pain or indeed other sensa-

motor cortex. All that is felt, even in the fully conscious person, is some perception of If the narcosis goes beyond inthe movement which is evoked. ducing sleep of a natural depth, no visible response to stimulation, however strong, is obtainable from the pallium, although spinal reflexes, e.g., the knee jerk, are still readily elicitable by their aption attaches to electric stimulation of the

propriate stimuli.

one time thought that the response on application of was due to stimulation, itself, but of bundles of nerve fibres under the cortex. The distinction if existent would not be of much significance, because such fibres must issue from the cortex; that it is, however, some element in the cortex itself which is excited may be regarded as established. Probably the element in question is a large nerve cell, a number of which are scattered throughout this excitable field. Each such large cell sends a long threadlike fibre down far It

was

The inference is that fields of the cortex other than the so-called motor ones, and routes other derlying corpus striatum.

at

electrical currents to this cerebral surface

not of the cortex

beyond the confines of the forebrain itself. These cells get severally into touch with the primary motor nerve cells in the various segments of the head and body. They form together a direct path, the pyramidal tract, from the motor cortex to the spinal cord, etc. When this excitable field of the cortex was first investigated, it was thought by some that it might prove to be as the immediate starting place of willed movement. The immediate and severe paralysis of willed movement, which, in man and the monkey, excitable field of the cortex, supresults from destruction of this ported such a view. But there follows in short time a remarkable restitution of the willed movements, even in the manlike apes. And this is not due to vicarious functions on the part of the corresponding area of the opposite half of the pallium or of the un-

tract, are

capable of carrying out willed acts.

That the movements excited from the motor cortex are produced via the fibres of the pyramidal tract seems clear; they are precluded by severance of that tract below the cortex. But that they resemble truly closely willed acts of movement is unlikely on several grounds: 1. Severance of the afferent spinal roots supplying a limb, although it does not impair the motor supply of the muscles, etc., in the least, disturbs the willed movements of the limb very greatly indeed, rendering them so inaccurate and wild as to be worse than useless. The animal, e.g., monkey, soon relinquishes use of the "deafferented" limb altogether. Electrical stimulation of the field of the motor cortex corresponding with the "deafferented" limb nevertheless evokes in it all the movements normally so elicitable, and with no detected departure from the normal. The willed movements are grossly disturbed yet the motor responses of the motor cortex remain practically unaffected. 2. Degeneration experiments show that the spinal terminals of the fibres (pyramidal tract) from the motor cortex are actually scattered among the ultimate motor cells themselves. The motor cortex presumably, therefore, makes direct synaptic junction with the final motor cell that directly innervates the muscle. This simplicity of connection of the motor cortex with the muscle could hardly provide for the complexity of a willed movement. But it accords with the further fact that under stimulation of the motor cortex the rate of rhythm of response of the muscle follows the rhythmic stimulation of the cortex even up to 180 per second. Also the time interval between delivery of the electrical stimulus to the motor cortex and the response by the muscle is much less than the latent period for many spinal reflexes. 3. Recent observations indicate that the electrical and myographic behaviour of the muscles under motor cortex stimulation denotes conflict of excitatory with inhibitory influence, simultaneously exerted on the same muscle. The clonic afteraction so characteristic of motor cortex excitation seems traceable to alter;

nating excitation and inhibition. All this renders it unlikely that the motor cortex and the pyramidal tract descending from it to play upon the motor nerve cells yield of themselves, at least when excited artificially, i.e., electrically in experiment, movements truly

resembling willed movements.

Two patients of Gushing offered opportunity while in a fully conscious state for elicitation of movements of the right hand by electrical stimulation of the motor cortex. As reported from their own introspection, the reaction was attended by no sensation other than a secondary awareness of changed position of hand and fingers.

With the anthropoid ape an impressive observation repeatedly is the seeming entire ignorance on the part of the animal, on awakening from a motor cortex ablation experiment, of any disability precluding its performance of its willed acts as usual. Surprise at the failure of the limb to execute what is intended seems indubitably the animal's mental attitude, and not merely for the The animal is slow to realize first few minutes but for many hours. the limb's inability. It is often many hours before repeated and

noted its

various failures to execute ordinary acts for climbing, feeding, satisfying its curiosity, etc., gradually impress upon the animal that the usual services are no longer to be expected from the limb. Even after this lesson seems to have been learned, an emergency will call forth a new attempt and surprise at failure as though the

former experience has been for the moment again forgotten. The impression conveyed is that the forerunning idea of the act intended is present and as definitely and promptly developed as The surprise seems to argue unfulfilled expectation and usual. defect in the motor execution rather than in the mental execution of the act.

—

BiBUOGRAPHY. C. S. Sherrington, Integrative Action of the Nervous System (1906) F. W. Jones, Arboreal Man (1916) Robert Yerkes, The Menial Life of Monkeys and Apes, Behavior Monographs, vol. iii, no. 1 (1916); G, Elliot Smith, "The Significance of the Cerebral Cortex," Henry Head, Studies in Neurology, Bril. Med. J., pp. 758, 796 (1919) 2 vol. (1920), Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech, 2 vol. (1926) Henri PiAron, Le Cerveau et la pensie (1920) ; L. Bianchi, Mechanism ;

;

;

BRAIN oj the Brain and the Function of the Frontal Lobes, trans, by James H. Macdonald (1922) J. S. Beritoff, "Fundamental Nervous Processes in the Cortex of the Cerebral Hemispheres," Brain, vol. xlvii, pp. 109-148 C. M. Child, Physiological Foundations oj Behaviour (1924) (1924) C. Judson Herrick, Neurological Foundations of Animal Behaviour (1924), Brains of Rats and Men (1926); Robert Yerkes and B. W. Learned, Chimpanzee Intelligence and Its Vocal Expressions (1925) K. S. Lashley, "Relation Between Cerebral Man, Learning and RetenR. Magnus, "Physiology tion," Studies VIII, J. Comp. Neurol. (1926) F. R. Miller, "The of Posture," Lancet, vol. ccxi, pp. 531, 585 (1926) Cerebellum," Physiol. Rev. vol. vi, p. 124 (1926) T. Graham Brown, "The Cerebral Hemispheres," Handbook of Normal and Pathological Physiology (1927) Ivan Pavlov, Conditioned Reflexes, trans, and ed. by F. C. Anrep (1927) Cornelius Winkler, Opera Omnia, vol. vii and viii (1927) Robert Yerkes, The Mind of a Gorilla, Genetic Psychology Monographs, vol. ii, no. 6 (1927). (C. S. S'.; X.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

C.

The Brain Stem

In the developing body of man the embryonic central nervous system, coursing the length of the back, undergoes differentiation at its anterior end into the brain, in relation to which the head is formed, while the remainder becomes the spinal cord, associated with the trunk and its contained viscera and the extremities. The original part of this differentiating brain becomes the brain stem,

85 optimum

activity within the interior of the

maintaining a state of central nervous system itself, both in the spinal cord below it and hemispheres above. The account below concerns itself with each of these aspects of

in the cerebral

the brain stem and will consider: (1) the commoner reflexes mediated by the cranial nerves; (2) features of sensory conduction to and motor outflow from the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum, of particular relation to the brain stem; (3) the role of the brain stem in regulating the internal environment of the body; and (4) a most important function of the brain stem (and the

maintaining the activity of the remainder of the central nervous system at an optimum level. 1. Brain Stem Reflexes A reflex is a relatively invariable

least understood"), its capacity for

—

and stereotyped response to a specific stimulus, the subservient neural connections of which appear to have become built into the nervous system for the beneficial result which their activity conThose reflexes mediated tributes to the organism's well-being. by the brain stem and its cranial nerves are concerned with adjusting the related musculature for optimum performance of the body's distance receptors, the eye and the ear, with orienting parts of the body in spatial relation to the head and with managing the

They may be

con-

and, as the term stem suggests,

complicated acts involved in ingesting food.

from

sidered in that order. Eye and Ear. Of the reflexes related to the eye, conjugate deviation of the eyeballs, often combined with turning of the

it bears two blossoms which, budding and dorsal aspects, fiower into the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. These so overgrow and cover their stalk that, when the adult brain is removed from the cranium, nothing of its initial component is seen until, viewed from the under side, a lumpy column about as large as a man's thumb from tip to wrist, and not greatly different in shape, can be distinguished as the brain

its lateral

stem.

The brain stem is thus interposed between and interconnected with the more differentiated parts of the brain on the one hand and the spinal cord on the other, and it bears certain similarities to each of these structures. By means of its entering and exiting nerves, the spinal cord is concerned very largely with gathering sensory impressions from and effecting motor behaviour in what were originally serially arranged segments of skin or muscles of the body. The skin of the head and the muscles of the eyeball and tongue are likewise supplied with nerves from the brain stem. In addition, sensory endings and muscles developed around the nasal, oral and pharyngeal cavities and their derivatives are also supplied by brain stem nerves. Lastly, the specialized sense organs, the ear, eye and olfactory receptors, which develop in the head, are innervated by nerves connecting with the brain stem. These nerves Next, when, by a development called encephalization, the two great superstructures of the brain, the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum, gained dominance over the performance of most of the remainder of the nervous system, it became necessary to provide these ascendant structures with knowledge of what was transpiring in the body below them and to develop channels over which their influences might reach lower outflows. As a consequence, ascending pathways from the cord continue upward through the brain stem

and are joined there by others, conveying afferent messages from the head, to pass or be relayed to the cerebellum or cerebral hemispheres. Similarly, pathways from these latter structures descend into the brain stem, in part to terminate in relation to its

outflows, in part to continue uninterruptedly through

neurons.

which

it

The is

it

motor toward

in part to reach these cranial or

spinal outflows indirectly after relay

by

collections of brain

stem

brain stem therefore resembles the spinal cord, of

the rostral continuation, both in supplying nerves to

accommodating ascending pathways to and exiting connections from the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. The development called encephalization, which carried the cerethe periphery and in

bellum and, to a greater degree, the cerebral hemispheres to such heights of structural complexity and functional achievement, led the brain stem also to assume a dominating and integrating role in general, over lower-lying outflows from the nervous system

—

those innervating the viscera, or skeletal structures

—which

a state of this

related

to

body in and less clearly perceived, development also led the brain stem to assume the role of

viscera

preserve the internal environment of the

optimum

activity; in addition,

head, better to perceive

some

interesting aspect in the field of

is in progress almost constantly during our waking moments. Alterations for near vision are also frequent and involve contraction both of muscles converging the eyeballs and of intraocular muscles which render the central part of the lens more convex;

vision,

the latter maneuver, called accommodation, serves to focus light Associated with it is a constriction of the rays on the retina.

from the periphery of the lens, whose shape The light reflex is a constriction of not changed so greatly. the pupillary aperture also evoked, as the term implies, by visual It is obviously purposeful in reducing excessive ilstimulation. lumination of the retina, just as is stopping down the aperture of An Argyllphotographing a brilliantly lighted scene. a camera in pupil cutting off light is

(extremely contracted and fixed to light but to various distances) is a frequently encountered sign in neural syphilis, for the brain stem path of the light reflex is unusually susceptible to injury by the spirochete of

Robertson pupil constricting in

accommodation

this disease.

More

of the head are collectively designated as cranial.

motor outflows from the cord and

—

intense light evokes a reflex blinking of the lids, but the by stimulation of the cornea by touch

corneal reflex, a blink caused

is more important both for protection and because lachrymal secretion by frequent wiping of this structure leads to its injury, the cornea being the last portion of the body surface of terrestrial animals still to require a watery environ-

or by drying, loss of

ment.

evoked by auditory stimulaconcavity or, in man, the entire head toward the source of a sound and appears designed to capture the maximal intensity of sound stimuli. The other, the auditory reflex, involves the two smallest muscles of the body, buried in the middle ear, the tensor tympani and stapedius, whose contraction reduces undue movement of the ossicular chain to loud

Two

tion.

reflexes related to the ear are

One

directs the pinnal

sounds. In its damping action to loud sound, the auditory reflex is analogous to the pupillo-constrictor reflex of the eye to bright light.

Also located in the ear existence

many

are

is

the vestibular organ (of whose very its afferent impulses are

unaware because

consciously perceived only

when

excessive,

and then but vaguely,

as vertigo), initiates refle.xes involving: (1) the muscles which orient the eyeballs in effective positions for vision when the head is moved; and (2) muscles of the trunk and extremities which hold the body in a definite spatial relationship to the force of gravity, which we call being right side up in the world. The most easily examined of these vestibular reflexes is nystagmus, a repetitive deviation of the eyeballs designed to keep them abreast of the rotating head. It may be evoked by spinning in a chair or by irrigating the external ear with hot or cold water, thus creating

—

BRAIN

86

convection currents in the fluid-filled canals of the vestibular organ, simulating those induced by rotation. Prolonged repetitive stimulation of the balancing part of the vestibular organ, as by the pitching of a ship at sea, evokes a battery of visceral alterations

not normally induced by vestibular nerve impulses, accompanied by sensations of nausea and distress an incapacitating syndrome described as motion sickness.

—

Food

Ingestion.

—Reflexes

associated with the nasal and oral

cavities are broadly concerned with conveying solid

and

liquid

food into the gastrointestinal tract and with e.xpeIUng these or other foreign objects from the closely adjacent air passages, into which they sometimes inadvertently become directed. The first is accomplished by the swallowing reflex, in which stimulation of the back of the mouth cavity evokes sequential contractions of the muscles of the lips, jaw, tongue, pharyn.x and part of the neck, propelling food or liquid into the esophagus. Ingested material is prevented from regurgitating into the nose, during swallowing, by a tensing of the soft palate and from entering the larynx, by a drawing up of this latter structure beneath the back of the tongue, so that the swallowed material cascades past it. Impairment or absence of swallowing from

of these objectives

injury to

its

reflex arc, called dysphagia,

is

a frequent

symptom

of pohomyelitic involvement of the brain stem,

appropriately placed incision either in the spinal cord or in the brain stem, to interrupt that pathway mediating impulses from pain receptors and thus eliminate pain sensations from consciousness, while preserving other afferent pathways and leaving unaffected the sensations which they mediate. Next, if the central course of any single sensory pathway is

examined, it will be found that its component nerve fibres, mediating impulses from different portions of the receptor field, whether for vision, hearing, pain or touch, possess a definite spatial rela-

tionship to one another. relay of these impulses

This relationship

is

preserved

in

the

from the anterior end of the brain stem

to

the various

sensory areas of the cerebral hemispheres. This orderly arrangement of conducting elements, an obtrusive structural feature of afferent pathways at each level of the central nervous system, may be without functional significance. It seems likely, however, that it underlies the orientation which objects are seen to bear to one another in the field of vision, or the orderly relation which sounds of different pitch hold to one another in audition or the sense of localization which normally is attached to painful or tactile impressions.

Lastly, another general feature of afferent conduction through is the feeling quality which sensations often possess.

the brain stem

Except

many

its danger lying tendency to aspirate both ingested fluids and salivary and mucosal secretions, with the consequent development of pulmonary edema or pneumonia. Reflexes expelling material from the nasopharynx are of two sorts those in which the local musculature tries to accomplish this act unaided, as in gagging or choking, and those in which the respiratory musculature is also invoked to contribute a blast of

no most phlegmatic can recall some dramatic instance when perception was accompanied by a warm suffusion of pleasure or by a shuddering chill of unpleasantness. Because lesions in or near the anterior end of the brain stem are sometimes followed by states collectively called the thalamic syndrome, in which the most prosaic sensations are accompanied by intense and unmerited feelings of pleasure or unpleasantness, it

Swelling expired air to the process, as in sneezing or coughing. of the mucosa in allergies or infections of the nasopharynx causes persistent stimulation of its receptor endings, which makes recurrent sneezing or coughing actually perfectly normal reflexes

has been suggested that this region is particularly concerned with endowing sensation with these quahdes. Afferent conduction through the brain stem has thus been considered from the points of view of the conscious perception of sensation, the orientation of perceived objects in sensory fields and the feeling which may be attached to sensation. The importance of side branches or collaterals, which turn from the long sensory paths as they ascend through the brain stem into the central reticular formation of this structure, is considered below.

in the

—

—

associated in

many

persons' minds with processes of disease.

Related to these last reflexes are vomiting and hiccoughing, the be a repeated but halfhearted and ineffective vomit; both reflexes involve cramplike contractions of the abdominal and thoracic respiratory musculature in particular, the diaphragm designed to empty the stomach by regurgitation. Because hiccoughing is personally annoying and publicly ludicrous, the attempt is usually made to stop it by various maneuvers, many with a sound physiological basis, designed to augment the activity of the brain stem respiratory centre, with the hope that it will regain normal control of the diaphragm. In cases of prolonged and intractable hiccoughing, surgical crushing of the phrenic nerve, innervating the diaphragm, has sometimes been necessary to relieve an exhausted patient. All these various stereotyped acts are managed by neuraU connections within the brain stem which underlie some of the reflex functions of this part of the nervous system the management of the distance receptors located in the head, the most important being the eye, the maintenance of equilibrium, the ingestion of nutriment and the protection of the respiratory and alimentary passages from harmful agents. latter appearing to effort to

—

—

—

2.

Sensory Conduction Through the Brain Stem.

account

is

—

This hmited to brief mention of three general aspects of

sensation of particular relation to the brain stem. First, afferent nerve impulses

body and conducted

gathered from

all

parts of the

to the cerebral hemispheres are somehow transmuted there into consciously perceived sensations, in which the intermittent features of nerve conduction fuse into the famihar picture of the world we see, hear and feel about us. Though the nature of this transmutation is not understood, it is clear that the delivery of afferent impulses to the hemispheres is prerequisite to it; for, if a receiving area of the hemisphere is destroyed, or if the afferent pathway to it is interrupted at some lower level, the modality of sensation it subserves becomes lost to consciousness. Because paths conducting afferent messages toward the hemispheres are topographically distinct from one another, sensations can be lost singly. It has proved possible in patients with intractable pain, who can no longer be relieved with drugs, for the surgeon, by an

in poetic persons,

sensations are perceived with

reaction but indifference, but the

3.

Motor Conduction Through the Brain Stem.

—The

ac-

whose contraction holds body parts in position or moves them about, is integrated at both upper and lower levels of the nervous system, and the stereotjped contraction of some of the head muscles in cranial reflexes has already been considered. The finer, more labile and adaptive contractions of skeletal muscle, particularly in voluntary movement, are managed by a motor area in the cerebral hemispheres from which the pyramidal tract descends on each side through the brain stem to pass, with crossing, directly to the levels of motor outflow whose tivity of skeletal musculature,

discharge

it

initiates.

A

part of this pyramidal projection, concerned with voluntary contraction of the head musculature, terminates in relation to brain stem cells of origin of the cranial motor nerves and is the designated as the corticobulbar system. Though corticobulbar connections subserve a number of functions, the most important of which is speech, relatively little is known of their neural organization.

After corticobulbar fibres are given

off,

the remainder of

the pyramidal projection descends into the cord for voluntary contraction of the muscles of the body, in particular those manipulating the distal portions of the extremities.

Injury to the motor

area of the hemispheres or to its descending pyramidal tract, as frequently occurs at the junction of the brain stem and hemispheres in a stroke or apoplectic attack, is followed by a paralysis of

voluntary movement.

Not

all

of the cerebral influence upon

movement

is

exerted

pyramidal tract, however. A significant part reaches lower outflows over a series of shorter paths, some of the constituent relays of which are pro\dded by collections of brain stem neurons. Because this group of motor connections lies outside the pyramidal projection, it is termed the extrapyramidal This latter system is able to initiate contraction of a system. postural nature, involving chiefly muscles of the trunk or proximal directly, viz., over the

BRAIN managing grosser types parts of the extremities. One of the major of movements, such as those of progression. functions of the extrapyramidal system is, however, that of modifying activity initiated from other neural sources and already in progress. Because different components of this system respectively augment or reduce motion, their injury is followed either by depression or exaggeration of motor activity. Other symptoms that may follow injury to the extrapyramidal system are those of involuntary movement, as tremor, the basis of which is also little It serves also in

understood.

Important modulating influences on motion are also exerted by the cerebellum and are mediated

by connections passing

either

upward, via the brain stem, to the cerebral hemispheres or downward, over brain stem relays which are apparently identical with those of the extrapyramidal system, to lower motor outflows. The brain stem thus plays an important part in motor conduction both from the cerebral hemispheres and from the cerebellum. Its role

more detail below. Regulation of the Internal Environtaent.

in this regard is discussed in 4.

— In

serving

and providing relays for pathways to and from other levels, the brain stem is analogous to the spinal cord. In exerting dominating and regulating influence over collections of lower a outflows concerned with certain general functions of the body, it resembles the cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres are broadly involved with preserving optimum relations of the body with the external world, and, to a degree, the brain stem is comparably concerned with managing a number of the processes which maintain the internal environment of the body in an optimum condition. Parts of the brain stem so concerned are its anterior and posterior extremities, the first of which may now be considered. local reflexes

—

Anterior Portion. The anterior portion of the brain stem, overlying the pituitary or master gland of the endocrine system, sends connections to this gland which control the liberation of pituitary hormones and so exert widespread influences throughout the body. A second group of efferent connections from the anterior brain stem descends, with relays, to the spinal cord to terminate in relation both to outflows for skeletal muscle and, in larger part, to outflows of the autonomic nervous system, innervating smooth muscle and exocrine glands throughout the body. By exciting parts of the autonomic system in varying combinations, or throwing the whole system into activity at once, this second outflow from the anterior part of the brain stem may likewise alter body states profoundly. Variations in the osmotic tension of blood circulating through the rostral brain stem cause its neurons to discharge, inner\'ating the neurohypophysis and stimulating secretion of that gland's hormones. One of these, antidiuretic in action, passes in the blood stream to the kidney, where it facihtates the reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules. About 170 1. of water filter from man's blood every 24 hours and start down the kidney tubules toward the

87

Brain stem injuries causing deficiencies in the sexual sphere are often associated with the development of pronounced obesity, the etiology of which

ferred

to

The combined

unsettled.

is

clinically

as

adiposogenital

syndrome, after the person who

first

disorder is redystrophy, or Frohhch's recognized its pathological

basis and so inaugurated a long series of studies of this part of the nervous system. contrasting disturbance, the precocious onset of puberty, which may result from involvement of the anterior

A

brain stem, depends either upon overactivity of the mechanism just considered or upon malfunction of the pineal gland, connected

with the dorsal, rather than the ventral, aspect of this level of the neuraxis.

Research has indicated that the anterior brain stem the increased

in

(ACTH) from

secretion

of

is

the adrenocorticotropic

involved

hormone

the anterior lobe of the pituitary in response to

Regulation of the adrenal cortex thus appears to be under the control of the brain. Stress stimuli have been found to cause increased discharge of the anterior brain stem, and

stress stimulation.

direct stimulation of this structure has been

ACTH

shown

to increase

Conversely, after injury to the anterior brain no longer capable of leading to increased pituitary-

secretion.

stem, stress is adrenal activity. Because of the scarcity of the neural innervation of the anterior lobe, it was suggested that a humoral substance is elaborated in the anterior brain stem and conducted to the gland

by way of vascular channels surrounding the infundibular stalk. By way of its connections with autonomic outflows, the anterior brain stem

is

similarly able to regulate or widely alter conditions

in the interior of the

body.

Excitation of this neural part evokes a

mass discharge of the sympathetic portion of the autonomic system, with

rise in

blood pressure, increase in heart

gastrointestinal

peristalsis,

erection

of

hair,

rate,

cessation of

sweating,

etc.

A

discerning person will recognize that these alterations constitute some of the objective changes of emotional excitement, known to be executed by this and other parts of the brain stem with the

fortunately, reabsorbed into the blood stream before leaving the

purpose of mobilizing the body's energies for dealing with an existing or anticipated emergency. Many of the changes just mentioned are also those which are employed in preserving a relatively stable internal body temperature in the face of wide variations in environmental conditions. Heat, produced in the body, as in a stove, by oxidative reactions, is conserved by peripheral vasoconstriction and erection of the hair (particularly in fur-bearing animals), reducing the body's irradiation; when necessary, heat conservation is also augmented by shivering. It is dispelled by increased irradiation, consequent to peripheral vasodilation, and by the evaporation of an augmented sweat secretion. These opposing processes (heat retention and heat release) are regulated by two antagonistic thermal mechanisms in the anterior part of the brain stem, influenced by alterations in the temperature of the blood circulating through the brain stem. These neural systems by which the brain stem preserves a constant body temperature normally exhibit the precision and efficiency of the operation of a thermostat, but, hke their mechanical counterpart, they may sometimes undergo derangement. Circu-

kidney, and only the remaining

lating toxins or

infection, paralyze

in solution, continues to the

that neural

periodically excite

bladder. With the aid of a normal complement of an antidiuretic hormone from the neurohj'pophysis, about 169 1. of this water are, litre, conveying waste materials bladder and is thence voided as urine. If the anterior end of the brain stem is injured, or if its path to the pituitary is interrupted, the neurohypophysis becomes para-

lyzed and atrophic, so that the secretion of

its

antidiuretic

hormone

Reabsorption of body water from the kidney is then infails. complete, and in record cases as many as 40 1. may be lost daily and passed as urine, so that were not a compensating quantity of water drunk, the body would rapidly become dehydrated. This disturbing syndrome is called diabetes insipidus, for its excess urine is not sweet as it is in the commoner diabetes mellitus. Administration of an extracted antidiuretic hormone, called pituitrin, constitutes as specific a therapy for diabetes insipidus as does that of insulin for diabetes mellitus. Although the secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary appears to be somewhat more autonomous, appropriate injury to the anterior brain stem causes deficiency in production of gonadotropic hormones, with consequent atrophy of the sex glands, regression of secondary sexual characteristics and loss of potency.

breakdown products, incident to mechanism dispelling body heat and

the other, initiating heat production and conservation.

The

patient

then shivers and exhibits peripheral vasoconstriction, and although he subjectively experiences a chill, his internal temperature rises to fever height. Elevated body temperature together with increase in the count of white blood cells, enemies of foreign agents in the body, thus constitute the two most reliable diagnostic signs of infection.

The

stem in the regulation of internal by its control of the endocrine metaboHsm, reproductive function and adrenocortical activity, and by its management, exerted over neural channels, particularly those of the autonomic system, of the activities concerned in emotional excitement and in the preservation of a constant body temperature. role of the rostral brain

body processes

is,

then, attested

factors involved in water

Posterior Portion.

— Somewhat

similarly, the caudal (tailward)

concerned with managing internal processes, even more vital in nature, which clear the blood of carbon

part of the brain stem

is

—

BRAIN dioxide, provide it with a fresh supply of oxygen and circulate it throughout the body. These respiratory and cardiovascular mechanisms of the caudal brain stem may next be considered. The thoracic and abdominal musculature whose contraction ex-

pands the chest cavity, permitting air to flow into the lungs to carry o.xygen to and carbon dioxide from the blood flowing through the exposed pulmonary capillaries, is initiated by lower brain stem neurons, the efferent fibres of which descend to the spinal outflows These brain stem neurons are conof the inspiratory muscles.

by a multiplicity of factors, associated with oxygen deficiency in their circulation. The rhythmicity of respiration is affected by the periodic prevention of inspiration, both by stantly being excited

inhibitory afferent impulses initiated

by lung

stretch during inspira-

and conveyed to the lower brain stem by cranial afferent nerves, and by central inspiratory-inhibitory or expiratory contion

nections.

In respiration

more

forceful

than that of ordinary

quiet breathing, the active contraction of expiratory muscles

is

to the relaxation of inspiratory ones in expelling air. Though the motor nerve supply to the respiratory muscles proceeds entirely from the cord, spinal neural levels are, by themParticipation of the selves, incapable of maintaining respiration.

added

brain stem mechanisms mentioned is essential for this activity. In the execution of criminals by hanging, the brain stem in effect is severed from the cord, and death is thus caused by asphyxia. In cases of poliomyelitic injury to the neurons either in the cord or brain stem, with consequent respiratory paralysis, life may sometimes be preserved by artificial respiration in an iron lung.

The lower brain stem also contains regulating collections of neurons whose efferent fibres influence autonomic outflows, from both the brain stem and cord, concerned with the rate of beat of the heart, and those autonomic outflows from the cord which innervate smooth muscle in the walls of arterial blood vessels, the contraction of which constricts their lumina and so maintains an optimum pressure

in

the

circulatory

system,

enabling

blood,

the heart, to be conveyed to all parts of the body. Two receptor organs, informing the lower brain stem of both the pressure and the chemical composition of circulating blood, by way of cranial afferent nerves, play an important part in the regula-

pumped from

tion of cardiovascular activity first

of these

is

by

this brain

can test the blood just leaving the heart and body. Because the body is apparently so parconcerned in maintaining an optimum circulation through the cerebral hemispheres of the brain, another, similar receptor is found in the wall of the internal carotid arteries, supplying blood Injury to the brain stem cardiovascular to these structures. mechanism, or interruption of its connections to autonomic outflows, is followed by vasomotor collapse and fall of blood pressure. fatal.

— Somewhat

analogous to the role of the brain stem in managing the functions of other organs within the body is its role in maintaining an optimum state of activity within the interior of the central nervous

Injury to the rostral brain stem is followed by deterioration of function of the cerebral hemispheres, and injury to more caudal parts results in impairment of activity within the spinal cord. It is perfectly clear that the conscious perception of sensation, the voluntary control of motion, and other features which characterize the activity of the cerebral hemispheres in what is called the waking state are somehow dependent in an essential manner upon the functional integrity of the anterior brain stem. Injury to this region in man is followed by states varying in intensity from

system.

in

electroencephalography have revealed pronounced

differences in the spontaneous electrical activity of the cerebral cortex in wakefulness and sleep. In the latter state the electrical

record is composed largely of high, slow waves and is described as being synchronized. During wakefulness, in contrast, the electro-

encephalogram

(EEG)

is

spina! shock depends in part

scending to the cord over pyramidal and extrapyramidal connections, to the latter of which the brain stem makes contributions. In addition to exerting ascending influences upon the cerebral cortex, the central reticular formation of the brain stem has been shown to give rise to descending connections to motor outflows

from the spinal cord. The more cephalic of these augment or facilitate spinal motor discharge, while the more caudal region

made up

An imbalance in these thought to be responsible

exerts an inhibitory or reducing action.

extrapyramidal motor connections

is

which condition inhibitory influences are no longer and exert an augsince they are no longer opposed. The involuntary

for spasticity, in active, while

facilitatory ones are preserved

mented effect movements of other types of extrapyramidal disease may

also

have their basis in malfunction of these descending connections from the brain stem.

D. Nutrition of the Brain

A

was stated by Joseph Barcroft as follows: no instance in which it can be proved that an organ increases its activity, under physiological conditions, without (Joseph Barcroft, The also increasing its demand for oxygen." Respiratory Function of the Blood, The Macmillan Company, Although this principle was formulated long before Bar1914.) croft's time, he was the first to demonstrate its general validity by basic principle

"There

is

measurements of the amounts of o.xygen consumed by different organs (leg, muscle, heart, kidney, salivarj- gland, pancreas, Subsequent work liver) under different conditions of activity. abundantly confirmed his findings. Its vahdity as far as the brain direct

is

concerned, strongly suggested by evidence accumulated between RepresentaI and II, was finally proved in 1944-45.

World Wars

tive values for various organs are

of low-voltage, fast activity.

shown

in

Table

I.

of the brain even at rest is high. of his body weight, yet brain comprises only about

The oxygen requirement

2%

Table

In the most severe states, though

the patient's respiration and circulation are preserved and he may be nourished and kept free of infection for years, he has no more rapport with the external world than is exhibited by a vegetable.

Developments

Though other factors may be concerned, upon loss of excitatory influences de-

exhibit abnormality.

In addition to serving cranial reflexes, participating in sensory

ticularly

degrees of somnolence to coma.

Transection of the cord

from the brain, even at thoracic levels, leaving respiratory and vasomotor activity unimpaired, is followed, in the isolated cord segments, by a specifically neural depression called spinal shock. In this condition, spinal reflexes for a period can no longer be evoked by afferent stimulation and, even when recovered, may

and motor conduction and managing a number of internal body processes, the brain stem is concerned also with maintaining an optimum state of activity within the remainder of the central (H. W. M.) nervous system.

way

to all parts of the

Resultant circulatory disturbances, if unrelieved, are 5. Regulation of the Central Nervous System.

tion of this part of the nervous system.

The

starting on its

it

Though the lower brain stem's influence upon the spinal cord not so specific and is abetted by both the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum, it is important in preserving the normal funcis

where

stem mechanism.

strategically located in the arch of the aorta,

Direct stimulation of the central core of the brain stem will reproduce the normal waking record. Injury to the cephalic part of the brain stem in experimental animals is followed by chronic somnolence and a synchronized EEG. After such injury, afferent stimulation is no longer capable of arousing the subject to wakefulness. Many side connections or collateral branches from ascending sensory paths have been shown to turn into the central core of the brain stem and to exert their arousing influences indirectly by modifying its activity. Structurally, the portion of the brain stem involved is a reticular formation, and research has identified the existence of an ascending reticular activating system concerned with regulation of the background activity of the cerebral cortex.

(c.c.

Organ

I.

per loo ^

Oxygen Consumption g. of tissue

per minute)

Man's it

uses

BRAIN 25%

the oxygen taken up by his body under conditions of complete mental and physical rest. The purpose underlying the oxygen consumption by the brain undoubtedly is

approximately

the

of

all

same

used

in

as in any other Hving system, viz., to provide energy to be doing work (see Diet and Dietetics). Yet, as Otto War-

burg, a pioneer in studies of brain metabolism, pointed out in 1912,

nerve

cells

do no work that is measurable in mechanical or chemthey do not contract, move, divide or grow, nor

ical units, since

Nevertheless, the brain obviously needs oxygen, as indicated by: (1) its extraordinarily high oxygen consumption; (2) its vulnerability to deprivation of oxygen; (3) the fact that functional activity of the brain runs parallel to its oxygen consumption, exhibiting cerebral depression from anesthesia, diabetic coma, insulin shock, brain tumours, etc. The foodstuffs and oxygen necessary to meet the requirements of the brain can reach it only by way of the blood. There are no important exceptions to the rule that an increase in the functional activity of any organ entails a simultaneous increase in the amount of blood which it receives. It is noteworthy, however, that the way in which this compensation is brought about differs markedly from organ to organ. In the case of the skeletal muscles, increased activity is associated with both an increase in the amount of blood expelled by the heart and a widening of the blood vessels supplying the exercising muscles, brought about largely by reflexes acting through regulating centres in the brain stem. In the case of the salivary glands, increased secretion of saliva is elicited by nerve impulses carried by special nerves, and these impulses also cause dilation of the blood vessels supplying the gland. In the brain, however, although nerves are known to be able to mediate either constriction or dilation of blood vessels, these effects are much weaker than those seen in other tissues, and there is general agreement that nerve control plays no important part in the normal

do they secrete substances.

regulation of the cerebral circulation. is

The most

plausible idea

that the blood vessels of the brain possess the unusual prop-

erty of tending to constrict

tendency

is

if

left

to

themselves and that this

constantly opposed by the dilating action of the prod-

ucts of cell metabolism either arising in the brain itself or carried

blood from other tissues. Any increase or decrease oxygen consumption of the brain would then be associated with a corresponding change in the calibre of its blood vessels (therefore in the volume of blood flowing through them) because the amount of vessel-dilating material had changed. Increase or decrease in the concentration of such material in the blood reaching the brain would have similar effects on cerebral blood flow. The evidence in favour of this conception is of two main types: (1) All the characteristic products of nerve metabolism tested (increased carbon dioxide, decreased oxygen, acids, potassium salts, acetylcholine, phosphates, heat) have been found to dilate cerebral blood vessels. (2) Increase in the carbon dioxide or decrease in the oxygen content of the blood reaching the brain (by inhalation of appropriate gas mixtures) causes dilation of cerebral blood vessels and increase in cerebral blood flow, while decrease in carbon dioxide (by overbreathing) or increase in oxygen has the opposite effect. Table II shows representative effects of this type in normal young men at physical and mental rest. The figures listed in the first column are probably fairly accurate approximations of the amounts of blood that flow through the brain of a normal young adult male at physical and mental rest and under normal environmental conditions. They represent about 20% of the total output of the heart. This confirms the conclusion already derived from the fact that the brain, comprising only 2% of the body weight, accounts for approximately to

it

in the

in the

,

—

Table II.— Cerebral Blood Flow (c.c.

Cause

of

change

per minute)

89

—

BRAIN— BRAINWASHING

90

functions of the brain would cease as soon as the cerebrospinal pressure exceeded the normal pressure in the cerebral veins and all

and death would occur from failure of respiration and

capillaries,

circulation at a

Among

much

earlier stage of these diseases.

the

features of the cerebral circulation,

the unusual

anatomical arrangements deserve emphasis. Instead of depending on a single artery to supply most of the blood and a single vein to bring it back to the heart, the brain gets its blood from four major arteries and is drained by three separate sets of veins. .\ny two of the arteries and any one of the veins could meet the needs of the brain if time were given for adjustment, and even

one artery is enough to supply the vital centres of the brain stem and thus prevent failure of circulation and respiration. The arteries (the two internal carotids and the two vertebrals) join at the base of the brain to form a circle (the circle of Willis) from which arterial branches are given off to course either through the brain substance or over its surface in the pia mater. The carotid arteries run in the neck and can be occluded by deep pressure, but the vertebrals arise in the chest and soon enter the vertebral column, where they are protected from pressure or injury short The cerebral veins follow the of disruption of the spine itself.

number of wide by way of the two

thin-

meet not in a circle but large walled sinuses, from which blood leaves internal jugular veins, a variable network of veins at the base Even of the skull, and large sinuses inside the vertebral canal. if the entire venous return from the upper part of the body is there vena cava), obstructed (as by thrombosis of the superior in a

arteries but

is

no serious impediment

to

the drainage

of

the

cerebral

cir-

culation.

No definite statement has been made about the exact relation between deficient blood supply and functional activity of brain Both stimulation and depression have been described cells. stimulation in the case of the vasomotor centre responding to high intracranial tension, or an epileptic seizure precipitated by hyperventilation; depression in the case of mental confusion or unconsciousness from severe hyperventilation, or failure of all brain functions as the final effect of cerebral anemia. The lastnamed is the inevitable result if the diminution in blood supply is

sufficiently severe

doubt whatever on

and

lasts a sufficient time,

this score.

The

and there

no

is

possibility of stimulant

ef-

brain fects preceding the depression depends on the part of the under consideration. The cortical cells concerned with consciouswhile only depressed are ness, judgment, memory, etc., apparently

stimulated strongly. the vasomotor centre There probably are many variations between these extremes, but the information available at mid-20th century did not warrant is

characteristically

definite statements.

See Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid; Nerve; Nerve Conduction; Nervous System; Nervous System, Surgery of; Neurologv, Comparative; Spinal Cord; see also references

Index volume. Barcroft, The Respiratory Function of the Blood (1914) "The Circulation of the Brain and Spinal Cord," TransDisactions oi the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Seymour S. Kety and Carl F. Schmidt, "The ease, 18:229-276 (1938) Blood Effects of Active and Passive Hyperventilation on Cerebral Flow, Cerebral Oxygen Consumption, Cardiac Output and Blood Pres107-119 sure of Normal Young Men," /. Clin. Invest., vol. xxv, pp. under "Brain"

in the

BmLiOGRAPHY.— Joseph ;

;

(C. F. St.)

(1946).

BRAIN, SURGERY OF:

see

Nervous System, Surgery

of.

BRAINERD, DAVID

(1718-1747). American Protestant missionary to the Indians in Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, was born April 20, 171S, at Haddam, Conn, His great-grandfather, a Puritan minister, had emigrated from England. Orphaned at 14, Brainerd studied under tutors and entered Yale college, pelled, for

minor

New

Haven,

in Sept.

offenses, in his junior year.

1739.

He was

ex-

Brainerd was or-

dained as a Presbyterian minister on June 12, 1744, at Newark, N.J. As a missionary, he was employed by the Honourable SoHe ciety in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge. preached through an interpreter, Moses Tinda Tautamy, working (probably Senakes the Nations, the Six Delawares, among the Senecas) and Tutelas. He rode horseback along the Susquehanna

camping at night, his only home a cabin He kept a journal for the Scottish Brainerd spent much time at Crossweeksung (now Crosswicks), N.J.; and visited New Haven and Hartford, Conn.; New York; Elizabeth and Princeton. N.J. and Juniata and Philadelphia, Pa. He contracted tuberculosis and was nursed for 19 weeks at the home of Jonathan Edwards at Northampton. Mass., by Edwards' daughter. Jerusha. to whom he was engaged to be married. He died Oct. 9, 1747, at the age of 29. Brainerd is known both for his missionary work and his diary and journals, which have been widely read. See Jonathan Edwards, The Life and Diary of David Brainerd, ed. (P. E. H.) by Philip E. Howard, Jr. (1955). and Delaware

rivers,

at the forks of the Delaware. society,

and

a diary.

;

BRAIN-FEVER BIRD (Ciiculus varins), an Asian hawk cuckoo superficially resembling the old world sparrow hawk {Accipiter nisus). It takes its name from the suggested effect of its Like the European cuckoo (q.v.), it lays its repetitious cry. eggs in the nests of other birds, the usual hosts being babblers (G. F. Ss.) iq.v.). an urban district (since 1934) of Essex, Eng.. is 15 mi. W. of Colchester and 41 mi. N.E.

BRAINTREE AND BOOKING,

London by road. Pop. (1961) 20,553. Area 10.6 sq. mi. The town lies between the Brain and the Pant (or Blackwater) rivers, on the Roman highway, Stane street. Braintree is the market town for a large agricultural area, and Bocking has many 16th- to 18thcentury houses. Both have 13th-century churches. The manufacture of crepe and silk, introduced by Huguenot refugees in the 17th century, gradually superseded the older wool cloth industry. Steel windows, tools, plastics and rayon are also manufactured. BRAINWASHING, a colloquial term variously used to of

describe the systematic efforts of Communists to persuade nonbelievers to accept Communist allegiance, commands and/or doctrine; more generally applied to any technique designed to manipulate human thought or action against the desire, will or

knowledge of the individual.

Brainwashing (Hsi Nao)

is

most

appropriately used in reference to Chinese Communist thought reform or ideological remolding (Szii Hsing Kai Tsao), a program of political indoctrination based on the conception that persons who have not been educated in a Communist society have incorrect "bourgeois" attitudes and beliefs, and must be "re-

educated" before they can take their place in such a society. History. During the growth of Chinese Communism (192148) thought reform was used to integrate new members into the movement and to strengthen the commitment to the Communist cause of the old rank and tile as well as the elite of the party. Following the conquest of the Chinese mainland (1949), the Communists attempted to reform Chinese intellectuals, peasants, soldiers and all others who, because of their class origins or past This group behaviour, were not considered politically reliable. included Europeans and Americans who were imprisoned by the Communists and whose confessions and apparent conversions to Communism first brought widespread attention to thought reform. During the Korean war (1950-53) United Nations prisoners of war were subjected to a less intensive program of reform, but greater emphasis was placed in this program on obtaining propaganda

—

material than on political re-education. Process. The techniques of thought reform vary with the target group and the circumstances, but the basic approach is the same whether used in a prison, a revolutionary college, a factory By controlling the physical and social enor a Communist cell. vironment an attempt is made to destroy loyalties to any nonCommunist groups or individuals, to demonstrate to the individual

—

that his attitudes and patterns of thinking are incorrect and must be changed, and to develop loyalty and unquestioning obedience

Communist party. In the political prison, for example, the following techniques were used: (1) isolation from former associates, sources of into the

formation and daily routines; (2) an exacting prison regimen that required absolute obedience and humility (eating, sleeping, washing, eliminating, etc., according to strict schedule, doing nothing without permission of the guard, keeping head bowed and eyes downcast in the presence of the guard, etc.); (3) physical pres-

BRAKE manacling as punishment for nonco-operation (4) creation of an atmosphere in which redemption and freedom were completely contingent on sures ranging

from deprivation of food and sleep

to

;

(5) social pressures, such as prolonged interrogations and "struggle meetings," in which attempts were made advanced cell members to persuade the less reformed more by successful reform;

cajoling and harassment to humiliaand revilement; and (6) daily study groups in which Communist doctrine was learned basic conclusions were presented in lectures and readings and were followed by group discussions in which each member was required to show how these conclusions could be derived from Communist premises and how they applied to himself (mutual criticism and self-criticism were an essential part of such group discussion). In this setting prison officials and cell mates exerted unremitting pressure on the prisoner to make him re-evaluate his past from the Communist point of view, to recognize his guilt and to confess Crimes were defined as actions or thoughts which his crimes. The confession in any manner could harm the Communist cause. had to be built around actual events, and the sincerity of it had to be demonstrated by willingness to include in it denunciations of parents, friends and other close associates. When, and if, the prisoner had recognized his guilt (i.e., accepted the Communist interpretations of his actions), had made a satisfactory confession and had demonstrated his change in attitude and point of view, he was brought to trial, convicted of the crimes to which he had confessed and given a lenient sentence because he had reformed. This entire procedure took from one-half to four or more

members by any means from tion

—

years.

—

Analysis. On the psychological level this process involves the removal of social and perceptual supports; the weakening of the ego by physical pressures;

91

pated as heat from resistors. Most friction brakes act on revolving elements, as wheels or drums, but slipper brakes pressing on flat surfaces are applied as for rail cars, mechanically or magnetically operated, and a pincer of caliper type grips each flank of a rack in some of the mountain railways and in elevators (lifts). A rope also serves for the application of a brake device in a few cases. The various arrangements used for clutches (see Clutch)

when one member, having been made engaged by the other. The eddy current coupling

are also usable for brakes stationary,

is

readily serves as a brake. Band Brakes. .A highly effective braking action can be obtained by the coiling of a rope around a drum, as may be seen

—

man

holding the free end of the rope, and allowing The sustaining friction developed between rope and drum follows the law of belting so that a large arc of contact results in a high ratio of tension on the load end of the rope to the sustaining end. The more convenient application of this idea, a flexible steel band, is employed on winches, hoists, haulage and winding engines, cranes and motor vehicles. In order to increase the frictional effort and reduce heating, some kind of at

any docks,

it

to slip gradually.

a

lining has to be fitted, such as

be prevented, an internal expanding type has the preference, the band being made of an expandable ring, with a pivotal freedom. By the multiplication of force with a lever, plus the frictional effect of the band embracing a large diameter, a man by exercising moderate force at a handle or treadle can hold a load of several tons and pay it out slowly or quickly by regulating his Fig. i may be noted pressure. to explain the essential features, its eye pivoted on a short shaft around which one end of the band is looped, while the other end is pinned a

the lever having

the coercion of guilt-provoking be-

haviour that then requires rationalization; the destruction of the person's self-image by humiliation and revilement the rebuilding of this self-image through the positive personal relationships that develop in the enforced intimacy of the cell despite the everpresent atmosphere of hostility; a shift in perceptual and semantic frame of reference resulting from the desire to identify with the point of view of the cell mates and the need to rationalize coerced

wood, leather, asbestos or one

The band fits externally in all orof the special compositions. dinary examples, but when access of dirt, moisture and grit must

ij_

;

ID

behaviour and support his new frame of reference. In persons who were expelled or escaped from the Chinese mainland the effects were transitory; in those who took their place in Chinese Communist society the effects were probably more

way along the lever, being consequently pulled taut as the A balance WEIGHT WHICH RELEASES BAND pcdal IS depTesscd. Fig. 1— simple band or strap weight at the tail end frees the BRAKE band when the foot releases the lever. The band brake gives a large braking torque for the actuating force applied and in this respect is one of the most efficient brakes available. For rotation in one direction, greatest effectiveness is obtained when the tight side of the band is anchored at the lever pivot; effectiveness is not so great for operation of the drum in the opposite direction. By proper selection of the pivot point a band brake may be made self-locking for one direction of rotation and free running in the

permanent.

opposite direction.

behaviour; and the elaboration of this new frame of reference The depth and through the intensive group study program. permanence of these changes in attitude and point of view depend motivation to of the individual, his degree personality of on the be reformed and the degree to which the environment continues to coerce his

Thought reform contains elements which are evident

in

Chinese

by rote methods of extracting confessions well known in the Papal Inquisition (13th century) and elaborated through the centuries, especially by the Russian secret police; in methods of organizing corrective prisons, mental hospitals and other institutions for producing value change; in methods used by religious sects, fraternal orders, political elites or primitive societies for converting or initiating new members. Thought reform techniques are consistent with psychological principles but were not expUcitly derived from such principles. culture (emphasis on interpersonal sensitivity, learning

and

self-cultivation

j

;

in

See also Korean War. Bibliography. R. A. Bauer and E. H. Schein (eds.), "Brainwashing," /. Soc. Issues, 13:3 (1957) L. E. Hinklc and H. C. Wolff, "Communift Interrogation and Indoctrination of 'Enemies of the State,' "

—

;

Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 76:115-174 (1956); Edward Hunter, Brainwashing in Red China (1951); Robert L. Lifton, "'Thought Reform' of Western Civilians in Chinese Communist Prisons," Psvchialry, 19; (E. H. Sn.) i73-i'),S (19.S6).

BRAKE.

A means for controlling the speed of a movement it. Most brakes utilize friction, although braking may be obtained by compressing a gas in a cylinder or by using an electric motor as a generator where the energy generated may be returned as electricity to a distributing system or dissi-

or of totally arresting

little

^

ji-jjAi,l

, T

LEVER PIVOT -^

Such brakes are known as differential band brakes and are used on hand-operated hoists to prevent unintentional lowering of the load. Although of high mechanical effectiveness, the band brake requires careful adjustment and has poor heat dissipating capacity, hence is not suitable for continuous operation. Block Brakes. A simple type of braking is obtained by pressing a block against the periphery of a rotating drum. To increase the braking capacity and at the same time greatly reduce the forces on the drum bearings, two diametrically opposed blocks are frequently used. The blocks are attached to posts pivoted to

—

the frame and are forced against the drum as the posts are pulled together through a multiplying leverage. Such a brake used in a crane is shown in fig. 2. The blocks are held against the drum force from the spring multiplied through the linkage. Current supplied to the operating motor connected to the drum shaft flows through the coils of the solenoid, thus producing a flux to pull the solenoid plunger down and compress the spring, thereby releasing the brake to allow the motor to turn the drum. If the current fails, the spring applies the brake and prevents the load from being lowered. Block brakes with drums 12 or more feet in diameter are in use on mine hoists. Motorcar Brakes. Shoe brakes are commonly used. In them rigid shoes are pressed outward against the inside of a drum by a

by the

—

BRAKE

92

to the

brake pedal moves a piston

in a master cylinder from which transmitted by the fluid through tubes to one or two actuating cylinders in each wheel brake. The pedal force may be used to control a vacuum cylinder which applies the principal

the pressure

ADJUSTMENT.

is

force to the master cylinder.

(See Automobile: The Chassis:

Brakes.)

Fig.

linkage and

—

-CRANE BLOCK BRAKE ACTUATED BY SOLENOID

cam

or by a hydraulic cylinder acting directly on the ends of the shoes. In fig. 3 for clockwise rotation the friction on the shoe surface helps to engage the right shoe more tightly, so that it is self-energizing, whereas the friction tends to lessen the pressure on the left shoe. The self -energized shoe is called the leading shoe; and the shoe with diminished energy, the trailing

The trailing shoe requires about three times the tip operat-

shoe.

ing force of the leading shoe.

give

this

greater

force,

To

some

actuating cylinders have the piston for the trailing shoe larger

than for the leading shoe. Temperatures caused by high energy generation in vehicles at high

speed cause fade, or loss of braking power due to temperature expansion. Trailing shoes are less affected by fade than leading shoes. In order to obtain the desired ratio of front to rear wheel braking,

use

two

some European designs trailing

shoes

with

a

servo unit or power assistance to increase the actuating force.

Fig.

3.

— HYDRAULIC

AUTOMOBILE

BRAKE Entrance under pressure

full

—

the brakes.

The quick of

fluid

Into

cylinder forces pistons apart and rotating shoes around their lower pivots, bringing friction surfaces into contact with the brake drum. When fluid pressure is released, the long spring pulls shoes out of contact

Westinghouse

action automatic brake (AB), invented (q.v.).

is

the

minimum

by George

standard required on freight

llie

United States practice sometimes uses two leading shoes to take

In regions with long, steep grades the main brakes are relieved by auxiliary brakes, such as drum or disk brakes, on the transmission shaft, hydraulic retarders, or by using the driving motor as a compressor. In European exhaust brakes a valve is used to close off the exhaust line so that the engine acts as a compressor on the exhaust as well as the compression stroke. Fuel is cut off and induction air enters freely. Railroad Brakes. Air brakes, commonly used on railroads and required by law in the United States, consist of a compressor, pneumatic valves and regulators with the necessary pipes, reservoirs and accessories, with levers, rods and other rigging to transmit the forces to the brake shoes, which bear directly on the rim of the wheels. The simple air brake was superseded by automatic action so that the brakes would be applied upon release of air from the system either when intentionally released by a control valve or accidentally by a broken pipe or burst hose. This automatic action is obtained by having in each car an auxiliary storage tank containing air of sufficient quantity and pressure to brake that car, and a triple valve to which are connected the brake pipe, auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder. When pressure is reduced in the brake pipe by air escaping to atmosphere, the higher pressure from the auxiliary reservoir causes the triple valve on each car to admit air under pressure to the brake cylinder to apply the brake shoes. The brake is released by admitting high-pressure air from the main reservoir on the locomotive to the brake pipe until pressure The triple valve is above that maintained in the auxiliary tanks. parts are returned to their original positions and a release spring returns the piston (or diaphragm) to its original position, releasing

cars introduced on United States roads

from 1945.

The

triple

modified so that a quick reduction in pressure in the brake pipe establishes direct communication to the brake cylinder. The brake pipe is vented at each car and the pressure increased on each brake cylinder giving increased braking effort. The brake valve

is

advantage of their self-energiz-

ing characteristic.

English practice is to use two leading shoes on the front wheels and a trailing and leading shoe on the rear wheels, or leading and trailing on both front and rear. Disk brakes of the caliper type operate in the open in small and sport cars. A small friction area is applied through a pincer linkage to each face of a rotating disk. As the exposed surface is large and plane heat dissipation is good, no temperature expansion problems exist. Enclosed disk brakes utilize friction contact around the outer surface of two faces of a disk squeezed between pressure plates or single surfaces of two disks separated so as to bear on the inside end surfaces of a drum. The arc of friction material contact may be 360° or less. Smaller contact area results in greater energy

per unit of contact area but also greater free disk area to dissipate heat. A proper balance is necessary. Thermal and mechanical distortions are less than in the drum of a shoe brake. Disk brakes

may

be made self-energizing. The Lambert hydraulically operated tractor brake shown in fig, 4 is automatically self-energizing. Hydraulic fluid from the master cylinder acting on two cylinders (one shown) forces the primary disk against the rotating, frictionlined middle ring,

which then contacts the secondary disk. The rotating disk imparts a slight rotary motion to the primary disk causing the power rollers to ride up the ramp of the power insert, thus increasing the pressure between the plates. A Britishdesigned brake uses a vacuum booster instead of a self-energizing device. European use of self-energization is less than in the U.S. Automotive brakes may be actuated by rod, cable, hydraulic pressure, high-pressure air, vacuum or electrically energized magnets. Most used is the hydraulic system whereby force applied

LOCK WASHER -HYDRAULIC TRACTOR BRAKE WITH SELF-ENERGIZING DISK

-

BRAKPAN— BRAMANTE force that can be applied to the wheels without locking them decreases as the speed decreases. In order to stop from high speed in the shortest time it is desirable to reduce the braking force when

stopping rather than to keep it constant, as in the AB system. This effect is achieved in the high speed control (HSC) system, which is in effect an electropneumatic brake superimposed on an automatic brake so that the cars are braked quickly and smoothly

by either system.

HSC uses a modified triple valve with a governor and electropneumatic control to reduce the braking force in three stages, at 60, 40 and 25 m.p.h., thus giving four speed zones with ratios of braking force to weight of wheel on the rail of 250%, 200%, 150% and 1009^, respectively. At a ratio of 150% the wheels would lock and slide on the rails at low speed. The electropneumatic device consists of an equalizing portion for controlling the pneumatic service, the release and the automatic charging of the reservoirs; a portion for quick supply of high pressure for transmitting quick action to successive cars; and an electric sys-

A

Decelostat is used to reduce automatically the braking force on any wheels which tend to lock and slide. Vacuum brakes are used in some countries. The vacuum auto-

tem

for operating switches, magnets, etc.

matic brake is dependent on atmospheric pressure for its action, the brakes being normally kept off by the state of vacuum existing A steam ejector on the engine in the train pipe and cylinders. produces the vacuum and maintains it constantly. As there is vacuum both above and below the pistons in the brake cylinders, But when the pistons fall by gravity and the shoes remain off.

atmospheric air is admitted to the train pipe, by the driver or guard, or through a breakaway, it closes a ball valve in the piston so as to seal the upper side of the cylinder and exerts pressure on the lower side of the piston, forcing it upward and actuating the brake rods. The two conditions appear in fig. 5. The object of the "rolling ring" of rubber is to make a perfect joint or packing without friction, and the release valve serves to enable the brake to be released by hand. Streetcar (Tramcar) Brakes. The hand brake which applies shoes to the wheels of a streetcar or tramcar suffers from limitations in regard to power; hence other systems must be utilized in

—

conjunction with it. The regenerative method (causing the moOr tors to act as generators) imposes a powerful braking effect. this may be combined with the operation of slippers magnetically applied slipmechanically clinging to the rails (an alternative to pers), thus affording axle braking combined with the powerful slipper drag. And sometimes the mechanism includes wheel shoe attachments, the drag of the magnets causing an application of the wheel brake blocks. The magnet coil is usually a large wire coil having a small number of turns, whereas for certain conditions a supplementary shunt or fine wire coil is added, energized by current from the line. With shunt winding the car can be brought completely to rest

without having to apply the hand brake.

Brake Materials.

— Brake drums

of cast iron are

93

Automotive and industrial brakes use a lining made in either woven or molded form of asbestos fibres, mixed with fillers and bonding material, and some cotton or copper wire or other metals. The cotton and wire give increased strength to the short-fibre asbestos. Materials used to bind and saturate the linings to make them impervious to oil and moisture are asphalts, natural gums and oils, and synthetic resins. There are two types of metal-bonded linings— powdered metals braking efficiency.

Applications of the ceramic-metallic linings brakes result in life about four times that obtained with Ceramic-metallic brakes are brittle and expensive, however, and offer little improvement for automotive use. Coefficient of friction obtainable with the usual linings is from 0.3 Friction linings may be to 0.4 for temperatures up to 500° F. attached to the brake shoes or plates by riveting or cementing. references under "Brake" in the Index volume. See also Index (F. H.; E. S. A.) a town of the Republic of South Africa, lies 5,400 ft. above sea level and 23 mi. E. of Johannesburg, at the centre of the Far East Rand and of the mining and industrial complex of that area. Pop. (1960) 78.778, of whom 29,209 were of European descent. The municipal area is 93.5 sq.mi., the largest on the Witwatersrand. The climate is mild, and the average annual rainfall is 27.7 in. The town grew rapidly after it became an independent municipality in 1919. It is attractively laid out, with wide tree-lined streets and residential suburbs separated from its or ceramic-metallic. to aircraft

organic linings.

BRAKPAN,

There are 15 schools and colleges, and municand bursaries are provided to enable students to attend various universities. The town is known for its parks and sports grounds and has a swimming pool and golf courses. It is served by main rail and road services. Brakpan is 13 mi. from Jan Smuts international airport and has a flying club. The municipality has encouraged industrial activity in the district and especially in its (W. P. Do.) industrial township of Vulcania. JOSEPH (1749-1814), English engineer and inventor of the hydraulic press and other machinery, was the son of a farmer and was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, on April 13, 1749. He w^orked as a cabinetmaker in London, where he subseindustrial quarters. ipal grants

BRAMAH,

quently started his own business. His first patent, for some improvements in the mechanism of water closets, was taken out in 1778. In 1784 he patented the lock known by his name; and in 1795, his hydraulic press. For an important part of the press, the collar which secured watertightness between the plunger and the cylinder in which it worked,

he was indebted to Henry Maudslay, one of his workmen, who also helped him in designing machines for the manufacture of his In 1806 he devised for the Bank of England a printing locks.

machine for numbering bank notes. Other inventions of his included the beer engine for drawing beer, machinery for aerating water, planing machines and improvements in steam engines and boilers and in papermaking In 17S5 he suggested the possibility of screw propuland in 1802, the hydraulic transmission of power. constructed waterworks at Norwich between 1793 and 1798.

machinery.

most success-

ful but are rather hea\'y and require too much machining for automotive use. Composite drums of pressed steel lined with

Aluminum centrifugally cast iron liners are successfully used. brake housings, frequently ribbed, are used to aid in heat dissipa-

sion for ships;

He He

died in

London on Dec.

9,

1814.

W. Dickinson, "Joseph Bramah and His Newcomen Soc. 22:169-186 (1941^2). See H.

Inventions," Trans.

tion.

Railroads use cast-iron shoes bearing directly on the chilled rim of the cast wheels. Hard abrasive particles can be cast into the shoes so that the wheels are kept true without affecting the

BRAMANTE called

(Donato d'Agnolo or dWngelo, incorrectly BRAMANTE Lazzari) (1444-1514), Italian architect, who

represents, with Raphael (probably a younger relation of his) and Michelangelo, the full flowering of the Italian Renaissance. He at Monte Asdrualdo (now Fermignano), near Urbino, At Urbino he came one of the great centres of the period. under the influence of L. B. Alberti and Piero della Francesca. Bramante's architectural career, which followed his brief activity as a painter, falls into two periods: that in Milan, c. 1480-99; and that in Rome, c. 1500-14, which includes the planning of

was born

St.

-BRAKE ROD CONNECTION

BRAKE OFF

-VACUUM AUTOMATIC BRAKE

Peter's.

In Milan he was largely preoccupied with central planning, i.e., the design of buildings with plans of regular shape, such as the square or circle, related to one or more crowning domes. This re-

BRAMANTINO— BRANCHIOPODA

94

contemporary Lombard practice, especially the architecLeonardo da Vinci, and was based on Milanese which were thought to be antique. He studied such models closely and used classical forms derived from them and also from the classical elements of Filippo Brunelleschi's style. His principal Milanese buildings are Sta. Maria presso S. Satiro and the domed crossing, transepts and choir which he added to Sta. Maria delle Grazie. As a result of the French invasion (1499) Bramante left Milan for Rome, where contact with far more important remains of ancient architecture led to increased classicism and gravity in his style. From about 1503 Bramante was engaged in the rebuilding of St. Peter's for Pope Julius 11, and the foundation medal of 1506 gives some idea of his project. When Bramante died on March ii, 1514, little was actually built, but he had established the idea of a huge domed church, roughly square in plan and strongly classical in feeling. His ideas were later radically altered, especially by Michelangelo and Carlo Maderna. His major surviving works in Rome are the Tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio (1502), a tiny church which is a microcosm of the main ideas behind St. Peter's, and the Belvedere court and other works in the Vatican, later much altered. The "House of Raphael," now known only from engravings, strongly influenced the design of Italian palaces from the 16th century onward. The principles of symmetry and classical repose informing all these works were imitated and then rebelled against by later architects, many of whom were trained under Bramante at St. Peter's, but the brief moment of harmony and equilibrium called the High Renaissance was, in architecture, Bramante's cre-

ward Mr. Justice) Willes, thus beginning the abolition of the system of special pleading. In 1851 Lord Cranworth made Bramwell a queen's counsel, and the Inner Temple elected him a bencher.

ation.

and brown bread.

fleeted

tural ideas of

buildings, such as S. Lorenzo,

See also Index references under "Bramante" ume.

BRAMANTINO

(d.

in the

Index vol-

(P. J. My.) 1530), Italian painter and architect:

Bartolommeo Suardi

but called Bramantino because of Bramante. Probably born about 1465 and a pupil of Bernardino Butinone, Bramantino seems to have been employed in the Milanese studio of Bramante, whose properly

his association with the architect

secular frescoes exercised strong influence on his style. Bramantino is mentioned in documents after 1490 and in 1508 was emin Rome. In 151 1 he designed the sepulchral chapel of the Trivulzio family in S. Nazzaro, Milan. Bramantino's principal

ployed

extended works are 1 2 tapestries of "The Months," now in the Museo Civico, Milan. These were executed in 150Q and show him to have been the most gifted and original Milanese painter of his time. After his return from Rome his style suffered marked deterioration. Among Bramantino's followers were the painters Bernardino Luini and Gaudenzio Ferrari. See W. Suida, Bramante pittore e il Bramantino (iqs;). (J.

BRAMBLE: see Blackberry. BRAMBLING (Fringilla montifringilla)

W.

P.-H.)

In 1853 he served on the royal commission to inquire into the assimilation of the mercantile laws of Scotland and England and the law of partnership, which had as its result the Companies act of 1862. In 1856 Bramwell was raised to the bench as a baron of the exchequer. In 1867, with Mr. Justice Blackburn and Sir John Coleridge, he was made a member of the judicature commission. In 187 1 he refused a seat on the judicial committee of the privy council. In 1876 he was raised to the court of appeal. On his retirement in 1 88 1 he was raised to the peerage and he afterward sat in appeals to the house of lords. Bramwell died at his home near Edenbridge, Kent, on May 9, 1892.

BRAN,

in Celtic legend, the name of (1) the hero of the Welsh prose tale Mabinogi of Branwen, who dies in the attempt to avenge his sister's wrongs; he is the son of Llyr ( = the Irish sea-god Lir), identified with the Irish Bran mac Allait, Allait being a synonym for Lir; (2) the son of Febal, known only through the 8th-century Irish epic The Voyage oj Bran (to the world below) (3) the dog ;

of Ossian's Fingal.

BRAN,

a

handsomely

It is

used largely as a feeding

stuff

and poultry and for packing and in cleaning and polishing goods. It is used also as a human food, especially for horses, cattle

as an aid to digestion, either alone or with flour to

The

digestible matter in

1,000

make lb.

of

muffins

wheat

bran includes 585 lb. of organic matter, as follows: nitrogenous substances no lb.; fat 27 lb.; soluble carbohydrates 426 lb.; and fibre 22 lb. The nitrogenous content is approximately that of wheat or oats. one of the subclasses of the Crustacea (q.v.), comprising some of the most primitive existing forms of

BRANCHIOPODA,

the class, distinguished

by the

flattened, leaflike

form of the hmbs.

Although, like most Crustacea, they cannot be said to have any popular English names, various members of the group have been distinguished by writers on natural history as fairy shrimps, tadpole shrimps, clam shrimps and water fleas. Nearly all of them are inhabitants of fresh water, and they are remarkable for the prevalence of parthenogenesis (reproduction by unfertilized eggs) and for the fact that the eggs resist desiccation and can survive for long periods in the dry state. Because of this they often make their appearance in great numbers in rain pools, even in dry countries

where for long periods no aquatic

The members structure. large

,

the material obtained from the outer coat of cereals;

the ground husk of grain.

of the five orders

Those of the

number

first

of somites,

life is possible.

named below

differ

much

in

four orders are characterized by the

the general uniformity of the trunk

col-

oured finch allied to the chaffinch {q.v.) but slightly larger and with a conspicuous white rump and a more forked tail. The brambling has a wide range in Europe and Asia in spring it breeds in high northern latitudes, and in winter it migrates south, favouring thickets and wooded areas. The male has an orange breast, orange shoulder patches and a brownish (winter) or blackish (spring) head and back; the female is drabber. Both have the characteristic white markings on the wing and rump. ;

(n

y Ss

X

)

—

1. MALE OF ONE OF THE FAIRY SHRIMPS BRANCH INECTA PALUDOSA), A MEMBER OF THE ORDER ANOSTRACA (THIS MALE IS OF MAXI-

Fig.

MUM

(

SIZE. X 3)

The

BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM WILSHERE BRAMWELL, Baron (1808-1892), English judge, as a result

It has a circumpolar distribution and occurs in stagnant, shallow claspers of the male are formed from the second pair of antennae

whose suggestion the Companies act of 1S62 required the word "Limited" to be added, for the protection of those trading with them, to the names of companies that sought to limit their liability. He was born in London on June 12, 1808, being the eldest son of a banker. He was educated privately and, after two years in a bank, was admitted as a student at Lincoln's Inn in 1850 and at the Inner Temple in 1836. At first he practised as a special pleader, but was called to the bar at both inns in 1838. In 1850 Bramwell was appointed a member of the Common Law Procedure commission, which resulted in the Common Law Procedure act of 1852. This act he drafted jointly with James (after-

limbs and, in the living species, by the tubular form of the heart and the ladderlike arrangement of the central nervous system. These characters are very primitive, but on the other hand the palpless mandibles jmd the reduced maxillulae and maxillae are

of

pools.

more specialized than those of some other Crustacea. Anostraca. The Anostraca have no carapace (hard dorsal The shield), and the fully segmented body is almost wormlike.

—

males are distinguished by the modification of the antennae into large and complicated claspers which are used for holding the females. The eyespots are set on movable stalks. Most Anostraca, such as the fairy shrimp {Branchinccta), inhabit rain pools and

—

BRANCHIOPODA and are more or

95

Estheria and Limnadia are well represented in Europe and America, but no Conchostraca have ever been found in the British Isles. less coalesced into one.

—

Cladocera. The Cladocera are closely related to the Conchosfrom which they should not, perhaps, be separated as a distinct order, and from which they differ chiefly in the great reduction in the number of body somites and of limbs. They are the water fleas, everywhere abundant in ponds and lakes. Nearly all are of small size, some species which do not exceed one hundredth traca,

—

DEVONIAN FOSSIL (LEPIDOCARIS RHYNIENSIS). A MINUTE CRUS. Fig. 2. TACEAN KNOWN ONLY FROM FOSSIL REMAINS IN THE OLD RED SANDSTONE LIPOSTRACA SCOTLAND BELONGING TO THE ORDER OF Female enlarged about

x

20

Other temporary accumulations

'

of

fresh

water, but

the

brine

shrimp (Artemin) is found in the brine of salt pans in which sea water is exposed to evaporation for the manufacture of salt, and in salt lakes in which the brine is so concentrated that few other animals can live in it, such as Great Salt Lake, Utah. Brine shrimps are found throughout the world wherever conditions are suitable. Specimens from different localities differ considerably, but it has been shown that many of their variations are directly correlated with the degree of salinity of the water and probably many of the forms described are variants of a single cosmopolitan species. Brine shrimps are the only Anostraca known to be parthenogenetic,

some

When the eggs are placed may be fed to aquarium fish.

byists.

and

Brine hobwater, the young hatch

colonies consisting entirely of females.

shrimp eggs are often gathered and sold

in pet

in salt

shops to

fish

among

the largest Cladoceran

Leptodora kmdtii, from one-half to three-

—

the following spring; in species that live

lulae.

—

Notostraca. The Notostraca have a broad, oval carapace cov-

body and giving the animals, at first sight, some resemblance to the Arachnidan horseshoe crabs, with which, however, they have no ering the fore part of the

—

CLAM SHRIMP (LIMNA MEMBER Ol

3

LLNTICULARIS

A

I

ORDER CONCHOSTRACA. LARGED ABOUT X 3

THE

The lower

they

may

be produced

in

spring, insuring survival in the event that

the pool should dry

up

in

summer.

The

only branchiopods occurring in the sea are few species belonging to three genera of Cladocera, Evadne, Penilia and Podon. "^^° In converting the smallest aquatic and p., LEPTODOR a marine organisms into food material for ^int largest of the animals higher in the scale of life, the cladocera. one of the Cladocera rank next to the Copepoda few predaceous forms preying on other (g.iM in importance. rj,, , ., fresh-water cladocera .. ,• The beating motion of the pairedJ limbs ^^^ copepoda in the Branchiopoda sets up a current of water along the midventral line of the body (food groove), from which particulate food is strained by bristles or feathered setae. Many have special provision for filtering off the fine particles of organic matter, chiefly microscopic algae, as well as coarser material and detritus, which some species may scrape or stir up from the bottom. The Notostraca and Conchostraca are primarily bottom feeders, the Anostraca and Cladocera pelagic foragers, but in many cases they derive some food also from the bottom. The Notostraca are not above scavenging and eating small living or,

in the structure of the limbs, of

which the posterior pairs are twobranched; in the absence of paired eye.spots; and, most remarkably, in the claspers of the male which are formed, not by the antennae but by the maxil-

DIA

the smallest of living Crustacea;

a

Lipostraca. Related to the Anostraca is the order Lipostraca based upon the remarkable fossil Lepidocaris discovered in the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The fragmentary remains of this minute Crustacean are so perfectly preserved that its structure is known in greater detail than that of any other fossil Crustacean. Resembling the Anostraca in general form, it differs from them

Fig.

is

fourths inch long, found in larger fresh-water lakes of the northern hemisphere, and the only member of the order having a naupliuslike larval stage (characteristic of many Crustacea). The transparency of Cladocera allows the internal structure to be studied in the living animal, making them interesting objects for microscopic examination. The Cladocera reproduce largely by parthenogenesis; the developing eggs are carried within the shell of the female. In addition to the parthenogenetic eggs, which hatch while still within the brood chamber, the Cladocera produce, at certain seasons, another kind of eggs which require fertilization. These thick-shelled "resting" eggs do not hatch at once but are cast off when the female molts. These eggs can survive drying or freezing without injury. They are often produced in autumn and do not hatch until in small pools,

Most Anostraca are of small or moderate size; giant among them are Branchinecta gigas, from Grand Coulee, Ore., a full two and three-quarters of an inch long, and B. paludosa, almost one inch long.

of an inch in length are

figure represents th In the upper figure

animal. valve of the shell has been show the body and limbs

ENEN

B

left

ed to

.

near relationship. The somites and appendages are more numerous than in any other living Crustacea. The eyespots are sessile on the upper surface of the head, and the antennules and antennae are much reduced, their place as "feelers" being perhaps taken by the filamentous terminal processes of the first pair of

abdomi-

appendages. The principal genus is Apus (Triops), the species of which may be two or even three inches long. Reproduction is largely parthenogenetic and males are rare. Conchostraca. The Conchostraca have the carapace in the form of a bivalve shell enclosing the body and limbs and marked with concentric lines of growth, so that it resembles very closely the shell of a lamellibranch moUusk. The large two-branched antennae are used in swimming. The paired eyespots are sessile ren-

.

nal

—

the water flea (Daphniai, commonest of the cladocera Fig. 5. It occurs in large numbers in ponds, lakes and pools. Under adverse conditions (drought or frost) thick-shelled "resting" eggs are produced which can resist drying or freezing almost indefinitely; enlarged about x 30

BRANCOVAN— BRANDEIS

96

ganisms. A few Cladocera, of which Leptodora is one, are predatory, enabled by greater size and strength to capture other pelagic Cladocera and Copepoda. See Water Flea.

(W. T. C; W. L. St.) Brincoveanu), a noble family its name from the estate of Brincoveni, in Walachia. From the great Mateiu Basarab (see Basarab), who died leaving no son in 1654, the Brincoveni estate passed to a collateral line of his family. From this emerged ConSTANTiN BRANCOVAN, ruler of Walachia from 16S8 to 1714. A vassal of the Turks, to whom he had to pay heavy tribute, he refused

BRANCOVAN

prominent

in

(properly

Rumanian

history, deriving

(whom he defeated 1690 but from whom he received the title of prince in 1695) and negotiated with the third rival power, Russia. His promise to help Russia against Turkey in 1711 came to nothing. The Turks learned of it, and in 1714 he and his four sons were executed in Istanbul. Constantin built churches and palaces and founded printing works to produce books not only in Rumanian but also in other languages of the Orthodox Church. The family was continued through Constantin's nephew. Its last direct descendant in the male line was the Greek scholar Grigore Brancovan (d. 1S33), whose adoptive daughter married Gheorghe D. Bibescu. The latter's son Grigore (1827-1886) took the name and title of Brancovan. His daughter Anna (1876-1933), comtesse de Noailles by marriage, was a distinguished French poet. to subjugate himself entirely to the Austrians

at Zarnesti in

BRANCUSI, CONSTANTIN

(1876-1957),

sculptor, a pioneer of abstract sculpture

Rumanian

whose work exerted a was born in

tremendous influence on the art of the 20th century,

Rum., on Feb. 21, 1876. He studied at a local art school Art academy in Bucharest where he won a prize for a realistic statue. In 1904 he went to Paris where he studied at the £cole des Beaux Arts with M. J. A. Mercie and came under the influence of Auguste Rodin. Gradually he abandoned naturalistic sculpture, and, influenced by primitive carving and the modern art movement, devoted himself to works in a highly original abstract style. In these works he tried to bring out the essential form rather than the surface appearance and to utilize to the full the beauty of the material itself. Brancusi achieved promPestisani,

and then

at the

inence in connection with a lawsuit (1927) against the U.S. customs service which had refused to admit his "Bird in Space" duty

work of art. The ensuing argument between conservaand modern critics ended in a victory for Brancusi and modern art. His fame grew steadily, and at the time of his death, in Paris on March 16, 1957, he was universally regarded as the grand old free as a tive

man

of

modern abstract

retrospective exhibit was held at the

New York

Griqualand West diamond fields. Defeated by Great Britain's deannex the territory, Brand nevertheless obtained £90,000 compensation for his government when he visited London in 1876. Brand later mediated between the British government and the Transvaal leaders after the war of 1881 and was knighted (1882) for his services. Brand laid the basis for the customs and railway agreement between the Free State and Cape Colony which was signed soon after his death. He died at Bloemfontein on July 14, 1888. (T. R. H. D.) (1744-1806), English antiquary and topographer, who was historian of Newcastle upon Tyne and the resident secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, 1784-1806, was born on .\ug. 19, 1744, at Washington, Durham. He was educated at Newcastle grammar school and Lincoln college, Oxford. Ordained in 1773, he occupied positions as a teacher and curate in and near Newcastle until 1784, when he received the livings of St. Maryat-Hill and St. Mary Hubbard, London, from the duke of Northumcision to

BRAND, JOHN

whom he became a personal chaplain in 1786. He died London on Sept. 11, 1806. His most important works are Observations on Popular Antiquities: Including the Whole of Mr. Bourne's Antiquitates Vulgares (1777) and The History and Antiquities of the Town and County Brand also pubof Newcastle upon Tyne, two volumes (1789). lished a poem entitled On Illicit Love. Written Among the Ruins of Godstow Nunnery, Near Oxford (1775) and numerous papers in Archaeologi' for all bakery white bread and rolls in 1943^6. When the war measure was rescinded in Oct. 1946, more than half the states continued to require enrichment and some processors and bakers continued to By the early 1960s enrich their products on a voluntary basis. 27 states had passed enrichment legislation and about 85% of all white bread consumed in the U.S. was enriched. Standards for bread and flour shipped in interstate commerce and labeled as enriched became effective Aug. 13. 1952. Bread or flour identified as enriched must contain the following amounts of the four required enrichment ingredients in each pound of

bread or flour

iron 13-16.5 mg. 8-12.5 mg.

vitamin D 250-1,000 U.S.P. units 150- 750 U.S.P. units

calcium 500-1,500 mg. 300- 800 mg.

flour

—

Nutrition. Enriched bread is easily digested and supplies energy as well as protein, calcium and essential \'itamins. Wheat offers a well-balanced mixture of protein, with the exception of the amino acid lysine. The addition of a quarter pound of lysine

The quality of to 100 pounds of flour corrects this deficiency. bread protein is greatly improved by adding nonfat milk solids in an amount equal to 4% of the weight of the flour. Eight ounces of enriched bread supplies 55% of the thiamine,

30%

for distribution.

niacin

16-20 mg. 10-15 mg.

Besides the four required enrichment ingredients, enriched flour may contain two optional ingredients in the following

one hour. the proofer the pans are conveyed and loaded automatiSuch an oven has a series of trays In a that travel from one end of the oven to the opposite end. baking process is completed so oven the the through single passage

mg.

During baking, about 15% of the thiamine and a small percentage of niacin and riboflavin are destroyed. Consequently, slight excesses of the minimum requirements are added to flour so that the finished bread will meet the minimum requirements. and bread amounts

From

2.0-2.5 1.1-1.8

flour

perature and humidity are controlled so that the dough pieces may This chamber is rise in the pans before they go to the oven. called a proofer and the process of proofing requires approximately

cally into a traveling tray oven.

riboflavin 1.2-1.5 mg. 0.7-1.6 mg.

thiamine mg.

which mechanically divides the large dough mass

into the carefully scaled (weighed) pieces required for each loaf.

of the riboflavin,

50%

quired daily by an adult

of the niacin

and

(minimum amounts

40%

of the iron re-

that will provide good

Nonfat milk solids also supply calcium, as do calciumcontaining compounds, such as calcium propinate. added as dough

health).

conditioners and

25%

more

or

mold

Eight ounces of bread supplies

inhibitors.

of the daily calcium requirements.

In the United Kingdom, the government has laid down a ministandard of nutrition for all flour sold. This means that all flour must contain specified minimum quantities of iron. \'itamin B, and niacin, whether these are present naturally in the flour or whether they are added during the milling process. In addition, calcium must also be added to all flour other than whole wheat This regulation has been made to ensure that even those flour.

mum

on the poorest diets receive sufficient amounts of these nutrients. Some Economic Aspects. The commercial baking industr\' of the United States was producing and selling about 40,000,000 loaves of bread daily in the early 1960s. More than half of the total was bought through grocery stores and constituted more than 8% of the total trade of such stores. The value of all bread and other goods produced by bakeries was estimated in excess of $4,500,000,000. and the number of bakeiies ui the U.S. was placed at 19.000. The baking industry ranked second among U.S. food

—

and seventh among all manufacturing industries. See also Cere,als; Food Preparation: Breads; Wheat: Uses

industries

of Wheat; Processing. Bibliography. Heinrich Eduard Jacob, Six Thousand Years of Bread; Its Holy and Unholy History (1944); R. Sheppard and E. Newton, Storv of Bread (1958) E. J. Pyler, Our Daily Bread (1958) E. B. Bennion, Breadmaking, 3rd ed. (1954) T. Horder ft al, Bread: The Chemistry and Nutrition of Flour and Bread (1954) V. F. A. John Richter, Vienna Bread and Continental Breads de Luxe (1951) C. Summers, Science and Practices of Breads and Rolls Manufacture (1952) S. .\. Matz, Bakery Technology and Engineering (1960). Several trade magazines carrv significant articles and statistics, among Bakers Weekly; Bakers Digest them Baking Industry (weekly) (monthlv) and Bakers Review (monthly). (J. .\. To.; J. K. R.) 1st Earl of

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL,

(c. 1635-1717). Scottish politician, chiefly remembered for his alleged complicity in the "massacre of Glencoe." was the son of Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, Bart. (d. 1686). and of Mary

Graham, daughter took part

He of William, earl of Airth and Menteith. under the earl of Glencairn in 1654,

in the royalist rising

and was one of those who urged George Monck to declare a free parliament to facilitate the Restoration. As principal creditor of the 6th earl of Caithness (d. 1676). he obtained a conveyance of that earl's dignities, lands and heritable jurisdictions in Oct. 1672; he was created eari of Caithness and viscount of Breadalbane on June 28, 1677. He had married in 1657 the daughter of the 1st earl of Holland, Mary Rich, with a dowry of £10,000. She died 1666, and by marrying in 1678 Mar>-, widow of the eari of Caithness, he saved the alimentan- provision which he had undertaken to pay. He invaded Caithness in 1680 and dispossessed the earl's male heir, but the latter was later confirmed in his lands

in

:

BREAD ALBANE—BREADNER whereupon Campbell obtained a new patent (Aug. 13, 1681) as earl of Breadalbane and Holland, viscount of Tay and Paintland, Lord Glenorchy, Benederaloch, Ormelie and Weick, with special power to nominate his successor from among the sons and

titles,

of his

first

wife.

Breadalbane, who had sat in the Scottish parliament under Charles II and had supported the administration of the duke of Lauderdale by sending 1,700 Highlanders to overawe the disaffected southwest in 1678, became a member of the Scottish privy council

He was

described as having "neither honour nor religion

commonly

vated less Artocarpus

in

137

other parts of the tropics,

tree

is

but where they are mixed with interest" and as of "the gravity of

fruit, which is composed of the matured ovaries of these pistillate

flowers,

1685.

an eel."

To

gain the support in the Highlands of a

man

of such

possessed of wide estates and related by marriage to sevwas of high moment to William III. Breadalbane did not commit himself to Lord Dundee, or join his rising, and

commonly

roundish,

is

four to eight inches in diameter,

qualities,

greenish

eral leading families,

ternally,

to brownish-green exwith white and some-

after the battle of KiUiecrankie

what fibrous pulp. There are two distinct forms of

by the government

breadfruit, one seedless, the other

(July 16S9) he was entrusted sum of money to secure the submission of the clans. On June 30> 1691, he met the Jacobite chiefs and prevailed on them to agree to an armistice until Octoto offer a large

however (so it was alleged), by expending the money but by holding out the hope that he might later join them. When asked to render an account, he is said to have replied, "The money is spent, the Highlands are quiet, and this is the only way of accounting between friends." On Aug. 21, 1691, indemnity was offered ber; not,

oath of allegiance before Jan. 1, 1692, while all refusing were threatened with the penalties of treason. Maclan, the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, postponed his submission till Dec. 31 and was prevented from taking the oath till Jan. 6, to all taking the

1692, through the absence of a magistrate at Fort William. Subsequently, in the "massacre of Glencoe" (Feb. 13, 1692), a number of the MacDonalds were butchered in cold blood by troops to

whom

they had given hospitality. Opinion was strong against Breadalbane, who may well have welcomed the opportunity of

destroying a clan which had for generations lived by plundering his lands and those of his neighbours, but although he was aware that

was planned

hkely that he was personally No real evidence against him was disclosed, and his imprisonment (Sept. 1695} was on the ground of his earlier dealings with the Jacobite chiefs. He was released when William III announced that he had acted with royal violent action

it

is

less

involved in organizing the massacre.

approval.

Breadalbane did not vote for the union of England and Scotland was a representative peer in the parliament of Great He maintained his contacts with the Jacobites, whom he encouraged in 1708, without, however, committing himself on paper. At the time of the Jacobite rising in 1 7 1 5 he excused himself (Sept. 19) from obeying a summons to Edinburgh on the ground of his age and infirmities; but the next day he visited the earl of Mar's camp at Logierait and afterward the camp at Perth, his real business being, according to the master of Sinclair, "to trick others, not to be trickt," and to obtain a share of French subsidies. He is said to have promised and taken money for 1,200 men in the Jacobite cause, but he sent only 300 or 400, who acquitted themselves well at Sheriffmuir (1715 ) but were withdrawn after that battle. Breadalbane's son was imprisoned, but he himself escaped any punishment for his part in the rising because of his age. He died on March 19, 1717. in 1707, but

Britain (1713-15).

See William A. Gillies, In

BREADALBANE,

Famed Breadalbane

bordered on the north by Loch Rannoch, east by Strathtay, south by Strathearn and west by the districts of Argyll and Lome, and occupying about 1,020 sq.mi. The Grampians (q.v.) are the chief mountain range; Ben Lawers (3,984 ft.), Ben More (3.843 ft.) and Ben Lui (3,708 ft.) the principal peaks. Loch Tay is the chief lake, and the rivers are the Orchy, Dochart, Lochay, Lyon, Almond and upper Tay. The population of Breadalbane centres in Aberfeldy, Fortingall, forests, shooting

and

(broad river valleys is

a district of Perthshire, Scot.,

Kenmore and 1

Killin (q.v.).

land of deer

It is a

and straths The famous Breadalbane vine

many

seeds resembling

chestnuts.

The

seedless

valuable

grown.

form

most

the

is

and

the one usually has been cultivated

It

Malay archipelago (where

in the

the species

is

nous)

since

From

this

throughout

held to be indige-

remote

region

Pacific

antiquity.

region the

it

spread

South

tropical

prehistoric

in

Its introduction into the

times.

new world is connected with the memorable voyage of Capt. William Bligh in H.M.S. "Bounty,"

BrEADFRUIT (ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS)

voyage recommended by Capt. James Cook, who had seen the breadfruit in the Pacific islands and considered that it would prove highly useful as a foodstuff for Negro slaves in the West Indies. After the failure of this voyage, a second was carried out which a

resulted in the successful establishment of the tree in Jamaica,

where, however,

it failed to live up to expectations, because the Negroes preferred bananas and plantains. The breadfruit is not a fruit in the popular sense of the term, but a product containing considerable amounts of starch, not to be eaten uncooked. Regarding methods of preparing it for the

table,

W.

E. Safford writes (Useful Plants of

is

cultivable.

The

South

Pacific, culti-

)

—

;

In the

West Indies and on

American mainland from Mexico grown in dooryards and the fruit Propagation of the seedless forms is by the

to Brazil the breadfruit tree

is

appears upon the market. means of root suckers or root cuttings.

Numerous

varieties are cultivated in the Pacific islands, but

known in tropical America. The tree withstands and has not been successful even in the southernmost

these are not

no

frost

parts of Florida. In the South seas, cloth

wood

is

made from

its

fibrous inner bark;

used for canoes and furniture; and a glue and calking material are obtained from the viscid milky juice which exudes the

from See J.

H.

is

incisions in the trunk.

W. Popenoe, Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits (1920) Julien, "Breadfruit Propagation," Rev. Agr. Maurice 24:31 (1945). ;

(W. Po.)

BREADNER, LLOYD SAMUEL

(1894-1952), Canadian

during World War II, air officer commanding the Royal Canadian Air Force (R.C.A.F.) overseas, was born on air force officer and.

staple food of the

Guam

It is eaten before it becomes ripe, while the pulp is still mealy, and of a consistency between bread and sweet potatoes. In Guam it was formerly cooked after the manner of most Pacific island aborigines, by means of heated stones in a hole in the earth layers of stones, breadfruit and green leaves alternating. It is still sometimes cooked in this manner on ranches but the usual way of cooking it is to boil it or bake it in ovens or it is cut in slices and fried like potatoes. The last method is the one usually preferred by foreigners. The fruit boiled or baked is rather tasteless by itself, but with salt and butter or gravy it is a palatable as well as nutritious article of diet.

fishing; only a little soil in glens

at Kinnell house, Killin.

BREADFRUIT.

(sometimes known as breadnut) containing

(Gn. D.)

(1938).

the fruit of

altilis, a

a Spaniard, cunning as a fox, wise as a serpent but as shppery as

in

is

tree of the family Moraceae (q.v.). extremely handsome. It reaches a height of 40 to 60 ft., and has large, oval, glossy green leaves entire toward the base and three- to nine-lobed toward the apex. Male and female flowers are borne in separate inflorescences on the same tree: the staminate or male ones appear in dense, club-shaped catkins; the female or pistillate, which are very numerous, are grouped together and form a large prickly head upon a spongy receptacle. The ripe

The

;

BREAKWATER

138

Carleton Place, Ont., and was educated at the He had a distinguished record in World War I, becoming a flight sublieutenant in the royal naval air service in 1915. He later transferred to the royal naval air force, and by Nov. 1918 had attained the rank of major (equivalent From 1920 Breadner was to the later rank of squadron leader). associated with the R.C.A.F. In 1922 he became director of civil aviation and had much to do with shaping civilian and commercial From 1928 onflying in Canada between World Wars I and II. July

14, 1894, at

Collegiate institute in Ottawa.

ward Breadner was drawn

into military aviation, serving as acting

In 1936 he became air staff officer at National Defense headquarters and in 1940 was made air vice-marshal and chief of air staff. He became air marshal in 1941 director of the R.C.A.F. until 1932.

and on Nov. 11, 1943, was named air officer commanding the R.C.A.F. overseas. He was created a companion of the Order of the Bath in 1943. In 1945 Breadner retired as air officer commander in chief of the R.C.A.F. and was advanced to air chief marshal, the first to hold that rank in the R.C.A.F. He died in Boston, Mass., on March 14, 1952. (J. I. C.) a barrier constructed for the purpose of providing protection from waves. Breakwaters are used to create harbours on open coasts, to provide supplementary protection for natural harbour areas, to reduce wave action and sedimentation at inlets to navigable waterways and to prevent shore erosion. The term breakwater is usually reserved for offshore structures which may or may not be connected to the shore Breakwaters built perpendicular to the shore line at one end. line for the purpose of protecting an inlet are called jetties.

BREAKWATER,

Shorter structures of the same type, often used to prevent shore known as groins. Barriers built parallel to the shore The line and in contact with it are called sea walls or bulkheads. size, shape and method of construction of a breakwater depend

erosion, are

of the water, the severity of the local wave forces, the availability of the various types of construction materials, the use for which it is being constructed and the nature of the foundaThe presence of a breakwater affects the shore tion conditions.

upon the depth

must be exercised in planning its size, location and orientation. The most effective location and orientation of a breakwater at any site is determined by means of an engineering analysis of the physiographic features and the characteristics of In most cases the waves and currents at the proposed location. the best solution can be determined only by the construction and that must be considered factors study of a model. The various in planning and designing breakwaters are presented under the following topics; Waves; Shore Processes; Types of Breakwaters Harbours ; and Wave Forces. Waves. By far the major portion of the water waves which attatk shore and harbour areas are those generated by the wind. Wind-generated waves may continue their violent, periodic poundAs the waves approach the shore ing for hours or even days. their energy must be reflected or dissipated or the resultant powerful forces and high water velocities may seriously damage unprotected vessels or shore structures. Breakwaters are designed processes, and care

—

to withstand such violent conditions.

Waves may also be generated by a sudden change in barometric pressure over a limited area of water surface or by an underwater The latter are called seismic seismic or volcanic disturbance. waves or tsunamis and are often mistakenly referred to as tidal waves. Barometric pressure changes or seismic disturbances usu-

be the height and period of the waves. Wind-generated waves are waves because the water particles oscillate in nearly circular or elliptical paths, only the wave form moving forward. This motion of the water is similar to the wave motion produced in a rope when one end is fastened and the other end is

called oscillatory

The wave velocity is the rate at rapidly up and down. which the wave form moves forward and may be found by dividing the wave length by the wave period. The actual velocity at which particles of water move in their circular or elliptical orbits is much

moved

than the wave velocity. As waves enter shallow water the wave length decreases while the wave height first decreases and later increases. The relative decrease in wave length is greater than the change in height, with less

the result that the water surfaces on either side of the crests

become much steeper as the waves approach the shore. This change begins when waves reach depths less than half the wave length and culminates in a breaking wave at the location where the depth is approximately equal to the wave height. Upon breaking, the waves lose their oscillator^' characteristics and become waves of translation or surges. In surge-type waves, the volume of water in the wave moves forward at the wave velocity, which may be Breakwaters located at the point of breaking are subimpact of this uprushing mass of water. In addition to the change in shape undergone by waves as they enter shallow water, previously described, waves approaching the shore at an angle have their crests bent into a curve which tends to make the waves more nearly parallel to the bottom contours and shore line when they enter the breaker zone. This effect, called refraction, is caused by the fact that the wave velocity is smaller in shallow water. Therefore, that portion of a wave which reaches shallow water first slows down and permits the portion still in deeper water to catch up to some extent. This is illustrated by The orthogonal lines, the refraction diagram shown in fig. 1. shown in the figure, are lines which are perpendicular to wave crests. When waves approach a bay formed by two points of land, refraction causes the waves to turn toward the two points and away from the centre of the bay. As a result wave heights and wave energy are high at the points and low in the bay area. Thus currents are generated which flow along the shore (littoral currents) from each point toward the centre of the bay and thence outward toward deep water. Such outward currents are called rip currents and in many cases are the ones commonly referred to as undertow. When waves encounter a breakwater or headland, that portion of the wave which passes the end of the breakwater or headland bends and directs some of its energy into the quiet water This effect is called diffraction. Waves in the sheltered area. entering a harbour entrance diffract some energy into the lee of both of the breakwaters forming the harbour. Waves generated in storm areas may travel thousands of miles across the oceans, gaining energy from favourable secondary fetches or losing energy in regions of calm or opposing winds. An expanse of relatively calm water through which waves pass is known as a region of decay. In general, an important characteristic of wave decay is an increase in wave period, hence in length. The wind-generated waves in the ocean are divided for convenience

very high.

ject to the full

number of relatively low waves. Damage from such waves is primarily due to the fact that they often arrive without warning and quickly inundate low-lying

ally create only a small

resulting

coastal areas.

The

distinguishing characteristics of a

wave are

its

height (the

vertical distance from a trough to a crest), its length (the horizontal distance between successive crests) and its period (the time between the arrival of successive crests at a fixed point). These characteristics are determined by the velocity of the wind,

1-

20

the length of time that the wind continues at this velocity (duration of the wind and the distance over which the wind is in con-

^\\^^^^\°^^^\V^^^\\^^^^^^\\^^^^^^^'^^\^^^'^^^^\^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^^^^^'^'^'^'>'

)

In general, the greater the velocity tact with the water (fetch). and duration of the wind and the larger the fetch, the greater will

BOTTOM CONTOURS^

—

1. REFRACTION DIAGRAM SHOWING CHANGES PROACHING SHORE

FIG.

IN

WAVE CRESTS

AP-

BREAKWATER into three categories:

sea, swell

and

surf.

The term

sea refers

waves under the direct influence of generating winds; swell, waves which have left the generating area and are subject to decay in regions of weak winds or calms; the breakers which result from waves moving into shallow water comprise surf. Waves have been found to obtain a maximum height measured from trough to crest of about 20 ft. in the Mediterranean and in the Great Lakes of North America, 25 ft. in the Bay of Biscay and 40 ft. in the Atlantic ocean; waves of 50 to 60 ft. in height are said to have been observed in the South Atlantic ocean off the Cape of Good Hope where the expanse of sea reaches a maximum The length of large waves bears no definite relation to their height. The length of storm waves in the Atlantic seldom exceeds 600 ft., while waves from 600 to 1,000 ft. long are regarded as of common occurrence in the Pacific ocean during storms. The large waves observed in mid-ocean do not, however, reach the coast, because their progress is checked and their height and length are reduced by encountering the shelving sea bottom on approaching the shore. Where outlying sandbanks stretch in front of a coast, large waves cannot approach the land, for they break on the sandbanks outside. Waves always break when, on running up a shoaling beach, they reach a depth of water approximately equal to their height; and the largest waves which can reach a shore protected by intervening sandbanks are those which are low enough to pass over the banks without breaking. Waves often break in depths of w^ater greater than their own height, and any sudden change in the level of the sea bed over which a wave is traveling may bring about its disruption even in water of considerable depth. The height and consequently the destructive force of waves are increased on running up a funnel-shaped bay by the increasing concentration of the waves in the narrowing width. This effect is intensified when the bay faces the direction of the strongest w-inds. The velocity of wave travel depends upon the wave length. For waves of 600-ft. length the wave velocity in deep water is about 33 knots, and for a 1,000-ft. wave the velocity is about 43 knots. Waves generated by earthquakes (tsunamis), have been recorded as traveling at the rate of 430 knots. (See also Waves of the to

to

Sea.)

Shore Processes.

—The action of waves and longshore currents

causes a nearly continuous

movement

of

bottom and beach ma-

The wave motion creates turbulence which places material suspension and the currents carry the suspended material and roll the heavier bottom material from place to place. During severe storms the violent action of the waves and currents may terial.

in

139

the oceans, high levels result from a combination of lunar tides and wind. Storm waves are more likely to cause erosion than longperiod swell, which may carry material shoreward.

When

the natural drift of shore material

deep-water

inlet or

by

is

intercepted by a

a breakwater, the region

on the downdrift deprived of its natural replenishment, with the result that an erosion area may be created. Many of the most serious shore erosion problems occur on the downdrift side of breakwaters or jetties protecting inlets. When breakwaters are built to create harbours on open coasts, they are often kept disconnected from the shore in order to permit beach material to pass and prevent erosion. side of the obstruction

The

is

best protection against

wave action

is

the presence of a

beach upon which the waves break and dissipate their energy before attacking the higher inland areas. Short jetties or groins are often used to intercept and hold shore material and thus create stable beaches at erosion sites. At locations where no littoral drift is present the beach material must be supplied by filling arti-

Where severe erosion threatens high-value locations, offshore breakwaters parallel to the coast may be used to prevent the erosion and build beach. The presence of the breakwater not only prevents the larger waves from reaching the shore, but also ficially.

creates a quiet area in which littoral drift

is

deposited in the same

manner

as in the case of a deep inlet. In fact, care must be exercised in planning a breakwater for this purpose to avoid such a large deposition as to cause complete interception of all littoral drift and thus create another erosion area.

The

construction of protective structures at the shore line (sea is usually less expensive than the construction of offshore breakwaters. Such structures may be used in areas

walls and bulkheads)

where property very near the water front requires protection. However, the presence of sea walls and bulkheads tends to increase the turbulence and currents generated by the wind with the result that beach erosion

may

be accelerated.

Types of Breakviraters.— Breakwaters may be divided three general types:

The rubble-mound

into

rubble-mound, composite and vertical-face.

type, illustrated in

consists of a pile of natural or artificial stone protected with an armour of larger stones. The composite type of breakwater (fig. 3) consists of a rubble base and a suitable superstructure. There are two classes of comfig. 2,

whose superstructures are founded near or above low water and those whose superstructures extend suffiposite breakwaters, those

displace vast quantities of material, often

ciently far below low water to reduce disturbances of the rubble Vertical-face breakwaters (fig. 7) present a vertical face on the sea side extending to a sufficient depth to prevent the break-

quantity

ing of

much more than the moved by months of more normal wave motion. The movement

base.

maximum-height waves,

direction of longshore

of beach material (littoral drift) SIDE ELEVATION

varies with the direction of the

However, on most coasts

wind. there

is

a

prevailing

direction

which can be determined from tj^ical formations of the coast.

At any particular location this movement of the beach material

may

not be obvious because the away is replaced

material carried

by similar material from the updrift direction. However, there must be a source of supply somewhere in the updrift region. This could be an eroding headland, sediment deposits from rivers or material carried shoreward from deep water. In general, erosion is most severe when large waves occur during high water levels while similar

low water inland

wave

may

action during

build beach.

On

high water levels may be caused by excessive rain or by the drag of the wind. On lakes,

Scale FIG.

2.

in

Feet

— RUBBLE-MOUND

BREAKWATER

BREAKWATER

140

—

may be deposited on the bottom without dredgprotective blanket of clay or quarry waste chips and fines also be deposited to prevent leaching of the sand core. Where

Riibble-M ound Breakwaters. The rubble-mound type is indicated where there is an abundant supply of rock. It is particularly adapted for locations with small tidal range and depths of water up to perhaps 60 ft. It has the advantage that storm damage or vertical settlement caused by a poor foundation site may be repaired by renewing or replacing the dislocated stone. The earliest breakwaters were unformed piles of stone of a size that could be handled with the limited equipment available at the time. It soon became evident that the sea slopes were not adequate nor the stones of sufficient size to resist the forces delivered by storm waves. Heavy wave action lowered the top of the mound and flattened the seaward slope. It was necessary to replenish the mound constantly until an equilibrium slope was reached. This slope was often found to vary from 1 to 5 to 1 to 10 on the seaward side within the range of the worst storm attack. Below this level the slope to the bottom was often as steep as 1 to 1. The portion of the mound above low water is extremely vulnerable to injury by storm waves in either one or both of two different actions. The first is the raising and forward transport of the stone by the incoming waves; the second is the withdrawal and lowering of the

width and thickness

stone during the backwash or recoil.

than 100

Mounds have been

fashioned in an almost endless variety of In nearly every case, the original shape has been cross section. altered by heavy storms after which reshaping and replenishment The large mass of stone is so arof stone has been necessary. ranged that the smaller sizes, forming the lower central portion of the core, are protected by the larger stones forming the exterior slopes and the upper portion, the latter being most severely exposed to direct wave action. The stone is classified by size into three categories, conventionally designated A for cap rock and heavy armour rock, B for intermediate-size rock and C for the smaller size forming the lower core. The relatively large volume of class B stone is to provide adequate stability during construction.

mud do not have the necessary supporting weight of a breakwater. When the foundation is of soft and compressible material, the stone rubble sinks into the sea bed as a result of the weight of the superimposed materials. In some instances, the rubble at the base has been known to sink as much as 20 to 30 ft. below the original bed. A reduction in the amount of stone may be accomplished by removing the soft material with an ocean-going hopper dredge and replacing it with a sand blanket, or a sand blanket of extra Soft deposits of deep

power

to hold the large

ing.

may

A

the bottom

run rock

The

firm but susceptible to erosion, a blanket of quarry-

is

may

be deposited to protect the natural bottom.

larger stones

forming the exterior slopes

in the

upper por-

may

be of natural stone or of concrete formed into blocks, prisms or other special shapes. The tetrapod (see fig. 2) is a cast concrete form with four symmetrically spaced legs, each shaped like a truncated cone, radiating from a central body. Tetrapods, deposited by random dumping, are self-interlocking, add hydraulic roughness to the breakwater facing without losing porosity, and develop a progressive wedging action under wave pressure. The heaviest armour is placed on the top of the mound and down the seaward face to a plane 10 to perhaps 30 ft. below the low-water tion

depending on the intensity of wave attack. The heaviest armour weighs from 10 to 20 tons, and concrete blocks have been cast in sizes up to 40 tons. The general range of weight for the class B material is from 1 to 10 tons and that for the class C material from \ lb. to 1 ton, with the greater portion less

level,

natural stone

lb. Class C and class B material is always dumped at The class A rock and cap rock may be placed pell-mell, semiset or accurately set in neat lines to form a dense facing. Rubble-mound breakwaters are constructed by means of pile-

random.

supported trestles for support of railroad tracks, by the use of a by the truck-and-crane method, employing the top of the breakw-ater as a roadway. Trestles are generally used at sites subject to frequent heavy sea action, where the use of floating floating plant or

equipment

is

impracticable.

suffice for the

two

A

single-track trestle will ordinarily

construction of moderately sized breakwaters, but may be necessary for the portions of major

parallel trestles

in deeper water. At locations where the wave action not too severe, a floating plant may be used to advantage. The smaller material is moved to the site in bottom dump barges, and the larger material is handled by floating derrick equipment. The truck-and-crane method is best suited to small-and moderate-size

breakwaters is

breakwater projects. It consists essentially of building the structure outward from the shore with material dumped from trucks, the larger pieces being placed in final position

by means of

Modern heavy-duty truck-and-crane equipment

a crane.

materially

in-

creases the usefulness of this method.

Composite Breakwaters.

— Full-height

rubble

mounds

are not

feasible at deep-water sites or at locations having large tidal varia-

The composite type of breakwater, consisting of a rubble base and suitable superstructure, has found extensive application in such areas. The rubble mound provides a base, accommodates itself to irregularities in the bottom and may be deposited in deep water and allowed to stand, thus obtaining a large part of the total tions.

BOUR SIDE

settlement before the superstructure

is

placed.

superstructure reduces the amount of material required, according to the depth at which it is founded, and the solid capping also serves to protect the top of the mound from the action of the waves. In the case of a mound breakwater, portions of the

The

,

highest waves generally pass over the top of the mound, and their force is also to some extent expended in passing through the in-

SOLID SUPERSTRUCTURE NEAR WATER LINE

SEA SIDE

HARBOUR

MEAN HIGH WATER

.

O

15

SOLID SUPERSTRUCTURE BELOW WATER LINE

30 Scale FIG. 3.

in

Feet

COMPOSITE BREAKWATER

solid

SIDE

between the blocks or stones, whereas a superstructure presents a solid face to the impact of the waves. A superstructure, accordingly, must be strongly built in proportion to the exposure and to the size of the waves liable to reach it. Special care has to terstices

be taken to prevent the superstructure from being undermined, because storm waves dash up against this nearly vertical solid obstacle and recoil down the face, scouring and displacing the mateThis risk is especially great rials at the superstructure's outer toe. when the superstructure is founded on the mound near low-water level {see fig. 3[.\]^, and there is no adequate cushion of water above the mound to withstand the recoil. Because of this danger and the growing need for breakwaters in great depths of water, it has become more usual to carry superstructures down well belowlow w'ater. In view of the increased depths at which superstructures are now founded upon rubble mounds, causing the breakwaters to appro.xi-

mate more and more

to the vertical-wall type,

it

may seem

at first

BREAKWATER

141

could be handled by mechanical equipment. Concrete blocks or caissons are sometimes supported on piling (fig. 6) to avoid damage due to settlement. During World War II, caissons of 204-ft. length, 60-ft. width and 60-ft. height were towed across the English channel and sunk in rapid succession to form the artificial harbour at Arromanchesles-Bains for the invasion of northern France. The composite breakwater at Bilbao harbour, Spain, probably was one of the most difficult to construct because of its great exposure to the Atlantic waves. The original design consisted of a wide rubble mound up to about 16 ft. below low water, a mound of concrete blocks up to low water and a soUd masonry superstruc-

VOIDS PLUGGED

NATIVE ROCK FROM GROUND LINE UP AS A CORE AND TO

SUPPORT CONCRETE

The repeated damage to this wall by successive w'inter storms led to the abandonment of the original design and the construction, on a widened rubble base, of a superstructure protected to some extent by the outlying concrete-block mound. The modified superstructure was formed of iron caissons partially filled with concrete which were floated out, sunk in position and filled with concrete blocks and mass concrete. The caissons measured about 43 ft. in width across the breakwater, 23 ft. in length and 23 ft. in height and weighed about 1,400 tons when filled. They form the base of a concrete wall founded at half-tide level and carried up to 8 ft. above high water. Although some difficulties were brought about by the settlement of the rubble foundation, they were overcome, and the breakwater successfully resisted the attacks of the heavy Atlantic rollers. A modern concept of this type ture.

FIG.

4.

— SECTION

OF CONCRETE-CAPPED JETTY

that the rubble base could be dispensed with and the superstructure

Two

founded directly on the sea bed.

factors,

however,

still

render

the composite form of breakwater indispensable in certain cases: ( 1 )

the great depths to which breakwaters sometimes extend, reach-

ing 60

below low water at Peterhead,

ft.

sea level at Naples, Italy, and 180

ft.

Scot., 117

ft.

below mean and

at Valparaiso, Chile;

(2) the necessity, where the sea bottom is soft or liable to be eroded by scour, for a wide base between it and the upright superstructure.

The injuries to which composite breakwaters appear to have been especially subject must be attributed primarily to the greater exposure and depth of the sites on which they have been frequently constructed as compared with rubble mounds or upright walls; but the direct cause of damage and even destruction has in many cases been the insufficient depth at which superstructures have been founded. The superstructures of composite breakwaters may consist of a fig. 4), formed concrete blocks (fig. 3[A]), concrete caissons filled with stone or concrete (fig. 3[B] and 6), rock-filled timber cribs (fig. S), or an asphaltic concrete cap. The selection of the type best suited to any location depends upon such factors as the relative costs at that location, the severity of

of construction is shown in fig. 3(B) in which the caisson is of reinforced concrete. Rock-filled timber cribs are suitable for use as superstructures

MEAN WATER LEVEL

solid concrete cap (see

the wave conditions, the depth of the water and the speed with which completion of construction is desired. In most locations, the rubble-mound foundation will continue to settle for several years after being placed, and there may be ad-

when the weight of the superstructure is added. settlement is severe, a sohd concrete superstructure or a superstructure consisting of horizontal layers of blocks may be impractical unless the foundation is allowed to settle for several ditional settlement

Where such

years before adding the superstructure. of view of resisting

wave

forces

it is

Although from the point

desirable to use massive units

or blocks in forming such structures, the problem of transporting and placing very heavy blocks somewhat limits their size. This

solved to some extent by using hollow concrete blocks The most extreme example of a hollow block would be a relatively thin-walled, reinforced concrete box with no bottom. When either a temporary or permanent bottom is placed on such a box, it is called a caisson. Caissons may be floated into place

problem

is

or caissons.

and then lowered by

filling

them with water or

of caisson superstructures can be

made much

stone.

Single units

larger than

any that

FIG. 6.

—COMPOSITE

BREAKWATER WITH CONCRETE CAISSONS

on rubble-mound foundations in fresh water. In salt water the activity of marine borers makes the life of a timber structure too short to be economically feasible. The portion of the timber near the water surface which is subjected to alternate wetting and drying may rot in time, but that portion which is continuously submerged may be expected to last for many years. Timber structures have the advantage of being somewhat flexible and thus able to adjust themselves to a settlement of the foundation. A common procedure is to place a concrete cap on the timber cribs after all settlement has ceased. An example of timber-crib breakwater is shown in fig. 5.

Vertical-Face Breakwaters. directly on or

embedded

—This type of breakwater

into the sea or lake

is

placed

bottom without the

use of a rubble-mound foundation. This type includes structures varying in their nature from single walls of wood or steel sheeting to massive concrete gravity-type structures (fig. 7). As the

name

implies,

gravity-type

structures

depend upon

their

own

weight to resist both overturning and sliding. Such structures must be built in locations where the bottom consists of sufficiently solid rock to support the weight of the structure and to resist erosion at the base of the structure. In order to avoid the excessive forces and erosive action of breaking waves, such structures are usually placed outside the breaker zone. This means that they must be built in water depths no smaller than about 1.3 times the height of the maximum waves to be expected at that location. Any of the types of construction described previously for the superstructures of composite breakwaters might be used for the gravity type of vertical-face breakwaters.

FIG. 5.

— ROCK-FILLED TIMBER CRIB BREAKWATER

The Admiralty pier at Dover, Eng., which was begun about the middle of the 19th century, is an early and notable example of a vertical-face breakwater resting upon a hard chalk bottom. It

142 HARBOUR SIDE

BREAKWATER

BREAM— BRECCIA refraction diagrams as described in the sections

on Waves and

Harbours. The manner in which wave forces attack breakwaters depends on the shape and location of the structure. In the case of rubble-mound breakwaters, the waves usually break at or near the face of the structure and any

damage

suffered results from the

uprushing water which may displace stones from the face of the Usually the top layers of stones are heavier than breakwater. those forming the core (see tig. 2 ), and once these are displaced the breakwater may be quickly breached. Extensive model tests, conducted by the U.S. army corps of engineers, relate the size of stone required to the height of the waves and the slope of the face of Similar relationships have also been determined

the breakwater.

wave run-up and the quantity of water overtopping the structure. Using such relationships the engineer can design a rubble-mound structure which will resist the wave forces for the height of

Vertical-faced breakwaters and the superstructures of composbreakwaters must be designed to resist overturning and shding

ite

produced by the waves. When verticalfaced breakwaters are located in water deeper than about 1.3 times the wave height, there is little danger that the waves will break. Under such conditions the oscillatory waves are reflected from the breakwater and a standing wave (also called clapotis) is formed as the result of forces

at

This standing wave

the face of the wall.

is

approximately

Thus the height of wall necessary to prevent overtopping can be determined. The characteristics of such standing waves and the pressures resulting from them are sufficiently well known to permit the satisfactory design twice as high as the approaching waves.

of a stable wall.

When vertical-faced or composite structures are located in the breaker zone, they are subjected to dynamic forces resulting from the impinging mass of high-velocity water. Violent scouring action at the toe of the structures is also associated with these conditions. The violent action of the water is accentuated by the entrapment of air pockets in the waves which burst upward at the face of the wall, carrying spray many feet into the air. Analytical methods are of little help in predicting the forces resulting from breaking waves. However, laboratory and field tests with pressure cells have provided some data. Perhaps of even greater value for this purpose are computations of wave force based on observations, made during storms, in which breaking waves have displaced known amounts of concrete or rock.

—

BrBLiOGRAPHY. R. C. H. Russell and D. H. Macmillan, Waves and Tides (1952); R. C. R. Minikin, Winds, Waves and Maritime Structures (1950) Proceedings of First Conference on Coastal England, Council on Wave Research, English Foundation (1951); U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Beach Erosion Board, Shore Protection Planning and Design, Technical Report No. 4 (1954). (J. R. As.; R. C. Ss.; E. F. Br.) ;

125 scholarly publications.

See Charles Breasted, Pioneer to the Past; the Story of James Henry Breasted, Archaeologist (1943). (J. A. Wi.) (d. 1226), a Norman adventurer probably taking his name from Breaute loyal military and administrative service to King John of England but was hated by contemporaries who attacked him as an upstart and self-seeking governor. He was given command in Glamorgan in 1207, and led expeditions against the Welsh; he conducted embassies in Flanders in 1213, and by 1215 was a seneschal of the king's household. In the war between King John and his barons ( 1215-16), Falkes was one of the chief royal commanders, and was made sheriff of Northamptonshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, and custodian of the castles of Oxford, Northampton and Bedford. Although already rewarded with extensive estates in the honour of Gloucester, he received in marriage (1216) Margery, widow of Baldwin de Redvers, earl of Devon, and by 1221 he had acquired custody of the lands of his stepson. After King John's death (1216), Falkes gave less steady allegiance to the regents of the young Henry III and in 1223-24 had to surrender his midland counties and castles (except Bedford) as part of a redistribution of office aimed against the aliens and their supporters. Complaints against his conduct of local government were made as early as 1220. His brother William ambushed a royal justice and imprisoned him at Bedford in 1224. The castle was besieged, taken and the garrison hanged. Falkes was held responsible, and had to submit to the king and go into exile. He appealed to the pope with no success, and died in 1226, according

and professional

soldier,

(Seine-Inferieure),

who gave

to the chronicler Roger Wendover at Sanctum Cyriacum (probably either the modern St. Cirie, near Turin, Italy, or St. Cyriac, Var. France). (J. C. Ho.)

BREBEUF, SAINT JEAN DE

(1593-1649), French Jesuit

the rivers of

)

ronia" in 1634, Brebeuf laboured for 15 years in bestial surroundings trying to civilize the savages, his trust in God keeping him serene in all hardships and suffering. He was the veteran of 18

BREAM

a carphke fish of some value as body and a long anal fin. It is Europe and northern Asia, in lakes and sluggish streams; a related species, the white bream (A. blicca), is much smaller. The name is also given to the sea breams and in the United States to the golden shiner (A. (Sparidae chrysoleucus) and others of the carp family. in

more than Breasted was president of the American Oriental society (1918), of the History of Science society (1926), and of the American Historical association (1928). His influence as translator, historian and promoter of research on the ancient orient was powerful, and he did more than any other scholar of his generation to make his countrymen aware of a long cultural tradition. He died in New York, N.Y., on Dec. 2. 1935. archaeological expeditions to the near east and issued

and patron saint of Canada, was born at Conde-sur-Vire, Normandy, on March 25, 1593. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1617, was ordained priest in 1623 and arrived in New France in 1625. Assigned to Christianize the Huron Indians between Georgian bay and Lake Huron, he lived in danger of death until forced by the British to return to France in 1629. Back again in "Hu-

(Abramis brama),

food, having a deep, compressed

found

of Chicago the Oriental institute, for research on ancient civiliDuring the next 40 years the institute sent more than 20

zation.

BREAUTE, FALKES DE

any location as economically as possible.

at

143

Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912). In 1919, with funds first supplied by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and later by Rockefeller boards. Breasted organized at The University

BREAST, in

mammals,

that contains the milk or

Mammary

the anterior part of the chest or thorax

mammary

gland of the mammals.

See

Gland.

seized Brebeuf

BREASTED, JAMES HENRY

(1865-1935), U.S. orientalist and historian, was born in Rockford, 111., on Aug. 27, 186S. After graduate studies at Yale university and the University of Berlin, he began his teaching of Egyptology at The University of Chicago in 1894. At the beginning of the century the royal academies of Germany commissioned him to copy inscriptions in the museums of Europe for a comprehensive dictionary of ancient Egyptian. On an expedition to Egypt and the Sudan in 1905-07 he copied inscriptions from monuments which previously had been inaccessible or were perishing. In a five-volume work, Ancient Records of Egypt (1906), he published translations of all the old historical texts. His History of Egypt 1905 and his high school textbook. Ancient Times (1916), both lucidly written, enjoyed (

extraordinary success.

1647 when the French-Iroquois peace was made. The Iroquois, however, continued their fierce war against the Hurons and destroyed all villages and missions in 1648. They missions in

A

)

pioneer work in a specialized

field

was

and his fellow Jesuit, Gabriel Lalemant, and tortured them to death near the French Fort St. Ignace, March 16, 1649. Brebeuf endured stoning, slashes of knives, a collar of red-

hot tomahawks, a "baptism" of scalding water and burning at the stake. Because he showed no sign of pain, his heart was eaten by the Iroquois. He was canonized with other Jesuit martyrs in 1930, and their feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is Sept. 26. St. Jean de Brebeuf's writings are source materials for historians and ethnologists. He composed a grammar and catechism in Huron, and his annual narratives, which were published and avidly read in France, are translated in R. G. Thwaites' The Jesuit Relations

and Allied Documents, 73 volumes (1896-1901

BRECCIA is embedded

a rock

in a matrix.

).

(J.

V. J.)

made of coarse, sharp, angular fragments The matrix may be similar in origin to

the fragments and differ only in size of grain, or

it

may

be an

BRECHIN— BRECKNOCKSHIRE

144 infiltration

product

—

a precipitate of mineral matter

from

solu-

Breccias differ from conglomerates in the angularity of their fragments and in a greater diversity of origin (see Conglomerate). The sedimentary breccias have been designated sharpstone contion.

glomerates. Because of their polygenetic nature, breccias are a diverse group of rocks. Volcanic breccias include those rocks composed of lava fragments imbedded in lava and also those composed of poorly sorted blocks in a tuffaceous (formed from volcanic ash or dust) matrix.

The

first

type

lava crust by further

is

the product of the break-up of a solidified of the flow (fluxion breccia); the

movement

second is a product of explosive volcanic action (see also Agglomerate). Sedimentary breccias form in several ways. Common are the intraformational breccias formed by the fragmentation of a sediment that has been partly lithified and the incorporation of these materials, unmodified by transport, in a similar or related sedimentary matrix. Fragmentation is due mainly to desiccation on mud flats, either tidal or floodplain. Reef breccias composed of blocks of reef rock in finer debris form on the seaward side of coral Breccias also form by travertine (calcium carbonate) reefs. cementation of talus or rock debris and by dripstone cementa-

—

tion of rock falls in caves.

Tectonic or structural (crush) breccias form by earth movements along fissures or faults or by folding. Fault breccias are commonly cemented with vein calcite and quartz or less commonly with the sulfides and other vein minerals. The folding of thin beds of mixed character and unlike competency or strength produces a fold breccia (reibungsbreccia). See W. H. Norton, "A Classification of Breccias," Jour. Geol., 25:160(F. J. P.) 194(1917).

BRECHIN, a

royal and parliamentary burgh and market town

of Forfarshire (Angus), Scot., on the left bank of the South Esk,

42+ mi. S.S.W. of Aberdeen by road. Pop. (1961) 7,115. About 5 mi. N.W. of the town are hill forts on the twin hills of White and Brown Catterthun, the summits ringed by concentric circles of gray stones and by earthworks. The district contains stone circles, standing stones, cists and other antiquities; it is also richly agricultural. Brechin was probably a pre-Christian religious centre long before a monastic settlement was made by Celtic Culdees (g.v.) on the knoll where the cathedral now stands. At the end of the 10th century King Kenneth II MacMalcolm is recorded as having "dedicated to the lord" the "civitas" or religious settlement of Brechin;. in 1012 it was burned by the Danes. The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity was erected in the 13th century after David I had made Brechin a diocese before his death in 1153. It was restored in 1900-02 to remedy the reconstructions of 1806 and is now the Presbyterian parish church. Adjoining it is a slim round tower, dating from about 1050, which is 25 ft. in diameter at the base and 124 ft. at the top, 87 ft. high and capped by a 15thcentury hexagonal spire. This type of structure is common in Ireland, but the only other Scottish examples are at Abernethy and Egilsay. Brechin is also a see of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. Both town and castle saw fighting across the centuries, and no trace remains of the old castle or of the town walls or gates.

The present

castle is the seat of the earl of Dalhousie. Its library contains Robert Burns's correspondence with George Thomson.

The ancient bridge was for centuries Esk. The grammar school, founded

the only one over the South in the 15th century, is now Brechin high school. Sir Robert Watson-Watt, the pioneer of radar, was born in Brechin. Industries include agriculture, light and precision engineering, linen, jute and rayon weaving and whisky distilling. The north and south branches of the Esk offer

salmon and sea trout

fishing.

BRECHT, BERTOLT

(1898-1956), German dramatist and most controversial figures in the modern European After theatre, was born at Augsburg, Bavaria, on Feb. 10. 1898. World War I, he gave up his medical studies to devote himself to literature and the theatre. His early plays, Baal, Trommeln in der Nacht (both 1922) and Im Dickicht der Stddte (1924), bore the stamp of Expressionism but were distinguished by stark realism and simplicity of style, as were his early lyrics and ballads. poet, one of the

the ironical title Die Hatispostille ("Book of Family Devotions"; 1927). In a comedy Mann ist Mann (1927), first song as a means of dramatic emphasis. His greatest he used theatrical success was Die Dreigroschenoper (The Threepenny Opera; 1928), with music by Kurt Weill. This and another, less successful, opera marked Brecht's conversion from nihilism to Marxism, which he propagated in a series of Lehrstiicke (1929-34), short didactic pieces for amateur actors. In 1933 Brecht went into exile, first to Denmark and Finland, then to the United States. During these years, he wrote a number of plays inspired by the struggle against Fascism. His main claim to fame is based on plays dealing with wider human issues Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder (1941), a chronicle of the Thirty Years' War; Lebett des Galilei (1943); Herr Puntila und sein Knecht (1948); and the dramatic parables Der gute Mensch von Sezuan (1943) and Der kaukasische Kreidekreis (1948). In 1948, Brecht returned to Germany and settled in east Berlin where with his wife, the actress Helene Weigel, he founded the Berliner Ensemble. Here he realized his theory of epic theatre collected under

;

in

own

productions mainly of his

plays.

Though

politically pro-

vocative, these productions, based on meticulous teamwork, gained

He died in Berlin on Aug. 14, 1956. Bibliography. Brecht's Stiicke appeared in 10 vol. (1953-57). See H. Lijthy, Vom armen B. Brecht (1952) E. Schumacher, Die dratna-

him international fame.

—

;

tischen Versnche B. Brechts, igiS-igji} (1955); V. Klotz, B. Brecht, Versuch iiher das Werk (1957) W. Haas, B. Brecht (1958) J. Willett, The Theatre of B. Brecht (1959). (H. F. Gn.) ;

;

BRECKINRroOE, JOHN CABELL

(1821-1875), U.S. lawyer, soldier and political leader, was born near Lexington, Ky., on Jan. 21, 1821. He graduated from Centre college, Danville, Ky., in the class of 1839, continued his education at the College and studied law at of New Jersey (now Princeton university Transylvania university, Lexington, Ky. After practising law in Frankfort, Ky., Burlington, la., and Lexington, Ky., Breckinridge served in the Mexican War with the rank of major in a volunteer regiment. He began his political career in 1849 as a member )

of the

Kentucky

legislature

and

in 1851

was elected

to the U.S.

house of representatives. In 1856 Breckinridge was elected vicepresident of the United States on the ticket with James Buchanan and served as presiding ofiicer of the U.S. senate in the difficult years preceding the American Civil War. When internal dissensions brought about a split within the Democratic party in 1860, Breckinridge was nominated for the presidency by the southern proslavery Democrats who refused to accept Stephen A. Douglas as their nominee. Though defeated in the election, Breckinridge received 72 electoral votes from nine southern and two border states. He succeeded John J. Crittenden as U.S. senator from Kentucky in March 1861. Later in the year he made a speech in Kentucky, resigning from the senate, and in December was formally expelled from that body. Meanwhile he had accepted a commission as brigadier general Following the battle of Shiloh, in which in the Confederate army. he commanded the reserve, Breckinridge was promoted to the rank of major general and thereafter took part in many campaigns. He defeated Gen. Franz Sigel at Newmarket, Va., served with Lee's army in the Wilderness and was second in command to Gen. Jubal Early in the Shenandoah campaign. In the final months of the war Breckinridge served as Confederate secretary of war, and at the close of hostilities he fled to England via Florida and Cuba. After a self-imposed exile of three years, Breckinridge returned to the United States and resumed his law practice in Lexington, Ky., where he remained until his death on May 17, 1875. BiBLiocRAPHY.

—OlUnger

Crenshaw, The Slave States in the PresiA. J. Hanna, Flight Into Oblivion to Be a Statesman: John Cabell

dential Election of 1860 (1945) Lucille Stillwell, Born (1938) ;

;

(O. A. S.)

Breckinridge (1936).^

BRECKNOCKSHIRE

(Breconshire;

Sir Frycheiniog), an inland county in south Wales, the third largest administrative and fourth largest geographical county in Wales, bounded on the northwest by Cardiganshire, on the north and northeast by Radnorshire, on the east by Herefordshire, on the southeast by Monmouthshire, on the south by Glamorgan and on the west by Carmarthenshire. Area 733.5 sq.mi.

Welsh,

BRECKNOCKSHIRE —

Physical Geography. The greater part of the county is composed of Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian period. On the southern boundary this is overlain successively by Carboniferous limestone, Millstone Grit and, in the southwest and southeast, by In the north the lower coal measures of the south Wales basin. the Old Red Sandstone has been eroded to expose older Silurian and Ordovician rocks which appear in bands running approximately northeastward, the widest being the shales, sandstones and conglomerates of the Llandeilo and Llandovery beds, while to the southeast of these are narrow outcrops of the VVenlock and Ludlow sandstones and mudstones. Intrusions of igneous rocks produce sulfur and saline springs at Builth Wells, Llangamarch Wells and Llanwrtyd Wells, the last-named having the highest sulfur content of any mineral springs in Great Britain. The oldest rocks in the northwest of the county form a barren upland rising to more than 2,000 ft. and are part of the central Wales massif. This is separated from Mynydd Epynt by the valley of the Irfon, a tributary of the Wye which latter forms the boundary with Radnorshire for about 30 mi. Mynydd Epynt, stretching northeastward across the county and rising to 1,560 ft., Another is the most northerly outcrop of the Old Red Sandstone. tributary of the Wye, the Llynfi, flowing northward through Llangorse lake, separates Mynydd Epynt from the deeply channeled, high plateau of the Black mountains in the east. Except for one isolated cap of Carboniferous limestone. Pen Cerrig-calch, near Crickhowell, these hills are composed of rocks of the Old Red Sandstone

Waun

Each, rising to 2,260 Near Abergavenny, the Sugar Loaf (1,955 ft.) is a conspicuft. ous landmark on the county boundary. Running from west to east across the south of the county are the upland masses of Fforest Fawr and the Brecon Beacons, with their main crests frequently rising to summits over 2.000 ft., which are regarded as remnants of the much-dissected high plateau of Wales. At the highest point of the Brecon Beacons (Pen-y-Fan, 2,906 ft.) are residual summits regarded as ancient monadnocks rising well above the high plateau surface and which form the highest hills in south Wales. These hills are separated from Mynydd Epynt and the Black mountains by the valley of the Usk (Wysg) which rises on the western borders of the county at Carmarthen Van (Fan Foel, 2,632 ft.) and flows eastward and southeastward across the county. The dip slope of each of these upland masses is south or southeast giving fairly steep and well-defined escarpments on the northern sides of Mynydd Epynt, the Brecon Beacons and the Black mountains. The more gentle southerly slopes are channeled by roughly parallel streams. The Tawe, Neath (Nedd) and Taff

(Taf

)

all

series, the highest point,

flow southward from the Brecon Beacons range, and the

Towy (Tywi), also flowing southward, forms the county boundary on the northwest. All the rivers eventually flow southward into' the Bristol channel thereby cutting across the geological structure

Wales

This discordant drainage pattern is regarded as having been superimposed from a now vanished cover of Mesozoic rocks. There is evidence that the region was heavily glaciated. The northern flanks of the higher hills have the steep cwm (dingle) formations associated with ice erosion, while much boulder clay or till is found in the lower valley lands. Striated pebbles and boulders occur at a great height on the Black mountains, where several ice streams converging on their northern escarpment forced the ice up over the ridge southward into the valley of the Honddu. The county is one of the best water-producing areas in Wales, and Birmingham, Swansea, Cardiff, Newport and other towns are supplied from its reservoirs. History. Barrows, implements and standing stones give evidence of occupation of the county in the Stone Age and Bronze Age. Traces of prehistoric lake dwellings were found at Llangorse lake (Llyn Safaddan) in 1869. There are many hill camp sites of the Early Iron Age. The conquest of the district by the Romans from the Silures was effected about a.d. 75-80, and the most important remains of this occupation, at Gaer near Brecon, were excavated by Sir R. E. Mortimer Wheeler in 1925-26. Five Roman roads radiated from this camp. On the departure of the Romans about a.d. 400 the land, exceptof the Paleozoic rocks of the south

coal basin.

—

Y

ing the lordship of Buellt (Builth),

came under

the domination

H5

of Brychan Brycheiniog, a native prince, after

named. to his

Many

whom

the county

is

of the older churches were founded

by or dedicated descendants during the age of the Celtic saints and monastic

missionaries.

St.

lUtud,

who

greatly influenced the foundation of

early scholarship in south Wales,

is supposed to have been buried about 480 near one of the churches in the county dedicated to him. Subsequently Bernard de Newmarch conquered the area for the Normans. He built a castle at Talgarth, Brychan's ancient capital on the Llynfi. After advancing westward and fighting a battle at Y Gaer about 1091, in which Bleddyn ap Maenarch, the king of Brycheiniog, was slain, he founded the castle and town of Brecon (Aberhonddu). A number of other castles were erected, some of them on the sites of older defense points established against Mercian attacks. Brycheiniog afterward became a marcher lordship and suffered in the strife which followed. In 1282, Llewelyn, the last native prince of Wales, fell in a skirmish with the Enghsh

Owain Glyndwr (see Glendower, Owen) carWarfare was almost continuous until the dissolution of the marcher lordships in 1536 by the Act of Union, when the present county was formed. In the 17th and ISth centuries the market towns became centres of thriving wool and leather industries, and iron was smelted at near Builth.

Later,

ried out raids in the area.

various points before the large iron-working communities, on the southern borders of the county, sprang up with the development

Wales coal field during the Industrial Revolution. John Penry (1563-93), whose birthplace is preserved at Llangamarch, typified the spirit of Puritanism in this region. Howell Harris (1714-73), a leader of the Methodist revival, was another of the south

native of the county.

The most important medieval remains at Brecon are the castle and the cathedral (see below), both of Norman foundation, and Christ college, a public school which was founded by charter from Henry Vni in the 13th-century Dominican friary on the site of the present school. Tretower court near Crickhowell, parts of which date back to c. 1400, is one of the finest examples extant of a lightly It was especially associated with fortified dwelling of the period. the Vaughan family which included Sir Roger Vaughan, the YorkHenry Vaughan (1622-95), who ist, and the metaphysical poet, was a native of the county. Some of the Norman castles remain. Of the many old churches in the county, Llanfilo and Partrishow are of particular interest. The county museum contains collections representative of

all

periods of Brecknockshire's history.

—

Population and Administration. In 1961 the census showed a population of 55,544, including an appreciable number in the various military establishments in the county. figure rose

from 54,213

(est.) in 1939.

The

The county

1901 to 61,069 in 1921 but fell to 52,540 fluctuation in the total conceals a tendency in

throughout the 20th century in most of the is Brecon (q.v.), the There are four urban districts; Brynmawr, Builth Wells, Hay (qq.v.) and Llanwrtyd Wells. The county forms part of the south Wales circuit, and the assizes are held at Brecon. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into ten petty sessional divisions. The county is not divided for parliamentary purposes and until 1918 returned one member to parliament after that time its representation was joined with that of the county of Radnor. There are 89 civil parishes. Ecclesiastically the county is part of the diocese of Swansea and Brecon, which was formed in 1923 out of the ancient dioceses of St. David's and Llandaff. The fine old Benedictine priory of St. John at Brecon became the cathedral of the new diocese. Industries and Communications. Agriculture is the county's chief occupation. Nearly 50% of its area is rough grazing and, the average rainfall varying from about 30 in. per annum at Hay to nearly 100 in. on the Brecon Beacons, the emphasis is on beef cattle and sheep rearing, though arable farming is undertaken on the lower valley lands, especially the fertile alluvial soils of the Usk and Llynfi valley regions. The Brecknockshire Agricultural society is one of the oldest in Great Britain, dating from 1755. Extensive afforestation has also been undertaken. The mining of to a steady decline

rural areas.

The only municipal borough

county town.

;

—

is an important industry in the Ystradgynlais dissouthwest of the county, and the quarrying of limestone

anthracite coal trict in the

BRECON— BREDERO

146

rock is undertaken near the southern boundary. A small part of the southern region of the county was included in the south Wales and Monmouthshire development area defined after World War II, and a few new industries, including one employing disabled persons at Ystradgynlais, were introduced. Its scenic beauty makes Brecknockshire a tourist county; more than half its area was designated in 1955 as part of the Brecon Beacons National

and

silica

park. Single-track railways radiate from Brecon in the centre of the county to Builth Wells and Moat Lane. Hereford. Newport, Merthyr Tydfil and Neath. The Craven Arms-Swansea line runs through the north of the county. The pattern of main roads is similar, trunk or class I roads running from Brecon to Builth Wells and north Wales, Hereford, Newport, Cardiff, Swansea and Carmarthen. The Swansea-Manchester trunk road runs through the Irfon valley and the Neath-Abergav'enny trunk road passes along The Brecon-Newport canal, the southern edge of the county. opened in 1800 but, like the Ystradgynlais-Swansea canal, disused for many years, is being repaired for pleasure boats on the length between Brecon and Pontypool.

—

Bibliography. E. G. Bowen, The Settlements of the Celtic Saints Wales (1954) \V. F. Grimes, The Prehistory of Wales, 2nd ed. by H. X. Savory (1951) Theophilus Jones, A History of the Countv of Brecknock, 4 vol., enl. ed. (1909-30) Sir John E. Lloyd, A History of Wales, 3rd ed., 2 vol. (1949) W. Rees, An Historical Atlas of Wales (1951) R. E. M. Wheeler, The Roman Fort Near Brecon (1926) Land Utilisation Survey of Britain, The Land of Britain, Part 37, Brecon, ed. by R. M. Whyte (1943). (C. M. S. W.; Ed. Br.) in

;

;

;

;

;

;

BRECON

(Brecknock; Welsh, Aberhonddu), a cathedral town, municipal borough and county town of Brecknockshire, Wales,

is

42 mi.

N.N.W.

of Cardiff.

Pop. (1961) 5,797.

It lies

where the Honddu from the north and the Tarell from the south enter the Usk, near the centre of the county.

Its site

commands

routes from Builth Wells in the north. Llandovery in the west,

Merthyr Tydfil

known

as

Crickhowell in the southeast and Hay About 3 mi. W. of the town is the Roman fort garrisoned during the 2nd centurj' by a squadron

in the south,

in the northeast.

Y Gaer,

Brecon maintained the importance of its nodal by the Romans. Bernard de Newmarch conquered the district known as Brycheiniog (named for Brjxhan, son of a 5th-century Welsh chieftain and probably built the original Norman castle in 1092, Bernard de Newmarch subsequently founded, near the castle, the Benedictine priory of St. John. Nothing remains of the original church except portions of the nave, but it was entirely rebuilt in the first half of the 13th century and the 14th century with Early Enghsh and Decorated additions. In 1923 it was made the cathedral of the newly constituted diocese of Swansea and Brecon. of Spanish cavalry.

site selected

)

The town, picturesquely

situated, is remarkable for its medieval

plan and for its Georgian buildings. Around the original castle and priory a small medieval town grew up. It received a series of charters

from the de Bohuns, into which family the

castle

lordship passed, the earliest recorded charter being granted

and by

earl of Hereford. A Dominican friary (now Christ was established southwest of the town and was refounded by Henry VIII in 1542 as a collegiate church and school. The position of the town offered special facilities during Tudor economic developments for the establishment of trade guilds as well as a guildhall. There were formerly five guilds, the main industries being cloth and leather manufacture. Brecon destroyed its castle to preser\-e its neutrality during the Civil War, and in 1645 Charles I, while staying at Brecon priorj', wrote the famous letter to his son in which he tells him to "prepare for the worst." Thomas Coke, founder of the American Methodist Episcopalian Church, the actress Mrs. Sarah Siddons and her brother Charles Kemble were all bom in the town. There are two ancient pleasure fairs, and stock fairs are held monthly. BREDA, the name of two Italian industrialists, cousins, who did much to develop Italy's railway and heavy engineering industries during the 19th and early 20th centuries. ViNCEXZO STEF.4N0 Breda (1S25-1903) was born at Limena (Padua) on April 30, 1825, and became a railway engineer. In 1854 he founded a society for the development of raUways in cen-

Humphrey. 3rd college

I

1872 the Societa Veneta for public engineering projects, and is best remembered for his foundation of the Temi steelworks {see Terni). He also took an interest in agriculture and promoted horse racing. He died at Padua on Jan. 4, 1903. tral Italy, in

Ernesto Breda (1852-1918), born (Padua

worked

at

Campo San Martino

under Vincenzo Stefano Breda, his cousin, at In 1886 he founded the heavy engineering firm known from 1900 onward as the Societa Italiana Ernesto Breda, with works at Sesto San Giovanni near Milan. By the outbreak of World War I this firm was producing numerous locomotives for the Italian state railways, besides agricultural machinery. Ernesto Breda rapidly put the works on a wartime production footing, created a steel plant and exploited hydroelectric power. At this period also the firm began to produce airplanes and aircraft en),

first

the Terni plant.

gines, as w-ell as electric locomotives.

planned postwar reconversion and a search institute.

He

At the same time Breda scientific

died in Milan on Nov.

metallurgical re6,

1918.

(S. Lo.) town, province of North Brabant. Neth., at the confluence of the Merk (Mark) and Aa rivers. Pop. (1960) 107.843. Breda was in the 12th century a direct fief of the duchy of Brabant, its earliest known lord being Godfrey I (1152-1170), in whose family it continued, until 1327. when Gerard of Rassoghem sold his rights to Brabant. It passed ultimately to William I of Orange (1533-84). Breda obtained municipal rights in 1252. It was fortified 1531-36 by Count Henrj' of Nassau, who restored the

BREDA,

by John of Polanen in 1350. It remained untQ the 19th century an important fortress on the Mark. Captured by the Spaniards in 1581, it fell again into the hands of Maurice of Nassau in 1590. Its surrender to the Spaniards (1625) is the subject of the famous picture by Velazquez in the Museo del Prado in Madrid. In 1637 Breda was recaptured by Frederick Henry of Orange, and in 1648 was finally ceded to the Netherlands by the treaty of Westphalia. It was the residence during exile of Charles II of England. In 1696 William of Orange, King of England, completed the castle (now the Royal Military academy). During the French Revolution it was taken by (Charles Fran(;ois) Dumouriez in 1793, evacuated soon after and retaken by Charles Pichegru in 1795. In 1813 the citizens of Breda again made themselves masters of the town. In 1575 a conference was held there between the ambassadors of Spain and the United Provinces; in 1667 a peace was signed by England, the Netherlands, France and Denmark, The town has a fine quay, town hall and park. The principal Protestant church (Grote Kerk) is a Gothic building (ISth century), with a fine tower, and a choir (of 1410). The population of Breda was evacuated in May 1940 and the town was old castle built

liberated

The

from the Germans

seat of a

Roman

in Oct. 1944.

Catholic bishop, the town's manufactures

include the making of machiner>-, artificial

silk,

matches and choco-

late.

BREDERO, GERBRAND ADRIAENSZOON

(1585-

1618), Dutch poet and playwright, the rugged epitome of an age of change and contlict. Born in Amsterdam, March 16, 1585. he was of humble origins and little learning, yet he had artistic leanings and poetic genius; and his erotic temperament warred with his stern Protestant convictions.

streets of

The

irreconcilable conflict be-

— the medieval, full-blooded Amsterdam— and the sophistication

tween his birthright

life

of the back

of the Renaissance

is most evident in his earUest poetry, contained in Groot Liedt-Boeck (1622). Here, the humorous poems reveal a power of observation rivaling that of the painters Jan Steen and Adriaen van Ostade (qq.v.), while the sensuality of the amorous songs and sonnets strikes a wild contrast to the sincerity and often the remorse of the devotional poetry. His dramatized versions of Spanish romances show his true talent only in the comic intermezzos and indeed his farces, the best of which is Klucht van de Koe (1612), with their trenchant caricature and brisk Terentian dialogue, provide the best and the But his comedy De Spaanschen Bralast of this medieval genre. bander ( 1617 makes Bredero unique in Dutch letters. This play, inspired by the Spanish picaresque novel Lasarillo de Tonnes, is truly great, like the medieval poem Vanden Vos Reinaerde, be-

intelligentsia

)

—

BREDERODE— BREHON LAWS While championing the quickcause of its humanity and wit. witted underdog at the expense of the pompous hidalgo, it also provides a salutary corrective to the romantic notion that the Golden Age was a period of universal prosperity and culture.

Bredero died, Aug. 23, 1618, in Amsterdam. See his Werken, ed. by J. A. N. Knuttel, 3 vol. (1918-29); G. A. Bredero Totieelwerk. ed. by A. A. van Rhijnbach (1942). (P. K. K.) HENDRIK, Lord of (1531-1568), the popular resistance leader during the first phase of the revolt of the Netherlands, was born in Brussels on Dec. 20, 1531, of a family whose genealogy reaches back to 1205 and who from 1418 had also held the lordship of Vianen, south of Utrecht. A soldier, hard-drinking, reckless and jovial, Hendrik seems to have been moved above all by hatred of popery and (true to his family traditions) by resentment against the encroaching monarchical power. Succeeding to the family titles in 1556, he joined the league of great nobles who succeeded in 1564 in getting rid of Cardinal Granvelle, Sharhis relative by marriage (see Netherlands; Philip II). ing the more radical sentiments of the gentry, he became in Dec. 1565 one of the leading men of the newly founded confederacy of

BREDERODE,

the lesser nobility, which had a markedly Protestant tinge.

On

5, 1566, it was he who, at the head of approximately 300 gentlemen, presented to the regent Margaret of Parma, at Brussels, the petition known as the "Compromise of the Nobility" asking for a new religious policy. He continued to press for freedom of conscience. During the reaction following the excesses of the iconoclasts in 1566, he refused to take the oath of unconditional loyalty demanded by the regent. Resorting to force, he made military preparations at Vianen, raised troops at Antwerp and elsewhere and took a prominent part in an abortive Calvinist Having vainly tried to win over Amsterdam, he fled to rising. Emden on April 27, 1567. He died at Harenburg castle near Recklinghausen on Feb. 15, 1568. (A. G. J.) BREEZE. A current of air less than a wind, which in turn is less than a gale. (See Beaufort Scale.) The term is qualified in many different ways; e.g., glacial breeze a cold breeze blowing down the course of a glacier; lake breeze light wind blowing sunny weather during the middle the of lake in on to coast a

April

— —

of the day;

mountain breeze

—

a

mass of

air

—

flowing

down

into

a day breeze blowing up the valleys. The unqualified term is usually applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, sea breeze, and the counter wind

the valley during the night; valley breeze

blowing offshore

at night, land breeze.

BREGUET, LOUIS CHARLES

(1SS0-1955 1, French aviwas born Jan. 2, iSSo, descendant of the famous watchmaker, Abraham Louis Breguet. Educated at the Lycees Condorcet and Carnot and at the £cole Superieure d'Electricite, he joined the family engineering firm, Maison Breguet, becoming head engineer of its electric service. He published reports on aerodynamics, and in 191 7 built and flew a "gyroplane," the forerunner of the helicopter. He built his first airplane in 1909, set a speed record for 10 km. in 191 1, and in that year founded the Societe des AteUers d'Aviation Louis Breguet. In 191 2 he built his first hydroplane. He built military planes in World Wars I and H, and in 1919 founded the Compagnie des Messageries Aeriennes. which ultimately became Air France. He died at St. Germain-en-Laye, Paris, May 4, 1955. LAWS, more properly called Feinechus, were the ancient laws of Ireland. Brehon (Breitheamh) is the Irish word for judge. Regular courts and judges existed in Ireland from ation pioneer and founder of Air France, in Paris, a

BREHON

prehistoric times.

The extant remains of these laws are manuscript transcripts earlier copies made on vellum from the 8th to the 13th cen-

from tury,

now preserved with

other Gaelic manuscripts in Trinity col-

147

King Laeghaire (Lairy), the Senchus M6r and Feinechus of Ireland were purified and written." This entry has some historical corroboration. The text and earlier commentaries are in the Bearla Feint the most archaic form of the Gaelic language. Many words, phrases and idioms are now obsolete and so difficult to translate that the official translations are to some extent confessedly conjectural. Frequently only the opening words of the original text remain. Wherever the text is whole, it is curt, elliptical and yet rhyth438, the tenth year of

—

The

mical.

rigorously authentic character of these laws, relating

and dealing with, the actual realities of life, and with instituand a state of society nowhere else revealed to the same extent, the extreme antiquity both of the provisions and of the language, and the meagreness of continental material illustrato,

tions

same things endow them with exceptional archaic, No man was allowed to had studied the full law course, which occupied 20 years, and had passed a rigorous pubhc examination. The course of study for judge and law agent, respectively, is carefully laid down. The Brehon was an arbitrator, umpire and expounder of the law rather than a judge in the modern acceptative of

the

archaeological and philological interest. act as judge until he

without being expressly stated, that the facts by laymen before submission to a Brehon for legal decision. The complainant could select any Brehon he pleased, if there were more than one in his district. Every king or chief of sufficient territory retained an official Brehon, who was provided with free land for his maintenance and acted as registrar or assessor in the king's court. In ordinary cases the Brehon's fee was said to have been one-twelfth tion.

It appears,

of a case were investigated and ascertained

of the

amount

at stake.

Assemblies, national, provincial and local, were a marked characteristic of ancient Irish life. They all, without exception, discharged legal, legislative or administrative functions. Most of the assembhes were annual, some triennial, some lasted only a day or two, others a week and occasionally longer. All originated in

pagan funeral or commemorative

rites

and continued to be

held, even in Christian times, in very ancient cemeteries.

They

were called by different names Feis, Aenach, Dal, etc. At one assembly held at Uisneach about a century before Christ a uniform law of distraint for the whole of Ireland was adopted. Each provincial kingdom and each tiiath had assemblies of its own. Very careful provision is made for the preparation of the sites of great assemblies, and the preservation of peace and order at them is sanctioned by the severest penalties of the law. The Clan System. Tuath, Cinel and Clann were synonyms meaning a small tribe or nation descended from a common ancestor. The theory of common origin was not rigidly adhered to, a king and clan being able, subject to certain limitations, to adopt new members or families, or amalgamate with another clan. Kinship with the clan was an essential qualification for holding any office or property. The rules of kinship largely determined status with its correlative rights and obligations, supplied the place of contract and of laws affecting the ownership, disposition and devolution of property, constituting the clan an organic, self-contained entity, a political, social and mutual insurThe solidarity of the clan was its most ance copartnership. important and all-pervading characteristic. According to the traditional view the entire territory occupied by a clan was the common and absolute property of that clan, a portion being set Warriors, statesmen, apart for the maintenance of the king. Brehons, Ollamhs, physicians, poets and even eminent workers in the more important arts were also rewarded with free lands. Rank, with the accompanying privileges, jurisdiction and responsibility, was based upon a qualification of kinship and of

—

occupies

number of generations, together with certain concurrent conditions; and it could be lost by loss of property, crime, cowardice or other disgraceful conduct. A portion of land called the Cumhal Senorba was devoted to the support of widows, orphans and old childless people.

the first, second and a portion of the third of the volumes produced by the Brehon Law commission appointed in 1852. In the Annals of the Four Masters it is said; "The age of Christ

According to the later and now very generally accepted view of John (Eoin) MacNeill there was no communal holding of land by the clan. Clan itself meant little more than a princely family,

and the Royal

Irish academy, Dublin, the British museum, Oxsome private collections and several libraries on the continent of Europe. The largest and most important of these documents is the Senchus Mor, or "Great Old Law Book." No

lege

ford university,

copy of

it

now

existing

is

complete.

What remains

of

it

property, held by a family for a specified

BREHON LAWS

148

There was no land, like, say, the Hohenzollerns in Germany. blood or personal name common to the people subject to such a Anything in the nature of common holding or redistrifamily. bution of land was confined to the joint families next to be described.

Fine {fine), originally meaning family, came in course of time to be applied to a group of kindred families or a joint family group of four generations. Even those who adhere to the traditional view of the clan will admit that in course of time a large and increasing proportion of the good land became limited private property. The area of arable land available for the common use of the clansmen was gradually diminished by these encroachments. The land belonging to the joint family ifme) was

when the joint family broke In this distribution men might or might not receive again their former portions. In the latter case compensation was made for unexhausted improvements. This land could not be sold, nor even let except for a season in case of domestic necessity. The holders had no landlord and no rent to pay for this land at intervals liable to redistribution

up.

They were it except for a crime. subject only to public tributes and the ordinary obligations of The unfenced and unappropriated common lands free men.

some clansmen were depressed into it by crime, consequences war or other misfortune; and strangers of a low class coming found their level in it. The fuidhirs also were divided into free and unfree, the former being free by industry and thrift to acquire some property, after which five of them tion,

of

into the territory

could club together to acquire rights corresponding to those of one freeman. The unfree fuidhirs were tramps, fugitives, captives, etc. Fosterage, the custom of sending children to be reared and educated in the families of fellow clansmen, was prevalent among the wealthy classes. A child in fosterage was reared and edu-

cated suitably for the position it was destined to fill in life. There was fosterage for affection, for payment and for a literary education. Fosterage began when the child was a year old and

ended when the marriageable age was reached, unless previously terminated by death or crime. Every fostered person was under an obligation to provide, if necessary, for the old age of foster parents. The affection arising from this relationship was usually greater, and was regarded as more sacred, than that of blood relationship.

Law

and could not be deprived of

waste, bog, forest and mountain

—

all

clansmen were free to use

promiscuously at will. Tenure of Land. There was hardly any selling and little Nobles and other persons holdletting of land in ancient times. ing large areas let to clansmen not the land but rather the grazing of a number of cattle specified by agreement. They also let cattle to a clansman who had none or not enough, and this was the most prevalent practice. There were two distinct methods of saer ("free") and doer ("unfree"), the condiletting and hiring tions being fundamentally different. The conditions of saer-ttnure were largely settled by the law, were comparatively easy, did not require any security to be given, left the clansman free within the limits of justice to end the connection, left him competent in case of dispute to give evidence against that of the noble and did not impose any liability on the joint family of By continued use of the same land for some the clansman. years and discharge of the public obligations in respect of it in addition to the ciss or payment as tenant, a clansman became a subowner or permanent tenant and could not be evicted. There is no provision in these laws for evicting anyone. For the hire of cattle a usual payment was one beast in seven per annum for seven years, after which the cattle that remained became Daer-itnnxe, whether of cattle or of the property of the hirer.

—

upon land, was subject to a ciss-ninsciss ("wearisome tribute"), for the payment of which security had to be given. A man not in the enjoyment of full civil rights, if able to find security, could become an unfree clansman. A free clansman by becoming an unfree clansman lowered his own status and that of his joint family, became incompetent to give evidence against that of a noble, and could not end the connection until the end of the term except by a large payment. The members of his joint family were liable, in the degree of their relationship, to make good out of their own property any default in the payments. Hence this tenure could not be legally entered into by a free clansman without the permission of his joint family. Unfree clansmen were also exposed to casual burdens, hke that of lodging and feeding soldiers when in their district. All payments were made in kind. When the particular kind was not specified by the law or by agreement, the payments were made according to convenience in horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, wool, butter, bacon, corn, vegetables, yarn, dye plants, leather, cloth, articles of use or ornament, etc. People who did not belong to the clan and were not citizens were in a base condition and incompetent to appear in court in suit or defense except through a freeman. The Bothach ("cottier") and the Sen-cUithe ("old dependent") were people who, though living for successive generations attached to the families of nobles, did not belong to the clan and had no rights of citizenFuidhirs, or manual labourers without property, were the ship. lowest section of the population. Some were born in this condithe right to graze cattle

in

of

Contract.—The

their respective

spheres,

solidarity of clan

the

and

joint family

provisions of the system, the

simple rural life and the prevalence of barter and payments in kind left comparatively little occasion for contracts between individuals. Consequently the rules relating to contract are not very numerous. They are, however, sufficiently solemn. No contract aft'ecting land was valid unless made with the consent of the joint family. Contracts relating to other kinds of property are more numerous. When important or involving a considerable amount, they had to be made in the presence of a noble or magistrate. The parties to a contract should be free citizens, of full age, sound mind, free to contract and under no legal disability.

"The world would be in a state of confusion if express contracts were not binding." From the repeated correlative dicta that "nothing is due without deserving," and that a thing done "for God's sake," i.e., gratis, imposed little obhgation, it is clear that the importance of valuable consideration was fully recognized. So also was the importance of time. "To be asleep avails no one"; "Sloth takes away a man's welfare." Contracts made by the following persons were invalid: (i) a servant without his master's authority; (2) a monk without authority from his abbot or manager of temporalities; (3) a son subject to his father without the father's authority; (4) an infant, lunatic or "one who had not the full vigilance of reason"; (5) a wife in relation to her husband's property without his authority. She was free to hold and deal with property of her own and bind it by conIf a son living with his father entered into a contract with was held to have ratified the contract unless he promptly repudiated it. "One is held to adopt what he does not repudiate after knowledge, having the power." Contract of sale or barter with warranty could be dissolved for tract.

his father's knowledge, the father

fraud, provided action was taken within a limited time after the fraud had become known. Treaties and occasional very important contracts were made "blood covenants" and inviolable by drawing a drop of blood from the little finger of each of the contracting parties, blending this with water, and both drinking the

mixture out of the same cup. The forms of legal evidence were pledges, documents, witnesses and oaths. In cases of special importance the pledges were human beings, "hostage sureties." These were treated as in their own homes according to the rank to which they belonged and were discharged on the performance If the contract was broken they became prisof the contract. oners and might be fettered or made to work as slaves until the Authentic documents were considered obligation was satisfied. good evidence. A witness was in all cases important and, in some, essential to the valjdity of a contract.

His status affected the

force of the contract as well as the value of his evidence; and the laws appear to imply that by becoming a witness a man in-

curred liabilities as a surety. The pre-Christian oath might be by one or more of the elements, powers or phenomena of nature, moon, water, night, day, sea, land. The Christian oath might be on a copy of the Gospels, a saint's crozier, rehc or as the sun,

other holy thing.

BREHON LAWS Criminal Laws.

—These

laws recognized crime, but in the same calm and deliberate way in which they recognized contract and other things seriously affecting the people. Although we find in the poems of Dubhthach, written in the Sth century and preli.\ed to the Senchus Mor, the sentences "Let every one die who kills a human being," and "Every living person that inflicts death shall suffer death," capital punishment did not prevail in Ireland before or after. The laws uniformly discountenanced revenge, retaliation, the punishment of one crime by another, and permitted capital punishment only in the last resort and in ultimate default of every other form of redress. They contain elaborate provision for dealing with crime, but the standpoint from which it is regarded and treated is essentially different from ours. The state, for all its elaborate structure, did not assume jurisdiction

any crimes except

in relation to

political

or the disturbance of a large assembly. severest penalties

known

the law

to

ones, such as treason

For these

it

— banishment,

of property, death or putting out of eyes.

inflicted the

confiscation

A

crime against the person, character or property of an individual or family was regarded as a thing for which reparation should be made, but the individual or family had to seek the reparation by a personal action. This differed from a civil action only in the terms employed and the elements used in calculating the amount of the reparation. The function of a judge in a criminal as in a civil action was to see that the facts, with modifying circumstances, were fully and truly submitted to him, and then by applying the law to these facts to ascertain and declare the amount of compensation that would make a legal adjustment. For this

amount the

and in his default his kindred, became and the injured person or family became entitled like a civil debt by distraint. There were

guilty person,

legally debtor,

to recover the

amount

no police, sheriffs or public prisons. The decisions of the law were e.xecuted by the persons concerned, supported by a highly organized and disciplined public opinion springing from honour and interest and inherent in the solidarity of the clan. MacNeill, however, contends that the state took a far more active part in enforcing Brehon decisions than that herein described, the

king

advice.

in

general

There

is

acting

as

good reason

as effectual in the prevention

the redress of wrongs as

judge,

subject

to

professional

was and punishment of crime and in to

believe that the system

any other human contrivance has ever

been.

amount of compensation the most characand important element was Eiiechlann ("honour-price,''

In calculating the teristic

"honour-value"), a value attached to every free person, varying in to 30 cows according to rank. It was the It was frequently of consequence in relation to contracts and other clan affairs; but it emerges most clearly in connection with crime. By the commission of crime, breach of contract or other disgraceful or injurious conduct, Enechlann was diminished or destroyed, a capitis diminutio occurred, apart from any other punishment. Though existing

amount from one cow

assessed value of status or caput.

apart from

fine, Enechlann was the first element in almost every Dire was the commonest word for fine, whether great or small. Eric ("reparation," "redemption") was the fine for "separating body from soul"; but the term was used in lighter cases also. In capital cases the word sometimes meant Enechlann, sometimes coirp-dire ("body-fine"), but most correctly the sum of these two. It may be taken that, subject to modifying circumstances, a person guilty of homicide had to pay (1) coirp-dire for the destruction of life, irrespective of rank; (2) the honour-value of the victim; (3) his own honour-value if the deed was unintentional; and (4) double his own honour-value if committed with malice aforethought. The sum of these was in all cases heavy; heaviest when the parties were wealthy. The amount was recoverable as a debt from the criminal to the extent of his property, and, in his default, from the members of his joint family in sums determined by the degree of relationship; and it was distributable among the members of the joint family of a murdered person in the same proportions, like a distribution among the next of kin. The joint family of a murderer could free themfine.

selves

from

liability

by giving up the murderer and

his goods,

149

he escaped, by giving up any goods he had left, depriving him of clanship and lodging a pledge against his future misIn these circumstances the law held the criminal's life deeds. forfeit, and he might be slain or taken as a prisoner or slave. He could escape only by becoming an unfree labourer in some distant territory. When the effect of a crime did not go beyond an individual, if that individual's joint family did not make good their claim while the criminal lived, it lapsed on his death, "The crime dies with the criminal," If an unknown stranger or person without property caught red-handed in the commission of a crime refused to submit to arrest, it was lawful to maim or slay him according to the magnitude of the attempted crime. "A person who came to inflict a wound on the body may be safely killed when unknown and without a name, and when there is no power to arrest him at the time of committing the trespass," For crimes against property the usual penalty, as in breach of contract, was generic restitution, the quantity, subject to modifying circumstances, being twice the amount taken or destroyed. Law of Distress. Distress or seizure of property being the universal mode of obtaining satisfaction, whether for crime, breach of contract, nonpayment of debt or any other cause, the law of distress came into operation as the solvent of almost every dispute. Hence it is the most extensive and important branch, if not more than a branch, of these ancient laws. There was no sale, because sale for money was little known. The propor, if

—

amount of the debt and expenses, from the debtor to the creditor, not all at once but in stages fixed by law, A creditor was not at liberty to seize household goods, farming utensils or any goods the loss of which would prevent the debtor recovering from embarrassment, so long as there was other property which could be seized, A seizure could be made only between sunrise and sunset, "If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him and a fine of five seds." When a large debt was clearly due and there was no property to seize, the debtor himself could be seized and compelled to work as a prisoner or slave until the debt was paid. When a defendant was of superior rank to that of the plaintiff, distress had to be preceded by troscad ("fasting"). This is a erty in the thing seized, to the

became

legally transferred

unknown elsewhere except in parts of India, The having made his demand and having waited a certain time without result, went and sat without food before the door of the defendant. To refuse to submit to fasting was considered indelibly disgraceful and was one of the things which legally degraded a man by reducing or destroying his honour-value. The law said, "he who does not give a pledge to fasting is an evader of all; he who disregards all things shall not be paid by God or man," If a plaintiff having duly fasted did not receive within a certain time the satisfaction of his claim, he was entitled to distrain as in the case of an ordinary defendant, and to seize double the amount that would have satisfied him in the first instance. If a person fasting in accordance with law died during or in consequence of the fast, the person fasted upon was held guilty of murder. Fasting could be stopped by paying the debt, giving a pledge or submitting to the decision of a Brehon, A creditor fasting after a reasonable offer of settlement had been made to him forfeited his claim, "He who fasts notwithstanding the offer of what should be accorded to him, forfeits his legal right," Bibliography. Pending the work of a second Brehon Law commission, the laws are best studied in the six imperfect volumes {Ancient Laws of Ireland, 1S65-1901) produced by the first commission (ignoring their long and worthless introductions), together with Whitley legal process plaintiff,

—

Stokes's Criticism (1903) of Atkinson's Glossary (1901), The following are important references (kindly supplied by Stokes) for detailed research: R. Dareste, 6.tudes dhistoire de droit, pp. 356-3S1 (1889); .'\rbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet, Etudes sur le droit celtique, 2 vol., (1895) Patrick W. Joyce, Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. i., pp. 168-214 (1903) Zeitschrifl fiir celtische Philologie, vol. 4, p. 221 {see also vol. 14, p. 1 and vol. 15) the Copenhagen fragments of the laws (1903) important letters in The Academy, nos. 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 706, 707 (substantially covered by Stokes's Criticism) Revue Celtique, vol, xxv, p. 344; Eriu, vol. i, pp. 209-315 (collation by Kuno Meyer of the law tract Crith Gablach). Maine's Early Historv of Institutions (1875) and Early Law and Custom, pp. 162, 180 (1883);

—

;

;

;

;

;

William E. Hearn's Aryan Household (1879) and Maclennan's Studies

BREISACH— BREMEN

I50

Ancient History, pp. 4S3-507 (1876), contain interesting general references, but the writers were not themselves original students of the L. Ginnell's Brehon Laws (1894) may also be consulted. laws, See also A. Ua Clerigh, Historv of Ireland to the Coming of Henry II, ch. 14 and 15 (1908) J. MacNeill, Phases of Irish History, ch. 10 and 12 (1919) S. Bryant, Liberty, Order and Law Under Native Irish Rule (1923); R. Thurneysen, Coic Conara Fugill (Die fiinf Wege sum Urteil) (1926). (M. J. R.; A. E. C.) in

;

;

BREISACH, a town of Germany, stands on a basalt rock 250 ft. above the Rhine, 16 km. (10 mi.) W. of Freiburg. Pop. (1959 est.) 4,778. Breisach has a fine minster, partly Romanesque, partly Gothic, dating from the 10th to the 15th centuries. The interior is remarkable for the wood carving of the high altar, and for tombs and pictures. Although most of the town was destroyed in World War II, it has been rebuilt in the original style. On the opposite bank of the Rhine, connected by a road bridge, lies the little town of Neubreisach, built as a fortress by Louis XrV, Railways run to Freiburg and Riegel, Breisach trades in textiles and electrical goods and also in wines and other agricultural produce, Breisach (ancient Brisiacum) was a stronghold of the Sequani (q.v.). It was captured in the time of Julius Caesar by Ariovistus and became known as the Mons Brisiacus. Fortified by the emperor Valentinian in 369 to defend the Rhine against the Germans, it remained throughout the middle ages as one of the chief bulwarks of Germany and was called the "cushion and key (Kissen und Schlussel) of the German empire." It gave its name to the district Breisgau, In 939 it was taken by the German King Otto I, In 1254 and 1262 the bishops of Basel obtained full control over it, but in 1275 it was made an imperial city by King Rudolf I, and the Habsburgs possessed it from the 14th century. In the Thirty Years' War Breisach successfully resisted the Swedes, but it was forced to capitulate to the Protestants after a memorable siege in 1638, The French held it from 1648, and it was several times besieged by them after its restoration to Austria in 1697. By the peace of Pressburg (ISOS) it was finally incorporated into Baden, and the fortifications were razed. Two medieval gates, however, remain. After the merger of Baden Land in 1952, Breisach became a town of Baden-Wiirttemberg, Federal Republic Germany. BREISGAU, the most southwesterly district of Germany, and originally an Alamannic province, lies in the upper Rhine plain between Kenzingen and Lorrach and is bounded by the Black Forest. In the early middle ages the Zahringen counts ruled Breisgau, founding the town of Freiburg in 1120, The Zahringen counts died out in 1218 and the countship was partitioned between the line of Zahringen margraves and the counts of Freiburg. From the 14th century the Habsburgs began to extend their influence east of the Rhine and by the end of this century Breisgau, except for the so-called margrave lands and the lordship of Hachberg, formed with the lordships of Hauenstein and Triberg a constituent part of the .'Austrian lands. In 1457 Albert VI of Austria founded the of

university at Freiburg,

Breisgau suffered heavily during the PeasWar, Freiburg undergoing many sieges and falling for a while into Swedish hands. In 1665 the Austrian Vorlande reverted to the senior Habsburg line, but in Feb, 1679, when the emperor Leopold I accepted the treaty of Nijmegen, Freiburg passed under French rule, only being returned to Austria, together with Breisach, by the treaty of Rijswijk in 1697, By the peace of Luneville in 1801 Breisgau was given to the duke of Modena to compensate for the surrender of his duchy ants'

War and

the Thirty Years'

to Napoleon, and at the peace of Pressburg in 1805 the countship was divided between Baden and WiJrttemberg. The latter ceded its portion to Baden in 1806. (M. Kr.) BREITENFELD, BATTLES OF, two engagements in the

Thirty Years' War (q.v.). fought near the village of Breitenfeld (now a suburb of Leipzig) in Saxony, The First Battle.—On Sept, 17 (new style; Sept, 7, old style), 1631, the army of the Catholic league under Tilly was decisively defeated by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, Tilly's invasion of Saxony at the end of August, intended to force the elector to

abandon his neutrality, had led instead to a Swedish-Saxon alliance. Confronted by the Swedish army of 16,000 foot, 10,000 horse and SO guns as well as by the Saxon army, under Hans von Arnim, of

14,000 foot (mostly untrained militia), 6,000 horse and 20 guns, who had only about 21,000 foot (13,000 veterans of the league and 8,000 imperial troops), 15,000 horse (8.000 veterans, Tilly,

7,000 imperial) and 27 guns, wanted at first to effect a junction with strong detachments of imperial troops in Thuringia and Hesse, but was persuaded by his cavalry commander, Gottfried von Pappenheim, to accept battle. He arrayed his army, in accordance with the classical Spanish tactics, in 13 unwieldy squares composed equally of musketeers and of pikemen, with the imperial cavalry on the right and the league horse under Pappenheim on the left, Gustavus Adolphus, on the other hand, interspersed his flexible infantry units (with two musketeers to one pikeman with cavalry shock squadrons. The Saxon army on the Swedish left was quickly overrun by the Bavarians and pursued by Johann Isolani's cavalry, and Tilly then tried to outflank the Swedes. Meanwhile, however, the Swedish right had, by its well-drilled combination of infantry and artillery fire, completely routed Pappenheim's cuirassiers. Thus, while Gustaf Horn on the Swedish left built up a new front, Gustavus Adolphus, supported by Lennart Torstensson's artillery, could wheel his right and centre against Tilly's exposed left, capturing the guns and mowing down the now defenseless squares, Tilly, seriously wounded, escaped with a few thousand men, having lost more than 12,000 men on the field. The Swedish losses amounted to about 1,500, the Saxon to 2,000, The victory opened central and southern Germany to the Swedes, The age of the Spanish infantry was over; the military future lay with the shock attack of heavy cavalry preceded by the disciplined fire-power of )

guns.

The Second Battle.—On Nov, 2 (N.S„ Oct, 23, 0,S.), 1642, a Swedish-French army under Torstensson and the comte de Guebriant (J. B. de Budes) defeated an imperial army under Ottavio Piccolomini, Four days later, Leipzig surrendered to the Swedes, (S, H, S,) BREITINGER, (1701-1776). Swiss writer, like his friend J, J, Bodmer (q.v.), one of the most influential 18th-century literary critics in Germany, was born in Ziirich, March 15, 1701, He studied theology and became professor at the Collegium Carolinum, He lectured on Hebrew, Greek, Latin, logic and rhetoric, showed his excellence as a philologist in many editions, and advocated education on humanist lines

JOHANN JAKOB

(Ziirich school reform, 1765-75),

Inspired by the Spectator papers of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, Breitinger founded the weekly Discourse (1721-23) for which he wrote essays on morals and aesthetics. The most important of his many publications, however, was the Critische Dichtkunst (1740), in which he attacked the narrowly rationalist Dichtkimst of the Leipzig "literary pope" J. C. Gottsched (q.v.) (1730), which was chained to Latin and French patterns. Breitinger stressed the place of the imagination and the wonderful in poetry; fired the German public with enthusiasm for Homer; and spread the ideas of John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury and Alexander Pope. He was visited by Goethe and others, and his pupils included J, K. Lavater and J, H, Pestalozzi, He died in Ziirich, Dec. 14, 1776. BiBLioGR.^PHY. Goethe, Dichtung und Wahrheit, book 7 (1812)

—

;

M. Hurlimann, Die Aufkldrung

in Ziirich (1924)

;

J,

W, Eaton, Bodmer

Braker, Der pddagogische Gehalt in Breitingers "Critischer Dichtkunst" (1950),

and Breitinger and European Literary Theory (1941)

;

J.

(JA, B,)

BREMEN,

and the largest port, after Hamburg, of Germany, the capital of the Land of Bremen and one of the old free Hanseatic towns. It extends 27 mi. along the Weser, covering 125 sq,mi,, and is 46 mi, from the North sea. Pop, (1959 est,), 552,025, The old town (Altstadt) occupies a sandy slope on the right bank of the river. In the 17th century the new town (Neustadt on the left bank was added to it. Suburban expansion was rapid after the late 19th century and there were large-scale incorporations of rural communities in 1902, 1921, 1939 (when some former Prussian boroughs to the north and southeast were also added) and 1945, Other satellite towns have risen in the east and In Bremen city the south: Neue Vahr, Huchting and others. Weser is spanned by five bridges the Grosse Weser bridge menreconstructed a little farther uptioned as early as 1250, was a

city

)

(

BREMEN— BREMER At the beginning of the 19th century the town's ramparts were made into promenades. The old town was severely damaged in World War II, but the Gothic town hall (Rathaus) was spared. Dating from the early 15th century, it has a three-gabled Renaissance faqade (early 17th Before it stands the statue of Roland (1404). the century). emblem of ancient legal privileges and imperial freedom. These rights are also embodied in the Gothic sculptures on the Rathaus Within, front, which depict the emperor and the seven electors. the hall is particularly noteworthy for its murals (including "The Bruyn) Bartholomaeus painted in 1532 by Solomon," of Judgment and for its Golden Chamber (Guldenkammer) with rich baroque wood carvings and its 16th- to ISth-century ship models. In 1909-13 a new wing (Neues Rathaus) was built on the site of the former Stadthaus, which in turn stood on the foundations of the archbishop's palace. The Schiitting on the opposite side of the market square was the guildhall of the merchant aldermen and dates from the 16th century. It houses the chamber of commerce. Though damaged in World War II, it was restored in its original form. On the site where a wooden church once marked the institustream).

by Charlemagne rises St, Peter's cathedral, an 11th-century structure crowned by two tall spires facing west. At the end of the 19th century restoration was completed and a third spire added. Of the four parish churches, dating mainly from the 13th century, the Church of Our Lady was repaired after World War II, except for its spire; St. Martin's and St. Stephen's were tion of the bishopric

also restored.

St. .^nsgarius',

with

its

celebrated 310-ft. "helmet"

was completely demolished. The old Minorite church of St. is used by the Catholic community. Among the notable public buildings the Gewerbehaus (originally the guildhall of the cloth traders, later of the retail traders' guild) and the Essighaus (an example of an old Bremen merchant's house) were restored, while in the early 1960s the Stadtwaage was restored, as were the old houses to the west of the market place and the oldest quarter of the town (the Schnoor and adjoining streets). An important development was the one-family house unit peculiar to Bremen. There are several parks, of which the most beautiful, the Biirgerpark, was founded and is maintained by private gifts. Industry. Bremen's economy has always depended greatly on trade and shipping, particularly after the close of the 18th century. A world market for tobacco and the foremost cotton centre on the European continent, Bremen led for a time in the rice trade and in crude oil transactions; then it developed its trade in wool and coffee. Transit and forwarding business also developed. The Norddeutsche Lloyd is the most prominent shipping company, followed by the Hansa, with a network of regular services to India and the middle east. During 1883-94 the Weser was transformed into a waterway capable of carrying ocean-going shipping. Bremen has 9.6 mi. of quays and Bremerhaven 9.1. The main imports are cotton, wool, tobacco, coffee, timber (notably Scandinavian sawn wood), cellulose, grain, citrus fruits, wine, cork, iron and manganese ores, gasoline, oilseed, crude oil and anthracite coal. Most of the products of Bremen's own industry are exported. Industrial undertakings were originally closely affiliated with commerce and navigation; the main industries were shipbuilding and associated industries and the processing of colonial goods tobacco, rice, coffee, cocoa, wool, jute and. to some extent, grain. After 1900 large-scale machine production and related industries, automobile manufacturing, electrical industries and smelting of imported ores grew up. Heavy industry (iron and steel production) gained a foothold with the acquisition of the Norddeutsche Hijtte by the Klockner group, and big steel-works were erected. History. In 787 St. Willehad. whom Charlemagne had estabspire,

John's

—

151

After the close of the 12th century the gradual consolidation of independent policy under the leadership of the town council whose main concern was the securing of trade routes by sea and land, priority being given to the defense

legislation led to the adoption of an

of the

Dominimn

Visiirgis, or free access to the sea.

The

council

purpose by founding on the banks of the lower Weser a coastal state over which it exercised absolute control, while, as early as 1400 efforts were made to attain the freedom of Bremen This was not finally secured until 1646. the empire. entered the Hanseatic league (q.v.) in 1358. but often steered its own course. Upon the dissolution of the league (the last meeting took place in 1669) Bremen, with Hamburg and Liibeck. was entrusted with guarding the privileges of the German merchant class. Bremen was inclined toward the Reformation as early as 1522, but about 1600 it turned away from orthodox Lutheranism and toward Calvinism, establishing a close relationship with its symThis had political, ecopathizers in faith, particularly Holland, nomic and cultural consequences. After the Thirty Years' War, Bremen had to defend its status as a free city in two wars against strove to achieve

its

the Swedes, who occupied the ancient diocese of Bremen, and subsequently against the claims of the electors of Hanover, the legal

successors to the Swedes in the diocese. However, the new era heralded by the proclamation of the United States of America and by the French Revolution brought with it a notable resurgence

momentum when the damage caused by the French (Bremen formed part of the Napoleonic empire in 1810-13) had been overcome. Efficient statesmen, notably Biirgermeister Johann Smidt, secured its independence: Smidt also established its importance as a seaport by the foundation (1827) of Bremerhaven (q.v.). Until 1866 Bremen was one of the member

which gained occupation

German confederation, then of the North German confederation and after 1871 of the reconstituted German empire, in which Bremen and Hamburg held unique positions as a result of their leadership in international trade and world shipping and

states of the

After the abolition of the monarchy, in 1918, into a land and new democratic institutions were adopted, while an earlier constitution of 1854 providing for a senate and parliament (Biirgerschaft) was repealed, .\ system of "deputations" permitted citizens to participate in the Later constitutional amendments did not touch administration. their port facilities.

the federal state

was transformed

these basic functions, and they were incorporated in the constitution of 1920-47. After 1945, Bremen and Bremerhaven together comprised the lafid of Bremen. German Federal Republic. BiBLioGR.^PHY. Bremisches Vrkundenbuch (documents), rev. by D.

Ehmck, W. von Bippen and H. Entholt, 6 vol. (1873-194.?) Historische Kommission fiir N'iedersachsen, Regesten der Erzhisclwle von Bremen ;

(1937 and 1953) Historische Gesellschaft, Bremisches Jahrbuch, 49 vol, (1864 et seq.) Veroffentlichungen des Staatsarchivs der Freien HanseF. Buchenau, Die Freie Hansestadt sladt Bremen, 29 vol. (1928-61) Bremen, 4th ed. (1934) W. von Bippen, Geschichle der Stadt Bremen (1892-1904) G. Bessell, Die Geschichle einer deutschen Stadt, 3rd ed. (1955) F. Priiser et al., Heimatchronik der Freien Hansestadt Bremen (F. J. D. P.) (195S). Schaffendes Bremen, 2nd ed. (1959). (officially Freie H.^nsestadt Bremex). the small;

;

;

;

;

;

BREMEN

The est of the nine Lander of the German Federal Republic. population, mostly Protestant, was 683.600 (1959 est.); area. 404 in the In 1945 the last of the localities sq.km. (156 sq.nii.). former rural areas were incorporated in Bremen municipality, and the land (qq.v.).

now consists of two cities. Bremen and Bremerhaven Bremen is the oldest German republic and is governed

a senate elected by the Biirgerschaft ("parliament"), with one representative from Bremerhaven for every four from Bremen

by

citv.

BREMER, FREDRIKA

in

(1801-1865), Swedish novelist and at Abo, Fin., on Aug. 17, a wealthy merchant, set1801. tled on his own estate at Arsta, near Stockholm, and there she

845 led to the succession of St. Ansgarius, the archiepiscopal title and the office of a north European mission were transferred from Hamburg to Bremen. In 965 the right to establish a market "in the place called Bremun" was conferred on Archbishop Adaldag. Under .Archbishop Adalbert (q.v.) (c. 1043-72), who planned a north European patriarchate, Bremen was a centre for north Europe and experienced its first, though short, period of prosperity.

was carefully educated. Her reading included Schiller, as well as the contemporary English novelists, by whom she was deeply impressed. Later she studied Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill and Plato, but above all she read the Bible; her greatest ambition was to prepare for a Christian millennium. Her Teckningar uturhvardagslijvet, begun in 1828, introduced the domestic English novel into Swedish literature and was followed by Familjen H.

—

Bremen Normans

lished as missionary bishop of the lower Weser, chose his see.

When

the destruction of

Hamburg by

the

as

women's rights, was born When she was three her father,

champion

of

BREMERHAVEN— BRENNUS

152 (1831

),

a great success.

Hcmmct

(1839) and

En

Her

best novels are Gratmarne (1S37), diigbok (1843). Her works were admi-

Mary Howitt (11 vol., and became well known in the United States, where she was warmly welcomed (1849-51). She gave an account of her experiences there in Hemmen i den nya verlden, three volumes (185354), one of the most interesting of Swedish travel books. Her novels Hertha (1856) and Fader och dotter (1858) deal with the social effects of assertion of women's rights. From 1856 to 1861 she traveled widely. Her journals, Lifvet i gamla verlden, were published during 1860-62. She died at Arsta on Dec. 31, 1865. BiELiocR.^PHY. C. Bremer, Life, Letters and Posthumous Works of F. Bremer, trans, by F. Milow (1868). Her letters, Fredrika Bremers Brev, were edited by K. Johanson and E. Kleman (1915-20). See rably translated by the poet and writer

1844-45

)

—

also G. .'VxberEcr, Jaget och sktiggorna, Fredrika-Bremer-studier (1951) G. Frcden, Arvel jran Fredrika Bremer (1951). (G. F.)

;

BREMERHAVEN,

a port of Germany, situated on the east Weser estuary on both banks of the Geeste river at its conkm. (38 mi.) N. of Bremen. Pop. (1959 est.) 139.611. Bremerhaven became a single municipality

of the

fluence with the Weser, 61

by the amalgamation of three separate towns: (1) Bremerhaven, founded as a port on the north bank of the Geeste in 1827 by Bremen's burgomaster Johann Smidt on a strip of territory ceded by Hanover; (2) Geestemiinde, founded in competition on the south bank of the Geeste in 1845; and (3) Lehe, a borough dating from medieval times which attained town status in 1920 and was united with Geestemiinde four years later to become the town of Wesermiinde. In 1939 Bremerhaven was incorporated in Wesermiinde and put under Prussian rule. This unified city was restored to the Land of Bremen, Federal Republic of Germany, in 1947 and thereafter known as Bremerhaven. After 1830. when the "Old Harbour" was opened, the docks were expanded by repeated cessions of Prussian territory. They include the Columbus quay and Columbus station which deal with transatlantic passenger traffic. After improvements to the Weser channel freight traffic was increasingly diverted to Bremen. On the Geestemiinde (south) bank is the fishery port, the home of much of the German trawler fleet. Shipbuilding flourishes. During World War Bremerhaven suffered heavy damage, particularly on Sept. 18, 1944. when the central town area was demolished, although the docks were substantially unimpaired. There are museums and 17th-century peasant houses (open-air museum).

H

Heimatchronik der Stadt Bremerhaven (1955). (F. J. D. P.) a city of Kitsap county. Wash., U.S., 15 mi. W.S.W. across Puget sound from Seattle. It is located on an arm of Kitsap peninsula and is surrounded on three sides by water. See G. BesseU

et al.,

BREMERTON,

Olympic college, a two-year college established 1946, which has an extensive adult education program.

It is the site of in

Bremerton was named after William Bremer, German-born realwho platted the town in 1891. Bremer sold land to the federal government at a low price in his successful effort to secure the navy yard for the new town. The Puget sound naval shipyard became the chief economic feature of the city and the second largest industry in the Pacific northwest. Employing about 10,000 men and covering more than 300 ac. of land, it is a vast concentration of piers, dry docks, shops, cranes, railroads (more than 35 mi. of track) and buildings. Bremerton was incorporated as a city in 1901. For comparative estate promoter,

population figures see table in

Washington:

Population.

(R. E. Bu.)

BRENDAN, SAINT Brenaind)

(c.

(Brandon

or

Brandan,

correctly

484-c. 578), Irish saint and hero of legendary voy-

ages in the Atlantic, was born at Tralee in Kerry. He founded his chief monastery, Cliiain Ferta Brenaind (anglicized Clonfert), in County Galway some 20 years before his death, and is known as Brendan of Clonfert to distinguish him from several namesakes, the chief being his contemporary St. Brendan of Birr. It seems reasonably certain that St. Brendan himself made a voyage to the

—

Scottish isles, and perhaps to the Clyde valley and Wales nothing unusual for a Celtic abbot in the 6th century. At a later period, possibly as early as the 8th century, he was made the hero of a Christian tale of sea adventure similar to the Imrama (see Irish

Literature). The legend, a narrative masterpiece, known as the Navigatio Brendani ("Voyage of St. Brendan"), was put down in Latin prose early in the gth century. Nearly every detail, though set forth in the vague way of an epic narration and hardly ever localized, is clearly based on authentic seamen's reports. Either as ascetics in search of an island abode or more prosaically as explorers, the Irish had thus first-hand accounts to give, not only of islands lying north and northwest, but also of the continent of America, before the Scandinavians settled on Iceland. St. Brendan's ultimate goal was the "Promised Land of the Saints" after a prolonged search he reaches it, but is sent back to Ireland and tells his tale. Over 100 manuscripts of the Navigatio Brendani are extant, besides translations and adaptations in prose or verse, with

many

variations,

Norman French, French, Italian, German, Irish, Welsh, Breton Brendan's Island, somewhere in the At-

into

Proven(;al, English, Dutch, Flemish,

and Scottish Gaelic.

St.

by sailors, was sometimes believed to have been sighted, probably an effect of mirage. His feast day lantic ocean, long sought

is

May

16.

See F. Nansen, In Northern Mists, 2 vol. (1911) J. F. Kenney, the Early History of Ireland, vol. i (1929). ;

The Sources for

BRENNAN, CHRISTOPHER JOHN

(Pi. Gn.)

(i87c^i932), Ausand scholar whose awareness of French and German literary movements influenced his own work and brought Australian literature into closer touch with European culture, was born at Sydney, on Nov. i. 1870. He was educated at Riverview college. Sydney university and Berlin university. He returned to Sydney in 1894 and in 1895 became assistant librarian at the public library. In 1908 he became a lecturer in French and German at Sydney university and in 1920 an associate professor, but resigned in 1925 when his wife divorced him. He died on Oct. 7, 1932. Brennan has been described as the "arthritic giant" of Australian literature. A huge, heavy, amiable man, with a talent for conversation and a taste for good food, he impressed those who knew him by his personality. His poetry, despite some obscurity, shows maturity of outlook and technical skill. tralian poet

—

Bibliography. Brennan's chief works were XXI Poems iSgj-jSgy: Towards the Source (1897) Poems (1914) A Chant of Doom and Other Verses (iqiS). See also A. R. Chisholm, Christopher Brennan: The Man and His Poetry 1946). (C. M. H. C.) ;

;

(

BRENNER PASS (Ital. Passo del Brennero; Ger. Brenner Sattel), the lowest and one of the most important passes through the main chain of the Alps. It divides the Rhaetian and Noric alps, and the highest point of the pass (4,501 ft.) is a continental divide between the Adriatic and Black seas. The Brenner pass has been one of the main entrances to Italy from the north and since Roman times the principal road between the eastern Alps, Germany and the Po valley. There was a Roman road across the pass, and since the 14th century it has been one of Europe's great trade routes. A carriage road was built across the pass in 1772 and the railroad was completed in 1867, linking Innsbruck in Austria with Verona in Italy. The road and railway chmb rather

steeply from Innsbruck to the Brenner pass and then descend into

the valley of the Isarco past Bressanone to Bolzano, where the

Isarco joins the Adige river.

From Bolzano

past Trento to

its

terminal at Verona, the railway and road follow the Adige valley, The 175 mi. by rail from Innsbruck to Verona. village and customs station of Brennero, scene of the meetings between Hitler and Mussolini (1940-41), is near the head of the a distance of

pass in Italy.

BRENNUS,

(G. Kh.) name of two leaders of the Gauls in the 4th invaded Italy in B.C. The first 390 or 387 B.C.

the

and 3rd centuries His name, which first appears in the works of Liv>', is not menIt is difficult to disentioned by Polybius or Diodorus Siculus. tangle the facts of,his capture of Rome from the legends. It is clear that Brennus crossed the Apennines, advanced on Rome down the Via Salaria, and defeated the Roman army at the Allia river, about 12 mi. from Rome. He then appears to have delayed a day or two on the field, giving time to fortify the Capitol; he sacked Rome, besieged the Capitol for seven months, accepted the offer of the defenders to ransom themselves, and then departed safely with his booty. Details are less credible: the massacre of the

BRENT— BRENT ANO patricians in their chairs;

the night attack on the Capitol; the sacred geese and the exploits of Marcus Manlius; the false weights

paying of the ransom; and the hurling by Brennus of his sword into the scales, with the famous words vae victis ("woe to the vanquished"). The ending given by Livy, wherein Marcus Furius Camillus arrived at the moment of payment and wiped out Brennus and his forces, cannot be accepted. In 279 another Brennus at the head of a band of Gauls invaded Greece. Earlier in the year Gallic invaders had defeated and killed Ptolemy Ceraunus in Macedonia. Brennus then advanced through Macedonia toward Greece proper, and was first held up at Thermopylae with great loss. Later, as had happened to Leonidas, the mountain pass was betrayed, but the Greek army was taken off by the Athenian fleet. Brennus, with the advance guard that had gone over the upper pass, pushed on for Delphi with its vast treasure. He was wounded, and in the subsequent general retreat northward few Gauls escaped. Brennus committed suicide. at the

BRENT, MARGARET

(c.

leOO-c. 1671), American colonial

landowner and administrator, was born at Gloucester, Eng., the daughter of Richard Brent, Lord of Stoke and Admington. Little is known about the first 35 years of Margaret Brent's life or her later private life, except that she never married. In 1638, Margaret and her sister Mary, accompanied by two brothers and a number of indentured men and women, landed at the town of St. Mary's, Md. The patent for the town land which Margaret and Mary were granted was recorded in 1639 as the "Sisters' Freehold." Through land deeded to her by members of her family and through business transactions, Margaret Brent in 1657 had become one of the largest landowners in the colony, exercising her rights as a manorial lord granted under her contract with Lord Baltimore. In 1642 she began her public career. The death of the governor of Maryland, Leonard Calvert, in 1647 opened the period of her most active service to the colony. He appointed her his sole executrix and she appeared again and again to defend the rights of the deceased governor. Her position was complicated by claims against the estate by Virginia soldiers, who had fought for Calvert in the dispute with William Claiborne over the possession of Kent Island. Their wages, long overdue, had been promised by the governor out of his own estate and that of the lord proprietor. Margaret was unable to raise enough cash from the estate to discharge the debt, and in 1648 she obtained an order from the council making her attorney for Lord Baltimore's estate. She sold enough of the proprietor's cattle to pay the soldiers, quelled a mutiny, and was credited with having saved the province from civil war. Convinced that she needed a voice in the assembly to discharge her obligations, she went to that body on Jan. 21, 1648, to request one vote for herself and another as Calvert's administrator and Baltimore's attorney. The votes were denied her, whereupon she protested against

all

proceedings of the assembly.

Lord Baltimore,

who remained in England, condemned her actions, however. She moved to her estate in Westmoreland county, Va., and died between

May

1669 and

May

1671.

BRENT,

one of the 32 London boroughs that came into exis1, 1965, under the provisions of the London Government Act 1963 which reorganized local government in the metropolis and the area around it. These 32 London boroughs constitute Greater London (see London). Brent, in the northwest, is composed of the former municipal boroughs of Wembley and Willesden, both from Middlesex. See Wembley; Willesden. tence on April

BRENTANO, CLEMENS

(1778-1842), German poet and novelist, a leader of the second movement in German romanticism, was born at Ehrenbreitstein on Sept. 9, 1778. His sister was Bettina von Arnim, the correspondent of Goethe; his mother, Maximiliane Brentano, Goethe's friend of 1772-74. He studied at Halle and Jena, where he made the acquaintance of the Schlegels, Hardenberg (Novalis) and J. L. Tieck, and afterward lived at Heidelberg, Vienna and Berlin, in close touch with writers of the patriotic revival of 1813. Emotionally unstable, he reflected in his troubled life the atmosphere popularly associated with the romantic poets. In 181 7 he became a fervent Roman Catholic and spent the years 1819-24 at the monastery of Dijlmen, taking down the

153

revelations of a stigmatized

nun Anna Katharina Emmerich.

He

died at Aschaffenburg on July 28, 1H42. Brentano belonged to the Heidelberg group of romantic writers,

works are marked by fantastic imagery and by abrupt, of expression. His cultivation of the poetry of the Rheinland and of the medieval and student atmosphere are important in the history of German romanticism. A born poet, he created some of the best-known German lyrics. The publication of Des Knabcn Wunderhorn (1805-08), which he edited with Achim von Arnim, showed the new character of the romantic movement. Instead of the vague profundity typical of the first romantics, there is here the simplicity of the Volkslicd, a form of lyric which Brentano could imitate and reconstruct most skilfully. Some of his prose works show a satirical vein. Among his first publications were Satireti und poetische Spiele (1800) and a fantastic romance Godu'i (1801-02); of his dramas the best are Ponce de Leon (1804) and Die Griindung Prags (181 5). On the whole his finest work is the collection of Romanzen vom Rosenkranz (1852); his short stories, and especially the charming Geschichte vom braven Kasperl iind dem schbnen Annerl (181 7 Eng. trans.. The Story of the Just Casper and Fair Amtie, 1927), imbue the folk stories on w'hich they are based with a delicate romanticism.

and

his

bizarre

modes

;

BiBLioCR.iPHY. Gesammelte Schriften, ed. by Christian Brentano, (1852-55); the best modern edition is Sdmtliche Werke, ed. C. Schiiddekopf (incomplete; igoq-17). His Briefe were ed. by F. Seebass, 2 vol. (1951). See also J. B. Diel and W. Kreiten, C. Brentano (1877-78); R. Steig, A. von Arnim und C. Brentano (1894); O. Mailon, Brentano-Bibliographie (1926) R. Guignard, Vn Poete romantiqiie allemand, C. Brentano (1933) and Chronologic des poesies de I. Seidel, C. Brentano (1944) C. Brentano (1933) W. Pfeiffer-Belli, C Brentano (1947) 9 vol.

by

;

;

;

.

.

BRENTANO, FRANZ

(1838-1917), German philosopher, one of the most influential teachers of his period, was born at Marienburg, near Boppard on the Rhine, on Jan. 16, 1838. His uncle was the poet Clemens Brentano, his father a well-known Catholic writer. Ordained as a Catholic priest in 1864, he was appointed Privatdocent in philosophy at Wiirzburg in 1866 and professor there in 1872. Religious doubts, exacerbated by the dogma of papal infallibility (1870), led to his resigning this post and seceding from the church in 1873. In 1874 he became professor of philosophy at Vienna. He resigned this post in 1880, thereafter teaching in Vienna till 1895. From 1896 to 1915 he lived in retirement in Florence. He died in Zurich on March 17, 1917.

Unhke most German principle

was "back

philosophers of his day, Brentano's guiding rather than "back to Kant."

to Aristotle"

His earliest publications were Aristotelian studies, and his last important book, Aristoteles und seine Weltanschauung (1911), was an attempt to reassess the essential features of Aristotle's thought in the light of modern knowledge. In metaphysics Brentano's own views inclined toward realism rather than toward idealism; but he insisted throughout on the existence of a personal and immaterial soul. Psychology he defined as the science of the soul; but the special object of its study was, he held, not psychical states but psychical processes or acts. His most original contribution was a revival and modernization of the scholastic theory of "intentional inexistence," or, as he sometimes called it, "immanent objectivity." His restatement of the doctrine is set forth most clearly in his most important book. Psychologic vom empirischen Standpunkte (1874), in a paragraph

formed the

i, s) that became the credo of his followers and Psychical phenomstarting point of their later work.

(ii,

ena, he declares, are distinguished

from

all

other types of phenom-

ena by a property "which the schoolmen called the intentional or mental inexistence of an object, and which we should rather describe as the direction of the mind to an object, by which we need not understand a reality." The task of the psychologist is therefore to investigate the various ways in which a mind can refer to an object. Three, Brentano maintains, are fundamental: (i) perception (the placing of the object or idea before the mind), a process which is logically prior to the rest; (2) judgment or belief; and (3) approval and disapproval, which he preferred to call love and hate. The doctrine of love and hate he subsequently treated

BRENTANO— BRESCIA

154 as the

key to an analytic theory of value. Brentano's influence on the later development of philosophic thought has been exerted largely through the work of his two most

founded by Sir Anthony Browne in 1558. Warley barracks were erected in 1805. Brentwood is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and the site of a county mental hospital.

pupils, Edmund Husseri and Alexius Meinong (qq.v.). have contended that the reference of the mind to an object is not so fundamental as Brentano supposed; in experiences of sheer pain or pleasure there is little extrinsic reference. Nevertheless, the property is one which no nonmental thing could possess; and the priority given by Brentano to the psychic act as distinct from the psychic state has gained wide acceptance. See F. Brentano: Gesammelte philosophische Schriften, ed. by O. Kraus and A. Kastil, 10 vol. (1922-30). (Cy. B.)

The district is predominantly residential. Industrial products include photographic films, agricultural machinery, steel equip-

famous Critics

BRENTANO, LUJO

(Ludwig Joseph) (1844-1931), Ger-

man

economist, was born at Aschaffenburg on Dec. 18, 1844. He received some of his academic education in Dublin and was professor of political theory in Breslau (1872) and later in Strasbourg,

Vienna, Leipzig and Munich. He retired in 1914. In 1868 Brentano made a thorough study of trade unionism in England, which resulted in his principal work. Die Arbeitergilden der Gegenwart (1871-72). The book was attacked by some

economists but was important not only as an authority on modern associations of workmen but also for the impetus it gave to the study of guilds of the middle ages. His other works, of a more theoretical nature, relate chiefly to political economy. He advocated free trade, and in industrial questions combated the wages fund theory. Brentano received the Nobel peace prize in 1927; he was a leading opponent of German militarism. CHISWICK, a municipal borough (1932) of Middlesex, Eng., which under the London Government Act 1963 was joined on April 1, 1965, with Heston and Isleworth

BRENTFORD AND

and Feltham to form the new London borough of Hounslow (see London). Brentford and Chiswick municipal borough is on the north bank of the Thames partly opposite Kew Gardens. Pop. (1961) 54.832, Area 3.6 sq.mi. It includes Turnham Green and Bedford Park, the latter an early venture in town planning, and is

The river Brent, there canalized as Grand Union Canal, forms nearly the whole western boundary Thames at Brentford. There are more than 320 ac. of open spaces (excluding Gunnersbury Park, laid out by William Kent, now owned jointly by Acton, Ealing, and Brentford and Chiswick). Industries, mostly concentrated in Brentford along the Great West Road and Gunnersbury Avenue, are diverse: a parliamentary constituency.

the

of the borough and joins the

apart from the manufacture and repair of underground railway rolling stock they include other engineering concerns, the production of gas and electricity, and brewing. There are docks at the mouth of the canal. Brentford, once a centre of Saxon government, was granted a toll bridge and a market by Edward I. The ancient street market, originally at Kew Bridge, moved to its present site in 1893, is open daily. During the 16th and 17th cen-

was a favourite resort of London citizens. The house 1622 and grounds of Boston Manor are borough property. Chiswick. more residential, retains a generally older appearance than Brentford. St. Nicholas' Church still has its 15th-century tower, as has St. Lawrence's at Brentford. At Strand-on-theGreen near Kew Bridge and Chiswick Mall farther east cottages and Georgian houses flank the river. Chiswick House (now public property) with its 66 ac. of wooded grounds was designed by the 3rd earl of Burlington with William Kent (1727-36), largely modeled on Andrea Palladio's Villa Rotunda (or Capra) near Vicenza, Italy. turies Brentford (

)

Famous people connected with

the area include W. M. Thackeray, Alexander Pope, William Hogarth (buried at St. Nicholas'), J. J. Rousseau, Shelley, J. M. W. Turner, and WiUiam Morris. James Whistler is buried in the new cemetery. Chiswick Eyot is one of several eyots, aits, or small islands in this part of the

Thames.

BRENTWOOD, an

urban district. Essex, Eng., is 18 mi. N.E. of London by rail. Pop. (1961) 51,959; area 28.5 sq.mi.; altitude 400 ft. Surrounded by pleasant undulating country, now includ-

Thorndon and Weald parks, Brentwood (i.e., "burned wood." its site being originally that of a forest fire was on the route followed by pilgrims from East Anglia to Canterbury. It was an assize town when judges first went on circuit and the The grammar school was Elizabethan assize house remains.

ing Boyles Court,

)

ment and prefabricated concrete.

BRENZ, JOHANN

(1499-15 70). German reformer, a leader of the Reformation in Wiirttemberg, was born at Weil. Wiirttem-

June 24. 1499. and studied at Heidelberg under John Oecolampadius. Ordained priest in 1520. he ceased to celebrate mass in 1523. Brenz was a strong advocate of Lutheran doctrine, and author of Syngramma Suevicum (Oct. 21. 1525), which set forth Luther's doctrine of the Eucharist. Protected by his patron Duke Ulrich of Wiirttemberg. he was appointed (Jan. 1553) provost of the collegiate church of Stuttgart. He opposed applying the death penalty to Anabaptists or other heretics in the De Haereticis, an sint perseqiiendi (1554). An incomplete edition of his works appeared in 1576-90. and T. Pressel edited Anecdota Brent iana in 1868. Brenz died on Sept. 11, 1570. See J. Hartmann and C. Jager, Johann Brenz, 2 vol. (1840-42). berg, on

BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES OUDARD FEUDRIX DE

(1714-1794). French scholar who investigated the annals of French history in England. He was probably born at Gainneville near Le Havre on Feb. 24, 1714. After the Seven Years' War he was sent to search in the archives of England for documents bearing upon the history of France, particularly upon that of the French provinces which once belonged to England.

From this mission Brequigny brought back copies of 70.000 documents, which form 109 vol. in the Bibliotheque Nationale. A selection was published by Jean Jacques Champollion-Figeac in Documents inedits relatifs a I'histoire de France, 2 vol. (1839-47). Brequigny was a member of the Academic des Inscriptions and in 1777 was elected to the Academie Frangaise. The Revolution interrupted him in his collection of Memoires concernant I'histoire, les sciences, les lettres, et les arts des Chinois, begun in 1776, when 14 volumes had appeared. He died in Paris, July 2, 1794. See the article on Brequigny by E. Dumont in Assises de Caumont (i8q6), including a bibliography; L. P. de Bachaumont, Memoires secrets (1777-89).

BRERETON, LEWIS HYDE

(1890-

),

U.S. air force

who commanded the 9th air force in European operations during World War II, was born on June 21, 1890. at Pittsburgh, Pa. He was graduated from the U.S. naval academy in 191 1, but became an army pilot and served as combat commander during officer

World War 1941.

He was promoted to the grade of major general in I. Commander of the U.S. far east air force which was almost

destroyed in the Philippines in 1941, Brereton thereafter comthe loth air force in India (1942) the 9th air force based in the middle east (1942-43) and England and France (1943-44); and the ist allied airborne army (1944-45). Beginning with a small nucleus in Oct. 1943, he built the 9th air force into the world's most powerful tactical air unit which, together with the Royal Air Force, defeated the Luftwaffe in western France and supported U.S. armies in their sweep across France and Belgium in the summer of 1944. He published his war memoirs under the (A. Go.) title of The Brereton Diaries (1946). BRESCIA, capital of the province of Brescia, Lombardia, northern Italy, lies at the foot of the Alps, 91 km. (52 mi.) E. of Milan by road. Pop. (1961) 179,845 (mun.). The plan is rectangular, with streets at right angles, a Roman peculiarity, though the Roman town occupied only the eastern portion of the later one. The Piazza del Foro marks the site of the forum, and the museum on its north side is in a Corinthian temple with three cellae, probably the CapitoUum of the city, erected by Vespasian in a.d. 73. It contains numerous tombstones, objects in bronze (one of which

manded

;

is the famous "Statue of Victory" found in 1826) and glass, as well as ceramics, mosaics and coins. Near it are the remains of the ancient theatre. The castle, at the northeast angle, commands The old cathedral (llth-12th century) is a round a fine view.

domed

building over a 6th-century church, and the Broletto, adnew cathedral 1604j on the north, is a massive buildand 13th centuries (the original town hall, now the

joining the

ing of the 12th

(

BRESLAU— BREST prefecture and law courts), with a lofty tower. The convent of S. Salvatore, founded by Desiderius, king of Lombardy, has three

^5S

corporated into the royal gouvernement of Burgundy.

(M. Pac.)

BREST,

medieval museum,

churches, two of which have been occupied since 1882 by the fine in which can be seen the "Dittici consolari"

Finistere, Brittany, western France, lies on the northern shore of

(5th century), the "Lipsanoteca" (4th century), the "Croce di Desiderio" (Sth century), sculpture, objects in bronze, glass and The church of S. Francesco majolica, enamels and medallions. The Palazzo del Commune, has a Gothic fa(;ade and cloisters. begun in 1492 and completed by Ludovico Beretta in 1554-74, is

Rade de Brest and on the slopes of divided by the Penfeld river. It is 255 km. 158 mi.) W.N.W. of Rennes. Pop. (1954) 110,713. Eighty per cent of the town was destroyed during the siege of 1944 in World War II, but by 1960 rebuilding was almost complete and the tourist trade

a magnificent structure, with fine ornamentation. The church of has rich details, especially of Sta. Maria dei Miracoli (1488-1523

increased.

)

Many other churches, and the picture Tosio-Martinengo ), contain works of the painters of the Brescian school, Vincenzo Foppa, Girolamo Savoldo, Alessandro Bonvicino (Moretto), Girolamo Romanino and Moretto's The city has no less than 72 public pupil, Giambattista Moroni. fountains. Brescia is on the main line from Milan to Verona other lines run to Trento, Cremona and Parma. It makes ironware, particularly firearms, also machinery, woolens, linens and silks, matches and candles. It is the chief centre of the stocking facMazzano, 13 km. (8 mi.) E. of Brescia, has stone tories of Italy. the reliefs on the fagade.

gallery (Galleria

;

quarries.

The Celtic Brixia of the Cenomani submitted to Rome in 225 Augustus founded a civil colony there in 27 B.C. In 452 it was plundered by Attila, but was the seat of a duchy in the Lombard period; from 1167 it was an active member of the Lombard league. In 12 58 it fell to Ezzelino da Romano, and belonged to the Scaligers (della Scala) until 1421, when it came under the Visconti of Milan, and in 1426 under Venice. Early in the 16th century it was one of the wealthiest cities of Lombardy, but never recovered B.C.

from its sack by the French under Gaston de Foix in 1512. It belonged to Venice until 1797, then to Austria; it revolted in 1848, and in 1849 was the only Lombard town to rally to Charles Albert, but it was taken by the Austrians and lost again in 1859. In World War II it was captured by the Allies on April 27, 1945. Brescia province (area 4,749 sq.km.; pop. 877,241) is situated between lakes Garda and Iseo. The mountainous northern region

way

gives

to

a

fertile

raising) in the south.

and Chiese

irrigated

plain

The province

is

rivers.

BRESLAU:

(agricultural

and

cattle

drained by the Oglio, Mella (G. Pa.)

Wroclaw.

see

BRESSANONE

(Ger. Brixen). a town in the Bolzano prov-

ince of the Trentino-.Mto Adige region, lies in the extreme north

m. (1,834 ft.) in a fertile Alpine valley Rienza and Isarco rivers, 41 km. (25 mi.) N.X.E. of Bolzano by road. Pop. (1957 est.) 13,468. It has an 18th-century baroque cathedral, a bishop's palace, 12 churches including the round church of St. Michael (12th and 16th centuries and five monasteries. Bressanone is on the main railway crossing the Brenner pass. Wool and hydroelectric power are produced, orchards and vineyards are cultivated and there is a of Italy at a height of 559

at the confluence of the

)

large tourist trade.

none from Sabiona

BRESSE,

The

episcopal see

in 992.

was transferred to Bressa(M. T. A. N.)

a natural region of eastern France, embracing parts

and Saone-et-Loire. and extending for 60 mi. from the Dombes region in the south to the Doubs river in the north and for 20 mi. from the Jura in the east to the Saone river in the west, toward which it gradually slopes. A fairly prosperous agricultural area, it has long been renowned for its of the departements of Ain

poultry.

In the northern part the lords of the Vienne. Antigny, SainteCroix and Coligny families were powerful landowners for many years, beside the dukes of Burgundy, who from the 14th century were continually increasing their possessions in Bresse until the death of Charles the Bold (1477), after which most of northern Bresse was annexed, together with Burgundy, to the crown of France. The southern part was at first also under the rule of various lords, the most powerful being the lords of Bage. They were, however, superseded in 1272 by the house of Savoy, which in the 15th century organized the province of Bresse, with Bourg as its capital.

This province was ceded to France in 1601 by the

treaty of Lyons.

Soon afterward the whole of Bresse was

in-

naval

a

station

and port

in

the

departement of

the magnificent landlocked

two

hills

(

The

chief streets are the rue de Siam, rue Jean Jaures

two meet in the Place de la Liberte, the Along the shore south of the town is the Cours Dajot promenade. At the western end stands the castle with its keep and seven towers commanding the entrance to the Penfeld. Its first walls were built at the end of the 3rd century. The roadstead consists of a deep indentation formed by coastal subsidence, about 23 km. (14 mi.) long and of the same average width, barred by the peninsula of Quelern, leaving the Goulet passage 2-3 km. (1-2 mi.) wide. The outline of the bay is broken by numerous submerged tributary valleys. The naval port, much of it excavated out of the rock, extends along both banks of the Penfeld. Large areas have been reclaimed from the sea, and the principal dry docks and workshops are now situated along the roadstead on both sides of the mouth of the river. The commercial port, separated from the town by the Cours Dajot, comprises a tidal port with docks and an outer harbour. Brest is the terminus of the main railway line from Paris through Chartres, Le Mans and Rennes. Another line runs southeastward through Nantes to Bordeaux. There is a daily air link with Rennes and Paris. Many industries from the Paris district are moving to and rue de Lyon; the

The

Brest.

first

new town.

centre of the

principal industries are brewing, ship repairing, the

manufacture of chemicals and superphosphate, and the cleaning of oil tankers. Wine, coal, timber, gasoline, iron and steel, fertilizers and paper pulp are imported, while fruit (strawberries from Plougastel), seed potatoes, and cattle are exported. Brest was ceded about 1240 by Count Herve V of Leon to John I, duke of Brittany. From 1342 to 1397 it was in English hands, and the saying was current that "he is not duke of Brittany who is

By

not lord of Brest."

the marriage of Charles VIII. king of

France, with Duchess Anne of Brittany in 1491 Brest passed to the French crown with the rest of Brittany. Richelieu decided in 1631 to create the port of Brest,

and

became

it

a station for the

French

Colbert improved the port Vauban's fortifications followed The fortifications and the naval importance of Brest in 1680-94. continued to develop. During World War I it was the port of disembarkation for the U.S. army fighting in France. After 1918

naw.

it

;

became

liners

and

increasingly important as a port of call for transatlantic a leading naval centre.

In World

War

II Brest

was

oc-

June 1940. The town was besieged by U.S. forces from Aug. 15 to Sept, 18, 1944, when it was captured; by 1960 the destroyed docks had been rebuilt with the most modern (A. J. Mi.) equipment. BREST (Brest Litovsk), an oblast of the Belorussian Soviet following Soviet ocformed in 1939 the Republic, was Socialist cupation of east Poland from part of the territory held by Poland from 1921 to 1939, Its area of 12,973 sq.mi. lies'almost wholly in the basin of the Pripet (Pripyat) and its tributaries, notably the Yaselda. Most of the 06/17^; is very level and covered by the great swamps and forests, known as Polesye (Polesie. q.v.). Extensive spring floods occur. Only in the north, around Pruzhany cupied by the

Germans

in

and Baranovichi, where the land rises to the morainic hills of the White Russian ridge, is it drier, and there most of the forest has been cleared. After 1873 drainage was accomplished in various Agriculture is chiefly flax, hemp, potato and sugar beet areas. growing, with cattle raising and dairying on the abundant pastures. Forestry

The main industries are the processing of and timber. Peat is widely used for power.

important.

is

agricultural products

The population (1959) is 1,205,000, of whom 283,000 (23%) The largest towns are Brest (73.000), Baranovichi are urban. (58.000), Pinsk (q.v.) and Kobrin. The main Moscow-Warsaw railway and highway traverse the oblast, together with the Brest-

Gomel

and

Vilnius

(Vilna)-Rovno

railways.

The

Dnieper

BREST-LITOVSK— BRETHREN

156 (Dnepr)-Bug

canal, linking the Pripet to the Bug, takes small craft,

chiefly with iron ore

westward and coal eastward.

and stormy history, and has frequently been destroyed. The counThe fortress, cil of 1596 established the Uniate Church there. built in the 1830s, was ruined in its prolonged resistance to the Germans in 1941. There are food processing, textile, furniture and light engineering industries. Brest is a river port and rail centre and the chief transit point for traffic between the U.S.S.R. and (R. A. F.)

BREST-LITOVSK, TREATIES OF.

The short-lived Brest-Litovsk during World War I by the

peace treaties signed at Central powers with the Ukrainian republic (Feb. 9, 1918) and with Soviet Russia (March 3) disclosed what sort of peace victorious Germany had in mind for eastern Europe.

On Nov.

it had assumed power in Petrogovernment published a declaration proposing an immediate opening of negotiations for a "just and democratic peace, without annexations or indemnities." Oh Nov. 26. Russian truce-bearers crossed the front and started discussion

S,

1917, the day after

grad, the Soviet Russian

with the representatives of the German high command in the east, who agreed to come to terms. On Nov. 30 the Soviet government sent notes to the Entente powers suggesting peace neogtiations, but they did not reply. On Dec. 3, at Brest-Litovsk, preliminary negotiations started between the Soviet government and the Central powers. On Dec. 5 a truce w-as arranged for a week, and on Dec. 1 5 an armistice was signed to last until Jan. 14, 1918, with automatic prolongation unless seven-day notice of rupture was given

by

either party.

Peace negotiations began on Dec. 22. The Soviet delegation was headed by Adolf A. loffe. the German by Richard von Kijhlmann (g.v.), the Austro-Hungarian by Ottokar Graf Czernin; Bulloffe at once laid garia and Turkey were also represented. down as a sine qua non the principle of "peace without annexations and indemnities, and the recognition of the right of self-determination for all nations." Kijhlmann and Czernin accepted this with the proviso, supplied by Gen. Max Hoffmann, chief of staff of the German armies in the east and second German delegate, that Poland, Lithuania and Courland had already exercised their right of self-determination when they opted "either for an independent existence or a protected status within the

German empire."

(g.v. was the head of the Soviet delegation. A new situation was created by the arrival at Brest-Litovsk, on Jan. 7, of a delegation claiming to represent the independent Ukrainian republic and insisting on concluding a separate peace treaty with the Central )

Ignoring

its

presence, Trotski insisted on the withdrawal

German and Austro-Hungarian troops from the territories of the former Russian empire and demanded that the non-Russian

of

peoples should determine their future through plebiscites. Hoffmann refused to evacuate the occupied territories, and on Jan. 18 the negotiations were again adjourned.

Trotski left for Petrograd and at a meeting of the Soviet government recommended a policy which he summarized as follows: "We shall stop the war but should not sign the peace treaty." Lenin had his doubts. Speaking on Jan. 22 as the central com-

mittee

the

of

Communist party, he said; "We cannot afford If the Germans advance we will have to conany case, but the terms will be worse if we do not

Trotski's formula.

clude peace in sign

now."

who

returned to Brest-Litovsk on Jan. 30, Thus deadlock was complete and in these circumstances the Central powers decided to sign, on Feb, 9, the peace treaty with the Ukraine against the will of Russia. Trotski, however,

was

A

in

no

mood

of compromise.

considerable area of Russian Poland

—the

so-called

Chelm

dis-

to the Ukraine,

and Austria-Hungary undertook

the Ukrainian parts of Galicia and Bukovina into an

autonomous crownland

—

all

of which was a deadly offense to the

by Vsevolod Holubovych, the prime minister, undertook to supply the central powers with 1,000,000 tons of breadstuffs annually, Trotski announced that the treaty with the Ukraine was an unfriendly act. On Feb. 10. he left Brest-Litovsk after announcing that Russia would cease hostilities but not conclude a peace. On Feb. 16 Hoffmann denounced the armistice, and on Feb, 18 the German and Austro-Hungarian armies advanced to occupy the rest of Latvia, Estonia, almost all of Belorussia and the L^raine. In Petrograd stormy meetings of the central committee of the party as well as of the All-Russian Central Executive committee took place. Lenin declared that Trotski's experiment had failed, that there seemed no hope of immediate revolution in Germany and Trotski now sided that therefore peace must be signed at once. with Lenin, and on Feb. 19, by seven votes to six. the central committee decided to sign the peace treaty. Germany, however, replied by an ultimatum embodying fresh demands: all the occupied On lands were no longer to be subject to Russian sovereignty. In return the Ukrainian delegation, headed

Poles.

Feb. 24, after a dramatic debate, the All-Russian committee, by 116 votes against 85, with 26 abstentions, accepted the ultimatum.

On

Feb, 26 the Russian delegation, G. Ya. Sokolnikov, A. A. M. Karakhan, G. V. Chicherin and G. I. Petrovski, once

loffe, L.

The peace treaty was signed on at Brest-Litovsk. Russia renounced control over Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russian Poland and a major part of Belorussia and also ceded to Turkey the districts of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The independence of Finland and of the Ukraine was recognized. In all. Russia lost about 3S6.000 sq.mi., with about 46.000,000 inhabitants. On March 15 the All-Russian committee ratified the more appeared

March

3.

peace treaty. Both peace treaties, the Russian and the LTkrainian, were annulled by the armistice of Nov. 11. 1918, which

marked

the final

Two

days later the Soviet government declared the Brest-Litovsk treaty null and void. See also references under "Brest-Litovsk, Treaties of" in the defeat of Germany.

Index. See U.S. Department of State, Proceedings of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference, Nov. 21, 1917-March 3, 1918 (1918) J. W. WheelerBennett, Brest-Litovsk, The Forgotten Peace (1938). (K. Sm.) ;

BRETHREN, CHURCH OF THE,

On

Dec. 28 the conference was suspended on the pretext that the Soviet government wanted to secure the inclusion of Entente powers in the negotiations. Actually the Russians were delaying in the hope of arousing the workers not only of Germany and Austria-Hungary, but also of the Entente countries. When the conference reopened on Jan. 9, 1918, Lev D, Trotski

powers.

—was ceded

to erect

The town and administrative centre of the oblast, formerly Brest-Litovsk. stands on the right bank of the Western Bug at the Mukhavets outfall. First mentioned in 1017, Brest has a long

Poland.

trict

of several bodies of Brethren (variously

the parent and largest

known

also as

German

Baptist Brethren', Dunkards, Du.nkers, Tunkers, Taufers Donkelaars) who took their theology largely from the Lutheran Pietists of the 17th century (see Pietism), They are now found in the United States, West Germany and Denmark, (1) The parent body, the Church of the Brethren (headquarters Elgin, 111.), numbers about 1,000 churches with a membership of about 200,000. (2 The Brethren Church (Progressive Dunkers), which separated from the main body in 1882 because of differences over church poUty (headquarters Ashland, 0.~), claims about 25.000 members. (3) The Old German Baptist Brethren (Old Order Dunkers), separated from the main body in 1881 in protest against liberalizing tendencies (headquarters North Manchester, Ind. ), number around 4,000. (4j The Church of God (New Dunkers), which separated in 1848, numbers fewer than 700 members. (S) The Grace Brethren Church (1939; headquarters Winona Lake, Ind.) has about 25,000 members. Origins. By 1708 a large number of Pietists and evangelicals had found refuge at Schwarzenau, in Wittgenstein. A group of eight persons, who with Alexander Mack as their leader had been meeting there for Bible study and prayer, determined to covenant with God to forsake'the world and to follow Christ in all the commandments and ordinances of the New' Testament. This led them to accept baptism by trine immersion (a figure of death, burial and resurrection). Mack was baptized by one of the eight, chosen by lot, after which he baptized the Other seven. Devotions and or

)

—

An intense missionary enconfirmation followed the baptism. thusiasm was manifested by the group, and their fervour was so contagious that other persons rapidly united with them in Witt-

BRETHREN Marienborn and other parts of the Palatinate. Because of the persecution that followed in some of these communities (as a result chiefly of their social views, one of which was pacifism), many of the believers finally went to Krefeld in Prussia, where they found safety. Move to America.—The Brethren began their emigration to in 1719. joining the 15.000 Palatine Germans who settled in Pennsylvania between 1683 and 1730. Peter Becker and

America

Brethren from the Marienborn district were among the first, and after three years' residence in Pennsylvania, Becker became pastor of the first organized Brethren church, in Germantown 0723). In 1729 Mack and his three sons arrived. The first withdrawals from the church took place as a result of Conrad Beissel's estabhshment. beginning in 1732, of the Ephrata colony, a semimonastic communal group of celibate men and women who observed the seventh day as the Sabbath. The group was never large: at Beissel's death in 1768 the community numbered 135 members. The town of Ephrata (12 mi. N.E. of Lancaster) remains, and the cloister there is maintained by the state as a historical shrine.

The Church 1848;

it

tional in

is

God group

separated from the parent body in strongly conservative in belief and strictly congregaof

The Old Order Dunkards. who withdrew

government.

in

1881, stand for the literal interpretation of the Scriptures in regard to the Lord's Supper,

Sunday

and practice close communion; they have no

schools, educational

The worst

work or

missions.

occurred in 1882 when a group withdrew to form the Brethren Church. This now centres in Ashland, O., where Ashland college, a seminary, a publishing company and mission board offices are located. The Bretlireti Evangelist is the church weekly. Its mission fields are in Nigeria and Argentina. The Grace Brethren Church withdrew from the Brethren Church in 1939 over points of church polity and theological emphasis. Its centre is at Winona Lake. Ind.. where Grace college and seminary are located. The church carries on mission work in the region formerly known as French Equatorial Africa and in Argentina. The parent Church of the Brethren operates nine colleges and Bethany seminary, Chicago, 111., and carries on mission work in Europe, Asia and Africa. Polity. The Brethren's rejection of every form of mingling of church and state, in opposition to the ideas prevalent during the split

—

period of their emergence in Germany, caused them to emphasize individual freedom of belief and a congregational form of church government, with each member of the congregation having a vote in church affairs. Since 1742, however, the Standing Committee of the

the

Annual Meeting has taken an increasingly active part

over-all

supervision of the individual

congregations.

in

The

Standing Committee, the "upper house" of the Annual Meeting, is of delegates elected from the member churches. Local congregations are headed by moderators (lay or clerical, men or women), and ministers are chosen by congregational vote.

made up

Doctrine and Worship. liever's

—

The Brethren recognize only bebaptism, by trine immersion {see Baptism, Christian).

They model

their

communion

service after

what they believe

to

have been the experiences of Jesus and his disciples at the Last Supper. Thus they perform the rite of footwashing, and follow it by partaking of the love feast, after which the communion of the bread and the cup (as symbols of the broken body and shed blood of Christ) is taken (see Agape). The Brethren use the kiss of charity; they anoint the sick with oil in the name of the Lord for healing; and they refuse to take oaths. They endeavour to settle matters of difference with each other without appeal to law or the courts. They hold to the position

of nonresistance.

alcohol and tobacco

and

They in the

believe in total abstinence from avoidance of places of amusement.

—

Bibliography. M. G. Brumbaugh, A History of the German Baptist Brethren in Europe and America (1899) Daniel F. Durnbaugh, European Origins of the Brethren (1958); Frank S. Mead, Handbook of Denominations in the United States, pp. 46-53 (1956). (E. Bo.) ;

BRETHREN

IN CHRIST (River Brethren), a religious body of the United States and Canada, incorporated in 1904 and numbering about 6,500 members. Its headquarters is at Lancaster, Pa.

157

The Brethren

genstein,

in Christ,

who

derive from the general background

of European Pietists, Anabaptists and Waldensians,

came

to

Amer-

about 1 750 and settled in Pennsylvania along the Susquehanna river; hence the name River Brethren, by which they were known

ica

for

many

years.

The church was not in Christ until

1863,

officially

when

organized under the

the drafting of

Union army made necessary

its

name Brethren

young men

into the

formal organization as a body of

conscientious objectors.

The church stands for equality of all communicants, though the ultimate authority in policy and doctrine is vested in a General Conference held annually. There are six regional conferences, five in the United States and one in Canada, by which and business reach the General Conference.

The

petitions

revised constitution of the church

(1959) sets forth its "to promote worship of Almighty God and to disseminate His gospel." The confession of faith states that God is eternal, omnipotent and triune, the Creator, theological position;

its

object

is

sustainer, provider of redemption through faith in Christ.

work of the Holy

The

and the Bible is the inspired Word of God and final authority for faith and practice. The confession teaches believer's baptism by trine immersion (see Baptism, Christwn), washing of the saints' feet, partaking of the Lord's Supper, the holy kiss, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance in war, the imminence of the second coming of Christ, and general resurrection of the dead. The Brethren frown on worldly amusements. The denomination supports three colleges, home missions and foreign missions in Rhodesia, India, Japan and Cuba. In 1843 a small group of members, feeling that the River Brethren were becoming la.x, seceded and formed the Old Order or Yorker Brethren; they number only a few hundred members in Spirit

is

stressed,

Pennsylvania.

In doctrine they are identical to the other River Brethren, but they refuse to build or meet in churches. Another branch, the United Zion Church, was formed in 1SS5 when Bishop

Matthias Brinser was expelled from the River Brethren for holding services in a meetinghouse; the It

body was incorporated

has fewer than 1,000 members, nearly

all in

in 1954.

three Pennsylvania

counties.

See Frank S. Mead,

Handbook

of

Denominations

in the

pp. 52-53 (1956).

of Christian

communal

United States, (E. Bo.)

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON life,

LIFE,

form were established by (Gerhard Groote living a

Deventer in the Netherlands. Groote, originally a was converted by the Carthusians, with whom he lived for several years, and was influenced by the mystic Jan van Ruysbroeck; he subsequently became a well-known preacher of penance. From among his friends and disciples, among whom was Florentius Radewyns (d. 1400), he formed about 1380 a community devoted to education and the care of the poor; similar groups of women were established practising weaving and spinning. After Groote's death, and at his express wish, many of the brotherhood became Austin canons (1387) at ZwoUe; henceforth the movement had two forms, the one of regulars, the other in the (1340-84J

worldly

at

cleric,

The institute spread throughout the Low Countries, the Rhineland and north Germany. It displayed, and by means of its teaching fostered, all the most characteristic features of north European piety in the century before the Reformation: the concept of a Christian life, social and self-supporting, based on that of the first disciples (Acts iv, 32-35); a simple regime in common, an absence of ceremonial, complicated ordinances, penances and severe fasting, and little of the rich liturgical life of medieval monasticism. The Brethren were among the principal exponents of the devotio moderna, which received its fullest and most permanent expression in the Imitation of Christ, usually ascribed to their friend and sometime associate Thomas a Kempis. Among the chief aims of the Brethren were the education of a Christian elite, and the furtherance of the reading of devout literature by the production of finely written manuscripts and later by the printing press. They kept large schools, in which the scholarship though not the spirit of the Italian Renaissance found a home; Erasmus as a boy was deeply influenced by them, both in this and world.

BRETIGNY— BRETON LITERATURE

158 many

features of his religious outlook.

Gerhard Groote also founded at Deventer in 1379 the first house of Sisters of the Common Life, devoted to education, the copying of books and weaving. The whole movement, eminently characteristic of its epoch and region, which was a principal theatre of activity of the early reformers, was seriously affected by the religious upheaval, and

was produced in 1824 with some success, and thereafter he managed to combine writing with his duties in a number of minor posts in government service. In 1837 he was elected to the Spanish Academy and ten years later became director of the Biblioteca Nacional. He died in Madrid on Nov. 8, 1873. His total of 177 plays, most of which portray the everyday life of middle-class society and

passed out of existence early

lack the profundity of earlier Spanish dramatists, exhibit a great wealth of verse-forms and an astonishing degree of metrical dex-

in

in the

17th century.

See M. Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, vol. 1, pp. 552-560 (1933-34) A. Hyma, The Brethren of the Common Lije (1950). (M. D. K.) ;

BRETIGNY, TREATY OF,

an unratified treaty between England and John II of France, signed on May 8, It ended the first phase of the Hundred Years' War (q.v.), after the French defeats at Sluis (1340), Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), where John was captured. The valid treaty of Calais, ratified on Oct. 24, 1360, which replaced that of Bretigny, differed from it in that the English agreed to defer the signing of a clause whereby Edward renounced the French throne and John any suzerainty over territories that he ceded. Such an agreement was to be concluded after the agreed exchanges of territories between the contrasting parties should have been effected. Otherwise the treaties were virtually identical. John agreed to pay a ransom of 3.000.000 gold crowns and to surrender, in westcentral and southwestern France, all Aquitaine (including Guienne, Gascony, Bigorre, Beam, Poitou, Aunis, Saintonge, Limousin, Perigord. Angoumois, Gaure, Rouergue and Quercy and, in the north, the counties of Ponthieu (including Montreuil) and of Guines, together with Calais, Sangatte and Ham. All adjacent islands to these territories and all other islands then in Edward's possession (hence the Channel islands) became English. In his turn Edward relinquished Normandy and Touraine and renounced suzerainty of Brittany and Flanders. (J. D. L.) BRETON, NICHOLAS (is55?-i62S?), indefatigable English writer of religious and pastoral poems, satires, dialogues, essays, etc. His father, a wealthy London merchant, died when his children were minors, and his mother subsequently married George Gascoigne, who squandered his stepson's patrimony and influenced There is no official record of Breton's residence his early poetry. at the university, although a contemporary described him as "once of Oriel College." His life was spent mainly in London; he was presumably still alive when the burial of Matilda, daughter of "Nicholas Breton, gent.," was recorded on July 27, 1625. He dedicated his works to many patrons, including James I his chief early patron was the Countess of Pembroke, whose favour he

Edward

III of

1360, at Bretigny, near Chartres.

)

;

temporarily lost in the 1590s. In 1598 Breton was accounted one of the best lyrical poets but he outwrote himself and outlived his reputation. His satires are rather mild and general; more successful are the descriptions of simple country pleasures, whether in the pastoral poetry of The Passionate Shepherd or in the prose descriptions of the months and the hours in his Fantastics (1604?) which in some respects anticipates the fashion for character books. Breton himself wrote two character books later (The Good and the Bad and Characters Upon Essays the latter containing essays as well). His prose

—

works also include stories, dialogues and letter writers: his Post With a Packet of Mad Letters was many times reprinted

A in

His carefully balanced quadrapartite sentences become rather monotonous, as also do the fervent stanzas of the long devotional poems he wrote under titles such as "A Solemn Passion of the Soul's Love." Bibliography. Most of Breton's works were collected by A. B. Grosart in iSyq; some of the volumes which he could not obtain (all Breton's works are bibliographical rarities) will be found, with a bioRraphy and canon, in Poems by Nicholas Breton Not Hitherto Reprinted, ed. by J. Robertson (1952). (J. Rn.) the 17th century.

—

BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, MANUEL

(1796-

1S73). Spanish poet and dramatist who was one of the most important and prolific writers in Spain during the 19th century. Born at Quel, Logroiio, on Dec. ig, 1796, he was educated at Madrid where his family had settled in 1806. Six years later he enlisted, fought against the French in Valencia and Catalonia and served in the army until 1822. His first play. A la vejez viriielas,

Among his best works are Marcela (1831), Muerete y verds (1837) and El pelo de la dehesa (1840). terity.

BRETON LANGUAGES:

Indo-Europeans; Celtic

see

Languages.

BRETON LITERATURE,

—

like the language, divides into

three periods old. middle and modern. Old Breton written remains (Sth to nth centuries) consist entirely of names and glosses in documents, the chief collections of which were all published by Joseph Loth in Vocabidaire vieux-breton (1884). Breton names occur in Latin books and charters written between the 9th and 11th centuries. Lists appear in Loth's Chrestomathie bretonne

(1890).

No Breton literature has survived from the beginning of the Middle Breton period (11th to 17th centuries), though it certainly existed, since Breton harpists were well known; but they were content to sing their compositions and we can learn nothing about their poetry except from the many works their songs inspired in the better-known languages. Until the 15th century only names are found, in such documents as charters, apart from a few scraps of verse discovered in a 14th-century manuscript in Paris {Revue celtique, vol. xxxiv, pp. 241-248 [1913]), which constitute the earliest known connected text in Breton. Written Breton literature did not really begin until the late ISth century,

—

when

there

appeared the Catholicon of Jean Lagadeuc a Breton-Latin-French dictionary dated 1464 and printed in 1499 (probably the first printed Breton book) and Quiquer de Roscoff's French-Breton dictionary and conversations, printed in 1616 and often reprinted, an edition appearing in 1915. A collection entitled Cantiques bretons (1642) names several Breton airs. All the remaining works of the period are religious and most are in verse. Buez

—

Nonn ("Life of St. Nonn," late 15th-century, reprinted, 1835) paraphrases and dramatizes the Latin life, attempting to localize some events in Brittany. Burzud bras Jezuz ("The Great Mystery of Jesus," 1530, reprinted 1865) follows Arnoul Gresban and Jean Michel's French play. Biihez santes Barba ("Life of St. Barbara," 1557, reprinted 1885) also derives from a French play. These three mystery plays were probably the most significant products of the middle period. Three long poems belonging to the 1530s, reprinted in Poemes bretons du moyen age (1879), "Tremenvan an itron gwerches Maria" "The Passing of the Virgin santez

(

Mary"), "Pemzec levenez Maria" ("The Fifteen Joys of Mary") and "Buhez mabden" ("The Life of Man") were all probably based on French versions. Mellezour an Maru ("The Mirror of Death"), a long, somewhat lugubrious poem composed in 1519 and printed in 1575, is based ultimately on a Latin work of which versions exist in French. A book of hours in verse reprinted as Middle Breton Hours, ed. by W. Stokes (1876), a prose extract from the Leon missal and a prose catechism also belong to the 16th century as does the prose Buhez and itron sanctes Cathell ("Life of St. Catherine," 1576), a translation of the Golden Legend version. An Mirouer an Confession ("The Mirror of Confession," 1621) is translated from French and so is Doctrin an Christenien ("ChrisA collection of carols. An Nouelou tian's Doctrine," 1622). ancient ha devot, appeared in 1650, and a book of metrical meditations in 1651. Middle Breton literature obviously lacks originality and does not reflect Breton life of the period. The indigenous culture of Brittany spems to have been entirely neglected by the educated classes, who introduced an enormous number of French words into the preponderantly religious works published. 17th- and ISth-Century Mystery Plays. Linguistically, Modern Breton is said to begin in 1659. when Julien Maunoir substituted a more phonetic orthography for the traditional system in However, this is of little his grammar Le Sacre College de Jestcs. literary significance since works of the Middle Breton type con-

—

BRETON LITERATURE tinued to appear up to the 19th century. verse was published, but the bulk of

Much

religious prose

Breton literature in

tion with Anatole

this

Brittany," two volumes, 1890-91). 19th- and 20th-century Prose.

period consisted of mystery and miracle plays treating subjects taken from the Old and New Testaments, saints' lives and stories of chivalr>', generally derived from French or Latin sources. Even Breton saints are treated in the invariable traditional style and

though there is occasional local colouring, the plays evince little originality. Old Testament plays include Creation ar bed ("CreaWorld"), Bue Jacob ("Life of Jacob"), Trajedi Moyzes ("The Mystery of Moses"), and Btie De-oy ("Life of David"); New Testament plays Bue santes Anna ("Life of St. Anne"), Satit Ian Baptist, An Passion and Biiez Antekrist ("Life of Antichrist") which treats of the Last Judgment. There are, naturally, several Breton plays about saints Buez an abad Goenole ("Life of Abbot Gwennole"j, Bue an otro Sant Garan ("Life of St. Garan"), a play about St. Patrick, etc. Dramas on chivalric themes are Vie des quatre fils Aymon and Bue Huon a Vourdel ("Huon of Bordeaux"). Other plays included Buhez Louis Eunius ("Life of Louis Eunius"), Bue Robard an Diaoid ("Robert the Devil") and three farces Ar Farvel goapaer ("The Mocking Fool"), Ian Melarge ("Shrove Tuesday") and Bue en tad Mallarge a Tristemina e vroec hac e vugale ("The Life of Mallarge, Tristemine His Wife and His Children"). These plays were always acted by peasants and incurred the displeasure of the clergy, with the result that at the time when tion of the

the old religious

drama was

159

Le Braz, Soniou

and

struggling to survive, the revival of

Breton literature began. In the ISth century, many Breton dictionaries were published but little of literary significance was produced. However, one name survives: Claude-Marie Le Lae (1745-91) who wrote satirical poems Ar C'hy ("The Dog") and the sermon of Mikel Morin. The Revival of Breton Literature. The "Celtomanes" e.g., Le Brigant and La Tour d'Auvergne became enthusiasts for the Breton language; Le Gonidec (1775-1838) codified modern Breton, wrote a Celto-Breton grammar (1807) and dictionary (1821) and edited a Breton translation of the New Testament (1827). Interest in Breton revived at the time when the central government was trying to impose French on the area and destroy the regional language however, the Bretons endeavoured to create

— —

:

a national literature, particularly after the publication of the cele-

brated Barzas Breiz (1839; after 3rd ed., 1845, Barzaz Breiz— "Breton Bardic Poems"), a collection made in the villages by Theodore Hersart de La Villemarque (1815-95) who edited, trans-

and commented on each song, declaring that internal evidence showed they were composed in the remote past and had survived unchanged as part of Breton folklore. The collection acquired considerable renown; George Sand called it "finer and more perfect poetry than any masterpiece the human mind has yet conceived" and such historians as Augustin Thierry thought the poems precious documents. However, Breton-speaking scholars were surprised at its strange vocabulary, which included Welsh words and incorrect expressions. Critics who doubted its authenticity soon began to speak of "the Breton Macpherson." Attacks on the book reached their height about 1870, when La Villemarque, who had published several learned works in the interim, had been elected a member of the Ins ti tut. R. F. Le Men, in his reprinting of Catholicon (1867), and Frangois-Marie Luzel, in a paper delivered in 1872, showed that Barzaz Breiz was not an lated

anthology of Breton folk poetry. They divided its contents into three classes: (1) old poems rearranged by the editor or others, chiefly love songs and ballads, (2) modern poems made to look medieval and (3 ) spurious poems on such personages as Merlin and

Nomenoe. But neither this nor even the publication of a 600-page thesis by Francis Gourvil in 1960 abated the controversy. The fact remains that Barzaz Breiz was very important: the historical poems (which exalt the Breton's traditional struggle against oppression) had an especially strong influence. Although they w-ere often read only in French translation, the poems made Bretons proud of their own language and continue to be admired (the 1959 edition almost sold out in a year). Barzaz Breiz led to the reawakening of Breton writers and stimulated Luzel himself to collect authentic folksongs and publish Gwerziou Breiz-Izel ("Ballads of Lower Brittany," two volumes, 1868, 1874) and in collabora-

Breiz-Izel ("Folksongs of

Lower

—

Luzel also collected folk tales in Breton as well as in French transContes bretons (1870), Veillees bretonnes (1879) and Les Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-Bretagne (1881). His collaborator, Le Braz, investigated Breton stories concerning an Ankou ("Death"), which he published as La Legende de la Mort (1893; Eng. trans. Dealings With the Dead, 1898). Many books of stories appeared in Breton between the 1860s and the 1960s in which it is hard to distinguish between traditional and literarj' elements, as in Gabriel Milin's Marvailhou Grac'h koz ("Old Wives' Tales," 1867), Lan Inisan's Emgann Kergidu ("The Battle of Kergidu," 1877) and many others. When Breton writers do not depend on folk legends for material, they like to fictionalize their own life stories; e.g., Faiich Al Lay, who transposes his own youth into the ISth century in Bilzig (1925). Many books of war memoirs and mixtures of autobiography and imaginative writing were published in Breton in the early and mid-20th century. Other prose works include the novels of Berthou-Kerverziou. Fafich EliesAbeozen, J. M. Kerwerc'hez, Roparz Hemon and the painter Xavier de Langlais. The few published works of Jakez Riou (1899-1937) show what a loss Breton literature sustained when he died in his prime: the short stories in Goetenn ar Werc'hez ("The Virgin's Herb." 1934) are remarkably concise and unexpectedly combine sensitivity with profound skepticism. His friend Youenn Drezen wrote the best Modern Breton novel, Itron Varia Garniez ("Our Lady of the Carmelites," 1942). The many improving religious works published are not at all original; yet many Bretons who have read only one book in their own language have read Buez ar Zent ("Lives of the Saints"). 19th- and 20th-century Drama. Most playwrights were

and legends, publishing many

lation, including

—

concerned to teach moral and religious lessons e.g., Toussaint Le Garrec (1866-1939) and Abbe J. Le Bayon (1876-1935), who revived the tradition of the mystery plays, inspired by the Oberam{q.v.), and at his theatre at Sainte Anne d'Auray produced four great mysteries Nicolazig, Boeh er Goed ("The Voice of the Blood"), Ar hent en Hadour ("In the Steps of the Sower") and Ar en hent de Vethleem ("On the Way to Bethle-

mergau passion play

hem"). Since 1900 more than 100 plays have been written in Breton by writers of great talent such as Le Braz, Elies, Hemon, de Langlais, Riou and Drezen. The work of Tanguy Malmanche (1875-1953) dominates the first half of the 20th century: it was compared with that of Paul Claudel and J. M. Synge. Several of his plays were performed in French translation. His work was carried on by Pierre Helias, a talented younger writer who has written 300 radio plays and had many stage plays produced. His writing was both popular and extremely polished. 19th- and 20th-century Poetry. Most novelists and playwrights wrote poetry as well as prose. For 200 years Bretons expressed their feelings in poems published as pamphlets either as

—

—

soniou (love songs, satires, carols, marriage lays) or gwerziou (ballads or broadsides describing recent events in Brittany and elsewhere). Their authors were people of every social class, very

few of whom read Barzaz Breiz, and the poems were hawked around from fair to fair. A catalogue of the 2.000 of these pamphlets that remain was made by Joseph Ollivier (1942). Prosper Proux (1812-73) had his soniou printed in book form, as Bombard Kerne ("The Hautboy of Cornouailles," 1866), and dozens of poets published collections after the appearance of Barzaz Breiz; w^ell known are those by Jaffrennou-Taldir, Loeiz Herrieu, Roperh Er Mason, Joseph Cuillandre, Paotr Treoure; but the outstanding figure was undoubtedly Jean-Pierre Calloc'h, killed in action in 1917, whose poems were published with a French translation in 1921 as Ar en Deulin ("Kneeling"). Reviews and Movements. Literary reviews abounded in the early 20th century and published much valuable work. The most influential leader of any of the literary schools publishing a magazine was Roparz Hemon, whose Gwalarn ("North-West") was founded in 1925. He published work of enormous diversity, including many fine poems and stories and other pieces e.g., translations from W. B. Yeats, Synge and Aeschylus intended chiefly to

—

—

BRETONNEAU— BREUIL

i6o

literary development of the Breton language and its range and power. Rene le Roux, author of the "archaeromance" Sketla Segobrani (1923-25), and the lexicographer Francois Vallee were similarly preoccupied with the struggle to resist the encroachment of French words and to make Breton

further the

Bretschneider nevertheless allowed a

increase

in the interpretation of its

ological

BRETT, GEORGE

full critical exercise

of reason

dogmas.

HOWARD

(1886-

self-sufficient.

U.S. air com) in World War II, was born in Cleveland, 0., Feb. 7, 1886. served with the U.S. air service in France in 191 7-1 S and after extensive experience, especially in the materiel field, became chief

in

of the U.S.

The new standardized spelling system introduced 1941 was adopted only by some writers, so that in the mid-20th century there were two literatures differing in spelling, vocabulary

and outlook: one, as represented by the review Al Lianim ("The Link"), aimed at only a small number of initiates (its best writers were Ronan Huon and the poet Maodez Glanndour); the other school, which published the review Briid ("Fame"), was led by Pierre Helias: it did not wish to be cut off from ordinary Breton readers, whom it tried to attract little by little toward Uterary works of an increasingly high standard. A law passed in 1951, which gave Breton a place in the state schools as well as in the baccalanreat syllabus, might well make this task easier, for if instruction is given in Breton, writers might increase in numbers and quality. Until 1951. however, though all Bretons could read books written in their

own language,

the only people

who

could write in

were educated French-speakers who had come to Breton late in life (hence the ease with which certain writers forget the and a very small proportion of the 900,realities of the language 000 native Breton-speakers who had been taught to use their own language in a few church schools and seminaries (this, rather than the Bretons' traditional piety, probably accounts for the abundance of Breton literature inspired by religion). BiBLioGR.^PHY. J. Loth, Chrestomathie bretonne (1890) A. Le Braz, Le Theatre celtique (1904) P. Le Goff, Petite Histoire Utteraire du it

)

—

;

;

Annales de Bretagne (particularly from 1901 onward) Revue Celtique; Joseph Ollivier, Catalogue bibliographique de la chanson populaire bretonne, introduction and preface by P. Le Roux and C. Chasse (1943) Loeiz Herrieu, La Litterature bretonne depuis les origines jusqu'au XXeme Steele (1943) Roparz Hemon, La Langtie bretonne et ses combats (1947) Yves-Marie Rudel, Panorama de la litterature bretonne (1950) Francis Gourvil, Langue et litterature bretonnes (1952); Abeozen (Fanch Elies), Istor Lennegezh Vrezhonek an amzer-vremah, history of contemporary Breton literature, written in Breton 1957). (P. Tr.)

Vannes (1924)

dialecte breton de

;

;

;

;

;

;

(

BRETONNEAU, PIERRE

(1778-1862), French physician, one of the greatest epidemiologists of his time, was born on April 3, 1778, at St. Georges-sur-Cher. His fame rests on the first performance (1825) of the operation of tracheotomy for croup; on the clinical distinction of diphtheria, so-named

by him

in his

Des

inflammations specialcs dit tissii muqueiix et en particiilicr de la diphtherite ( 1S26 and on his work on typhoid, which, he foresaw, would be differentiated from typhus. In 1814 he passed the examination for doctor, of medicine in Paris and in 1815 became )

See P. Triaire, Bretonneau et ses correspondants (1892) Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 18, page 1 (1924).

;

Proceedings

of the

BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB German 1776.

was born

theologian,

He

at Gersdorf,

(1776-1848), Saxony, on Feb. 11,

lectured on philosophy and theology at Wittenberg

(1804-06); was pastor of Schneeberg, Sa.xony (1806-08); superintendent at Annaberg, Saxony (1808-16); and then moved to Gotha, where he was general superintendent until his death on Jan. 22. 1S4S. The best part of his life's work was done at Gotha. In 1820 appeared his most notable work, a treatise on the Gospel of St. John, which discussed with moderation the arguments against Johannine authorship. His greatest contribution to exegesis was his Lexicon Manuale Graeco-Latiniini in libros Novi Tcstamenti its use of the Greek of the Septuagint, of Testament Apocrypha, of Josephus and of

(1824), valuable for the Old

and

He

New

the apostolic fathers, in illustration of the language of the New In 1826 he published Apologia der neuern Theologie

Testament,

An English translation of his of the Religion and History of the Christian Church apRecognizing a supernatural element in the Bible,

army

When World War

air corps in 1940.

II began,

Brett was on an official tour of India and China, from which he was diverted to Australia to take command of U.S. troops there. After Gen. Douglas MacArthur's arrival in Australia in March 1942, Brett became chief Oif the .Allied air forces in the" Southwest Pacific, directing the defense of Australia and New Guinea until he was succeeded by Maj. Gen. George C. Kenney in Aug. 1942.

Operating with

air forces described as "pitiable" in strength, Brett to stop the Japanese advance along the island chain toward Australia. From Nov. 1942 he headed the Caribbean defense command in the war against German submarines in that (A. Gg.) area. He retired in 1945, with rank of major general. (1842-1925), Austrian physician and physiologist and the principal forerunner of psychoanalysis, was

had not been able

BREUER, JOSEF

in Vienna on Jan. 15, 1842. In 1868 he studied the respirator\' cycle and discovered the Hering-Breuer reflex, which is the foundation for the understanding of the nervous control of respiration. In 1873 he discovered the sensory function of the semicircular canals and their relation

born

to positional sense.

many members

He

practised medicine and was physician to

of the Viennese medical faculty.

In ISSO he used h^^jnosis in treating a hysterical patient, "Anna 0." (Bertha Pappenheim). Breuer found that she improved when she remembered unpleasant past experiences. He concluded that neurotic symptoms result from unconscious processes and disappear when the unconscious processes become conscious. Breuer treated no other patients by psychotherapy, but he described his methods and results to Freud and referred several patients to him. Breuer and Freud published Stiidien iiber Hysterie in 1895 but Freud soon after broke off his relations with Breuer. Freud rightly stated that Breuer's contributions were an integral part of the fouridations of psychoanalysis. Breuer was elected to the Viennese Academy of Science in 1894. He died in Vienna on June 20, 1925,

See Psychoanalysis. See also Neue Oesterreichische Biographie, ed. bv .\nton Bettelheim, Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 39':319-322 (1958). vol. 5, pp. 30-47 (1928) ;

(P.F. C.)

BREUER, MARCEL LAJOS

;

mcdecin in chef of the hospital at Tours. There he studied epidemic typhoid. His contribution to the knowledge of this disease is second in historical importance only to that of his work on diphtheria. The doctrine of specificity was his third most important contribution to medicine. By this doctrine he foreshadowed the germ theory of disease. Bretonneau died on Feb. 18, 1862.

,

mander

(1902-

),

Hungarian-

U.S. architect, one of the most influential representatives of the international style of modern architecture in the LT.S., was born in Pecs, Hungary, on May 21, 1902. He studied and later taught

(1920-28) at the Bauhaus in Weimar and then in Dessau, Ger,, pioneering in the design of tubular steel furniture. From 1935 to 1937 he practised architecture in London. Then his former associate at the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius, invited

architecture at

Harvard

university,

him

to teach

and Gropius and Breuer be-

came architectural partners (1937-42). Among Breuer's many notable works are his own home in Lincoln, Mass. (1939), the UNESCO building in Paris (with Zehrfuss and Nervi, 1953-58), St, John's abbey, Collegeville, Minn. (1954), and the Bijenkorf department store in Rotterdam (1955-57). Breuer was the author of Sun and Shadow, the Philosophy of an Architect (1955).

See Peter Blake, Marcel Breuer, Architect and Designer (1949); S. Stoddard, Adventure in Architecture: Building the New

Whitnev

Saint .Johns (1958)

(A. K. P.)

BREUGHEL: sec Brueghel. Pieter. BREUIL, HENRI EDOUARD PROSPER

(1S77-I961), French archaeologist, an authority on prehistoric archaeology especially

associated w:ith the

evaluation of the

cave paintings of

Europe and Africa, was born

in Mortain, Manche, on Feb. 28, His science professor at the Seminary of Issy les Moulineaux encouraged him to take up a scientific career. After first studying the Bronze Age of the Paris basin, he became one of the pioneers

1877.

Among

many

des evangelischen Deiitschlands.

in

Manual

and engravings, are those on La Caverne de Font-de-Gaume (1910), Les Combarelles (1924) and Les Trots

peared in 1857.

by

the field of Paleolithic art. his copies of paintings

his

books, illustrated

BREVE—BREVIARY

i6i

Frdres (1958) in France, La Caverne d'Altamira (1906) and Les cavernes de la region cantabrique (1911) and other regions in

f^m^

Spain. Qiiatre cents sieclcs d'art parietal (1952) reveals the great scope of his activities in this field. During and after World War 11 he spent about six years in South and South-West Africa and

Rhodesia, copying

many

of the painted rock shelters.

His archaeLes Subdivisions dti PaleoUthiquc superieur et leiir signijication (1912 ), which added the Aurignacian period to the existing classification; Les Industries a eclats du paleolithiqtte ancien. 1. Le Clactonien (1932). On his 80th birthday his bibliography listed more than 600 items. He was professor at the Institut de Paleontologie Humaine (Paris) from 1910 and at the College de France from 1929 to 1947. He became a member of the Institut de France in 1938. Breuil died in L'Isle-Adam, Seineet-Oise. on Aug. 14, 1961. (H. Ke.) ological

publications include

BREVE: see Musical Notation. BREVET: see Officers. BREVIARY, the book that contains

the daily service for the (canonical hours) in the Roman Catholic Church breviarium, "abridgment." "epitome"), and including the

divine ofiice (Lat.

complete psalter, lessons, antiphons, etc., for every day in the It may be considered in close connection with the missal

year.

(containing the eucharistic office); official

service

book

the Rituale

Romanum

(the

for administration of the sacraments such as

baptism, marriage, etc.); and the Pontifical (containing prayers, the bishop). The service of the divine

etc., for rites restricted to

which is distinct from but auxiliary to the mass, is recited daily by all priests and certain other clerics and said or sung bymonks, friars, many nuns and some other religious. History. In the early days of Christian worship the Bible furnished almost all that was required, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms recited. The first step in the evolution of the breviary may have been the sepaoffice,

—

ration of the psalter into a choir book.

The monks

originally

recited the 150 psalms every day. but this took so much time that eventually the recitation was spread over a week, each day being divided into seven or eight "hours" with allotted psalms for each hour. St. Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, and the Roman division of the psalter, which remained

unchanged until 1912, is perhaps even older. To the were added, in course of time, other service books, containing prayers, antiphons, etc. There was originally a service corresponding to and resembling the synagogue services, consisting of scripture reading, singing of psalms, homiletic e.xplanation and prayer formulas. By the 2nd century a.d. the synagogal service was connected with the Eucharist. The Easter vigil with its lessons influenced the other v'igil services, especially Saturday of Ember days, and these became the model of the nocturnal service performed by monks. John Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives a list of books needful, besides the psalter and Old and New Testaments, for right conduct of the canonical office; antiphonary; passionary; and coUectar, containing antiphons, the four versions of the Passion and the prayers (collects j sung by

^ •

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urtlif uroonuinuiiiunialten

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—

DETAIL OF A PAGE FROM SALISBURY BREVIARY. 15TH CENTURY. FRENCH

(prime, terce. sext and none) were said privately at home, a practice that has survived to this day with the Carthusian monks.

The breviary

of the

Roman

curia

was adopted (with some modi-

e.g., the substitution of the Galilean for the Roman version of the psalms) by the newly founded order of Franciscan friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX, and through the

fications;

became known

practically

Franciscans' wide-ranging activity

psalter

rope, supplanting the older partial books.

the presiding officiant.

The inconvenience

of using a whole library of books for these

services naturally led to the idea of substituting one

compendious

volume. Attempts in this direction were made as early as the 8th century by Alcuin, and a little later by Galindo Prudentius (d. (pope 1073-85) completely 861j, bishop of Troyes; Gregory reformed the liturgy used at the Roman curia, and accepted for his abridgment the name of breviary. But the earliest extant manuscript containing the whole canonical office in one book is of the year 1099 (from Monte Cassino. now^ in the Mazarin library at Paris). A few 12th-century breviaries are extant, all Benedictine. Under Innocent III (pope 1198-1216; their use began to be

VH

more general. The first attempts

to enforce a daily

pensum

of organized prayer

with the secular clergy (the original impetus to the divine office

came from the monasteries were made in the 6th century in Italy. St. Ambrose in a.d. 397 mentions the use in Milan of the lucernarium (vespers) and lauds or matins, and the daily night vigil. These were read in the cathedral churches. The little day hours )

it

all

over Eu("12 77-

Nicholas III

80) introduced the Franciscan breviar>- for the Roman churches, its position secure. It did not supersede the vari-

and thus made

when Pius V form, as the Breviarium Romanum. and made it obligatory in every diocese where the local use could not show at least 200 years of undisturbed and unchallenged existence. Since then it has gradually become universal except in the Benedictine. Cistercian, Carmelite, Carthusian and some other relious local diocesan breviaries, however, until 1568,

issued

it

in a revised

gious orders, in the diocese of Milan (where the Ambrosian rite

and in a chapel of the cathedral of Toledo (where the Mozarabic rite, once universal throughout Spain, is still followed).

persists)

Of the many attempts

to

make

the breviary

more

suitable for

private use the most remarkable is that by Cardinal Francisco de Quifiones (1535), w-hich, undertaken by order of Clement VH, passed through many editions before its suppression in 1558 and

was largely used by the compilers of the English Prayer Book of 1549. The breviary of Pius V was altered by Clement VHI in 1602 (through Caesar Baronius and St. Robert Bellarmine), especially as concerns the rubrics; and in 1632 by Urban VIII, a classical purist who unfortunately tampered with the text of the hymns, injuring both their literary charm and their religious content. In the 17th and ISth centuries a movement of revision, largely under Galilean and Jansenist influences but also in the interest of sound critical scholarship, took place in France, and affected about half the breviaries of that country. These reformed French breviaries {e.g., the Paris breviary of 1680 by Archbishop Frangois de Harlay and that of 1736 by .Archbishop Charles Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille) show a profound knowledge of Holy ScripDuring the ture and much careful editing of different texts. pontificate of Pius IX, however, an uncompromising Ultramontane movement arose against them, its chief advocate being Dom P. L.

BREVIARY

l62

p. Gueranger, a zealous conservative Benedictine monk, abbot of Solesmes, helped by the radical Ultramontane Louis Veuillot; the movement succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Galilean influence, not to speak of the 18th-century Enlightenment and rationalism, also was strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne, Miinster, Mainz and other dioceses. Under the direction of Benedict XIV (pope 1740-SS), a special commission of cardinals collected many materials for an authoritative revision, but nothing was published. Pius X. by the apostolic constitution "Divino Afflatu" (Nov. 1, 1911), ordained the use of a newly arranged psalter, as well as the observance of certain new regulations in the marmer and order of reciting the office the main object of the changes being to restore the weekly recitation of the entire psalter and the reinstatement of the Temporale as opposed to the Sanctorale (see below). Pius XII. acceding to the wishes of many of the bishops, reduced both the breviary and the missal to a simpler form (decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites of March 23, 1955). In the following year he surveyed the opinions of the bishops on the matter of liturgical improvement of the breviary, and on the basis of their answers decided that it was time to attempt a general and systematic revision of the breviary and missal. The question was referred to a special committee of experts who had been appointed to study the general liturgical reform. A new code of rubrics of the Roman breviary and missal was

—

announced by Pope John XXIII in an apostolic letter of July 25, 1960, and went into effect on Jan. 1, 1961. Pope John wrote: The fact is that this new arrangement of the rubrics has two effects.

On

the one hand, the whole structure of the rubrics of the Roman Breviary and Missal is reduced to a better form, distributed in a clearer order and brought together into a single text. On the other hand, some special modifications have also been introduced, by which the Divine Office is somewhat shortened. Contents. Until 1961 the breviary usually was published in

—

four volumes (for the winter, spring, summer and autumn portions of the ecclesiastical year), but the reform of John XXIII produced a two-volume breviary. After the calendar, tables for finding Easter, general rubrics and other prefatorj' matter, each volume contains: (1) psalter; (2) Proprium de Tempore; (3) Proprium

Sanctorum; (4) Commime Sanctorum ; (S) extra

—This

services.

contains the psalms arranged in sections, with prayers, hymns, antiphons, etc., for the several hours .'hroughout Psalter.

the week. The psalms are arranged so that the whole psalter may be recited each week and (by dividing some of the longer psalms) so that the portions allotted to each day's office are of approximately the same length. Ps. cxlviii to cl are always used at lauds,

and give that

office its

The

name (each

of

them begins with

laudate,

psalms is that commonly known Jerome's second revision from the Greek Septuagint into Latin. This was adopted at Rome in the 13th century (having long been accepted elsewhere) instead of his first translation, the so-called Roman version, which is still used in St. Peter's and the Lateran. The reform started by Pius XII, built on a revised psalm te.xt of the 1946 version (after the Hebrew version), was marred by the use of classical Latin instead of the

"praise ye").

as the Galilean;

text of the

i.e.,

St.

Latin created by Christian writers.

The tradition of reciting the whole psalter every week so far has prevailed, with a few exceptions, over the desire to recite the psalms meaningful for the occasion; the exceptions are Sunday, compline and special feast psalters, whose psalms are easily recognized as having been selected ad hoc.

The

psalter of the breviary also includes

Old Testament

canti-

songs or prayers, other than psalms, derived from the psalm (e.g., the Song of the Three Children, Dan. ill, 57-88, on Sunday; the

cles

Bible

i.e.,

—

for use at lauds in place of the fourth

Paralipomenon xxLx, 10-12, on Monday; etc.) Testament canticles from St. Luke (viz., the

canticle of David, I

and three

New

Benedictus, Luke vespers; and

breviary sources.

has

Nunc six

i,

68-79, at lauds;

dimittis,

more

ii,

Magnificat, 29-32, at compline).

canticles

i,

46-55, at

The monastic

from various old Testament

—

The "Proper of the Season," or Temhymns, responsories, readings and chapters of the feasts and seasons built around the great mysteries of redemption, the Easter and Advent cycles; in other words, it is "Christ-centred." The sum of these days, the intervening Sundays and ferias (weekdays without a saint's feast) and Propriiim de Tempore.

porale, contains the antiphons, little

Ember days form the backbone of the ecclesiastical year. (See Year.) Proprium Sanctorum. The "Proper of the Saints," or Sanc-

the

Church

—

torale. contains those parts of the office that are strictly

proper to

the individual saint (a special selection of psalms, antiphons, bi-

ography, proper orations, hymns, responsories, etc.). Some of these propers are of sublime beauty, some are undistinguished. Canonization of new saints and the press of popular devotions tend to crowd out the Proper of the Season. Practically all re-

forms have had to deal with this problem: after an undisturbed growth of saints' feasts an energetic pope restores the temporal office. Pius X started to do this, but his successor quickly gave way to conservative pressure and reintroduced feasts of some saints just abolished.

While the

liturgical

veneration of saints

is

sober and truly

Christ-centred, the general effect of this influx from the Sanctorale is

beauty of the two major cycles of the

to destroy the subtle

season.

Commime Sanctorum.

—The Common

of the Saints contains all those parts of the services for the saints where propers are lacking

— that

offices that are

is,

common

to saints,

grouped as Apostles,

martyrs, confessors, holy women, etc. These offices usually are of very ancient date, and most of them actually are former propers of one particular saint, now made commons.

Extra Services.-

—These include

the Little Office of the Blessed

Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead, and office peculiar to each diocese.

Common

Terms

to All

—

Roman

Breviaries. Not only each its own office, the day being di(See Hours. Canonical.) Each of the hours of the office is composed of the same elements: psalms (including canticles), antiphons, responsories, hymns, lessons. Utile chapters, versicles and coUects. The psalms and canticles have been discussed above. Antiphon. The antiphons are sentences of biblical or patristic origin, recited before and after the psalms and canticles. They bestow a certain flavour on the otherwise neutral psalms. The term originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost day, but each part of the day, has

vided into liturgical hours.

—

this

meaning

in the breviary.

Responsory.

—The responsories are meditative Bible verses read

following the lessons and even

little

chapters; their purpose

is

and contemresponsory on first

to enlarge the significance of the lesson in a quiet

plative mood. The most famous one Advent Sunday (matins).

is

the

first

the attention of —The a short — The hymns are rhythmic poems going back part versicle

Versicle.

call stirring

is

the listeners to inaugurate a different mood.

Hymn.

in

to

410) and Ambrose. Together they make a fine collection, despite Urban VIII's attempts to improve them. The original version can be found with all the older religious orders and may be used by all clerics. (See also Hymns.) Lesson. The lessons are drawn from the Bible, woven around Prudentius

(d. c.

—

the acts of the saints and patristic homilies.

In the lessons, as in

the psalms, the order for special days frequently breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading. At matins, on simple feasts and ferias. three lessons are read; on the occasions when matins is divided into three nocturns ("nine-lesson feasts"), three lessons are read at

each nocturn. Little Chapters.—These are in fact very short lessons (see above) read at the hours other than matins (but also in the second nocturn of matins in the monastic breviaries). They usually are

taken from the epistle (the

first

of the two scriptural lessons of

the mass).

Collect. —-The

the office.

They

collects are short prayers said near the close of

are always taken from the mass of the day, ex-

BREVIARY OF ALARIC— BREWING prime and compline, which use the same

cept in the case of lect all the

year round. of the Breviary.

Meaning

— By

its

col-

close connection with the

form is an instruthis service over the whole hour prayer is from the mass of the day; the day's Gospel dominates the nocturns and the choice of the eucharistic service the breviary in its ideal

ment

to carry the

day.

The

antiphons; the at

main thoughts of

collect at the

chapter

little

All

this

is

meant

to

is a reminder of the day's cause the rhythm of the

natural day to conform with that of the superimposed spiritual day. The scripture te.xts provide more than a simple quotation; if

understood correctly, they keep alive the mysterium of the day in the church and in the individual. This is a fact not only for the individual day but also for the major seasons of the year. The spacing of the hours at about three-hour intervals is, so to speak, a grid to which the day's work is attached to make the ordinary

day a

as well as the extraordinary

spiritual day, a thing sacra-

mental, for the Christian. Bibliography. F. Cabrol,

—

Introduction aux etudes liturgiques; Baumer, Geschichte des Breviers (1895); P. Batiffol, L'Histoire du breviaire remain (1893; Eng. trans. 1898). For the reforms introduced bv Pius X see Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. xvi, pp. 13-14 (1914) E. Burton and E. Myers, The New Psalter and Its Use (1912).

S.

;

See also article "Breviaire" in Dictionaire d'Archeologie chrelienne el de liturgie (1910 ff.) William O'Shea, The Worship of the Church (1957) article "Brevier" in Lexikon jiir Theologie und Kirche, vol. ii (195S) Mario Righetti, Storia Liturgica, vol ii, pp. 469-71S (1955) article "Brevier" in Dutch Lilurgisch Woordenboek, pp. 320-328 (1958). The changes made under Pope John XXIII are described in The Rubrics of the Roman Breviary and Missal, trans, from Acta Apostolicae Sedis (I960). (Ha. A. R.) ;

;

;

;

BREVIARY OF ALARIC called

(Breviarium Alaricianum)

Lex Romana, Corpus Theodosii

or,

most

usually.

,

also

Lex

a coUection of Roman law, compiled by order of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, and promulgated at Toulouse in a.d. 506 for the use of his Roman subjects. The task was entrusted to a committee of lawyers, but the final work was

RoMANA VisiGOTHORUM,

submitted for approval to an assembly of Roman bishops and The breviary contains about one-ninth of the constitutions of the Theodosian code (see Roman Law; Sources of Law) and one-third of the post-Theodosian Novels ; a few extracts from the Gregorian and Hermogenian codes; an epitome of Gaius' Institutes see Gaius) about 600 of the Se?itentiae PauU; one respotisum of Papinian. An Interpretatio accompanies all the breviary except the epitome of Gaius. In 654 the Visigothic king Recceswinth promulgated a uniform law for Goths and Romans and repealed the breviary, except for a few decrees (called Antigua). The breviary, however, continued to be used for legal study in several countries (particularly elected provincials.

I

;

it had considerable persuasive authority); inwas almost the only source of Roman law in western Europe down to the 11th century. Abridgments were made between the 6th and the 9th centuries. An imperfect abstract of it formed the basis of the Lex Roma?ia Ciiriensis, probably written in Grau-

in

France, where

deed

it

bijnden in the 8th century. use of

A

Aries and the Lex 201 (1952).

9th-century recast

Lombardy was preserved

in

a

made

for the

manuscript called Codex

Utinensis.

There is considerable dispute concerning the Interpretatio. For example, F. Wieacker held that it was not original work by the Visigothic lawyers but was based on 5th-century commentaries.

W. W. Buckland found features that distinguish for the Sententiae PauU from the Interpretatio

the Interpretatio for the extracts

from the Theodosian code. E. F. Bruck stressed the haste with which the breviary was compiled (to appease Alaric's Roman subjects) as a reason for the absence of an Interpretatio for the epitome of Gaius, while admitting that the Interpretatio for the Sententiae PauU probably existed before the compilation.

—

Bibliography. G. Hanel, Lex Romana Visigolhorum (1849); M. Conrat, Breviarium Alaricianum (1903), a German translation arranged by subject matter with the original text in footnotes; S. P. Scott, The Visigothic Code (1910), an English translation; F. Wieacker, "Lateinische Kommentare zum Codex Theodosianus," Symholae Friburgenses in honorem Ottonis Lenel, 259 (1935) W. W. Buckland, "The Interpretationes to Pauli Sententiae and the Codex Theodosianus," Law ;

163

361 (1944) E. F. Bruck, "Caesarius of Visigolhorum," Studii Arangio-Ruiz, vol. i, (Rl. P.)

Ix, p.

Romana

;

BREWING.

Brewing is the preparation of beer from carbohydrate material, chiefly malted barley, by means of the action of yeast and usually with the addition of hops. For a description of beer, including types of beer, see Beer.

usually part of the epistle read

is

mass; on major hours the hymn, too.

feast or feria.

Quarterly Review, vol.

HISTORY The Middle East and Europe.

— Since

many

fermentative

yeasts occur naturally on vegetable matter and in

soil, alcohol no doubt originated accidentally but man must soon have learned to carry over some of the active agent from one brew to the next. The nature of the earliest fermented beverages is uncertain; they may have been derived from barley, dates, grapes or honey. Brewing seems to have originated in Babylon where, as in Egypt, barley grew wild, and there is some evidence that beer made from malted grain was being brewed in Mesopotamia by 6000 B.C. By the fourth or fifth millenium B.C. brewing was well established and evidence e.xists of the various types of beer extant in Babylon about ISOO B.C. Brewing in Egypt began at a later date than in Babylon but probably developed independently. It was said to have been a gift of the god Osiris, or his wife Isis, about 2000 B.C. although it seems that several different types of beer were brewed in Egypt a thousand years before then, and there is a reference to its use as a mortuary offering in the 5th dynasty, about 2800 B.C.

In later times beer drinking

is

well

documented and

illustrated,

and beer appears to have been the national beverage. It played an important part in religious worship, and some of the festival offerings were dispensed among the populace. During his reign Rameses III (about 1225 B.C.) is claimed to have distributed the equivalent of more than 500,000 gal. Beer was also used extensively in medicine.

Since the raw materials are grain and yeast, brewing was usually The barley was soaked until it germinated and then was roughly ground. Yeast was added to this malted material and molded into cakes, which were partially baked. These were then crumbled, put in a jar of water and left to ferment. This method is similar to that still used in Egypt in the making carried out by bakers.

The end product has the consistency of soup and is sometimes strained through a cloth. The origin of the use of hops is unknown. Some authorities think herbs and other flavourings were widely used in these ancient brews but the evidence, particularly with regard to hops, is slender. The modern "bouza" has no flavouring added although the Abyssinians add the bitter leaves of a shrub called "ghesh." One suggestion is that the Hebrews learned the use of hops during the Babylonian captivity in the Sth and 9th centuries B.C. The Greeks learned brewing from the Egyptians and also grew hops, although they do not appear to have used them particularly in brewing. The Romans learned about beer from the Greeks, and it became known also in Gaul and Spain, but references to the use of hops do not reappear till the 8th century. The northern European races probably discovered the technique of brewing long before the Christian era, the earliest Teutonic and Celtic beverages being made from a mixture of corn and honey and hence approximating mead. Beer has always been drunk most extensively in lands where soil and climate are inhospitable to the of "bouza."

vine.

There

no direct evidence of beer brewing in Britain prior to occupation but by Anglo-Saxon times, probably as the was well established. In the early middle ages brewing was carried on in most large households and was largely the duty of the women folk, hence the terms "maltster" and "brewster," which are the feminine forms of "maker" and "brewer." The growth of the monasteries resulted in the development of larger brevnng units the monks became excellent brewers. There was a great variety of brews, and the strength of the best beers was considerable. Weaker brews were drunk in great quantity since the water in many areas was unwholesome. The use of hops was introduced from northern Europe in the 16th century; thereafter the hopped beverage became commonly known as "beer" the

is

Roman

result of invasion, beer or ale

;

BREWING

164 whereas "ale" indicated the

unhopped

Nowadays

the term "ale" has no special significance but

malting, together with a partial breakdown of the cell walls, and the extent to which they are allowed to proceed is known as the de-

to distinguish

gree of modification of the resulting malt.

drink.

in Britain

it is used in America top-fermented or British beers (see The Brewing Process below from the more widespread lager beers. North America. Various alcoholic beverages were made by the Indians long before the advent of Europeans but the history of American brewing really begins in 1584 when the British brewed beer from corn (maize) during their first attempt to colonize Virginia. Later, in 1612, Dutch colonists are said to have set up a brew house on the most southerly point of Manhattan Island. In Massachusetts the price of beer was carefully controlled and in 1657 regulations were also laid down about the ingredients of the different varieties. Fines were imposed on maltsters whose prodAlthough the quantity and uct contained too many impurities. quality of the home-grown barley soon became inadequate, the import of European grain, malt and flour was prohibited in order to encourage home production. In 1660 this law, in regard to malt, was repealed because it encouraged the people to drink poor spirits instead of beer. This legislation is an early example of attempts to discourage heavy spirit drinking by encouraging the consumption of beer. Similarly, when Jean Talon, inteiidant of New France. was faced with a high degree of alcoholism among the colonists he established a brewery in Quebec city on the shore of the St. Charles river. This was the first brewery in Canada. In 1683 William Penn erected the first brewery in Pennsylvania and in the following century many other famous men were concerned with brewing. Samuel Adams, "Father of the Revolution," was a brewer, as was his father before him. Thomas Chittenden, first governor of Vermont, was a brewer and innkeeper, and others

Malting

)

—

who

Thomas

fostered the industry included

Jefferson,

Patrick

Henry, Israel Putnam, Benjamin Rush and James Madison. George Washington himself had a small brewery at Mount Vernon. Until the mid-19th century only "British" types of beer were brewed in North America but about 1840 German brewers introduced the newer methods of making lager beer, thus laying the foundations of the vast modern American industry, which produces 87,000,000 U.S. barrels a year. Between 1870 and 1960 the quantity brewed in the U.S. increased tenfold but since the industry became concentrated in the hands of a few large firms the number of breweries, and hence the variety of beers available, decreased considerably.

Measurement.

— The

units of

measurement used

in

America

U.S. gal. = 0.8327 British gal.: 1 standard U.S. barrel contains 31.5 U.S. gal.; 1 U.S. beer barrel contains 31 U.S. gal.; 1 British barrel contains 36 British gal. differ

from those used

in

Britain.

1

Unless otherwise designated, measurements referring exclusively to British beers will be given in British units and all other measurements will be given in American units.

BREWING MATERIALS

industry.

The

employed are malted barley, hops, water In certain countries, e.g., Germany, the use of other materials is forbidden by law (except for export beers), but in most places other materials are employed to give colour and flavour and are known as "adjuncts." Malt. Barley malt is far and away the most important raw material. Not all barleys are suitable for malting but there is a great variety among those that are. In North America six-rowed barleys are by far the most widely used but in Europe the tworowed varieties are grown for brewing (see Barley: Uses). After harvesting, barley passes through a dormant phase; the length of this phase depends not only on the variety of barley but For this reason, malting also on climatic conditions at harvest. used to start several months after harvesting, but dormancy can now be overcome in various ways so that malting takes place all the year round. During malting, profound changes occur in the barleycorn (barley grain), the most important being the development of certain enzymes. The two most important groups are the amylolytic enzymes, which can convert starch to carbohydrates of lower molecular weight, and the proteolytic types, which can break down the protein constituents of the barley to simpler nitrogenous compounds. These processes are actually initiated during the principal materials

—

carried out at skill

some breweries and

of the maltster

also as a separate achieving the desired Before malting, the bar-

lies in

modification from variable raw materials. ley is steeped in water to soften the grains and initiate germination. Steeping also removes undesirable materials, such as tannin complexes (mostly from the husks), which are thought to inhibit the

subsequent fermentation. Steeping takes place at 55°-60° F. and lasts up to 48 hr. in the case of the barley used in British beers and up to 70 hr. for the harder and more nitrogenous barley used in lager beers. Steeped barley is known as "green malt." There are three principal methods of malting: (1) In floor malting, which is the oldest method, the green malt is spread thinly over a heated floor, sprinkled with water and turned over from time to time in order to air it. In these favourable conditions germination takes place, the rate of growth of the acrospire (germinating shoot) increasing as the rootlets begin to wither about the eighth day. (2) In box malting (also called the Saladin process after its inventor) the steeped barley is put into a long rectangular box. to a depth of about two feet, and moist air is blown into the grain through vents in the sides of the box. Vertical helical screws move slowly back and forth through the barley, turning it twice or thrice a day. (3) Drum malting is another form of pneumatic malting, in which the steeped barley is put into large cylindrical drums that are rotated horizontally while water-saturated air is driven through the grain.

After germination the malt

is

dried in a kiln until the moisture

The shriveled rootlets drop is between 1.5% and 2%. and are collected and sold as animal feed. The temperature at which each operation takes place, and the time taken, varies with the type of beer being made. Generally British malt is allowed to germinate for 11 days and is dried by direct heat for 3 to 4 days at temperatures up to 225° F. Lager malt is allowed to germinate for only 7 or 8 days and is consequently less highly modified. It is dried with hot air at about 130° F. Malt in Britain is measured in quarters that weigh 336 lb. as opposed to quarters of barley, which weigh 448 lb. Since the composition of the malt is of paramount importance each batch is analyzed for moisture content, extract (a measure of the soluble matter extracted from the malt), tint, diastatic activity and cold water extract (the proportion of water-soluble materials ), total nitrogen and permanently soluble nitrogen. (See content off

also M.ALT.

Adjuncts.

— These are carbohydrate materials

ditional fermentable material.

They

that provide ad-

are used to reduce costs, to

give flavour and to correct the balance in the composition of the

made from a high-nitrogen barwhen the excess amylolytic malt break them down to fermentable sugars (see

extract; for example, with a malt ley.

and yeast.

is

The

They

are added during mashing,

enzymes in the The Brewing Process below).

10%-2S% 40%. The

In Europe they usually account for may reach

of the total weight while in the U.S. they

principal adjuncts are corn (maize), rice,

and tapioca.

Corn

is

the commonest, while rice

unmalted barley is

used particu-

Brewing sugars and sirups are also used and, since they need no further conversion, are added during boiling (see below). These sugars may be in the form of glucose, made by the acid hydrolysis of starch; invert sugar (equal parts of glucose and fructose), made by the dilute acid inversion of sucrose; or sucrose itself. The yeast that is added at a later stage secretes an enzyme, invertase, that inverts the sucrose to glucose and fructose so it can be fermented. Glucose made from starch contains unfermentable dextrins that act as mellowing agents in the larly for the palest beers.

finished beer.

—

Hops. Hops are not an essential constituent of beer and have not always been employed in brewing (see History). Nowadays their use is almost universal, but the types and quantities employed vary widely and greatly influence the character of the resulting

The hop plant (see Hop) is dioecious; i.e., the male and male flowers are borne on separate plants. The flowers of the beers.

fefe-

BREWING male plants are grouped in cones and contain a resinous material, lupulin. It is these cones that are used in brewing. If fertilized with pollen from a male hop flower, they develop seeds with an unpleasantly bitter taste, and for this reason the male plant is banned in most European countries. The female plant is propagated exclusively by cuttings. The finest hops are those from the Saaz district of Czechoslovakia, such Bavarian types as Hallertau and the Styrian hops from Yugoslavia. Britain produces rich aromatic hops for her "top fermentation" beers (see Yeast and also The Brewing Process below); other small producers are France, Poland, Russia and Belgium. Outside Europe, the U.S. is the only large hop grower, hops being grown chiefly in Oregon, California, Idaho and New York state. They tend to have a strong flavour that restricts their use for British and European beers, although when used with brewing waters containing calcium sulfate the undesirable part of the flavour

is

suppressed.

mashed malt solution, during The Breuing Process below). They have several funcTheir resins and oils impart the desired bitter flavour and tions. aroma, and the derived constituents act as a preservative. Also,

Hops

are added to the wort, or

boiling (see

the tannin they contain assists the "break," or precipitation of

protein material, which might later cause haze in the beer.

The

quantity of hops added during brewing varies with the type of beer being brewed and with the species of hops. The amount may be of a pound per barrel of light lager and over 2\ pounds less than per barrel of strong British beer. -J-

Water. found

— The chemical composition of brewing water has

eft'ect

on the character of the beer being brewed.

a proIn the past

the suitability of the certain waters has decided the locality of the

breweries, for instance those at Burton upon Trent, Dortmund, Dublin, Pilsen and Munich. Nowadays the composition can be

adjusted.

The hydrogen ion concentration of the water is of extreme imIf the water is alkaline, large amounts of unwanted

portance.

be dissolved from the husks of the malt and. since an is needed for the maximum activity of amylolytic and proteolytic enz>'mes, enzymic activity will be somewhat diminished. The commonest cause of alkalinity is the presence of magnesium and calcium bicarbonates in solution. These bicarbonates produce what is known as temporary hardness and can be removed by boiling since the bicarbonates decompose and precipitate as the insoluble carbonates. Permanent hardness, which gives a faintly acid solution, is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium in the form of sulfates and chlorides and is usually an advantage to the brewer. Broadly speaking, waters containing calcium sulfate (gypsum) are the best for pale ale brewing, as at Burton and Dortmund. Dark lagers are brewed at Munich with a type of water very similar to that of Dublin. A very small amount of gypsum is necessary for the best bitter beers, such as those brewed in London. However, the question of brewing waters can be oversimplified, and many other factors have to be considered, such as the other materials present and the methods of brewing involved. The waters must also be free of bacterial contamination, iron

matter

will

acid solution

and of any malodorous content. used for washing bottles and casks

Since the quantity of water is 8-20 times the amount used brewing, the supply must also be a plentiful one. Nowadays most brewers use their local town supply, which should ensure in

its

good quality. In Britain, brewing water

is

generally referred to in the trade

term likely to be misunderstood elsewhere. (q.v.) is used to convert the fermentable sugars in the wort, which consists mainly of the sugar maltose, into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The original Gay-Lussac formula for

as "liquor," a

Yeast.

— Yeast ^

CeH.oOe

>-

sugar

actually only

+

2C2H6OH

ethyl alcohol

95%

correct and

is

2CO2

carbon dioxide

the oversimplification of a com-

by the EmbdenFermentation: The Modern

plex series of intermediate step3, as indicated

Meyerhof-Parnas Position).

There are many thousands of species and

strains but those used in brewing all belong to the species Saccerevisiae. Although there are a great many types within this single species, from the brewer's point of view they can

charomyces all

be placed

in

one of two categories, "bottom" and "top," depend-

ing on whether the cells sink or rise during fermentation.

brewing process

it

is

the

manner

scheme

{see

Yeasts are microscopic vegetable organisms belong-

of fermentation that

is

In the respon-

between British beers, which are "top fermented," and lager beers, which are "bottom fermented." Bot-

sible for the basic difference

tom fermentation takes place

at

lower temperatures.

THE BREWING PROCESS The

three main stages of the brewing process are; mashing, and fermentation. Prior to mashing the malt is crushed between rollers so that the resulting flour is well separated from the husk, though not too finely ground. The husk should remain as unfragmented as

boiling

possible because

it is

used later as a

filter

bed.

—The procedure after the and husk) leaves the depends on whether British or lager beer being produced. Infusion Mashing. — This the top-fermentation, or Mashing.

grist (flour

mill

is

British,

is

system. The grist is passed through a Steel's masher, a machine with a revolving worm screw, which mi.xes the grist with incoming water to make a porridgelike mixture. This then enters the mash tun. a circular vessel having a domed cover fitted with sliding doors or hinged segments that can be raised individually. The diameter is about twice the height from base to the edge of the dome, and the vessel has a false bottom to permit drainage. The "striking heat" of the water as it meets the grist is about 150° F. and the principal reaction is the breakdown of the insoluble starch in the endosperm of the malted barley. It is converted into soluble maltose and other sugars and dextrins by the amylolytic enzymes, a- and /3-amylase, which are present in the malt (see Malt above). The mash is kept moving by rakes and the "wort," as the solution of converted carbohydrate is called, filters out of the bottom of the mash tun, leaving the malt husks behind. The mash is left to stand for about two hours and then the husks are sparged (sprinkled) with hot water to complete the extraction of the sugars and dextrins. The proportion of maltose and dextrins obtained in the mash can be controlled by varying the acidity and temperature. o!-amylase converts the starch into dextrins and is most active between 150° and 168° F.; /^-amylase breaks down starch and dextrins into maltose, but above 140° F. its power is diminished. A higher temperature therefore yields a more dextrinous and less fermentable wort and will tend to give a less alcoholic though more fully flavoured beer. In infusion mashing the breakdown of the nitrogenous material is restricted since proteolytic enzymes react best at temperatures from 122°-130° F., which are well below those for amylolytic enzymes. Decoctioti Mashing. This process is used for all but British beers and has many variations. Because the malts to be mashed are usually less modified than British malts, they have to be more finely mashed. The most common variation is the three-mash system in which, after a preliminary mashing at 100° F., the tem-

—

perature of the

mash

is

raised in three stages; first to the

optimum

temperature for the activity of the proteolytic enzymes (122°130° F.), second to 150° F. and lastly to 168° F. The first of these stages lasts two hours and is known as the "protein rest." The temperature rises at each stage are achieved by withdrawing about one-third of the mash, boiling it and returning it to the rest of the mixture. Though the enzymes in the portion that is boiled are destroyed, the body of the mash retains a sufficient quantity to conIn a two-mash process the prehminary mash is omitted, the temperature being taken straight up to 122-130° F.

vert the whole.

There are many variations to

this reaction;

is

165

ing to the fungi family.

this

and other mashing systems; for two vessels.

instance, the Pilsen system, a decoction using only

In a one-mash system about 5% of the total is taken off, the bulk is raised by stages to boiling and then cooled and mixed with the withdrawn 5%, which still has its enzymes intact and can convert the whole mash. The quick-mashing system, which is used in America, employs two mashes at temperatures of about 145° and 172° F.

1

BREWING

66 When

and com are

be added they are mashed separately malt to provide the necessary enzymes. They are then

rice

with a

little

added

to the

main mash

to

in quantities calculated to give the requi-

temperature. Decoction mashing is suitable for malts that are not highly modified and have a high nitrogen content, because the "protein rest" permits the breaking down of the nitrogenous material into soluble nitrogen compounds, and the various subsequent boilings encourage protein coagulation and precipitation. Boiling. After mashing, and sometimes after filtering, the wort is boiled in a copper tank or kettle. This prevents any further site rises in

—

enzyme action and coagulates which

is

known

makes

it

high-speed centrifuge to achieve greater clarity or directly to the cooler. In the cooler protein-resin-tannin complexes are precipitated, a reaction known as the "cold break." During this phase

Pure strains of yeast have been used in bottom fermentations was introduced in 1883 by E. C. Hansen, first

since this practice

director of the Carlsberg laboratory in Copenhagen.

were mixed together;

a yeast that starts fermenting quickly

is

e.g.,

used in conjunction with a good attenuator, (converter of sugar to alcohol) but

one that is a slow starter. stages

The

sometimes referred to in terms of it was made. Tlie original gravity (O.G.) of the wort is high when its content of fermentable sugars is high. The higher the O.G., the higher the alcohol content after fermentation and specific eravity of the resultant strength of the beer

beer.

—

as the beer

is

cooled for a second skimming.

Two

other famous systems of top fermentation need special mention; the Burton union and the Yorkshire stone square. In the first, fermentation takes place in large casks, or unions, and the

must be

but the system

)

second type is the original "refrigerator," a vertical cooler in which the wort flows over flattened pipes containing cold brine. The third form of cooler, and one which is extensively used, is the closed plate cooler in which the wort passes between plates on the other sides of which cooling water flows. The advantage of this closed system is that there is less risk of infection. Fermentation. Fermentation begins when the yeast is "pitched" into the wort. Bottom Fermentation. This type of brewing was developed in Germany in the 15th century in order to produce a stable beer that could be stored satisfactorily. The temperature of the wort at pitching is 43°-50° F. and the yeast is added in the form of a slurry, about 1 lb. of pressed yeast being allowed for each barrel of wort. A certain amount of aeration may be employed at the earliest stage to encourage yeast growth. The sooner the yeast begins to grow, the less danger there Within a few hours a fine fluffy white is from bacterial infection. head appears and the fermenting wort is often pumped or transferred to another, preferably closed, vessel, leaving behind much of the unwanted protein, hops and resins. Activity increases and the stage known as the "krausen," or "cauliflower," stage is reached after two days. After a further 24 hr. the most active stage, the "high krausen," is reached and continues for three days, during which the temperature must not be allowed to rise above 50° F.

—

—

is impaired. The head then starts to collapse and the temperature is allowed to fall gradually to about 39° F. After about eight days' fermentation in all, most of the fermentable material will have been converted to alcohol and the "green" beer is then removed to the storage cellar (for the "Ruh," or resting stage) at just over 32° F.

or the activity of the yeast

During the lagering period which follows, a slow secondary fermentation takes place. Carbon dioxide is evolved, suspended protein matter and yeast settle out and a polyphenolic protein complex, which tends to cloud chilled beer, is also partly precipitated. beer improves in flavour so long as oxygen is be continued for three months but much

is

Top Fermentation. About 98% of British beer is still brewed by this method. The wort is at 60° F. when fermentation begins and is allowed to rise about 10° F. during five- to seven-day fermentation period. A light froth appears in the first few hours, giving place to small "cauliflowers" and then to "rocky heads" that contain a considerable amount of protein and resinous matter that is skimmed off. On the second day a high rocky head develops, fermentation is vigorous and heat generation is at its greatest. On the third day the head gradually collapses and the blanket of yeast is skimmed off, except for the bottom inch, and used for a subsequent brew. The head then forms pleats or folds

A

may

Later pure

strains with different characteristics

the wort is susceptible to infection by bacteria and wild yeasts, and great care must be taken to ensure sterility. The simplest form of cooler is a large shallow vessel (cool ship where the wort stands at a depth of about 6 in. until it is cool.

Lagering

Nowadays,

often filtered and car-

the specific gravity of the wort from which

Kettles once were fired directly, but nowadays heating coils, steam jackets or a percolating system in the kettle are more usual, particularly in America. Pressure boiling is sometimes used; it tends to affect the colour and flavour of the beer. After boiling, the wort is filtered quickly to remove the hops and also as much of the hot break as possible. The filter bed is formed of spent hops between 18 and 24 in. deep and after filtering is sprinkled with water to remove any residual wort. From the hop strainer the hot wort passes either through a

this stage the

is

The boiling also more concentrated and provides an

half of the boil.

excluded.

particularly in America.

Now the pure-culture yeasts are worked up by from a laboratory stock culture or taken from a previous uninfected brew.

opportunity for the hops to be added. The length of boil depends upon the type of beer to be brewed but it is usually about two hours. Some of the hops may be added when the boihng is half completed and more towards the end. If sugar adjuncts are used, they too can be added during the latter

During

common,

order to save lagering time, the beer bonated soon after fermentation. in

a great deal of the protein material,

as the "hot break" or "trub."

sterilizes the wort,

shorter periods are

beer and yeast work up through swan necks into a trough and For this a nonflocculating yeast are fed back into the unions.

The

used.

is

resulting beer

is

of good character and stabihty

susceptible to infection and

much

labour

is

ex-

pended on cleaning.

In the Yorkshire stone square, a system still used in the north of England, a highly flocculant type of yeast is used in conjunction with characteristically small fermentation vessels. The mixture is kept moving from one vessel to the other and a full-flavoured beer is obtained although, with so much

unfermented material present, stability is not high. In top fermentation brewing pure-culture yeasts are not generally employed; several strains are usually present. The use of pure yeast cultures is, however, increasing and should continuous fermentation (see Research and Consumption below) come, it may be essential.

—

Flocciilence. Some brewing yeasts form clumps or floes during fermentation whereas others do not. Both top and bottom yeasts exhibit this phenomenon, which has nothing to do with whether they rise or sink during fermentation. A yeast that flocculates is removed from the sphere of action, leaving a great deal of sugar unfermented. On the other hand, an entirely nonflocculating or powdery yeast may convert too much of the sugar into alcohol and leave large amounts of yeast still in suspension at the end of fermentation. The degree of conversion is known as the "attenuation" of the brew. Numerous theories of the cause of flocculence exist and none, by itself, is completely satisfactory. The most important factors appear to be genetics, electrical charge and the nature of the cell wall. Kegging, Bottling and Canning. When fermentation is complete the beer is run off into tanks for racking (casking). Some beers are "conditioned" in tank and cask for several days before leaving the cellars, and special beers may be retained for many months, thereby acquiring excellent character, though this practice When mild beers are casked, or is less common than it used to be. racked (placed in kegs or barrels), they are sometimes primed with sugar to give condition and flavour, while bitter beers are often dry hopped; i.e., a few ounces of hops are added to each barrel. A col-

—

loid such as isinglass

is

also

added to precipitate particles of protein

material and yeast cells and to give a bright beer.

BREWSTER Except for dark and conditioned beers, beer for bottling and canning is filtered through pulp, sheet or diatomaceous earth and carbonation is carried out at the same time. The "polished" beer goes to bright beer tanks, where it is fed to filling machines. Most bottled and canned beers are pasteurized nowadays in their containers but a recent system of "hot bottling" is arousing interest. Pasteurization destroys wild yeasts and bacteria whose action might make the beer turbid or unpalatable, and is usually effected by holding at a temperature of 140° F. for about 20 min. The can is becoming increasingly popular as a container, par-

development of linings that do not alter the In a flat-topped can the air content is very low and the beer keeps well. In America far more beer is consumed from bottle and can than from keg: in Britain the trend is in the same direction though in 1960 the consumption of bottled and canned beer was roughly equal to that from the keg. By-Products. The chief by-products are carbon dioxide, yeast ticularly since the taste of the beer.

—

167

nal of the Institute of Brewing; Wallerstein Laboratory

Communica(He. J.B.).

tions.

BREWSTER, SIR DAVID

(1781-1868), Scottish physicist, is notable for his experimental work in optics and polarized light. He was born at Jedburgh on Dec. 11, 1781, and died on Feb. to, the age of 13 he was sent to the 1868, at Allerby, Melrose. University of Edinburgh to study for the ministry. He finished his theological course but his interest in science prevented him from pursuing this profession. In 1799 he was induced by a fellow student to begin the study He made his name by a series of inof the diffraction of light. vestigations on this subject, the results of which he contributed from time to time to Philosopliical Transactions and other scien-

M

tific

journals.

Brewster's most important studies concerned polarization, metalHe formulated the rule governlic reflection and light absorption. reflection which states that light reflected from completely polarized when the reflected and reHe discovered fracted rays are perpendicular to one another.

by

ing polarization

and the spent grains from the mash tun. After the first few hours of fermentation the carbon dioxide evolved reaches a high degree of purity and can be recovered for

a glass surface

use in carbonation. Far more yeast is produced during fermentation than

Brewster was elected a fellow of the Royal society in 1815, and was awarded the Rumford gold and silver medal for his discoveries

for subsequent

brews and

2%

it

is

needed

has a high nutritive value, containing

by dry weight, a good content of the B vitamins and minerals such as calcium and iron. It is very bitter on account of the hop resins so that for some purposes a debittering process is necessary. It is in good demand for livestock feeding stuff, yeast extract manufacture and for various pharmaceutical

50%

protein and

fat

purposes.

Like the rootlets from the malt (see Afalt above), brewer's spent grains are used for animal feeding since they contain about 20% protein and 8% fat by dry weight. The spent hops are dried and sold as

hop manure.

biaxial crystals.

In 1816 he invented the kaleidoscope (q.v.). He improved the stereoscope by suggesting the use of lenses to combine the dissimilar binocular pictures. More important was his work in persuading the British authorities to adopt the dioptric apparatus, perfected by Augustin He suggested its use for this purFresnel. in their lighthouses.

in connection with the polarization of light in 1818.

pose as early as 1S20. Brewster was one of the group of scientific men who assembled in the archiepiscopal palace at York and developed the idea of a British Association for the

Advancement

of Science, realized in

1831.

RESEARCH AND CONSUMPTION research in brewing has been going on for over a century but has intensified since World War II. This applies to North America, western Europe and particularly to the Brewing Scientific

Industry Research Foundation

in Britain.

ganizations also have research staffs.

The

larger brewing or-

Work on raw

materials

is

mainly carried out by agricultural institutes in close collaboration with the industry. In Britain, hop research is concerned with breeding palatable types of hops that are resistant to disease and with the chemistry of hop resins and oils. Barley research is directed to the production of barleys that malt well and can stand up to the vagaries of climate. Improved malting methods are being investigated and systems of continuous brewing are being developed that will have a substantial effect on capital outlay as regards plant, space and labour. Already the fermentation stage is being operated commercially and the ultimate aim is to streamline the whole process into one continuous operation. Other topics always under investigation are head retention, haze prevention and yeast behaviour, while such bodies as the European Brewery convention and the .American Society of Brewing Chemists are working together to reach agreement on analytical methods. Annual world consumption of beer is estimated to be about 8,500,000.000 U.S. gallons. In the United States beer is estimated to account for approximately 49% of the total alcohol consumed; in the United Kingdom this figure is 84.3% and in Canada 64.5%. On a per capita basis the greatest consumers of beer are Belgium (34 U.S. gallons annually), Luxembourg (33). Austraha and west Germany (27), United Kingdom (22 ), Denmark and Austria (19), Switzerland and Canada 16) and the United States (IS). Bibliography. J. P. Arnold, Origin and History of Beer and Brewing (1911); F. A. ICing, Beer Has a History (1947); M. Weeks, Jr., Beer and Brewing in America (1949) H. L. Hind, Brewing: Science and Practice, 2 vol. (1953) J. de Clerck, A Textbook of Brewing, 2 vol. (1957-58) C. A. Kloss, The Art and Science of Brewing (1950) H. J. Bunker in Progress in Industrial Microbiology, vol. ill, ed. by J. D. J. Hockenhull Master Brewers Association of America, The Practical Brewer (1947) A. H. Cook, The Chemistry and Biology of Yeasts (

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1958);

is

Wallerstein Laboratories, Bottle Beer Quality

(1948);

Pe-

riodicals: Proceedings of European Brewery Convention ; Proceedings of the American Society of Brewing Chemists; Brewers' Almanac; Jour-

In 1838' Brewster became principal of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard, St. Andrews, Scot., and from 1859 till a short time before his death was principal of Edinburgh university.

In spite of his activity in research and, in his later days, in life, Brew'ster accomplished a mass of literary work. edited the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia (1808-30). was one of the leading contributors to the 7th and 8th editions of the Encyclo-

university

He

pcedia Britannica, joint editor (1819-24) of the Edinburgh Philosophic Journal, and then (1824-32) editor of the Edinburgh Journal of Science. Among his many separate publications may be mentioned his Treatise on Optics (1831) and his Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (1855).

BREWSTER, WILLIAM

(1567-1644), leader of the Plymin England in 1567 and spent He acquired his first his early Ufe at Scrooby, Nottinghamshire. Separatist ideas while at Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he attended for a short time, beginning in December 1580. In 1583 he became the personal secretary of William Davison, an Elizabethan diplomat. Because of disillusionment with diplomatic and court life and because of his father's illness, he returned to Scrooby in 1589 to become his father's deputy (and successor the next year) as bailiff and postmaster. At Scrooby he became the leader of the Puritan congregation that separated from the Estabhshed outh colony

in

.\merica,

was born

Church in 1606. He and John Robinson were the leaders

in

the migration to

Amsterdam in 1608 and the move to Leiden in 1609. In Holland he made his living by printing Puritan books by English authors and exporting them to England until pressure applied by the British government on the Dutch government forced the abandonment of

He accompanied

the first group of settlers on the 1620 and remained until his death one of the most important members of the Plymouth colony. Brewster, the only university-trained Pilgrim, was the real leader of the church as its senior elder, and he dominated the formulation of its doctrines, worship and practices. He was not a magistrate, but the governor, William Bradford, was so dependent upon him and so attached to him that he played a major role in civil as well as religious afhis enterprise.

"Mayflower"

fairs.

in

BREZE— BRIAN

i68 Brewster died at

BREZE,

the

"New Plymouth"

name

in April 1644.

(Ra.

Mu.)

of an Angevin noble family eminent in

French history. Pierre de Breze (1410P-146S), a trusted soldier and statesman of Charles VII, made his name in the English wars; and in the Praguerie [g.v.) he supported the royal cause against the dauphin Louis and the rebels, a service remembered against him after Louis came to the throne. He was made seneschal of Anjou in 1437 and of Poitou in 1441; fought the English in Normandy in 1440-41 and in Guienne in 1442 and became chamberlain to Charles VII and gained the chief power in the state through the influence of Agnes Sorel (g.v.). The years of his ascendancy 1444-50) were the most prosperous period of Charles VII's i^eign. The dauphin Louis in 1448 brought against him accusations which ;

(

complete exoneration of Breze played a large part in the reconquest of Normandy (1449-51), especially in the battle of Formigny, and became seneschal of the province in 1451. He made an ineffective descent on the English coast at Sandwich in 1457 and was preparing an expedition in favour of Margaret of Anjou when the accession of Louis XI brought him disgrace and a short imprisonment. He accompanied Margaret to Scotland with a force of 2,000 men in 1462 and brought her back to Flanders on the collapse of her plans in 1463. He was reappointed seneschal of Normandy and fell in the battle of Montlhery on July 16, 1465. He was succeeded as seneschal by his eldest son Jacques de Breze (c. 144090), comte de Maulevrier; and by his grandson Louis de Breze (d. 1531), husband of the famous Diane de Poitiers. This branch of the family became extinct in the 16th century. The lordship of Breze itself had been from the 14th century in the hands of another branch, the house of Maille-Breze, whose most eminent members were Urbain (1597-1650), marshal of France, and his son Armand (1619-46), grand admiral. At Armand's death the lordship passed to his sister, Claire Clemence, wife of the great Conde. She sold it to Thomas Dreux, who took the name of Dreux-Breze when it was erected into a marquisate (1685). Henri £vrard (1762-1829), marquis de DreuxBreze, became master of the ceremonies to Louis XVI in 1781. During the meeting of the estates-general in 1789 his delay in notifying the third estate that Louis XVI was to hold a "royal session" was the cause of its famous meeting in the Jeu de Paume (tennis court) at Versailles on June 20, when it found the room that it usually occupied full of workmen preparing for the king's visit (see France: History). In 1792 Breze emigrated to Italy for a time. At the Restoration he was made a peer of France and resumed his functions as guardian of an antiquated ceremonial. He died on Jan. 17, 1829, and was succeeded in the peerage and at court bv his son Scipion (1793-1845). led to a formal trial, resulting in a

and

his restoration to favour.

He

.

BREZHNEV, LEONID ILYICH

(1906), first secUnion from Oct. 14, 1964, was born on Dec. 19, 1906, at Kamenskoye (now Dneprodzerzhinsk) in the Ukraine. His poHtical career began in 1937 when he was elected deputy chairman of the executive committee of the Dneprodzerzhinsk city council. During World War II he served as political commissar at the front and became a major general. Between 1946 and 1949 he worke.d in the Ukraine and in July 1950 he was appointed first secretary of the Moldavian Communist party. In 1952 he was elected a member of the central committee, a candidate member of the presidium formerly Politburo) and a secretary of the central committee. In March 1953 he was the head of Central Political administration and the ministry of defense. In Feb. 1954 he was sent to Kazakhstan as first secretary of the party of that repubhc. Two years later he was reelected a member of the central committee and a candidate member of the presidium, becoming a full member and a secretary in June 1957. On May 7, 1960, he was elected chairman of the presidium or chief of state. On July 15, 1964, he returned to the central committee as secretary and became first secretary three months later, replacing Nikita S. Khrushchev. BREZINA, (pseudonym of Vaclav Ignac Jebavy) 1868-1929), one of the greatest of Czech poets, was born at Pocatky, Bohemia, on Sept. 13, 1868. He spent most of his life as a schoolmaster in Moravia, isolated from the political and hterretary of the

Communist party

of the Soviet

(

OTAKAR

(

ary movements that influenced the work of poraries.

His lasting poetical achievement

is

many

of his contem-

contained in a lyrical

Tajemne dalky ("Secret Distances"; 1895), ("Dawn in the West"; 1896), Vetry od polu ("Polar Winds"; 1897), Stavitele chramu ("Builders of the Tem-

cycle of five books:

Svitani na zapade

ple"; 1899), /?2 i-2 Bid one club, the first biddable suit below the doubleton. (The diay

6

monds 6.

points.

he

are

not biddable.)

Responses.

—The requirement for most game contracts

is

26

Partner's opening bid promises at least 13 of these, but

may have

more.

Therefore every

effort

should be

made

to

keep

the bidding open so that he will have a second chance to bid.

A

response should be made with as little as 6 points. One-round Forcing Bids. The bid of a new suit by the responding hand is forcing on the opening bidder. Each time the responder bids a new suit, the opener must bid again. If responder makes a jump bid (one more than necessary), the bid is forcing to game. Game Bids. Assuming a satisfactory fit can be found, game (four odd tricks) in a major suit is easiest to make. The next-

—

—

easiest

odd

game

is

tricks) in a

three no-trump.

minor

suit,

The most

difficult is

requiring 28 to 29 points.

game

(five

BRIDGE With a mediocre hand (fewer than 10

points), worth only one

constructive bid, responder should prefer to raise his partner in

major suit but to bid one in his own suit, if possible, rather than raise a minor-suit bid. With 11 or 1 2 points, responder can make two bids without being forced but should not force to game. With 13 points or more he should see that the bidding does not stop before a game contract is reached. With 19 points he should make a strong effort to reach a slam. 7. Responses to Suit Bids of One. Raise. To raise parta

—

—

Minimum Hand 13 to 16 Points. If partner has made a weak response (one no-trump or a single raise) opener should pass, as game is impossible. If partner bids a new suit at the one level, opener may offer a single raise with good trump support, bid one no-trump

new

trump support, or rebid

lacking

if

his

own

suit or a

he does not go past the level of two in his original

suit if

bid.

—

—

ner's suit responder

Good Hand 16 to 19 Points. If partner has made a weak response (one no-trump or a single raise) opener should bid again. If responder has bid a new suit, opener may make a jump raise with four trumps, jump in his own suit if he has a six-card suit

sists of J-x-x,

or bid a

—

—

must have adequate trump support. This conQ-x-x or x-x-x-x, or better, for a non-rebid suit; and Q-x, K-x, or x-x-x for a rebid suit. Points required are: Raise to two: 7 to 10 points and adequate trump support. Raise to three: 13 to 16 points and four trumps. Raise to four: no more than 9 high-card points plus five trumps and a short suit (singleton or void).

—

Bid of a New Suit. At one-level: 6 points or more (this response may be made on anything ranging from a weak hand to a very powerful one). At two-level: 10 points or more. Jump in a new suit: 19 points or more. (This jump shift is reserved for hands that make a slam very likely. Responder should hold an independent suit or strong support for opener's suit.) No-trump Responses. One no-trump: 6 to 9 points in high cards. Two no-trump: 13 to IS points in high cards, all suits not bid by partner stopped (the hand can eventually win a trick in any unbid suit led by the opponents), and a balanced hand. (Forcing to game.) Three no-trump: 16 to 18 points in high cards, all unbid suits stopped, and 4-3-3-3 distribution. 8. Responses to Suit Bids of Two. An opening bid of two in a suit is unconditionally forcing to game and responder may not pass until game is reached, no matter how weak his hand may be. With 6 points or less he bids two no-trump, regardless of his distribution. With 7 points and one quick trick or 8 points and ^ quick trick he may show a new suit or raise opener. With 8 or 9 points and a balanced hand, responder bids three no-trump. 9. Responses to Pre-emptive Bids. A pre-emptor has overbid his hand by two or three tricks, depending on vulnerability. Primary tricks aces and kings and potential rufBng (trumping) values are the only factors for responder to consider when contemplating a raise. One or two trumps is sufficient support. 10. Responses to a One No-trump Bid. Balanced Hands.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Raise to two no-trump with S or 9 points, or 7 points and a good five-card suit. Raise to three no-trump with 10 to 14 points. Raise to four no-trump with IS or 16 points, to six no-trump with 17 to IS points, to seven no-trump with 21 points.

—

Unbalanced Hands. With fewer than 8 points plus a five-card diamonds, hearts or spades, bid two in that suit. With 8 points or more and a four-card major suit, bid two clubs. This is an artificial bid asking opener to show a major suit if he has one. (See Stayman Convention, below.) With 10 points and a good suit, bid three of that suit. With a six-card major suit, and fewer suit in

than 10 points, in high cards, jump to game in the suit. 11. Responses to a Two No-trump Bid. Balanced Hands. Raise to three no-trump with 4 to S points; to four no-trump with 9 or 10 points; to six no-trump with 11 or 12 points; to seven no-trump with 1 5 points. Unbalanced Hands. With a five-card major suit headed by an honour, plus 4 points, bid three of the suit. Show any six-card

—

—

—

major

suit.

new

suit.

—

(

denomination, according to his distribution. If responder has bid a new suit, opener may make a jump raise to game in a major suit with four trumps, or jump to game in his own suit if it is solid. With a balanced hand and 19 or 20 points he should jump to two no-trump, and with 2 1 points to three no-trump. With 22 points and up he should jump in a new suit, forcing to game and suggesting a slam. in either

14.

Rebids by Opening No-trump Bidder.

vention.

—When the responder bids two

must show

a four-card biddable

With With With With

major

—Stayman

Con-

clubs, the opening bidder

suit if

he has one.

four spades, he bids two spades. four hearts, he bids two hearts. both majors, he bids two spades. no major, he bids two diamonds.

—

Opening No-trump Bidder Must Pass. When responder raises two no-trump and opener has a minimum ( 1 6 points ) When responder bids two diamonds, two hearts or two spades and opener has only 16 or 17 points and no good fit for responder's suit. When

to

.

responder bids three no-trump, four spades or four hearts. 15.

Defensive Bidding.

sive bid

made

—

Overcalls.

—An

overcall

is

a defen-

after the opposing side has opened the bidding.

Overcalls are based not on a specified number of points but rather on a good suit. The overcaller should be able to win in his own hand within two tricks of his contract if vulnerable and within three tricks

if

not vulnerable.

—

Overcall. An overcall of one no-trump is similar one no-trump opening bid and shows 16 to 18 points with a balanced hand and with the opening bidder's suit stopped. Jump Overcall. Any jump overcall is pre-emptive and shows a hand weak in high cards but with a good suit that will produce within three tricks of the contract if not vulnerable and within two tricks if vulnerable. Take-out Doubles. When a defender doubles and: (1) his partner has made no bid; (2) the double was made at the doubler's first opportunity; (3) the double is of one, two or three of a suit; the double asks partner to bid his best (longest suit. This defensive bid is employed on two tj-pes of hand ( 1 ) a hand of openingbid strength where the doubler has no good or long suit of his own but has good support for any of the unbid suits; and (2) where the doubler has a good suit and so much high-card strength that he fears a mere overcall might be passed out and a possible

One No-trump

to a

—

—

)

:

game missed. The high-card points and

strength required

may

is

usually 13 or 14

be more. Overcall in Opponent's Suit (Cue Bid). The immediate cue bid (example: opponent opens one heart; defender bids two hearts) is

the strongest of

—

—

Very Good Hand 19 to 21 Points. If partner has made a weak response one no-trump or a single raise) opener may jump to game

—

all

defensive bids.

It is unconditionally forcing

Raise to four no12. Responses to a Three No-trump Bid. trump with 7 points, to six no-trump with 8 or 9 points, to seven no-trump with 1 2 points. Show any five-ckrd suit if the hand con-

the equivalent of an opening normally announces first-round control of the opening bidder's suit (ace or void) with very fine support in all im-

tains S points in high cards.

bid suits.

13.

Rebids by Opening Bidder.

—When bid was one

in a suit

frequently the most important call of the his first opportunity to reveal the exact strength of his opening bid. His opening is valued according to the following table

the opener's rebid auction. It gives

is

him

13 to 16 points, 16 to 19 points, 19 to 21 points,

minimum hand good hand very good hand

to

game and shows approximately

two

bid.

It

—

Action by Partner of Overcaller. The overcall is usually based on a good suit. Less than normal support is required to raise (Q-x or x-x-x). A raise should be preferred to bidding a suit of one's own, particularly when the overcaller has bid a major. The partner of the overcaller should not bid a weak hand. Action by Partner of Take-out Doubler. The doubler requests his partner to bid, so the only justification for a pass is the expectation of defeating the doubled contract. Partner's response

—

BRIDGE

189

he bids, and

guarantees no specified number of points. Preference is normally given to a major suit. Action by Partner of the Opening Bidder. When the opening bid has been overcalled, the responder is no longer under obligar

systems, in which most bids are signals designed to show the general strength of the bidder's hand but do not necessarily promise any strength in the suit bid. In the late 19S0s the conspicuous success of European teams in world-

keep the bidding open. Every bid shows strength. A bid of one no-trump or a raise should be based on a hand of about average strength (10 points). Over a take-out double, the responder has only one way to show a good hand a redouble. Any other bid. while not indicative of weakness, shows only mediocre high-card strength. (C. H. G.)

championship play directed international attention to the various systems used by Briti.sh, French and Italian teams. The most popular systems in those years were: 1. Two-club System. An opening bid of two clubs is forcing to game but is artificial, showing a hand usually of 23 or more points but not necessarily a club suit. The partner of the player who bids two clubs must respond two diamonds if he does not hold at least an ace and a king or three kings, but responds naturally if he holds at least that much high-card strength. Other opening two bids are weak bids, showing a six-card suit in a hand of 7 to 10 points. Most American champion teams since 1950 have used this system. (A. H. Md.) 2. British (Acol) System. While British players, in common with the rest of the world, first played systematic bridge "according to Culbertson," they later developed a style of their own. The Goren method, with its reliance on a point count at almost every stage of the bidding, has never been accepted. The bestknown system in Great Britain is Acol. This system or one that is similar in most respects is played by almost all the leading tournament players. The system derives its name from a London club frequented by some of the best British players in the middle

—

tion to

—

C.

When

Slam Bidding

a partnership has been able to ascertain that

it

has at

combined hands plus an adequate trump suit, is to make certain that the opponents For this purpose controlare unable to cash two quick tricks. showing bids are used. Three are most popular: Blackwood, Gerber and cue bidding. least 33 points in the

the only thing that remains

1.

—In

Blackwood Convention.

this convention, devised in

1934 by Easley Blackwood of Indianapolis, Ind., a bid of four no-trump asks partner to show his total number of aces. A response of five clubs shows no aces (or all four aces") five diamonds shows one ace; five hearts shows two aces; five spades shows three aces. After aces have been shown, the four no-trump bidder may ask for kings by bidding five no-trump. The responder now shows kings as he showed aces in response to the four no-trump bid, by bidding six clubs with no king, sLx diamonds with one king, etc. 2. Gerber Convention. This was devised in 193S by John Gerber of Houston, Tex. An unnecessary bid of four clubs, when the bid could not possibly have a natural meaning (such as, opener bids one no-trump, responder bids four clubs) asks partner to show the number of his aces. A response of four diamonds shows no ace; four hearts shows one ace, etc. If the asking hand desires information about kings he bids the next higher suit over his partner's ace-showing response. Thus if the responding hand has bid four hearts over four clubs to show one ace. a call of four spades would ask him to show kings and he would reply four notrump to show no king, five clubs to show one king, etc. 3. Cue Bidding. The individual method of ace showing (cue bidding is used when both partners have shown strength or when the trump suit has been agreed on. For example, opener bids two spades, responder bids three spades a bid of four clubs by opener now would show the ace of clubs (or a void) and would invite responder to show an ace if he had one. 4. Four-Five No-trump Convention. Cue bids were the first control-showing method, devised about 1930. In 1933 Ely Culbertson proposed wholesale control showing. A bid of four no-trump showed two aces and the king of the trump suit, or three aces; a response of five no-trump showed the other two aces in the partner's hand. The Blackwood and derivative conventions were based on this. In the United States, Blackwood supplanted the Culbertson convention; in Great Britain and parts of Europe the ;

—

—

)

;

—

Culbertson convention continued to be played. 5. Asking Bids. Another Culbertson innovation (1936), this a player to ask his partner about second-round controls (kings and singletons). For example: Opener bids one spade; responder bids three spades; opener bids four clubs. The four-club bid asks the responder to show an outside ace if he has at least the king or a singleton in clubs. Without any club control the responder must sign off at four spades. The asking bids have many and complex ramifications. They never became popular in the United States but were played in Europe, especially in Scandinavian countries.

—

method permitted

D. Other Bidding Systems

Hundreds of

different bidding

contract bridge and at

systems have been proposed for

times several dozen systems are in use. Some of these are modifications of the Goren system, described above, or are substantially the same as the Goren system with the addition of a few special bidding conventions; others are radically different. Bidding systems can be divided into two main groups, natural systems, in which the bidder usually has strength in any all

suit

artificial

—

—

—

—

1930s.

The

strong bid in Acol is a conventional two clubs. This is game except when the opener, following a minimum re-

forcing to

sponse of two diamonds, rebids two no-trump. The two-club opener should have five quick tricks. In this t>'pe of valuation, an .\-K in the same suit counts as 2 quick tricks, A-Q as 1 j, A or K-Q as

1.

K

as

-V.

The responder

two club opening bids two diamonds on a trick and a suit that can be bid at the range of two, he can respond two of the suit. For a response honour tricks are required. Two at the range of three, generally no-trump shows a balanced hand with upwards of 9 points or so. The other strong call is the Acol two bid—an opening two spades, two hearts, or two diamonds. This call shows a hand of power and quality, generally with 34 to 5 quick tricks and good playing strength. The bid is forcing for one round, the weakness response being two no-trump. The usual 4-3-2-1 point count is used for no-trump bidding only. Not vulnerable, one no-trump shows 12 to 14 points; vulnerable, 15 to 17. Two no-trump is not so strong as in America: generally 20 to 22 points (rather than 22 to 24 points). An opening bid of three no-trump is a tactical maneuvre generally based on a long minor suit. On strong no-trump hands, two clubs is opened. For slam bidding, Acol traditionally uses the Culbertson fourfive no-trump convention, though many players prefer the simpler Blackwood. Cue bids are freely used. The main difference between Acol and the American systems lies not in the conventional bids mentioned above, but in the general style and approach. .A.C0I is an attacking system in which the tactical plan is to come into the bidding early and bid high as soon as a fit has been found. Thus, opening bids are freely made on 10 or 11 points when a good six-card suit is held. A response of two no-trump shows 1 1 to 13 points and is not forcing. A double (jump) raise one spade to three spades is not forcing, and a to a

With one quick

valueless hand.

H

—

raise to four

To

is

—

stronger than a raise to three.

weaker opening bids, there are more sign-off bids in Acol than in the American systems. One heart two no-trump three hearts is discouraging and will normally be passed. While a reverse by responder (one club one heart, two clubs two spades), or a new suit at the range of three, is forcing, other afford protection to the

—

—

—

changes of suit are not forcing. In general, Acol bidding is direct and leans less heavily on the approach style than does Goren. An aphorism that may be taken as expressive of the Acol outlook is: "You bid what you think you can make, and you pass when you feel like it." 3.

Italian Systems.

—The

Italian

team that won the world

BRIDGE

190

—

championship three years running used two systems the Neapolitan club and the Roman. In the Neapolitan club opening bids of one diamond, one heart and one spade show the suit named and bidding proceeds normally, though on the basis that the opening hand is limited in strength. All strong hands, with 17 points or more, are opened with a bid of one club. Responder shows his values by a step system. Counting a king as one control and an ace as two controls, he responds one diamond with no control, one heart with one control, one spade with two controls, one no-trump with three controls, and so on. Thereafter the bidding proceeds normally.

Hands containing a club suit that are not good enough for the conventional one club are opened one no-trump. An opening bid of two clubs shows the equivalent of a weak no-trump. Other two

—

American weak two a good suit and less honour strength than is required for an opening bid of one. Two no-trump is a conventional opening that promises a long, solid suit. Responder bids three clubs and then the opener shows his suit. An opening of three in a suit shows a long, broken suit. The Roman club system is more complicated. The opening bid of one club is conventional but may be one of three different types bids are similar to the

minimum

opening, a club suit, or a very strong hand. One heart or to one club is one diamond. one spade shows the suit and fair values one no-trump is stronger. An opening bid of two clubs shows a moderate hand with at least four clubs and four hearts. Two spades and two hearts are the weak two. Two diamonds is a special bid denoting 5-4-4-0 or of hand: a

The weakest response

;

If partner has no suit to show he responds two hearts. An opening one no-trump is normal. Two no-trump shows a hand containing nine cards in the minor suits. In short, the Roman club system has a conventional bid for

4-4-4-1 distribution.

In defense, also, there are

practically every type of hand.

show

many

and have no relation

to the (J. T. R.) 4. French System. French, and to a certain extent Italian and other continental, bidding methods were influenced by the original ideas of Pierre Albarran of Paris, who proposed that the bidder begin with a relatively weak suit and rebid in his strongest artificial bids that

suit

suit.

named.

distribution

—

This approach to bidding

Roth-Stone System.

is

called canape.

— Most

radical of the popular bidding systems was that proposed by Alvin Roth of Washington, D.C., and Tobias Stone of New York city. In this system any opening bid in spades or hearts promises at least a five-card suit, a one no-trump response to an opening bid is forcing, opening bids and overcalls are stronger than in other systems, and there are other points of difference. The Roth-Stone system has influenced many other popular systems. 5.

E. Leads

card led against declarer is selected so as to give informaCertain conventional meanings of tion to the leader's partner. leads were establishing during the bridge whist period and with The conventional slight changes persisted in contract bridge.

The

meanings of leads

The

in contract bridge are indicated in the table.

from Whist).

lead of the fourth-best card

of the "rule of eleven" {see

a long suit permits use

In winning or attempting to win a trick to which some other player led, a defender plays the lowest equivalent of his highest card; as, the 10 from Q-J-10-8. A standard defender's signal

is the high-low, or come-on: the play or discard of an unnecessarily high card, followed if possible by a lower card of the same suit on a subsequent trick. This

denotes a desire to have that suit led. There are many other signals and conventions in defender's play. These do not violate the spirit of the game if they are known to the opponents. Not even the opponents of bidding conventions object to signals in the play. Declarer need not observe any system in the selection of cards, for he has no partner to inform.

VIII.

BRIDGE PROBLEMS

Proficiency at the play of the cards in bridge

is

enhanced by

Contract Bridge Leads

BRIDGEND— BRIDGES 5 West cannot discard Q or north, after taking '

BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

I

)

(

BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS

(i84i-i9i3), U.S. Old Testament scholar and theologian, vigorous exponent of "higher criticism," was born in New York city on Jan. 15. 1841, and educated at the University of Mrginia. the Union Theological seminary and the University of Berlin. After a pastorship in the Presbyterian church of Roselle. N.J., he went to the Union Theological seminary, where he held successively three different professorships. His inaugural address, on becoming professor of biblical theologyin 1891, led to his being tried for heresy by the presbyten.- of NewYork. He was acquitted, but the general assembly, to which the case was appealed, suspended him in 1S93. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1900. With S. R. Driver and Francis Brown, Briggs prepared a revised Hebrew and English Lexicon (i 891-1905), and with Driver edited the International Critical Commentary. His publications were numerous, and he was for ten years (1880-90) editor of the Presbyterian Review. Briggs died in New York on June 8, 19 13. (i 561-1630). English mathematician, faBRIGGS, mous for his logarithmic tables, was born at Warley Wood, near Halifa.x. in Yorkshire. He graduated from St. John's college, Cambridge, in 1581, and obtained a fellowship in 15S8. In 1592 he was made reader of the physical lecture founded by Thomas Linacre. and in 1596 first professor of geometry in Gresham house (afterward college), London, In his lectures at Gresham house he proposed the alteration of the scale of logarithms from the hyperbolic form that John Napier had given them to that in w-hich unity is assumed as the logarithm of the ratio of ten to one. In conferences with Napier the alteration proposed by Briggs was agreed upon: and on his return from his second visit to Edinburgh in 16 1 7 he accordingly published the first thousand of his logarithms. (5ee N.4PIER. John.) In 161 9 he was appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. In 1622 he published a small tract on the Nortli-West Passage to the South Sea, Through the Continent of Virginia and Hudson's Bay; and in 1624 his Arithmetica Logarithmica, in folio, a work containing the logarithms of 30.000 natural numbers to 14 places of figures besides the index. He also completed a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for the hundredth part of every degree to 14 places of figures besides the index with a table of natural sines to 15 places, and tangents and secants for the same to ten places all of which were printed at Gouda in 1631 and published in London in 1633 under the title of Trigonometria Britannica (see Mathem.atical Tables). Briggs died on Jan. 26. 1630. His other works include: A Table to Find the Height of the Pole, the Magnetical Declination Being Given (1602 "Tables for the Improvement of Navigation." printed in the second edition of Edward Wright's treatise entitled Certain Errors in Navigation Detected and Corrected (1610) A Description of an Instrumental Table to Find the Part Proportional, Devised by Mr. Edward Wright (1616 and 1618); Euclidis Elementorum VI, libri priores (1620!; .4 Treatise on the Xorth-West Passage to the South Sea

HENRY

;

)

;

;

(1622), reprinted in Purchas's Pilgrims, vol. iii, p. 852; Mathematica ab Antiquis minus cognita. Some other works, as his

Commentaries

on

the

Geometry of Peter Ramus were not

published.

1937) in

telegraph engineer,

who superintended

(183 2-1 888), Engthe laying of the first

Atlantic cable, was born on June 8, 1832, at Wanstead, Essex. at the Merchant Taylors' school, at the age of 15 he clerk under the Electric Telegraph company. In 1852

he was appointed engineer to the Magnetic Telegraph company, and had charge of the laying of lines in various parts of the British Isles, including in 1S53 the first cable between Great Britain and Ireland, from Portpatrick to Donaghadee. His experiments convinced him of the practicability of an electric submarine cable connection between Ireland and America; and having in 1855 already discussed the question with Cyrus Field, who with J, W, Brett controlled the Newfoundland Telegraph company on the other side of the ocean, Bright organized with them the Atlantic Telegraph company in 1856 for the purpose of carrying out the

becoming engineer in chief for the laying of the first Telegraph). In 1858, after two disappointments. Bright successfully accomplished what to many had seemed an impossible feat. Within a few days of landing the Irish end of the line at \"alentia he was knighted in Dublin. Subsequently Bright supervised the laying of submarine cables in various regions of the world, and took a leading part as pioneer in other developments of the electrical industry. As a partner with Josiah Latimer Clark from 1861, he invented improved methods of insulating submarine cables. A paper on electrical standards read by them before the British association in the same year led to the establishment of the British Association committee on that subject, whose work formed the foundations of the system still in use. From 1865 to 1868 he was Liberal M.P. for Greenwich. He died on May 3, 1888, at Abbey Wood, near London. idea, himself

Atlantic cable (see

See Life Story of Sir C. T. Bright, by his son Charles Bright, rev. ed. (igo8).

BRIGHT, JOHN

(1811-1889), British statesman and protoand associate of Richard Cobden (g.v. ), was born at Rochdale on Nov. 16. 1811, of Quaker stock. His father. Jacob Bright, had opened a cotton mill at Rochdale in 1809; his mother. Martha Wood, Jacob's second wife, was a woman of great strength of character and refined taste. He was educated first at a boarding school near his home, then at a Friends' school at Ackworth, finally at small schools at York and New-ton, near Clitheroe, Through this somewhat mixed and fragmentary education he learned, he himself said, only little Latin and Greek, but acquired a lasting love of Enghsh literature. In his 16th year he entered his father's mill, and became a partner in 1839. Rochdale, a growing hive of industry, was the centre of all his activities until the late 1830s; its political controversies and social institutions provided Bright with his first interest in public affairs. In 1S33 he helped to found the Rochdale Literary and Philosophical society; for seven years, 1834-41. he was the leader of the antichurch party in a prolonged struggle concerning local church rates; his first speech against the Com laws (q.v.). the issue on which his national reputation was to be founded, was made at Rochdale in 1838. Anti-Corn Law Agitation. As a Quaker and a millowner t}.-pe

of \'ictorian radicalism, the friend

—

Bright was naturally draw-n into the radical agitations of the lS30s. but he went further than most Quakers in concerning himself directly with problems of party politics and he soon stood out among his fellow millowners as a brilliant natural orator. It was almost inevitable that he should join in 1S3S the Manchester provisional committee which a year later founded the Anti-Corn Law league. After the death in Sept. 1841 of his young wife (formerly Elizabeth Priestman whom he had married 22 months before, he gave up all his energies to the league. In his famous words Richard Cobden urged him "when the first paro.x>-sm of your grief is past, )

BRIGHOUSE, larged

lish

borough (1893, considerably enthe Brighouse and Spenborough parliamentary a municipal

West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng., 6 mi. E.S.E. of Pop. (1961) 30,783. Area 12.3 sq.mi. The chief industries are textile: mainly carpetmaking, also silk spinning and the manufacture of yarns and fabrics. But there is also considerable engineering of all kinds, especially the manufacture of radio and division of the

Halifax.

television equipment.

In the grounds of Kirklees

hall, 2

mi. S.E.,

.

.

.

come with me, and we

will

never

rest

till

the

Corn

law- is re-

Bright accepted his invitation, and, in his own words, "from that time we never ceased to labour hard on behalf of the resolution which we had made,'' Bright became the leading orator of the league just as Cobden was its leading organizer. He was soon renow-ned for the bitterpealed.''

BRIGHT ness of his attacks on the landed aristocracy and for the appeal he made to the working classes as well as to the millowners.

Although he had no sympathy with the demand of factory operatives in the north of England for a shortening of the working day and was one of the most consistent supporters of the principle of laissez faire, he knew how to appeal to the feelings of his large audiences on the cheap food question. "The iron hoof of monopoly would no longer trample on the impotent millions," he argued, if the Corn laws were repealed. "The needy shall not always be forThe expectation of the poor shall not perish for ever." gotten. In 1843 he stood as a free trade candidate at a by-election at Durham. He was defeated, but his successful competitor was unseated on petition and at the second contest Bright was returned. His talents were now on display in the house of commons as well as the pubhc platform, but he was slower in establishing his reputation there than he was in the country. It was only after 184S that he began really to impress his fellow members. Along with Cobden, whom he encouraged to continue the national agitation in face of many difficulties, he saw the league's efforts crowned with success in the summer of 1846 when Sir Robert Peel abolished the Corn laws. At a meeting in Manchester on July 2, 1846, Cobden moved and Bright seconded a motion dissolving the league and subsequently a library of 1,200 volumes was presented to Bright as a memorial of the struggle.

Parliamentary Reform.

— Bright's

national political career In June 1847 he married Marwhom he had seven children. provided an ordered background to his public

was, in fact, only just beginning. garet Leatham, of Wakefield,

His happy family

life

A month

career.

by

after his marriage he

ManIn the new

was elected

for

chester, the mecca of the league, without a contest. parliament, as in the previous session, he opposed legislation re-

hours of labour and as a nonconformist spoke against But he was an.xious to direct the fervour which the league had aroused in the cause of parliamentary reform. In 1848 he voted for Joseph Hume's household suffrage motion and he tried to persuade Cobden, who was more interested in financial than parliamentary reform, to join him in a campaign to extend the franchise. He had only limited success in his endeavour to win over Cobden, but never himself abandoned the battle for parUamentary reform until the last stage in the process had been realized in 1884. Before parliamentary reform became the leading question of the day. Bright went through a period of loneliness and unpopularity which contrasted sharply with the excitement and acclamation of the early 1840s. He had joined with Cobden in attacking Lord Palmerston's foreign policy, in his view, a policy of glory and gunpowder. He maintained that traditional diplomacy was merely a form of "outdoor reUef for the landed aristocracy," and resolutely supported the peaceful business ideals which lay behind the Great Exhibition of 1851. When Britain became involved in the Crimean War in 1854, Bright was Palmerston's most eloquent and persistent opponent. On Feb. 2i, 1855, he delivered the greatest speech he ever made in the house of commons, with its famous image, "the angel of death has been abroad throughout the land. You may almost hear the beating of his wings." The speech moved the house as it had never been moved within living memory; his political opponent, Benjamin Disraeli, who frequently went out of his way to discuss politics with Bright, for whom he felt a curious sympathy, remarked that he would have given his all to have made the speech. Influence at Westminster, however, did not imply popularity in Manchester. The same crowds who had pressed for repeal were now prepared to identify themselves with Palmerston's pohcy, to brand Bright as a "Russtricting the clerical

sian"

control of national education.

and

to

burn his efi5gy in the Manchester streets. At the gen1857 Bright and his radical colleague lost their

eral election of

Manchester

The next

seats.

was returned as representative for Birmingham, which had a longstanding repuand which was glad to welcome him without a contest. He remained member for Birmingham for the rest of his life, finding its political atmosphere much more congenial than that of Manchester. He soon had the satisfaction of seconding a year, however, he

England's second

city,

tation for radicalism

213

motion which led to the defeat and resignation of Palmerston in Feb. 1858. Although Bright had few sympathies with the new minority Conservative government, he warmly supported two of their measures, which he had long advocated the admission of Jews to parliament and the transfer of the government of the East India company to the crown. He was less enthusiastic about Disraeli's projected suffrage bill which he regarded as "the product not of the friends but of the enemies of reform." In all the many parliamentary debates on franchise reform between 1859 and 1867, Bright was a regular speaker. "I am told .," he said after 1867, "that I have with more labour, with

—

.

.

more elaborate speeches, urged the encountry than any other man." He had the satisfaction of seeing W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer in a new liberal coahtion formed under Palmerston in 1859, become a supporter of the cause and gave him frequent advice and encouragement. Above all he had the satisfaction of seeing pubUc opinion swing toward reform ideas again in the middle lS60s after many earlier signs of lack of interest and excitement. Bright believed in public opinion as the key to change; his first speech in Birmingham had stressed the need for a new agitation to press for parliamentary reform, but there was relatively little enthusiasm greater pertinacity, with

franchisement of

in the

my

country until 1864, the year when Gladstone announced his

conversion.

The death of Palmerston in 1865; the growth of new political organizations of which the most important were the National Reform union (1864) founded in Manchester and backed by Bright, and the Reform league (1865) with its headquarters in London; and a trade depression in 1866 and 1867, which did as much as the diffusion of ideas to stir working class opinion, all led to a genuine revival of agitation. Bright more than any other man pulled together the threads of organization -and worked for "a combined and friendly movement" in London and the provinces. In parliament Lord John Russell, who had succeeded Palmerston, was unsuccessful in carrying a reform bill in 1866, largely because of the opposition of a section of his own party led by Robert Lowe. However, Lowe and his friends, whom Bright named "the Adullamites" {q.v.), were unsuccessful in holding back the tide. Lord Derby and Disraeli, who formed a new Conservative minority government after Russell's defeat, introduced a reform bill of their own. It fell far short of Bright's demands, but Disraeli frequently yielded to the pressure of the opposition, and the Reform bill of 1867 as it finally passed the house was a radical measure, aptly described by the prime minister as a "leap in the dark." One Conservative critic of the government's surrender maintained that "if the adoption of the principles of Mr. Bright be a triumph, then the Conservative party, in the whole history of its previous annals, has won no triumph as signal as this." Other Interests. Parliamentary reform was not Bright's only In 1860 he warmly supported interest between 1858 and 1867. Cobden in the negotiations for the treaty of Commerce with France, which he regarded as a model instrument of healthy international relations. When Cobden died in March 1865, Bright told

—

the house of commons that he dared not even attempt to express the feelings which oppressed him, and sat down overwhelmed with grief. "I httle knew how much I loved him till I had lost him,"

he remarked, reviewing a friendship which had lasted more than 20 years. While supporting the efforts not only of Cobden but also of Gladstone for extension of the principles of free trade, Bright was one of the most active advocates of the side of the North in the American Civil War. He had profound admiration for Abraham Lincoln, with whom he frequently corresponded; and he believed that the battle against slavery was the greatest crusade the Americans had embarked upon. He shared with Cobden a belief that American authority in world economic and poUtical life would increase, but he went further than Cobden in acquainting himself with the immediate as well as the distant problems of U.S.

sometimes accused, unfairly, of trying to "AmeriIn the long run, he looked forward to the day when "from that point of land which is habitable nearest to the Pole, to the shores of the Great Gulf, the whole

politics.

He was

canize" the British constitution.

—

BRIGHT— BRIGHTON

214

of that vast continent might become one great confederation of States without a great army and without a great navy, not mixing itself up with the entanglements of European poHtics, without a

—

custom-house inside, through the whole length and breadth of its and with freedom everywhere, equality everywhere, law everywhere, peace everywhere such a confederation would afford at least some hope that man is not forsaken of Heaven, and the future of our race may be better than the past." This speech, deterritory

—

at Rochdale in Nov. 1861, is a good example of his extended oratory; he was, however, equally powerful in coining new pithy phrases. The slogan "a free breakfast table" was first used by him; and he also coined the sentence, "Force is not a remedy." Until 1 868 Bright had never been in office, and indeed throughout the whole of his life he preferred to remain in what he called the "common rank of simple citizenship." He was never interested in administration. The formation of a Liberal government after the general election of i86S, however, provided him with his first opportunity of office. When Gladstone urged him to accept the post of president of the board of trade, he accepted, and gave powerful support to the program of reform, particularly Irish reform of church and land, a matter which had long been among his chief interests. A severe illness compelled his retirement in Dec. 1870, but he returned to office in Aug. 1873 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Although the Conservatives gained a majority at the general election of 1S74 Bright was returned unopposed for Birmingham. He gave his continued support to Gladstone when the latter came out of his retirement in 1S77 to thunder against Disraeli's policy in the near east. Following the same line of argument which he had pursued during the Crimean War he now found himself backed by the united moral indignation of the whole Gladstonian party. When Gladstone returned to power after the general election of 1880, Bright once again became chan-

livered

movement, which he always reIf Gladstone was the official leader of that movement. Bright was for long its chief guide and inspiration. In the house of commons Bright's role was parallel to his role in the country. "The supreme eulogy which is his his influence within the Liberal

garded as something more than a party.

due," Gladstone claimed, "is that he elevated political life to a higher elevation, and to a loftier standard, and that he has thereby bequeathed to his country the character of a statesman, which can be made the subject not only of admiration and of gratitude, but of reverential contemplation." When the reverence is stripped

away. Bright remains as an outstanding figure, although he has had many critics among historians just as he had in his lifetime.

"The history of the last Birmingham constituents

forty years of this country," he told his

mainly a history of the conbe a grand volume that tells the story, and your name and mine, if I mistake not, will be found in some quests of freedom.

of

its

in 1873, "is

It will

pages."

B1BLIOGR.APHY. Speeches on Parliamentary Reform, etc., by John Bright, M.P., Revised by himself (1867) Speeches on Questions of Public Policv, bv John Bright, MP. (1868), Public Addresses, ed. by J. E. Thorold Rogers (1879); G. Barnett Smith, The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P. (1881) Public Letters of the Right Hon. John Bright, MP., collected bv H. J. Leech (1885); G. M. Trevelyan, The Life of John Bright (1913; 2nd ed. 1925) The Diaries of John Bright, ed. by R. A. J. Walling (1930) J. Travis Mills, John Bright and the Quakers, 2 vol. (1935) A. Briggs, Victorian People (1954). (A. Bri.) .

.

.

;

;

;

;

;

BRIGHT, RICHARD first

(1789-1858), English physician, the

to describe the clinical manifestations of the kidney diseases

him Bright's disease

(g.v.), was born on Sept. 28, 1789, at Bristol. After an expedition to Iceland and a short period of study at Guy's hospital, London, Bright took his M.D. at Edin-

called after

burgh in 181 2. From 1814 to 1815 he visited continental hospitals, and then became assistant physician to the London fever hospital. In 1820 he was made assistant physician at Guy's and four years cellor of the duchy of Lancaster. later full physician. The results of his researches first appeared His conduct between 1S80 and 1886 showed that he put the. in Reports of Medical Cases Selected With a View of Illustrating claims of office far below the claims of principle. For two sessions the Symptoms and Cure of Disease by a Reference to Morbid he spoke and voted with his colleagues, supporting for example Anatomy (1827), a work which described dropsical cases and W, E. Forster's Irish Coercion bill in 18S1, but after Gladstone showed that they involved a diseased condition of the kidney. had intervened in Egypt and the British na\-y had bombarded Alex- "Bright's disease" soon became world-known, and its discoverer's andria, Bright left the ministry (July 15, 1SS2) and never held reputation was ensured by subsequent papers on renal disease in office again. Although he gave continued general support to Glad- the second volume of reports in 183 1 (this also contained studies stone between 1S80 and 1886, he disagreed with the policy of of the central nervous system and of diseases of the brain, meninges Home Rule for Ireland and played a central part in the Liberal and cord and in the important first volume of Guy's Hospital split of March 1S86, presiding over the crucial meeting in the Reports of 1836. To these latter reports, from 1836 onward, house of commons. He had never believed in political violence Bright contributed many papers on abdominal tumours, fever, and had attacked the Irish members of parliament for having "ex- diseased arteries of the brain, etc. He resigned his post at Guy's hibited a boundless sympathy for criminals and murderers." He in 1843. He died in London on Dec. 16, 1858. was therefore able to associate himself without inconsistency with See Guy's Hospital Reports, Bright Centenary Number (1927) Arhis fellow radical member for Birmingham. Joseph Chamberlain, turo Casticlioni, History of Medicine, ed. bv E. B. Krurabhaar, pp. 703-704 (1958). whose version of radicalism in many other ways contrasted sharply with his own. The breakup of the Liberal party, however, filled BRIGHTLINGSEA, a seaport and urban district in the HarBright with gloom. He was unhappy also in his last years about wich parliamentary division of Essex, Eng., on a creek of the )

;

the revival of protectionist doctrines, the

new

interest in the ex-

pansion of the empire and the talk of imperial federation, which he dismissed as a "dream" and an absurdity. Dogged by ill-health, he died at Rochdale on March 27, 1SS9, and was buried in the graveyard of the meetinghouse of the Society of Friends there.

Bright and the Liberal Movement.

—

Colne, 10 mi. S.E. of Colchester

It

of SaUsbury described it, was not his only weapon; in addition, he had great courage and consistency, unbounded confidence and a basic humility. As Joseph Chamberlain put it, "the foundation of his political faith was confidence in the people ... he placed the happiness of the many before the interests of the few." His belief in the people and his attack on vested interests, particularly agricultural interests, led his opponents to brand him as an agitator who fomented class antagonisms; his unlimited confidence caused his more sophisticated critics to claim that he lacked subtlety and depth. Both these qualities, however, contributed to

is

a yachting

BRIGHTON,

Bright's importance in

19th-century British history was that he helped to clarify the operative Liberal ideal of "peace, retrenchment and reform" and to popularize it among large sections of the population. The "robust, powerful and vigorous style" of his oratory, as the third marquess

by

road.

Pop. (1961) 4,788.

Brightlingsea was a limb of the Cinque Port of Sandwich (q.v.) long before 1442. A 14th-century house. Jacobs, still stands. The oyster fishery is the chief industry; there are also some shipyards.

and holiday

resort.

a parliamentary

and county borough and seaLondon by road

side resort of East Sussex, England, 51 mi. S. of

The borough, rail. Pop. (1961) 162,757; area 19.6 sq.mi. which returns two members to parliament, was extended in 1923, 1928 and 1952 and includes Patcham. Rottingdean, Ovingdean and part of Falmer and Saltdean. It is bounded by the South Downs on the north, and also on the east, where the chalk cliffs rest on traces of a raised beach at Black Rock beyond Kemp Town, and by Hove {q.v.) which continues the urban development without interruption along the flat shore line to the west. In 1930 big sea defense schemes were undertaken between Black Rock and Saltdean, including an undercliff promenade and sea wall. The first mention of Brighton is in Domesday where it appears as Bristelmestune (Bryghneston in 1324, Brighthempston in 1514, Brighthelmston in 1816) and comprised three holdings, from one or

BRIGHT'S DISEASE— BRINDISI which a rent of 4.000 herrings was due to Earl Godwin. Its early histor>' is one of the vicissitudes of its fishing community, of

amid the hazards of sea storms, In the time of Elizacliff erosion and marauding Frenchmen. beth I. disputes between fishermen and neighbouring landsmen led the queen to order the establishment of the "Society of Twelve" eight fishermen and four landsmen to assist the conFrom stable, and this body was for long the local government. the 17th century the community declined until in 1750 Richard Russell published his work on the medical uses of sea water and living largely at the foot of the

cliff

—

—

in Brighton (1754) to carry his theories into practice, thereby initiating the era of sea bathing. Its popularity received a new impetus from the arrival, in 17S3, of the prince of Wales, afterward the prince regent and King George IV. His powerful patronage, e.xtending almost continuously to 1827. gave Brighton its most splendid period and one which stamped the town with the distinguished character imparted by its regency squares and Mrs. Fitzherbert, recognized as his wife, is buried in terraces. His palace, the Royal paSt. John's Roman Catholic church. vilion, designed in Indian style with fantastic Chinese interior dec-

settled

Old Steine (where fishing nets were dried) at a cost of more than £376.000 for land and buildings alone. It was sold to the town by Queen Victoria in 1850 and now. furorations,

was

built on the

some of the original furnishings, is open to the public during the summer. The Dome, originally the royal stables, accommodates 2.000 and is used for nished in the style of that period, including

concerts, conferences

the the

and

and the Royal pavilion

social functions,

museum and

With the opening of London to Brighton railway in 1841. the future popularity of resort was assured. It was granted a charter of incorporation

estate houses the

in 1854.

art gallery.

—

—

The heart of Brighton the old town of narrow "lanes" lies west of the Old Steine. and its seaward side is the main promenade, between the Palace and West piers. The Chain pier (1.134 ft.), buflt in 1823 in the form of four suspension bridges, was destroyed in a storm in 1896. The oldest church, St. Nicholas, originally dated from Norman times. Brighton has more than 7 mi. of sea front above the pebbly beach where there is sand at low tide. There in 1887 Magnus Volk established the first electric railway in Great Britain (1^ mi. in length), which still carries holidaymakers in open coaches. The town has several theatres; the Booth museum of birds; Preston manor, a Queen Anne house bequeathed for a museum and public park; a racecourse of 122 ac. on a crest of the downs overlooking the sea near Whitehawk hill, where are Neolithic earthworks; two open-air swimming pools; an aquarium; five golf courses; an ice stadium; a sports arena of 14 ac; and about 28 sq.mi. of land within and without the borough, a large part of which, including the Devil's dike, was bought to form a green belt. The municipal airport is at Shoreham-by-Sea. University College of Sussex was established at Brighton in 1961 and the first phase for development provided for 1.000 students by 1963. Of many schools the biggest are Brighton college (1845) and Roedean girls' school; there are also a technical college, a college of arts and crafts and a teachers' training college. Sussex county hospital is the largest of numerous hospitals and

tive type.

215

See Bright. Richard; Edema; Urinary System. (F. L. A.)

BRIGIT

(Bridget, Brigida, Bride), SAINT, of Ireland (d. c. 524-528 ), abbess of Kildare, is one of the patron saints of Ireland. Little is known of her life but legend, myth and folklore. According to these, she was born at Fochart, in the present County Louth, of a noble father and a slave mother. As a child she was sold with her mother to a druid. whom she later converted to Christianity. On being set free she returned to her father, who tried to marry her to the king of Ulster, but the latter, impressed by her piety, removed her from parental control. She gathered other virgins around her, and obtained ecclesiastical recognition of

They Hved as a community at Kildare, which became a double abbey, for monks and nuns, under an abbess who ranked above the abbot. St. Conlaed. bishop, was honoured there with Brigit from the earliest times. She seems to have been active in founding other communities of nuns. Brigit died on Feb. 1, which is kept as her feast day. Bibliography. J. F. Kenney (ed.). The Sources for the Early Histheir privileged status.

—

tory of Ireland, vol. i, pp. 353-363 (1929) A. Curtayne, St. Brigid of Ireland, 2nd ed. (1955) John O'Hanlon, The Lives of the Irish Saints, vol. ii (c. 1880), which is uncritical but accurately documented. (PL. On.) ;

;

BRIGITTINES

iOrdo Sanctissimi Salvatoris), a religious order founded by St. Bridget (q.v.) of Sweden about 1346, though the mother house at Vadstena, Swed., was not begun until 1371. Among the 79 pre-Reformation houses of the order (mostly in northern Europe) was that of Syon at Isleworth, Eng., dating from 1415.

On Aug.

5.

1370.

Pope Urban

V

approved the Brigittine

The Most Holy Saviour of St. Bridget, founded at Rome in 1911 by Mother Elisabeth Hesselblad, were recognized bv the Holy See on Sept. 12, 1942, as an offshoot of the ancient rule but required the use also of the rule of St. Augustine.

modern

Sisters of the

(H. G.

order.

J.

B.)

BRIHASPATI

(Brhaspati or "Lord of Prayer," equated with the planet Jupiter), a deity in the Vedic Hindu mythology, an ally of Indra in'his conquest of the cloud demon. In the Rigveda he is identified with Agni (q.v.). Offspring of heaven and Depicted as earth, he inspires prayer and protects the pious. having 7 mouths. 100 wings and sharp horns, he is arpied with bow and ax, and his chariot is drawn by red horses. In the epics merely a priest or sage. (1554-1626), Flemish artist, was the (Brill), most popular landscape painter in Rome in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a time when the Flemings were still considered His early forest landscapes the leading specialists in this field. have a twisted, exaggerated appearance; their style derives partly from the Mannerist t>ainters of his native Antwerp. After 1600 he disciplined and simplified his compositions under the influence of Adam Elsheimer (q.v.). His latest work is classical in character and forms part of the background which helps to account for Claude Lorrain. He died in Rome on Oct. 7, 1626. Several fresco cycles by Bril survive (Vatican, Palazzo Rospigliosi, etc.) and numerous individual works on panel and canvas. See A. Mayer, Das Leben und die Werke der Briider Mattheus und (M. W. L. K.) Paul Brill (1910); K.Ba.er, Paul Bril (1930). (1755-1826), BRILLAT-SAVARIN, French lawyer, politician and writer, who was the author of the Born at celebrated work on gastronomy. Physiologie dti gout. Belley on April 1, 1755. he followed the family profession of lawyer. A deputy of the third estate at the states-general of 1789, he was forced to flee the' country during the Terror and went to Switzerland and the United States. He returned to France in 1796 and became a judge of the court of cassation during the consulate. He published several works on law and political economy before his work on gastronomy appeared in 1825 (Eng. trans.. The Physiology of Taste, 1925). He died at Paris on Feb. 2, 1826. he

is

PAUL

BRIL

ANTHELME

sanatoria.

The town has

industrial estates covering 45 ac,

and the making

of office machinery, jigs and machine tools, time recording equipment, electrical apparatus, vacuum cleaners, shoes, paint, medicinal preparations, street name plates, brushes and beer are among its

varied industries. Bibliography. J. A. Erredge, History of Brighthelmstone (Brighton, 1862); L. Melville, Brighton (1909); Sir Osbert Sitwell and M. Barton, Brighton (1935); A. Dale, Fashionable Brighton, 1820-1860 (1947) C. Musgrave, Royal Pavilion (1951) E. W. Gilbert, Brighton, Old Ocean's Bauble (1954) L. Hill, Royal Pavilion (1959). (W. O. D.)

—

.

;

.

.

;

;

BRIGHT'S DISEASE

is named after Richard Bright, an described the clinical manifestations of certain kidney diseases now known as glomerulonephritis and hypertensive contracted kidney. Subsequently others enlarged Bright's conception to include essentially all forms of kidney disorders of the glomeruli, the vascular tree and those of a degenera-

English physician,

who

See M. des Ombiaux, (1937).

BRINDISI,

a

capital of Brindisi

La Physiologie du goUt de

Brillat-Savarin

of southeast Italy. Apulia region, and province, is a major Adriatic port situated

city

on the ItaUan "heel." 113 km. (70 mi.) S.E. of Bari by road. Pop. (1961) 76,192 (commune). It lies between the arms of a

BRINDISI— BRINVILLIERS

2l6

Y-shaped sea inlet which admits ocean-going ships. Much of the city is modern, with wide streets and spacious buildings. Two columns are the chief Roman relics, but other remains include vestiges of a water-supply system and public baths. The church of S. Benedetto (1080) has a cloister and a carved portal, that of Sta. Lucia, a crypt with

Byzantine frescoes.

The 11th-century

circular baptismal church of S. Giovanni al Sepolcro

is

now

a

museum.

The 12th-century cathedral was almost entirely rebuilt in 1749. The Church of Christ has a 13th-century faqade and 14th-century frescoes by Rinaldo da Taranto. The castle of Frederick II overlooks the western arm of the inner harbour. Brindisi is on the main coastal railway from Ancona to Lecce, with a branch to Taranto, and from its port ships ply to the near and far east. There is an airport 3 mi. N., at Casale. The chief industry is the import and export of merchandise, but wine and preserved fruit are produced. Legend attributes the city's foundation to Diomedes, the companion of Ulysses, and its original Greek name, Brentesion, changed by the Romans to Brundisium (meaning "Stag's head" from the antler-shaped inner harbour), shows its Illyrian origin. It was made a Roman town in 266 B.C. and with Tarentum (Taranto) formed a base of resistance to Hannibal half a century later. In the 2nd century B.C. it was joined to Rome by the Appian way and after the Social wars became a municipium. Octavian (Augustus) and Antony were reconciled there in 40 B.C. and in 19 B.C. Virgil died there. Brindisi had various rulers during the early middle ages. It regained importance after conquest by the Normans (1071) and was the embarkation port for many crusaders. Its prosperity continued under the first Angevin, but the town was damaged in the struggles over the succession at the end of the 14th century, and by an earthquake in 1456. In common with the rest of the kingdom of Naples, Brindisi changed hands several times in the 18th and early 19th centuries, but from 181 S the restored Bourbons began to make it an important commercial centre. The opening of the Suez canal in 1869 increased its pros-

perity.

In

World War I it was World War

the Adriatic and in

the centre of naval operations in II

was captured by the

Allies on

Sept. 10, 1943.

The province

of Brindisi, formed in 1927 with Brindisi as capital,

shaped roughly

like a fiat triangle, with its base on the Adriatic 47 mi. long. Its greatest width is 28 mi. and its chief river the Canale Reale. Pop. (19S7 est.) 337,125; area 709 sq.mi. The province is mainly flat or undulating, rising to the westward. Chief towns are Fasano, Ostuni and Francavilla Fontana. The emphasis in agriculture is on cereals, olives, vines and vegetables. (M. T. A. N.) BRINDISI, a term used for drinking songs in 19th-century Italian opera, from brindisi, "a toast." Typical examples are the aria "Libiamo" ("let's drink") in Verdi's La Traviata and "Viva il vino" in Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana. The genre reached its height in the dramatic drinking song by lago, accompanied by Cassio, Roderigo and a choir, in act i of Verdi's Otello. is

BRINDLEY, JAMES

(1716-1772), co-founder with John Smeaton of the civil engineering profession, was born at Thornsett near Buxton, Derbyshire, in 1716. Of humble origin, he became a millwright. In 1752 he designed and set up an engine for draining coalpits at Clifton, Lancashire. In 1759 his genius and skill led to his being called by the duke of Bridgwater to advise on his project of a canal from Worsley to Manchester. His solution of the problems, including the Barton aqueduct carrying the canal over the river Irwell and the many mUes of underground communications in the Worsley coal mines, established him as the foremost canal engineer of his day. The success of this canal

encouraged similar projects; the Grand Trunk canal, penetrating the central ridge of England by the Harecastle tunnel, the Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Coventry, the Oxford, the old Birmingham and the Chesterfield canals were all designed and, with one exception, executed by Brindley. By his labours a network totaling 360 mi. of canals was laid out and constructed. The communications of the country were so improved that the way was paved for the industrial revolution of the igth century. Brindley left no record of his works, which he undertook without written

calculations or drawings.

He

died on Sept. 30, 1772, at Turnhurst,

Staffordshire.

See S. Smiles, The Lives of the Engineers, vol.

i

(1864). (A.

McD.)

BRINELL, JOHAN AUGUST

(1849-1925), Swedish metallurgist, devised the Brinell hardness test {see Hardness Testing^. Born in Bringetofta in the district of Jonkoping, on Nov. 21, 1849, he attended the technical school at Boras. He rose to a leading position in the iron

became the engineer

and

steel industry.

for the Lesjofers ironworks

In 1875 he

and

in 1882

was

appointed chief engineer of the Fagersta ironworks, a position he held until 1903. From 1903 to 1914 at the Jamkontoret works he carried on research in steel handling and the crystallization of steel.

He

retired in 1914.

About 1900 he developed the rapid test for steel that bears his name, by which the hardness and other properties are determined by the imprint made by a hardened ball under a given pressure. He won many awards including the Bessemer medal of the Iron and Steel institute of London. Brinell died at Stockholm on Nov. 17, 1925(S. C. Hr.) BRINK, (1841-1892), German philol-

BERNHARD TEN

Dutch origin, best known for his studies of early EngHsh literature, was born at Amsterdam on Jan. 12, 1841, and educated at Diisseldorf, Miinster and Bonn. In 1870 he became professor of modern languages at Marburg, and in 1873 professor of English ogist, of

at Strasbourg university.

with

W.

In 1874 he began to

edit, in

conjunction und For-

Scherer, E. Martin and E. Schmidt, Quellen

schungen zur Sprache und Kulturgeschichte der germanischen Volker. In 1877 he published Chaucer: Studien zur Geschichte seiner Eritwickelung und zur Chronologie seiner Schrijten; in 1884, Chaucers Sprache und Verskiinst. He also published critical editions of the Prologue and the Compleynte to Pit6. Brink's work stimulated a revival of Chaucer study in the United Kingdom as well as in Germany, and to him was indirectly due the foundation of the English Chaucer society. His Beowulj-Untersiichungen (1888) proved a hardly less valuable contribution. His best known work is his Geschichte der englischen Litcratur (188993; English trans, by H. Kennedy in Bohn's Standard Library), which was never completed, and broke off just before the Elizabethan period. Brink died at Strasbourg Jan. 29, 1892. (1887-1947), a leading French BRINON, supporter of Naziism and collaborator under the Vichy regime, was born at Libourne, Gironde, on Aug. 16, 1887, and graduated at the £cole Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris. A journalist, he became a vigorous supporter of Franco-German reconciliation and founded the Comite France-Allemagne and the Cercle du Grand Pavois, which exercised great influence in political and business circles. Heavily financed by Germany through his friend Otto Abetz, J. von Ribbentrop's chief agent in France, he played an important part in the final demoralization of the third republic and in the establishment of the Vichy regime. In Nov. 1940, by agreement with the Germans, the Vichy gdvemment appointed Brinon its ambassador in Paris and then its delegate general for German-occupied France also; in April 1942 he

FERN AND DE

became a junior minister. In Sept. 1944, after the Allied invasion had caused the collapse of the Vichy regime, he. Marcel Deat and other collaborators formed in Marshal Petain's name a pseudo government which was, however, devoid of effective authority. Eventually captured by the Allies, Brinon was tried by the high He was executed on court and sentenced to death for treason. April 15, 1947. His services to Germany had been so great that his Jewish wife was recognized by the Reich as an "honorary (P.

Arvan."

'V\'.

C.)

BRINVILLIERS, MARIE MADELEINE MARGUERITE D'AUBR'AY, Marquise de (c. 1630-1676), French poisoner,

was the

eldest daughter of Antoine

Dreux d'Aubray,

ci\dl

In 1651 she married a young army officer, Vivacious, attractive and pleasAntoine Gobelin ure-loving, she became the mistress of a friend of her husband's, lieutenant of Paris.

de Brinvilliers.

B. Godin, called de Sainte-Croix. On her father's intervention, Sainte-Croix was arrested and sent to the Bastille on March 19,

J.

—

BRIOSCO— BRISBANE Released two months later, he plotted with his mistress to take revenge on her father by poisoning him. With the assistance of Glaser, one of the king's apothecaries, he obtained poisons which she tested on patients in hospitals. Eventually she was thus enabled to procure the death of her father (Sept. 10, 1666) and then of her two brothers (1670), but an attempt on her husband failed. Then Sainte-Croix died suddenly (July 31, 1672) and among his belongings documents were found incriminating Madame de Brinvilliers and her valet, as well as some phials of poison. The valet was condemned to death and was broken on the wheel in the Place de Greve (Feb. 2i, 1673). The marquise, having escaped and taken refuge in England and later in the Low Countries, was condemned to death in her absence. Arrested at Liege (March 25, 1676) and taken to France, she was tried by the parlement of Paris and condemned to be beheaded. Having admitted her crimes under torture and e.xpressed her repentance, she received the consolations of the church and was executed in the Place de Greve on July 16, 1676. Her body was burned and the ashes scattered. During her interrogation Madame de Brin\dlliers had declared: "Half the people of quality are involved in this sort of thing. and I could ruin them if I were to talk." The people whom she refused to name were those who were later to be compromised in the "affair of the poisons" {see Poisons, Affair of the). Bibliography. J. Loiseleur, Trois Mgmes historiques (1882) G. Roullier, La Marquise de Brinvilliers, 2 vol. (1883) F. Funck-Brentano, Le Drame des poisons (1899; 2nd ed., 1928) H. Stokes, Madame de Brinvilliers and Her Times (1912; 2nd ed., 1924); G. Mongredien, Madame de Montespan et I'affaire des poisons (1953). (G. Mo.) see Riccio (Andrea Briosco). BRIOSCO, BRISBANE, ( 1864-1930), U.S. newspaper editor and writer, was best known for his work on the Hearst newspapers. He was the son of Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), U.S. social reformer, whose European study and travels led him to adopt the principles of Francois Marie Charles Fourier (q.v.). and after

217

1663.

—

;

;

;

ANDREA:

ARTHUR

his return

implementation.

Educated

and lecture for their Buffalo, N.Y., Dec. 12, 1864.

to the U.S.. to organize, write

Arthur was

bom

in the U.S. until the

in

age of

13,

he then, like his father,

studied in France and

Germany. Returning to the U.S. in 1883, he worked first on Charles A. Dana's New York Sun and then on Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. In 1897 William Randolph Hearst (q.v.) made him managing editor of the New York Journal, and, with his salary tied to circulation rises, Brisbane became the highest paid U.S. newspaper editor of his day. Master of the big. blaring headline and of the atrocity story, he played a large part promotion of the Spanish-American War {see Newspaper: Yellow Journalism). His editorial column. "Today," written from 191 7 to the day of his death in New York city, Dec. 25, 1936, was widely syndicated, often as a front page feature. See Oliver Carlson, Brisbane: a Candid Biography (1937). in the Journal's

BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS

MAKDOUGALL

(1773-

1860), Scottish soldier and astronomical observer who is mainly remembered as a patron of science, was born on July 23, 1773, at

Brisbane house, near Largs, Ayrshire. He entered the army in 1789 and served in Flanders, the West Indies, Canada and Spain. He developed an interest in astronomy and built an observatory at Brisbane house. In 182 1 he was appointed governor of New South Wales and, although generally a poor administrator, he introduced grapevines, sugar cane and tobacco plants into the colony. He established an observatory at Paramatta in 1822 and after his return to Scotland constructed a combined observatory and magnetic station at Makerstoun in Roxburghshire. He was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical society in 1828, and the results of magnetic observations at Makerstoun gained him the Keith prize of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1848.

He was

elected president of that society in 1833 in succes-

Brisbane was made a baronet in 1836 and a general in 1841. He died at Brisbane house on Jan. 28, i860. See Mon. Not. R. Aslr. Sac, vol. 21 (i860). (O. J. E.) sion to Sir

Walter Scott.

BRISBANE, is

city, seaport and capital of Queensland, Austr., situated in the southeastern corner of the state on the Brisbane from its mouth in Moreton bay. Pop. (1961) 593,-

river. 14 mi.

668.

Metropohtan area

city of Australia.

(1961)

The area

621,550,

making

of greater Brisbane

it

is

the

third

385 sq.mi.,

VIEW OF BRISBANE FROM WICKHAM TERRACE. TOWER) STANDS IN THE CENTRE

THE CITY HALL (WITH CLOCK

the third largest local authority area in the southern hemisphere.

The

city lies astride the river which winds through wooded, hilly country and is there crossed by four bridges and several ferries. The Brisbane and Logan basins give access to the uplands of the Darling downs and of northern New South Wales, while northward lowlands, crossed by hill ranges, lead toward the central coastal basins. The climate is subtropical with temperatures varying from a mean maximum of 59.9° F., an average daily sunshine of 7^ hr. and an average annual rainfall of 40.1 in., falling mainly from

December to March. One of the city's most splendid

buildings

is

the city hall, erected

Renaissance style in 1929 at a cost of nearly £Al, 000,000 and covering 2^ ac. on the site of Brisbane's original water hole. The University of Queensland at St. Lucia has excellent modern buildings and there are a fine parliament house (1869), the Queensland museum (1855), a National Art gallery (1895) and an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral. The main thoroughfares are Queen street and Adelaide street. There are three race tracks Eagle Farm, Doomben and Albion park and many pubUc recreation grounds, besides beautiful parks and gardens, such as the Botanic gardens (51 ac). The Easter yachting classic, the Brisbane-Gladstone race, attracts entries from all the states and from in

—

overseas.

Brisbane is the outlet for a vast and rich agricultural and pastoral hinterland stretching west to the Eastern highlands, the Darling downs and beyond. It is also becoming increasingly important as

an industrial centre,

its

industries including

heavy and

light

manuand

facturing, shipbuilding, food processing, sawmilling, tanning

the manufacture of cement, clothing and motor cars. The city is supplied with water from Lake Manchester and the Somerset dam.

Railways link Brisbane with Sydney and the southern states, one via Toowoomba and Warwick and the other via Kyogle and the coast. There are also rail links with the northern sugar and mining areas and with the vast pastoral plains to the west. Coal from the West Moreton coal field centring on Ipswich is transported by river to the port of Brisbane. This has a 400-ft.-wide dredged channel, a maximum tidal rise of 7 ft. and berths for ships up to 750 ft. in length and with a draft of 28 ft. right up to the heart of the city. The total wharfage is 34,000 ft. and there are two graving docks. Most of the state's exports of wool, meat.

BRISSON— BRISTOL

2l8 sugar, minerals, butter

and general dairy products pass through the port, which grows in importance yearly. Brisbane has two airports Eagle Farm, 6 mi. N.E., provides services to the

civil

—

main

cities of Australia

and

also to

overseas, and Archerfield, 8 mi.

London and other major

cities

an auxiliary airport. The site of the city was discovered by Lieut. John Oxley in 1824 when he "landed to look for water" and it was first used for the penal settlement of Moreton bay. Land was thrown open for sale in 1842, after transportation to New- South Wales had been abolished. In 1859, when Queensland was created a colony, the place

became

its

capital

S., is

and was

officially

renamed

honour of South Wales. At this in

Thomas Brisbane, governor of New time Brisbane had a population of about 5,000; in the 1950s was growing at the rate of 12,000 a year. Sir

it

See Gordon Greenwood and John Laverty, Brisbane, 1859-1959 (1959). (D. B. W.)

BRISSON, (EUGENE) HENRI

French statesman of strong anticlerical views, twice premier, was born at Bourges on July 31, 1835. He studied law and practised as a (1835-1912),

He contributed articles to Le Temps in the days of the second empire. One of the deputy mayors of Paris after Sept. 4, 1870, he was elected on Feb. 8, 1871, to the national assembly, as a deputy of the extreme left. He was the first to propose a general political amnesty to include the condemned Communards but this was rejected. Brisson sat as a deputy for Paris from 1876 to 1902 and for the Bouches-du-Rhone from 1902 barrister in Paris.

—

—

He was president of the chamber from Nov. 1881 He succeeded Jules Ferry as premier on April 6,

until his death.

to

March

1885.

1885, but resigned on Dec. 29 on obtaining a bare majority for the vote of credit required for the Tongking expedition. He was president of the committee of inquiry into the Panama scandal. He stood unsuccessfully as a candidate for the presidency of the in June 1894 and again in Jan. 1895. Having been president of the chamber again from Dec. 1894, he formed his second cabinet on June 28, 1898. The two main problems with

republic

which he had

to deal

were the Dreyfus

affair

and the Fashoda

He was forced to resign on Oct. 25, when his war minister. Gen. Jules Chanoine, contrary to the cabinet's agreed policy, declared in the chamber that he believed in Dreyfus' guilt incident.

and so provoked

a vote of no confidence in the government. Brisson actively supported Rene Waldeck-Rosseau and fimile

Combes

(gg.v.), particularly in regard to the separation of church

and state. chamber.

In 1906 and in 1912 he w^as re-elected president of the died in Paris on April 13, 1912.

He

JACQUES

BRISSOT, PIERRE (Brissot de Warville\ (1754-1793), a leader of the Girondins (Brissotins) during the French Revolution, notable particularly for his war policy, was born at Chartres on Jan. 15, 1754, the 13th son of an eating-house keeper. He began to work as a clerk in lawyers' offices, first at Chartres, then in Paris. His pamphlet Testament politique de I'Ajigleterre (1780) brought him to the notice of the English editor of Le Courrier de I'Europe, and Brissot worked for this journal for a year. He then tried to resume his former career, but the legal profession's resentment at his Theorie des lois criminelles (1781 made this impossible. Taking an interest in science, he went to London (Feb.-Nov. 1783) and not only sent literary articles to Le Coitrrier but also founded two scientific periodicals, which failed. Returning to France, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for pamphlets against the queen and the government, but )

was released in Sept. 1784. Inspired by the English antislavery movement, Brissot founded the Societe des Amis des Noirs in Feb. 1788. He left for the United States in May, but returned when the states-general were convened in France and launched a newspaper, Le Patriate frati^ais

(May

Elected to the

municipality of Paris, he took when it had been stormed. At first Brissot concentrated on the struggle for the emancipation of slaves, demanding from the Jacobins (May 11, 1791) that Negroes should enjoy all the rights of ordinary citizens. After Louis XVI's flight to Varennes, however, he attacked the king's inviolability in a long speech to the Jacobins (July 10, 1791), which contained all the essentials of his future foreign policy. Elected 1789).

first

delivery of the keys of the Bastille

12th deputy for Paris to the legislative assembly, he at once concerned himself with foreign affairs, joining the diplomatic com-

He argued that action must be taken against the king's emigre brothers (Oct. 20, 1791) and that war could only consolidate the Revolution by unmasking its enemies and inaugurating a crusade for universal liberty (speeches of July 10, Dec. 11 and 30. 1791, and Jan. 20, 1792). Only Robespierre dared to oppose him, and war was declared (April 1792). The early defeats suffered by the French, however, gave fresh impulse to the revolumittee.

tionary movement, which Brissot and his friends meant to check. Having tried in vain to prevent the suspension of the monarchy, Brissot was denounced by Robespierre in the Paris commune as

a "liberticide" on Sept. 1. No longer acceptable to Paris, Brissot represented Eure-et-Loir in the Convention. Expelled from the Jacobins (Oct. 12, 1792)

and attacked by the Mountain (extreme revolutionary faction), he was still influential in the diplomatic committee: his report led to war being declared on Great Britain and the Dutch (Feb. 1, 1793). Having voted for suspension of the death sentence on Louis XVI, he later maintained in a pamphlet that the execution had halted the course of French victories. On April 3, 1793, Robespierre accused him of being the friend of the traitor Gen. C. F. Dumouriez and of being chiefly responsible for the war. Brissot replied denouncing the Jacobins and calling for the dissolution of the municipality of Paris. He was not conspicuous in the struggle between the Girondins and the Mountain (AprilMay), but on June 2, 1793, his arrest was decreed with that of his Girondin friends. He fled, but was captured at Moulins and taken to Paris. Sentenced by the revolutionary tribunal on the evening of Oct. 30, he was guillotined the next day. His Memoires, written in prison, were edited by C. Perroud, two volumes (1912). See E. Ellery, Brissot de Warville (1915) la Gironde (1912).

;

also

H. A. Goetz-Bernstein,

La Diploniatie de

(A. So.)

BRISTLE,

the supple, resilient hair of the wild or semiwild boar or hog, one species of which is found in Europe, Siberia and

China; three other distinct types are native to India, Tibet and Bristle has a broad base and a tapered tip filaments or "flags." Its surface is slightly rough or ridged. Because of its form, bristle has been a brush material of prime importance for centuries. The chemical basis of bristle is keratin, a protein-type substance, the molecular structure of which is a chain formation. Nylon bristles are produced by the chemical construction of similar molecular chains. The nylon compound is melt spun, forced through the holes of a spinning-jet and solidified as filaments by contact with air. They are then mechanically processed as segments of filament having a broad base and tapered "flagged'' tip so that they closely resemble the natural product. Untapered nylon bristles are also produced. See Brush. (E. L. Y.)

Japan respectively. split into several

BRISTOL, EARLS

AND MARQUESSES

title earl

of Bristol

was

OF.

The

between 1622 and 1698, by members of the Digby family {see Bristol, George Digbv, 2nd earl of; Bristol, John Digby, 1st earl of). It was revived in 1714 in favour of John Hervey and has been held continuously by members of his family since that date. From 1826 the earls of Bristol have also borne the titles marquess of Bristol and Earl Jermyn. John Hervey (1665-1751), 1st earl of Bristol (in the Hervey hne), was born on Aug. 27, 1665, the son of Sir Thomas Hervey (d. 1694) and the nephew of John Hervey (1616-79), treasurer to Catherine of Braganza, queen consort of Charles II. He was educated at Clare hall, Cambridge, and became member of parliament for Bury St. Edmunds (March 1694). He was created Baron Hervey of Ickworth in March 1703 and earl of Bristol in Oct. 1714, through the influence of the duchess of Marlborough. By his first marriage he had only one son, Carr, who died unmarried on Nov. 14, 1723, and is thought by some to have been the father of Horace Walpole (1717-97). The 1st eari died on Jan. 20, 1751. His eldest son by his second marriage, John (1696-1743), gained some renown as a writer and politician {see Hervey of Ickworth, John Hervey, Baron). The 1st earl was succeeded by his grandson George William English

first

held,

BRISTOL Hervey (1721-75), 2nd earl, who was born on Aug. 31, 1721. He became Baron Hervey of Ickworth in 1743 and succeeded to the earldom in 1751. He served in the army (1739-42), was sent to Turin as envoy extraordinary in 1755, and was ambassador at Madrid from 1758 to 1761. Appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1766, he never visited that country during his short tenure of office. After having served for a short time as keeper of the privy He seal, he became groom of the stole to George HI in Jan. 1770. died unmarried on March 18. 1775, and was succeeded by his brother Augustus John Hervey (1724-79), 3rd earl. Augustus John was born on May 19,1 724. He entered the navy in 1736, served under Adm. John Byng in the Mediterranean and gave evidence at his

trial in

1757.

He was

of great assistance to

Adm. Edward Hawke in 1759. Having served with distinction in the West Indies under George Rodney, his active life at sea ceased with the peace of Paris (Feb. 1763). Hervey was, with one short interval, member of parliament for Bury St. Edmunds from 1757 he succeeded his brother in the peerage (1775). Having served as a lord of the admiralty (1771-75) he won some notoriety as an opponent of the Rockingham ministry and a defender of Admiral Keppel. He had married in 1744 Elizabeth Chudleigh until

(1720-88), later well known in many European courts. The marwas kept secret as she wanted to retain her position as maid of honour to the princess of Wales. In 1 769 she denied having been married and married the duke of Kingston. On his death she was prosecuted for bigamy, and convicted, and spent the rest of her riage

life

on the continent.

The

earl died in

London on Dec.

24, 1779,

leaving no legitimate issue and having, as far as possible, alienated

from the title. He was succeeded by his brother Frederick Augustus Hervey (1730-1803), 4th earl, who was born on Aug. 1, 1730, and educated at Westminster school and Corpus Christi college, Cambridge. He became a royal chaplain and was made bishop of Cloyne in 1767, and of Derry in 1768. He did much to improve agriculture and communications within his diocese, often at his own expense, and he opposed the penal laws, the tithe system and Roman Catholic In 1782 he threw disabilities. He became earl of Bristol in 1779. himself ardently into the Irish volunteer movement. He was a member of the volunteer convention at Dublin in 1783 and probably wanted to be elected chairman. But his ideas, which included votes for Catholics, were too radical and republican for loyal Protestants, and more moderate parliamentarians like Henry Grathis property

Discouraged, the bishop tan gained control of the movement. retired abroad and died at Albano, Italy, on July 8, 1803. He was buried at Ickworth. Frederick Augustus was succeeded by his younger son, Frederick William Hervey (1769-1859"), 5th earl and 1st marquess, bom on June 2, 1769. He was created marquess of Bristol and Earl Jermyn in 1826, and died on Feb. 15, 1859. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick William (1800-64), M.P. for Bury St. Edmunds, 1826-59, as 2nd marquess, by the latter's son Frederick Willmm John (1834-1907), M.P. for West Suffolk, 1859-64, as 3rd marquess. Frederick William Fane Hervey (1863-1951), 4th marquess, nephew of the 3rd marquess, served with distinction in the Royal Navy and was M.P. for Bury St. Edmunds in 1906-07. His brother Herbert Arthur Robert Herv'ey (1870), 5th marquess, succeeded to the title in 1951, after a career in diplomacy.

BRISTOL,

GEORGE DIGBY,

2nd Earl of (1612-1677),

English royalist, who was an ambitious and impetuous minister of Charles I and for a short time, in exile, of the future Charles II, was born in Madrid in Oct. 1612, the eldest son of John Digby, 1st earl of Bristol. He was educated at Magdalen college, Oxford.

In 1638-39 he attacked Roman Catholicism in a series of letters He bore resentment to the court for his to Sir Kenelm Digby. imprisonment for dueling in Whitehall palace in 1634, and so when he was elected member of parliament for Dorset in 1640 he supported John Pym and John Hampden, and was one of the committee for the impeachment of the earl of Strafford. But in 1641 he voted against the earl's attainder and opposed the bill whereby the Puritans unsuccessfully tried to abolish the episcopacy and the hierarchy of the church "root and branch." To save

219

him from the attacks of the house of commons, the king raised him to the peerage in his father's barony of Digby (June 1641), and he became one of Charles's advisers. He urged the arrest of the five members in Jan. 1642, and was soon after forced to escape impeachment by fleeing abroad. He returned to fight for the king

War fl642), but threw down his commission after a quarrel with Prince Rupert.

at Edgehill, the first battle of the English Civil

He was made

secretary of state in 1643, and lieutenant general

of the king's forces north of the Trent in 1645.

he was defeated

at

Sherburn

in

Durham,

On

Oct. 15, 1645,

his correspondence, dis-

and foreign powers, was captured, and he was forced to escape to Ireland, where he worked with the marquess of Ormonde, and wis unjustly blamed Finally he fled to for the intrigues of the earl of Glamorgan. France where he served Louis XIV in the Fronde. He was reapfuture Charles II in 1657, but pointed secretary of state by the he became a Roman Catholic in 1658 and, to his surprise, was forced to resign office. His estrangement from Edward Hyde, closing royal intrigues with Ireland, Scotland

afterward earl of Clarendon, also occurred at this time. Digby, who had inherited the earldom of Bristol in 1653, returned to England after the Restoration but was excluded from office because of his religion. He adopted an attitude of violent hostility toward Clarendon and on July 10, 1663, brought a charge of high treason against him. The charge was dismissed and Bristol expelled from court. On the fall of Clarendon, however, Bristol was again welcomed at court and resumed his seat in the house of lords (July 1667). In March 1673, though still a Roman Catholic, he spoke in favour of the Test act, describing himself as a "Catholic of the Church of Rome, not a Catholic of the court of Rome." He died at Chelsea on March 20, 1677. The 2nd earl had two sons, Francis, who was killed in a naval engagement on May 28, 1672, and John, the elder, who died without legitimate issue in 1698, when the barony of Digby and the earldom of Bristol became extinct. See D. Townshend, George Digby, Second Earl of Bristol (1924). DIGBY, 1st Earl of (1580-1653), EngBRISTOL, lish diplomat and statesman, who as a moderate royalist advocated conciliation and reform in the struggle with parliament, was bom Between in Feb. 1580 and educated at Magdalen college, Oxford. 1611 and 1624 he was constantly employed as ambassador of James I, notably in the negotiations with Spain, and he was created Baron Digby in 1618, and earl of Bristol in 1622. During 1621 he was sent to Brussels and Vienna to advocate the cause of the In 1623 when king's son-in-law, Frederick V, elector palatine. the negotiations for a marriage between Prince Charles (afterward Charles I) and a Spanish princess were wrecked by the behaviour of Charles and the duke of Buckingham in Madrid, Bristol incurred Buckingham's resentment by sending to England an account of the true state of affairs. On his arrival at Dover in March 1624 he was ordered to be confined to his home at Sherborne in Dorset. After the death of James he was removed by Charles I from the privy council and ordered to absent himself from Charles's first

JOHN

parliament (March 1626). Bristol applied to the lords, who supported his right either to take his seat in parliament or to be given a fair trial, and Charles sent him his writ, accompanied by a Bristol, however, took his seat letter desiring him not to use it. and demanded justice against Buckingham. The king endeavoured to obstruct his attack by causing Bristol, on May 1, to be himself brought to the bar, on an accusation of high treason by the atThe lords, however, ordered that the charges torney general. against Bristol should be investigated simultaneously with the charges against Buckingham. Charles could only prevent further proceedings by the dissolution of parliament on June 15, and he ordered that Bristol should be prosecuted in the Star Chamber. Bristol was sent to the Tower of London, where he remained untilMarch 17, 1628, when the peers, on the assembling of Charles's third parliament, insisted

on

his liberation

and restoration

to his

seat in the house of lords.

In the discussions on the Petition of Right, Bristol supported the use of the king's prerogative in emergencies, but, when the compromise based on this principle was rejected by the commons, he joined in the demand for a full acceptance of the petition by

BRISTOL

220

the king. He was now restored to favour, but took no part in outbreak of the Scottish rebellion (1639) when he warned Charles of the danger of attacking with inadequate politics until the

forces.

He was

a leader in the great council held at

York and

a

commissioner to negotiate with the Scots at Ripon in 1640, and he strongly advised the summoning of a parliament. In Feb. 1641 he advocated reforms in the administration and received a seat in the council. Though no friend to the earl of Strafford, he endeavoured to save his life, desiring only to see him excluded from office. Bristol was declared an evil counselor by the house of commons on Dec. 27, 1641, and Oliver Cromwell moved an address to the king to dismiss him from his councils, on the plea that he had advocated the bringing up of the northern army to overawe parliament in the preceding spring. There is no evidence to support the charge but Bristol was regarded by the parliamentary party with unreasonable hatred and distrust. He was sent to the Tower on March 28, 1642, for having failed to disclose to parliament the Kentish petition. Liberated in April, he joined Charles at York, and became his councilor at Oxford. He was named in the propositions for peace of Feb. 1643 for removal from the court and public ofl&ce forever, and in those of Nov. 1644 was excepted from pardon. In January he had endeavoured to instigate a breach of the Independents with the Scots. Bristol, however, was not in favour of continuing the war, and withdrew to Sherborne, moving in the spring of 1644 to Exeter and, after the surrender of the city, retiring abroad (July 11) by order of parliament. He published in 1647 An Apology defending his conduct during the English Civil War. He spent the rest of his life in exile, dying in Paris on Jan. 16, 1653, when he was succeeded by his eldest son (see Bristol, George Digby, 2nd earl of). (G. Ds.; X.) BRISTOL, a city, parliamentary and county borough and seaport of England, geographically within Gloucestershire but administratively a separate county of itself, 114 mi. W. of London by road, with its own sheriff, court of quarter sessions, civil court (the Tolzey court) and assizes, returning six members to parliament. Pop. (1961) 437,048; area 41.2 sq.mi. The nucleus of the city is at the confluence of the Avon and Frome rivers, whence the Avon flows through a limestone gorge, crossed by the Clifton suspension bridge, to join the Severn estuary at Avonmouth, the western extremity of the city. Main lines of the Western and Midland regions of British railways connect the city with London, with south Wales via the Severn tunnel, with Birmingham and the midlands via Gloucester and with Exeter and Plymouth via Taunton.

The municipal airport way station, provides

at Lulsgate,

6;^

mi. S. of

flights to Ireland, the

Temple Meads

rail-

Channel Islands and

the European mainland. History. The ancient city of Bristol (Bricgstowe, Bristou, BristoU) was situated on a 20-ac. mound of land at the junction of the Avon and the Frome, thus providing a sheltered tidal harbour capable of defense.

—

It differs from other large English cities in that it was from the beginning a strictly commercial place and has remained such to

this day. The early history of Bristol is shrouded in obscurity. At Clifton, on the heights commanding the portion of the Avon

gorge close to the suspension bridge, are three camps of British origin, but there is no evidence of a settlement at the confluence of the Avon and, Frome until the 10th century, when Sa.xon coins of the reign of Aethelred the Unready (978-1016) minted in Bristol prove that the place had become sufficiently important to have a mint. At the time of the Norman Conquest, Bristol was part of the royal manor of Barton, paying to the king 110 marks of silver and is marks of silver to Geoffrey, bishop of Coutances, France,

who

built the first castle. This was enlarged and completed by Robert of Gloucester in 1122 and was wholly destroyed in the

17th century.

The growth

of trade which followed the Conquest put Bristol

London. The first of the city's long series of charters, granted by Henry II in IISS, freed the burgesses from all tolls and customs throughout England, Normandy and Wales. Another, dated 1171, granted the town of Dublin to the men of Bristol as a trading colony. In the early 13th century a better harbour and quays were provided by diverting in the forefront of ports outside

ii!

>* I

!

?=

E B BBS CB

! ! »

a

11

s

1 »

B a

*-" .M-*

!M MB

GOTHIC TOWER OF MAIN BUILDING OF UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. DESIGNED BY SIR GEORGE OATLEY. 1925, SITUATED ON THE UPPER SLOPES OF ST. MICHAELS HILL. OVERLOOKING CENTRE OF CITY

the

Frome and by

building a stone bridge over the Avon, and this town and the inclusion of the parishes

led to the expansion of the

Temple and Redcliffe within its walls. During the reign of Edward III the manufacture of woolen cloth developed in Bristol,

of

being marketed in Ireland, Spain and Portugal, and Bristol was made one of the staple towns.

when Adam

Page was elected the first mayor of town was manorial rather than municipal. In 1373 Bristol w^as made a county and separated from Gloucestershire and Somerset, being the first provincial- town to receive this honour. The boundaries were extended to include a large water area of the Avon and Severn to Steep Holme and Flatholm Islands. The town had its own sheriff, controlled its own legal affairs and elected a common council. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Bristol, port and manufacturing town, was a great collecting and distributing centre not only for Until 1216,

le

Bristol, the constitution of the

The

city also played a notable quays sailed such famous men as John and Sebastian Cabot, Martin Pring and Capt. Thomas James. It was the age of the merchant princes and in 1S52 the Society of Merchant Venturers was incorporated. Bristol was a royalist stronghold during the Civil War until it was captured by parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax in 1645. During the 17th and 18th centuries, trade with the new colonies, based on tobacco and sugar, stimulated the growth of new industries, such as pottery, glass, textiles, leather goods, sugar refining and tobacco manufacture. Bristol was a famous centre for glass manufacture; no fewer than 14 glassworks were active in the 18th In 1768 Richard Champion set up a pottery making century. The manufacture of chocolate was first the finest porcelain. developed in the city. Bristol also played a large part in the prosperous African slave trade, which was, however, vigorously opposed by the Quakers, who were an influential body in Bristol, and John Wesley, of whose activities Bristol was the centre. It was in the ISth century that Bristol became a spa as a result of the opening up'of springs (70° F.) at Hotwells, which led to the development of Clifton, to the west, where fine terraces and crescents were laid out. Toward the end of the 18th century Bristol began to lose its importance, and the decline continued into the 19th century. For this there were a number of reasons; (1) the rise of Liverpool and loss of the West Indies trade; (2) failure to improve the port

overseas, but also for inland trade.

part in maritime history.

From

its

BRISTOL

221

lished in IS23,

most branches of the city administration and the city archives and insignia. The museum and art gallery contains china, pictures and other works of art. Among the buildings destroyed during World War II were St. Peter's hospital, a gabled building mainly Jacobean, with a fine courtroom and carved timber front; the Dutch house, an early 17th-century timbered building; and the Hall of the Merchant Venturers. Of the churches of St. Mary-le-Port (Perpendicular), St. Peter (15th centurvO and the Temple (Decorated and Per-

of the docks,

pendicular) only the towers remain.

rates.

St.

facilities; (3) the abolition of the slave trade; and (4) heavy rates levied by the Bristol Dock company, formed in 1803, to pay for the floating harbour built in 1809. Nevertheless, it was from the Bristol area that J. L. McAdams's idea of road construction

spread throughout the country, and the "Great Western," one of the first steamships to cross the Atlantic, and the "Great Britain,"

In an attempt to the first iron ship, were both built in Bristol. restore the trade of the city, a chamber of commerce was estab-

and in 1848 the corporation took over the control making many improvements and reducing the dock By mid-20th century Bristol was again a flourishing seaport

and the great distributive centre of the southwest of England. But while its greatness has always been based on industr>' and commerce, Bristol has made notable contributions to practical progress in other ways: one of the first free libraries was established there in 1613, the first newspaper outside of London (1704) and the first savings bank in England (1812 ). Great names connected with Bristol are those of the poets Thomas Chatterton and Robert Southey. who were born there, and S. T. Coleridge, who met Southey there in 1 794 after which the Bristol bookseller, Joseph Cottle, published poems of both ColeSir Thomas Lawrence, the artist, ridge and W. Wordsworth. was the son of a Bristol irmkeeper, and W. G. Grace, the cricketer, was born at Downend, 3 mi. N.E. of the town. In 1899. the mayor of Bristol received the title of lord mayor. Architecture. Although the city suffered badly from air attack in World War II and a number of buildings of architectural or historic interest were destroyed or seriously damaged, the city still retains a large number of interesting and picturesque buildings. The Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity, seat of the Anglican bishop and situated in College green, was once the abbey of St. Augustine, founded by Robert Fitzhardinge in 1142. The Norman gateway of the abbey and the rectangular chapter house remain. The see was founded by Henry VIII in 1542 and in 1836 was united with that of Gloucester until 1897 when it was again separated. On the north side of College green is St. Mark's or the Lord Mayor's chapel, probably the only municipally owned church in the world. Formerly part of the Gaunt's The hospital, it was founded in 1220 by Sir Maurice de Gaunt. chantr>' of Sir Robert Poyntz, with its fan-tracery roof, is a beautiful example of late Perpendicular architecture; the hospital was purchased by the corporation from Henry VHI and the chapel has since been maintained by the corporation for worship and is unique in this respect in England. Other conventual remains are the Dominican priory which has associations with William Penn and the early history of the Friends (the priory with the adjoining Regency Friends" meetinghouse was restored for use as the central register office) the Benedictines' church of St. James (c. 1130) and the gateway of St. Bartholomew's hospital. The church of St. Mary Redcliffe is the most striking ecclesiastical building in Bristol for grandeur of proportion and elaboration of design and is one of the most celebrated parish churches in England. Rebuilt in the 14th century by William Canynges the elder, whose grandson completed the work a centur>' later, it is planned like a cathedral with aisled choir, ambulatory and transepts. Of St. Thomas' in the vicinity only the tower (15th century) remains of the old structure.

—

:

All Saints' church, rebuilt in the

Norman

work.

The New Room

in

15th century, retains

Broadmead, the

first

much

Methodist

chapel in the world, was the headquarters of John Wesley after 1739. There is an equestrian statue of Wesley in front of the

Broadmead Baptist church has associations with the days of nonconformity in Bristol. The Roman CathoUc pro-

II in 1956, holds

in

Postwar

new shopping

centre

University of Bristol was founded as University college, Bristol, in 1876 and its charter was granted in 1909. Its growth has been rapid as a result of much generosity, notably from the Wills family, and by the mid-20th century it had more than 3,000 full-time students. The main building, designed by Sir George Oatley and opened in 1925, is situated on the upper slopes of St. Michael's hill, overlooking the centre of the city.

There are flourishing colleges of advanced science and technology, art and commerce prov'ided by the corporation, which serve the many and various industries of the city and its neighbourhood. Among the schools of the city may be mentioned the grammar school. Queen Elizabeth's hospital (a bluecoat school for boys) and the Cathedral school, all founded in the 16th century; Colston's school (1708) and the Red Maids school (1627). The Baptist college was founded in 1679 and the Western college (Congregational), founded in Plymouth (1752). was transferred to Bristol in 1901. Other colleges include Didsbury (Methodist; 1842), Tyndale Hall (1925) and Clifton (1862). Open Spaces. Bristol possesses about 3,000 ac. of parks and open spaces. The most extensive is the Ashton Court estate, acquired by the corporation in 1960; the best known are the Durdham and Clifton downs, which adjoin the Avon gorge near the point at which the gorge is spanned by Isambard Kingdom Brunei's suspension bridge (1831-64) and Blaise Castle estate with a folk museum and a park. Close to Clifton down are the zoological gardens. Brandon hill, near the centre of the city, commands a fine view of Bristol and the surrounding countryside, and on the summit of the hill is the Cabot tower erected to commemorate the 4th centenary of the voyage to North America made by John ;

—

;

Cabot.

The

Port.

—The port of

Bristol comprises three

dock systems:

Avonmouth docks and Portishead

dock, administered as one undertaking (The Port of Bristol authority) by the corporation.

the City docks,

Until the early years of the 19th century the Avon and Frome were tidal, but in 1809 three miles of tidal river were converted into a floating harbour with a constant depth of water. In rivers

1884 the docks at Avonmouth and Portishead, which had been constructed by private interests, were acquired by the corporation. In 1908 the Avonmouth docks were considerably extended by the construction of the Royal Edward dock, and subsequently they were again enlarged. The entrance lock of the Royal Edward dock measures 875 ft. by 100 ft. with 46 ft. of water on the outer sill (high-water ordinary spring tides) and is capable of admitting, with few exceptions, the largest t>-pe of vessel.

There are good

facilities for the repair

dock 875

ft.

Well-equipped modern transit sheds are available both at Avonmouth and City docks, and there is extensive warehouse

the

over-all in length.

Clifton.

for replanning.

—The

early

is at

of

World War

Broadmead. Education.

and reconditioning of

Notable examples of secular architecture are the Red lodge, which was built in 1590 and contains fine carved woodwork; the Llandoger Trow, a 1 7th-centurj' inn; the Georgian house, now used as a museum for the display of Georgian furniture; the Theatre Royal, the oldest theatre in the country still in use, which was built in 1 766 by James Paty and received a royal licence in 1778; and the Exchange, built by John Wood of Bath in 1743. A new council house on College green, opened by Queen Elizabeth

city centre in

reconstruction resulted in the building of a

building.

cathedral

The 11th-century crypt

Nicholas (18th centurjO remains intact.

The destruction of a large part of the II by air raids provided an opportunity

vessels, including a graving

ac-

commodation, including a cold store, silo granaries, tobacco warehouses and a bonded warehouse for wine. .411 general cargo berths are amply furnished with cranes, and specialized equipment such as floating and shore elevators is available. In general the port is highly mechanized and most of the equipment was installed after

World War II. The City docks are mainly concerned with coastwise and Euro-

BRISTOL— BRISTOW

222

whereas the Avonmouth docks enjoy a world-wide trade and provide accommodation for the largest cargo vessels. The principal imported commodities are grain, petroleum, animal

pean

traffic,

feeding stuffs, zinc concentrates, meat, dairy produce, fruit, timber, phosphates, metals, tobacco, wines and cocoa. Export commodities include cars, tractors, machinery, clay and chemicals. About 7,000,000 tons of cargo are handled in the port annually and on the sterling value of its imports it occupies iifth place among the ports of Great Britain and is the largest municipally owned port. Liner services link the port with most European countries trading with the United Kingdom and with Canada, the United States, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, India and Pakistan, Japan and far eastern countries, including Malaya and Burma. The Avonmouth docks are connected with the centre of the city by a magnificent roadway, known as the Portway, Sj mi. long and for the most part 100 ft. wide. Just below New Passage pier (11^

N.W.), the railway crosses the Severn estuary via the Severn tunnel (4.33 mi, long). Industries. Bristol has a large variety of industries, of which aircraft design and construction at Filton is the most important. Other significant industries are tobacco, papermaking, printing mi.

—

and cal

flour milling and their allied trades, potter>' and metallurgiand chemical processes of various kinds, shipbuilding and Bristol is also a market centre for a rich agricul-

engineering. tural area.

See also references under "Bristol"

in the

Index volume.

—

Bibliography. F. B. Bickley (ed.). The Little Red Book of Bristol, H. G. Brown, Bristol, England (1946) W. Hunt, Bristol 2 vol. (1900) in "Historic Towns Series" (1887 and 1895) J. Latimer, The Annals C. M. Maclnnes, /I Gateway of Empire (1939) of Bristol (1887-1902) S. Sever, Memoirs Historical and Topographical of Bristol and Its Neighbourhood, 2 vol. (1821-23) H. A. Shannon and E. Grebenik, The Population of Bristol (1943) Victoria County History, Gloucester, 1 vol. (1907) publications of the Bristol Record Society (1930 et seq.), and Bristol and Gloucestershire .\rchaeological Society (1876 et seq.); W. E. Minchinton (ed.). Trade of Bristol in the Eighteenth Century (1957) B. D. G. Little, City and County of Bristol (1954) P. V. McGrath (ed,). Merchants and Merchandise in Seventeenth-Century Bris;

;

;

;

;

It is an important suburban residential area for Providence iq.v.) and has large manufactures of rubber goods. The Rhode Island soldiers' home, established in 1890, is located in Bristol. The town was created in 1680 by Plymouth colony out of land acquired in 1676 at the close of King Philip's War. and named after Bristol, Eng.. in anticipation of a commercial future. It came under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1692 and in 1747 was annexed to Rhode Island, During the American Revolution it was twice attacked by the British and partially destroyed, Oct, 7, 1775, and May 25, 1778. It is governed by a town meeting and a mayor. It has many fine homes of historic interest, is the site of Brown university's Haffenreffer Museum of the American Indian and is noted for its scenic location. For comparative population figures see table in Rhode Island: Population. (W. D. Mz.) BRISTOL, an urban unit on the Virginia-Tennessee (U.S.) Physically and culturally unified, it consists of two state line. politically separate bodies, each with its own government, public In 1903, to equalize mainteschools, utilities and post offices. nance, Tennessee legislatively re-established the state line, previously slightly off centre of the main business street. Bristol is between the Cumberland and Holston ranges at 1,800 ft, elevation but in a valley, the extension of the Shenandoah, The site was originally an Indian village. In mid-lSth century a trading post was built there to serve the frontiersmen moving west over the Wilderness trail blazed by Daniel Boone, Eight miles east stands the centuries-old Pemberton oak, where assembled the moun-

taineers

who defeated

tain during the

the Loyalists in the battle of King's

American Revolution,

On

moun-

a Scotch-Irish pioneer

stock have been grafted many cultural branches, but emphasis on education and religion, characteristic of the first settlers, continues

;

;

;

;

;

(1956)

tol

and

lis

;

British Association for the

Adjoining Counties (1955).

BRISTOL, S.VV. of

Advancement

of Science, Bristol (A. Pd.; X.)

a city of Hartford county. Conn., U.S.,

19 mi.

Hartford on the Pequabuck river. The area was first setFarmington and a Congregational parish

tled in 1727 as part of

New Cambridge) was organized in 1744. Bristol was organized as a town in 1785, incorporated as a borough in 1893 and chartered as a city in 1911. During the American Revolution it was the centre of considerable Tory activity, and Chippens hill with its cave known as the "Tories' den" was a meeting place for The Rev. James Nichols, the AngHcan Connecticut LoyaHsts. rector, was tarred and feathered by the Patriot party; Moses Dunbar, also an Anglican, was hanged by the Connecticut authorities (called

for recruiting soldiers for the British army.

During the Bristol has always been a manufacturing centre. were gristmills and sawmills, tanneries, tin-

colonial period there

ware shops and woodworking establishments. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries Bristol supplied the "Yankee peddlers" with the tinware which was sold throughout the Atlantic seaboard. The presence of workers in both metal and wood led to Bristol's pre-eminence in the manufacture of clocks. With the introduction of metal wheels and interchangeable parts Bristol clockworkers turned to the production of low-priced clocks and pocket watches and later to such other metal products as bicycle and automobile parts, springs, machinery, tools, cutlery and sporting goods. For comparative population figures see table in Connecticut: (Gl. W.) Population. BRISTOL, a town of Rhode Island, U.S., and the shire town or seat of Bristol county,

is

12

mi.

S.E. of Providence on a

peninsula between Narragansett bay and Mt. Hope bay. On the south it is connected to Aquidneck Island by Mt. Hope bridge. Capacious Bristol harbour was an active centre of privateering and the triangular trade in rum and slaves in the 18th century but Until its closing in 1945 the is now used largely by pleasure craft. Herreshoff Manufacturing company, builders of the America's

cup defenders, made Bristol a renowned yacht building centre.

to

be a vital force.

More than

50 churches and 3 colleges, dating

King college (1867), Presbyterian and coeducational. Sullins college (1870), originally Methodist but now nondenominational, and Virginia Intermont college (1884), a Baptist instiThe trading centre tution, are both junior colleges for women. from the 19th century,

offering a

attest this fact.

four-year course,

is

home of numerous and diversified manufacturing concerns, the city has a well-balanced and stable economy. The climate and natural beauty of a mountainous region, enhanced by national forests and game preser\'es and proximity to four Tennessee Valley authority lakes, proxnde Bristol Bristol, Va,, with uncommercialized facilities for recreation, which was known as Goodson before it was chartered as a city in 1890, has a council-manager form of government which became effective in 1919 the city is administratively independent of WashBristol (Sullivan county) Tenn,, has a mayorington county, commission form of government. For comparative population figures see tables in Tennessee: Population and Virginia: Population. CD. L, Me,) (1832-1896), U,S, lawBRISTOW, yer and statesman, was born in Elkton, Ken,, on June 20, 1832. He studied law in his father's office and was admitted to the bar in 1853. He was an ardent antislavery unionist, and at the outbreak of the Civil War, helped recruit the 25th Kentucky infantry. He was wounded at Shiloh and upon his recovery helped raise another regiment, the 8th Kentucky cavalry, and became its colonel. Elected to the state senate in 1863 without his knowledge, he reluctantly took his legislative seat, realizing the need for Union men in the government of Kentucky. He worked actively of a rich agricultural valley and

;

BENJAMIN HELM

for President Lincoln's re-election in 1864, for ratification of the 13th amendment to the federal constitution and for other Unionist

measures. After the war he ser\'ed as U.S, attorney for the Kentucky disBy working for the protection of the Negro against trict, 1866-70. the violence of Ku Klux Klan, as well as by prosecuting distillers of illicit whisky, he attracted national attention. Pres. Ulysses S. Grant appointed him as the first solicitor general of the United His States and later as secretary of the treasurv' (1874-76). greatest service in the latter post was to direct the prosecution of the so-called "whisky ring," a group of western distillers, revenue officers and others who had evaded payment of the federal

BRITAIN whisky

An

was Orville E. Babcock, private secretary to President Grant. Bristow resigned from the treasury under presidential pressure. He was a prominent candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1876 with the backing of party moderates, but when it became apparent that he could not win, he gave his support to Rutherford B. Hayes. He took up the practice of law in New York city in 1S78 and a year later was elected the second president of the American Bar association. He died in New York on June 22, 1896. (C. F. McI.) BRITAIN Gr. Pretanikai nesoi, Brettania; Lat. Britannia, rarely Brittania), the anglicized form of the classical name of England, Wales and Scotland, sometimes extended to the British Isles as a whole. The Greek and Roman forms are doubtless versions of a Celtic original, which gives modern Welsh Prydain. Brittany (Fr. Bretagne) in western France acquired its name because of migrations thither from Britain in the Sth and 6th centax.

alleged accomplice of the ring

(

turies A.D.

The first written evidence of the island came indirectly from Pytheas (q.v.), the Greek navigator who explored its coast c. 325 B.C. In this article the archaeological interest of early Britain is dealt with in connection with the history of Britain in pre-Roman and Roman times; this account being supplementary to the articles Caledonia; England; English History; Scotland, It is I.

II.

etc.

arranged as follows:

Pre-Roman

Britain Britain

Roman A.

The Military System

3.

Walls of Hadrian and Antoninus Military Areas Roman .^rmy and Fortifications

4.

Roman Roads

1.

2.

B.

C.

Augustus.

The 1.

Civil Pattern Administration

2.

Urban Development

3.

Rural Life

4.

Religion

5.

Art

End

of

II.

I.

Britain

PRE-ROMAN BRITAIN

first inhabited by sporadic Paleohunters in the latest phases of the Pleistocene, or Glacial, epoch {see Pleistocene Epoch ). Much more definitive evidence of settlement is forthcoming for the presence of Mesolithic settlers, who ranged over much of Britain, in nomadic groups. The Scottish coasts, the Pennines, Star Carr in Yorkshire, East Riding, the caves in the Mendip hills, the Peak district and Devonshire or the pit dwelling at Abinger, Surrey, provide useful evidence of active communities of hunters and fishers. Neolithic people, arriving from northwestern Europe about 3000 B.C. introduced not only systematic stock raising, associated with enclosures, but also agriculture, pottery and improved tools of stone and flint, the latter mined on a large scale. Communal burial mounds (long and circu-

lithic

barrows

regions.

)

ROMAN BRITAIN

Preparations for the Roman conquest of Britain had been started and then canceled by the emperor Caligula (Gaius Caesar) the invasion was finally undertaken by Claudius in a.d. 43. Two causes coincided to produce the step. Claudius desired for political Cunobelin, probably a philoprestige an outstanding conquest. Roman prince (known to literature as Cymbeline). had just been succeeded by two sons, Caractacus (q.v.) and Togodumnus, who were hostile to Rome. Two immediate reasons for action were the expulsion of Verica, a Roman partisan, by Cunobelin's sons and the raids upon Gaul which were then taking place from across the English channel. So Aulus Plautius, with a well-equipped army of about 40.000 men, landed in Kent and advanced on the Thames, crossing at the site of London (Londinium). Claudius himself appeared there the one emperor of the 1st century who crossed the ocean and the army moved through Essex to capture the native capital, Camulodunum (now Colchester). From the bases of London and Colchester three legions and their auxiliaries continued the conquest. The left wing, the 2nd legion (under Vespasian, afterward emperor), subdued the south; the centre, the 14th and 20th legions, subdued the midlands, while the right wing, the 9th legion, advanced through the eastern part of the island. This strategy was at first triumphant. The lowlands of Britain, with a population partly romanized and scanty in parts and with easy physical features, presented no obstacle. Within three or four years everything south of the Humber estuary and east of the :

Roman

Britain appears to have been

lar

223

{oppidum), with multiple defenses against chariots and sling fire. In this changing world the tribes known to Roman Britain (see map for names and location) began to emerge and were completed by the influx following the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar. The growing complexity of society and the growth of trade was illustrated by the emergence of coinage by 100 B.C., at first in gold and later in silver and bronze. It replaced gradually a currency of iron bars or ingots, attested by Caesar and by surviving examples in In religion, the the form of sword blanks of standard weights. chief feature was the priesthood of Druids, who there, as in Gaul, practised magical arts and barbarous rites of human sacrifice, taught a secret lore and wielded great influence in society (see Druidism). In art, these tribes possessed a native late-Celtic fashion, descended from far-off Mediterranean antecedents and more directly connected with the La Tene culture of the continental Celts (see La Tene). Its characteristics were a flamboyant and fantastic treatment of plant, animal and, more rarely, human forms, a brilliant use of curved geometrical forms, and much skill in enameling. Its finest products were in bronze, but the same patterns spread to woodwork and pottery. The Roman conquest of northern Gaul (58-50 B.C.) brought Britain into definite relationship with the Mediterranean. It was already closely connected with Gaul, and when Roman civilization and its products invaded Gallia Belgica they passed on easily to Britain. The British coinage then began to bear Latin legends, and after Julius Caesar's two raids (55, 54 B.C.) the southern tribes were regarded at Rome, though they do not seem to have regarded themselves, as vassals. Actual conquest was, however, delayed. The emperor Augustus planned it. But both he and his successor Tiberius realized that the greater need was to consolidate the existing empire and absorb the vast additions recently made to it by Pompey, Caesar and

were introduced

in

different

Circular religious enclosures, in

styles

from

different

wood (Woodhenge) and

stone (Stonehenge, q.v.), were another new feature, partly connected with the dead. About 1800 b.c. Rhineland folk, styled

Beaker folk from their distinctive pottery, introduced gold and copper and exploited the metals of western Britain and Ireland, evolving bronze and trading widely with the continent amber, tin, gold and Egyptian faience are found, particularly in Wessex. Individual wealth is reflected in individual hamlets and fields and individual or family burials in round barrows. Imposed upon this vigorous and primitive civilization the Iron Age invaders, moving in from about 400 B.C., made little impression at first, but their improved tools increased agricultural and technical possibilities, encouraged family land settlement and, as population increased, led to the organization of the tribe for aggression or defense and of the first hill forts of the 3rd century B.C. This organization of society for self-defense was intensified by the Belgic invasion during the first half of the 1st century B.C. which embraced southeastern Britain, bringing with it developments in pottery and chariot warfare, and in the extensive fortified chieftain's capital :

—

—

had been either directly annexed or entrusted, as Farther north, even the Brigantes (q.v.i in the area of the Pennine range came into the river Severn

protectorates, to native client princes.

sphere of client realms. The wild hills and wilder tribes of Wales, notably the Silures, offered fiercer resistance, and there followed more than 30 years of intermittent hill fighting (a.d. 47-79). The precise Legionary fortresses were details of the struggle are not known. established at Gloucester, Wroxeter (until a.d. 66 at least) and Lincoln. Caerleon replacing Gloucester, Chester Wroxeter, and York Lincoln at the close of the period. The method of conquest was the erection and maintenance of small detached forts in strategic positions, each garrisoned by 500 or 1,000 Roman legionaries

BRITAIN

224 CALEDONIA

^^

CERTAIN ROAOS

==

INFERRED ROAOS

^\

•

V

(TEMOSS

MILITARY STATIONS

-^-1

NVERESK

BOTH*ELLHAUGH

CIVIL SITES

VOTADINI A

"'Si,

NORTH HIGH ROCHESTER IBrememum)

\

RISINGHAH

_

«is

DALSWINTON BEWCASTLE

GLENLOCHAfi

^

Tc"aBUSLE

bOWNESS

^'V0CARL,SLE^>\

%v)i\

caernarvon ISegontium)

-

r ^

CAISTEfl

CAISTER ST.

CHESTERTON

ON-SEA

BURGH CASTLE

EDMUND*

(0i)iobri«ael|

^GODMANCHESTER ICENI %^(Dljrolipons)

Y^'^CAHlBRrOGE TOWCESTERi(^

**,^

"^^'''"''"'"ycATuvauuNi ./'^N*^/«i^GLOUCESTERTGIevuml

ABESGAVENNV/

/ •X^^ji^f' ^CJ?^'pes of alignments of standing stones, sometimes with semicircles of stone blocks, are not restricted to the celebrated area

Morbihan, where of course the alignments in rows near Carnac, with thousands of stones, are very impressive. The typical collective Late Neolithic megalithic tombs belong They present difto the gallery-grave class and are widespread. ferent variations, with end or lateral entrances (these sometimes covered by a lintel stone, or preceded by a perpendicular vestibule, sometimes with a porthole slab at the separation) and with internal The subdivision in two chambers in the complete monuments. construction mound sometimes remains and there can be a duplication of the lateral orthostates. In southern Finistere a few monuments are made of mutually supported blocks, without capstones. A few gallery graves are adorned with sculptures, schematic representations of the mother goddess by pairs of breasts and engraved of

weapons Tresse, Tregastel, Trebeurden and The' grave goods of these gallery graves are often of exclusively Late Neolithic type, but in some coastal monuments there are Chalcolithic elements, such as bell-beaker ware. The bell-beaker culture has in Brittany an important diffusion, chiefly along the coasts, but is known only as an intrusive element The finerin the goods of the pre-existing collective tombs. decorated beakers can show at the same time comb and cord impressions. West European copper-arsenic daggers, wrist guards metallic or stone

Commana).

(

BRITTEN— BRITTLE and rare V-perforated buttons complete the cultural assemblage. To perhaps the same culture belong numerous pieces of gold foil ornaments, chiefly from the richest Morbihan passage graves. A very local but very wealthy series of large mounds in the Carnac region, covering a central funerary closed chamber, sometimes with secondary cists, has given beautiful rare stone axes and great quantities of callais disk-shaped heads and pear-shaped pendants (Tumiac near Arzon, Mane-er-Hroec'h and Mane-Lud at Locmariaquer, and St. Michel and Le Moustoir near Carnac). The Early Bronze Age in the western half of Brittany is characterized by an intrusive culture, with Wessex connections, constituting a series of about 30 huge single-grave eastern barrows. In the northern Tregorrois, the tomb may be a wooden coffin or a cist made of schist, and in other districts they can be cists or vaults with dry-stone walls and capstones. The grave goods are often truly "princely," containing daggers of copper or bronze with wooden hilts and leather sheaths, both ornamented with gold nails in the richest tombs, copper and bronze flat axes, flint ogival arrowheads of exquisite workmanship and archer's wrist guards; jet and amber spacer beads of the crescentic necklace type are also found. To the same period belong crouched single graves in stone cists, and there have been some finds of gold jewels, lunulae, wire torques, a ring disk and bronze flat axes. The barrows of the Middle Bronze Age are smaller and usually contain dr>'-stone walled chambers, sunk underground and covered by a capstone, with bronze triangular daggers and biconical pots as grave goods. Their distribution covers only western Brittany, but they are very numerous in some districts. Hoards of the end of the period are also numerous, sometimes containing long swords deriving from the triangular daggers.

Late Bronze Age tombs are

known, but a

series of very belong to that period. A dwelling site has been located at Logui\'y on the northern coast. Hoards became extremely important and are numerous, with a greater variety of tv'pes of implements. The later ones include huge deposits of quadrangular socketed axes. These finds are contemporary to the Early Iron Age cultures of eastern Gaul. Numerous hoards of isolated finds of large gold jewels, torques and bracelets, also belong to the Late Bronze Age. Only very late First Iron Age (Hallstatt period) cremation barrows were utilized, chiefly near the Morbihan, Some Hallstatt swords, daggers and situlae have been discovered, especially in hoards around the mouth of the Loire, Second Iron Age La Tene period) sites and finds are more numerous, chiefly in the west. Funerary geometrical granite stelae are widely distributed; some were engraved with Celtic patterns; others were discovered in situ, surrounded by cremation urns in sorts of cemeteries. Other cemeteries, with inhumations, subsist in the west. Many artificial underground galleries or souterrains have been discovered, and also some coastal settlements, most of the pottery of the last centuries before the Roman conquest coming from these types of sites. This pottery can be very fine, with a lustrous graphitic slip. There are also some important hill forts (Huelgoat Kercaradec, near Quimper; and Peran, near St. Brieuc, with vitrified double ramparts ), and a distinctive series of promontory forts with multiple earthworks around the southern and western cliffs. Each of the different Gaulish tribes, the Redones, the Coriosolitae, the Osismi, the Veneti and the Namnetes, had its characteristic mintage. They left traces of a social and administrative organization, and their boundaries merged into the limits of the subsequent Gallo-Roman cities. Roman civilization has left everyThe where diffuse remains but few important ruins remain. Merovingian civilization arrived at its western limit along the border of the maximum extension of the Breton language during the dark ages. The Breton invaders left almost no material traces, In the west, a peculiar type of apart from a few Celtic bells. pottery (instead of the usual Merovingian ware) bridges the archaeological gap between the late Gallo-Roman times and the middle ages. See Archaeology; see also references under "Brittany" in the Index volume. (P.-R. G.) little

small barrows containing cremations

may

(

;

—M.

Bibliography. (1950-52) A. de ;

Le Lannou, Geographic de la Bretagne, 2 vol. La Borderie and B. Pocquet, Histoire de Bretagne,

(1896-1904)

243

E. Durtelle de Saint-Sauveur, Histoire de Bretagne, 2 vol. (19.55-37) M. Planiol, Histoire des institutions de la Bretagne, 3 vol. (1953-55) ; A. Rebillon, Histoire de Bretagne (1957) P. R. Giot ft al., Brittany (1960). 6 vol.

;

;

;

BRITTEN, (EDWARD) BENJAMIN

(1913), the leading British composer of the mid-20th century, was bom at Lowestoft, Suffolk, Nov. 22. 1913. He showed precocious musical talent and at the age of 12 became a pupil of Frank Bridge. From 1930 to 1933 he studied as a scholar at the Royal College of Music, London, with John Ireland (composition) and Arthur Benjamin (piano). While there he wrote a set of choral variations. A Boy Was Born (1933, revised 1958). He then worked as a composer for the radio, theatre and cinema, coming into close contact with W. H. Auden, but such marginal creations could not long satisfy the ambitions of a young composer who was already earning an international reputation, notably with the Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge for string orchestra (Salzburg, 1937). He moved to the U,S. in 1939 and there wrote his first stage work, the operetta Patd Bunyan (New York, 1941, never produced in England, for which Auden, also in the U.S., provided the libretto). A commission from the Koussevitsky foundation led to the composition of the opera Peter Grimes (libretto by M. Slater after the poem by George Crabbe), written after Britten's return to England in 1942 and first performed at Sadler's Wells theatre, London, June 7, 1945. Peter Grimes, which was widely produced outside England, placed Britten in the forefront of 20th-century composers of opera. Other operas include The Rape of Lucretia (1946). Albert Herring (1947). Billy Budd (1951). Gloriana (written for the coronation of Elizabeth II, 1953), The Turn of the Screw (1954). A Midsummer Night's Dream (1960) and Let's Make an Opera (1949), in which audience and cast (mostly of children) join. Britten's operas revealed a versatile dramatic gift, a prolific

inventiveness, a masterly approach to word-setting and

much

in-

genuity in matching the specific dramatic situation with the most cogent musical form. Lucretia, the first of Britten's chamber operas, marked the inception of the English Opera group, with Britten as artistic director, conductor and composer. Out of this enterprise grew the Aldeburgh festival, held at the Suffolk fishing

town where Britten made

his

home

in 1947.

His unique creative talent enriched most of the principal media Pre-eminent among his nontheatrical works stand his of music. song sets (with piano) and song cycles (with orchestra). The most important, which established his commanding stature as a song-writer, are The Seven So?inets of Michelangelo (1940), The Holy Sonnets of John Donne (1945), Winter Words 1953), and Six Holderlin Fragments (1958) for voice and piano, and Les Hluminations (19i9}.lhe Serenade (1943) andNoctnrne (1958) for voice and orchestra. His three Canticles (types of solo chamber (

cantata peculiar to Britten) contain some of his most personal His many important choral works, among them the Hymn to St. Cecilia (1942), Ceremony of Carols (1942), Rejoice invention. in the

Lamb

(1942,), St. Nicolas (194S). Spring

Symphony (1949)

and Cantata Academica (1960), show enterprise and originality The prominent use of boys' in their treatment of choral te-xture. voices adds a fresh, raw colour to many of his choral scores. Though lyric and dramatic texts were often the source of his inspiration, his instrumental works should not be overlooked. Two string quartets (1941 and 1945), a violin concerto (1939, revised 1950), the Diversions for piano (left hand alone) and orchestra (1940, revised 1950) and Sinfoniada Requiem (1940) are evidence of his confident handling of the larger instrumental forms.

He

mastery of large-scale instrumental composition in the extended interludes in his operas. His three-act ballet, The Prince of the Pagodas, was first performed at Covent Garden in Jan. 1957.

showed

his

See D. Mitchell and H. Keller (eds.), Benjamin Britten (1952) E. W. White, Benjamin Britten: a Sketch of His Life and Works, 2nd ed. (D. C. P. M.) (1954). ;

BRITTLE STAR,

the popular name for echinoderms of the Ophiuroidea (see Echinodermata). The name refers to the commoner species of breaking off their arms (autotomy) when alarmed.

class

habit of most of the

BRITTON— BRNO

244 BRITTON, NATHANIEL LORD

(1SS9-1934), a leading U.S. systematic botanist expert on the American flora, was born at New Dorp, Staten Island, N.Y., on Jan. IS, 1859. He graduated 1879 from Columbia university, from which in 1881 he received After serving as instructor geology in 1879-87 and as instructor and adjunct professor of botany in 1886-91, he was made professor of botany at Columbia. He occupied this chair until 1896, when he became director-inchief of the New York Botanical garden, which was created as the result of his efforts and under his guidance became one of the leading institutions for the advancement of botanical science. Britton specialized in the North American flora, notably in the Crassulaceae (q.v.), Cactaceae (see Cactus) and Cyperaceae (g.v.), and in the flora of the West Indies, Bolivia and Paraguay. Besides writing numerous botanical papers and editing the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 1888-97, Britton was the author of important botanical works, among which are: Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada, with Addison Brown (1896-98; 2nd ed., 1913) Flora of Bermuda (1918) The Bahama Flora, with C. F. Millspaugh (1920); The Cactaceae, with J. N. Rose (1919-23); and various portions of the monumental North American Flora. He died in New York city on June 25, 1934. BRITTON, the title of the first great treatise of the law of England in the French tongue, purported to have been writtenby command of King Edward I. The author is probably either John le Breton, a justice for the county of Norfolk, or a royal clerk of the same name. The probable date of the book is 1291in

the degree of doctor of philosophy.

in

;

;

was based upon the treatise of Henry de Bracton {q.v.), brought up to date. In an early manuscript of the 14th century, which was once in the possession of John Selden and is now in the Cambridge university library, the work is entitled Summa de legibus Anglie que vacatur Bretone, and it is described as "a book called Bretoun" in the will of Andrew Horn, the learned chamberlain of the City of London, who bequeathed it to the chamber of the Guildhall in 1329, together with another book called 92.

It

which

it

Mirroir des Justices. Britton was first printed in London by Robert Redman, without a date, probably about 1 530. Another edition of it was printed in 1640, corrected by E. Wingate. A third edition, with English translation, was published at the University Press, Oxford, 1865, by F. M. Nichols. An English translation without the Latin text had been previously published by R. Kelham in 1762. See also

English Law.

BRIVE-LA-GAILLARDE,

chief town of an arrondissein the departement of Correze, south central France, is situated to the west of the mountains of the Massif Central on the Correze river, 93 km. (58 mi.) by road south of Limoges. Pop.

ment

The old part of the town is surrounded by a ring on the site of the old fortifications. The 12thMartin's church in a curious Romanesque style is in

(1954) 32,041. of boulevards

century

St.

the centre of the town, with the hotel de ville opposite. college of the Jesuits (1659)

is

The

a short distance to the northeast.

Rupin museum, in a and the Hotel Labenche (1450). There are many modern public buildings and a modern road bridge over the Correze. Brive is on the main line from Paris, Orleans and Limoges to Toulouse and Spain. There is an airfield 2^ mi.

Near

fine

the eastern boulevard are the Ernest

house

in

Louis XIII

style,

where three former provinces (Limousin, Perigord and Quercy) met; agriculture is the main industry, grain and fruit being important. There is a big pork industry and much is exported. Preserves, wood products and paper are made, and heavier industry has been moving to the town. Rock caves nearby supply evidence of occupation by early prehistoric man, and great stone monuments show later occupation.

Known

lies in

to the

a fertile area sloping to the southwest

Romans

as Briva Curretiae (bridge of the Correze),

was the capital of lower Limousin, and St. Anthony of Padua founded a Franciscan monastery there in 1226. The town's importance derives chiefly from its position at the crossing of the main north-south (Paris-Toulouse) and east-west (Bordeaux-Geneva) rail and road routes. in the

an area of outstanding natural beauty. Brixham cavern, called also Windmill Hill cavern, is an ossiferous cave (discovered in 1858) with a fauna closely resembling that of Kent's cavern (q.v.). The Paleolithic flint implements are of a roughly chipped type. Similar fossil caves nearby include Berry Head cave and Ash hole. See Trans. Devon. Assn., vol. vi, pt. 2, pp. 775-856 (1874); Phil. Trans., vol. chiii, pt. 2 (1873). (W. A. Sa.)

AUGUSTE PELAGE

(1803-1858), BRIZEUX, JULIEN French poet, known especially for his Breton eclogues and idyls. He was born at Lorient, Sept. 12, 1803. Two visits to Italy had a marked influence on his early work and he produced a translation of Dante's Divina Commedia (1841) in terza rima. The countryside, folklore and legends of his native Brittany had, however, a more lasting influence on him, reflected in his more important works, Marie (1831, rev. 1840), Les Bretons (1845) and Histoires Poetiques (1855), of which the last two were crowned by the French Academy. He died at Montpellier, May 3, 1858. BRIZO, an ancient Greek goddess, long worshiped in Delos. She delivered oracles in dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring. The women of Delos offered her presents of little boats filled with

all

kinds of eatables (except fish) in order

engaged on the sea. (Ger. Brunn), the second city in population of the Czechoslovak republic and the chief city of the south Moravian region, lies on the eastern foothills of the Morava heights at the confluence of the Svratka and Svitava rivers, 115 mi. S.E. of Prague. To the southeast are the fertile loess-type soils of lowland Moravia, skilfully and intensively cultivated for generations. to obtain her protection for those

BRNO

Pop. (1950) 284.946, (1959 est.) 314,722. The original settlement was Celtic and the modem name Brno comes from the Celtic brynn ("hill town"). The citadel on the Spilberk hill (288 m. or 945 ft.) can be traced back to the 10th century, and throughout the middle ages German traders began gradually to develop the old town (which was incorporated as a city in 1243) to the east of the hill. In the 14th century the margraves of Moravia acquired and for long kept the control of the city and neighbourhood. The old town has two squares which are focal points, the Zelny trh with its 17th-century fountain and the

North St. Mary's pillar. Svobody are the beautiful churches of St. Thomas and St. James the latter was for centuries known as the "German" church). In and near the Zelny trh are a whole cluster of historic buildings, the old parliament of the Moravian nobility, the Gothic cathedral and the town hall. The old town, dominated and protected by the castle, endured and survived thre^ severe sieges: in 1428 by the Hussites, in 1464 by George of Podebrad, the Bohemian leader, and in 1645 by the Swedes. Brno was also the French headquarters before the battle of Austerlitz. The Spilberk castle under Habsburg rule became a political prison and was famous for the confinement of the namesti Svobody with the baroque

to the west.

Brive

BRIXHAM,

an urban district and fishing port in Devon, Eng., on the southern side of Tor bay, 31 mi. S. of Exeter by road. Pop. (1961) 10,679. The town is irregularly built on the limestone hills, and its scenic harbour is sheltered by a breakwater. A statue on the quay commemorates the landing in 1688 of William of Orange. St. Mary's, the original parish church built of red sandstone, has an elaborate 14th-century font. The old garrison hospital was later the home of the Rev. Henry Francis Lyte (q.v.). Brixham is a seaside resort and also a yachting centre with an annual regatta. The chief industry is fishing; however, the old, colourful brown-sailed Brixham trawlers have been replaced by diesel trawlers. Auctions of the catch are conducted in traditional singsong in the fish market. There are paint research laboratories, a foundry, a pottery and shipyard and, in Freshwater quarry, a marine biological laboratory. To the east there are limestone quarries on Berry head, which is noted for its calciphilous plants and its seabirds and one of whose two forts (1803) encompasses a lighthouse. Southward from Berry head the coast is scheduled as lies

middle ages

it

of the namesti

(

Carbonari group of Italian patriots in the 19th century and especially as the background to Silvio Pellico's noted Le mie prigioni. In the old town at the same time Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian

:

BROACH— BROADCASTING monk, worked on

his theory of heredity.

The Spilberk has been

I.

transformed since the mid-19th century into a pleasant design and ring roads surrounding the old citadel. In 1019 the remnants of the old university became the nucleus of Masaryk university. Through the 19th century, and more unevenly in the 20th, the new town of manufacture and trade grew up south and Textiles (wool, linen, cotton") predominate east of the railway. traditionally, and also manufactures dependent on adjacent farming (brewing, flourmilling, sugar refining), but the range of prodof gardens

II.

is

BROACH

manganese is mined extensively. The district is travby the Western railway which crosses the Narmada opposite Broach city on an iron-girder bridge of 67 spans. (M. R. P.) BROACH, any one of many forms of pointed instruments, such as bodkins, wooden needles used in tapestr\' making, roasting spits and even the tools (also called "reamers") employed for enlarging or smoothing holes. Hence comes the expression "to broach" for "to tap" a cask. In masonry it is a t>'pe of pointed chisel. The term is also used to designate an automatic machine deposits and

using a multiple cutting edge to progressively perform a cutting operation (see Machine Tools: Broaching Machines). In architecture, the

term

is

used specifically to designate a triangular sur-

face inserted in the corners of a square or cube to

make

the upper

face an octagon, especially at the junction of a square tower

and

an octagonal spire, in which case the slope of the broached surface is usually less than that of the spire sides. The word is also used for any means of adjusting a polygonal spire to a square base.

BROADCASTING,

the transmission of radio and television

programs intended for general public reception, as distinguished from private radio messages directed to specific receiving stations. In its commonest form, broadcasting may be described as the

systematic diffusion of entertainment, information, educaand other features for simultaneous reception by a

tional

scattered audience, individually or in groups, with appropriate

The subject matter may be either audible or visual, or a combination of both. Sound broadcasting in this receiving apparatus.

sense

may

be said to have come into being about 1920, while

vision broadcasting

began

tele-

in 1936.

This article contains the following main sections and divisions

Short-Wave Broadcasting

4.

FM

5.

Radio

7.

8. 9.

10.

Broadcasting v. Television Broadcasting Educational Broadcasting Fee or Pay Television Receiving Sets Government Regulation

The Government and

Television

11. Station Call Letters

Colour Television VI. British System VII. Broadcasting as a Business 1. Patents and Copyrights 2. Developments Related to Broadcasting 12.

3. 4.

Business Progress Organizations

YUl. Technical 1.

2.

3.

.^Vspects

Apparatus and Performance Broadcasting Frequencv Allocations

AM

V.

FM

4. Propagation of Radio Waves DC. Broadcasting Technique

Hsiian Tsang.

ersed

3.

6.

cotton industry including large mills and ginneries, and a guild of cotton merchants; flour milling and various handicrafts are also carried on. The fort containing civil courts, jail, church, municipal offices, etc., stands on a hill above the river.

Incorporated into the Muslim state of Gujarat, it was annexed to the Mogul empire by Akbar in 1572. The Marathas became its masters in 1685 and held it until 1782 when it was captured by the British. After changing hands again several times Objects it was finally ceded to the East India company in 1803. of interest are a stone mosque constructed out of an older Hindu temple, and the temple of Bhrigu Rishi 10 mi. to the east. Broach District has an area of 2,981 sq,mi. Pop. (1961) 892,It became British territory 241, all of whom speak Gujarati. in 1861 by a transfer from Sindhia. Consisting chiefly of alluvial plains at the mouth of the Narmada, the land is rich and highly cultivated and though it is without forest, it is not wanting in trees. It is well drained by rivers, having in addition to the Narmada, the Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. The principal crops are cotton, millet and pulse. There are rich mineral

Responsibility of the Broadcaster

Audience Influence

Public Service Programs 5. Programs for External Reception III. The Process of Broadcasting IV. .Administrative Organization of Broadcasting V. United States System 1. History of Development 2. Interconnection of Stations

its

Broach (ancient Bhrigukaccha, Bharukaccha) was one of the most celebrated harbours in India. It is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. a.d. 80) and in Ptolemy as Barygaza; and also occurs in the epic Mahabharata. In the 2nd century it was ruled by the Kshaharata satraps, and in the 7th century by the Gurjaras when it appears in the Travels of the Chinese pilgrim

Audience Attitude

2.

3.

4.

Enfield, Eng., as the

of

Programs 1.

large. A famous gun, the ZB (later manufactured in Bren gun") was developed at Brno. Because nearness to the great Macocha caverns, a few miles to the Occupied by the north, the city has considerable tourist traffic. Germans in World War II, it was captured by Soviet troops in 1945. (Bharuch"), an ancient city and modern district of the state of Gujarat, India. The city is on the right bank of the Narmada about 30 mi. inland, 200 mi. N. of Bombay and 45 mi. S.S.W. of Baroda. Pop. (1951) 62,729. There is a considerable

ucts

245

Broadcasting Systems of the World 1. International Regulation 2. Financial Support; System Organization

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

I.

The The The The The The The

Studio or Place of Origin

Microphone, Television Camera and Preamplifiers Mi.'ier and Volume Control System

Main Control Room Electric Cable or Microwave Link

Broadcast Transmitter Broadcast Receiver Colour Television Techniques

BROADCASTING SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD

From 1919 onward, amateur

wireless telegraph experimenters,

numerous even before World War I, used telephony more and more in preference to Morse telegraphy, and in Great Britain, the United States and several European countries broadcasting began spontaneously with transmissions of phonograph records and amateur performances for the amusement of other experimenters. At the same time the radio industry began to foresee and prepare for a future of evidently great but

unknown

possibilities.

Experi-

mental work was undertaken for the improvement of microphones and for the development of receiving apparatus which could be operated with a minimum of technical knowledge. Stations already in existence began the transmission of a few planned and regularly scheduled programs, using amateur performers at first. Later they were able to obtain the services of professional talent, with many artists offering voluntary appearances because of the novelty of the new art. New structures were erected especially for the purpose of transmitting programs, and a demand arose for equipment capable of receiving the broadcasts. Thus, an innovation comparable in cultural importance to the introduction of printing was launched tentatively upon a responsive audience, almost before the import of the new medium was realized, and before the financial organization of broadcasting services or their relations with the theatre, the musical profession, the press or existing radio services

had been

settled.

Existing radio laws, which had been specifically designed to regulate the use of wireless telegraphy by the maritime industry*

and

a few wireless experimenters, did not adequately provide for new application of radio to program broadcasting, and confusion in the licensing of stations and assignment of wave lengths

the

Despite the many obstacles, however, broadcasting between 1920 and 1924 stations were built in the major countries of the world, and by 1930 most nations had well-established systems in operation. The number of broadcasting stations in the world increased from about 600 at the end of 1925 to 1,300 in

was

inevitable.

flourished;

BROADCASTING

246 1935, and to at least 10,000

by International Regulation.— Each nation regulates and its own territory. However, the radiations from a broadcasting station do not respect national boundaries, and international co-operation was an early and obvious necessity if chaotic conditions of interference between stations were to be avoided. The world-wide problem was first considered at the International Radio Telegraph convention of Washington, D.C.. held in 1927, and was later given to the jurisdiction of the International Telecommunications union (ITU), with almost the early 1960s.

1.

controls broadcasting within

The international aspects of radio, including broadcasting, were later regulated by agreements signed at the Madrid convention of that body in 1932 and subsequently every nation participating.

modified by conventions in Cairo, Egy. (1938), Atlantic City, N.J. (1947) and at Buenos Aires, Arg. (1952).

To resolve regional problems beyond the scope of the ITU, other international regulating bodies were organized along contiThus, the task of arranging an orderly solution of

nental lines.

European broadcasting problems was undertaken by the International Broadcasting union, formed in April 1925 at a conference of European broadcasters meeting in the headquarters of the British Broadcasting company (BBC). The task was one of extreme ditficulty, as the conflicts to be adjusted were those of perfectly legitimate interests, and the unofficial status of the union left its decisions subject to ratification or reversal by the several national governments; however, a tentative European plan was largely in operation by Nov. 1926. In 1929 the union was recognized as expert adviser to the ITU. Revised European plans for the allocation of medium and long wave lengths were agreed upon in subsequent years, principally at Lucerne, Switz., in 1933 and at Copenhagen, Den., in 1948. Attempts at world-wide short-wave planning were made at ITU conferences at Mexico City in 1949, and lateral Florence, Italy (1950), and Rapallo, Italy (1950), but these attempts broke down, mainly under the impact of the beginning of the war in Korea in June 1950. With the development of television and of very-high-frequency (VHP) sound broadcasting after 1945, a conference was held at Stockholm, Swed., in 1952. to allocate channels in the European region. Whereas the allocation of frequencies, arranged through the ITU, was a matter of agreement between governments, there were many other aspects of broadcasting which could be regulated without direct reference to their governments by the broadcasting

The International Broadcasting union, Union Internationale de Radiomembers representing all countries The of the European zone with the exception of the U.S.S.R. overrunning of Europe by the German army in World War II resulted in many of the members of U.I.R. coming under Ger-

organizations concerned.

more commonly known

as the

diffusion (U.I.R.), contained

man

control or being cut off from access, and after the war it was decided that the U.I.R. should be dissolved and a new union formed. Pohtical difficulties soon arose over membership. The Soviet Union insisted that not only the broadcasting organizations of the Ukraine and White Russia (which were recognized by the

ITU) should

take part, but also those of five other Soviet

members of the ITU. A number of western European organizations did not admit this claim, but nevertheless a new union called the Organisation Internationale de Radiodiffusion (O.I.R.) was formed and some western countries, including France, Belgium and the Netherlands, joined it. All the organizations which objected to the Soviet claim, except the BBC, remained republics, not

members

of

the

Thus, there were

U.I.R.;

now

the

BBC

did not

join

either

the Soviet-dominated O.I.R. with

its

body. head-

quarters in Brussels, Belg., representing the broadcasting organizations of 22 countries, and the U.I.R. with its headquarters in Geneva, Switz., and 10 members. Finally 11 western members of the O.I.R. resigned and joined with the remaining members of the U.I.R. and the BBC to form in Feb. 1950 a new European Broadcasting union (E.B.U.) 'with headquarters in Geneva and having as full members the broadcasting organizations of western Europe as well as those of Greece, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Lebanon, The headquarters of the Syria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. O.I.R.

moved

to Prague, Czech.

In the American hemisphere, an agreement on the division of broadcasting channels between the United States and Canada was reached through diplomatic negotiation in 1932, and the Havana treaty of 1937 allocated broadcasting frequencies between Canada, Cuba, Mexico and the United States. The North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement conference, representing essentially the same nations, began reconsideration of the entire American situation at conferences held at Havana, Cuba, in 1947 and at Montreal, Que., in 1949. Broadcasting organizations of the American continent formed in 1946 the Asociacion Interamericana de Radiodifusion (A.I.R.), which by the late 1950s represented more than 4,000 sound broadcasting and 400 television stations. Some aspects of the correlation of broadcasting in both the old world and the new were also handled by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO).

By the international agreements indicated above, domestic broadcasting was assigned to two frequency bands in the radio spectrum: long-wave channels in the region from ISO to 550 kc. and medium-wave channels in the region from 550 to 1,660 kc. Short-wave international broadcasting (that is, broadcasting intended primarily for reception outside the originating country) was using various bands of frequencies in the range from 2,200 to 30,000 kc. Short-wave radio signals propagate over long distances more efficiently than do the longer waves of domestic stations, and, being amenable to concentration into narrow beams, they can be directed toward a selected country or region for maximum effectiveness.

As the congestion of the medium- and long-wave bands increased, more and more countries (particularly in Europe) found that domestic reception in these wave bands was seldom free from interference. They therefore turned with increasing emphasis to the

VHF band

(87.5 to 100 mc.) which had been assigned to broad-

casting at the conference at Atlantic City. ative shortness of their range,

VHF

Because of the compar-

transmissions provide reception

which is reasonably free of interference from most distant stations and allow a greater number of stations to operate within a given area. 2.

ing

Financial Support; System Organization. is

—

Broadcastan expensive enterprise, not only from the standpoint of

technical facilities but also because of the large fees

commanded

and other artists engaged. There is no revenue from the audience in the form of admission charges to offset these expenses; in order to sustain itself, broadcasting was forced

by

actors, musicians

days to seek its own sources of financial support. Various systems of support have been evolved and in many countries are found in combination. The simplest is that in which broadcasting is financed from public funds, either in the form of a grant from general ta.xation or, more commonly, in the form of an annual licence fee paid for the right to operate radio-receiving apparatus. There are several ways in which broadcasting can be made selfsupporting and profitable on a commercial basis. The commonest in its early

the system of sponsorship, by which commercial interests take over the responsibility of paying for a program at a given period on a station or network. The commercial interest pays a fee which contributes to the general running of the broadcasting service and pays all the costs of the program. Advertising is included in the transmission, which is announced as being presented by the firm is

In another commercial system the cost of the proborne by the broadcasting organization or its licensee, and the necessary revenue is obtained by selling advertising time inserted in appropriate breaks in the program a method known as "spot" advertising. A further system makes its programs available only to those viewers or listeners who either subscribe to tha service, pay by a coin-slot device for the item desired, or else pay a bill submitted Various retrospectively for programs actually seen or heard. techniques are used to prevent the program from being received by those not prepared to pay generally by "scrambling" the concerned.

grams

is

—

—

transmission

and making

its

reception possible only

to

those

equipped with the necessary facilities. Pure commercial broadcasting was exemplified by the United States domestic system, in which government regulation was in-

BROADCASTING and primarily concerned with technical matters. Transmitting stations were licensed by the federal government, but no fees were assessed for such licences or for the ownership and use of receivers. Production and transmission of programs continued to be carried on by private individuals, corporations or other organizations, the majority deriving their income from paid advertising announcements. Nearly 5% of the U.S. domestic stations were noncommercial; these were supported by educational, religious and similar organizations. Most commercial broadcasters devoted a certain portion of their program time to unsponsored publicservice broadcasts. In this category were educational programs, news, weather and market reports, forums, talks by the president of the United States, religious services, official government announcements and special events of wide public interest. Each licensee had complete freedom in programing his station, subject only to broad regulations relating to propriety, good taste and direct

all sides in time allowed for controversial topics. In a corollary sense, listeners also were free to select whatever programs interested them, and each broadcaster was responsive to public acceptance of his programs in order to attract listeners. The system-originally adopted in Great Britain, on the other hand, could be considered as the prototype of absolute and direct

equitable rights to

government control of broadcasting.

from programing were administered by the British Broadcasting company (1922) and from 1927 by the British Broadcasting corporation, both publicly financed monopolies. Revenue was derived chiefly from an annual tax imposed upon the owner of each receiver, and no paid advertising was accepted. Like the commercial broadcasters of the United States, the BBC remained sensitive to the public reaction to its programs, and the results tended to become similar in both systems. In 1954 the British system was modified by the Television act, which set up a second public body, the Independent Television authority, whose programs were financed partly from public funds but mainly by All phases,

to technical operation of transmitters,

"spot" advertisements. The organization of broadcasting in other nations lay between the extremes of the U,S, commercial system and the British publiccorporation system, with many variations and combinations of the

In Canada, for example, broadcasting was conby the Canadian Broadcasting corporation (CBC), which paralleled the BBC in principle, but which also licensed privately owned stations to supplement its own services, and paid advertising was permitted. In general, broadcasting within the American hemisphere tended to follow the commercial pattern, while in Europe it more nearly resembled the original British system. In features of both.

trolled

all systems, the interconnection of stations into chains or networks by telephone lines or short-wave radio circuits for the simultaneous broadcasting of programs was widely practised,

247

either openly or surreptitiously.

Elsewhere, as in the U.S., a particular effort is made to maintain a clear-cut distinction between those parts of a program that are factual and those that repre.sent opinion and comment. Advertising announcements are similarly set off from the other portions of the program. In the field of entertainment, broadcasting makes use of every form known to the theatrical world: from grand opera to popular music, from boxing matches to baseball and from vaudeville to drama. In addition, radio and television have developed some special

forms of their own

as,

1.

Audience Attitude.

vision audience, which

is

dramas and quiz programs,

for instance, their serialized

offered in daily installments, or their panel

—

The composed

disposition of a radio or teleprincipally of individuals in the

privacy of their own homes, differs considerably from that of an audience in a theatre or lecture hall. There is none of the crowd atmosphere that prevails in a public assembly, and each listener is no more than casually aware that he is actually a part of a large audience. This engenders a sense of intimacy which causes the listener to feel a close personal association with the speaker or performer, Futhermore, people will not accept in their own homes of the candid forms of expression which they readily condone and support on the stage or in literature; hence the broadcaster must constantly mind the decorum of his programs and avoid anything that is in bad taste according to the standards of his audience, lest he suffer the penalty of a deluge of complaints. 2. Responsibility of the Broadcaster. Because it owes its

many

—

licence to operate to the state,

if

indeed

it

is

not state operated,

intimate relationship to its audience, broadcasting exists in a quasi-public domain, open in all its phases to public scrutiny. It is therefore invested with a moral as well as a legal

and because of

its

and must remain more and political sentiment than most other forms of public expression. In fulfilling this obligation, the broadeven though he chooses to exclude all discussion of concaster may, nevertheless, by the troversial topics from his programs mere selection and combination of material induce a mass disposition toward or against certain purposes or preferences. Because a national broadcasting system has the attention of far more people at any one time than could possibly be assembled in the largest convention hall or reached by the printed page, the program builder has great power to influence the political and social thinking of a mass audience. This, coupled with the persuasive intimacy of the microphone and the television camera, makes broadcasting as potent a force for good or evil as any social influence. From the standpoint of society, then, it is important that broadcasters be governed by ideals and standards that take account of their public responsibility to serve the public interest sensitive to public opinion

—

responsibilities.

—

—

populated nations, multilanguage populations within the range of a single station, poor reception conditions in some areas and eco-

3. Audience Influence. For economic reasons as well as those outlined above, evaluation of audience opinion and response Two factors serve to indicate the is important to the broadcaster. reaction of the public to a program the letters received from listeners and viewers; and a determination of the number of persons

nomic obstacles

listening or watching,

Europe had acquired broadcasting problems peculiar to itself, among which were the proximity to one another of small, densely

regions.

to the

Broadcasts

widespread ownership of receivers in other languages simultaneously on dif-

in different

ferent stations or sequentially over the same station, and efforts toward co-operative international programs had met with some

success in overcoming language barriers. The inaccessibility of broadcast reception to many people, either for economic reasons or because of poor reception conditions, had been offset by relaying programs from centralized distribution points. These might go

group subscribers, and group listening in public assemblages became prevalent in some parts of Europe. to individual or

II.

PROGRAMS

Radio and television programs are inclined toward one or the other of two objectives: to convey information or to provide entertainment.

In the information category fall lectures, news, weather and market reports, public addresses, forum and roundtable discussions, religious ser\-ices, political speeches

and special

events such as the coronation of a king or the inauguration of a president. In some countries where broadcasting is a government

monopoly, propaganda

may

be

woven

into

programs of

this class,

:

weighed against the

total potential audience,

Audience simultaneous programs on competing stations, etc. measurement presents difficult problems because there is no box Mail office by which to determine the exact number of listeners. received by the broadcast stations from listeners comes principally from persons who have the time and inclination to write letters, and cannot be regarded as wholly representative. More accurate results are obtained by telephone-sampling methods or by special recording devices attached to individual receiving sets. The latter, installed with the owner's consent, record the amount of time the set is used, when it is turned on and off, and the stations tuned in; however, they are expensive and therefore limited to small samples of the total audience. Whatever the method of rating, broadcasters are quick to alter or discontinue any program that shows lack of audience appeal, and the listeners are thus influential in determining the nature of programs offered them. In commercial broadcasting, sponsored programs are also affected by their apparent

success or failure in selling the goods advertised. 4. Public Service Programs. Certain aspects of broadcasting considered as a public service call for brief mention. These are

—

)

BROADCASTING

248 its

relations with the organized musical life of the

national tension after

its

specifically educational (as distinct

many

mission,

community, from its general cultural news functions and lastly its political The advent of broadcasting arrested a decline which

functions.

musical life of many nations because of a variety of circumstances, among them the increased costs of ordinary musical performances, the growing popularity of light, showy and ephemeral entertainment, the development of motion pictures and the dance hall, and the diminished incomes of the old leisure classes. Broadcasting did not check or alter these tendencies, but it has compensated for them by the universal diffusion of music that had been quite beyond the reach of the masses, by interpreting that music through broadcasts by critics, lecturers and journal contributors, and often by performing works that under existing conditions private promoters cannot afford to finance. On its strictly educational side, broadcasting addresses itself

was beginning

III.

The

in the

—

to two main classes -the schools, in which listening is communal and the instruction given is amplified by the teacher on the spot, and the adult student. Opinions differ as to the relative importance of broadcasting in the two cases. In Great Britain, for example, the school side was dealt with first, adult education being a later development, the full potentialities of which can be realized only under a system of alternative programs. In Germany, on the other hand, adult education took precedence, and a special service with a station of its own was created for its purposes, while Austria provided courses of varied kinds, often of an advanced character, in its radio programs. Broadcasting has been used for keeping

men

touch with progress {e.g., country doctors in Poland) and for giving primary education to children in mobile homes (e.g., of Dutch bargemen) or scattered outside school range (e.g., in the U.S.S.R.). A service of particular value scattered professional

in

Languages are taught by nearly all broadcasting organizations, and the BBC has been particularly successful in the teaching of English to European and overseas audiences. The part played by broadcasting in the religious life of communities varies from country to country; there are few countries, apart from Communist countries, in which religious programs are not broadcast. In Great Britain a definite policy of broadcasting a simple form of service and addresses without sectarian bias was adopted after agreement had been obtained among the accredited is

World War II led to the continuance by countries of their foreign-language services.

its religious role, its

that of scientific instruction for agriculturists.

representatives of the chief Christian churches as to

common

by

tail

simple enough in outline.

Most of the performances take place which is carefully arranged so as to give, for the necesroom, an acoustical condition that results in a pleasing sound at the receiver. This requires a certain amount of echo elimination by acoustic treatment. Speakers, singers and players address themselves to the microphone, and an expert operator in a control room, following closely the speech or music, almost continuously makes fine adjustments of the amount of electrical impulse modulating the transmitter to allow for changes of original sound volume, an operation necessitated by dynamic range limitations of the radio system. The transmitting gear proper is usually separate from the studio, and may be as far away as 80 mi. or more, connected with the studio by a special line. Another class of broadcast of importance is the picking up at the place of origin of public concerts, operas, plays and public speeches, as well as of ceremonies, sporting events, etc. This is done by portable microphone gear connected, not necessarily by wire, to the control room. is

in a studio,

sarily small

The

special interest of these broadcasts to the listener is that they enable him to feel himself as a participant or member of the audience. In the case of music, large-scale performances are often, for

psychological as well as acoustic reasons, more successful as "outside" than as studio broadcasts; but public halls, churches, theatres, opera stages, open spaces, and so on. all present special acoustic problems which have to be solved according to the cir-

cumstances. Of outstanding importance in the organization of broadcasting This involves is the simultaneous broadcast, or network broadcast. a system of interconnected telephone lines or radio links by which a studio or other place of performance can be connected to as many transmitters as may be desirable or possible. Network operation requires the closest timing and co-ordination over the whole system. In the United States and Canada the method is practised among groups of stations affiliated for an exchange of programs. IV.

fun-

In the United States, programs devoted to the various faiths and presented in rotation were organized by a joint council of churches. Fears were felt that the ability to receive religious services at home would deplete the congregations of the churches themselves. Experience did not justify these fears, and any loss to the churches on this score was more than compensated by the spread of their influence, as well as by the value of the religious broadcasts to invalids and aged persons. 5. Programs for External Reception. International broad-

THE PROCESS OF BROADCASTING

actual process of broadcasting, though complicated in dethe variety of the items broadcast and by their number,

ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION OF BROADCASTING

damentals.

—

—

programs by a country expressly for audiences beyond its own frontiers dates from the earliest days of broadcasting itself. Soviet Russia began foreignlanguage transmissions for propaganda purposes early in the 1920s, and was followed first by fascist Italy and then by national socialist Germany. France, Great Britain and the Netherlands were next in the field among European countries, though their first use of short-wave broadcasting was aimed at French-, English- or Dutchspeaking populations overseas. Great Britain began foreignlanguage broadcasting early in 1938 with a program in Arabic and programs in Spanish and Portuguese directed to Latin America. Broadcasts in French, German and Italian were added at the time of the Munich crisis in Sept. 1938. By Aug. 1939 countries broadcasting

that

is

to say, the transmission of

—

casting in foreign languages included Albania, Bulgaria, China,

France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Rumania, Spain, in addition to the United States, the U.S.S.R. and Vatican City.

Between 1939 and 1945 foreign-language broadcasting developed means of psychological warfare, and the programs of the BBC had an important effect in maintaining morale among countries under German occupation. The development of interas a

in particular

has been indicated that there are two main types of organizathe commercial and competiand that the former tive type and the government-managed type tends to approximate the latter so far as its relations with the pubIt

tion handling public broadcasting

are concerned.

lic

the

administration

Given the immense

—

The same may be and

said, to a certain extent, of

pubhc-relations

of

broadcasting.

cultural, educational, political

and propagan-

dist possibilities of the

ments should

—

medium,

it

side

was unthinkable that govern-

disinterest themselves in the programs.

Accordingly is a control, to a greater or less degree, universally imposed on broadcasting. Under a purely commercial system, this control is moderate, indirect and negative; while, at the other end of the scale, a despotic or dictatorial government will normally employ broadcasting for the propagation of its own ideas. Between these extremes lie (1) "good will" commercial broadcasting tempered by government regulation, as in the United States; (2) systems constituted as commercial companies, but subjected to the continuing supervision of a government department, and limited as to profits; (3) companies commercial in form, in which the government holds a controlling interest; and (4) organizations of the type of the British Broadcasting corporation or the Danish radio council, in which a national broadcasting authority is constituted by, but stands apart from, the ordinary machinery of the state. The success of an organization of the last type depends essentially upon the public's acceptance of its executives and its traditions, a confidence that is independent of the public's political outlook toward the government of the day. there

The executive

or internal organization of broadcasting

lar in all countries,

but there

is

is

simi-

one important divergence of prac-

BROADCASTING should be mentioned. In some countries the engineering work is wholly in the hands of the state communications and the broadcasting organization is a distinct body limited to the planning and execution of programs. In others the engineer service is as much a part of the broadcasting organization as are the program and the administrative departments. That the question is not a simple one may be gauged from the fact that of the two most highly developed services in Europe the one works under the first and the other under the second system. (J. C. W. R.; G. G. A. W.; W. F. L.) tice that

side of the

authority,

V.

factor responsible for the rapid growth which took place. There is complete absence of any restriction or hindrance to the ownership and use of receiving apparatus, in that no licences are required and there are no fees to be paid. Since there is no financial support derived directly from the listeners through the payment of a fee, other and less direct sources of support came to be relied upon.

Private enterprise was forced to find its own means of economic and this added a further element of competitive ef-

justification,

development of the industry.

—

History of Development. The first known radio program the U.S. was broadcast by R. A. Fessenden from his experi-

1.

in

mental station at Brant Rock, Mass., on Christmas Eve, 1906. Two musical selections, the reading of a poem and a short talk apparently constituted the program, which was heard by ship radius of several hundred miles of

wireless operators within a

Brant Rock. In the experiment a water-cooled microphone was used to modulate an Alexanderson alternator, and 1 kw. of power was radiated at the frequency of 50 kc. Other early experimental broadcasts include those of Lee De Forest, who in 1908 conducted a successful demonstration using apparatus set up in the Eiffel tower in Paris. In 1910 De Forest installed a 500-w. transmitter in the Metropolitan Opera house in New York city and broadcast a program in which Enrico Caruso took part. By 1916 David Sarnoff, who, as an engineer employed by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America, had been conducting experiments in the broadcasting of music, visualized and proposed to his company a scheme for a "radio music box" which could be manufactured and sold for home reception of musical and educational broadcasts.

Following

of

relaxation

the

military restrictions on radio at the conclusion of

World War

I,

many

experimental radio stations started operation. The operators often of these small stations equipped with homemade appara-

—

tus

— were amateurs whose

est centred

more

ence than in

inter-

in radio as a sci-

its possibilities

as a

means of mass communication They or mass entertainment. played phonograph records and sometimes called upon their friends and neighbours for impromptu performances. The range of such broadcasts was but a few miles, and the receiving apparatus necessary to hear them was mostly in the hands of other experimenters who, like the broadcasters themselves, pursued radio as a hobby. With the de-

velopment of commercial broadcasting, amateurs were restricted

—

to their original sphere

that of

fig.

1.—

Actual

at the plant of the

Westinghouse Electric and Manufac-

in East Pittsburgh, Pa., began broadcasting regularly scheduled programs, operating at 833 kc. with 50 w, of power. first went on the air in the evening of Nov. 2, 1920, with a

turing

In the United States broadcasting has been developed by private enterprise, with a mi-nimum of government supervision. This freedom from restraint, while at times giving rise to unsatisfactory conditions, encouraged competition and was doubtless an important

fort to the

—

semiprivate comtriunication with other amateurs and were prohibited from other broadcasting. From this beginning, the evolution of broadcasting was rapid: many persons not directly interested in the technical aspects of radio were attracted by the novelty of listening to "music from the They created a demand for ready-built receivers suitable air." for operation by the layman. The increase in the number of listeners, in turn, justified the establishment of stations especially for the purpose of broadcasting entertainment and information. This stage of development was reached about 1920, when station

KDKA

UNITED STATES SYSTEM

249

company

KDKA

broadcast of the returns of the Harding-Cox presidential election. This occasion was generally' conceded as marking the beginning of broadcasting in its modern form. The success of the election broadcast and of the musical programs that were initiated thereafter motivated others to install similar stations, and a total of eight were operating by the end of 1921. The popularity of these early stations made evident two possible sources of financial support to offset the operating costs of broad-

KDKA

First, there were possibilities for profit in the manufacture and sale of receiving equipment and second, the fame attained by the organizations operating the first broadcast stations called attention to the value of broadcasting as an advertising medium.

casting.

;

Advertising appealed not only to manufacturers of radio apparatus but to businessmen in general, and in the course of time it became the principal means of support for the U.S. system of broadcasting. During the period 1921-22 the sale of radio receiving sets and of component parts for use in home construction of sets began a boom which was followed immediately by a large increase in transmitting stations.

By Nov.

1,

1.922,

564 broadcast stations had been

li-

censed to operate. Station WEAF was American Telephone offering broadcasting

New York

Aug. 1922 by the and Telegraph company for the purpose of facilities on a time rental basis to all who By this time the radio channels had become established in

in

wished to broadcast. so crowded by stations that it was difficult for any more to find adequate places. Also there were many interests which desired to broadcast their own special programs but did not wish to go into the project so deeply as to invest in station equipment. Sponsored program broadcasting, as instituted in this way. was clearly based

on advertising value, and the definite undisguised use of radio

BROADCASTING

250

broadcasting for advertising purposes was started. 2. Interconnection of Stations. The first use of wire telephone lines in 1922 for interconnecting a station in New York city and a station in Chicago, 111., to broadcast simultaneously a description of a football game introduced a new idea into radio broadcasting. The use of a long-distance telephone line to bring programs of special interest into the field of local reception simultaneously at a number of places was of evident value in broadcasting features of national appeal. It was of both economic and cultural importance. Performances by leading artists at a centrally located station studio could be sent out to other stations. Smaller stations could afford to offer programs, obtained by wire, of much greater excellence than those they could produce for themselves. A regular interchange of programs by wire was initiated between in New York city and in Washington, D.C., and subsequently other stations were added to the chain. For special features of national importance large groups of stations were temporarily interconnected. In 1926 the National Broadcasting company (NBC) purchased and with it as the key station established a permanent net-

—

WEAF

WCAP

WEAF work

which

undertook

and were sponsored by advertisers and furnished revenue to both the network and its associated stations; others were sustaining, with part of the of radio stations, for

distribute regular daily programs.

it

Some

to originate

of these

time being set aside for public-service features. About 20 years later, when television stations had been established in various cities, their interconnection into networks followed the pattern set by radio {see fig. 1), the intercity facilities being leased from the American Telephone and Telegraph company. After earlier experiments, the latter provided a coaxial cable for a telecast of the 1945 Army-Navy football game by several eastern stations. In 1948 the first commercial television net-

work service was offered, employing coaxial cable between New York and Washington, D.C., and microwave relays from New York to Boston, Mass. The telephone company then began laying cables westward, and early in 1949 Chicago and St. Louis, Mo., were joined with the eastern

cities. In the meantime, development of microwave relays had shown them to possess advantages over the coaxial cable, and thus relay towers were used in extending the network westward to the Pacific coast. A coast-to-coast circuit was completed in 1951 and was inaugurated with a telecast of the Japanese peace proceedings from San Francisco, Calif., on Sept. 4. 3. Short- Wave Broadcasting. Shortly after broadcasting became established on the wave lengths around 300 to 400 m. it was discovered that much shorter wave lengths, in the range from 15

—

nique of radio transmission at the very high frequencies (VHF), was applied notably by E. H. Armstrong in 1936 as a means of reducing interference. The service range for reliable reception

—

FM

VHF

FM

hundred miles of each other without causing This was not an unwelcome situation from the viewpoint of the Federal Communications commission (FCC), which is charged by law with the responsibility for licensing and regulating broadcasting stations. The commission and its predecessor always had been beset with the problem of trying to accommodate more applicants for stations than there were channels available, and the possibility of duplicating FM channels throughout the United States made room for a large number of

new broadcasting

band.

FM

Although attracted a loyal following of listeners, it never attained the universal popularity of the already established

AM

FM

system. As a result, many stations failed to find economic support from commercial advertising and their total number dwindled to about 500 by the mid-1950s. In an effort to open up new sources of revenue for broadcasters, the FCC in 1955 authorized them to transmit auxiliary programs not intended for public reception. These programs are transmitted simultaneously with

FM

the station's regular programs, without interference to the latter,

by means of an inaudible subcarrier. The auxiliary program can be heard only from special receivers which, being under control of the FM stations, may be leased on a fee basis. This method is applied to "store-casting" (programs of music with announcements relating to certain retail stores, where receivers are provided to reproduce them), or for "background" music in restaurants and

FM

ocother public places. A resurgence of public interest in curred in the late 19SOs, stimulated by the popularity of receivers in connection with high-fidelity "hi-fi") sound-reproduc-

FM

(

(See HiGH-FroELiTY Sound Systems.) were further enhanced when the FCC in The advantages of multiplex broadcasting, a system 1961 gave its approval to on a single that made possible the simultaneous transmission channel of the two signals necessary for stereophonic reproducing systems for

carrier of a broadcasting station, in contrast to the amplitude type

of modulation

(AM)

that

Technical Aspects, below.)

used by standard stations. (See With the development of the tech-

is

home

use.

FM

FM

—

—

own,

—

stations.

Commercial development of FM began in 1940 when the FCC 42-50 mc. band for this purpose, and about 60 FM stations were in operation by the end of 1942, when expansion was halted by World War II. In 1945 the original 40 channels were replaced by 100 channels in the 88-108 mc. allotted 40 channels in the

war. At the conclusion of the war, there was no incentive for private broadcasters to resume international transmissions. Consequently, the international stations continued to be operated by

programs were originated under the title "Voice of America" through the U.S. Information agency (USIA). 4. FM Broadcasting. Frequency modulation (FM) is merely a different method of applying modulation to the radio-frequency

is

interference between stations.

tion.

private concerns under contract with the government, and their

signals

tions within a few

over long distances. The use of these waves was developed not only for intercontinental radio telegraph and telephone services but also for the broadcasting of programs directly to other countries or for the exchange of programs between national networks by radio relay using short waves. Prior to World War II some of the larger U.S. broadcasting stations operated experimental international short-wave transmitters of their own. During the war, the United States government leased these and contracted for the installation of others, all of which were supplied with programs under the supervision of government agencies. Some of these programs were for the entertainment of the U.S. armed forces scattered throughout the world; others were part of the psychological warfare and were directed to the peoples of neutral. Allied and Axis nations. Conversely, U.S. listeners were able to tune in directly the short-wave broadcasts of other countries, including those with which they were at to 50 or 60 m., could be received

—

limited approximately to the horizon as seen from the transmitting antenna (practically, about 50 to 100 mi.). Thus, it is possible to duplicate frequency assignments to sta-

of

Radio

FM

—

Television Broadcasting. At the beginning of U.S. radio broadcasting was approaching its zenith as a source of home entertainment. In the evenings, various commercial programs vied with each other for the attention of the audi5.

World War

v.

II,

ence by presenting elaborate features ranging from serious music to comedy-variety. A console radio set was to be found in the living room of nearly every American home, and it was the centre of group listening by the family to their favourite programs. With the evolution of television after the war, however, television receivers began to replace living-room radio sets and there was a corresponding shift of audience from radio to television, This loss of listeners was especially during the evening hours. eventually reflected in the business aspects of radio, with many advertisers converting their major evening programs to television. On the other hand, radio still retained certain advantages of its did not require immobility on the part of its listenthus go about other duties while listening. It also was easily received on portable receivers, including the large number of automobile sets in use, and it was capable of reaching areas ers,

in that

it

who might

of the country that were beyond the range of existing television There was a trend, therefore, toward changes in radio stations.

programming to make it most attractive to persons in these situations by the inclusion of more short features, recorded music, and news and weather reports throughout the day.

From

the business standpoint, commercial television began prin-

cipally with the construction of stations

by firms already engaged

BROADCASTING Television costs, including investments in

in radio broadcasting.

apparatus, production of programs and operating expenses, were notably higher than those of radio. The cost of advertising by television

was correspondingly high, but

in

view of the millions

who

could be reached at one time, even the expenditure of several hundred thousand dollars for a single spectacle such as "Peter Pan" was justifiable economically. 6. Educational Broadcasting. In the early days of U.S. broadcasting, about 170 stations were operated by colleges, of persons

—

AM

Although most of churches and other nonprofit organizations. these ceased operating because of lack of funds and limited audi-

noncommercial stations in the were treated by the government on the same basis as commercial stations, insofar as assignment of frequencies was concerned. However, in the course of making allocations for FM and TV, the FCC set aside certain channels for the exclusive use of noncommercial educational stations. 7. Fee or Pay Television. Although commercial television in the U.S. followed the pattern set by radio broadcasting in being supported by advertising, many people contended that a fee system popularly called pay-TV or box-office-TV would constitute a better method of paying for the programs. Under the proposed system, the viewer would pay a stipulated sum for the privilege of Proponents argued watching a program on his home receiver. that this would make possible the broadcasting of theatre performances, new motion-picture films and sporting events not otherwise available to television. Several methods for the collection of the fees were proposed, ranging from coin-slot mechanisms attached to the subscriber's receiver to monthly billing similar to the pracNonsubscribers would receive only a distice of public utilities. torted and unintelligible rendition of picture and sound. 8. Receiving Sets. The first commercial radio receivers were crystal detectors or regenerative vacuum-tube sets using two or three tubes and were hardly more than adaptations of amateur apences, a few were

still

Educational

1960s.

on the

AM

air as

stations

—

—

—

—

paratus of the time. In the typical case, a length of wire stretched from house to garage served as an antenna, and a wire from the receiver to a water pipe furnished a ground connection. Power to operate the vacuum tubes was supplied by storage or dry-cell bat-

Because of the great public interest in broadcasting and demand for receivers, however, advances came in rapid succession. The next steps were to the use of high-frequency amplifiers in "tuned RF" circuits, with elimination of regeneration effects by neutralizing techniques in the vacuum-tube circuits which ended the annoying squeals and howls of the early regenerative receivers, and to crude loud-speakers that permitted listening without the use of ear attachments. The batteries were replaced by power supplies that could be plugged into wall outlets, and eventually by self-contained power packs that were an integral part of the receiver. New vacuum tubes were developed, and the number of tubes in an average set increased to seven or eight. At the same time there was a shift to the superheterodyne type of circuit. Attention was then concentrated by manufacturers upon improving performance. Single-dial tuning, self-contained loop antennas, improved loud-speakers and essentially distortion-free sound reproduction, plus the housing of the entire apparatus in a single attractive cabinet, completed the transformation of broadcast receivers from the status of a novelty that challenged the operateries.

the consequent

easy-to-use instruments for (See Radio Receiver.)

tors' skill into reliable,

ment.

home

entertain-

Many

broadcast receivers produced in the 1930s included shortlisteners to tune in directly on foreign on police, aeronautical and amateur communications. Another innovation of the era was push-button station selection that eliminated tedious dial tuning. Advances in automobile receivers raised them from the status of accessories

wave bands which enabled stations, or to listen in

equipment, and their popularity was that were in use in the early for reception were first sold as converters for attachment to receivers, but were later incorporated into combination sets. After World War II there was no longer much demand for the deluxe console style of radio receiver because of the growing public interest in television, and

to that of optional built-in

marked by the more than 36,000,000 1960s. The special tuners required

FM

AM

251

manufacturers confined their production almost entirely to table models and portable sets. The development of transistors made possible the design of compact, lightweight portables, capable of operating up to a year on a single set of dry-cell batteries. Rapid progress in television receiver design and manufacturing methods brought sets with 16- and 21-in. pictures at lower prices than had been in effect for 10-in. sets two or three years earlier. A "printed-circuit" technique, employing a photo-etching process to replace much of the laborious hand wiring formerly required, led to price reductions for all classes of radio and television receivers. Finally, the introduction of the shadow-mask kinescope made possible a practical mass-produced colour television receiver. 9.

Government Regulation.

in the U.S. as a

new

—When

broadcasting emerged

industry, the only legal regulations in force

dated from 1912, and these pertained primarily to the maritime use of radio-telegraphy for the purpose of promoting the safety of life at sea. The administration of these regulations was entrusted to the U.S. department of commerce. Under this largely irrelevant set of laws, a rapidly increasing number of broadcasting

(from about SO in 1922 to more than 500 in 1923) were crowded into narrow wave bands, and interference from overlapping stations became intolerable. After several national conferences with broadcasters and other interested parties, the commerce department put into effect an orderly system of freband. quency assignments in what is now part of the standard The largest transmitters then in use had an output of only 500 w., but the advantages of increasing power were recognized and the way was cleared for the use of increased power. Stations of S to 10 kw. were established during 1925 and at least two stations (WGY, Schenectady, N.Y., and KDKA) were experimenting with At the same time, the commerce department still higher power. concluded that some limit should be placed on the total number of stations

AM

stations to be licensed because of the shortage of channels. This action created much dissatisfaction among those whose applica-

were denied, until finally a Chicago station precipitated a climax by the unauthorized use of a channel assigned, by international agreement, to Canada. In the ensuing lawsuit brought tions

by the department of commerce, the courts ruled that the department had no authority to deny licences or to enforce frequency assignments. The situation then became chaotic, with many stations choosing their o«t! frequencies and operating almost independently of any government regulation, until congress enacted the Radio act of 1927. This act placed the responsibility for licensing stations in the hands of a Federal Radio against the station

commission of five men appointed by the president. The commission was given broad powers to classify stations, assign operating frequencies and otherwise regulate broadcasting, and was required to grant licences only "if public convenience, interest and necessity will be served thereby." An amendment in 1928 provided for an equaUty of broadcasting rights for various sections of the country and the establishment of a group of clear channels, each of which

was

to be occupied

by

a single high-powered station to

range of service. Other channels were designated as regional and local, to be shared by low-powered stations in different parts of the country. On July 1, 1934, there was established by act of congress a Federal Communications commission of seven men to deal not only give

it

the

maximum

with matters of national broadcast regulation but also with interstate and foreign telephone and telegraph communication by wire and radio. The commission was divided into three divisions, of which one, called the Broadcast bureau, carried on substantially the functions previously exercised by the Federal Radio commission, which the new communications commission superseded. During the 1930s, a 10. The Government and Television. dozen or more television stations were experimenting with the broadcasting of dramas, sporting events and in 1940 even the Since no commercially produced national political conventions. receivers were as yet available to the public, audiences were limited to those few experimenters who built their own or otherwise acquired experimental models. In 1940 the FCC invited the broadcasting and radio manufacturing industries to compile and submit a set of standards upon which a commercial television broadcast-

— —

—

—

BROADCASTING

252 ing service might be built.

This invitation led to the formation

Systems committee (NTSC), composed of engineers and scientists drawn from all of the interested organizations, which devised a technical pattern for black-and-white television and attempted to provide for the future addition of colour. The NTSC plan was adopted by the FCC and commercial TV was authorized to start July 1, 1941. However, the potential business boom that might have been released was arrested by the intervention of World War II and the consequent diversion of of a National Television

radio plants to the production of military apparatus. At the end of the war, the FCC allocated to television 13

VHF

channels between 44 and 216 mc. (later reduced to 12 channels between SO and 216 mc, by deleting channel 1), and commercial television got under way. While stations in various cities could share each channel with stations in other localities, a limit was imposed on the total number of stations that one channel could accommodate by the necessity for geographic separation to avoid interference, and it was soon realized that 12 channels were not sufficient to provide a nationwide TV system. On the other hand, the remainder of the VHF band was occupied by other radio services, leaving no room for more television channels. By 1948 there were 20 stations on the air, about SO others were partially completed and over 300 new applications were pending before the FCC. This situation led the commission to issue a "freeze" order on Sept. 30, 1948. which postponed the granting of all further TV authorizations until additional channels could be found in another part of the radio spectrum. After many months of technical hearings, 70 new ultrahigh-frequency (UHF channels between 470 and 890 mc. were allocated to television broadcasting. On the basis of appropriate separation of stations, a nationwide plan was devised, allotting the 82 VHF and UHF channels, city by city, to nearly 1,300 communities, and 242 of these assignments were reserved for noncommercial educational stations. The number of channels allotted to each city was approximately in proportion to population {see Table I). )

Table

I.

Number

of Channels Allotted per City in the U.S.

Population

[

I

'

BROADCASTING VII.

BROADCASTING AS A BUSINESS

of importance in advertising is the number of poscustomers it reaches. The value of combining the toll broadcasting idea with the network broadcasting idea, to increase the audience and thereby to justify the expense of better programs,

One element

sible

was self-evident.

WEAF,

the pioneer U.S. sponsored-program broadcasting stabeing owned by the telephone company which also operated the long-distance telephone service of the country, naturally served as an important centre for the development of commercial network broadcasting. Arrangements were worked out whereby the cost of such service could be distributed equitably between the program sponsor and the individual stations using the program. For sponsored programs the individual chain stations received a portion of the chain rental charges paid by the advertiser. These stations could also obtain, by paying a fee, nonsponsored programs tion,

supplied by the central

management

WEAF

both of which were owned by the Radio Corporation of America. The network broadcasting activities centring on these stations were continued and expanded. The Columbia Broadcasting system originated in 1927 as an outgrowth of the United Independent Broadcasters and the Columbia Phonograph Broadcasting system. In Oct. 1934 the MuThe Blue network, tual Broadcasting system began operation. established in Jan. 1927 as NBC's second network, was sold by the latter company and became independent in 1942. Three years later its name was changed to the American Broadcasting company. The DuMont Television network came into being with the advent of television, and operated as a "live" interconnected network until 1955, when it shifted to the use of motion-picture films, 1. Patents and Copyrights During the early boom period

—

manufacture and

the

many companies and

sale of receiving sets

individuals started

and parts with small

regard for the infringement of patents. With the number of patents running into thousands, it was a difficult task even to deter-

mine what patents might be infringed by given apparatus. In 1920 and 1921 several large electrical and communication companies which, taken together, controlled an important group of radio and other communication patents, entered into a cross-licensing agreement whereby each of the companies was enabled to proceed in its with a satisfactory patent situation. A considerable number of manufacturers and groups of patents were outside this arrangement but, after a period of negotiation and some litigation, licences were extended to the larger independent manufacturers under royalty agreements, and by 1927 it was generally possible for a responsible manufacturer to equip himself with such licences as would ensure him the right to put on the market receiving equipfield

ment of modern design. The question arose as to whether the performance of a musical composition before a microphone in a private studio, so that it was broadcast by radio, constituted an infringement of copyright. The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAPj championed the cause of the holders of copyrights, and ultimately established a recognition right of the copyright proprietors to

a simple step, the principal difference being in the ultimate use of

the signal for the operation of the recording device instead of for the modulation of a radio transmitter. Television, of course, was

among broadcasters

and found

3.

—

progress.

Business Progress.

—The

phenomenal expansion of U.S.

radio broadcasting in 1921 and 1922 impelled to enter the field, especially in the

many

small concerns

manufacture of receivers.

By

1926 the market was flooded with overproduction of sets which were being sold to the public at distress prices, and failures among the smaller companies were common. Further tolls were taken by the financial crash of 1929, and many broadcasting stations also were forced to cease operation because of reverses. The business of broadcasting as a whole, however, remained fairly prosperous during the general depression and even managed to continue its

At the same time, the number of receiver manufachad been reduced to a score or so of the larger and sounder concerns, and the industry settled down to an era of prosperity. Another setback occurred when FM failed to revolutionize the broadcasting business to the extent predicted by its partisans; of expansion. turers

the

more than

1,000

FM

stations in existence in 194S, only about

operation a decade later. The most successful stations were those located in areas that were inadequately broadcasting. Beginning in 1948, the growth of served by television gradually cut into the advertising sales and profits of radio broadcasting in those localities where the two forms of broadhalf

were

still

in

FM

AM

casting were in competition. 4.

Organizations.

—The manufacturers have an Electronic In-

dustries association and a radio division in the National Electrical

Manufacturers' association. These are active in standardization work. The National Association of Broadcasters interests itself in legislation and in general investigations for the benefit of its members, which include a majority of the broadcasting stations. Through the co-operative efforts of these various associations and other interests, radio fairs or shows are held for the exhibition of

equipment, usually in conjunction with national conventions or conferences of broadcasters or manufacturers. The Institute of Radio Engineers, Inc. provides facilities for the discussion and publication of technical papers and the furtherance of standardization in the radio arts. The Joint Council on Educational Television and the National Association of Educational Broadcasters are interested in educational broadcasting, and the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America is concerned with religious broadcasts, (R, B,; VIII.

compensation for the use of

ble rates of

its

a

of the

There was discord over the matter of equitacompensation, but by 1927 this seemed to have been adjusted in most cases through private negotiations. Further dissension between broadcasters and the ASCAP in 1940-41 brought about the formation of Broadcast Music, Inc, by the broadcasters. These two organizations subsequently operated in competition as hcensing agents for the radio performance of copyrighted music. Related to Broadcasting. The rapid 2. Developments strides made in the improvement of sound pickup and reproducing apparatus to meet the needs of radio broadcasting had a stimulating effect upon other devices used for sound reproduction. The phonograph, for example, was manufactured in greatly improved form, combined in the same cabinet with radio receiving sets so their compositions.

by radio broadready-made pattern to guide almost every

the chief beneficiary of the techniques developed casting,

phase of

of the chain.

In 1926 the National Broadcasting company, organized by the General Electric company, the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing company and the Radio Corporation of America, purand undertook the management of WJZ and WRC, chased

of radio broadcasting,

253

and loud-speaker portions might be used by Another development related to broadcasting and often either. used in combination with broadcast pickup of speakers in large halls or in open air was the public address system. By means of microphones placed directly in front of the speaker and powerful amplifiers and loud-speakers or sound projectors appropriately located, large crowds could be addressed successfully with reduced Sound motion picstrain on both the speaker and his auditors. tures likewise benefited from many of the technical developments Adaptation of the studio apparatus and the of broadcasting. studio technique of broadcasting to sound recording for films was that the amplifier

W,

F, L.)

TECHNICAL ASPECTS

In the United States, four distinct types of broadcasting are sound which may be classified as (1) standard-band broadcasting; (2) international short-wave sound broadcasting; or frequency modulation sound broadcasting; and (4) (3) television broadcasting. In many respects the technique involved is similar for all classes, while in other ways it is quite different. {See also Radio.)

AM

in use,

FM

1.

Apparatus and Performance.

—The

essential physical ele-

system are: (1) studio, microphone or which, in combinatelevision camera, transmitter and antenna modulating and radiating electrogenerating, tion, are capable of magnetic waves with intensity that is (ordinarily) equal in all directions; and (2) any number of receivers at diverse locations,

ments of

a broadcasting

—

—

BROADCASTING

254

each able to detect the radiated waves and reproduce the original

program.

The technical objective in broadcasting is to transmit and reproduce programs as realistically as possible, with a minimum of distortion and interference. Broadcasting stations maintain high standards of transmission, but many receivers especially those of small size and low cost— are not capable of reproducing all that is transmitted. The ear, however, is tolerant to a moderate amount of distortion and is aided by the imagination in the interpretation of speech and music, giving the listener an illusion of naturalness. In television broadcasting, the fact that the eye is less tolerant in overlooking distortion and interference imposes more rigorous limits on both transmitting and receiving equipment. Interference results from stray electrical waves, sometimes of natural origin and sometimes man made, which become inseparably mixed with radio signals and are converted by the loud speaker into noise, or by the television receiver into blemishes on the screen. Standard and international short-wave broadcasting stations fusing amplitude modulation) rely on the use of high-powered transmitters to override such interference. Satisfactory service is thus rendered under ordinary conditions of reception, but in the large highly congested districts of cities the interferindustrial or ing electrical pulses may at times be so intense that noise-free reception is impossible. Frequency-modulation broadcasting, in which the program is carried in the form of variations in the frequency of the radiated waves, is less susceptible than amplitude modulation to interference of this type and in many cases may be received with clarity in locations where amplitude-modulated signals are completely overridden by noise. Television signals utilize VHF and UHF bands which are fairly free from natural or static interference, but are sometimes subject to man-made interference such as that caused by automobile ignition systems or by radiations from electrical machinery. 2. Broadcasting Frequency Allocations. The total radio frequency spectrum (see Frequency, Radio) is arbitrarily divided into five groups. Certain bands of frequencies within each group are set aside for broadcasting, partly through international agreements for standardization, and partly because of technical differences in the propagation characteristics of radio waves at various

—

—

frequencies. their

(See International Regulation, above.) The groups, the classes of broadcasting services which gener-

names and

ally (but

not exclusively) use them are:

Low

frequency (LF) Medium frequency (MF) High frequency (HF) Very high frequency (VHF) Ultrahigh frequency (UHF)

The

30 kc. to 300 kc. 300 kc. to 3 mc. mc. to 30 mc. .30 mc. to 300 mc. .300 mc. to 3000 mc. 3

.

.

.

.

licensing authority in each nation

makes

its

AM (Europe) AM International FM and TV TV own assignments

of specific frequencies to individual stations, within the limits of the internationally allotted bands. The allocations system of the

Table

II.

Frequency Allocations /or U.S. Broadcasting Stations

Class of station

BROADCASTING

255

dyne beat between

carrier frequencies of the

commonly observed

results of the

same

two

stations, are other

conditions.

FM

Reception of television and stations, because of their very high carrier frequencies, was expected to be confined substantially to the areas within which their ground waves are effective, or approximately within the area bounded by the visual horizon of the transmitter antenna.

However, experience

in the U.S. proved the Frequent but erratic reception of signals from stations hundreds of miles distant and interference between stations beyond the presumed range of each other called

necessity for revising this theory.

for re-evaluation of engineering concepts regarding reflection of ultrahigh-frequency waves from the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Another type of reflection was also troublesome in television recep-

— the

from buildings,

and other nearby was one or more repeated or "ghost" images appearing in the reproduced picture and horizontally displaced from the true image. A difference of one mile, for instance, between the lengths of the direct and reflected wave paths would produce a second image displaced approximately 3% of the width of the picture in the direction of the horizontal scanning. This objectionable condition can be remedied in most cases by the use of a properly oriented directional tion

reflection of signals

objects of similar size.

The

hills

practical result in this case

receiving antenna.

IX.

Sound and

BROADCASTING TECHNIQUE

television broadcasting technique involves considera-

ble elaboration of the bare essentials of a radio transmitting

receiving system.

and

Studio facilities must be provided not only for

the performance of the programs but also for the rehearsals which

—

FIG. 2. RADIO CONTOUR MAP SHOWING DIRECT GROUND-WAVE FIELD STRENGTH AROUND WMAQ. CHICAGO. ILL. RADIATED POWER IS 50 KW.

the station

may be

disturbed by another phenomenon, even though

the noise level in that region might be too low to cause interference. This condition is fading, which results both from chang-

and from the simultaneous reception from the same station of waves that have traveled over separate All antennas radiate some energy upward at various anpaths. gles; this energy passes above and does not affect receiving antennas near the station. Some of this energy is reflected back toward the earth by the Kennelly-Heaviside layer of ionized gases and may arrive at a distant point to combine with the ground-wave signal. Depending on the relative lengths of the paths traveled by the two waves, the result may be additive or subtractive, with reinforcement or cancellation of the signal strength. Because the ing atmospheric conditions

reflecting layer varies in height, the

path of the reflected wave

variable and the final result to the listener a

phenomenon

that

is

familiar to

all

is

is

fading of the signal,

who have

listened to distant

broadcasting stations. Differences in wave propagation between daytime and nighttime, and between seasons, also affect standard-broadcast reception. Reliable daytime service is limited almost exclusively to the region near the station wherein the ground wave constitutes a usable signal.

This area

is

nearly constant for a given station and is called Reflection effects are practically non-

the primary service area.

waves during daylight hours, but expand the range of the station into a secondary This area receives reasonably reliable nighttime service but is subject to fading, as was previously pointed out. Another phenomenon that is capable of causing interference with nighttime reception of a distant station occurs when two or more stations in different locations are operating with the same carrier existent for standard-broadcast at night they act to

service area.

frequency.

may

Under these conditions

reflected

waves from several

reach the receiving antenna with comparable signal strengths to produce a motley babble of sounds. Alternate reception of two stations, as first one and then the other fades, or the production of a steady low-pitched tone resulting from a heterostations

precede the actual broadcasting of each program. In order that other programs may be in preparation while one is being broadcast, several studios must be available. These must be of different sizes to accommodate various-sized groups of artists. Means must also be provided for selecting the studio which is ready to broadcast and connecting it to the broadcast transmitter. These many links between the performer and the listener may be classified as follows in the order in which they function: (1) the studio or place of program origin; (2) the microphone or television camera, and associated preamplifiers; (3) the mixer and volume-control system; (4) the central or main control room; (5) the electric cable or microwave relay to carry the programs from the main control room to the transmitting station or simultaneously to many stations of a network) (6) the transmitting station; (7) the broadcast receiver. The basic elements of a typical broadcasting system shown diagrammatically in fig. 3. are Besides studios, microphones and TV cameras, of course, a wellorganized staff is necessary to produce the programs and operate the equipment that broadcasts them. As an example, the personnel immediately involved in the production of a television show in the studio and control booth are outlined in fig. 4. 1. The Studio or Place of Origin. A broadcasting studio is a specially arranged room in which the artists perform for broadcasting. It is made soundproof to shut out extraneous noises and its walls are treated with sound-absorbing material to control the amount of reverberation. Reverberation is the multiple reflection (

;

—

of a sound

wave back and forth between by the walls

the studio walls, part of

each reflection. The an exponential decay of the sound intensity in the studio, and the length of time required for reduction of the sound to the point of inaudibility (or more precisely, to one-thousandth of its initial pressure) is called the reverberation time of the studio. How long this should be for the most pleasing effect is more a matExcessive reter of aesthetic than of scientific considerations. verberation, however, causes an annoying empty-room effect which detracts from the listener's enjoyment of the program. In television studios, lighting apparatus, as well as space for stage settings and cameras, must be provided. Certain types of programs news events, sports, church services, public speeches and the like cannot be moved into a studio and must be broadcast from their places of origin. In these cases, portable microphones, television cameras and amplifiers are often From carried to the scene in especially equipped cars or vans. the energy being absorbed result

is

— —

at

BROADCASTING

256

MAIN CONTROL ROOM

MONITORING-^ LOCAL TRANSMITTER

LOUD-SPEAKERS

MICROPHONES r ELECTRIC —(FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR

MASTER CONTROL DESK

AMPLIFIER

PREAMPLIFIERS MIXER AND i

VOLUME CONTROL

Q

LOUDSPKR.

MONITORING LOUD-SPEAKER

AND MODULATOR

PREAMPLIFIERS MIXER AND

VOLUME CONTROL

III

CONTROL BOOTH

MONITORING LOUD-SPEAKER

FROM OTHER STUDIOS AND REMOTE SOURCES -»-

DISTANT NETWORK STUDIOS FrG. 3.

these, audio (sound) signals are relayed to the

— ELEMENTS OF

A

RADIO BROADCASTING NETWORK

main studio through

telephone lines or short-wave links, and video (picture) signals through coaxial cables or microwave transmitters. Or, when the program is not to be broadcast at the time it is performed, it may be recorded on magnetic tape or motion-picture film for later broadcasts. Tape recording, disc recording (electrical transcriptions and motion pictures are also applied extensively for inscribing complete programs especially produced in the studio for the purpose. Copies may then be syndicated to any number of individual stations for broadcasting. Television films taken directly from a picture tube reproduction of a program while it is in progress are called kinescope recordings and may be used for rebroadcasts by other stations. In the late 1950s video tape recording of television programs in both monochrome and colour began to assume a prominent role in broadcasting. The tape, consisting of a plastic film ribbon coated with a magnetic oxide, is fed at high speed past a rotating recording head, and the video signal is stored in the magnetized oxide particles. This type of recording has the important advantage of being ready for immediate playback without development or other processing, a property which is especially valuable to nationwide networks where time-zone differences create program A broadcast designed to appeal to a 7 scheduling problems. o'clock after-dinner audience, for instance, may be tape-recorded of original performance in New York and then reat the time its peated after a suitable time delay for audiences in the later time zones. A viewer in Los Angeles will then see the television show at the intended hour by his local time, instead of at 4 o'clock in )

2.

Cameras are usually mounted on large metal stands called These have a platform on which the camera operator stands and are equipped with rubber-tired wheels for mobility. (See Television Fundamentals of Picture Transmission and Re-

gram.

dollies.

;

ception.

)

Both microphones and light-conversion devices generate currents that are often too feeble to permit transmission over a distance of more than a few feet before being amplified. The amplifiers

used for this purpose are called preamplifiers. In sound broadcasting one preamplifier is used for each microphone, and the preamplifiers are ordinarily located in the control booth adjacent

VIDEO

CONTROL OPERATORS

CAMERA

Tape Recording, Magnetic.) The Microphone, Television Camera and PreamplifiThe operation of all microphones depends upon the action

the afternoon. ers.

screen by a lens system, into varying electrical pulses that represent the picture. Cameras as well as other TV equipment require frequent testing and adjustment to assure optimum performance, and are usually checked out with test patterns before each pro-

MICROPHONE

DOLLY

BOOM

OPERATORS

OPERATORS

LIGHTING ELECTRICIANS

(See

—

of the minute pressure variations or the imperceptible air currents

The motion of the air is converted through suitable means into a change of resistance or capacitance in an electric circuit, or into the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field. In all cases the final result is a fluctuating electric current whose variations correspond to those of the air pressure or velocity For radio broadcasting, in the sound wave (see Microphone). microphones are usually supported on floor stands or suspended by overhead cables. In television, where it is desirable to keep them out of camera view, they may be mounted on long-armed boom stands or, in the case of informal programs, miniature microphones on neck straps may be worn by individual performers. The function of the television camera is analogous to that of that constitute sound waves.

Its nucleus is a lightthe microphone in sound broadcasting. sensitive tube such as an image orthicon or a Vidicon, which con-

verts an optical image of the studio scene, as focused onto its

ASSISTANT

DIRECTOR SCRIPT GIRL

(STUDIO FLOOR

DIRECTOR)

GRAPHIC ARTS

STUDIO

COORDINATOR

STAGE HANDS

TECHNICAL AND PROGRAM CREWS FOR TYPICAL TELEVISION PRO4. GRAM STUDIO PRODUCTION FIG.

BROADCASTING In some systems, the mixed output of a group of microphones is connected to a single preamplifier. For television, however, the currents from the camera cannot easily be transmitted over even a short distance, and the preamplifier is located to the studio.

inside the 3.

camera

close to the picture tube.

The Mixer and "Volume Control System.

—Amplified

cur-

from each microphone are connected to a fader and switching system in a control booth adjacent to the studio, where an operator mixes microphone outputs or switches from one to another as required. A master volume control enables him to maintain constant sound level on the outgoing program, as monitored by a volume indicator meter and loud-speaker. A television control booth, besides having a similar set of microphone controls, has a mi.xer-switching system for the camera video signals. The scene being picked up by each camera, as well as the composite picture being transmitted to the audience, are displayed on kinescope monitors, and video levels are observed by means of cathode-ray tubes. 4. The Main Control Room. This is the central point of the studio system and serves as a clearinghouse for the sequence of different studios, remote origins and networks. from the programs Successive programs from these various sources, after being amplified to standard intensity levels for line transmission, are switched in scheduled order to the line or short-wave circuits which carry them to the broadcasting transmitter. The latter may be located at some distance from the studios and control room. Other functions of the main control room include supervisory monitoring of all programs, communications in connection with program traffic and the switching of channels for program distribution to and from the networks. 5. The Electric Cable or Microwave Link. A suitable rents

—

—

means

is

control

required for conveying program signals from the main which may be as far as to the station transmitter

room

20 or 30 mi. distant

—

—

or, in

the case of networks, to stations in

For sound broadcasting, special circuits leased from the telephone companies are customarily used. These circuits are

other

cities.

especially designed to transmit the full range of musical tones

(from about cases).

The

0.1

to

5

circuits

kc. per second, or

wider ranges

in

some

on carrier rare cases, open

consist of wide-band channels

systems, cable pairs employing light loading or, in Equalizers (corrective electrical networks) at the terminals Similar assure uniformity of response to various frequencies. circuits are used for bringing local remote programs from halls,

wire.

theatres, etc., to the

main control room.

Television signals require the use of coaxial cables or micro-

wave

relays because of their wider frequency range

(from about

30 cycles to 4.2 megacycles per second). The coaxial cable consists of a small wire supported by insulating beads and extending concentrically within a copper tube. From four to eight such cables, each slightly larger than a lead pencil, are encased in an outer lead sheath which is laid underground in ducts from city to city. (The term "coaxial cable" is also applied to the sheath and its contents.) In one such system, amplifiers are required at intervals of about four miles along the route to compensate for energy losses, and each conductor is capable of carrying one television program plus 600 telephone messages in one direction. Microwave systems installed by the American Telephone and Telegraph company for cross-country television transmission employ frequencies in the region of 4,000 mc. In these, a lowpowered carrier wave is frequency modulated by the video signals and beamed from antennas mounted on a series of towers spaced about 25 or 30 mi. apart. One type of antenna used is a refracting horn, having the outward appearance of a square-based pyramid standing on edge. Another, which has a wider frequency range, resembles a cornucopia mounted on end. At each tower there is receiving equipment to pick up the incoming signals, shift their frequency and amplify them and finally retransmit them to the next tower. Such systems have a capacity of six television programs in each direction. Because of the frequencies used and the narrow beams in which they travel, the microwave signals are private and are received only at the telephone company's terminals, from which they are distributed to television stations. The

257

public, therefore, does not receive television

programs directly from the microwave beams, but only after they have been delivered to and broadcast by a local television station. Many stations also employ similar microwave equipment of their own, operating in other frequency bands, for local transmission of television picture signals from points outside of their studios to their control rooms, or for interconnection between their control rooms and their transmitters.

—

6. The Broadcast Transmitter. This final link in the transmitting system for broadcasting serves a threefold purpose: generation of the high-frequency carrier current necessary to (1 achieve radiation of radio waves; (2) modulation of the carrier current in accordance with the program; (3) conversion of the modulated carrier current into electromagnetic waves. )

The high-frequency current is generated initially by a vacuumtube oscillator operating at a low energy level and controlled by The latter utilizes the electro-mechanical property of certain crj-stals, notably quartz, to generate currents of exceedingly stable frequency and thus ensures that the station will adhere to its assigned frequency or wave length. A series of radio-frequency amplifiers employing large vacuum tubes and resonant circuits, and having successively increasing power capacities, amplifies the output current from the crystal oscillator up to the level of power which the station is authorized to use. At

a piezoelectric oscillator.

the series of amplifications, the amplified program the microphone or television camera are introduced modulate the carrier. After being modulated and amplified to the power level authorized by the station licence (such power varies from 100 w. for local stations up to SO kw. for clear-channel stations), the radiofrequency currents are transferred to an antenna which radiates their energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. To be an efficient radiator, an antenna must possess physical dimensions which are comparable with the wave length of the signal. Thus, the lower-frequency (longer wave-length) stations of the standard broadcast band require larger antenna structures than do the shortwave and ultrahigh-frequency stations. The most popular type of antenna among standard station operators is the vertical radiator, consisting of a single steel tower whose height is from one-half to one full wave length. Towers of this kind vary in actual height from 100 up to 1.000 ft. This form of antenna radiates waves of substantially equal intensity in all compass directions and also directs the maximum amount of energy along the surface of the earth, thereby eliminating wasteful high-angle or skyward radia-

some point in currents from to

[See Antenna [Aerial].) stations utilize extremely short wave lengths Television and and their antenna dimensions are correspondingly small. This permits the use of multielement antennas to concentrate radiation parallel to the surface of the earth, thereby producing a maximum useful signal intensity with a minimum of transmitter power. tion.

FM

To avoid undue interference to the large number of listeners who may reside in the vicinity of a high-powered broadcasting station situated within a city,

most standard transmitters are

lo-

cated in rural areas some miles distant from their studios. This which large city buildings have

also avoids the absorption effects

Television and FM transmitters for waves of these frequencies. do not present the same problems, because of the higher frequencies on which they broadcast, and are ordinarily placed atop the highest building or other object near the centre of the area to be served, with the object of obtaining the maximum coverage of the surrounding area. 7. The Broadcast Receiver. The function of the receiver is to intercept, select and amplify the signals from any desired broadcasting station within range, and to reproduce an image in sound or light and sound of the original studio performance. All receivers, whether for AM. FM or TV, utilize the same basic principles for selection and amplification. An antenna, which may be an assembly of metal rods on the roof-

—

AM

receiver, top for TV or FM. or a coil of wire inside a portable is the interceptor that captures a tiny bit of the energy radiated

by the broadcasting transmitter. However, the antenna is impartial and picks up all stations that are neither too weak nor too

258

k

BROADSTAIRS— BROADWAY

BROCA— BROCADE

259

Eadburgh's church (Norman with later additions) stands about a mile from the main village opposite Court farm, which incorporates the 16th-century gatehouse of Broadway Court. telry.

St.

The Beacon tower, parish.

Charles

I

marks the highest point of the Broadway in 1644 and 164S. Buses

built in 1797,

stayed in

run to and from Evesham.

(Er. H. S.) (1824-1880), French surgeon and physical anthropologist noted for his research on the brain and skull, was born on June 28, 1824, at Ste. Foy-la-Grande, Gironde. In 1866 he became a member of the Academy of Medicine in Paris and, in 1867, professor of surgical pathology and later of clinical surgery. He published treatises on cancer, aneurysm and other subjects; in 1861 he announced his important discovery of the seats of articulate speech in the left frontal region of the brain, since known as the convolution of Broca. thus furnishing the first anatomical proof of the existence of brain localization. But his name is associated most closely with the modern development of physical anthropology in France. He founded the Laboratoire d'Anthropologie de I'Ecole des Hautes fetudes (1858), the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris (1859), the Revue d'anthropologie (1872). and the ficole d'Anthropologie (1876). of which he was named director. His numerous researches were concerned with the science of craniolog>'. for which he originated techniques and methods. He also studied the comparative morphology of the brain, the topography of the skull and brain, and prehistoric trepanations. He died on July 9, 1880, in Paris.

BROCA, PAUL

See also his Memoires d'anthropologie, S vol. (1871) and "On the of Hybridity in the Genus Homo," in E. W. Count, This Is Race (1950). (H. V. V.; X.) ;

Phenomena

BROCADE, a textile to which a design of low relief has been added during the process of weaving. A brocaded textile is easy On the reverse side the various silk yarns float unattached across the areas where they are not required in the brocaded motifs. As a result, brocade is never reversible. The brocaded portions are woven by hand-shuttles and are entirely independent of the textile itself, which is woven by the automatic throw-shuttle. During the process of weaving brocaded textiles, the reverse side is exposed to the weaver and the finished brocaded areas are hidden from view. In the era of hand-drawn looms, as many as 125 strands of silk yarns of varied hues and tints were introduced in each repeat of the large-scaled, elaborate brocaded silks. to identify.

Brocading began

in

ancient times long before the era of silk, the attractiveness of a linen or worsted

when women enhanced

with coloured yarns inserted between the warps (the threads running lengthwise) by means of a primitive bone or metal needle. This method continued to be used up to the invention of the shuttle textile

—

SILK BROCADED LINEN DAMASK. WITH 16THCENTURY ITALIAN DEON PATTERNED SELF-COLOURED BACKGROUND EMBELLISHED WITH FLORAL MOTIFS. (LEFT) RIGHT SIDE OF CLOTH: (RIGHT) REVERSE SIDE SHOWING UNUSED STRANDS OF SILK FIG. Z.

SIGN

and the hand-drawn loom.

Any

of the various types of yarns, such

modern synthetic yarns, may be be woven into a textile of any of the basic or satin as well as those with woven patterns,

as linen, cotton, wool, silk or the

used.

These yams

weaves

—

may

plain, twill

including simple and

The most

—

compound weaves

in

either silk, linen or

brocading to produce is that in which both extra warps and wefts (threads that run crosswise to the warps) are used in combination. When the brocaded motifs are small in scale and widely spaced, the intervening unused threads ire frequently clipped around the edges of the design; patterned tibric is, in reality, an imitation brocade, known as broche. This cotton.

difficult

method was applied to lightweight silks. a

variety

especially

There

is

also

commonly known

warp brocading

as

which clusters 3. ITALIAN DESIGN LINEN of extra floated warps are introFIG. DAMASK (FIG. 2) BEiNG BROCADED (juj-ed in areas where brocaded ON 50-lN. LOOM strips are desired. This type, however, is correctly known as lisere; it was popular during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI in France when petite floral motifs were introduced in the stripes. With the invention of the Jacquard machine and automatic weaving in the early 19th century, it became possible to combine the weaving and brocading of textiles in order to increase production. However, in mechanical weaving, when no hand-shuttles

—

in

are used, the number of colours for brocading is limited to approximately six, and the finished fabric is classed as a "brocaded lampas." In mills where hand-shuttles are used for brocading in conjunction with the power loom, the shuttles are placed vertically and immediately in front of the weaver at the areas where required on the textile already woven. As certain of the warp threads are raised by means of the Jacquard attachment for the next throw of the shuttle for the basic weave, the weaver slips, by hand, certain of the shuttles resting before

him

for the colour required

portion of the brocaded pattern. In the production of a 50-in. brocaded textile, in which the design is repeated twice or more across the width, two weavers work side by side to hasten the weaving. Even so, brocading is a slow and tedious process. Not more than a yard, and often less, in that specific

an average day's production; hence its high cost. Brocading probably originated in the Bronze Age. Fragments of rudimentary brocaded wool fabrics have been discovered in the tree coffins of that era that had been submerged in salty marshes and so preserved. The patterns were obtained by floating coarse wool yams over several threads that formed crude square, triangu-

is

FIG. 1. SILK BROCADED TAFFETA AND RIBBED STRIPES OR BANDINGS OF FOLIAGE MOTIFS. WOVEN IN THE LISERE PROCESS. PATTERN DERIVED FROM THE TIME OF LOUIS XV. (TOP) RIGHT SIDE OF CLOTH; (BOTTOM) REVERSE SIDE SHO\«ING EXTRA FLOATED WARP THREADS

BROCCOLI— BROCKEN

26o and lozenge motifs. Chinese brocaded silks are known to have been made a couple of centuries

rhombic system. The crystals are usually small and are prismatic or acicular, or needlelike, in habit; they have a perfect cleavage

lar

before the Christian era. the oldest in existence

from

mens

about

a.d.

238.

of Persian, Syrian

One

in one direction. They are transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre and are of an emerald-green to blackish-green colour. Specific gravity is 3.9; hardness 3.5 to 4. The formula is

of

dates

CuJ0H],.S04.

Speci-

and

BROCK,

with gold threads. The cathedral in Regensberg, Ger., has a 12thcentury Siculo-Saracenic bro-

caded

textile

Sicily, for a

woven

in

Palermo,

Henry IV, Holy Roman em-

robe of

emperor of the The kincobs of India were highly desired as the brocaded pire.

used by Indian princes. They frequently had insets of silks

precious jewels, and gilded silver wire was used in brocading.

Spanish artisans brocaded with metallic threads. The Lucchese brocaded

silks

silks

—

LAMPAS WEAVE WITH INMEDALLION OF BROCADED DESIGNED AND WOVEN BY FRENCH TEXTILE DESIGNER PHIlippe d LA SALLE, I8TH CENTURY FIG.

4.

SET

SATIN.

of Italy date from the 14th century; they were followed by those of Florence, Venice and Genoa.

The French were weaving brocaded silks in the city of Lyons during the 17th century. The baroque and rococo eras of Louis XIV and Louis XV were known for their magnificent brocades. Upon the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), hundreds of Huguenots migrated to England and settled at Spitalfields in London. As a consequence the English likewise began producing fine brocaded silks in the early ISth century. Some of these are to be seen in the Victoria and Albert museum in London. The Latin word brochus, meaning projected or pointed, and the

French words broche and brocart, originally meaning a sharppointed thin rod of iron and later a needle or pointed bobbin, all

word brocade. This method of weaving is known in Italy as broccato and spolinato, which stems from the Italian word spolino, the shuttle used to weave the brocaded areas. The Spaniards call it brocado. Obviously, the give clues to the origin of the

origin

is

commander

S.)

ing broccoli, cauliflower broccoli or broccoli were

of the order of the Bath.

The

best biography of him oj Sir Isaac Brock (1845).

is

F. B. Tupper, Life

and Correspondence (W. S. Wa.)

BROCK, SIR THOMAS

(1847-1922), English sculptor, 1, 1847, is best known for the Immemorial to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham palace. He was the pupil of J. H. Foley, but was influenced by the romantic movement. He was known primarily as a portrait sculptor and among his portraits are those of Gladstone 1 902 ) and Longfellow Also by Brock are the tomb ( 18S4 I, both in Westminster abbey. of Lord Leighton in St. Paul's cathedral, busts of King Edward VII and Edwin Abbey (1917). His statue ( 1 9 1 1 ) Lord Lister ( 1 9 1 3 of Captain Cook (1914) stands in the Mall in London. His colossal equestrian statue of the Black Prince was set up in the city square in Leeds in 1901. He did seven statues of Queen \'ictoria and the design for her head on the coinage of 1897. In 1911 he was created knight commander of the Bath. He died in London on born at Worcester on March

perial

(

)

.

Aug. 22, 1922.

(I. S.

BROCKDORFF-RANTZAU, ULRICH,

See Weaving: The Jacqnard Machine; Textiles. (J. K. T.) BROCCOLI. Two distinct plants of the mustard family (Cruciferae) have been called broccoli in the United States. Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), Italian or green sprouting broccoli is a fast-growing, upright, branched, annual plant, two to three feet tall that bears dense, green clusters of flower buds at the ends of the central axis and the branches. Head-

names formerly

applied to slow-growing forms of cauliflower {B. oleracea var. botrytis). After sprouting broccoli became popular in the U.S. (about 1930, though it had been well known in Great Britain and on the continent for a long time), "broccoli" ceased to be apphed to the late form of cauliflower.

McN.)

Graf

von

(1869-1928), German foreign minister at the time of the treaty of Versailles and one of the architects of German-Soviet understanding in the 1920s, was born in Schleswig on May 29, 1869. Educated for the law, he entered the diplomatic service in 1894. As German minister in Copenhagen from 1912 to 1918 he supported the Danish policy of neutrality during World War I and was able to maintain German-Danish trade. Appointed secretary of state for the German foreign department on Dec. 18, 1918, and foreign minister on Feb. 13, 1919, he went to the conference of Paris (q.v.) at the end of April and argued in vain for an Unable to dissuade amelioration of the conditions of peace. his government from ratifying the treaty of Versailles, he resigned He continued, however, to work for his post on June 21, 1919.

Sprouting broccoli is native to the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor. It was cultivated in Italy in ancient Roman times, was introduced into England about 1720 and to America probably

a

Like cabbage, of the same species, it thrives in moderate to cool climates. It is propagated by seeds, either sown directly in the field or in plant beds to produce transplants. Broccoli reaches harvest in 60 to 150 days, depending upon the variety and the weather. The flavour resembles that of cabbage but is milder. See also Cabbage; Cruciferae. (V. R. B.) a mineral species consisting of a basic copper sulfate, has been found associated with malachite, etc., in copper mines at several places. A microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in the Clifton and Morenci districts of Arizona proves brochantite to be of extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite, which effectually masks its presence. Brochantite crystallizes in the ortho-

in

BROCHANTITE,

J.

and by 1797, at the age of 28, he became a lieutenant colonel. He was sent to Canada with his regiment in 1802 and was stationed almost continuously at Quebec, Niagara or York (Toronto), until the outbreak of the War of 1812. He was promoted to the rank of colonel in 1805, and to that of major general in 1811. In 1810 he assumed command of the troops in Upper Canada (Ontario), and was appointed provisional lieutenant governor of the province. In the early months of the war, he was the heart and soul of the defense of Upper Canada. He organized the militia of the province, and on Aug, 16, 1812, took Detroit from the United States army under Gen. William Hull. On Oct. 13 his troops defeated the American invaders at Queenston Heights on the Niagara frontier. During the engagement, however, Brock fell, mortally wounded. For his services in connection with the capture of Detroit he had been gazetted, three days before his death, a knight

Latin.

in colonial times.

(L.

ISAAC

(1769-1812), British soldier and adSIR ministrator, was born at St. Peter Port, in the island of Guernsey, on Oct. 6, 1769. He entered the British army as an ensign in 1785

Sicil-

from the 11th century and later have been preserved; they are elaborately brocaded ian silks

the treaty (Dokumente, 1920; Dokumente und urn Versailles, 3rd ed., 1925) and also for changes in

revision of

Gedanken

In Nov. 1922 he was appointed ambassador Moscow, where he and G. V. Chicherin together worked to consolidate the rapprochement between Germany and the U.S.S.R. that had been inaugurated by the treaty of Rapallo. The Germaninternational law.

Soviet treaty of Berlin (April 1926) counterbalanced the Locarno pact of 1925, which had seemed to link Germany too closely with the western powers. He died while on leave in Berlin on Sept. 8, 1928. Aristocratic in his way of life, the "Red Count" was a convinced democrat in politics.

See E. Stern-Rubarth, Graf Brockdorff-Rantzau (1929) H. Helbig, (R. Mo.) Die Trdger der Rapallo-Politik (1958). is the highest point (3,747 ft.) of the Harz mounmagnificent commands tains {q.v.). Its huge, granite-strewn dome ;

BROCKEN

BROCKEN— BROGGER views in all directions; to Magdeburg and the Elbe, Leipzig and the Thuringian forest. A mountain railway (12 mi.) reaches the summit. In the folklore of north Germany the Brocken holds an important place, and long after the introduction of Christianity traditional rites continued to be enacted there annually on Walpurgis night or witches' sabbath May 1). It is represented in a famous scene in Goethe's (

Faust.

BROCKEN BOW

Spectre of the Brocken). A phenomenon frequently observed on mountain peaks but recorded in Hterature with special reference to the Brocken is an enormously magnified shadow of an observer cast when the sun is low upon the upper surfaces of clouds that are below the mountain. The shadow, often accompanied by coloured bands, is known as the spectre of the Brocken and is given a mystical significance in the folklore of the mountain. The phenomenon of rainbowlike bands around a shadow on clouds and called the Brocken bow or glory is commonly observed in airplanes. When an airplane is flying above a cloud layer in sunlight, a system of coloured rings is seen around the shadow of the airplane on the clouds. This ring or bow has a diameter about the same as the wingspread of the (

airplane.

The phenomenon )

is recognized as one of diffraction (see Light: and the droplets of the cloud are thought to behave if the analogy is correct, would produce

Hke tiny mirrors which,

same

effect as a diffraction screen.

against the shadow.

The

The

effect is visible only

colours exhibited depend on the size of

the droplets, the largest ones producing the

most

BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH man

poet

plicity

standard metropolitan statistical area consists of the city of Brockton and nine towns (Abingdon, Bridgewater, East Bndgewater, Hanson, West Bridgewater, Whitman, Avon, Stoughton, and Easton), which until the 1950 federal census was classified as part of the Boston area. Pop, (1960), city of Brockton, 72,813; standard metropolitan statistical area, 149,458. For comparative figures see table in Massachusetts: Population. Originally within the boundaries of the Plymouth colony, the area was sold by the Indians to Myles Standish in 1650 for 7 coats, 9 hatchets, 8 hoes, 20 knives, 4 moose skins and 10 yards of cotton. Brockton was part of Bridgewater until 1821 and thereafter the town of North Bridgewater until taking its present name in 1874; it was incorporated as a city in 1881. Shoe manufacturing started in the area about 1750. Just prior to the American Civil War the McKay sewing machine was invented, enabling the uppers and soles of shoes to be speedily sewn together rather than pegged. More than one-half of the shoes worn by the Union Army during the Civil War were made in the area, and "Brockton Shoes the World" became the city slogan.

Certain significant technological developments started in the In Whitman the first canal in America was dug; in Bridgewater's foundries the plates for the "Monitor" were cast; steam was first introduced to shoe factories in Stoughton (1870). Brockton also introduced systems of sewage disposal (1893) and street lighting (1884) that were copied by cities over the world. Shoe manufacturing declined sharply after 1920, but was still the area's most important industry in the early 1960s. However, diversification had developed to the point that more than 400 firms manufactured about 200 different products. (Jo. Gi.) area.

Diffraction the

261

who introduced

and feeling

brilliant colours.

(1680-1747). Ger-

into his country's poetry a

for nature,

was born

at

Hamburg,

new simGer.. on

In 1720 he was appointed a member of the HamHe died in Hamburg on Jan, 16, 1747. His poetical were works published under the title Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott, g vol, (1721-48); he also translated Giambattista Marini's La Strage degli innocenti (1715), Alexander Pope's Essay on Man (1740) and James Thomson's Seasons (1745). His verses, although often artificial and crude in form, express a sincere and reverent attitude toward nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena. Sept. 22, 16S0.

BROD,

MAX

(1884-

),

Austrian writer,

is

almost better

known as the friend of Franz Kafka (q.v.) and editor of his posthumous works than for his own novels. He was born at Prague

on May 27, 18S4, where he studied law and later worked as a government official, A convinced Zionist, he left for Palestine in 1939. His optimistic interpretation of Kafka, in Franz Kafka, eine Biographie (1937; 3rd ed., 1954; Eng, trans,, 1947) is controversial. A very productive writer, his own novels blend fantasy, mysticism and eroticism, and are characterized by great narrative skill and limpidity of style. His masterpiece is probably Tycho Brakes Weg zu Gott (1916; Eng, trans,. The Redemption of Tycho Brake, See Brockes' autobiography in the Zeitschrifl des Vereins jiir Ham1928), a historical novel with a mystical flavour. Other novels, burger Geschichte, ii (1847) .\. Brandl, B. H. Brockes (1878) H. W. such as Die Frau, nach der man sich sehnt (1927) and ZauberPfund, Siudien zu Wort und Bild bei Brockes (193.5), reich der Liebe (1928; Eng. trans.. The Kingdom of Love, 1930), BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH (1772-1823), deal sensitively with the problem of love. The essays Heidentum, German publisher and editor of a famous encyclopaedia, was born Christentum, Judentum (1921) ax\& Diesseits und Jenseits (1946at Dortmund, Ger., on May 4. 1772. In 1808 he purchased the 47) attempt to define the intellectual position of a Zionist in the copyright of the Konversations-Lexiko?i, which had been started modern world. Also of interest are a biography of Heine (1934; in 1796, and in 1810-11 he completed the first edition of this enEng. trans., 19561 and Der Meister (1951; Eng, trans,, 1951), a cyclopaedia, renamed Der grosse Brockhaus ; a second edition novel about Jesus. (H. S. R.) under his editorship was begun in 1812. The encyclopaedia BRODIE, SIR COLLINS, ist Bart (1783reached its 16th edition, 1952-57. In 1818 Brockhaus moved to 1862), English physiologist and surgeon, a contributor to the study Leipzig, where he established a large printing house. Among his of joint diseases, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire, He many literary undertakings were critical periodicals and large his- was assistant surgeon at St. George's hospital for more than 30 torical, bibliographical and reference works. He died at Leipzig, years. In 18 10 he was elected a fellow of the Royal society. Aug. 20, 1823. Probably his most important work is Pathological and Surgical The business was carried on by his sons Friedrich 1800-1865),- Observations o?i the Diseases of the Joints, in which he attempts who retired in 1850, and Heinrich 1804-1874), under whom it to trace the beginnings of disease in the different tissues that form was considerably extended. During 1842-48. Heinrich Brockhaus a joint, and to give an exact value to the symptom of pain as represented Leipzig in the Saxon second chamber. He was made ev'idence of organic disease. This volume led to measures of a conhonorary citizen of that city in 1872 and died there on Nov. 15, servative nature in the treatment of diseases of the joints, with 1874. He was succeeded by his sons Eduard (1829-1914) and consequent reduction in the number of amputations and the savRudolf (1838-98). Eduard was a member of the Reichstag ing of many limbs and lives. His name is applied to certain dis(1871-78). eases of the bones and joints. The business was continued by members of the family and after Brodie was created a baronet in 1834. and was the first presiWorld War II was established at Wiesbaden. dent of the General Medical council. He died at Broome Park, BiBLiocR-APHY.— H. E. Brockhaus, FrLedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben Surrey, on Oct. 21, 1862. und Wirken nach Briefen und andern Aujzeichnungen, i vol. (1872-81), Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begriiiidiing bis zum hunderlCHRISTOFER (1851jdhrigen Jubiliium 1S05-190S (1905) P. von Gebhardt, Geschichte der 1940), Norwegian geologist and mineralogist remarkable for the Familie Brockhaus aus Unna in Westjalen (1928). (A. Gs.) great range of his researches, was born in Christiania (Oslo) on a city of Massachusetts, U.S., is about 20 mi. Nov. 10, 1851. He was professor of mineralogy and geology in SW of Boston and 30 mi. NE of Providence, R.I. The Brockton the University of Stockholm, 1881-90, and from 1890 in the Uniburg senate.

;

;

ARNOLD

BENJAMIN

(

(

BROGGER, WALDEMAR

;

BROCKTON,

BROGLIE

262

which he later became rector. His petrographical memoirs on the Permian igneous rocks of the Oslo province form landmarks in the advance of petrogenic theory and he contributed greatly to the knowledge not only of the rarer versity of Christiania,

of

minerals, the nephilite-syenite pegmatites of the province, but also of the mineralogy of the

Archaean (Early Pre-Cambrian) Norway. He dealt also with the and his investigations on the glacial deposits greatly extended the knowledge of the former distribution of land ice in southern Norway. Brogger granite pegmatites of southern

fossiliferous Paleozoic rocks of the Oslo region

died at Oslo on Feb. 17, 1940. (C. E. T.) BROGLIE, the name of a distinguished French family descended from a Piedmontese nobleman, Amedeo Broglia, conte di Cortandone, whose son pRANgois Marie (Francesco Maria; 161156) emigrated to France in 1643 and took the title comte de Broglie. Francois Marie served as a cavalry leader and rose to the rank of lieutenant general in the French army before he was killed at the siege of Valenza, in Piedmont, on July 2, 1656. His son Victor Maurice (1646-1727), comte de Broglie, also served in Louis XIV's wars, becoming niarechal de camp (brigadier) in 1671, lieutenant general in 1688 and marshal of France in 1724. He died on Aug. 4, 1727. The eldest son of Victor Maurice, FRANgois Marie (16711745), 1st due de Broglie, was born on Jan. 11, 1671. He served continuously in the War of the Spanish Succession and again in Italy in 1733-35, being made marshal of France in 1734. In 1742, during the War of the Austrian Succession, he was appointed to command the French army in Germany, but he had always been the "man of small means," safe, cautious and lacking in daring. The only success that he obtained was in the action of Sahay in Bohemia on May 24-25, 1742, for which he was created due de Broglie in the following June. He died on May 27, 1745. His son Victor FRANgois (1718-1804), 2nd due de Broglie, was born on Oct. 19, 1718. He served with his father in Italy and took part, during the War of the Austrian Succession, in the storming of Prague (1741 and in the campaigns on the Rhine (1744During the Seven Years' 45) and in the Netherlands (1747). War, his victory over Ferdinand of Brunswick at Bergen (near Frankfurt) in 1759 won him the rank of marshal of France from Louis XV and that of prince of the Holy Roman empire from the emperor Francis I. Early in July 1789, Louis XVI put him in command of the troops gathered around Versailles with a view to checking the disorders which were to develop into the Revolution and made him minister of war. This attempt was shortlived, and within a few days Broglie had to emigrate. He died at Miinster in Westphalia on March 30, 1804. Charles Francois (1719-81), comte de Broglie, a younger son of the 1st due, was born on Aug. 20, 1719. He is chiefly remembered in connection with the secret du Rot (i.e., the private, as distinct from the official, diplomacy of Louis XV). There is an edition of his dispatches by D. Ozanam and M. Antoine (1956He died at Saint-Jean d'Angely on Aug. 16, 1781. ). The son of Victor Fran(;ois Charles Louis Victor (1756-94), prince de Broglie, was born on Sept. 22, 1756. He served with La Fayette and Rochambeau in America and sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly voting for the reforms proposed. He served as chief of staff to the republican army on the Rhine, but in the Terror he was arrested and guillotined at Paris on June 27, 1794. His final admonition to his little son was to remain faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however unjust and un)

grateful.

(AcHiLLE Charles Leonce) Victor (1785-1870), 3rd due de was born in Paris on He was added to the imperial council of state 28, 1785. audit eur in 1809 and was sent by Napoleon on diplomatic mis-

Broglie, the son of Charles Louis Victor,

Nov. as

sions to various countries as attache.

In June 1814, under the first Restoration, he was included in Louis XVIII's chamber of peers. There, after the Hundred Days, he distinguished himself by his courageous defense of Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke and voted. On Feb. 15, 1816, he was married at Leghorn to Madame de Stael's daughter Albertine. In politics under Louis

XVIII and Charles

X

he identified himself with the Doctrinaires iq.v.), and in the chamber of peers he opposed all reactionary measures. After the July revolution of 1830 the due de Broglie was minister of education for a few months and later took office as minister for foreign affairs (Oct. 11, 1832). His main efforts were directed toward establishing closer relations between France and Great Britain and proved fruitful (1) in the final settlement of the

Belgian question, (2) during the

crisis of

Mohammed

All's first

war against Turkey (see Eastern Question) and (3) in the negotiations about the troubles in Spain and Portugal. He retired from office in April 1834. In March 1835, however, he became prime minister. He passed strong repressive measures against

From then to 1848 he held himself almost completely aloof from politics, though in May 1847 he was ambassador in London. The revolution of 1848 was a great blow to Broglie. However, he was elected deputy for Eure in May 1849 and, as a member of the conservative group known as the "Burgraves," did his best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the reaction in favour of autocracy, which he foresaw. After the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851, he was one of the bitterest enemies of Napoleon Ill's regime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit for which he was famous, that the empire was "the government which the poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved." The last 20 years of his life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary pursuits. He died in Paris on Jan. 25, 1870. His writings include Vues sur le gouvernement de la France (1861), £crits et discours, three volumes (1863), Le Libre ^change et I'impot (1879) a.nA Souvenirs, iour volumes (1885-88). (Jacques Victor) Albert (1821-1901), 4th due de Broglie, the eldest son of the 3rd due, was born in Paris on June 13, 1821. After a brief diplomatic career at Madrid and Rome, he withdrew from public life at the revolution of 1848. He had already published a translation of the religious system of Leibniz (1846). He contributed to the Revue des deux mondes and to the Orleanist and clerical organ Le Correspondant. He was elected to the Academie Frangaise in 1862, while his L'Eglise et I' empire remain au IV' Steele, six volumes (1856-66) was still incomplete. In Feb. 1871 the due de Broglie was elected to the national assembly as deputy for Eure. A few days later he was appointed ambassador in London. In March 1872, however, in consequence of criticisms of his negotiations on the commercial treaties between Great Britain and France, he resigned his post and took his seat in the national assembly, where he became the leading spirit of the conservative campaign against L. A. Thiers. On the replaceseditious activities, but resigned in Feb. 1836.

ment

of the latter

by Marshal MacMahon, Broglie became

presi-

dent of the council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873) and later of the interior (Nov. 26). His tenure of office was marked by an extreme conservatism, which roused the bitter hatred of the republicans, while he alienated the legitimists by his friendly relations with the Bonapartists and the Bonapartists by an attempt to effect a compromise between the rival claimants to the

1874.

monarchy. The result was the fall of the cabinet on May 18, Three years later (May 16, 1877) he was entrusted by

MacMahon

with the formation of a new cabinet, with the object new chamber more favourable to the reactionaries. The result, however, was a decisive republican majority. The due de Broglie resigned office on Nov. 20. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned politics for historical work. He died in Paris on Jan. 19, 1901. His Memoires, two volumes, were published of securing a

1938-41. His son Victor (1846-1906) was the 5th due. (G. de B. de S.) La Varende, Les Broglie (1951). (Louis Cesar Victor) Maurice (1875-1960), 6th due de Broglie, the grandson of the 4th due. was born in Paris on April 27, 1875. A distinguished physicist, he was elected to the Academie Frangaise in 1934 and foreign member of the Royal society in 1946. He died at Neuilly on July 15, 1960. Louis Victor Pierre Raymond (1892), prince de Broglie, the physicist who was awarded the 1929 Nobel prize in physics for his discovery of the wave nature of the electron, was born at Dieppe on Aug. IS, 1892, the younger brother of the 6th due. in

See Jean de

ARTHUR— BROKER

BROKE,

Appointed professor of theoretical physics at the Henri Poincafe institute at the Sorbonne in 1928, he became titular professor in

He was

member

Academie des Sciences from 1933 and its permanent secretary from 1942. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal society in 1953 and a member of the Academie Franqaise in 1944. When the prince de Broglie took up the study of theoretical physics there were two seemingly contradictorj' theories of light: the wave theory, according to which light behaves like a continuous train of waves; and the corpuscular theory, according to which the faculty of sciences in 1932.

a

of the

behaves like a hail of bullets. The revolutionary theories of Planck and Einstein led physicists to accept the dual character In 1924 of light, but the prince de Broglie took a further step. he arrived at the idea that matter, just as much as light, could behave either as a wave or as a corpuscle. He worked out formulas it

to establish the parallelism between the motion of a corpuscle and the propagation of a wave with which it is associated. In 1927 experimental confirmation of the wave theory of matter put forward by the prince de Broglie was provided by C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer in New York and G. P. Thomson in Aberdeen. The conception of matter-waves has dominated all subsequent speculations about the ultimate elements of matter and light.

See Jubile scientifiqiie de Lnuis de Broglie, physicien

M et

.

Maurice de Broglie (1947) A. Georges, (W. J. Bp.) ;

penseur (1953).

ARTHUR

BROKE

(Brooke), (d. 1563), English poet and author of The Tragicall Historye of Romeiis and Juliet (1562 ), the poem on which Shakespeare based Romeo and Juliet. It is written in rhymed verse and was taken from the French translation of one of Matteo Bandello's Novelle (1554-73; Fr. trans., 1559). Broke altered the original; for example, he developed the character of the nurse and changed various aspects of the last scene. Shakespeare followed him in these changes, which indicates that it was Broke's poem that he used as a source and not the original story of Bandello. Broke died in a shipwreck in 1563 while crossing to join the English troops in France.

Modem

editions include

P. A. Daniel, Brooke's Romeus and Jidiet and Painter's Rhomeo and Jidietta (1875); G. Bullough (ed. ), Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare, vol. (1957 ). i

BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE,

1st

Baronet

(1776-1841 ), English sailor, famous for his capture of the "Chesapeake" during the War of 1812, was born at Broke hall, near Ipswich, Eng., on Sept. 9, 1776. He entered the navy in 1792, served as a lieutenant at the battle of St. Mncent (1797 and became a captain in command of a frigate in the channel fleet in 1801. He was appointed to the "Shannon," a 38-gun frigate, in 1806, proceeding in her in 1811 to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he commanded the force in that area. On June 1, 1813, while )

James Lawrence and "try the fortunes of our respective flags." The "Chesapeake," also a frigate of 38 guns, had left port before the challenge was delivered. After the second broadside the U.S. ship fell afoul the British and Broke led a cruising off Boston. Mass., he challenged Capt. of the

"Chesapeake"

boarding party of 60

to leave port

men

over her

side.

After "a desperate but

was wounded, the "Chesapeake" was captured, the action lasting only 15 min. Broke's success was due to his high standard of gunnery practice, the example of which had a salutary effect on the Royal Navy disorderly resistance," in which Broke himself

subsequent years. Coming as it did after a series of frigate Broke's action won him the popular title of "Brave Broke," and he was made a baronet (1813). His wound incapaci-

263

ing company's power requirements one of the earliest hydroelectric power stations in Africa was opened on the Mulungushi river in

1924.

Broken Hill is the headquarters of Rhodesia railways in Northern Rhodesia and has locomotive sheds and marshaling yards. It is the headquarters and depot for Central African Road services, the largest road passenger and haulage company in the territory, and the Great North road turns off to east Africa, just north of the town. The hospital is the biggest in Northern Rhodesia and provides a full range of specialist services. There are a number of government schools providing boarding accommodation and education up to secondary standard and convent schools up to the same standard. Broken Hill has a large farming area surrounding it producing maize and tobacco. In 192 1, in the course of mining operations, the lower levels of a cave were uncovered and found to contain bones of animals, a few human bones and many stone implements. The skull and other human remains are those of early man and have been named Rhodesian man (see Man, Evolution of; Neanderthal Man and

The fossil fauna included several extinct and the whole assemblage is placed in the earher part of Upper Pleistocene period. (Wm. V. B.)

Neanderthaloids). species

the

BROKEN Wales, Austr.

HILL,

New South on the eastern

a mining city in the west of

It is situated at a

height of 1,000

ft.

from the South Australian border from Sydney on the eastern seaboard. Pop. (1961) 31,267. The region is subarid, hot in summer and mild (with frost) in winter; mean annual temperatures range from 51° to 78° F., with absolute extremes of 27° and 116° F.; average annual rainfall is 9 in., but varies from 3.6 to 17.0 in. Proclaimed a city in 1907, Broken Hill has imposing public buildings, a technical college, a large hospital and modern shops and hotels. It is connected by daily air services with Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide, South Australia and by triweekly passenger train services to Sydney and Adelaide. Economic and business relations are mainly with South Australia, largely because there was no direct rail connection with Sydney until 1927. Broken Hill is a base flank of the Barrier range. 30 mi.

and about 700 mi. by

rail

for the flying doctor services.

The mining

field is one of Australia's greatest mineral assets. the ore body is the richest individual producer of and zinc in the world. The main lode is a long, tightly folded lens which is curved in plan and arched in longitudinal section. It-s known length is about 3j mi., over-all width up to 500 ft. and vertical dimension up to 2,000 ft. The crude ore is milled at Broken Hill by gravity and flotation processes into a lead concentrate containing 72%-77% lead and 16-40 oz. of silver per ton, and a zinc concentrate containing 51%-53% zinc. Most of the lead concentrate is smelted and refined at Port Pirie, South Australia, for the production of lead, silver and a little gold and copper, the remainder being shipped overseas. The zinc concentrate is shipped principally to Risdon, Tasmania, and to Avonmouth, Eng., or Swansea, Wales, for the production of zinc and cadmium. Both concentrates are a source of sulfur for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Broken Hill is also the centre of a

For

its

size,

lead, silver

prosperous pastoral area.

The mining companies contribute to all welfare organizations One notable amenity is the regeneration area, a strip

in

in the city.

defeats,

of country half a mile wide enclosed within a vermin-proof fence

tated

him from further

active service.

1841.

BROKEN HILL, a town

in

He

died in London. Jan. (C. C. L.)

2,

Central province. Northern Rho-

is an important railway, road transport and mining centre on the Great North road 86 mi. N. of Lusaka, the country's capital. In 1961 the estimated population, including the adjoining mine township, was about 35,000, of which nearly 5,000 were

desia, Africa,

Europeans, and 30,000 were Africans. The Rhodesian Broken Hill Development company operating Broken Hill mine was formed in 1903 and was instrumental in opening up Northern Rhodesia. The mine produces high-grade zinc and lead, and after it was sunk, the first railway in the country was built. As a result of the min-

and encircling the city. Regeneration of native flora in this area was supplemented by the planting of trees and shrubs with the Water supply result that the drift-sand menace was arrested. problems were met by the construction of the Stephens creek and Umberumberka dams, 10 and 19 mi. distant respectively, and by 63 mi. of 24-in. welded steel pipeline from the Darling river. Annual evaporation is reduced by dusting powdered cetyl alcohol on the surfaces of the reservoirs to form a tenacious monomolecu(Cs. C.)

larfilm.

BROKER,

an agent who for a commission or fee (often referred to as brokerage bargains or negotiates between his principal and a third party for the purchase or sale of goods, real estate, stocks and bonds, insurance and commodities without having title )

BROKER

264

and usually without having possession of the property or rights When he does have possession, the broker holds it as The broker is an independent contractor, not a servant, and may be an individual, firm or corporation. Every broker is, in a sense, an agent, but every agent is not a broker since agency iq.v.) is a broader and more comprehensive term. A broker is often required by statute or ordinance to take out a licence and pay a ta.x or fee for the privilege of engaginvolved.

bailee or in a fiduciary capacity.

ing in the brokerage business.

The broker has whatever authority he duties,

whether

this authority

is

requires to carry out his

expressly conferred on

him or

implied as necessary. His acts are binding on his principal unless he exceeds his authority. A third person is not legally b"ound by secret instructions given by the principal to the broker but he is under obligation to ascertain the extent of the broker's authority. The broker, for e.xample, may be given authority to warrant goods but usually has no such implied authority unless it is customary in his trade. He usually has no authority to buy and sell on credit unless such authority is expressly conferred or is customary in the trade. In the sale of merchandise, he has no authority to pass title and usually has no implied authority to receive pa>Tnent unless the name of the principal is not disclosed. He usually has no authority to make contracts in his own name. authority Brokers may have to fix or agree to prices and to bind their principals to sell or buy at such prices; they may be required to submit bids or offers to their principals for acceptance; or they may be limited to sales made at prices specified by their principals. A broker can neither purchase from nor sell to his principal unless the latter expressly assents thereto. The law not permit does a broker to act in his own personal interest to the detriment of his principal, as, for example, by making a secret profit for himself. This usually prevents a broker from representing opposite parties. Brokers may have continuous relations with their principals or may act under a separate contract for each transaction. Contracts can usually be terminated at will unless granted for a definite period. If a broker is employed for a definite period and the principal revokes the contract earlier without cause he may be held liable for damages. Merchandise Brokers. There are three main classes of brokers selling goods; the free-lance broker, the manufacturer's agent and the selling or sales agent. Free-lance brokers are usually not limited to territory and may sell or buy at any place where opportunity offers. They are not permanently bound to any principal and may represent anyone who wants to sell or buy goods in their field. Manufacturer's agents sell part of the output of certain manufacturers with whom they maintain continuous relations and are limited as to territory, price and terms. They usually represent two or more manufacturers selling noncompeting equipment such as furniture and home furnishings or cloth and clothing. Selling agents usually sell the entire output of a given line of goods for one or more manufacturers with whom they maintain continuous relations. They often help to finance their clients or offer other sales and merchandise assistance, and, in essence, act as the sales

—

department for their principals.

The chief functions of these three types of merchandise brokers sell goods, give information and advice to their principals and, in the case of selling agents, help to finance their principals. are to

These brokers usually sell to industrial buyers, wholesalers, institutions and some of the larger retailers. One broker may represent several producers and thus make it possible to spread sales e.xpense. Commissions to merchandise brokers typically vary from a fraction of 1% to 10% or more depending upon the services rendered and the commodities handled. Buying Brokers. Brokers who specialize in buying merchandise for their principals are known as buying brokers and are found in lines such as hardware, groceries, produce, textiles and apparel. These brokers may locate goods for their principals, negotiate purchase contracts, sometimes secure quantity prices by combining the orders from several buyers, close the contracts and give their principals price information. There are some brokers who repreThe sent buyers but receive their commissions from sellers.

—

Robinson-Patman amendment to the Clayton Anti-Trust act prohibited U.S. brokers from rebating brokerage commissions to the buyers, but statutory prohibition of rebating is not commonly found in other parts of the world. In the U.S. garment trade, most resident buyers are paid by their

by fees, commissions or a combination of the Their services consist of locating desirable goods for examination by store buyers, giving information on fashions and prices and making purchases. Many resident buyers are independent business concerns operating for profit; others are owned co-operatively by a number of stores. In the hardware trade, purchasing agents operate to give wholesale buyers information on prices and sources of goods and to make purchases for them. They obtain a large part of their income from the sale of information services retail store clients

two.

to their subscribers.

Services allied to those performed by brokers are carried on by factors and commission merchants. Factors aid in financing and marketing, principally by assuming responsibility for credit transactions by purchasing or lending on accounts receivable and also by lending funds to business concerns. The factor can and

often does act as a broker in finding purchasers for goods as well Factors were origi-

as acting as principal in the credit operations.

nally found principally in the textile trades but have spread into

other

Commission merchants typically offer for sale goods them on consignment and receive as commission They are thus brokers and also that they pass title to the buyer. Factors and commis-

lines.

that are sent to

a percentage of the sales price.

agents in

sion merchants often have actual or constructive possession of the

have a special property interest in the make contracts without disclosing the name Their authority and powers are necessarily broad. Real Estate Brokers. The real estate broker or, as he is known in Great Britain, the estate agent, is the intermediary who principal's goods, often

goods, and often of the principal.

—

brings parties together and assists

them

He

of sale or rental of real estate.

in negotiating a contract

usually performs his services

for a commission or fee. Many brokers also negotiate loans and mortgages incident to transfers of real estate. The powers of real estate brokers are limited as

compared

to those of real estate

agents, and their duties and powers are to be found in the law of the locality

and

in specific

real estate broker's authority

word

agreements between parties. is

The

derived from the express act or

of his principal as well as being implied

from the

principal's

If a broker exceeds his authority, his principal may conduct. repudiate the transaction and the broker will lose his commission. As in other brokerage situations, the broker's authority to act may be general or special. General authority gives the broker broad powers to represent and to bind the principal while special authority limits him to representing the principal for a specific

purpose.

—

—

Insurance Brokers. United States. The insurance broker is one who performs brokerage activities in the field of insurance. He ordinarily represents the purchaser of insurance and is remunerated on a commission basis. Most of his income is derived from the insurance company, although it is not uncommon for him to charge the insured a fee for services performed not compensated by commission. The broker solicits the insurance from potential purchasers and assists them in selecting the type of insurance they desire.

customarily paid a commission on the premium by places the business, the commission being The broker is not less than that paid an agent of the company. the company's agent but is free to place his business with any insurance firm. In fire, marine and casualty insurance, the broker occupies an extensive and important position. Individuals or companies that have large and varied insurance programs often find it desirable to have a representative transact business for them. In these fields, brokers have substantial importance because of the many different policies that firms must buy and because the technicalities are such as to make the advice and knowledge of the expert broker Brokers place their business in domestic or foreign valuable.

The broker

is

the insurer with

whom he

markets, depending upon its characteristics and the availability of coverage, and perform an indispensable function in the market-

BROKER and placement of insurance and in the distribution of insurable Brokers can and do represent some companies as agents risks. and act as brokers for other parts of their business. (0. R. G.) Great Britain and Other Coimtries. There are very early referAs long ago as 1395 a ences to insurance brokers in England. In statute referred to their office as one of antiquity and credit. 1598, Stew's survey of London stated there were 30 in the City of London and described them as "such as are assistance to the merchants. ... in the writing of insurance and policies and such ing

—

The "assistance" thus given was the securing of personal like." guarantors to cover loss by perils of the sea. This task of assistance is the keynote of the insurance broker's function and has been considerably extended by a number of factors which have operated in the second half of the 19th century and during the present century. There is the vast economic expansion of this period which has made it necessary for insurance brokers to extend their activities beyond marine insurance (q.v.). This was coupled with the entry of Lloyd's (q.v.) into the nonmarine insurance market and the development of composite insurance companies, that is to say, companies transacting several classes of insurance business instead of specializing in one only. The development of workmen's compensation insurance also gave a great impetus to the broadening of activities. There is no legal definition of an insurance broker but an old case. Power v. Butcher (1830) 10. B & C 329, refers to an insurance broker as one who arranges policies of insurance. Generally, the opinion is that the broker is agent to the insured. There are no specific legislative controls, such as licensing or registration, over brokers in England. Anyone can set up as a broker and describe There are, however, three bodies which can himself as such. exercise control over brokers. The committee of Lloyd's will elect person or firm a as a member once ability to comply with financial requirements and evidence of character and integrity have been shown. Such are known as Lloyd's brokers and a large proportion of the business of Lloyd's is derived from this source. Secondly, the Corporation of Insurance Brokers lays down qualifications as to suitability and rules of conduct by its members, who may be styled incorporated brokers. These are the two most influential bodies; many Lloyd's brokers are also incorporated brokers, and vice versa. In 1948 an Association of Insurance Brokers was formed to cater for the needs of those who are not members of either of the other two bodies. Most of the leading brokers in England are members of Lloyd's and of the corporation. The Corporation of Insurance Brokers defined a broker, whether a person or firm, as one whose sole business is the placing and arranging of insurances on commission. It insists there shall be no preferential treatment in the placing of such business with any particular insurer. This is the key test, but it would be wrong to assume that to the modern broker this is the primary duty. The forms of insurance are so varied that a high level of technical

knowledge is required. Competition demands a shrewd knowledge of the market so that the best terms, as measured by premium charged, breadth of coverage and policy conditions can be obtained for clients. At the top level, brokers provide not only these services but technical services to insurers such as surveying and policy drafting. On the nonmarine side of insurance, this is particularly important where Lloyd's is concerned and, although companies have their own survey departments, joint surveys by company and broker surveyors are by no means infrequent. In general brokers act in an advisory capacity, safeguarding the clients' interests while the terms are negotiated, at the renewal of the policy and throughout its life. Although serving the insured in this way, their remuneration is received from the insurer by way of commission, usually called brokerage.

The

rate varies according to the class of business and,

competitive market, between one insurer and another. It is understood that Lloyd's pay is a higher rate of brokerage than the companies. in a

Although insurance brokers play a dominant part insurance, their position regarding losses ance, brokers

may

in arranging

is less significant, though Both in marine and nonmarine insursubmit claims on behalf of the insured. Losses

by no means unimportant.

are settled

265 by average adjusters and

loss assessors respectively

and brokers will hold a watching brief for the insured. On the marine side, large brokers maintain a claims department, but this Any remuneration for servis not usual in the nonmarine branch. ices where claims are settled must be paid by the insured, and there is a marine custom to pay brokers for their service {% for total losses and 1% for partial losses on the amount of indemnity. No such practice exists in nonmarine insurance.

The foregoing

relates to direct insurances;

i.e.,

made

it

by The volume

the placing

the insured of their insurance direct with insurers.

of liabilities thus accumulated has

imperative for insurers

to effect reinsurance in order to limit their net liabilities to reason-

Such reinsurance arrangements are effected through reinsurance brokers, who may specialize in reinsurance as such, or may be a separate department or a subsidiary of a direct broker. The expertise required by the reinsurance broker is the capacity to view the merits of a block of insurance business rather than of any single contract. Reinsurance is arranged internationally and remuneration is on the basis of a commission on the net premium ceded, plus a profit commission calculated on the basis able proportions.

down in the reinsurance contract, commonly known as a treaty. The most powerful and influential insurance market in the world London, and the part played by insurance brokers there is

laid

is

Elsewhere, the position varies. Thus, in the Scandinavian countries, there are no brokerage firms as such and In the far east, business is obtained through general agencies. brokers are little more than mere business getters, placing their business with those insurers who will pay the highest commission. In Greece and in some parts of the near and middle east, brokers are remunerated by agents or subagents from the latter's commisclearly important.

sion.

Registration and licensing practice varies.

Thus

in

Quebec

province, the distinction between agent and broker has been eliminated by statute and a licence can be obtained only on the recom-

mendation of an insurance company. In South Africa, a broker must be licensed in accordance with the requirement of the department of revenue. Specific provision, however, as to Lloyd's brokers are made in the Insurance act of 1943. Licence is required by law in France, but none is required in Belgium. In South America, most of the states adopt the practice of statutory licensing. As in England, the power of the broker varies with the size and the functions he can carry out. In the Netherlands, Belgium and France, the position is not dissimilar but is characterized by the This is a form of exchange, possibly inspired bourse system. by Lloyd's organization and operates notably at Rotterdam and Antwerp and to a lesser extent at Paris. Here again are highly competitive markets where brokers do considerable work by way of surveying, valuing property to be insured, drafting pohcies, and collecting and distributing premiums. To some degree they may be more influential than their counterpart in London in varying the insurance contract. They also take some part in loss settlements by submitting claims and eventually collecting the payments from the various insurers interested and paying the proceeds to the insured, for which they may receive a remuneration of 1% of the amount of the indemnity. An unusual feature found in London is the combination of agent and broker whereby the same firm may be an agent to one company for some class of business, but a broker in every other respect. (Ga. S.) (See also Insurance.) Ship Brokers. Another example of brokerage service is that provided by ship brokers who are so important in the buying, selling and chartering of ships and shares in ships, solicitation of

—

cargoes for export, auctions of freight unloading, settlement of claims for lost cargoes and maritime disasters and providing ships' needs. Ship and maritime brokers operate in the principal ports of the world. Similar activities are performed by trucking brokers as well as by brokers specializing in air transportation or operating in all lines of transportations. (See also Shipping Industry: Ship

Operation.)

—

Future Contracts on Exchanges. Brokers are important in executing contracts for the future purchase or sale of goods on the commodity or produce exchanges such as the Liverpool Corn Trade

BROME— BROMELIACEAE

266

association, the Chicago Board of Trade, the New York Cotton exchange and the Chicago Mercantile exchange. They represent principals in buying and selling contracts, but on the exchanges they are principals and are liable for the fulfillment of their contracts. The rules of the exchanges require them to be men of financial responsibility and they must maintain margins with the exchange or its clearing association to cover their open contracts. The brokers, in turn, usually require their principals to keep sufficient margins with them to cover fluctuations in the prices of the commodities covered by the contracts. All contracts are presumed to be made in accordance with the rules of the exchange on which they are executed, (See also Commodity Market; Futures.) Stockbrokers. Representatives of stock brokerage houses perform brokerage services in the distribution and sale of securities in the primary and secondary securities markets. In the primary markets, where bonds and stocks are offered by issuers to potential buyers, stockbrokers perform the service of bringing buyers and sellers together. Brokers may represent either buyers or sellers and their powers depend upon express or implied contracts. For example, they may agree to offer a security issue on a "best-efforts" basis, receiving a commission on each individual share or bond sold, or they may act as underwriters who guarantee a successful sale and agree to indemnify the issuer if they fail. In the secondary markets, stockbrokers make possible the sale of stocks and bonds between investors, either on organized exchanges or in the "over-the-counter" market. They buy and sell the securities for the principals by effecting private sales or, on the floors of public stock and bond exchanges of which they

—

members, upon instructions from the customers. A stock broker's powers are ordinarily much broader than those of ordinary

are

brokers since they are often entrusted with the possession of secu-

and generally act in their own names. The mechanics of many and varied and provide a rich example of the middleman function of brokers. Service is a very important facet of brokerage activities and nowhere is this more apparent than in finance and insurance. The relation between the broker and his customer is ordinarily one of confidence, good will and service. Custom, law and good business policy combine to lay down accepted business practices. (See also Stock Exchange; Stockbroker.) Funds borrowed by members of a stock exchange or by factors in textile lines or by any of the many types of these varied and valuable middlemen are generally known as broker's loans and the monies received enable them to carry customers. Many lines of trades have broker's markets in which the public is not active but where members of an exchange trade with one another on their own behalf or on behalf of clients. They perform an indispensable function in their specialized lines of commerce. Probably their major stock in trade is that of experience and knowledge of their individual lines made available to many and varied potential clients. They are usually bound to only limited or no-agency contracts and are thus able to offer to new as well as to old potential trades expert middleman services that contribute to an economical, efficient and productive system of commerce. See also references under "Broker" in the Index volume, rities

trading are

(0, R. G.) (1620-1666), English Royalist poet who wrote drinking songs and satirical verses against the Rump parliament, was probably an attorney in the lord mayor's court or the court of the king's bench, Izaak Walton wrote an introductory eclogue to Brome's Songs and Other Poems (1661 ), a volume of songs, ballads, epistles, elegies and epitaphs. Brome's gaiety and wit won him the title of the "English .\nacreon" in Edward Phillips' collection, Tlieatrum Poctanim (1675). Brome edited and contributed to a translation of Horace (1666). and was the author of a comedy. The Cunning Lovers (1654), He also edited two volumes of Richard Brome's plays. He died in London on June },o. 1666. (d. 1652), English dramatist and the most considerable of the minor Jacobean playwrights, was origiThis does not necessarily imply a nally Ben Jonson's servant. lack of education in Brome, since Jonson expected his servant to read "a piece of Virgil, Tacitus, Livy or some better book to his

BROME, ALEXANDER

BROkE, RICHARD

friends at supper," and

Brome probably

acted as his amanuensis.

The

relationship of master and servant developed into one of friendship, and knowledge of Brome's personal character is chiefly

drawn from Jonson's sonnet

to

"my

old faithful servant and

by

my loving friend Mr. Richard Brome," The Northern Lasse (published 1632). Brome, together with Nathaniel Field, came under Jonson's per-

his continued virtue

.

.

.

prefixed to Brome's

sonal tuition, and Jonson's influence

which he develops

is

his plots, his strongly

apparent in the

way

in

marked characters and

amount of curious information

to be found in his plays. Vet, although following the technique of his master, he lacks his greatness of mind. Brome was, however, a conscientious and able craftsman, continuing the Elizabethan dramatic tradition until the theatres were closed by order of parliament in 1642. His comedies

the

London and

are full of pictures of contemporary

its life,

which are

of historical value and interest.

The Northern Lasse (produced 1629?) made Brome's reputation as a dramatist and was the most popular of his plays, although A Joviall Crew (acted 1641, pubhshed 1652) is considered to be his best work. There are 15 of his comedies extant; two volumes of his plays were edited by Alexander Brome (of whom he was no relation) in 1653 and 1659. BiBLioGR.^PHY. The article by R. Bayne in Cambridge History of

—

English Literature, vol. vi, pp. 224-232 (igo7-i6) gives an admirable account of Brome's work. The Dramatic Works of Richard Brome were ed. by R. H. Shepherd, 3 vol, (1873). See also E, K. R. Faust, Richard Brome (1887); H. F. Allen, A Study of the Comedies of Richard Brome (1912).

BROME

GRASS,

the

name

applied to the species of the

genus Brotnus. They are annual or perennial, low or tall grasses, with closed sheaths, fiat leaf blades and open or contracted panicles of large spikelets. About 50 species occur in temperate regions; nearly half of the U.S. species are introductions, mostly from Europe. B. catharticus, a native of Argentina, was introduced into the southern L^.S. states about mid-1 9th century and now appears spontaneously there. It is known as rescue grass or Schrader's brome grass and is a short-lived perennial adapted to humid regions with mild winters. Growth starts in the fall, continues through the winter, and the plants mature in early summer.

It supplies a

good amount of forage and is relished by livestock. B. inermis, the smooth brome, also known as Hungarian brome grass and awnless brome grass, also a perennial, is extensively grown for pasture and hay in the northern portion of the Great Plains from northern Kansas to Montana and eastward to Pennsylvania. It is adapted especially to regions of moderate rainfall and low to moderate summer temperatures. Two distinct types of smooth brome, differing in growth behaviour, are recognized; viz,, the southern type which came originally from central Europe and is best adapted to the northern parts of the central Great Plains that have long dry periods and high summer temperatures, and the northern type, introduced from Siberia and adapted to Canada and the northern Great Plains. As a pasture or hay grass, smooth brome. because of its palatability and high protein content, its good volume of leafy forage, and its tolerance to grazing and trampling, scarcely has an equal area of its best adaptation, B. tectorum, known as downy chess, cheatgrass or downy brome, either an annual or summer annual, introduced from Europe, that has spread to some extent over portions of the ir far western

in the

is

Arizona and Xew Mexico, occupying chiefly plains, and intermountain valleys. Although it is one of the palatable species of brome grasses, its local abundance where

states, except

foothills less

better plants are absent

makes

it

a valuable early spring grazing

plant for sheep, cattle and horses, species, although they furnish

A number

of other annual

good grazing when young, occupy

large areas on th^ Pacific coast, but because their season

is

very

short are often considered to be troublesome w-eeds. (J.

BROMELIACEAE,

M.

Bl.)

the bromelia or pineapple family, plants but with contrasting sepals and

w'ith three-parted flowers like lilies,

Except for a single African member it is strictly American, It consisting of 45-50 genera and about 1,800-2,000 species. includes the pineapple (q.v.) and the so-called Spanish moss, an petals.

BROMIDE— BROMINE air plant

that grows

down from

trees and wires in long gray streamers, and that ranges from southeastern United States to ArBromeliads are mostly gentina. herbs with a rosette of leaves and

spike

a

or

panicle

of

ceramic tower, at the top of which a spray of hot brine is inBromine is liberated, passed out with the steam and The condensate is separated into aqueous and halogen layers, the former of which is returned to the tower while the latter is subjected to purification by fractional distillation. Bromine about 99.8% pure can be obtained, the impurities being chlorine, moisture and organic matter. After mid-2oth century most of the bromine produced in the United States was extracted from ocean water. Other oceanwater plants were operating in Hayle, Cornwall, Eng., and at Marseilles, France. In ocean-water processes, air is used in place of steam and the halogen-laden air is mixed with sulfur dioxide so that hydrobromic and sulfuric acids are formed. These are absorbed in water from which the bromine is recovered by steaming out with chlorine as previously described. At one plant the air is treated directly with sodium-carbonate solution, in which the bromine reacts to form bromide and bromate. This solution is then treated with sulfuric acid in order to liberate free bromine. Uses. Most of the bromine produced after 1928 has been used in the manufacture of ethylene bromide, an ingredient of antitroduced.

condensed.

flowers.

are remarkable for the development of scales that enable the leaves to absorb water and

even food efficiently; roots, being unnecessary, are often aborted, as in the Spanish moss, and the various species art able to thrive

from the coastal deserts of Peru and the treeless crests of the Andes to the treetops of the Brazilian rain forest.

—

also collect

rosettes.

See L. B. Smith, "Bromeliad

knock

s*""'"'

photogra

LARGEST KNOWN ''u^* raimond BROMELIAD, RISING 40 FT. FOUND IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN ANDES

Ma

articles, especially

BROMIDE, in chemistry, a compound of bromine with an element or an organic radical, or a salt of hydrobromic acid, such as sodium bromide. Various bromides are of value in medicine, From the application of the term sedative has arisen the colloquial mean-

especially potassium bromide.

bromide

in the sense of a

bromide as a platitude.

BROMINE, liquid.

See also Bromine.

element that

a deep-red

is

It is corrosive to metals, irritating to

result of its

the

a chemical

unpleasant odour was given the

fuming

the skin, and as a

name bromine from

Greek bromos, meaning "stench."

only in compounds.

fluid for

In nature, bromine is found Traditionally obtained from salt deposits, the

element is now produced in commercial quantities by the processing of ocean water. The most important use of bromine is in the manufacture of ethylene bromide, one ingredient of "antiknock"

motor fuels. Bromine is designated by the chemical symbol Br. Its atomic number is 35 and the atomic weight is 79.916. History and Occurrence.— A. J. Balard in France iirst isolated bromine from bitterns left after the evaporation of Mediterranean sea water, and recognized it as an element in 1S26. In the United States, brines of Pennsylvania were worked for their bromine content as early as 1S46; production from the salt deposits near Stassfurt, Ger., was reported in 1858 and dominated the market for about 50 years. Successful commercial recovery of bromine directly from ocean water was begun in 1934 near fluid for

Wilmington, N.C. In nature bromine occurs only in combination with metallic elements as bromides, and is distributed widely but very sparingly. Natural brines and saline deposits, particularly those containing much calcium chloride, are the richest sources. Their bromine contents vary from 0.02 1iamic properties in relation to molecular size and A proponent of colloidal and high molecular weight phenomena. an acid-base theory and an authority on the catalytic properties and strengths of acids and bases, he considered it possible to write all reactions of acids with bases in the familiar symmetrical form; Acidi -f Base!

^ Basei 4- Acid2

His career and honours included the Oersted medal

in

1928;

BRONTE in 1929; honorary member of the and Sciences in 1929; fellow of the Royal and election to the Danish parliament in 1947. He wrote texts in inorganic and physical chemistry. He died December 17, 1947, in Copenhagen. See Acms and Bases: Bronsied-Lowry Definition. (V. Bw.)

visiting

British

professor at Yale

Academy

of Arts

society in 1935;

BRONTE, CHARLOTTE 1848) and

ANNE

EMILY

(1816-1855), (1820-1849). English novelists, were

(1818all

three

work and Charlotte The personalities natural desires and their social

distinguished for the regional quality of their

and Emily for passion and imaginative power.

women

with their by Charlotte with a frankness and ardour that marked a new stage in the 19th-century novel, while Emily's fierce and tragic Witthering Heights was unparalleled in, her time both in its primitive power and its intricate dramatic form. They were the children of Patrick Bronte, an Irishman, who was born of

in conflict

condition were presented

His paternal name at Emdale, County Down. March 17, 1777. was Brunty. but he changed the spelling in England, apparently to conform with that in Nelson's title of duke of Bronte. Although humbly born, he was able to enter St. John's college, Cambridge, Apart from his own savings, he was helped by the Wesin 1802. leyan Methodists, who were strong in County Down and not yet wholly detached from the established church. Methodist connections and influences pervade the Bronte background and allusions to

Methodism make sparse but

sisters' writings.

significant appearances in the Their passion has been interpreted as a Methodist Patrick Bronte took his de-

passion transferred to secular objects. gree in 1806 and

became curate

in

succession at Wethersfield,

Essex; at Hartshead, Yorkshire, where he met and married in 1812 Maria, daughter of Thomas Branwell of Penzance, a Methodist, and where his elder daughters Maria (1813-25) and Elizabeth (1814—25) were born; and at Thornton, Yorkshire, where Charlotte was born on April 21, 1816, Patrick Branwell on June 26, 1817, Emily Jane on July 30, 1818 and Anne on Jan. 17, 1820. Three months after Anne's birth, her father became rector of Haworth, nine miles from Bradford, where he remained for the rest of his life. There Mrs. Bronte, a delicate woman, died of cancer on Sept. 15, 1821. After Mrs. Bronte's death her sister Elizabeth Branwell joined the household at Haworth. Branwell v.-as her favourite, but she instructed the girls, especially in needlework, and did her duty by them. She had no sympathetic intimacy with them, however, and her austere Methodism oppressed them, especially Anne. Branwell was educated by his father, a man of marked intelligence (he published books and stimulated his children's intellectual interests), fond of his family but eccentric and unsocial in his habits, though a conscientious parson. Thus the children were left very much to themselves. They read whatever they could lay hands on, including newspapers, and rambled on the moors. They were happy and very precocious, but this sequestered upbringing left the girls with a crippling shyness and deprived Branwell of the

companionship of his equals, which might have proved steadying. In 1824 Mr. Bronte sent Maria and Elizabeth to school at Wakefield but soon transferred them to the recently opened Clergy Daughters' school at Cowan Bridge, near Kirkby Lonsdale, Lancashire, where Charlotte and then Emily joined them. The fees were very low, the food unattractive and the discipline harsh. When Charlotte recorded her memories of this school in the "Lowood" of Jane Eyre she was unaware of exaggerating. Her description was challenged, however, and the subject has been much debated. It is agreed that, during the months the Bronte sisters were there, the school was badly run and the girls sickly. What exaggeration there was derived from the keen sensibilities of a highly intelligent and passionate child, who saw her two elder sisters sicken and taken home to die. an experience that left deep traces on both Charlotte and Branwell. Charlotte and Emily returned home in June 1825 and for over five years the children learned and played there. Here belongs the inception of those sustained imaginative games, issuing in an enormous output of midget books, written in minute script, which have attracted much attention. The four children invented the Kingdom of Angria and jointly elaborated its wars, its politics, its

271

aristocracy and their feuds and loves.

At some time, probably in 1831 when Charlotte was sent to Miss Wooler's school at Roe Head, near Huddersfield, Emily and Anne seceded and founded their own Kingdom of Gondal, leaving Charlotte and Branwell to conduct the affairs of Angria. These complex romantic sagas were kept going by the sisters well into their twenties. Negligible as literature, they were the training ground of the Bronte genuis. Themes and situations in their published work were first adumbrated here and worked on at all stages from adolescence to maMany Angrian chronicles are extant, but all the Gondal turity. prose has been destroyed. It is. however, plain from the manu-

many of Emily's poems are dramatic utterances of it has proved possible to draw dubious outline of the lost corpus. The Angrian and Gondal daya dreams have a deep psychological interest. Charlotte early recognized the compensatory nature of her dream and was troubled by guilt at the discrepancy between it and the sober, restricted life before her. There is no sign that Emily felt this division. She filled Gondal with the growing weight of her o\xn thoughts and emotions until the fantastic husk fell off and Gondal was revealed as Yorkshire. Anne wrote Gondal verse and prose but her novels are strictly and responsibly realistic, bearing no trace of the dream, which may have become, for her, chiefly a medium of communication with Emily. Branwell's tragedy seems to have been that he cpased to be able to distinguish between obsessive dayscripts that

Gondal characters, and from them

dream and reality. At Roe Head, where she stayed friendships with

Mary Taylor and

a year, Charlotte

made

lasting

Ellen Nussey; her correspond-

ence with Ellen, which continued till her death, has provided much of our knowledge of her. In 1832 she came home to teach her sisters and for three years they lived, studied and wrote together at Haworth. The whole family delighted in drawing and all except Charlotte were musical. The moors, with their changes of weather and season, were their exhilarating playground. In all their books the Brontes show themselves countrywomen. In 1835 Charlotte returned to Roe Head as a teacher. She wished to improve her family's position and this was the only outlet that was offered to her unsatisfied energies. Branwell. moreover, was to be started on his career as an artist, and it was needful to supplement the family resources. Emily accompanied her as a pupil but was too wretched with homesickness to remain, and her place was taken by Anne. The work with its inevitable restrictions was uncongenial to CharShe fell into ill-health and melancholia and took fright at lotte. the state of health of the always delicate Anne, who left at the end In the summer of 1838 Charlotte terminated her enof 1837. gagement. Emily, who had spent six exhausting months as teacher in Miss Patchett's school at Law Hill near Halifax, had likewise resigned her post, and the sisters were at home again. In 1839 Charlotte declined a proposal from the Rev.

Henry Nusand some months later one from another young clergjTnan. In the same year she and Anne made brief and The hardships and unsuccessful experiments as governesses. anomalies of the position are reflected in their novels and impressed public opinion, but it is doubtful if Charlotte, touchy and inhibited by her duties from imaginative creation, could ever have been contented in such a post. Anne endured better and presently established herself with the Robinsons at Thorpe Green, near Boroughbridge, Yorkshire, where she stayed for four years (184145). At the same time Charlotte's ambition to make the practical best of her talents and the need to pay Branwell's debts urged her to spend some months as governess with the Whites at Upperwood House, Rawdon. Branwell's talents for writing and painting, his good classical scholarship and his social charm had engendered high hopes of him. He had sent specimens of his writing to Wordsworth but had received no encouragement Charlotte, at about the same time (Jan. 1837), had had a similar experience with Robert Southey. At the end of 1837 Branwell had set up as a portrait painter in Bradford and had worked steadily for a year, but he was fundamentally unstable, weak willed and intemperate, and the sey, her friend's brother,

;

venture collapsed. After six months as tutor in Broughton-inFurness, he was working as clerk-in-charge at Sowerby Bridge on the Leeds and Manchester railway by Sept. 1840 and from there

—

BRONTE

272 was transferred

to

Luddenden Foot, but was dismissed

American rights of The Tenant as by the author of the successful Jane Eyre, and in July Charlotte and Anne were forced to go to London to acknowledge their identities to their publisher. The year that followed was a tragic one. On Sept. 24 Branwell died. Emily caught cold at his funeral, fell into rapid consumption, refused all medical help and died on Dec. 19. Immediately afterward, Anne, Emily's closest friend, sickened of the same disease; Charlotte put aside Shirley, on which she was working, to nurse her. Anne submitted dutifully to treatment but died on May 20, 1849, at Scarborough. Charlotte completed Shirley in the empty parsonage and it appeared in October. In 1850 Smith, Elder and Co. republished Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey with Charlotte's "Biographical Notice" of her sisters. In the following years Charlotte went three times to London as the guest of her publisher, George Smith, and his mother; met Thackeray and other literary men and women and sat for her portrait by George Richmond. She went twice to the Lakes, where she stayed in 1851 with Harriet Martineau, went to Scotland, visited Mrs. Gaskell in Manchester and entertained her at Haworth. Villette came out in Jan. 1853. Meanwhile, in 1851, she had declined a third offer of marriage from James Taylor, a member of Smith, Elder and Co. Her father's curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls (1817-1906), an Irishman, was her fourth suitor. It took some months to win her father's consent, but they were married on June 29, 1854, in Haworth church. They spent their honeymoon in Ireland and then returned to Haworth, where her husband had pledged himself to

in Jan.

1842 for culpable negligence.

Meanwhile

had planned

open a school together, which their aunt had agreed to finance, and in Feb. 1842 Charlotte and Emily went to Brussels as pupils in the Pensionnat Heger to improve their qualifications in French and acquire some German. Emily also studied and later taught the piano. The talent displayed by both brought them to the notice of M. Constantin Heger, a fine teacher and a man of unusual perception. Charlotte was on the whole happy, though as a staunch Protestant she despised her Catholic surroundings. Emily, while working with stubborn resolution, pined for the liberty of home. The death of Miss Branwell in October summoned them to Haworth. She had bequeathed each of her nieces a sum that may have amounted to £300 his sisters

to

—

is lacking but they put their money aside for a Emily remained at Haworth to keep house while Branwell joined Anne as tutor at Thorpe Green and Charlotte returned to Brussels as pupil-teacher. She stayed there during 1843 but was lonely and depressed. Her friends had left Brussels and Mme. Heger appears to have become jealous of her. The nature of Charlotte's attachment to M. Heger and the degree to which she understood herself have been much discussed. His was the most interesting mind she had yet met and he had perceived and evoked her latent talents. His strong and eccentric personality appealed both to her sense of humour and to her affections. Slie offered him an innocent but ardent devotion, and he tried to repress her emotions. The letters she wrote to him after her return may well be called love letters. When, however, he suggested that they were open to misapprehension, she stopped writing and applied herself, in silence, to discipline her feelings. Shirley's indignation at Moore's assumption that she loves him (in her novel, Shirley) may well reflect part of her reaction. However we interpret them, her experiences at Brussels were cardinal to her. She received a strict

specification

greater need.

;

continue as curate to her father. He did not share his wife's intellectual life, but she was happy to be loved for herself and to take up her duties as his wife. She began another book, Emma, of which some pages remain. Her pregnancy, however, was accompanied by exhausting sickness and she died on March 31, 1855. Nicholls stayed in Haworth until Bronte's death in 1861, when he

went back

became aware of the resources of her own nature and gathered material that served her, in various shapes, for all literary training,

her novels. In 1844 Charlotte endeavoured to start a school she had envisaged in the parsonage itself, as her father, whose sight was fail-

could not be left. Prospectuses were issued, but no pupils were attracted to distant Haworth. In 1845 Anne left the Robinsons, and soon afterward Branwell was dismissed, charged with ing,

attempt to define their distinct natures, the close bonds of temperament, conviction, imagination and pooled experience have sometimes been undervalued. Emily, the least known and praised in her lifetime, has proved the most interesting for modem biographers and critics. There has been a corresponding tendency to withhold justice from Charlotte as a writer and a woman. Without Charlotte's ambition we should not have had Emily's writings. Her editing of them, now under censure, aimed at removing obstacles between the contemporary reading public and work that she deeply admired. In what she wrote of her sisters she had it in mind to defend their "dear names" against the charges of coarseness and brutality that had been launched at their novels. As a poet Emily far exceeded her sisters. Her poems, often unfinished and very unequal, show the influence of Scott and the Border ballads, but at their rare best transmit the flavour of a unique and powerful personality. That some of the finest rise out of a Gondal setting confirms the dramatic bent that distinguishes Wuthering Heights but does not shelve the enigma of Emily. If the experience in the long Gondal poem "Juhan M. and

making love

to his employer's wife. The sisters believed the fault lay with Mrs. Robinson and Charlotte transmitted this view to Mrs. Gaskell, who embodied it in the first edition of her Life of

Charlotte Bronte, but was forced by Mrs. Robinson's representatives to withdraw and apologize for the passages in question. Whatever happened, it finished Branwell. He spent the last three years of his life at Haworth, incurring debts, drinking, taking

opium, alternately blaspheming and repenting, until he died of his excesses, a profound grief to his father and sisters, an obstacle to his sisters' hopes and a great and tragic stimulus to their genius. In autumn 1S4S Charlotte came across some poems by Emily and this led to the publication in 1846 of a joint volume of Poems by Ciirrer, Ellis and Acton Bell; the pseudonyms were assumed to preserve secrecy and avoid the special treatment they believed reviewers accorded to women. The book was issued at their own expense. It received few reviews and only two copies were sold. Nevertheless, a way had opened to them and they were already trying to place the three novels they had written. By midsummer 1847 Emily's Wuthering Heights and Anne's Agnes Grey had been accepted by Newby, but Charlotte had failed to place The Professor. She had, however, nearly finished Jane Eyre, begun in Aug. 1846 in Manchester where she was staying with her father for an operation to his eyes; and when Smith, Elder and Co., declining The Professor, declared themselves willing to consider a threevolume novel with more action and excitement in it, she completed and submitted it at once. It was accepted, published less than eight weeks later, on Oct. 16, 1847, and had an immediate success. In December Newby brought out Wiitheritig Heights and Agnes Grey, and in June 1848 Anne's Tenant of Wildfcll Hall, which sold well. Reviewers had already suggested that Wuthering Heights was an earlier work by Currer BeU and now Newby offered the

to Ireland.

The absorbing personal history of the Bronte family has stimulated many writers. Haworth is a place of pilgrimage and Haworth parsonage a Bronte museum. Plays and novels have been written about them and the Brontes have become living figures in popular imagination. Each of the family has had partisans and, in the

A. G. Rochelle'' (excerpted by Charlotte as "The Prisoner") is a mystical one, then it was Emily's experience and that section of the poem is as personal as "The Old Stoic" and "No Coward Soul is Mine," which are not Gondal poems. She had a strong lyrical note, a beautifully spontaneous and flexible metre, and, at her best, a

powerful and precise though limited diction. ing Heights cannot be dated and she

may

Her work on Wutherwell have spent a long

time on this intense, solidly imagined novel. It is distinguished from other novels of the period by its dramatic and poetic presentation, its abstention from all comment by the author and its unusual structure. It recounts in the retrospective narrative of an onlooker, which in turn includes shorter narratives, the impact of the waif Heathcliffe on the two families of Earnshaw and Linton in a •

remote Yorkshire district at the end of the 18th century. Emby abuse and by the marriage of Cathie Earnshaw, who

bittered

—

BRONTE shares his stormy nature and whom he loves, to the gentle and prosperous Edgar Linton, Heathcliffe plans a revenge on both families, extending into the

childbirth fails to set

her and

man

him

second generation.

free

from

Cathie's death in

his love-hate relationship with

the obsessive haunting persists for years until the driven

lets fall his

revenge

of the surviving heirs of

in the

hour of triumph and dies

Earnshaw and Linton

The nth-hour entry

into

the

tale

classical tragedies, read in Brussels.

may

;

the union

restores peace.

derive from French

The method

of direct narra-

tive, heard in oral storytellers, is used with deliberate effect to recount an action that culminates through two generations, for which the model may have been Shakespeare's later romantic plays. There is no confusion, though some awkwardness. Everything is Sharing her sisters' dry humour and thoroughly wrought out.

Charlotte's violent imagination, she diverges from

them

in

making

no use of the events of her own life and showing no preoccupation Working, like with a spinster's state or a governess's position. them, within a confined scene and with a small group of characters, she constructs an action, based on profound and primitive energies

and hate, which proceeds logically and economically, making no use of such coincidences as Charlotte relies on, requiring no rich romantic similes or rhetorical patterns and confining the

of love

immediately relevant to the subject. The sombre power of the book and the elements of brutality in the characters affronted some 1 9th-century opinion. Its supposed masculine quality was adduced to support the claim, based on the memories of Branwell's friends long after his death, that he was author or part author of it. While it is not possible to clear up all the minor puzzles in the case, neither the external nor the internal evidence offered is substantial enough to weigh against Charlotte's plain statement or a reference to Branwell's extant writings. Modern interest in myth and symbol has stimulated fresh approaches. Lord David Cecil (Early Victorian Novelists, ch. v., 193 5 J regards Emily's characters as t>-pes of the cosmic forces of storm and calm, which replace the principles of good and evil; both are good in their proper relations, but tragedy results from their mismating. A widely different approach has been made by David Wilson ("Emily Bronte: First of the Moderns," Modern Quarterly Miscellany, no. 1, 1947) who interprets the story of Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw as a metaphor of the social struggle going on in the turbulent Pennine districts under Emily's eyes, a struggle in which she saw evil and degradation on both sides. This illuminating suggestion has been carried further by other writers who insist on Emily's conscious social passion. These studies give a welcome new dimension to the book, but should not obscure the depth of her imaginative response to the wild and remote nor the fact that what matters most to her is the freedom and energy, in love and hate, of the individual human spirit. Wuthcring Heights masters the reader by its passion and fulness of meaning; its rapid, concrete presentation; its resonant, concise dialogue; and the courage, unparalleled in the contemporary novel, with which it accepts the tragic logic of its assumptions. It is not a flawless masterpiece, but it is unexsuperb dialogue to what

is

hausted.

!

;

'

;

I

I

'

,

I

1

I

!

Anne, commonly described as gentle and pious, with none of her sisters' fire, has found champions to insist on her quiet strength and the integrity and realism of her work. In chaste and shapely verse she examines her thoughts and feelings in the light of moral and religious truth. /lg«si Grey, probably begun at Thorpe Green, records with limpidity and some humour the life of a governess, George Moore called it "simple and beautiful as a muslin dress." The Tenant of Wildjell Hall presents an unsoftened picture of a young man's debauchery and degradation and sets against it her Arminian belief that no soul shall be ultimately lost. Her outspokenness raised some scandal and Charlotte deplored the subject as morbid and incongruous with her sister's nature, but the vigorous writing indicates that Anne found in it not only a moral obligation but an opportunity of artistic development. Charlotte's first novel The Professor (published posthumously, 1857) shows her extreme reaction from her Angrian indulgences. Sober in colouring and discreet in action, it is nevertheless satirically lively and, like all her fiction, prickles with personality. Told

273

person by an English tutor in Brussels, it is based on Charlotte's experiences there, with a reversal of sexes and roles. The necessity of her genius, reinforced by reading her sister's Wuthering Heights, modified this restrictive self-discipline and, though there is plenty of satire and dry, direct phrasing in Jane Eyre, what carried it to success was the fiery conviction with which it presented a thinking, feeling woman, craving for love, but able to renounce it at the call of impassioned self-respect and moral conviction. Jane Eyre, an orphan and governess to the ward of Mr. Rochester, falls in love with her Byronic and enigmatic employer. Her love is reciprocated, but on the wedding morning it comes out that Rochester is a married man and keeps a mad and depraved wife in the attics of his mansion. Jane leaves him, sufin the first

When fers hardship and finds work as a village schoolmistress. Jane learns, however, that Rochester has been maimed and blinded, trying vainly to rescue his wife from the burning house she herself had set afire, Jane seeks him out and marries him. There are melodramatic naiveties in the story and Charlotte's elevated rhetorical passages, though genuine and powerful in their kind, do not much appeal to modern taste, but she maintains her hold on the reader. The novel is subtitled "An Autobiography" and Charlotte follows Anne

putting her tale in the

in

mouth

of a governess, but, except

impressions of "Lowood," the autobiography is not CharPersonal experience is fused with suggestions from widely lotte's. different sources and the "Cinderella" theme may well come from Richardson's Pamela. The action is carefully motivated and apin Jane's

parently episodic sections, like the return to Gateshead hall, are seen to be necessary to the full expression of Jane's character and the working-out of the threefold moral theme of love, independence and forgiveness. The landscape background, geared closely to the phases of the action, carries into the novel a lyricism only partially anticipated

by Mrs.

Radcliffe

and

Scott.

Charlotte intended Shirley to be "real, cool and solid," avoided melodrama and coincidences and widened her scope. Setting aside Miss Edgworth and Scott as national novelists, Shirley is the first regional novel in English, full of shrewdly depicted local material

Yorkshire characters, church and chapel, the cloth workers and machine-breakers of her father's early manhood and a sturdy but rather embittered feminism. It is not, however, easy to elicit a dominant theme. Of her two heroines, Shirley, on Mrs. Gaskell's authority, was a "representation" of Emily in ampler circumstances and Caroline, at least in some parts, approximates to Anne. While Charlotte was writing, both sisters died and it is arguable

was diverted. Caroline, who in the seems marked for the spinsterhood that was so much in Charlotte's and Anne's minds, is dismissed to married happiness, while Louis Moore, abruptly introduced in the last third that the course of the novel earlier chapters

of the book, carries out with Shirley the master-pupil love relationship which occurs in all Charlotte's novels.

In Villette she recurs to the Brussels setting and the first-person narrative, disused in Shirley; the characters and incidents are largely variants of the personnel and life at the Pensionnat Heger.

Against this background she sets the ardent heart, deprived of its object, contrasted with the woman happily fulfilled in love. The action is seen through the personality of the sober-seeming govthe vision varies from daylight to halluhumour, suspicious reserve or melancholia prevails. Her struggle for detachment stimulates the reader to attain it. Charlotte said her heroine was morbid and unamiable and refused to divert tragedy from her, but allowed her to achieve a useful and honourable independence. The "Long Vacation" chapter and the character of M. Paul Emmanuel (M. Heger) illustrate the two ex-

erness

Lucy Snowe. and

cination, as her

tremes of her

The

art.

influence of Charlotte's novels

was much more immediate

than that of Wuthering Heights, which was described for many years as without posterity. (It is now acclaimed both as the first socio-revolutionary novel and the predecessor of the novel of flux and sensation.) Her combination of romance and satiric realism had been the mode of nearly all the women novelists for a century.

Her

fruitful innovations

were the presentation of a tale through young woman in which Dickens folin which the genius of romantic poetry

the sensibility of a child or

lowed her; her lyricism

—

—

;

2

BRONTOSAURUS— BRONZE

7+

entered the novel; and the picture of love from a woman's standpoint—with which she unwittingly startled a section of Victorian opinion.

and

The two

this results in

planes."

Her

sides of her nature

were never fully harmonized

what Virginia VVoolf called the "jerking of the mastery lies in her intense participation in

special

her story and the transmission of this to the reader.

—

Bibliography, Mrs. Gaskell's Lije of Charlotte Bronte, 2 vol. (1857) raised controversy and was modifted in the third edition. It is indispensable. The Haworth edition (1902) was annotated by C. K. Shorter, who had access to material in the hands of Mr. Nicholls and published all Charlotte's available letters in The Brontes' Life and Letters (1908). The first supplement, however, was provided by T. Wemyss Reid in Charlotte Bronte: a Monograph (1877). In 1912 her four letters to M. Heger were given to the British museum, London, by the Heger family. During the 20th century a formidable body of biographical and critical investigation and assessment appeared. The publication in extenso of the early writings began with Legends of Angria (ed. by Fannie E. Ratchford and \V. Clyde de Vere, 1933) and Miss Ratchford has studied them in The Brontes' Web of Childhood The Bronte mss. have yielded (1941) and Condal's Queen (1935). fresh verse by Emily and .^nne and their complete poems have been published. The first biography of Emily by A. M. F. Robinson (1883), to which Ellen Xussey contributed information but did not approve the conclusions, has been followed by Romer Wilson's All Alone: the Life of Emily Bronte (1928), Muriel Spark and Derek Stanford's Emily Bronte: Her Life and Work (1953) and Jacques Blondel's Emily Bronte (1955). Winifred Gerin's Anne Bronte appeared in 1959, together with Ada Harrison's and Derek Stanford's Anne Bronte: Her The Clue Life and Work, and her Branwell Bronte followed in 1961. to the Brontes by G. Elizabeth Harrison (I94S) follows up the Brontes' Methodist connections. The Bronte Society publications (1895) include biographical, topographical and critical contributions. The following studies are important: May Sinclair, The Three Brontes (1912) E. Dimnet, Les Soeurs Bronte (1910; Eng. trans. The Bronte Sisters, 1928); Irene Cooper Willis, The Authorship of Wuthering Heights (1936); Laura L. Hinkley, The Brontes (1945); Phyllis Bentley, The Brontes (1947) and The Bronte Sisters (1950) and Laurence and E. M. Hanson. The Four Brontes (1949). The last four provide good select bibliographies. The Shakespeare Head Bronte, 19 vol. (1931-38), though not complete, is the best working echtion. (J. M. S. T.)

1 of tin, and a harder gun metal, such as was used for bronze ordnance, when the proportion of tin is about doubled.

parts of copper to

The

bronze of Col. Franz Uchatius

( 1811-81) consisted tenacity and hardness being increased by cold rolling. Bronze containing about 7 parts of copper to i of tin is hard, brittle and sonorous, and can be

steel

of copper alloyed with

8%

of

tin,

the

tempered to take a fine edge. Bell metal varies considerably in composition, from about 3 to 5 parts of copper to i of tin. In speculum metal there are 2 to 2^ parts of copper to i of tin. Statuary bronze may have from 80% to 90% copper, the rest tin, or tin with zinc and lead. Bronze in British and French copper coinage is 95% copper, 4% tin and 1% zinc. The U,S. cent is 95% copper (45.6 gr.) and 5% tin and zinc (2.4 gr,). Many copper-tin alloys employed for machinery bearings contain a small proportion of zinc, which gives increased hardness. "Antifriction metals," also used in bearings, are copper-tin alloys in which the amount of copper is small and there is antimony addition. Of this class an example is Babbitt's metal, invented by Isaac Babbitt (1799-1862); it originally consisted of 24 parts of tin, 8 parts of antimony and 4 parts of copper, but in later compositions for the same purpose the proportion of tin is often considerably higher. See Bearing Metals,

in

—

Phosphor Bronze. Bronze is improved in quality and strength when fluxed with phosphorus. Alloys prepared in this way, and known as phosphor bronze, may contain only about 1% of phosreduced to a mere trace alter casting but their nevertheless enhanced for purposes in which a hard strong is required, as for pump plungers, valves, the bushes of bearings, etc.

phorus

value metal

in the ingot,

is

;

BRONTOSAURUS,

a large plant-eating amphibious dinosaur that flourished in western North America. See Dinosaur.

BRONX, THE,

one of the

five

boroughs of

New York

city,

U.S.. and the only mainland borough, being separated from Manhattan island by the Harlem river. It was a part of Westchester county until 1898 when it was incorporated in the city of New York. It is primarily a residential area, with some of its waterfront of over 80 mi. used for shipping, warehouses and industry. Pop. (1960) 1.424,815.

The Bronx

is

named

who purNew Englanders moved

for Jonas Bronck. its first settler,

chased the area from the Indians in 1659. in early, as they did on Long Island, trespassing on Dutch territory. The Bronx has had a relatively uneventful existence, never figuring prominently in the history of the country; it remained a pleasant rural area whose population, industry and commerce developed slowly until the late 19th century.

Among the numerous points of many parks, including Bronx park,

interest in the

well

known

for

Bronx are its

its

zoological

parks and botanical gardens. Van Cortlandt park and Pelham Bay park on Long Island sound. The Bronx is also the site of Yankee stadium and the location of many institutions of higher learning, such as Fordham university, a Roman Catholic university founded in 1S41 Hunter college in the Bronx, a division of the College of the City of New York; the University Heights Centre of NewYork university, a private institution founded in 1831; and Manhattan college, a Roman Catholic college founded in 1853. For students of literature it is associated with the life of Edgar Allen Poe. who lived there with his child wife Virginia Clemm and wrote Ulahime and Annabel Lee. For the government of the Bronx, the public education system, taxation and finance, etc, see New York (City). (D. L. D.) an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and tin (qg.v.) in variable proportions. A Greek manuscript of about the nth century in the library of St. Mark's, Venice, gives the composition of the alloy as i lb. of copper with 2 oz. of tin. The product obtained by adding tin to copper is more fusible than copper and thus better suited for casting; it is also harder and less malleable. A soft bronze or gun metal is formed with 16 ;

BRONZE,

Bronze again is improved by the presence of manganese in small quantity, and various grades of manganese bronze, in some of which there is little or no tin but a considerable percentage of zinc, are

used in mechanical engineering.

Alloys of copper with aluminum, though often nearly or completely destitute of tin, are known as aluminium bronze, and are valuable for their strength and the resistance they offer to corrosion. By the addition of a small quantity of silicon the tensile strength of copper is much increased; a sample of such silicon bronze, used for telegraph wires, on analysis was found to consist of 99,94% of copper, 0.03% of tin and traces of iron and silicon.

(See also Alloys.)

The bronze (Gr.

chalcos, Lat. aes) of classical antiquity con-

sisted chiefly of copper, alloyed with one or

more

of the metals, varied as times changed, or according to the purposes for which the alloy was required. Among bronze remains, the copper is found to vary

zinc,

tin,

from

67%

lead and silver, in proportions

that

From

the analysis of coins it appears that for Greeks adhered to an alloy of copper and tin till 400 B.C., after which time they used also lead with increasing frequency. Silver is rare in their bronze coins. The Romans also used lead as an alloy in their bronze coins, but gradually reduced the quantity, and, under CaUgula, Nero, \'espasian and Domitian, coined pure copper coins; afterward they reverted to the mixture of lead. So far the words chalcos and aes may be translated as bronze. Originally, no doubt, chalcos was the name for pure copper. It is so employed by Homer, who calls it erythros (red), aithops (glittering), phaennos (shining), terms which apply only to copper. But instead of its following from this that the process of alloying copper with other metals was not practised in the time of the poet, or was unknown to him, the contrary would seem to be the case from the passage in the Iliad where he describes Hephaestus as throwing into his furnace copper, tin, silver and gold to make the shield of Achilles, so that it is not always possible to know whether when he uses the word Still more difficult is chalcos he means copper pure or alloyed. it to make this distinction regarding the mythical Dactyls of Ida in Crete or the Telchines or Cyclopes being acquainted with the smelting of chalcos. It is not. however, likely that later Greek writers, who knew bronze in its true sense, and called it chalcos. would have employed this word without qualification for objects to

95%.

their bronze coins the

1

'

i

BRONZE— BROOKE which they had seen unless they had meant it to be taken as bronze. When Pausanias speaks of a statue, one of the oldest figures he had seen of this material, made of separate pieces fastened together with nails, it is understood he means literally bronze, the more readily since there exist very early figures and utensils of bronze so made. For the use of bronze in art, see Metalwork, Decorative. See also references under "Bronze" in the Index volume. AGE. The term "Bronze Age" refers to the third phase in the development of man's material culture, following the Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age and the Neolithic (New Stone) Age, and the first period in which metal was used. The beginning of this phase is sometimes called the Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age, referring to the initial use of pure copper. Scarce at first, copper was used only for small or precious objects; its use was known in Mesopotamia already in the Halaf culture, possibly by 4000 B.C., as well as in contemporary cultures from Iran to Cilicia. By the middle of the 4th millennium a rapidly developing metallurgy, with cast tools and weapons, was a factor leading to urbanization in Mesopotamia. By 3000 B.C. the use of copper was widespread in the near east, had extended westward into the Mediterranean area and was soon to infiltrate the still Neolithic cultures of Europe. While sometimes termed the Copper Age, all this early phase of the use of metal is commonly thought of as part of the Bronze Age, though true bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, cannot be traced back much before 3000 B.C. and was used only rarely for the next few centuries. Natural alloys may account for some of the earliest occurrences of bronze. Tin deposits discovered during the 3rd millennium were apparently few and small, and only late in this millennium were more considerable deposits located. Anatolian bronzes are among the most common at this early date. Just how early the Cornwall tin deposits were exploited is not known with certainty, but they were much used in the 2nd millennium B.C. and were responsible for a considerable part of the large production of bronze objects in the second half of the 2nd millennium, as well as later. Thus, for almost 3,000 years copper and then bronze were the main metals used for making implements, weapons, vessels, etc.; stone continued to be used in decreasing amounts for these purposes as the availability of metals increased. From the end of the 2nd millennium the greater availability and use of another metal, iron, brought the Bronze Age to an end as the Iron

275

BRONZE

Age began. See Archaeology; see

also references

under "Bronze Age" (S. S.

in

We.)

BRONZE AND BRASS WORK. A and brass

in

the arts

is

general history of given in the article

Metalwork, Decorative. The chemistry and metallurgy of these two alloys are discussed in Brass and Bronze. The technique of bronze casting, and the subject of patina, are dealt with in Sculp-

ture Techniques. References to art objects

in

bronze and brass are found in in such articles as Chinese

numerous articles on sculpture and Bronze; Seals and Numismatics.

BRONZING,

a process of imparting a metallic surface to

The material used is Dutch copper and 20% zinc. It is prepared as a thin foil and then powdered. The metallic powder may be applied directly, if the object to be covered is first sized with a spirit lacquer or with gold-size. If the powdered metal is combined with spirit lacquer thinned with amyl acetate, the mixture can be painted on with a brush. A number of colouring effects can be produced chemically. For example, treatment with a solution of arsenious acid in hydrochloric acid imparts an appearance of true bronze, while a water solution of copper nitrate, ammonium chloride and calcium chloride gives an antique bronze finish. Application of nitric acid reobjects of wood, plaster, clay, etc.

metal, an alloy of

80%

The alloy's own natural gold effect can be heightened by applying spirit lacquer coloured with dragon's The colours can be preserved by a finishing coat of clear

sults in a pale gold color.

blood.

spirit lacquer.

Gun of

barrels can be bronzed

antimony

trichloride.

LERY,

IN

THE UFFIZI GAL-

FLORENCE

BRONZINO,

IL (Agnolo or Angiolo di Cosimo) (15031572), Florentine painter and poet, renowned especially for his portraits, which are the classic embodiments of the courtly ideal under the Medici dukes, Alessandro and Cosimo I. Bronzino was born in the Florentine suburb Monticelli, Nov. 17, 1503. AUessandro Allori, his adopted son and pupil, also used "Bronzino" as name. Bronzino's principal teachers were Raffaellino del Garbo and Jacopo da Pontormo. Beginning in Pontormo's eccentric, expressive style (exemplifying what is now called early Mannerism [g.v.]) he created a brilliantly precise, clear style of his own, partly influenced by Michelangelo and the Raphael school. He is rightly classified as a Mannerist since after the middle 1530s he was a prime exponent of Mannerist stylization; e.g., "Allegory of Luxury," National gallery, London, or "Resurrection," SS. Annunziata, Florence. His portraits are pre-eminent examples of Mannerist portraiture: stiff, flat, reserved and noncommittal, yet arrestingly elegant and decorative; e.g., "Duchess Eleanora and Son," Uffizi gallery, Florence, Bronzino did sacred and allegorical works of influence and distinction, including fresco decorations and his last

the Index volume. the use of bronze

PORTRAIT OF LUCREZIA PANCIATICHI BY BRONZING.

by treatment with a strong

solution

(E. L. Y.)

tapestry designs, and represents the local Florentine tradition toward the mid- 16th century at its clearest. He was court artist to

Cosimo, Bronzino died

in

Florence on Nov. 23, 1572.

—

Bibliography. Arthur McComb, Agnolo Bronzino, His Life and Works (1928); Luisa Becherucci, Bronzino (1949); C. H. Smyth, "The Earliest Works of Bronzino," Art Bulletin, vol. xxxi, pp. 184-209 (Sept. 1949). (C. H. Sm.)

BRONZITE:

see

Pyroxene.

BROOCH: see Jewelry. BROOKE, FULKE GREVILLE,

1st

Baron (1554-1628),

English writer who, on his tomb, styled himself "Servant to Queen Elizabeth, Counsellor to King James, and Friend of Sir Philip Sidney," but who is best remembered as a powerful philosophical poet and exponent of a plain style of writing. He was born at Beauchamp court, Warwickshire, on Oct, 3, 1554, entered Shrewsbury school with Philip Sidney in 1564 and matriculated at Jesus college, Cambridge, in 1568. Sir Henry Sidney, president of

BROOKE

276

Wales, gave him a post in the court of the Marches in 1576, but next year he accompanied Sidney on an embassy to the Holy Roman emperor and to the Palatinate. This was the first of several diplomatic missions undertaken for Elizabeth I, who favoured him greatly but refused to let him travel as often" as he wished. However, he visited the Low Countries. Ireland and France. With Sidney and Sir Edward Dyer he practised poetry, but the legend that they formed an "Areopagus," a literary classicizing club, is now exploded. He grew rich by grants of land and minor offices, and in 1598 became treasurer of the navy. He tried to stay the impetuous descent of the earl of Essex and he befriended Francis Bacon, but he alienated Sir Robert Cecil. Consequently, although he was made a knight of the Bath at James I's coronation, he obtained no major office. Instead he managed his estates, restored the ruined Warwick castle (which the king had bestowed on him Noted for his in 1605) and wrote his verse treatises and plays. tact

and business

ability,

Greville was

made

chancellor of the

exchequer in 1614 and was created a baron in 1621. He was stabbed at Warwick by his manservant on Sept. i, 1628, and died on Sept. 30. He never married, though Sir Robert Naunton in his Fragmenta Regalia (1641 called him "a constant courtier of the ladies." He proved a kindly patron to William Camden, John Speed and Samuel Daniel. Greville's L'lje of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney (1652), though inadequate biographically, is a valuable commentary on Elizabethan It was probably intended as a dedication for an edition of politics. Sidney's poems, the corrected manuscripts of which are at Warwick castle. The only other works which can certainly be ascribed to Greville were published in Certaine Learned atid Elegant ]Vorkes (1633 and Remains (1670). The tragedy Mustapha was printed (probably piratically) in i6of) and a few songs were set to music. His sonnet collection Caelica differs in tone from most Elizabethan cycles: the themes often resemble Sidney's, but the treatment is realistic and ironic. Greville's mind was melancholy. Calvinistic, deeply philosophical obsessed with the incapacity of fallen human nature deprived of grace, he emphasizes the "wearisome condition of humanity." torn between this world and God's commands. The Senecan tragedies on oriental themes trace the political results of In his verse treatises, such as ''Monarchy." he is this division. an Elizabethan Machiavelli showing how statesmen should behave His poem "Humane Learning" to keep order in a naughty world. is skeptical about the instruments and aims of earthly knowledge. In stressing practical improvements it probably owes something to Bacon. Bibliography. Poems and Dramas, ed. by G. BuUough (ig.ig) Caelica, in Elizabethan Sonnet Cycles, ed. by M. F. Crow, vol. iv (i8q8) The Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney, ed. by N. Smith (1907). See also C. C. Slopes, Shakespeare's Wanoickshire ContemG. BulA. H. Bullen, Elizabethans (1924) poraries, 2nd ed. (igo?) M. W. lough, "Fulk Greville," Modern Language Review (Jan. 193.^) Croll, Worlis of Fulk Greville (1903); P. Ure, "Greville's Dramatic (Gy. B.) Characters," Review of English Studies (Oct. 1950). )

)

;

—

;

;

;

BROOKE, HENRY Virginia.

Dublin.

(c.

1703-1783). Irish novelist and dram-

known for his novel The Fool of Quality, was born near County Cavan. Ire., and educated at Trinity college, In 1724 he went to London to read law and became

friendly with Alexander

Pope and Lord Lyttleton

;

he had already

met Jonathan Swift in Ireland. In 172S he wrote a philosophical poem. Universal Beauty, a statement of the idea that "the beauty of the universe

is

in all creation."

A

it is

spoiled

by a

the expression of the Divine order immanent poem of the same kind as Pope's Essay on Man,

style

rebellion of 1745 he published Farmer's Six Letters to the Protestants of Ireland, in form an imitation of Swift's Drapier's Letters, pointing to the threat of rebellion pro-

vided by the Catholic majority in Ireland, and suggesting a more enlightened policy to forestall the danger. For this he received the post of barrack master at MuUingar, County Westmeath, which he held until his death, in Dublin, on Oct. 10, 1783. Brooke's novel. The Fool of Quality (1764-70). is a rambling and digressive narrative which has as its central thread the education of an ideal nobleman. It oscillates between hectic incident

and pathetic

reflection

and owes

its

reputation largely to

its

"pas-

sionate and tearful sensibility." In date and feeling it may be linked with Laurence Sterne's Sentimental Journey ( and the more pathetic passages of Tristram Shandy) and Henry Mackenzie's

Man

of Feeling.

Its hurrianity

and

religious

temper recommended

to John Wesley, who edited an abridged version in 17S0. and to Charles Kingsley. who published it with an enthusiastic biographical preface in 1859. See H. M. Scurr, Henry Brooke (1927). (Jn. C.) it

BROOKE, SIR JAMES explorer,

who became

raja of

(1803-1868 ), English soldier and Sarawak (q-v.) and founded a dy-

nasty there, was born in India on April 29, 1803. at Secrore. near Benares, where his father, a descendant of the Cromwellian lord of London. Sir Thomas Vyner (1588-1665), was a high court judge. Educated in England at Norwich grammar school, James joined the 6th Madras native infantry and sailed for India

mayor

in 1819.

He

did not see action until 1825. in the

first

Burmese

War, when he was critically wounded and returned to England, a pensioner of the British East India company. Expecting dismissal from the company for overstaying his leave, he resigned (1830) and traveled through the islands of the East Indies as far as China, showing a keen interest in the problems of European settlement in the far east. Restless and bored when he returned to England, in 1834 he helped to organize an unsuccessful trading expedition to the Indian archipelago. However, on his father's death in 1835. Brooke inherited a considerable fortune and settled down to a serious study of the political and economic problems of settlement, publishing, in Oct. 1838, a long and controversial article on the subject in the Athenaeum. That year he sailed from Devonport in his armed yacht "Royahst," vaguely planning a settlement in Borneo or Celebes. On reaching Singapore, Brooke learned that the raja Muda Hassim of Sarawak was kindly disposed toward the English, possessed rich resources of antimony and was facing a rebellion. Brooke sailed for Kuching, capital of Sarawak, and offered his services against the rebels. After lengthy intrigues, the rebellion was quashed with his aid. and he was rewarded with the title of raja, subject to the approval of the sultan of Brunei. He visited Brunei

;

;

atist best

During the Jacobite

which attempts to combine the rhyme pat-

tern of the couplet with the syntactical elaboration of Miltonic blank verse. Brooke translated the first and second books of Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata in 1738, and in 1739 produced a celebrated drama, Giistavus Vasa, the Deliverer of His Country, performance of which was forbidden under the new Licensing act because of the supposition that Sir Robert Walpole was depicted in the part of the villain Trollio. The play was printed, and later performed in Dublin as The Patriot. It deals with conflicts of loyalty and. although the situations are artificially contrived, it is not without rhetorical power and can be read with pleasure. Following the ban on Gustavus Vasa Brooke returned to Ireland.

in 1842, the title was confirmed and in 1843 the sultan, impressed by Brooke's connection with the British fleet, granted it in perpetuity. From 1843 the fleet was virtually at Brooke's orders, helping to stamp out piracy. With no more than a handful of English assistants. Brooke made expeditions into the interior, partially suppressed head-hunting

and established a secure government. Little interested in commercial profit, he had difficulty at first in gaining financial backing, but the foundation of the Borneo company in 1856 and the help of his friend Baroness Burdett-Coutts later solved this problem. Brooke wanted to make Sarawak a British protectorate, but

England he gained little support, although he was and made governor of Labuan and consul general for Borneo in 1847. He was knighted in 1848. In 1851 grave charges were brought against him in the house of commons on the grounds that he had employed unnecessary severity He during a battle against Sea Dayaks off Tanjong Marau ( 1 849 ) replied that severity was necessary in combating pirates, and dcr 1851-53). England fended himself during a protracted visit to Although a royal commission which met in Singapore in 1854 declared the charges '"not proven." it is said that he never recovered from the strain of those proceedings. In 1857 Chinese tin miners in Bau sailed up the Sarawak river and sacked Kuching, which Brooke recovered a few days later with on

his visits to

given

official

status in 1845

.

(

—

BROOKE— BROOKINGS the

help of

the

Borneo company's armed yacht, "Sir James

The same year he returned

England, staying until 1861 and leaving the government in the hands of his nephew Brooke Johnson, with whom he quarreled intermittently. He contemplated making Baroness Burdett-Coutts his successor, but finally appointed another nephew. Charles Johnson, who changed his surname to Brooke and became the second English-born raja of Sarawak. Sir James Brooke died at Burrator in Devon on June 11, 1868. He displayed unusual courage in his dealings with the Malay princes and showed throughout his life a penetrating understandHe was less successful ing of the ways of Malays and Dayaks. in dealing with his adversaries in England. Brooke."

to

—

BiBLioGR-^PHY. The Private Letters of Sir J. Brooke, 3 vol., ed. by Templer (1853) Gertrude Jacob, The Raja of Sarawak (1876) St. John, Life of Sir James Brooke (1S79); E. Hahn, James Brooke of Sarawak (1953) Robert Payne, The White Rajahs of Sarawak (1960) ;; Steven Runciman, The White Rajahs (1960). (R. Pa.) J. C. S. B.

;

;

;

BROOKE, RUPERT

(1S87-1915), English poet who will be remembered as the author of the sonnet-series ig/14, and as typical of the poets who died in World War I, was born at Rugby, Warwickshire, on .\ug. 3, 1S87. Brooke began his education at Rugby, going on to King's college, Cambridge, with a scholarship in 1906. He played a leading part in university life; and there, as throughout his career, the charm of his personality, in which his remarkable good looks were only one element, gained him innumerable friends. In 191 1 he published his first volume. Poems, and in 1913 became a fellow of King's college. During 1913-14 he traveled in North Arnerica and the South seas. In Sept. 1914 he received a commission in the Royal Naval division, with which he took part in the Antwerp expedition and sailed for the Dardanelles. He died of blood poisoning on the Greek island of Skiros, April 23.

poems (1905-08) Brooke is still a boy; he writes with a sense of verbal and metrical beauty, but the general effect The

later section (igoS-ii) shows an advance: an immaturity of exuberance and bravado, the beauties are more abundant. His wartime sonnets, 1914 (1915), won him immediate fame. The sonnets are in strong contrast with the later poetry of trench warfare, and in them his contemporaries recognized, in the words of Winston Churchill, "a voice . a little turgid.

though there

is still

.

more

true,

more

thrilling,

more

do justice

able to

.

to the nobility

." arms than any other The collection of his poems edited by his friend and patron Edward Marsh (1918), and the memoir prefixed to it. created a permanent (if somewhat idealized) image of the poet, and changing tastes hardly diminished its popularity. Poetical Works of Rupert Brooke edited by G. Keynes (19461 added about 30 juvenilia of little worth. (E. Mar.; J. Sp.) FARM, an institute of agriculture and education from 1841 to 1847, situated on 160 ac. at West Roxbury. Mass., 9 mi. from Boston. It was organized and throughout its existence virtually directed by the Rev. George Ripley, a former Unitarian minister, an editor of The Dial (a critical literary monthly) and

of our youth in

.

.

BROOK

Transcendental club, an informal gathering of the intellectuals of the period and vicinity. He was aided by his wife. Sophia Dana Ripley, a woman of wide culture and academic experience. According to the articles of agreement, their desire was to combine the thinker and the worker, to guarantee the highest mental freedom and to prepare a society of liberal, intelHgent and cultiva,ted persons whose relations with each other would permit a more wholesome and simple life than could be led amid the pressure of competitive institutions. The project was financed by the sale of stock, a purchaser of one share becoming automatically a member of the institute. It ^as governed by a board of directors. The profits, if any, after all payments and improvements, were divided into a number of shares corresponding with the number of days' labour, every member entitled to one share for each day's labour performed. Among the original shareholders were Charles A. Dana and Nathaniel Hawthorne (gq.v.), who served together as the first directors of a leader in the

agriculture.

garet Fuller,

Ralph Waldo Emerson. Amos Bronson Alcott, MarTheodore Parker and Orestes A. Brownson were

Brook Farm attracted not only

intellectuals

—

though teachers remained ever in excess of farmers but carpenters, shoemakers and printers. It paid a dollar a day for work (physical or mental to men and to women, and provided to all members, their children and family dependents, housing, fuel, clothing and food at approximately actual cost. For four years it published The Harbinger, a weekly magazine devoted to social and political problems, to which James Russell Lowell. John Greenleaf Whittier and Horace Greeley occasionally contributed. Brook Farm was noted particularly for its excellent school, which in educational theory was modern, desiring "perfect freedom of intercourse between students and teaching body." Disciplinary measures consisted in the attempt to arouse a sense of personal re1

and to communicate a passion for intellectual w-ork. There were no prescribed study hours, and each student was required to give a few hours a day to manual labour the girls to kitchen and laundry work, the boys to hoeing and chopping. There was an infant school, a primary school and a college preparatory course covering six years. George William Curtis, Father Isaac Thomas Hecker and Gen. Francis C. Barlow were early students' sponsibility

—

there.

Although communal living proved to have disadvantages (Hawthorne found that he was unable to write there and left after six months), for a while it looked as though the ideal of the founders

would have something of a practical realization. Within three years the community or "Phalanx" as it was called after 1S44 when Brook Farm adopted some of the theories of the French had added four houses, worksocialist Charles Fourier (q.v.) rooms and dormitories to its original farmhouse and school. It

—

—

then put

all

available funds into the construction of a large central

known as the Phalanstery, which burned to the completion was being celebrated on the night of March 2, 1846. Though the colony struggled on for a while, "the enterprise faded, flickered, died down, and expired," and the land and buildings were sold at auction on April 13, 1849. Ripley went to New York and in 1849 became literary critic on Greeley's Tribune, a position he held until his death in 1880. Brook Farm was one of many experiments in communal living that took place in the United States during the first half of the it is better known than most 19th century (see Farm Colony and has a secure place in U.S. social history because of the distinguished literary figures and intellectual leaders associated with building to be

ground as

1915. In his earlier

is

interested visitors.

277

its

)

;

—

it.

—

L. Swift, Brook J. T. Codman, Brook Farm (1894) M. Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States (1900) Farm., Letters From Brook 1S44-1S47 Orvis, (1928); M. D. (1903); K. Burton, Paradise Planters: the Story of Brook Farm (1939) V. W. Brooks, The Flowering of New England, 181S-1865, pp. 237-260 (1936). Hawthorne's Blithedale Romance (1852) is a fictional treatment of the

Bibliography.

Farm

;

;

;

Brook Farm

setting.

BROOKFIELD,

Cook county, 111., U.S., about Founded in 1892 by Eberly has remained largely residential. The

a village in

14 mi. S.W. of the Chicago loop.

Gross, a land promoter,

it

village has a council-manager

form of government, adopted

in

A

tax-supported recreation program is carried on in cooperation with the schools and private groups. A major attraction, drawing 2,000.000 persons a year, is the Chicago zoological park or Brookfield zoo, where an outstanding collection of birds and animals is kept in open exhibits in simu1947.

lated natural habitat.

For comparative population

figures see table in Illinois:

Popu-

(Wa. B. H.) (1850-1932), U.S. businessman and philanthropist who helped establish the Brookings institution at Washington, D.C., for research and graduate training in economics and government, was bom in Cecil county, Md., on Jan. 22, 1850. Brookings entered a St. Louis, Mo., woodenware company at the age of 17. Four years later he and his brother opened their own woodenware firm and during the next 25 years extended their interests into real estate and the lumbering and transportation industries. Following his retirement in 1896, Brookings devoted his time to the development of Washington lation.

BROOKINGS, ROBERT SOMERS

university in St. Louis.

As president of the university corporation

BROOKITE— BROOKLYN

278

(1897-1928) he helped relocate the school, induced wealthy St. Louis citizens to contribute money for buildings and endowments and helped raise the medical school to a position of academic excellence. He was one of the original trustees of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and during World War I served as chairman of the price-fixing committee of the war industries board. After the war he became the first board chairman of the Institute for Government Research and helped found the Institute of Economics and the Brookings Graduate School of Economics and Government. In 1928 these three organizations were merged and named the Brookings institution in his honour. Brookings died at Washington, D.C., on Nov. IS, 1932, and was buried at

St. Louis.

BROOKITE, one

of the three modifications in which titanium

dioxide (TiOo) occurs in nature; the other minerals with the same chemical composition, but with different physical and crystal-

lographic characters, being rutile latter are

(q.v.)

The two

and anatase.

tetragonal in crystallization while brookite

is

ortho-

rhombic. The name was given in honour of the English mineralogist H. J. Brooke (1771-1857). Two types of brookite crystals may be distinguished. The commoner type of crystals are thin and tabular, and often terminated by numerous small and brilliant faces. These crystals are of a rich reddish-brown colour and are often translucent. Crystals of the second type have the appearance of six-sided bipyramids; these crystals are black and opaque, and constitute the variety

known

as arkansite, so

named from

its

oc-

currence at Magnet Cove, Ark. Brookite occurs only as crystals, never in compact masses, and is usually associated with either anatase or rutile, a major ore of titanium (q.v.) with which it is mined. The crystals are found attached to the walls of cavities in decomposed igneous rocks and crystalline schists; brookite is also found as minute isolated crystals in

many sedimentary

rocks.

The best-known

locality

is

Fronolen, near Tremadoc, in north Wales, where crystals of the thin tabular habit occur with crystallized quartz, albite and anatase

on the walls of crevices in diabase. Similar crystals of relatively large size are found attached to gneiss at several places in the Swiss and Tirolese Alps. The lustre of brookite is metallic-adamantine. There is no hardness is distinct cleavage (rutile and anatase have cleavages) ;

5.5 to 6; specific gravity 4.0.

ing: the optic axes for red

The

optical characters are interest-

and for blue

light lie in planes at right

apparatus.

The town

is

also the birthplace of

John

F.

Kennedy,

35th president of the United States. Gov. John Winthrop first referred to that part of Boston which is now Brookline as "the hamlet of Muddy River." For many years the area was designated as "Boston's back cow pasture." According to the Rev. John Pierce, Brookline got its name from a brook which ran along the line of Samuel Sewall's property. Some of the early settlers who owned property in the area were Rev. John Cotton, William Colbome, Thomas Leveritt, Thomas Savage and Capt. John Underbill. In the earliest days sailing vessels could proceed up the Muddy river to what is now Longwood Avenue bridge. Land fills during the late 18th and early 19th centuries made the river no longer navigable. Throughout its history as a suburb Brookline has fought successfully to retain its identity as a separate community beyond the boundaries of Boston. Pop. (1960) 54,044. For comparative population figures see table in Massachusetts: Population. (L. G. H.) a borough of the city of New York, U.S., is situated at the southwest extremity of Long Island. First settled in 1636, it was chartered as a city in 1834 and gradually absorbed the towns of Bushwick and Williamsburg (1855), New Lots (1886), Flatbush, New Utrecht and Gravesend (1894) and Flatlands (1896). In 1898 it became a borough of New York city. Pop. (I960) 2,627,319. Three bridges and several rapid transit tubes connect Brooklyn with Manhattan. Known as a city of homes and churches, it has a widespread business area. An important manufacturing centre, the city handles a vast amount of ocean-going trafiic and is a western terminal of the Long Island railroad. Parkways connect it with Queens and Long Island areas. Brooklyn's numerous parks and recreation centres include Prospect park, site of the battle of Long Island during the American Revolution. In addition to an excellent public school system, its advanced educational facilities include Pratt institute, a school of engineering and applied arts founded in 1887; Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, a private college founded in 1854; Brooklyn college, a division of the College of the City of New York; St. Francis college (1858), St. John's university (1870) and St. Joseph's College for Women (1916), all three Roman Catholic. There are also Brooklyn law school (private, 1901) and St. John's law school (1925), a division of St. John's university; the Long Island medical college, a division of the State University of New York; Brooklyn

BROOKLYN,

the optic axes,

college of pharmacy (1886), a division of Long Island university; and several schools of music. Among the better-known libraries are the Brooklyn public li-

so that this

brary, the

may

library.

angles to each other, while for yellow-green light the crystals are uniaxial.

The acute

bisectrix, a line bisecting the angle

between

is perpendicular to the orthopinacoid for all colours, phenomenon of the crossing of the optic axial planes be readily observed in the thin tabular crystals of the first-

mentioned type.

BROOKLIME,

(L. J. S.)

known

botanically as Veronica heccabunga

(family Scrophulariaceae, q.v.), a succulent herb growing on margins of brooks and ditches in the British Isles, a native of Europe, north Africa and northwestern Asia and naturalized in eastern North America. Brooklime has smooth spreading branches, blunt oblong leaves and small blue or pink flowers. The similar American brooklime (F. americana) occurs in wet places from Anticosti to Alaska and southward to Permsylvania

and California.

BROOKLINE,

town of Norfolk county, Mass., by Boston and separated from the rest of

a residential

U.S., almost surrounded

Norfolk county by parts of Suffolk and Middlesex counties. As is the case in many New England towns, it contains a number of unincorporated village communities, including Brookline village, Cottage Farms, Longwood, Beaconsfield and Chestnut Hill. It has the largest population of any municipality classified as a town in New England. Its government is known as a representative or limited town meeting form; the town meeting consists of 240 members elected by 12 precincts (wards). Brookline was originally a part of Boston but became a separate town in Suffolk county in 1705. It was separated from Suffolk county in 1793. It has been a residential community from its earliest days; the only manufacturing is furniture and scientific

Long Island Historical society, Pratt Institute Free Kings County Medical society and the Brooklyn museum. The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, the Brooklyn Philharmonia, the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the botanic garden and the children's museum in Bedford park attract nationwide attention. For the government, public school system, etc., see New

York

(City). (M. H. Le.) History. The first settlement within the present limits of Brooklyn was made when some Dutch farmers took up their residence along the shore of Gowanus bay in 1636. About the same time other Dutch farmers founded Flatlands (at first called Amersfoort), on Jamaica bay, and a few Walloons founded Wallabout, In 1642 a ferry was established later the site of the navy yard. across East river from the present foot of Fulton street, and a settlement grew up there which was known as The Ferry. The next year Lady Deborah Moody with some followers from New England founded Gravesend, near the southern extremity of the bor-

—

ough. In 1645 a settlement was established near the site of the present borough hall, and was called Breuckelen (also spelled Breucklyn, Breupkland, Brucklyn, Broucklyn, Brookland and Brookline) until about the close of the 18th century, when its orthography became fixed as Brooklyn. The name Breuckelen, meaning marshland, seems to have been suggested by the resemblance of the situation of the settlement to that of Breuckelen,

Of the other towns which were later united to form the Utrecht was settled about 1650, Flatbush (at first Medwoud, Midwout or Midwood) about 1651 and Bushwick

Holland. borough, called

New

BROOKS— BROQUEVILLE During the American Revolution the chief event was the battle of Long Island, fought on Aug. 27, 1 776. In 1816, when the population of the town of Brooklyn was about 4,500, its most populous section was incorporated as a village; and in 1834, when the population had increased to 23.310, the whole town was incorporated as a city. By 1850 the population had increased to 138,882, In 1855 Williamsburg, which had been incorporated as a city in 1851, and the town of Bushwick were annexed. Other annexations followed until the city of Brooklyn was conterminous with Kings county; on Jan. 1, 1898. the city of Brooklyn (E. B. Wn.; L. Gu.) became a borough of New York city. and Williamsburg

in 1660.

;

erties.

Butcher's broom, a very difknown botanically

ferent plant, as

a

"The spirit of man is the candle of the Lord" was the theme of most famous sermon; it aptly expressed his theology. He

never bothered to refute the doctrines he quietly discarded, refusing always to be drawn into controversy. Even when charges of heresy were leveled against him, his only answer was calm and unruffled silence. He published numerous volumes of ser-

well-known Christmas hymn "0 Speaking of his death, James Bryce noted that not since Abraham Lincoln had there been a man so widely mourned. mons, and Little

his verse included the

Town

of Bethlehem."

(W. S. H ) (1848-1908), U,S. zoologist, who made extensive and valuable researches on the morphology of various groups of marine animals, especially the tunicates, crustaceans and the oyster, was born in Cleveland, 0,, on March 25, 1848. He graduated from Williams college, Williamstown, Mass,, in 1870 and later studied with Louis Agassiz at Harvard university (Ph.D,, 1875). In 1876 he was made associate in natural history at Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore. Md., where he became professor of animal morphology in 1891, head of the biological laboratory in 1893 and also professor of zoology. He established a marine laboratory. Among his more important works are Provisional Hypothesis of Pangenesis (1877), Heredity (1883), Monograph of the Genus Salpa (1893), Foundations of Zoology (1899-1907), and a popular book on The Oyster (1891). He died at Baltimore, Md.. on Nov. 12, 1908. (Cytisus scoparitts), a shrub of the pea family (Leguminosae, g.v.), is native to the temperate parts of Europe and Asia and naturalized in North America. The leaves are small and usually fall away early; their function is shared by the green stems. The bright yellow flowers scatter their pollen by an explosive mechanism; the weight of a bee ahghting on the flower causes the keel to split and the pollen to be shot out onto the insect's body. When ripe the black pods explode with a sudden twisting of the valves and scatter the seeds. The twigs have a See \V. Lawrence, Life of Phillips Brooks (1930).

BROOKS, WILLIAM KEITH

BROOM

Ruscus

aculeatiis,

is

a

mem-

ber of the lily family. It is a small evergreen shrub found in copses and woods. The stout angular stems bear leaves reduced to small scales, which subtend flattened leaflike branches (cladodes) with a sharp apex. The small whitish flowers are borne on the face of the cladodes; the berrv is bright red.

man who

his

nauseous taste and have

long had a reputation as a diuretic the seeds have similar prop-

BROOKS, PHILLIPS

(1835-1893), U.S. Episcopal clergygained an international reputation as a preacher during 22-year ministry at Trinity Protestant Episcopal church in Boston, Mass., was born in Boston on Dec, 13, 1835. He graduated from Harvard university in 1S55, spent a brief period as a teacher in the Boston Latin school and then studied for the minIn istry at the Episcopal theological school in Alexandria, Va, 1859 he became minister of the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia, and three years later was called to Holy Trinity church in the same city. He began his ministry at Trinity church, BosHe preached Sunday after Sunday to great congreton, in 1869, gations. In 1891 Brooks was consecrated bishop of Massachusetts, but after a brief episcopate, of 15 months he died, unmarried, on Jan. 23, 1893. Although he declined the professorship of Christian ethics at Harvard, he was for many years an overseer of the university and the university preacher. Endowed with a commanding stature, a compelling personality and great eloquence. Brooks was by far the most attractive and most widely loved preacher of his day. An abundance of natural vigour coupled with an innate gentleness of spirit and cheerfulness of temper gave to his preaching a quality of winsomeness and serenity, which was tremendously appealing to the comfortable and enlightened folk of Back Bay Boston, Harvard yard and the cultural oases of the east and middle west. He was a broad churchman who regarded humanity itself rather than the organized church as the instrument through which God effects his purposes,

279 bitter,

BROOM :.?ee Brush. BROOME, WILLIAM (1689-1745), English scholar and poet, and collaborator with BROOM (CYTISUS SCOPARIUS) Alexander Pope in his translation of Homer, was bom at Haslington, Cheshire, in 1689. He was educated at Eton and St. John's college, Cambridge, and became rector of Sturston, Norfolk. When Pope undertook the translation of the Odyssey (172526) he engaged Elijah Fenton and Broome, who had contributed to the notes for Pope's translation of the Iliad (1715-20), to help him. Broome translated the 2nd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 12th, 16th, 18th and 23rd books, and provided almost all the notes. The financial arrangements were vague, and Pope has often been accused

Broome shabbily, but research has shown that Pope acted with greater generosity than was at one time supposed. He gave his collaborators virtually all the copy money and something of treating

more (amounting

to about £800) and kept for himself the proceeds from subscribers that he had solicited (amounting to about Fenton and Broome were free to solicit for subscriptions on their own account but did not in fact do so to any considerable extent, Broome seems to have undertaken the work largely in order to increase his own reputation, and it was only when he found that little fame was coming his way that he complained of underpayment, Broome also made translations from Anacreon, printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, and wrote Poems on Several Occasions (1727). He died at Bath on Nov. 16, 1745. See George Sherburn, The Early Career of Alexander Pope (1934).

£5,000),

(JN. C.)

BROOMRAPE

(Orobanche). a genus of brown, leafless, parasitic herbs (family Orobanchaceae) growing attached to the The usually stout stem bears brownish roots of other plants. scales and ends in a spike of yellow, reddish-brown or purplish flowers, with a gaping two-lipped corolla. There are about 90 to 100 species of broomrape. natives of temperate and subtropical regions; many occur in North America. Eleven species are found in the British Isles; the largest. Orobanche -major, is parasitic on roots of shrubby leguminous plants, and has a stout stem one to two feet high. 0. minor is sometimes troublesome on clover crops. BROQUEVILLE, CHARLES, Comte de (1860-1940), Belgian statesman who headed the Belgian government-in-exile during World War I. was born at Postel, near Moll, on Dec, 4, 1860, From 1885 to 1910 he was successively town councilor of Moll, provincial councilor of Antwerp, deputy for Turnhout (1892 ) and minister of railways, posts and telegraphs. He became prime minister in a Catholic cabinet on June 18, 1911, After the elections of 1912 he formed a new cabinet, in which he was also minister of war until Aug. 1917. His army bill making military service compulsory for all males (instead of one male only per family) became law in 1913. In July 1914, on the eve of World War I, he was responsible for the mobilization of the Belgian army. While at Ste, Adresse, near Le Havre in France, after the battle of the Yser, he undertook the reorganization of the army. He resigned in Dec, 1917 when it became known that, without informing the members of his cabinet, he had taken part in a secret negotia-

BRORSON— BROUGHAM

28o

tion aiming at the conclusion of a separate peace treaty with

Nevertheless he became minister of state on May 31, 1918, and was minister of the interior in Leon Delacroix's coalition from Nov. 1918 until Nov. 1919. He endeavoured to make the Catholic party accept the suppression of the plural vote and prepared a revision of the constitution. He was elected senator for the province of Namur in 1919. From 1926 until 1930 he was minister of war. He fought for the maintenance of the term of

Austria-Hungary.

members of Henri Jaspar's and brought into being a new system of defense centred on the fort of Eben Emael. He was again prime minister from Oct. 1932 until Nov. 1934 and retired from political life in 1936. He died in Brussels on Sept. 5, 1940. See F. Marre, Le Baron de Broquevilh el la defense nationale (1918) Comte L. de Lichtervelde, Le Comle de Broqueville (1946). (Je. D.) military service against the Socialist coalition

;

BRORSON, HANS ADOLPH

(1694-1764), Danish poet

and bishop, author of hymns influenced by German Pietism, was born at the village of Randerup, southern Jutland, on June 20, He became pastor there in 1721, and was transferred in 1694. 1729 to Tonder and in 1737 to Ribe, where he was elected bishop in 1 74 1. He died at Ribe on June 3, 1764. Brorson was influenced in his youth by German Pietism (q.v.) and while at Tonder began to translate German Pietist hymns. From 1732 onward he published also hymns of his own, and in 1739 appeared Trocns rare Klenodie ("The Rare Jewel of Faith") which contained many translations and 82 original hymns, among them the famous "The loveliest rose is found." Svanesangen ("Swan Songs"), a collection of hymns expressing his longing for the life hereafter, was published a year after his death. Brorson 's hymns are intimate expressions of the soul, and are meant for personal and family use. His frequent use of flower symbols, and his emphasis on the mystical marriage between the soul and Jesus, are Pietist. His hymns are often in aria form, and their language and rhythm show the subtlety of rococo. Brorson's Samlede Skrifler were published in

3

vol.

(iqji). (O. A. F.)

BROSCHI, CARLO: see Farinelli. BROSSE, SALOMON DE (1571-1626),

French architect, whose work prepared the way for the restrained baroque architecture of Louis XIV, was born at Verneuil and died in Paris. Son of an architect, grandson and follower of Jacques Androuet du Cerceau the elder, he was among the most distinguished architects After the Edict of Nantes, De Brosse, a Protestant, where in 1615 he began the Luxembourg palace By 1619 Blerancourt, his finest and most influential chateau, was completed. De Brosse also designed the first monumental French Protestant temple at Charenton (1623) and the palais de justice at Rennes (1618; built posthumously His architecture is particularly noteworthy for its simplicity, dignity and monumentality. of his age.

moved for

to Paris

Marie

de' Medici.

)

.

See J. Pannier, Vn architecte jran^ais au commencement du XVII' Salomon de Brosse (1911); L. Hautecoeur, Histoire de I'archileclure classique en France, i, part 2 (1943). (H. Mn.) Steele:

BROSSES, CHARLES

DE

(1709-1777), French scholar and writer known as le Preside?it de Brasses because he was president of the parliament of Burgundy from 1740 until his death. He was born at Dijon, Feb. 7, 1709. After a visit to Italy in 1739 he published 1750) the first work on the ruins of Herculaneum and wrote his famous Lettres sur I'ltalie, posthumously published in 1799 (best edition by Y. Bezard, 1931). His Histoire des navigations aux terres australes (1756), in which he first laid down the geographical divisions of Australasia and Polynesia adopted by succeeding geographers, helped to stimulate the voyages of L. A. de Bougainville and James Cook. He also wrote on the origin of language, on Roman history and on Saliust, the translation of whose work occupied much of his time. He died in Paris, May 7,

graduated at the faculty of letters in the University of Paris. A journahst and member of the Socialist party, he was appointed chief foreign commentator for the French radio in 1936, but lost his post in 1939 because of his critical commentaries on the foreign policy of £douard Daladier, particularly the Munich agreement. He became foreign editor of the Socialist party's newspaper, Le Popidaire, and the acuteness and vigour of his commentaries brought him to the front rank both in journalism and among the new generation of the party. After serving in the infantry in the campaign of 1940 he was among the first organizers of the resistance in the German-occupied zone after the armistice. In Sept. 1942 he joined General de Gaulle in London but soon returned for further work in France itself. He was captured by the Germans and tortured. He died in prison on March 22, 1943. His widow, Gilberte, who had served with him in the resistance, was a Socialist senator from 1946 to 1959. (P. W. C.)

BROSTROM, AXEL LUDVIG

(1838-1905), the founder of the largest shipping group in Sweden, can be regarded as the father of the modern Swedish mercantile marine. Born at Kristinehamn, Swed.,

BROSSOLETTE, PIERRE

;

(1902-1943), a leading member of the French resistance movement during the German occupation in World War II, was born at Angouleme on June 15, 1902, and

young man he joined a became an owner-captain in the

21, 1838, as a

later

ship-

lake

shipping trade. In 1870 he converted a sailing ship, "Aactiv," into a steamship, which proved so successful that he acquired other steamships.

Brostrom founded the "Ferm" steamship company and

built

vessels for transporting iron ore, the predecessors of the special ore-carrying vessels later in world-wide use. He died at Gote-

borg on Sept.

21. 1905.

BROTHERS, RICHARD

(P. Df.) (1757-1824), a religious fanatic

who

believed himself to be a descendant of David, "the nephew of the Almighty, the prince of Hebrews," and was the first to

preach the theory of British Israel, was born in Newfoundland on Dec. 25, 1757. As a naval officer, he was retired on half pay after the peace of Versailles (1783) and was several times imprisoned as a debtor, having refused his pay on conscientious grounds. The publication of A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times (1794), containing prophecy of the end of George Ill's reign and of the re-establishment of a Jewish kingdom composed of the lost tribes of Israel who were believed now to be in England, resulted in his confinement as a criminal lunatic. He continued to write prophetic pamphlets and gathered several followers, among them the engraver William Sharp, who afterward deserted him for Joanna Southcott (q.v.). Brothers died in London on Jan. 25, 1824.

and

He was

contemporary and G. Cruikshank.

a favourite subject for

satirists including J. Gillray

caricaturists

BROUGHAM, JOHN

(18 14-1880), British actor and author of nearly 100 plays, was born in Dublin, Ire., on May 9, 1814, and died in New York on June 7, 1880. He made his first stage

appearance in London at the Tottenham street (later Scala) theatre in 1830, playing six small parts in

Tom and

Jerry.

company of Madame Vestris in 1831. Brougham collaborated with Dion Boucicault

in

He

joined the

writing

London

Assurance in which he played Dazzle. He went to the United States in 1842 and thereafter spent his time between the two countries. He is said to have been the original of Harry Lorrequer in Charles Lever's novel. (W. J. M.-P.) see Carriage.

BROUGHAM:

BROUGHAM AND VAUX, HENRY PETER

(

1777See H. Mamet, Le President de Brosses, sa vie et ses ouvrages (1874) A. C. Taylor, Le Prisident de Brosses et I Australie (1937). (A. C. T.)

May

company and

ping

BROUGHAM,

ist Bakon (1778-1868), was lord chancellor England from 1830 to 1834, in the ministries of Earl Grey and Viscount Melbourne. Brougham's place in history, however, is not dependent upon his accomplishments as occupant of the woolsack; a prominent figure in British political life for more than 30 years, he played an important role in the improvement of education, law reform, the abolition of slavery and other reforms. Edinburgh. Henry Brougham was a Scot, born in Edinburgh on Sept. 19, 1778, to parents of modest means and no connections. Except for visits to his father's estate in Westmorland, Brougham grew up amid the genteel poverty of Edinburgh society which had retained its arch-conservatism if not its wealth. As a precocious youth of 13, he matriculated at Edinburgh university, then in one of its golden periods with teachers such as Dugald Stewart of

—

— a

BROUGHAM inspiring students to independent thought rather than indoctrinat-

them

in the fashion of the major universities south of the Bejore he was 20 years of age, Brougham had published three scientific papers which had won wide critical acclaim, including that of the Royal society, to which he was elected shortly

ing

border.

after he went to London. Though the physical sciences attracted him. Brougham's primary interests were politics, good talk and fine oratory, which he developed at Edinburgh's famed Speculative society as well as in the taverns and rooms of his friends.

After receiving his degree, Brougham studied law^ and was That bar, which afforded some called to the Scots bar in 1800. promise to conforming young men, held little hope for so iconoHe kept busy defending impeclastic a nature as Brougham's. cunious prisoners and baiting the senile and reactionary judge who presided on his circuit. But cash briefs were few and far between. The sparsity of legal work afforded him ample time commodity which he always used well to assist in the promulgation of the Edinburgh Review, for which he wrote 35 articles in two years; thus displaying characteristic depth and shallow-

—

—

and ingenuousness, astonishing versatility and venomous pen. At the same time, he prepared a lengthy book on the colonial policies of all the European powers the first of many books which he published during his long life which, though full of half-truths and not a best seller, brought him some measure of fame and the plaudits of William Wilberforce's antislavery group. After this, the Scots bar was too confining for Brougham. London. Late in 1803, Brougham went to London, entered Lincoln's Inn and studied law under Nicholas Tindal, later chief ness, ingeniousness

a facile,

—

—

common pleas. Brougham continued to support himself largely by his writings for the Edinburgh Review. Always ambitious for recognition and hoping for place, he moved into justice of the

At first he associated with VVilberforce's he wrote a pamphlet which was most effective in securing the passage of the antislave trade bill through commons. He also undertook a dangerous mission to Holland, where he unsuccessfully sought to convince the Dutch to ban the slave the political

Tories, for

arena.

whom

But the Whigs seemed to offer a more congenial associaboth in terms of social connection with the great Whig aristocracy and in terms of a program for badly needed social reforms which was sponsored by the Mountain, the left wing of the Whig party. Party lines were not then clearly drawn in terms of principles and it was ambition for office which led Brougham into the Holland house camp. Brougham's attraction for the trade. tion,

Whigs was

his great capacity as a publicist, exhibiting

advance of

methods

This is not to say that he did not cut an excellent figure in the Whig drawing rooms and at the dinner tables where his charm and wit and learning secured acceptance which his background and family connections could not have obfar in

his time.

tained.

His pamphleteering often drew blood from the Tories. In his director for the 1S07 campaign he exhibited a magnificent talent for using the newspapers and periodicals to aid the cause. He brought the Edinburgh Review to the Whig banner in so effective a manner that the Tories were compelled to sponsor a competitor in the form of the Quarterly Review. By these and other services, such as attendance on a mission to Portugal headed by Lords St. Vincent and Rosslyn, he earned the enmity of the Tories and the debt of the Whigs, though the latter were too aware of his individualism to trust him with a seat in parliament until the threat of his desertion led Lord Holland to prevail on the duke of Bedford to make available to Brougham the pocket borough of Camelford in 1810. The Bar. Brougham's first success as a lawyer came even before he was called to the English bar in 1808. As a member of the Scots bar, he was qualified to represent in the house of commons the commercial interests of Liverpool on their petition to withdraw the orders in council. For six weeks he kept the house hanging on his words, though ordinarily such presentations served but to empty that chamber. The failure of the house to accede to his demands did not dim the brilliance of the performance nor mar the reputation as an advocate which resulted from role as public relations

—

2»I

this pyrotechnic display.

After his admission to the English bar, he had a remarkable financial success, though the Tories kept him from his silk gown long after he had earned it. His success was not attributed to great legal learning and he was at his best only when he was arguing a cause which aroused his emotions as well It was thus that he successfully defended John as his intellect. and Leigh Hunt against a charge of seditious libel for publishing criticisms of the government for the inhuman corporal punishment which prevailed in the armed forces. His other great forensic triumph as a lawyer was at the trial of Queen Caroline accused by her husband of infidelities as a ground for annulment of the royal marriage, a charge which illbecame the profligate George IV, especially in light of his earlier illegal marriage to Mrs. Fitzherbert. Here, as in the earlier causes. Brougham represented the popular side of the controversy, though it was he who helped immensely to make the cause a popular one. Brougham had become legal adviser to the unfortunate Princess Caroline some time before 1811. He had much earlier learned to despise her husband, who was to become his sovereign as George IV. And if he had no feelings of warmth for Caroline, he was most affectionate toward Princess Charlotte, the ill-starred offspring of the unhappy marriage. When Caroline became queen. Brougham was made her attorney general, and with Thomas Denman, later lord chief justice, who was her

annulment suit in the house of lords. Brougham's cross-examination of the crown's unsavoury witnesses and his magnificent summation, which lasted two days, turned the cause in favour of his client. He became the most popular figure in England, representing a woman who had no claim on him or the people except, perhaps, by reason of the fact that she was less despicable than her husband. solicitor general, tried the

—

The House of Commons. From the very beginning of his parliamentary career. Brougham was the best speaker available to the Whig benches; a worthy successor to Charles James Fox. If this made him valuable it did not endear him to the lesser men who were in control of that party. which Brougham was not prepared

There were no issues on

speak and, generally, to speak well. But it was on the subjects of slavery, public education and law reform, where personal persuasion was combined with oratorical capacity, that he revealed his greatest talents. Strangely, in these areas of personal predilection, he succeeded in avoiding the lapses of judgment and good taste which not infrequently marred his other forensic displays. In 1812 he succeeded in causing Lord Castlereagh to withdraw the orders in council, for which he had earlier fought as a barrister. Despite the appeal which such action had for the commercial interests, he w'as unsuccessful in standing for Liverpool after losing his seat for Camelford, which the duke of Bedford had "sold." The Whigs again were unwilling to find a place for him until 1816, when he flirted with the idea of standing for Westminster against Richard Brinsley Sheridan. They then offered him the earl of Darlington's pocket borough of Winchelsea. In 1S18 Brougham succeeded in revitalizing the committee on education which to

turned up scandalous abuses by the church, the public schools and the universities in their administration of charitable funds donated for educational purposes but perverted to private uses. He sponsored the Public Education bill of 1820, worked assiduously in the implementation of the mechanics' institutes, and helped found the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge to publish

books at prices within the reach of artisans. In 1825 he was Glasgow university and was at a later date made In 1828 he succeeded in titular head of Edinburgh university. creating a university in London, a nondenominational school which incurred the displeasure both of the established church and the

elected rector of

dissenters.

On Feb. 7, 1828, Brougham delivered his great speech on law reform, which proved to be the foundation for the revision of procedure which took place in England during the 19th century. His bankruptcy bill and plan for local courts also came to civil

some time after his departure from effective political life. His antislavery speeches dated back to an address to the crown delivered within four months of his first coming into the house fruition

BROUGHTON— BROUSSAIS

2^2

But the high point was reached

commons.

in his speech in 1830 which won him the opportunity to stand for Yorkshire, a popular constituency. In his successful election campaign he pledged himself to parliamentary reform, a position which he could not very well take so long as he represented one of the Whig's rotten pocket boroughs. Immediately upon his return to commons from Yorkshire, he noticed a bill for parliamentary reform. Before it could be acted upon. Lord Grey was asked to form the ministr>' which resulted in Brougham's removal from

of

commons

to the lords.

his career in commons, Brougham used his position popular causes, thus winning himself the support of a large if unenfranchised following, and the enmity of many of the vested interests. Even so, his position was such that the government could not be formed without him, much as the Whigs would have liked to do so. Brougham as Lord Chancellor. On the accession of Grey, the Whigs offered Brougham the attorney general's post, a nonHe wanted to be cabinet position, which he cursorily rejected. master of the rolls, a judicial post which would permit him to remain in commons. But the king and Althorp ("Lord Spencer), who was to be leader in commons, waiited him elsewhere. Brougham was prevailed upon to accept the woolsack with the result that he was created a peer and removed to the lords. The newspapers reflected the appointment in terms of Samson's haircut. In the cabinet Brougham continued to prove his versatility and energy, to

Throughout

to further

—

the chagrin and displeasure of his colleagues, whose jealousies

and mistrust were heightened. The fact that those with whom he interfered would have been unable to do their jobs without his assistance did not add to his attraction. But his lack of tact and certain improprieties with the press are not to be denied. lords.

Brougham was

Much

In the

the party's leader in fact as well as in name.

of the credit for forcing the

Reform

bill

of 1832 through

body properly belongs to him. To him too must be attributed the reform of the privy council and the creation of the central criminal court in London. In the chancery. Brougham proved the validity of his earlier charges against Lord Eldon by clearing a docket and revising the His temperament did not, however, endear rules of procedure. him to the lawyers practising before him, especially in light of the fact that he w^as taking money out of their pockets by his reforms. Decline and Fall. When Melbourne was called upon to form that antediluvian

—

his

second ministrj', he would not find a place

a politician as

Brougham.

in

it

for so impolitic

Deprived of the forum of the commons.

power. From that point forward he was a "political Ishmael" both to the W'higs and the Tories. He continued to champion his favourite causes both in the house of lords and in the many organizations to which he subscribed. But he withdrew more and more often to his villa at Cannes, France, which he managed to establish as a favourite watering place for English society.

Brougham

lost

his

at Cannes on May 7, 1S68. His autobiography. and Times of Henry Lord Brougham, in three volumes, was

Brougham died Life

published posthumously

in

1871.

Brougham's was the unhappy

role of the political liberal, unable

to subordinate either himself or his principles to the demands of party. He was accused by his contemporaries of using his power

own exaltation. Ego there was, but only occasionally was He made enemies by his prinand friends by his charm. Those who knew him found him gay and melancholy, charming and ve.xing, energetic and enervated, ambitious and self-denying, wise and foolish: the best of men and the worst of men. Whatever burdens he placed on his contemporaries, history must acknowledge that he was a man who made England a better place to live for all who followed him. for his

it

not subordinated to principle.

ciples

Bibliography.

— Excellent

bibliographies

are

in

F.

Hawes, Henry

Brougham (1957); A.

Aspinall, Lord Brougham and the Whig Party (1927); see also G. T. Garratt, Lord Brougham (1935); Lord" Campbell, Lives oj the Lord Chancellors, vol. 8 (1SS7). (P. B. K.)

BROUGHTON, JOHN CAM HOBHOUSE, (1786-1869). English statesman and litterateur,

is

Baron

probably best

known

as the alleged coiner of the phrase "His Majesty's Opposiand as the friend and confidant of Lord Byron, the poet, whose memoirs were destroyed by the publisher John Murray on his advice. He was born near Bristol on June 27, 1786, and educated at Westminster school and at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he became Byron's intimate friend. Member of a wellestablished merchant family, known for its political and intellectual interests, Hobhouse traveled widely with Byron in 1809-10 and again in 1816-17. In 1813-15 he followed the concluding campaigns of the Napoleonic wars, being present at the entry into Paris and again during the Hundred Days. First attracting attention in 1815 by an attack on the restored Bourbons, Hobhouse soon became prominent in literar>' and parliamentary circles as a radical of cosmopolitan tastes, and as a fluent and forceful pamphleteer, one of whose onslaughts upon the unreformed house of commons led to his imprisonment for breach of privilege in 1819, in which year he also unsuccessfully contested Westminster. tion,"

Elected for the constituency in the following year as the colleague of his friend Sir Francis Burdett, Hobhouse proved a lively and assiduous member, active in promoting every type of reform, and fully sharing Byron's enthusiasm for the cause of Greek independence. He inherited his father's baronetcy in 1831. In 1832, at the height of the crisis over the Reform bill, Hobhouse joined Lord Grey's administration as secretary at war, and a year later he became chief secretary for Ireland for a few weeks. However, he was by now less popular among radicals and he lost his seat at Westminster. Returned to parliament for Nottingham in 1834, Hobhouse attained cabinet rank as first commissioner for woods and forests under Lord Melbourne. In Melbourne's second ministry between 1835 and 1841, he was president of the board of control for India, and from 1846 to 1852 held the same appointment under Lord John Russell. Strongly anti-Russian, Hobhouse maintained a "forward" policy in India, favouring the plan to secure the northwest frontier by advance into Afghanistan, and was an ardent supporter of Lord Palmerston's diplomacy, especially over the eastern question. Raised to the peerage as Baron Broughton de Gyfford in 1851, he virtually withdrew from public life when the government fell in the following year; he died in London on June 3, 1869. In old age Broughton wrote his Recollections of a Long Life, printed privately in 1865 and later edited by his daughter and published (1909-11). These memoirs are a valuable source of information on his times by a man of unusually wide interests, which ranged from partnership in Whitbread's

brewery to fellowship of the Royal society. An effective propagandist and vigorous debater, Hobhouse entered politics as an uncompromising radical. With age and the achievement of many of his favourite reforms, his opinions mellowed; and he came to be regarded as deeply conservative, an exemplar of those W'higs whose attitude by the end of the 1830s was described as "rest and be thankful." In this respect, he was typical of many men of position, whose zeal for change reached its zenith between 1815 and the Reform act of 1832, declining rapidly thereafter. Keeping in close contact both with the inner group of cultivated Whig aristocrats and with more rafiish and left-wing literary circles, Hobhouse was a respected figure of the second rank, who became an adequate administrator and trusted adviser. He always retained his interest in intellectual and artistic (A. F. T.) pursuits, and was well liked in society. BROUSSAIS, FRANgOIS JOSEPH VICTOR (17721838), French physician, one of the most active proponents of leech medicine, was born at Saint-Malo on Dec. 17, 1772, the son After service in the wars of the Revolution he of a physician. returned in 1S14 to Paris, and was appointed assistant professor to the military hospital of the Val-de-Grace.

He

believed that

and that they passed from one organ to another "sympathetically" or through irritation of the gastrointestinal tract; that nature had no healing power; and that starvaHe died at Vitry-surtion and leeches would cure everything. Seine on Nov. 17, 1838. L'Histoire des pklegmasies Broussais's best-known works are ou inflammations chroniques (1808) and L'Examen des doctrines medicales (1816). all

diseases were local

—

BROUWER— BROWN See J. D. Rolleston, "F. J. V. Broussais, 1772-1838; His Life Doctrines," Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., 30:405-13 (1939).

BROUWER, ADRIAEN

and

1605/06-1638), Flemish painter, intluenced in his short life the artists of both Flanders Few facts concerning his career are established and Holland. beyond question, but it is reasonably certain that he was born in Oudenaarde, that he made his way to Haarlem about 162 1 and entered the studio of Frans Hals, that after gaining a high reputation in Holland he returned in 1631 to the South Netherlands, (c.

283

Among his many published works are The People's Front War or Peace With Russia (1947) and Marx and America He was for a time editor in chief of The Daily Worker.

(1938), (1958).

BROWN,

SIR

(B. Ml.) (1886-1948), Brit-

ARTHUR WRITTEN

who with Capt. J. W. Alcock (q.v.) made the first direct airplane crossing of the Atlantic, was born in Glasgow, the only son of U.S. parents, on July 23, 1886. He was trained as an engineer in the Westinghouse company in Manchester and went to South Africa in 191 2. In World War I he served in the Manchester regiment and later in the Royal Flying Corps and in the Royal Air Force as a pilot. In 1919, as navigator to Alcock, he made the record crossing of the Atlantic in a Vickers Vimy twin-engined biplane at an average speed of about 120 m.p.h. Taking off from St. John's, Nfd., at 4:13 p.m. on June 14, they landed 16 hr. 27 min. later in a bog at Clifden, County Galway, Ire. For this performance Alcock and Brown shared the £10,000 prize offered by the Lo?tdon Daily Mail and both were awarded knighthoods. Brown later returned to engineering and was general manager of the Metropolitan Vickers company in Swansea, Wales, for some years. He died at Swansea on Oct. 4, 1948. ish aviator,

See G. Wallace, The Flight oj Alcock and

Brown

BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN

(D. Cr.)

(1955).

(1771-1810), United

States novelist who pioneered in the Gothic manner later employed by Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe and earned the title "father of the American novel," was born of Quaker parents in Philadelphia, Jan. 17, 1771. Of delicate constitution, he early devoted himself to study, reading widely in geography and political theory. To Quaker concepts of equality and social justice he added the Utopian ideas of William Godwin and the marquis de Condorcet, These views, as well as a deep insight into abnormal

"Peasants brawling over a game of cards." by adriaen brouwer. the dresden gemaldegalerie

in

and that he was imprisoned by the Spaniards suspected spy until Sept. 1633. was buried there on Feb. i, 1638.

man

He

in

Antwerp

as a

then settled in Antwerp and

Almost

all

authorities agree that

and dissolute habits, although perhaps Fra Angelico) has been exaggerated by those who knew the pictures but not the artist. Except for a handful of landscapes, which apparently belong to his last years, all Brouwer's pictures are genre subjects, drawn from the poorer, coarser and more painful aspects of common life peasants smoking, drinking or brawling in taverns, quack surgeons operating on grimacing patients, and so on. Most of the pictures are small, and are painted on panel. The coarseness of his subjects is offset by the dehcacy of his style, which combines a brisk, expressive brushstroke with a fastidious sense of colour and design. His mature style shows an unusual mastery of tonal values, expressed in a scale of grays and browns that are relieved sometimes by only a single note of more positive local colour. he was a

of reckless

his profligacy (like the saintliness of

(R. E.

BROWDER, EARL (RUSSELL)

W.

J.)

(1891), U.S. Communist party leader, was born in Wichita, Kan., on May 20, 1891. He left school at the age of 10 and worked at a variety of jobs. Through the influence of his father he attended Socialist meetings and met the Socialist leader Eugene Debs. As a result of his opposition to the entrance of the U.S. into World War I he was imprisoned (1919-20). He became a member of the U.S. Communist party in 1921. In China (192 7-28) at Hankow and Shanghai he served as director of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat. From 1930 to 1945 he held the post of general secretary of the U.S. Communist party and was that party's candidate for president of the United States in 1936 and 1940. In the latter year he was sentenced to prison for four years for passport irregularities but was released after serving 14 months. In 1945 he was removed from his position as secretary of the party for having declared that capitalism and socialism had begun to find means of peaceful coexistence. He was e.xpelled from the Communist party in 1946 and three years later was named in "treason trials" in Budapest and Prague as originator of the heresy of "Browderism" which flowered in Titoism.

psychology, give vigour to his four best novels.

He

called him-

thoughtful hberalism, and he adapted contemporary English and German terror and horror motifs to the American scene. self a "story-telling moralist";

his writings

reflect a

His first novel, Wieland (1798), a minor masterpiece in American fiction, shows the ease with which mental balance is lost when the test of

common

sense

is

not applied to strange experiences.

The

story concerns Theodore Wieland, whose father died by spontaneous combustion apparently for violating a vow to God, Theo-

communication with assumes that a ventriloquist's utterances are supernatural in origin; driven insane, Theodore acts upon the prompting of an inner voice and murders his wife and four children. When apprised of his error, he commits suicide. Ormond (1799) portrays a high-minded rationalist, Constantia Dudley, dore, also a religious enthusiast seeking direct

divinity, misguidedly

whose dignity and courage guide her safely through many dangers and finally lead her to kill the villain, Ormond. Edgar Hiintly (1799) pictures incidents of Indian bloodthirstiness in the wilderness of the upper reaches of the Delaware river valley the story ;

concerns a sleepwalker's attempts to discover the murderer of a friend. Arthur Mervyn ( nqq-i&oo) describes a young farmer boy's perilous adventures in Philadelphia during the yellow fever epidemic of 1793; he avoids moral stain and ultimately marries a wealthy Jewess. Brown's other writings included The Dialogue of Alcuin (1798), on the rights of women Memoirs oj Stephen Calvert (i 799-1 800), a novel of a young man's vacillation in love; Clara Howard (i8oi) and Jane Talbot (1801), novels of love in letter form; Carwin, the Biloquist (1S05), a fragmentary account of the early life of Wieland's ventriloquist; and the semiannual American Register (1806-09), ^n analytical interpretation and chronology of con;

He died on Feb, 21, 18 10, biography and critical evaluation, see Harry R, WarBrockden Brown: American Gothic Novelist (1949), See also David Lee Clark, Charles Brockden Brown, Pioneer Voice of .America (19S2) Alexander Cowie, The Rise of the American Novel (H, R, Wl,) (1948). (1866-1938), British mathematician and astronomer, devoted many years of his life to a theory of the motion of the moon. Born at Hull, Yorkshire, Nov. 29, 1866, he went to Christ's college, Cambridge, where he greatly distinguished himself. He received the doctor of science degree temporary events. For the

fel's

fullest

Charles

;

BROWN, ERNEST WILLIAM

BROWN

284

in 1897 and became a fellow and, in ign, an honorary fellow of Although Brown retained throughout his life a great attachment for his college and returned to Cambridge almost every summer, his professional life was spent in the United States. He accepted an appointment at Haverford college, Haverford, Pa., in 1891 and he was professor of mathematics at Yale from 1907 until his retirement in 1932. He died at New Haven, Conn., on July 22, 1938. At Cambridge Brown began to study the motion of the moon by a method devised by G. W. Hill. The latter had carried the subject far enough to show its suitability for solving the problem and Brown completed the theory and constructed tables. The theory in its entirety was published by 1908 and the tables, which are many times more accurate than earlier ones, have been used in calculating the positions of the moon since 1923. For a description of Brown's theory and tables, see Moon: Lunar Theory. (J. Jn.) (1821-1893), English painter whose work resembled in feeling and technique that of the PreRaphaelites. though he was never a member of the Brotherhood. Born at Calais, April 16, 1821, he studied art, 1837-39, at Bruges under Albertus Gregorius, and at Antwerp under Baron Gustaf Wappers, from whom he learned a sound technique. His early work is characterized by sombre colour and dramatic feeling suited to the Byronic subjects executed in Paris during 1840-43; e.g., "Manfred on the Jungfrau" and "Parisina's Sleep." Already concerned with the accurate representation of natural phenomena, he drew from corpses in University College hospital, London, when painting his "Prisoner of Chillon" (1843). Between 1844 and 1845 he contributed three cartoons to the competition for the houses of parliament decorations, but did not gain a prize. After a visit to Italy in 1845, his palette gained in richness and variety of colour, and in 1848 he met Peter von Cornelius, a member of the former Nazarenerbund which was a precursor to the PreRaphaelite Brotherhood. This combined interest in brilliant, clear colour and neomedievalism appears first in the "Wyclif Reading His Translation of the Scriptures to John of Gaunt" (1847).

his college.

BROWN, FORD MADOX

Brown contributed

to the Pre-Raphaelites'

magazine Germ

in 1850,

and Rosetti worked

in his studio. Like Holman Hunt, Brown painted en plein air to obtain naturalistic accuracy of, for example, blue flesh tones in winter, for his "The Last of England" (1852-55, Birmingham Art gallery ).

His most famous picture, "Work" (1852-63, Manchester Art which is a didactic social document, was first exhibited Brown's retrospective exhibition held in London, 1865, for which he wrote the catalogue. He also worked as a book illustrator with William Morris; produced stained glass, for example, at St. Oswald's, Durham (1864-65); and between 1879-March 1893 completed a series of 12 "frescoes" in Manchester Town hall depicting scenes from the city's history. Some were executed in oil on canvas glued to the wall. He died in London, Oct. 6, 1893. gallery), at

See Ford M. Hueffer (Ford Madox Ford), Ford Madox Brown (i8g6) W. M. Rossetti (ed.), Ruskin, Rossetti, Pre-Raphaelitism (i8qq), Pre-Raphaelite Diaries and Letters (i8gQ). (D. L. Fr.) ;

BROWN, FRANCIS

(1849-1916), U.S. Semitic scholar and president of Union Theological seminary, was born in Hanover, N.H.. Dec. 26, 1849, the son of Samuel Oilman Brown (1813-85), president of Hamilton college from 1867 to 1881, and the grandson

Brown (1784-1820), a president of Dartmouth involved in the famous "Dartmouth college case." The younger Francis graduated from Dartmouth and from the Union Theological seminary and then studied in Berlin. In 1879 he became inof Francis

structor in biblical philologv- at the Uniofi Theological seminary, in 1881 an associate professor, in 1890 professor of Hebrew and

cognate languages and in 1908 president of the seminary. Brown's published works, which won him honorary degrees in both Great Britain and the U.S., were, with the exception of The Christian Point of View (1902; with A. C. McGiffert and G. W. Knox), almost purely linguistic and lexical, and include Assyriology: its

Use a7td Abuse in Old Testament Study 18S5 ). and the important revision of Gesenius, undertaken with S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (

(1891-1905). terian General

on Oct.

In 1911 he was tried for heresy before the PresbyBoard but was exonerated. He died in New York

15, 1916.

BROWN, GEORGE

(1818-1880), Canadian journalist and

statesman, was born in Edinburgh, Scot., on Nov. 29, 1818, and was educated in his native city. With his father. Peter Brown, he emigrated to New York in 1837. In 1843 they moved to Toronto

and established The Banner, which supported the newly formed Free Church of Scotland. In 1844, at first with his father's help, he began to issue a Reform political journal, the weekly Toronto Globe. This became a daily in 1853 and through Brown's ability and energy came to possess an almost dictatorial influence over political opinion. In 1851 he entered the Canadian parliament as an independent Liberal member for Kent county. His vehement opposition to the presumed political power of the Roman Catholic Church and the "domination" in parliament of the French Canadian section made him very unpopular in Lower Canada, but in Upper Canada his power grew great. Largely owing to his campaign for separating church and state, the clergy reserves were secularized in 1854 and he championed the complete secularization of Upper Canada's schools, but unsuccessfully. He also fought for the representation by population of the two Canadas in parliament, the act of union (1840) having granted an equal number of representatives to each. His principle would be recognized in the British North America act (1867). He rebuilt the Upper Canada Liberal party behind "representation by population" and briefly won office in 1858 (the two-day Brown-Dorion administration). He was one of the early advocates of a confederation of British North .\merica, and in June 1864, to accomplish this end, entered into a coalition with his bitter personal and political opponent. Conservative premier John (later Sir John) A. Macdonald. Largely because of Brown's efforts, federation was carried through the house. In Dec. 1865, disapproving terms proposed for renewal of the reciprocity treaty with the LTnited States, he resigned from the government, though continuing to support its federation policy. In 1867 he was defeated in South Ontario and never again sat in the house. In great measure because of his powerful advocacy, the Northwest Territories were acquired by the new dominion. In Dec. 1873 he was called to the Canadian senate, and in 1874 was appointed joint plenipotentiary with Sir Edward Thornton to negotiate a new reciprocity treaty with the United States. The negotiations were successful, but the draft treaty failed to pass the United States senate. Soon afterward Brown refused the lieutenant governorship of Ontario, and on two subsequent occasions the offer of knighthood, devoting himself to the Globe.

1880, he was shot

on

May

See

J.

On March

by a discharged employee and died

25,

at

Toronto

M.

S. C.)

9.

M.

S. Careless,

Brown

of the Globe (1960). (W. L. G.; J.

BROWN, HENRY KIRKE

(1814-1886), U.S. sculptor whose equestrian statues are his most famous works, was born in Leyden, Mass., on Feb. 24, 1S14. He began to paint portraits while a boy, studied painting in Boston under Chester Harding, learned a little about modeling, and from 1836 to 1839 spent his summers working as a railroad engineer to earn enough to study further. He spent four years (1842-46) in Italy, but, returning to New York, he remained distinctively American, never being dominated, as were so many of the early U.S. sculptors, by Italian influence. He died on July 10. 18S6, at Newburgh, N.Y. His equestrian statues are excellent, notably that of Gen. Winfield Scott (1874) in Washington. D.C., and one of George Washington (1S56) in Union square. New York city, which was the second equestrian statue made in the United States. Brown was one of the first sculptors in America to cast his own bronzes. other works are; -Abraham Lincoln (Union square.

Among

his

New York

Nathanael Greene, George Clinton. Philip Kearny and Richard Stockton (all in the National Statuary hall of the Capitol, Washington, D.C.); De Witt Clinton and "The Angel of the Resurrection," both in Greenwood cemetery. New York city; and an "Aboriginal Hunter." Brown's nephew and pupil, Henry Kirke Bush-Brown (18571935), also became prominent among U.S. sculptors, his "Buffalo city);

BROWN Hunt." equestrian statues of Generals Meade and Revijolds at Gettysburg and "Justinian" in the \e\v York appellate courthouse being his chief works. He completed also a portrait-bust of Henry Kirke Brown for the Hall of Fame of New- York university. JACOB JENNINGS (1775-1828). U.S. army officer, was born of Quaker parents in Bucks county. Pa., on May 9, 1775. He served for a time 179S-1SOO) as military secretary to Alexander Hamilton, became a successful farmer in western New York and in 1810 was made a brigadier general in the New York state militia. At the outbreak of war with Great Britain in 1812, he was in command of the New York state frontier and was successful in repelling attacks of the enemy at Ogdensburg, Oct. 3. 1812. and at Sackets Harbor. May 29, 1813. In the following July he was commissioned a brigadier general in the U.S. army and placed in command at Niagara. From there he took the offensive and after preliminary successes fought an indecisive battle on July 25 at Lundy's Lane. He became the commanding general of the U.S. army in 1821 and served in that capacity until his death. Feb. 24. 1828. (E. E. R.) (1715-1766), English clergjTTian, poet and playiATight, was born at Rothbury, Northumberland, on Nov. 5, 1715, and educated at St. John's college. Cambridge. He was senior wrangler in 1735 and then took holy orders. His poem entitled Honour { 1743 was followed by the Essay on Satire, written on the death of Alexander Pope, which gained for him the friendship of Bishop William Warburton. In 1751 he wrote his Essay on the Characteristics of the Earl of Shaftesbury, containing an able defense of the new utilitarian philosophy, and particularly emphasizing the advantages of state-controlled education. In 1756 he received the living of Great Horkesley. in Essex, and five years later became vicar of Newcastle upon Tyne. Garrick appeared in his two plays Barbarossa (1754) and Athelstan (1756). His Estimate of the Manners and Principles of the Times (1757-58), a bitter satire, was very popular. Invited by Catherine II of Russia to advise her on education, he prepared for the journey but was prevented by illness from setting out. In one of the fits of madness that had often before attacked him. Brown committed suicide on Sept. 2i, 1766.

BROWN,

(

BROWN, JOHN

)

See his poetical works, ed. bv Anderson Britannica. ed. by A. Kippis (1780).

BROWN, JOHN

(1794)

;

and Biographic (G. Hu.)

1800-1859), U.S. abolitionist, leader of the attack on Harpers Ferry in 1859, was born on May 9, 1800, at Torrington. Conn. He was one of the 16 children of Owen Brown, whose father had served as a captain in the Revolutionary War. In 1805 Owen Brown moved with his family to the Western Reserve district of Ohio. John Brow-n, at 18, intended to prepare for the Congregational ministry, and he studied briefly at schools in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Two years later he married Dianthe Lusk. who bore him 7 children; after her death he married Mary Anne Day. who bore him 13 more. He moved about a great deal, living from time to time in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, and working as a drov-er, tanner, stock grower, wool merchant and farmer. In 1S49 he settled with his family in a Negro community founded at North Elba. N.Y.. on land donated by the antislavery philanthropist Gerrit Smith of Peterboro, N.Y. Long a foe of slavery. Brown henceforth was to act like a monomaniac on the subject. (

In 1855 Brown went to Kansas, whither five of his sons already had gone. Kansas was then the scene of violent conflict between free-state and proslavery groups. Settling near Osawatomie, Brown soon became conspicuous as a guerrilla leader, especially because of the so-called Pottawatomie massacre. Brooding over the killing of five free-soilers. he concluded that he had a divine mission to take vengeance. On the night of May 24-25, 1856, he led four of his sons and three other men to the cabins of suspected proslavery settlers living along Pottawatomie creek. His followers dragged five men out and hacked them to death. In the spring of 1858 Brown held a remarkable convention of Negroes and whites at Chatham, Can. There he announced his intention to set up in the Maryland and Virginia mountains a stronghold where escaping slaves might gather and defend themselves. He proposed, and the convention adopted, a "provisional consti-

285

tution and ordinance for the people of the United States." elected commander in chief of this paper government.

He was For

his

visionary enterprise he gained the moral and financial support of Gerrit Smith and the prominent Bostonians, Theodore Parker, G. L. Stearns, T. W. Higginson, S. G. Howe, and F. B. Sanborn

In the summer of 1859. with an armed and band of 16 white men and 5 Negroes, Brown .set up a kind of military headquarters in a rented farmhouse near Harpers Ferry, the site of a federal armory. He planned to seize the armory as the first step in carrying out his program. Launching his attack on the night of Oct. 16. he quickly took the armor\' and then rounded up some 60 leading men of the area, whom he meant to hold as hostages. Throughout the next day and night he and his (the "secret six").

disciplined

men

held out against the local militia, but on the following morning he surrendered to a small force of U.S. marines, under Col. Robert E. Lee. after they had broken in and overpowered him. He himself had been seriously wounded, and 10 of his followers, among them two of his sons, had been killed. Six were captured (and later executed and five escaped. On the other side the losses were five dead and nine wounded. Jailed in Charlestown, Va. (now Charles Town, W.Va.). Brown was tried for murder, slave insurrection and "treason to the Commonwealth," that is, to the state of Virginia. At the trial, evidence was produced to show that many of his ancestors and relatives had been emotionally disturbed and that he himself probably suffered from mental illness. He refused, however, to permit a plea of insanity. In a speech to the court he denied all the charges against him and admitted only that he had intended to free the slaves. "I say," he added, "1 am yet too young to understand that God is any respecter of persons, I believe that to have interfered as I have done as I have always freely admitted I have done in behalf of His despised poor, was not wrong, but right." He was convicted and, on Dec. 2. hanged. He was buried at North Elba. The Harpers Ferry raid failed utterly to do what Brown apparently had had in mind, that is, to start a general movement toward escape and freedom on the part of the slaves. Nevertheless, the raid had important consequences, for it immeasurably heightened the sectional feelings that soon were to eventuate in the Civil War. In the South little attention was paid to the views of responsible Republican leaders like Abraham Lincoln who disapproved of the raid. More attention was given to the statements of such New England intellectuals as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau who looked upon Brown as a hero and a saint. Once the war had come. Union soldiers took up the song "John Brown's Body." and his soul went "marching on." Thus he became a legendary martyr to the cause of freedom. Bibliography. F. B. Sanborn, Lite and Letters of John Brown (1885) 0. G. Villard, John Broivn, 1S0O-1S59 (1910; rev. ed., 1943); J. C. Malin, John Bron'n and the Legend of Fifly-Six (1942); J. C. Furnas, The Road to Harpers Ferry (1959) Louis Ruchames (ed.), (R. N. Ct.) A John Brown Reader (iq59). (1816-1896). English armour-plate SIR manufacturer, was born at Sheffield on Dec. 6, 1816. the son of a slater, and began work at a cutlery firm. Brown invented in 1848 the conical steel spring buffer for railway cars. In 1856 he started the Atlas iron works in Sheffield, which covered 30 ac. and employed eventually more than 4.000 workmen. Besides supplying i

—

—

—

;

;

BROWN,

JOHN

iron to the Sheftield steel trade.

Brown

himself successfully de-

veloped the Bessemer process. In 1860. after seeing the French ship "La Gloire" armoured with hammered plate, he determined to attempt the production of armour for the British navy by a rolling process. The experiment was successful and led to orders for armour plate sufficient to protect about three-quarters of the navy. Brown died at Bromley, Kent, on Dec. 27, 1896. See obituary notice in the Engineer (Jan.

BROWN, JOHN GEORGE

1,

1897).

(1831-1913), U.S. painter whose representations of bootblacks, newsboys and urchins had great popularity in his time, was born in Durham. Eng., Nov. 11, 1831. He studied at Newcastle upon Tjme, at Edinburgh academy, and. after removing to New York city in 1853, at the schools of the National Academy of Design, of which he afterward became a member. In 1866 he became one of the charter members of the Water Color society, of which he was president from 1887 to 1904.

BROWN

286

His "Passing Show" (Paris Salon, 1877) and "Street Boys at Play" (Paris exhibition, 1900) are good examples of his popular talent.

He

New York

died in

Feb.

citv,

BROWN, LANCELOT

8,

1913.

("Capability"

Brown)

(1716-

1783), English landscape gardener and architect to whose work and influence a great part of the English countryside owes its

appearance,

nickname

was

resulted

bom

at

from

Kirkharle,

his

habit

of

Northumberland. saying

His

he could see "capabilities" in the estates he was called upon to improve. He started his career as a gardener in his native village, and in 1740 became Lord Cobham's gardener at Stowe, Buckinghamshire, where he met William Kent (q.v.). In 1751 he started a practice at Hammersmith, meeting with immediate and lasting success. More than 140 estates received Brov\-n's attention. He modified Kent's style of gardening to make it suitable for extensive tr^ts of park and farmland instead of the smaller areas Kent laid out. Structures alluding to classical antiquity were allotted

minor

roles

or dropped

altogether;

the

that

main elements

in

the

typical Brown landscape were isolated clumps of trees, undulating greensward and a surrounding belt of woodland. He died on Feb. 6, 1783. See D. Stroud, Capability Brown (1950). (Ms. W.) (1773-1858), British botanist probably best known for his very important discovery of "Brownian movement" (q.v.), was born at Montrose, Scot., on Dec. 21, 1773. He is also noted for his Prodromus florae novae Hollandiae et i?istdae Van Diemen, which did much to further the general adoption of A. L. de Jussieu's natural system of plant classification. Brown was the foremost botanist of his time, and was a great figure in the history of British botany; he was the first to describe

BROWN, ROBERT

the cell nucleus in plants.

Educated at Montrose and at Marischal college, Aberdeen, he began to study medicine at Edinburgh in 1789, but did not take a medical degree. In 1800, on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, he was offered the post of naturalist to the expedition of Capt. Matthew Flinders for the survey of the then almost unknown coast of Australia. In 180S the expedition returned to England, having obtained, among other acquisitions, nearly 4,000 species of plants, many of which were new. Brown was almost immediately appointed librarian of the Linnean society, a post that he filled until 1822. He remained in the service of the admiralty until 1810 to work at his collections under Banks's supervision, and in that year pubhshed, in Latin, the first volume of his great work, the Prodromus. With the exception of a supplement published in 1830, no more of the work appeared. On the death of J. Dryander in 1810, Brown became librarian-botanist to Banks, who. on his death in 1820. bequeathed to him the use of his library and collections for life. In 1827 these were transferred to the British museum and a new department, the Banksian department, was created, with Brown as keeper. In 183S the Sloane collections were added and the department of botany was constituted. Brown was keeper of this department until his death in London on June 10, 18S8. Brown played a leading part in preparing the way for a natural system of classification, although he did not propose a classification of his own. He used considerable constraint, and almost casually announced epoch-making discoveries. He contributed much to the knowledge of the sexual process in higher plants. He was also the first to distinguish between the g>'mnosperms and angiosperms, and he initiated the microscopical examination of fossil plants. He also had considerable influence on the scientific study of geographical botany. In 1825-34 his works up to that date were collected and published in five volumes by C. G. D. Nees von Esenbeck, in German, under the title of Vermischte Botanische Schriften. In 1866-68 the Ray society reprinted his complete writings, the Prodromus alone excepted.

Fell, the dean, and he left without taking a degree. He London, where his life combined pugnacity in literary argument with licentiousness, and wrote many satires, epigrams and lampoons. He also translated works from Latin and French. His prose Amusements Serious and Comical, Calculated for the Meridian of London (1700; mod. ed., 1927J presents a vivid picture of the city and its inhabitants as seen by the Grub street writers which is of historical rather than literary value. Brown died in London on June 16, 1704. See The Works of Mr. Thomas Brown, 3 vol. (1707-08).

John

settled in

BROWN, THOMAS

;

(i 663-1 704), English satirist whose extempore translation of an epigram by Martial with the lines beginning "I do not love thee. Dr. Fell" both prevented his ex-

(1778-1820), Scottish metaphysician

whose work marks a turning point in the history of the so-called "common-sense school," was born at Kirkmabreck, Kirkcudon Jan. 9, 1778, the son of a Presbyterian minister. After going to school in England, he entered Edinburgh university in bright,

1792, where he studied philosophy, then law

(from 1796J and medicine (1798-1803) and there came into contact with Dugald Stewart, professor of moral philosophy, and with the founders of the Edinburgh Review. After some practice as a doctor, Brown was invited to lecture as deputy for Stewart in 1808-09; and in 1810 he was appointed joint professor with Stewart. Taken ill in 1819, he went to London to recuperate but died at Brompton on April 2, 1820. Brown began writing early. His works include Observations on the Zoonomia of Erasmus Darwin (1798); an article in the Edinburgh Review, no. 2 (1803), criticizing Kant's philosophy, which he knew only through a French account of it; Observations on the Nature and Tendency of the Doctrine of Mr. Hume Concerning the Relation of Cause and Effect (1805; 3rd ed.. An Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect, 1818), originally intended to show how Hume's views were compatible with Christian teaching; eight books of undistinguished verse (collected ed., 4 vol., 1820), in the manner of Mark Akenside, whom he moreover used to quote in his lectures; and the posthumously pubhshed Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 4 vol. (1820; 20th ed., with memoir by D. Welsh, 1861). Brown, as Dugald Stewart's pupil, accepted the arguments for certain noninferential beliefs that Thomas Reid {q.v.) had made finally

characteristic of the "Scottish" or "common-sense" school of philosophy (see Common Sense, Philosophy of), but he resisted the tendency to dissolve the substance of the mind into separate "faculties" and differed markedly from his predecessors in his attitude toward Hume and in his approach to sensationism. He accepted Hume's interpretation of causality (q.v.) in terms of repeated sequence, though he argued that beUef in the regularity His debt to of the repetition was independent of experience. French sensationism as represented by CondiUac is evident (i) in his general contention that we look intuitively on a sensation in the mind and (2) in his particular account of touch and of "muscular sense." He thus stands at the point where the Scottish school divides into two lines: the one, headed by Brown, with its sensationist orientation, in which J. S. Mill and Alexander Bain followed him; the other represented by Sir William Hamilton, who sought to combine the views of Reid and Stewart with German philosophy and resented Brown's deviation, especially where it had led him to criticize Reid.

Brown Brown Brown

See D. Welsh, Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas F. Rethore, Critique de la philosophic de Thomas (1825) L. Dobrzynska-Rybicka, Die Ethik von Thomas (1863) (1909). ;

;

BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD poet, author of narrative

poems and

patriotism and simple natural piety. at Douglas, Isle of

See F. W. Oliver, Makers of British Botany (1913) Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, session 1931-32, pp. 17-54. (J- Rm.)

BROWN, THOMAS

Bom

pulsion from Oxford and won him lasting fame. at Shifnal, Shropshire, in 1663, he entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1678. The irregularity of his life there almost caused his expulsion by

King William's 1849.

English

(1830-1897),

lyrics full of fervent local

He was

Man, educated by

born

May

5,

a scholarly father

1830,

and

at

and entered Christ Church, Oxford, in Elected fellow of Oriel in 1854, and ordained in 1855, he college,

returned to his old school as vice-principal in 1858. In 1863 he became second master at Clifton college where, by the time he retired (1892), "T.E.B.'s" genius and eccentricities had become a

BROWN— BROWNE matter for pride. He died at Clifton, Oct. 30, 1897. His first poem, "Betsey Lee," appeared in 1873, and was included in Fo'c'sle Yarns (i88i), the first of several volumes. His most important narrative poems were written in Manx, sometimes with daring irregularity of rhythm, and are characterized by a rugged tenderness, but the emotion, almost equally explosive in mirth and in tears, is disciplined by a scholar's sense of language. In his lyrics he is happiest when yoking one of these emotions to serve a philosophy of life often audacious but always genial. See Collected Poems; Letters, with a memoir (both iqoo). (A. T.

BROWN,

Q.-C; X.)

SIR WILLIAM,

Bart, (i 784-1864), British merchant and founder of the banking house of Brown, Shipley and Co., was born May 30, 1784, at Ballymena, Ire, In 1800 his family moved to the U,S. to engage in the linen trade and organized the firm of Alexander Brown & Sons, In i8og Brown established a Liverpool branch, which became a banking and mercantile operation, and later founded Brown, Shipley & Co., Liverpool and London merchants. By 1844 his company controlled one-sixth of the trade between Great Britain and the U.S. From 1846 to 1859 he was a member of parliament for South Lancashire and during the Crimean War helped ease friction between Great Britain and the United States. He gave the city of Liverpool its public library and museum, opened in i860, and in 1S63 he was created baronet. He died March 3, 1864, in Liverpool, See H. R. Fox Bourne's English Merchants (1886). (J. R. Lt.) the name given to the North Amer-

BROWN CREEPER,

ican

subspecies

a

bird,

common European Certhia

iq.v.),

the eastern

Certhia

the

of

tree creeper

In

jamiliaris.

states

form

the

familiaris

The Mexican creeper

is

americana. (C,

/.

albes-

cens), the southern creeper (C.

nigrescens) of the southern Appalachians, the Nevada creeper /.

(C.

leucosticta)

/.

Nevada,

the

of

southern

Rocky Mountain

(C. /. montana), California creeper (C, /.

creeper

cident alls) (C,

/.

,

the

zelotes)

Sierra

and

There are other races found in Mexico and Nevada as well as in Europe and Asia, Creepers form the family Certhiidae, of which there are about 17 species found in Europe, Asia, North BROWN CREEPER (CERTHIA FAMILAmerica and Australia. IARIS

AMERICANA)

CHARLES FARRAR: see Ward, Artemus. BROWNE, EDWARD GRANVILLE (1862-1926), philologist,

who made

Brit-

basic

contributions to the study of Persian literary history, was born on Feb, 7. 1862, at Uley, Gloucestershire, Educated at Trinity college, Glenalmond, and then at

Eton and Pembroke

college, Cambridge, he studied medicine and In 1887 he was elected a fellow of his college, same year qualifying M.B. at St. Bartholomew's hospital,

oriental languages. in the

From

the Novels of Charles

.

BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS

705-1 760), English poet, author of De Animi hnmortalitate and regarded by Samuel Johnson as "one of the first wits of this country," was born on Jan, 21, 1705, at Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire, and died in London on Feb. 14, 1760, Educated at Westminster school and Trinity college, Cambridge, he was called to the bar, but never practised. He was the author of "Design and Beauty," a poem addressed to his friend Joseph Highmore, the painter; and of "The Pipe of Tobacco" which parodied Colley Cibber, John Philips, James Thomson, Edward Young, Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, who were then all living. In 1754 he published his chief work, De Animi Immortalitate, a Latin poem on the immortality of the soul much admired by the scholars of his time.

1757), Austrian

habits.

ish

See Albert Johannsen, Phiz Illustrations Dickens (iq56)

(i

;

BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES,

creeper

(Brown),

—

his

Oc-

are very similar

BROWNE

determined the form which this should take. Robert Seymour, the original illustrator of Pickwick, had just committed suicide, and the serial publication of the book was in danger from the lack of a capable successor. Browne applied for the post, and the drawings which he submitted were preferred by Dickens to those of a rival applicant W. M. Thackeray. His pseudonym of "Phiz" was adopted in order to harmonize with Dickens' "Boz." and it was by his work for Dickens (especially in Pickwick, David Copperfield, Dombey and Son, Martin Chuzzlewit and Bleak House) that his reputation was made. He also illustrated the best-knowm novels of Charles Lever and Harrison Ainsworth in their original editions, and his work was in constant demand by publishers until a stroke of paralysis, in 1867, permanently injured his powers. His early ambition to become famous as a painter was not realized, but he gained great popularity and was awarded an annuity by the Royal Academy in 1878, He died at West Brighton on July 8, 1882,

See Poems on Various Subjects, Latin and English, published by son Isaac Hawkins Browne (176S) the full account by Andrew Kippis in vol. 2 of Biographia Britannica, 6 vol. (1778-93).

the

to the tree creeper in colour

287

English artist, pre-eminent as an interpreter and illustrator of Dickens' characters, was born at Lambeth on June 15, 1815, in humble circumstances and was early apprenticed to the engraver William Finden, in whose studio his only artistic education was obtained. At the age of 19 he abandoned engraving in favour of other artistic work, and a meeting with Dickens two years later

London, but he never practised as a doctor. In 1887-88 he traveled in Persia, becoming afterward lecturer in Persian at Cambridge. In 1902 he was appointed Adams Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, a post he held until his death. Browne's published works include A Traveller's Narrative (1891), re-issued in 1926 under the title A Year Amongst the Persians; Literary History oj Persia Until the Time oj Firdausi (1902), continuations of which were published in 1906, 1920 and 1924; The Persian Revolution, 1905-9 (1910); a translation of Chahdr Magdla, with notes (1921); and Arabian Medicine (1921). He died at Cambridge on Jan, 5, 1926.

BROWNE, HABLOT KNIGHT

("Phiz") (1815-1882),

field

Graf von (1705-

marshal, one of Maria Theresa's most suc-

cessful commanders. Born at Basel, Switz., on Oct. 23, 1705. he came of an Irish Jacobite family, his father having left Ireland and become resident in Austria, At the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession, Browne was in command of the troops in Silesia when Frederick the Great overran the country (1740-41), but he showed exceptional skill in delaying the Prussian advance

—

his own troops thereby giving the Austrians time and build up an army. He took part in the Italian campaign of 1746-49 where he again distinguished himself, and in 1751 became commander in chief in Bohemia. He

and extricating

to organize further defense

was again on active service during the Seven Years' War. While advancing to the relief of Pima, Browne was engaged and heavily defeated by Frederick at Lobositz on Oct. 1, 1756. Once again he conducted a skilful withdrawal. In the following year he was severely wounded at the battle of Prague and died of his wounds on June 26, 1757. It was said that his death was accelerated by the knowledge that he was being blamed for the lack of success of the campaign, (C,N,B.) BROWNE, ROBERT (c. 1550-1633), was the leader of a group of Elizabethan separatists, called after him Brownists, and a pioneer in England of what are known as Free churches, that is, churches existing in independence of secular government. The son Lord Burghley, he was born near Stamford, Lincolnshire, and educated at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, In 1591 Burghley presented him to the living of Achurch, Northamptonshire, where he remained for the rest of his life. He died in Oct, 1633 at Northampton. The significance of Browne's career lies in the 20 years between his leaving Cambridge and his becoming rector of Achurch. His temperament was of the kind that will not fit into any accepted of a gentleman, claiming cousinship with

BROWNE

288

framework, ecclesiastical or secular. When in 1579 he received the bishop's licence to preach, he threw it in the tire, cr>'ing that he preached "not as caring for, or leaning upon the bishop's authority, but only to satisfy his duty and conscience." Similarly, if the magistrate commands the preacher to give over his calling, Browne asserted, he ought not to obey him. In 1580, together with Robert Harrison, a Norwich schoolmaster, he gathered a separatist church in Norwich of the kind later known as Independent or Congregational. As a consequence of such teaching and behaviour, Browne was soon in trouble. He was imprisoned 32 times; and in 1582 he was in exile in the Netherlands. Eventually, however, he accepted convention and obscurity. He also quarreled with Henry Barrow (q.v.) and John Greenwood (q.v.). While in exile Browne had been writing, and his books proclaim principles which, though later largely accepted by Protestants, were in his own day revolutionary. Browne's best-known tract, A Treatise of Reformation Without Tarying for Anie (1582), contains these pungent phrases: "It is the conscience and not the power of man that will drive us to seek the Lord's kingdom"; "The Lord's people is of the willing sort"; "In all things we must first look what is the Lord's will and charge, and then what is the And this freedom have all Christians"; "Let the will of man Church rule in spiritual wise, and not in worldly manner" "Though magistrates are to keep their civil power above all persons, yet they come under the censure of the Church, if they be Christians." In A Booke Which Sheweth the Life and Manners of All True Christians (1582) the contrasting state of true Christians and false is set forth. This is the first blueprint for an independent church polity in dependence on Christ alone. Browne's passion for freedom can be seen to spring from his faith in the character and .

.

.

;

•capacity of the converted. Bibliography. The Writings of Robert Harrison and Robert Browne, ed. by A. Peel and L. H. Carlson (1953). See also H. M. De.xter, The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (1880) A. Peel (ed.), The Brownists in Norwich and Norfolk About 1580 (1920); C. Burrage, The True Story of Robert Browne (1906). (G. F. N.)

—

;

BROWNE,

SIR

THOMAS

(1605-1682), English physician and author, who, chiefly famous for one small book of selfrevelation, Religio Medici, is one of the outstanding 17th-century writers of English prose. He was born in London on Oct. ig, 1605. His father, a mercer in Cheapside, died when he was eight and his mother soon married Sir Thomas Sutton. Brought up by guardians, he was educated at Winchester and in 1623 entered Broadgates hall (later Pembroke college), Oxford, where his prin-

was Thomas Clayton, regius professor of physic, and his Thomas Lushington, a broad-minded and witty clerg>'man who later moved to Norwich, These influences may have suggested his choice of medicine as a profession and his settling in Norwich as practitioner. He obtained his B.A. in 1626 and his M.A. three years later. The university did not offer courses in medicine and he probably began his medical studies as assistcipal

tutor

England and soon circulated widely in a Latin translation on the continent of Europe. It was also translated into Dutch and

in

French.

and for

In English its

it

has become a classic both for

its

language

cast of thought.

Browne shows himself as a latitudinarian in religion, expressand unpretentious way. He is fond of

ing his ideas in a sane

paradox, but

is not obscure or pedantic. His ideas are original and sometimes humorous, revealing an engaging character, interested in the scientific spirit of the time and caring deeply for the freedom of the individual. Religious toleration such as Browne's was then uncommon. His philosophy is not profound, but his views have a perennial interest and are expressed in a richly ornamented prose which has kept its freshness. By 1643 Browne had been for seven years in Norwich, so that the establishment of his fame as an author saw him already well set on his career as a doctor. He had married in 1641 and his family was growing. In spite of the demands of a practice spreading over a wide area, he accumulated a large library and was deeply read in classical and medical literature. He began early to compile notebooks of miscellaneous jottings and, using these as a quarry, he compiled his second and larger work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or, Enquiries Into Very Many Received Tenents, and Commonly Presumed Truths (1646), This often known as Browne's Vulgar Errors, set out to correct many popular beliefs and superstitions. Written in a picturesque, but not overelaborated, style, the book was a success and was reprinted five times during Browne's Hfe. In 1658 he published his third book, containing two treatises on antiquarian subjects, Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall, or a Discourse of the Sepulchrall Umes Lately Found in Norfolk, and The Garden of Cyrus, or the Quincunciall, Lozenge, or Network Plantations of the Ancients. Around the theme of the urns he wove a tissue of solemn reflections on death and the transience of human fame in his most luxuriant style; in the latter work, in which he traces the history of horticulture from the garden of

Eden

to the Persian gardens in the reign of Cyrus,

he

is

espe-

by the quincunx, which furnished him with a majestic elaboration. The whole volume is the su-

cially fascinated

subject for

preme example

of his skill in the manipulation of language.

He

used latinized forms of words and inversions of structure in his sentences to obtain a highly stylized effect. Some critics have detected in his prose a rhythm which borders on poetry, but which may be more aptly compared with music. A smaller work of great beauty and subtlety, entitled A Letter to a Friend, Upon Occasion of the Death of His Intimate Friettd, was published posthumously This was probably written late in Browne's life, and is founded on the clinical history of an actual patient dying of

in 1690.

phthisis.

Browne had always been a royalist, and his fame both as doctor and writer gained him a knighthood when Charles II visited Norwich in 1671. He seldom left the city except to visit patients in other parts of Norfolk, but corresponded with such men of learnJohn Evelyn, Sir William Dugdale and John Aubrey. Most of his surviving letters, however, were written to his eldest .son,

ant to a doctor near Oxford. After visiting Ireland with his stepfather he went to study medicine abroad, first at the University

ing as

Padua and finally at Leiden, where he took his M.D. on Dec. 21, 1633. Details of Browne's experiences in these centres of learning can only be conjectured, but they were certainly of the first importance in the cultivation of his mind. On returning to England in 1634 he lived for a time at Shibden hall near Halifax, in Yorkshire, beginning to practice in the neighbourhood, and after two years was incorporated M.D. at Oxford. In 1636 he settled in Norwich. The serious purpose of Browne's life had now reached fruition, but his parallel career as writer had also begun by chance at Shibden hall. There, when not yet 30, he had written his Religio Medici, which he described as "a private exercise directed to myself," and it did indeed circulate at first only in manuscript among his friends. In 1642, however, it was printed without his permission in London and so had to be acknowledged, an authorized version being published in 1643, together with letters to and from Sir Kenelm Digby, who had been so delighted with his first perusal of the surreptitious edition that he there and then composed his Observations upon it. The book was an immediate success

these give an intimate picture of his medHis life purpractice and his relations with his family. sued an even course until 1682, when he died at Norwich, on Oct. 19, his 77th birthday. Browne has been criticized for the part he played in 1664 as a witness at the trial and condemnation of two women as witches; a later age condemns this as an indulgence in superstition on the part of one who attacked superstition in others. This is to ignore the religious attitude of the time. Browne was only expressing the logic of his faith, which entailed a belief in a personal Satan and so in the possible existence of witches, who must be persecuted as Satan's representatives. He died a sincere Christian and was buried in Norwich in the Church of St. Peter Mancroft, where his monument still stands. The first edition of Browne's collected works was published in 1686; other editions are by Simon Wilkin, 3 vol. (1835-36); by C. Sayle, 3 vol. (1904-7); and by Geoffrey Keynes (including Religio Medici was edited by J. J. letters), 6 vol. (1928-31). Denonain (1953 and 1955); Hydriotaphia and The Garden of

of Montpellier, then at

Edward Browne, and

ical

—

BROWNE— BROWNIAN MOVEMENT Cyrus were edited by John Carter (1958). Notes and Letters on the Natural History of Norfolk was edited by T. Southwell (1902).

—

Bibliography. There is a full Bibliography by G. Keynes (1924). See also the lives by Samuel Johnson (1756) by S. Wilkin, in Collected Works (1S36) by Edmund Gosse (igos) and by Jeremiah Finch (G. L. K.) (1950).

289

After serving on The Nation from 1879 to 1881, he became editor and literary adviser to Charles Scribncr's Sons, New York publishers, in 1888, remaining there until his editor in a year.

death.

;

;

;

BROWNE, WILLIAM

( 1

59 1 ?-i 645

?

)

.

English poet, author

Temple Masque and other and miscellaneous verse, was born at Tavistock, Devon. He is said to have proceeded to Exeter college, Oxford, c. 1603, and he entered the Inner Temple in 161 1. For some time between 1616 and 1621 he lived in France. In 1623 he became tutor to Robert Dormer, the future earl of Carnarvon, accompanying him to Eton and Exeter college. Oxford. Philip Herbert, earl of Montgomery, was Dormer's guardian, and the Herberts may have assisted Browne in other ways. His later life, after his marriage in 1628. appears to have been spent in the neighbourhood of of Britannia's Pastorals, the Inner pastoral

Dorking. Surrey. Browne's elegy on the death of Henry, prince of Wales, and the first book of Britannia's Pastorals appeared in 1613; The Shepheards Pipe in 1614; and the second book of the Pastorals in 1616. together with the first book, carefully revised. The Inner Temple Masque, which remained in manuscript until the collected edition of Browne's work of 1772, was written for performance in A fragmentar>- third book of the Pastorals exists in Jan. 1615. manuscript in Salisbury cathedral Ubrary. His miscellaneous

poems are museum.

collected in

Britannia's Pastorals

Lansdowne Manuscript is

777, at the British

a long, discursive pastoral narrative, in-

Spenser was Browne's chief model here. and especially to Devonshire, he attempted to glorify them in pastoral verse of epic dignity. Although often imitative, Browne had originality. In the published pastorals, this appears mainly in his truthful, affectionate pictures of country life;

terspersed with songs.

Devoted

to his country,

unpublished verse, in many moving autobiographical passages. The Inner Temple Masque, on Circe and Ulysses, contains some exquisite songs. Mainly a backward-looking poet, Browne also came under contemporary metaphysical influence, while the erudition, social criticism and melancholy, even morbid, reflectiveness in parts of his work indicate a range wider than the label in the

"pastoralist" suggests.

—

Bibliography. The complete Works of William Browne were ed. by W. Thompson and T, Davies, 3 vol. (177.;) there is a modern edition by G, Goodwin, 2 vol., in the "Muses Library Series" (1894). See also Joan Grundy, '"ft'illiam Browne and the Italian Pastoral," Review of English Studies, vol. iv. new series (19,3). (J. Gy.) ;

BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE

(1768-1813), English and the middle east, was bom in London on July 25. 1768. In 1792 he set out for Egypt and at Asyut joined a caravan on its way to Darfur. There he was forcibly detained from 1793 to 1796 when he was allowed to return to Egypt. From Cairo he traveled leisurely through Damascus and Istanbul, reaching London in 1798, He published Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria (1799; enlarged ed., 1806; French trans., 1800). Browne's remarkable book, not recognized during his life, contained the first scientific description of Darfur by a European traveler in central Africa

visitor.

After desultory wanderings in the Levant

in 1800-02. he started 1812 in an attempt to reach Samarkand. Ridfrom Smyrna to Erzerum he reached Tabriz in June 1813 only to be murdered a few weeks later on the road to Teheran.

from England

in

ing through Anatolia

Browne published nothing on volume two of his Travels

Robert Walpole, Various Countries of the East (1820). printed hitherto unpublished papers by Browne including an account of journeys in Anatolia and a description of Istanbul. to which Walpole added a somewhat patronizing biography of the in

His first two books, French Traits (1889) and French Art (1892 t, established a new and difficult standard for the U.S. critic, but a standard which Brownell maintained for himself in his succeeding books: Victorian Prose Masters (1901), American Prose Masters (1909), Criticism (1914), Standards (1917), The Genius of Style (1924) and Democratic Distinction in America (1927). He died at Williamstown, Mass., on July 22, 1928. His wife, Gertrude Hall Brownell, edited an anthology of his

works

in

1933.

See Frank Fletcher, "A Bibliography of William Crary Brownell," Bulletin of Bibliography and Dramatic Index, 20:242-244 (Jan. 1953).

BROWNIAN MOVEMENT.

The English botanist Robert 1S27 that an aqueous suspension of the pollen Clarkia pidchella contained microscopic particles

Brown reported of

the

herb

in

a continuous, haphazard zigzag movement. This random movement of microscopic particles was subsequently called Brownian movement. Brown noted that he was not the first to observe this phenomenon and referred to earlier obser\-ations' by J. T. Needham and. particularly, by F. W. von Gleichen. whose work preceded his own by 60 years. He was. however, the first to carry out a detailed investigation. He was also the first to notice

which carried out

movement could not be attributed to life in the particles themselves the pollen of plants that had been dead for at least a century exhibited the same phenomenon. This situation was noted by Brown as a "very unexpected fact of seeming vitality bethat the

:

by these 'molecules' so long after the death of the Subsequently he found this irregular translational moveaqueous suspensions of minute particles of typically inanimate bodies such as minerals and smoke. This proved that the phenomenon was characteristic of suspensions of all microscopically small particles. Brown's observations were followed by a large number of detailed experimental investigations by other authors. Particularly noteworthy are the systematic investigations by C. Wiener (1863) and by G. L. Gouy (1889 1. Eliminating a number of explanations offered in the intervening period, they proved conclusively that the Brownian movement was due neither to thermal convections nor to capillary forces. Gouy also noticed ing retained plant."

ment

that

also in

the liveliness of the

Brownian movement was more pro-

nounced, the smaller the size of the particles and the lower the viscosity of the liquid in which they were suspended. Truly quantitative investigations awaited the 20th century, F. M. Exner (1900) being the first to determine photographically the speed of the random movement of the particles as a function of their size and of temperature. More precise measurements became possible, however, only after the introduction of the ultramicroscope (see Microscopy) by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy (1903). This instrument made it possible to follow the behaviour of colloidal particles too small to be visible in the ordinary microscope. The greater liveliness of these extremely small particles, which was in agreement with Gouy's findings, made quantitative studies easier. Classical experiments on the Brownian movement, with this new technique, were carried out by Zsigmondy (1905)

and by Theodor (The) Svedberg (1911). Cause of the Translational Brownian Movement. Wiener, by stating that the cause (of the movement) must be in internal movements characteristic of the state of the liquid, and Delsaulx ( 1S77 ), by stating more explicitly, "In my way of think-

phenomenon

a result of thermal molecular motions in

his later travels.

ing, the

in

the liquid environment (of the particles)," provided the basis for

traveler.

(R. L. Hl.) (1851-1928), US critic, was an early proponent of modern realistic art and sought to do for U.S. criticism what Matthew Arnold did for British. Born in New York city, Aug. 30, 1851, he graduated from Amherst college in 1871 and joined the New York World, becoming city

BROWNELL, WILLIAM CRARY

the

modem

is

theor)' of the

Brownian movement.

According to the

kinetic theory of gases, developed during the latter part of the 19th

century (J. C. Maxwell, L. Boltzmann, R, J. E. Clausius). the molecules of a gas carry out a ceaseless translational movement at 273.16° C). This moveaU temperatures above absolute zero ( ment, whose direction is not predictable, becomes more lively as the temperature rises and is, in fact, its measure. Because of elastic collisions between the molecules of the gas, the direction of their individual motions changes continuously. A similar description

—

„

BROWNIAN MOVEMENT

2go applies to the molecules

Brownian movement increases with temperature and decreases both with an increase in particle size and with an increase in

making the path covered by

viscosity of the liquid.

composing a liquid, the principal difference being that the molecules of a liquid are more closely packed, a molecule between coIHsions far

shorter.

Particularly interesting

If a microscopic or colloidal particle

is

suspended

in a liquid,

is

the variation of

ample, a particle with a diameter of about

Al with ^ „ „ ^

t.

For

ex-

in.

(0.5

ft),

,

say water,

be subjected to a continuous bombardment, from all directions, by the surrounding molecules. If the velocity of all the water molecules were the same, the particle would, of course, not move at all since all the momenta transferred during the collisions would neutralize each other. This is the argument used by K. \V. von Xaegeli (1879) against the early bombardment theories of the Brownian movement. This argument was fallacious, however, since molecules do not have a single velocity at a given temperature, but instead have a distribution of velocities of van.'ing degrees of probability (see Kinetic Theory of Matter). A suspended particle will, therefore, at a given instant, receive a finite momentum of unpredictable direction and magnitude and both the direction and velocity of the particle will change continuously. The observable result will therefore be a random zigzag motion; i.e., Brownian movement. It is clear that the movement must continue as long as the system exists. This conclusion agrees with the result of an unusual, early experiment by Cantoni and Oehl (1865), who found that the Brownian movement remained unchanged for a whole year in a suspension sealed between two cover glasses. will

it

For quantitative studies it must be borne in mind that it is not possible to record the exact position of a particle or observe its motion

directly, .\ small colloidal particle manifests itself in the ultramicroscope only as a spot of light. Since the particle is being

bombarded from the spot

all directions more than lo^*' times per second, be seen trembling about a mean position. The mean is slowly changing and after a time interval of sec. or even 0.05 sec. it is obvious that the particle has

may

position, however,

30

sec. or

I

moved.

V. Henri's method of observation was to make photographs spaced 0.05 sec. apart with an automatic camera. The duration of the exposures was 0.003 sec. J. Perrin. in a similar

suspended

in water, shows a displacement, \'A];, of about ^^ ^^^ observed for one second and of about ^.l^a '"• '^ obser\'ed for ten seconds. This and also the other quantitative implications of the equation were quantitatively varified for liquid suspensions by M. Seddig (1908), V. Henri (1908) and particularly by J. Perrin and M, Chaudesaigues (1908-11) and The Svedberg (1906-12), Although translational Brownian movement was first obser\'ed in suspensions in liquids, and early studies concerned this environment, the explanation of its nature and Einstein's theory obviously did not so limit its occurrence. In fact, L, J, Bodaszewski (1883), using a microscope, first observed it in the smoke of burning paper and cigars and in other aerosols (air or gas suspensions of fine particles). Equation (i) was verified for such suspensions by F, Ehrenhaft (1907), M, de Broglie (1909) and H. Fletcher (igii ). Rotational Brownian Movement. Atoms and molecules carry out not only a translational movement, but also a rotational movement. A finite angular momentum will therefore be imparted, at any instant, to a particle since the molecules of the surrounding liquid, which collide with it, all possess angular momenta. These momenta differ more or less from a most probable value, the rotations taking place about axes oriented in random directions. The magnitude of the momentum acquired by the particle ^niII therefore var>' continually, although there will, again, be a very specific most probable value for it at any given temperature. Furthermore, the spatial directon of the axis of rotation will change in a random fashion. Einstein developed the theon,- of this phenomenon, which he called rotatory Brownian movement, within the framework of his general theory of Brownian movement. He obtained the relation: in, if

—

series of observations, recorded the positions of a particle at 30-sec.

intervals

and plotted them on co-ordinate paper.

in the lengths of the intervals did

The

ter of the results.

From each mine

AlfT = RT/iTNr,r>

(2)

difference

not affect the qualitative charac-

pair of consecutive photographs Henri could deterthe displacement of the particle projected on the plane per-

pendicular to the direction of observation. Since all directions in the plane are statistically equivalent it is sufficient to determine the displacement parallel to some one line selected as a reference within this plane. The direction of this fine is often spoken of as

The projection of the displacement on the line be denoted here by the symbol \^. The theory to be discussed concerned with Ajl which is always positive.

where Ai is the mean square angle of rotation for this phenomenon, which was experimentally still unknown at that time. This equation, again, applies not only to suspensions in a liquid (sols and emulsions), but also to aerosols. According to equation (2), a particle with a diameter of about ^q^pq,, in, (0.5 yu), suspended in

water, should carry out, on the average, three-fourths of a turn

in a second.

The

rotation

much more

is

therefore rather rapid, but

its

rate

rapidly with increasing particle size than that

the X direction.

decreases

will

of the translational

is

comparison of equations (2) and (i) shows. For a convenient study of the rotational Brownian movement, rather Perrin, who large microscopic particles are therefore required, verified experimentally the existence of the rotational Brownian

The quantitative theory of the translational Brownian movement was developed independently by A, Einstein (1905), M, von Smoluchowski (igo6) and P, Langevin (1908). At about the time of Einstein's work Zsigmondy predicted, on the basis of his classical ultramicroscope investigations on gold sols (colloidal solutions), that the

Brownian movement could be explained on

the basis of the kinetic theory of the liquid state. stein's equations defines quantitatively the

One of Einmean square displace-

ment, Al, of a particle within a given time of observation, t: l^l^RTr/iiivNvr)

Here,

R

(1)

the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, tj is the viscosity of the surrounding liquid, A^ is Av9gadro's constant and r is the radius of the particle which carries out the Brownian is

movement.

The mean displacement is obtained by averaging the squares of the displacements, Aj.,i, A.r.2, etc. as actually obsen-ed for a series of uniform time intervals of short duration, and by then tajdng the square root of the average. It should be noted

that t/aJ

is

not the absolute displacement, but its projection upon x axis, in the plane perpendicular to the

a line, designated as the

direction of observation.

Equation (i) is in accord with the experiments mentioned according to which the liveliness of the

movement, the

ratio of the rates being equal

to i/r, as a

movement (1909), used in diameter.

resolving

particles of mastic of about

^.^oo

''*•

Particles of this large size are considerably above the

power

of an average microscope so that they are directly

In order to seen as objects and not merely as spots of light. facilitate the observation of their rotation, he took occlusions of foreign matter, below their surfaces, as index marks. The average rotation observed was 14,5° per minute which compared well with the theoretical value of 14°.

The diameter of large microscopic particles can be determined with great accuracy. Similarly, 17 is easy to determine. It is therefore possible to obtain Avogadro's constant iq.v.). N, from measurements of

from those of Ar- Perrin thus de.V from quantitative determinaThe v'alue obtained was tions of these quantities in emulsions. value. In view of the fact modern within 15% of the accepted that ver\' few reliable determinations of A"^ had been carried out in those days, this experiment by Perrin was deservedly considered Aj,

and

also

termined the numerical value of

an outstanding accomplishment. Macroscopic Effects o£ the Translational Brownian Movement. If water is poured very carefully upon the top of a sus-

—

:

BROWNIAN MOVEMENT pension of very small coloured particles whose density differs very little from that of water, an observer will see a distinct horizontal boundary between the suspension and the pure water. Slowly, this

boundary

will

become

diffuse

and after a

sufficiently long period

The spontaneous mixing process responsiIt is due exble for this phenomenon is called diffusion (q.v.). to the random translational movement of the suspended clusively At the outset, more particles are on one side of the particles. boundary than on the other and more pass it in one direction than of time will disappear.

in

reverse

the

boundar>-

is

direction

the

since

the same for each.

A

probability

of passing the concentration gradient per-

pendicular to the plane of the original boundary

is,

therefore,

produce a directionally preferential mass transport by random motion of the individual particles. Quantitatively, the situation may be expressed by the relation

necessarj' in order to

general validity of equations (3) and (4), equation (5) applies also to molecules and ions in solution. The only difference is that the concentration gradient characterizing the steady state is too

small to be measurable unless the column of the system considered is extremely high. If this is the case, then the variation of the acceleration with height and therefore the variation of A' with height must be taken into account. The same applies to the situa-

where the concentration gradient in the steady state is made by substituting for the gravitational acceleration the

tion

usefully large

far larger acceleration achieved with a centrifuge or ultracentrifuge

(see Centrifuge). This possibility is being used for determining the size or weight of large molecules or small organisms such as viruses, etc.

is

Perrin emphasized the fact, implicit in the theory, that there really no basic difference between the laws governing the

translational

dn/d log T=-iq/2) Al{dc/dx)

(3)

of diffusion.

Here

?i

is

the

number

of moles, g is the cross section is the concentration gradi-

through which they diffuse and dc/dx ent;

the rate at which the concentration,

i.e.,

c (in

moles per cubic

centimetre), changes with the distance x in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the original boundary.

In Einstein's equa-

tion

Brownian movement of

random

the diffusion constant,

(4)

D, represents the number of moles

dif-

fusing per second across a cross section of one square centimetre

and the laws governing

movement of the molecules colliding with Hence equation (5) also expresses correctly the with height, of the number of gas molecules per unit translational

like molecules.

variation,

volume;

The is

the decrease in gas pressure with increasing height.

i.e.,

decline of the atmospheric pressure with increasing elevation

a good example of this

phenomenon.

If free diffusion of the solute of a solution into a supernatant

layer of pure solvent

aI = 2Dt

particles colliding with mole-

cules of a liquid or gaseous environment

the

which represents a combination of Pick's and of Einstein's laws

291

is

inhibited by the placing of a semipermeable

membrane

at

develops.

Measurements of

the boundary', a pressure called osmotic pressure

this pressure allow one to determine the weight of the dissolved molecules. The equation governing this phenomenon had been derived at an early date by J. H. van't by applying the laws of an ideal gas. It follows from the discussion of the diffusion process that there must be an inti-

the concentration gradient is one mole per centimetre. This equation was veritied experimentally by a large number of investigators beginning with The Svedberg (1909-11), who tested it on gold sols. The diffusion equations are valid not only for suspended

Hoff (18S6

microscopic or colloidal particles but also for molecules or ions in solution. This means, by impUcation, that these solutes would be found to carry out a typical translational Brownian movement if instruments were available allowing one to see the molecules or ions

the experiment outlined at the beginning of this section,

develop an equivalent equation of broader vaUdity, within the framework of his general theory of the Brownian movement; and he states; "According to this [his] theory a dissolved molecule is differentiated from a suspended body solely by its dimensions, and it is not apparent why a number of suspended particles should not produce the same osmotic pressure as the same number of molecules." Einstein was, therefore, the first to point out the broad scope of the phenomenon of osmotic pressure, which is of interest not only in chemistry and physics but also of paramount importance in processes involving transfers through membranes in the living human body.

markedly in density from that of water, the would be complicated by the simultaneous process

Macroscopic Effects of the Rotational Brownian Movement. Rotational Brownian movement prevents the perfect

if

There is, therefore, no really is done quite frequently, the term Brownian movement to any body, irrespective of size, which is executing irregular thermal motions, caused by collisions, within an environment which is physically or chemically different from directly in their liquid environment.

valid objection to one's extending, as

the body. If, in

the particles differed diffusion process

of settling of the particles.

Inversely, the settling of particles in a

suspension whose concentration is uniform at the outset would be complicated by diffusion. The simple reason for this is that settling leads to the establishment, and then to an increase, with time, of a vertical concentration gradient.

more

There are increasingly upper back into the upper por-

particles in the lower portions of the vessel than in the

ones.

A

preferential diffusion of particles

tions will therefore be initiated

ing to equation (3). just as

many

particles settle

vessel as migrate through fusion.

and accentuated, with time, accord-

result will be a steady state when through a given cross section of the

The end it,

in the reverse direction,

by back

number

\og(n/no)

= Kih-l!o)

is

of particles,

per unit volume, from n to n„ as the height decreases from h to

K

dif-

This steady state, called sedimentation equilibrium,

characterized by an exponential increase in the

h,^

(5)

here a constant at a given temperature for a given settling system if it may be assumed that the variation of gravitational acceleration with height can be neglected (as it may be for vessels less than 50 ft. high). Perrin verified this law working with emulsions of microscopic particles. This law of the exponential vertical distribution of particles in a settling system applies, of course, not only to suspensions in a liquid (sols and emulsions), but also is

to aerosols.

It allows one, therefore, to estimate, at least roughly,

the vertical distribution of dust, smoke and other contaminants within the lowest strata of a quiescent atmosphere. In view of the

)

mate connection between osmotic pressure and translational Brownian movement of the solute. In fact. Einstein was able to

—

orientation of nonspherical particles in suspensions and of nonspherical molecules in solutions brought into an electric or netic field.

One

mag-

obtains, instead, a probability distribution for

the particle axes, with a peak, i.e., greatest probability, for that direction which would characterize perfect orientation in the field.

The spread

of

this

distribution

at

a

given field strength and

temperature makes it possible to determine the size or shape or internal anisotropy of colloidal particles or of molecules if two of these three quantities are already known from other measurements. Most generally used, however, is the effect of the rotational Brownian movement upon the more complicated process of orientation of particles or molecules in streaming, i.e., moving, suspensions and solutions respectively. Here, the most probable direction, i.e., the peak of the orientation-distribution curve, changes with the velocity gradient, but the internal anisotropy has no bearing upon the orientation. Therefore, molecular shapes can be determined, if the molecular weight is known, by ascertaining the most probable direction indicated by the distribution curve relative to the direction of flow, or

by measurement of

optical or

other quantities dependent on the peak direction and on the spread of the direction-distribution curve. The dimensions of a series of important substances, such as of viruses, have thus been determined.

Intramolecular Brownian Movement and

— Prior

Its

Macroscopic

one spoke only of translational and rotaTo these terms, an only partially tional Brownian movement. Effects.

to 1930,

BROWNIE

292

accepted third has been added, that of the intramolecular or microBrownian movement (W. Kuhn, 1938). The phenomenon alluded Fig. i(A) to will be explained by means of fig. ifA) and i(B). represents one possible configuration of the carbon skeleton of the pentane molecule, CjHjo- Two atoms of hydrogen, not shown, are chemically combined with each of the carbon atoms B, C and D,

A

three with

Each

and three with E.

of the

atoms B,

C and D

materials and solutions of flexible macromolecules is (i) that the intermolecular collisions take place between atom groups (seg-

ments) of neighbouring macromolecules, and (2) that occasional chemical cross links between neighbouring macromolecules provide an increased lateral coherence for the entire system which prevents slippage under stress. The quantitative modern theories are based upon this interpretation of rubber elasticity as an entropy effect (P, J. Flory [1944], E, Guth, H. James [1943] and F, T. Wall [1943]). From the point of view of definition, it is of course debatable whether or not one should apply the term Brownian movement here where the partners in a collision are identical or at least very similar, not only in size but also physically and chemically. Many authors prefer to speak of intramolecular thermal motion and of intermolecular collision.

Irregular Movements Within Solids, Resembling Translational Brownian Movement. If a bar of copper and bar of silver are welded together, one will find, after a long period of time, that silver has diffused into copper and vice versa. Quantitative studies have left no doubt that the laws of diffusion valid in liquids

—

Configuration of the carbon skeleton of the pentane molecule, ' protection of sheep and goats against Intensive and successBr. 7nclitatsis or of hogs against Br. siiis. ful experimental work under way in the late 1950s indicated that a successful vaccine would be made available for sheep and goats. Brucellosis in swine can be controlled by carrying out blood agglutination tests on a herd of swine, and.

if

positive reactors are

Promising results are anticipated following vaccination of sheep and goats with a living culture of Br. melitcnsis, which possesses attenuated virulence. Immunization of human beings with living brucella vaccine is not generally recommended. The incidence of human disease can be further reduced through the widespread pasteurization of milk Modern methods of preparing and refor human consumption. frigerating meat products permit the marketing of slaughtered infected animals for human food with little or no danger of infection occurring in the consumer. See I. Forrest Huddleson, Brucellosis in Man and .inimals (1945) (\Vy. W. S.) Wesley W. Spink. The .\ature of Brucellosis 1956) detected, disposing of the entire herd.

;

(

BRUCE OF MELBOURNE, BOURNE BRUCE, 1st Viscouxt

STANLEY

MEL-

i. ClSSiAustralian statesman and diplomat, was prime minister from 1923 to 1929, but is chiefly remembered for his long and successful appointment js Australian high commissioner in London. Born in Melbourne Dn April IS, 1883, and educated at Melbourne grammar school and Trinity hall, Cambridge, he was called to the bar by the Middle Temple in 1906 and stayed on in England to practise. Being in England at the outbreak of World War I. he served with distinction in the British army from 1914 until invalided home to Australia in

1917.

Bruce was elected to the Australian federal parliament in 1918. His rise in politics was rapid and he became a prominent figure not only in Australia but also in international affairs. He was federal treasurer in 1921 and became prime minister, leading a coalition of the National

and Country parties

in 1923 after the Simultaneously he was minister of external affairs. His government was defeated at a general election in 1929 and he lost his seat. Returning to parliament in 1931 he became minister without portfolio under J. A. Lyons, and represented Australia in London until 1945, first as resident minister and after 1933 as high commissioner. As prime minister Bruce had represented Australia at the imperial conferences of 1923 and 1026, and at several sessions of the League of Nations assembly. He was Australian representative on the League of Nations council from 1933 to 1936. in which year he was president of the council. He was appointed Australian representative to the United Kingdom war cabinet in 1942. and was Australian minister to the Netherlands government in exile in London from 1942 to 1945, when his long term as Australian high commissioner ended. He was chairman of the United Nations Food and Agriculture organization's preparatory commission in 1946 and. as chairman of the World Food council from 1947 to 1951. made his mark by insistent emphasis on the need for international co-operation to raise the standards of nutrition and health throughout the world. Bruce's distinguished service to the Commonwealth of Nations was recognized in 1947 by the first award of a viscountcy to an Australian, and in the same year he was appointed chairman of the U.K. Finance Corporation for Industry a post he held until 1957. He became first chancellor of the Australian National university. Canberra, in 1951. but continued to live mainly in London, taking an active part in the house of lords especially on questions of economics and finance, and retaining a close interest in com-

resignation of

W. M. Hughes.

.

—

monwealth

affairs.

BRUCH, MAX

(C.

Com.)

(1838-1920), German composer, remembered was born Jan. 6, 1838, at Cologne. He was a precocious child. At 14 he wrote a symphony and in 1852 won a scholarship from the Mozart foundation at Frankfurt am Main that enabled him to study under Ferdinand Hiller and Carl chiefly for his violin concertos,

299

Reinecke at Cologne. His first opera, Scherz, List und Rache, was performed there in 1858. He had a distinguished career as conductor of choral and orchestral societies at Coblenz (1865), Sondershausen (1867), Berlin (of the Sternscher Gpsangverein, 1878), Liverpool (the Philharmonic orchestra, 1880-83) and Breslau (1883-90). From 1891 until his retirement in 1910, he was in charge of a master class at the Berlin Academy of Arts. He died at Friedenau. near Berlin, Oct. 2. 1Q20. Bruch was an unusually productive and ambitious composer, and contributed to almost all the musical kinds. His greatest successes in his own lifetime were massive works for choir and orchestra, Schon Ellen (1867), Odysseus (1872), Das Lied von der Glocke (1878) and Gustav Adolf (1898) were favourites with German

choral societies during the late 19th century.

The reason

for their

was probably that Bruch's recontrolled by critical judgment,

failure to maintain their position

markable facility is not sufficiently and although his workmanship is sound, his orchestration colourful and his choral writing effective, he lacks the depth of conception and the originality needed to sustain large-scale works. The only works to outlive him were his three brilliant violin concertos, the first of which, in G minor, has a permanent place in the violinist's repertory, and his Kol Nidrei phantasy for cello and orchestra. See F. Gvsi, Max Bruch (1922) Bruch (\9ii).

;

H.

Pfitzner,

Meine Beziehiingen zu

Max

(H. Ga.)

BRUCINE,

an alkaloid occurring in about equal parts with strychnine in the seeds of Strychnos nitx-vomica and other species of Strychnos. It has been found in plants only in association with strychnine, to which it bears a close chemical relationship; brucine It has an intense and persistent bitter is dimethoxystr>'chnine. taste resembling that of strychnine and produces similar but much weaker effects when injected into animals. When administered by mouth, its action is slight because of its rapid elimmation from the body. In the 19th centur>' brucine was sometimes used for the same purposes as str>xhnine. but because of its relatively low potency it was of much less importance. It has little if any therapeutic use in modern medicine. See also Alkaloids; Nux \"omica; Strychnine. (V. E.) BRUCITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium hydroxide, has It a higher percentage of magnesium {q.v.) than any other ore. was first described in 1814 as "native magnesia" from New Jersey by A. Bruce, a U.S. mineralogist, after whom the species was named. Brucite is usually found as platy masses, sometimes of considerable size, which have a perfect cleavage parallel to the surface of the plates. It is white, sometimes with a tinge of gray, blue or green, varies from transparent to translucent, and on the cleavage surfaces has a pronounced pearly lustre. In general appearance and softness (hardness 2.5) it is not unlike gypsum or talc, but it may be readily distinguished from these by its double refraction. Brucite is generally associated with other magnesian minerals, such as magnesite and dolomite, and is commonly found in serpentine, or sometimes as small scales in phyllites and crj-stalline schists; it has also been observed in metamorphosed magnesian limestone, such as the rock known as predazzite from Predazzo in Tirol. The specific gravity of brucite is 2. 38 to 2.40. The formula is Mg( OH I.,, " and it crvstallizes in the rhombohedral svstem. (L. J.'S.)

..

BRUCKE, ERNST WILHELM VON

(1819-1892), German physiologist who helped introduce physical and chemical methods into medical research and gave a great impetus to animal experimentation, was born in Berlin, June 6, 1819, and died in Vienna, Jan. 7, 1892.

member of a school of physically oriented German who undertook to create a new biology rigorously

Briicke was a physiologists

He

based on physics and chemistry.

and was trained

as a physiologist

studied medicine in Berlin In the IMiiller.

by Johannes

movement he was associated with Emil du BoisReymond, Karl Ludwig and Hermann von Helmholtz. Their biobiophysical

physical program was formulated about 1847.

did not achieve their goal they did

much

Although the group study and

to influence the

practice of medicine.

Briicke was professor of physiology in Vienna from 1849 to

)

BRUCKNER— BRUEGHEL

;oo He

conducted research on the structure of skeletal muscle, on vision and on the mechanism of speech. He was. like Miiller and Helmholtz, interested in art, and he wrote on the relationship of the physiology of vision to painting. Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud were attracted to physiology through Briicke's lectures, and Freud worked in Briicke's institute. It was largely through Briicke that Freud acquired the mechanistic bias that is seen in his early "Project for a New Psychology." Briicke was a member of the Viennese Academy of Science. For a bibliography on Briicke see the article Du Bois-Reymond, Emil. (P. F. C. (1824-1896), Aus(JOSEF) trian composer whose fame, firmly established in German-speaking countries, is less well recognized elsewhere. He was born at Ansfelden, Upper Austria, Sept. 4, 1824, After his father's death (1837) he was educated as a chorister at the monastery of St. Florian and became a village schoolmaster. In 1855 he was appointed organist at Linz cathedral, and this enabled him to travel regularly to Vienna, where he studied composition (in which he had been until that time largely self-taught with Simon Sechter. He continued his studies until 1861, making up for lack of facility and for intellectual slowness by his determined perseverance. In 1868 he was appointed to teach counterpoint and the organ at the conservatory at Vienna, and also to play the organ at the court chapel. He had already written three masses, for performance at Linz cathedral, and the first version of his first symphony. He lived in Vienna as a rustic outsider and, hardly noticed by the public, wrote one symphony after another, some of which were performed but were merely regarded as oddities and ridiculed by the press. Appearances as an organist in Nancy and Paris 1869) and in London (1871) were chance events without any practical results. A spectacular success of his Seventh Symphony in Leipzig under A. Nikisch (1884) turned the tide. When he died in Vienna on Oct. 11, 1896, he was on the way to wider recognition, which slowly spread. But the universal acceptance of his monumental nine symphonies in the German repertory dates only from the years 1891.

BRUCKNER,

ANTON

)

(

after

World War

I.

Bruckner's genius and originality, the grandeur of his svTnphonic vision and the nobility of his invention cannot conceal the deficiencies of formal continuity and consistency from which his works suffer. These may be explained by the peculiarities of his musical education and the laboriousness and lateness of his artistic development, as a result of which his rich inspiration was never quite integrated with his technique. At the same time, his deep spirituality, firmly based on a devout Catholic's conception of the world,

him

from the

His style uncouth amalgamation: the overwhelming impression made on him by Beethoven's Choral Symphony was decisive in forming his monumental idea of the symphony; he became an addict of Wagner's music: his practical e.xperience lay chiefly in the performance of a provincial type of church music and in improvisation at the organ. These elements, backed by an awkwardly stiff, sometimes scholastic contrapuntal texture, produce the strangest possible blending of classical tradition, Wagnerian harmony and baroque ecclesiastical splendour. There is something cyclopean in the vigour with which Bruckner has followed the same great symphonic obsession nine times, with a na'ive disregard for variety of form and expression. In spite of such shortcomings, the sincerity and genuineness of his utterance and the rich background of the Austrian landscape, a reflection of which can be felt in his music as in Schubert's, make his works both venerable and unique. Besides the works mentioned his masses and his symphonies, the ninth of which remained unfinished Bruckner's mature output comprises a string quintet (1879) and a number of choral works, among them a magnificent Te Deiim (1884), See H. F. Redlich, Bruckner and Mahler (1955). (H. Ga.) BRUDIEU, (JOAN) (c. 1520-1591) French composer, born about 1520, probably near Limoges, arrived at Seo de Urgel in Catalonia in 1538-39 with four other French singers, and seems to have remained there as choirmaster of the cathedral alHis only known most continuously until his death (1591). also cut is

off

intellectual trends of his day.

a product of disparate elements,

—

JEAN

combined

—

in a strange

works

— —

a Missa defunctorum and a set of 16 madrigals (some in some in Catalan), dedicated to the duke of Savoy (1585) have been edited by F. Pedrell and H. Angles Barcelona, 1921 ). Stylistically they are rather old-fashioned, but the melodic and rhythmic influence of Catalan folk song gives the madrigals a particular interest. (J. J. N.) (Bruegel, Breughel), PIETER (c. 15251569), the most original and powerful spirit in Flemish 16thcentury art. He was born probably at Brueghel, near Eindhoven, and entered the Antwerp painters' guild in 1551. His alleged training under Pieter Coecke van Aelst has left no apparent traces in his work, but his style does show affinities with certain other Antwerp artists, particularly Jan van Amstel and Pieter Aertszen and the landscape specialists Cornells Massys and Matthys Cockx. These were painters relatively little affected by the Romanist figure style then prevalent in Flemish painting, and it is significant that Brueghel seems to have used his visit to Rome (c. 1552-53) not to acquire the usual stock of classical and Renaissance motifs but to widen his experience of landscape. His appreciation of the sublimity of alpine scenery was to be fundamental for his art. His work at this time is best seen in landscape drawings, but one picture, a view of Naples (Doria gallery, Rome), must presumably be connected with the Italian journey, and several others, notably the luminous "Fall of Icarus" (Brussels), are generally considered to be early. Though Brueghel remains at all times the most vigorous and independent of artists, the pictures painted during the decade after his return to Antwerp give evidence of an intimate study of earlier Flemish art. He reanimated the monstrous inhabitants of the fantasy world of Hieronymus Bosch, at first in engravings, such as the set of "Seven Deadly Sins" (1556-57), designed for the printseller Hieronymus Cockx. and later in such paintings as "The Fall of the Rebel Angels" (1562; Brussels) and the "Dulle Griet" (Musee Mayer van den Bergh, Antwerp). The compositional formula of the wide stage, viewed from above and peopled with a multitude of lively figures, is likewise derived from Bosch and his contemporaries and appears constantly in Brueghel's pictures of this period. These include themes from Flemish peasant life and folk wisdom, such as the "Flemish Proverbs" (1559; Berlin) and the "Children's Games" (1559; Vienna), and also a number of biblical subjects, such as the "Tower of Babel" (1563), "The Way to Calvary" (1564) and the "Massacre of the Innocents,'' all in Vienna. In about 1563 Brueghel moved from Antwerp to Brussels (where he died, Sept. 5, 1569); he now turned to more concentrated forms of composition and adopted a more monumental style. His greatest achievement in landscape painting, a series of the months of the year (1565; Vienna and New York), is characteristic in its combination of a medieval theme with an entirely new and deeply sensitive rendering of the moods of nature. But most Castilian,

(

BRUEGHEL

new departure, in that they are primarily figure compositions. The range of subjects remains as before religious, as in the "Adoration of the Kings'' (1564; National galler>', London); rustic, as in a "Peasant Wedding" and the "Peasant Dance" (Vienna) or proverbial, as in "The Birdnester" (1568; Vienna) and the "Blind Leading the Blind" (1568; Naples). The conception, however, is presented in of his pictures of this period represent a

—

;

more vigorous and impressive form. It is noteworthy that the owe something of their monumentality to the use, for the first time in Brueghel's work, of motifs from Italian art and parfar

figures

from Michelangelo. Brueghel was not. as he has sometimes been represented, a Flem-

ticularly

ish peasant upholding the virtues of his fellows against the Spanish

oppressor. He was. on the contrary, a cultivated townsman, working for discriminating clients, among whom the Spanish authorities were prominent. A profoundly thoughtful painter, he succeeded in combining his own vivid perceptions with elements from the art of other periods and places, so as to present a vision of the world more complete and coherent than that of any of his contemporaries. It is a vision in which the littleness, the cruelty and the stupidity of man are starkly emphasized against the subVet its pessimism is counterlimity and indifference of nature.

BRUGES— BRUGMANN

301 museum

It contains

of fine arts.

works by Jean van Eyck, Hugo van der Goes, Hans (Jan) Memling and Gerard David. In the park Sir

is

museum

the

Frank

of the painter

Brangwyn.

In

the

south of the city adjoining the Gruuthuse is the church of Notre Dame (13th-lSth centuries)

which contains pictures by G. David and A. Isenbrant, mausoleums of gilded bronze and enamel of Mary of Burgundy and Charles the Bold, as well as a Madonna and Child in marble by Michelangelo. Nearby to the west the Hospital of St. John contains the Memling gallery with masterpieces of that painter.

Bruges I

is

on the main

)>tend to Brussels;

line

from

other lines

run to Eeklo. Torhout, Blanken-

and Zeebrugge. As a canal Bruges is linked with Zeebrugge harbour; other canals rinnect with Ostend and Ghent. I'crge

junction

.

There are airports near the sea Knokke and Ostend. The

It

t'lurist

IN

trade

new

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK CITY

See G. Gluck, The Lar^e Bruegel Book (1953) F. Grossman (ed), The Paintings of Peeler Brueghel (1955). (D. Kg.) (Flemish. Brugge, "bridge"), capital of the province of West Flanders, Belgium, one of the most interesting cities in the Low Countries preserving a medieval aspect, lies 24 km. (15 mi.) E. of Ostend and 13 km. (8 mi.) S. of the sea at Zeebrugge. Pop. (1955 est.) 51.733. The centre of Bruges is the Markt dominated by the belfry or halletoren (13th-15th centuries) with its carillon of 46 bells (1742-43), which surmounts the Halles or market built around an ;

BRUGES

interior court.

To

the east of the

Markt

are the provincial palace

and the post office (1SS7) in neo-Gothic style. Steenstraat leads southwestward to the cathedral of St. Salvatorskerk (12th-16th centuries, vaults 1635 and 1739 ), which possesses important works of art. Zuidzandstraat leads on to the Zand, the former site of the railway station. From there southward is a wide boulevard bordered by plantations, leading to the new station. The rampart Begijnenvest opposite leads to the Minnewater, the 17th- and 18thcentury harbour. To the east of the Markt are the Burg, former fortified home of the counts of Flanders, and the stadhids (town hall) (1376-1420). To the north is the site of the cathedral of St. Donatian, destroyed in 1799. The Gerechtshof or law courts (1722-27; replaced the ancient Palais du Franc. The southeast side has a remarkable Renaissance facade. To the southwest of the Burg are two chapels, that of the Holy Blood 14th-15th centuries built on top of that of St. Basil 1150). Bruges is transversed by several canals, which greatly add to its charm. Chief of these is the Rei (Reye or Roya), a canalized river. One of the most scenic spots in Bruges is near the Gruuthuse mansion 142070) where the Dyver canal makes several right-angled turns past ancient houses and underneath equally old bridges. Groeningestraat leads to the Pare Arents, close by which is the Groeninge (

)

(

(

the chief industry,

industrial area

ing up to the north, building,

balanced by a sanity, a humour and a sensitivity to every kind of natural beauty, which makes Brueghel one of the most delightful as well as one of the most philosophical of artists. Through his sons Pieter Brueghel (c. 1S64-c. 1637), called "Hell Brueghel," an imitator of his father, and Jan Brueghel (1S6S-1625I, called "\"elvet Brueghel," a painter of somewhat artificial landscapes and religious pictures, the elder Pieter founded a dynasty of artists that flourished down to the ISth century.

is

is growwhere shipmanufacture of electronic equipment and dies and spinning are carried on. Yeast and industrial glass are also produced. Coal, chemical products, machines and munitions are imported while fuel oil, coke, fruits and vegetables are exported. Originally Bruges was a landing place on the Zwyn estuary into which the Rei flowed. In the 7th century mentioned as the Municipium Brugense named for a Roman bridge over the Rei it was evangelized by St. Eloi, bishop of Noyon-Tournai. In a curve of

but a

•THE HARVESTERS" BY PIETER BRUEGHEL THE ELDER.

the

(

the

Rei the

first

)

counts of Flanders built a fortification, the

castnim or biircht, against the Norman invaders. The town that grew up around it became an emporium for the Hanseatic league cities and attained great importance by the 13th century. The foundation of the various churches marked stages in the town's growth. In the 14th century the silting up of the Zwyn harmed its

Damme became the outer port of Bruges. Despite the commercial decline, the most brilliant period in the history of Bruges was the 15th century when the dukes of Burgundy held their court there attended by the artists who later became known collectively as the Primitive Flemish school. The political troubles of the 16th century brought the prosperity of Bruges to an end, and it remained a sleepy medieval town until the cutting of the canal to Zeebrugge in 1903 made it a port once more and new industries grew up rapidly, while the tourist trade brought a new prosperity. In World War I Bruges was occupied by the Germans in Oct. 1914. On April 23, 1918, the harbour of Zeebrugge was raided by the British and blockships sunk in the Bruges canal, to deny the use of the port of Bruges to German submarines. On trade and

Oct. 19, 1918, the Allies reoccupied the town.

Bruges was occupied by the Germans from

In

May

World War

II

1940 until Sept.

1944.

See also references under "Bruges" in the Index volume. (A.

BRUGMANN, (FRIEDRICH) KARL German

J.

De

B.)

(1849-1919),

linguist, specialist in the comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages, was born in Wiesbaden on March 16, 1849. Educated in the Gymnasium there and at the universities of Freiburg and Leipzig, he was for i2 years professor of Sanskrit and comparative linguistics at the latter. He died in Leipzig, June 29, 1919. Brugmann was an enormously productive scholar, a keenly per-

)

BRUGSCH— BRUMMELL

302

ceptive original investigator, a vigorous defender of theoretical principles and the greatest synthesist among the grammarians of his time. Of his 400 publications the most original is his article (1876) on the sonant nasal in Indo-European; but the work on which his fame most securely rests is his Gnindriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der iiidogermanischen Sprachen, of which the volumes on the sounds and forms, supplemented by three volumes on syntax by Berthold Delbrijck {q.v.), appeared first between 1886 and 1893 and in a second greatly enlarged edition between 1897 and 1916. Brugmann's ability to control vast masses of exceedingly complex phenomena is evident in all his work, but nowhere with such perfect clarity as in the great Gnindriss. As a member of the group of "young grammarians" at Leipzig in the lS60s and 1870s. Brugmann ardently espoused the cause of unexceptionality in sound laws, and in an article "Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachforschung" (1885) he vigorously defended the new linguistics against the animadversions of his own teacher Georg Curtius. In the first volume (1878) of Morphologische Untersuchungen, edited by Brugmann and his friend Hermann Osthoff, may be found Brugmann's statement of the young gram-

marians' views.

weeks. See R. L. Koehl, "A Saxon Politician of the 18th Century," Journal of Central European Studies (Jan. 1954) ; H. Rossler, article in Neue

Deutsche Biographie,

BRUHL,

vol.

ii

(1955).

town of Germany which after partition of the nation following World War II was located in the newly formed Land of North Rhine-Westphalia of the Federal Republic of Germany, is 11 km. (7 mi.) S. of Cologne. Pop. (1959 est.) 34,349. From' the end of the 13th century onward it was a stronghold of the electors of Cologne and the 18th-century baroque castle, the Augustusberg (with its extensive gardens and famous staircase built by Balthasar Neumann), was their summer residence. After 1945, the castle was frequently used for receptions by the president of the Federal Republic of Germany, The town is a resort for the people of Cologne. It is a centre of lignite (there are numerous brown-coal mines on the slopes of the Vorgebirge), briquette and a

subsidiary industries.

A

bibliography of BruRmann's work from 1871 to 1909 was published Indogermanische Forschungen, vol. 26, 425-440 (1909); and a supplement was printed in Indogermanisches Jahrbuch for 1919, vol. 7, in

(My.

pp. 14S-1S2.

F.)

BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL

(1827-1894), German Egyptologist, a pioneer in the decipherment of demotic (see Demotic Language and Writing), was born in Berlin on Feb. 18, 1827. He was sent to Eg>-pt by the Prussian government in 1853 and met Auguste Marietta there. He then worked in the Berlin museum. In 1860 he was sent to Persia; in 1864 he was consul at Cairo; and in 1868 he was professor at Gottingen, Ger. On the foundation by the khedive of the Cairo school of Egyptology (1870) he was appointed director, a post he held for nine years. He then returned to live in Germany, frequently visiting Egypt until his death. Brugsch's services to Egyptology are most important. His vast hieroglyphic-demotic dictionary appeared during 1867-82. He died in Charlottenburg, near Berlin, on Sept. 9, 1894. See also Egypt: Archaeology. See H. Brugsch, Mein Leben und mein Wandern (1893). (W. R. D.)

BRUHL, HEINRICH,

Briihl and Frederick Augustus fled to Warsaw, where they remained throughout the war. During the war Saxony, especially Briihl's estates, was ruthlessly exploited by Prussia. Briihl died at Dresden on Oct. 28, 1763, having survived his master only a few

Graf von (1700-1763),

the director"

of policy in electoral Saxony from 1738 to 1763, was born at Glanloffsommern in Thuringia on Aug. 13, 1700. He became a page to the dowager duchess of Saxe-VVeissenfels in 1713 and then, in 1720. to Frederick Augustus I. elector of Saxony and, as Augustus II, king of Poland. In 1731 he became successively head of the excise office, director of the department of internal affairs and privy councilor, but only after Frederick Augustus I's death (Feb. 1733) did he attain the rank and title of cabinet minister. In 1734 he was given control of the electoral finances by the new elector Frederick Augustus II (see Augustus III, king of Poland as president of the chamber. In 1737 he was created a count of the empire by the emperor Charles VI. From 1738, when he re-

ceived charge of military affairs. Briihl was in effect sole minister and director of Saxon policy; and in 1746 he received the title of premier tninistre. He was also president of the mining monopoly from 1733 and director of the Meissen porcelain factory from 1739. Enjoying the full confidence of the elector until his death, Briihl amassed a large fortune from his stipends, but the charges of wholesale embezzlement once leveled against him are discounted by modern historians. His chief political aims were the acquisition of a land corridor between Poland and Saxony and the establishment of a hereditary kingdom in Poland. These brought him the political enmity of Prussia and the fierce personal hatred of Frederick the Great of Prussia, whose writings have blackened Briihl's posthumous reputation. It was thus against Briihl's will that Frederick Augustus allied himself with Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the cost in men and money brought no compensation to Saxony, as Saxon interests were ignored in the peace of Breslau (1742). Early in the Seven Years' War ^q.v.) after the capitulation of the Saxon army at Pirna (Oct. 1756)

BRUM, BALTASAR (1883-1933), Uruguayan statesman, was born near Salto, June 18. 1883. He received a law degree in 1908 and practised briefly, but in 1913 was appointed minister of public instruction and later served as minister of foreign relations (twice), of finance and of the interior. While serving as minister of foreign relations and just before assuming the presidency. Brum made official visits to Washington, D.C.. and certain LatinAmerican capitals. He was elected president in 1919, the first to serve after the constitution of 1917 established a bifurcated and bipartisan executive (president and independent national council of administration).

His presidency continued

until 1923.

Brum

was president of the council on March 31, 1933, when Pres. Gabriel Terra in his coup d'etat suspended the constitution. Brum in protest against the action dramatically killed himself,

who came

defying police

to arrest him.

His chief contribution, both as minister and president, was in He consistently urged inter-American solidarity and in 1920 proposed an American League of Nations. (R. H. Fi.) (from Fr. brumes, "mists"), the second month in the French Republican calendar (q.v.), began on Oct. 22 or 23' and ended on Nov. 20 or 21. The coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, year VIII (Nov. 9, 1799), and the law of 19 Brumaire overthrew the Directory and established the consular regime (see France: Histhe field of foreign relations.

BRUMAIRE

tory ;

Napoleon

I).

BRUMEL, ANTOINE

(c.

1460-c. 1525), a leading church

composer of his time, probably born in Flanders about 1460, He may have been in Chart res in 1483, certainly worked in Laon in 1497 and was choirmaster of Notre Dame, Paris, 1498-1500, He left Paris in 1505 and went to Lyons, He was in Rome in 1513 and in Ferrara in 1520. No further record is known. His music, highly regarded by contemporary writers, consists mainly of fourvoiced masses and motets. His 12-part mass, one of 12 masses, published in Venice (1503-08), Rome (1516-22) and Niirnberg (1539), was an unusual experiment. He used canon and cantus firmus easily, and his gift for imitative writing was advanced for his time.

—

.\ useful selection of Brumel's music was reprinted Tresor musical (for 1866 and 1874-75), ed. by R. van Maldeghem; complete ed. by A. Carapetyan (vol. i, Missa L'Homme anne, 1951). ," in Zeitschrift See also .\. Pirro, "Dokumente iiber .\ntoine Brumel G. Reese, Music in the Renfiir Musikwissenschaft, vol. xi (1928-29) (B. L. Tr.) aissance (1954).

Bibliography.

in

.

.

.

;

BRUMMELL, GEORGE BRYAN

(1778-1840), English

of fashion, known as "Beau" Brummell, famous for his friendship with the prince of Wales (afterward George IV) and as the undisputed leader of fashion at the beginning of the 19th cen-

man

tury, was born in London on June 7, 1778. His father was private secretary to Lord North from 1770 to 1782, and subsequently high sheriff of Berkshire; his grandfather was a shopkeeper in the

parish of St, James, early years

who

let

lodgings to the aristocracy.

George Brummell paid great attention

From

to his dress.

his

At

BRUNDISIUM— BRUNEI Eton, where he was sent to school in 1 790, and was extremely popular, he was known as Buck Brummell, and at Oxford, where he spent a brief period as an undergraduate at Oriel college, he preserved this reputation, and added to it that of a wit. He returned to London, where the prince of Wales, to whom he had been pre-

him a commission in his own regiment (1794). Brummell soon became intimate with his patron and, in 1798, hav-

sented at Eton, gave

ing then reached the rank of captain, he left the service.

Next year he succeeded to a fortune of about £30,000. Setting up a bachelor establishment in Mayfair, he became, as a result and his own good taste in dress, the recognized arbiter elegantiarnm. For a time his sway was unchallenged, but eventually gambling and extravagance exhausted his fortune, while his tongue proved too sharp for his royal patron. They quarreled in 1812. and although Brummell did not immediately lose his place in society, his debts increased of the prince of Wales's friendship

so

much

that in

(A. Al.)

BRUNDISIUM: see Brindisi BRUNE, GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE

(1763-1815), the only one of Napoleon's marshals to have been associated with the French Revolutionary terror, was born on May 13, 1763, at Brive-la-Gaillarde, the

son of a lawyer.

He met Danton

as a

and commissaire for purges of the army of the north and later commander of a camp which terrorized Bordeaux. Under the Directory he served in Paris with Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte and, after three months' war in Italy (1797) under the latter, was general of division. Barras used him in a series of commands-inchief to coerce the Helvetian, Cisalpine and Batavian republics. Brune beat the Anglo-Russian army in Holland at Bergen and at Castricum (Sept.-Oct. 1799) and then "carried terror and reSent by Napoleon to end spect." as he said, to western France. the Italian campaign, he fought a battle against the Austrians in Dec. 1800. He was ambassador at Constantinople when he was made a marshal in 1804. On return he guarded the French coast (1805-07) with small forces, aided by his reputation as defender of Holland. He had cleared the Swedes from Stralsund in 1807, when he was abruptly removed from employment, for reasons journalist in Paris, turned to the extremists of the Revolution

was

Bruneau's works include the ballets Les Bacchantes (191 2) and L'Amoureuse Le(on (1913). His last operas, Angela (1928) and Virginie (1931), were not revived. Bruneau's works were widely played during his lifetime. Gustav Mahler having conducted Le Reve at Hamburg and Sir Charles Stanford the first performance of his Requiem (1896) in London. He wrote music criticism for Gil Bias, Le Figaro and Le Matin, and published books on contemporary French and Russian music. He died in Paris on June 15, 1934-

—

Bibliography. Alfred Bruneau, A I'ombre d'un grand coeur: souvenirs d'une collaboration (1932) A. Boschot, La Vie et les oeuvres d'Alfred Bruneau (1Q37) P. Landormy, La Musique jrani;aise aprh ;

;

Debussy (1943).

BRUNEI,

1816 he fled to Calais to avoid his creditors.

There he struggled on for 14 years, always hopelessly in debt. From 1830 to 1832 he was British consul at Caen. In 1835 he was imprisoned for debt, but his friends once more came to the rescue, and provided him with a small income. He soon lost all his interest in dress; his personal appearance was slovenly and dirty, and he began to live in the past. In 1837, after two attacks of paralysis, shelter was found for him in the charitable asylum of Bon Sauveur, Caen, where he died on March 30, 1840. See Lewis Melville, Beau Brummel, His Life and Letters (1925).

a

303

reasons accounted for the failure of L'Enjant-roi (1905) and Nais Micoulin (1907), Bruncau having supported Zola in the conflicts that arose from the Dreyfus case. After Zola's death in 1902

a British protected state in Borneo.

Area, 2,226 In early times as a powerful sultanate, whole island of Borneo. was gradually overshadowed by expansive

sq.mi.; pop. (1960) 83,877. it

gave

its

name

(also Poll, Borni) to the

In the 19th century it neighbours under western influence

{see Sabah; Sarawak) to territory was sold. By the mid-20th century, though had become a rich, independent state under British proowning at Seria the largest oil field (started 1929) in the

whom much small,

it

tection,

commonwealth

—

as well as tracts of sparsely inhabited jungle and mountainous terrain. Physical Characteristics. Lying between 4° 2' and 5° 3' N. and 114° 4' and 115° 22' E. in northwest Borneo iq.v.). it is split into two enclaves by the Limbang river in the Fifth division of adjacent Sarawak. The northerly part of Brunei stretches up both sides of the Temburong river valley over a width of IS mi. from Brunei bay to the headwaters of the impressively jagged mountain massif of Pagon Priok 6,070 f t. 40 mi. inland. This rugged section of the state has no large township, but some rubber estates. The larger southern section, running inland from 80 mi. of motor-

—

(

)

,

never divulged.

The shadow of Jacobinism still rested on Brune in 1815 when Napoleon sent him to defend Provence (which was strongly royalReturning at the end of hostilities he went into Avignon for ist). horses; a crowd gathered against the alleged "murderer of the princesse de Lamballe" and killed him on Aug. 2, 1815. (I. D. E.)

BRUNEAU, (LOUIS CHARLES BONAVENTURE) ALFRED (1857-1934), French opera composer whose works were inspired by the naturalism of fimile Zola, was born in Paris on March 3, 1857. He was a pupil of Massenet at the Paris Con-

On leaving the Conservatoire he was employed as a copyist to the publisher Georges Hartmann. In his youth he wrote three choral symphonies, conducted by Jules Pasdeloup, and in

servatoire.

1887 produced his first opera, Kerim. In 1888 he met Zola with he formed a close friendship and whose works served him as

whom

librettos for eight operas

produced between 1891 and 1916. The Le Reve (i8gi), was criticized for its Wagnerian Messidor (1897) and L'Ouragan (1901), the librettos of which were written in prose, showed Bruneau's original dramatic gifts. "Music that should be both realistic and symbolical" was his aim, achieved in L'Attaque du monlin (1893), based on Zola's Soirees de Medan, and in the incidental music for Zola's La Faute de I'abbe Moiiret (1907). Political rather than musical first

of these,

associations, but

FISHERMEN WAITING FOR CUSTOMERS AT THE WHARF OF BRUNEI TOWN

BRUNEL

304 able coral sand-beach along the South China sea.

is

largely

and

flat

See State of Brunei Annual Reports; current history and statistics summarized annually in "Protected States, Condominiums and Trust Territories" in Britannica Book of the Year. (T. Hn.)

often swampy, drained by two main rivers, the Tutong and Belait, the principal means of communication with the interior, which rise close together SO mi. inland on the Sarawak (Fourth division) border. The oil fields reach from the mouth of the Belait in the

are

southwest corner of the state for 20 mi. along the coast and far out into the sea, which there shelves slowly away to the 10-fathom line. The climate is tropical, characterized by uniform temperature, high humidity and copious rainfall. Average daily temperatures range from 24° to 30° C. (76°-86° ¥.). Annual rainfall

Sir Marc Isameard Brunel (1769-1849), engineer and inventor, builder of the world's first underwater tunnel, was born at Hacqueville, Normandy, France, on April 25, 1769. After six years' naval apprenticeship, his royalist sympathies compelled him to leave France when the Revolution broke out. In 1793 he fled to the United States, where he held the post of chief engineer

from 100 Population.

varies

in.

on the coast to more than 200

inland.

in.

populasmall but rapidly — Of 40,657 more than half 1947) a (83,877, 1960; 013) are Malays —not immigrant stock but the descendants of tion

a relatively

rising

in

cf.

(47,-

little

indigenous pagans converted to Islam, the state religion. This group dominates administration and politics. A further 8.000 Kedayans and others are also Muslim. Business is largely run by about 22,000 Chinese and a few Indians and Europeans. The rest are still pagan animists: Dusuns, Belaits, Tutongs, Bukits and Muruts (see Murut), related to the Bisayan and Kelabit peoples of northern Sarawak. There are also a few nomadic Punans (see Punan) in the Belait headwaters. Immigrant Sea Dayaks (from Sarawak) have cleared a good deal of jungle land in the Temburong; and they provide hardy labour on the oil fields. Languages spoken are Malay, Chinese, English and a number of native dialects.

—

History. The sultanate was islamized in the 1 5th century but it had already grown powerful as a local Bisayan-Murut centre at least as early as a.d. 800 (proved by recent excavations undertaken by the Sarawak museum at the ancient capital, Kota Batu). By 1521, when Magellan's squadron anchored offshore, the fifth and probably greatest of the Muslim sultans, Bulkiah, held sway over most of lowland Borneo and a good deal of the surrounding archipelago, with interests and contacts extending west to Malacca in the Malay peninsula and north to Luzon in the northern Philippines. Subsequently a Spanish fleet from Manila attacked Kota Batu and it was liquidated as the royal centre. Brunei never really recovered in

;

power

until the discovery of oil in the 20th

century.

—

Administration and Social Conditions. What was left of nibbled away by Sir James Brooke (q.v.) into Sarawak and by the Chartered company into North Borneo was placed

—

the state

—

under British protection

in 1888.

From

1906, administration was

vested directly in a British resident, a system continuing through 29 changes of office (except during the Japanese occupation 194145) until 1959, when the sultan with a state council resumed control. The LT.K. commissioner now represents the crown. In 1963 Brunei declined to join the new Malaysia (c^.i). federation. Brunei town, once largely built on stilts out in the river and is gradually thus described by Antonio de Pigafetta in 1521 spreading onto firmer ground and into a ferroconcrete concentration, holding a third of the state's population. The mosque, largest in the far east and with vast gold-leafed dome, sets the tone of a Seria, the main city growing in a mixed tradition: Allah and oil. oil and technological centre, is a more European-style township, with air-conditioned bungalows and well-kept lawns. Economic Conditions. Despite wealth through oil reserves, extensive social services (e.g., free school meals, early pensions )

—

—

—

for the aging, generous

wage

rates for local officials)

and low per-

sonal taxation, a considerable section of Brunei's population rebasically peasant farmers, whose main ambition is often to obtain a permanent post in the extensive civil service and public

main

The aggregate standard of living, though unevenly disExports include plantais the highest in southeast Asia. wild rubber (jelntong), pepper, firewood, hides and rubber, tion Main import items inoil products (in order of importance). clude machinery and heavy equipment, building materials, clothing, jewelry (mostly gold), food (principally rice; live animals, works.

tributed,

and tobacco. Accumulating investment reserves insured Brunei's immediate future, but at the same time there were possibilities of a contraction in oil yield, with no alternative major sources of revenue in sight. See also Borneo.

sugar, fish)

BRUNEL, stock, father

the

name

of two noted British engineers of French

and son.

of New York. Having evolved a method of making ships' blocks by mechanical means, he sailed to England in 1799 to lay his plans before the British government. He was engaged to superintend the erection of his machines at Portsmouth dockyard. When completed, this installation was one of the earliest examples in the world of completely mechanized production. Brunei was a prolific inventor, designing machines for sawing and bending timber, bootmaking, stocking knitting and printing, among many others. Having encouraged him to equip a factory for making army boots, the government refused to accept his output when peace was restored in 1815. This, combined with the destruction by fire of his sawmills at Battersea, London, led to his imprisonment for debt in 1821, but his friends obtained from the government a grant of £5,000 for his release.

Brunei also practised as a civil engineer, designing, among other works, the lie de Bourbon suspension bridge and the first floating landing stage at Liverpool. He is chiefly remembered as the designer of the first tunneling shield and as the builder of the

Thames

tunnel between Rotherhithe and

Wapping where

this

This scheme, which had no precedent, was begun in 1825 and completed after great physical and financial difficulties in 1843. It was for this work that he received a knighthood in 1841. Sir Marc Brunei died in London on Dec. 12, 1849. IsAMBARD Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859), a civil and mechanical engineer of outstanding originality, the designer of the first transatlantic steamer, was born at Portsmouth on April 9, i8o5, the only son of Sir Marc I. Brunei. Educated at the college of Caen and at the Lycee Henri Quatre in Paris, he was apprenticed for a short period to A. L. Breguet, the great horologist, before returning to England to assist his father in 1822. When work on the Thames tunnel began under his father's direction in 1825, he was appointed resident engineer, a post he held until 1828 when a sudden inundation seriously injured him and brought the tunnel works to a standstill for seven years. Sent to Clifton to recuperate, he prepared designs for a suspension bridge over the Avon gorge, one of which was ultimately adopted in preference to a design by Thomas Telford. Because of lack of funds, the bridge was not completed until after his death. Brunei ne.xt carried out improvements in the Bristol docks. This work introduced him to the promoters of the Great Western railway and in 1833, when he was 27, he was appointed chief engineer to that company. It was on the main line from Paddington to Bristol that he introduced the broad (seven-foot) gauge and so shield

was

first

used.

provoked the famous "battle of the gauges." A failure commercially, the high speeds obtained on the broad gauge were a great In south Devon he introduced the "atmospheric" system of traction, but the experiment was a failure. Brunei was responsible for building over 1,000 mi. of railway His in the west country, the midlands, south Wales and Ireland. first notable railway works were the Box tunnel and the Maidenhead bridge, and his last the Chepstow and Saltash bridges. The

stimulus to railway progress.

arch in the world, while last-named bridges he was the first engineer to use a compressed-air caisson. Brunei also made an outstanding contribution to marine engineering with his three ships, "Great Western" (1837), "Great Britain" (1843) and "Great Eastern" (185S), each the largest in the world at date of launching. The first, a wooden paddle steamer, was the first successful transatlantic steamship; the second was the

Maidenhead bridge had the

flattest brick

in sinking the pier^ foundations for the

first

large iron-hulled screw steamer; the third

was propelled by

—

BRUNELLESCHI— BRUNETIERE

305

both paddles and screw and had a double iron hull which was the prototype of the modern ocean liner. Of a size which was not exceeded for 40 years, the "Great Eastern" was not a success as a passenger ship, but achieved fame by laying the first successful

cathedral of Florence, was his masterpiece; it was begun in 1420, and substantially completed by 1434. Unlike the Pantheon it is pre-eminently a great exterior sculptured form

transatlantic cable.

ing.

Unable to delegate, Brunei wore himself out with worry and ovenvork. He died at his home in Westminster on Sept. 15, 1859. He was remarkable for his versatility, and his works unconnected with railways or steamships included the design of a complete prefabricated hospital building which was shipped in parts to the Crimea in 1855.

(begun 1430), which again superficially resembles the Pantheon and the Pitti palace (begun c. 1440), where Roman orders are conspicuously absent. The beautiful carved crucifix in the church of Santa Maria Novella is

—

R. Beamish, The Life of Sir Marc hambard Brunei I. Brunei, The Life of /. K. Brunei, Civil Engineer (1870); Celia Brunei Noble, The Brnneh, Father and Son (iq^S); L. (L. T. C. R.) T. C. Rolt, hambard Kingdom Brunei (1957).

Bibliography.

(1862);

Ladv

BRUNELLESCHI, FILIPPO (Filippo di Ser BrunelLESco) (1377-1446). Italian architect, one of the great pioneers of Renaissance art, was born in Florence and executed all his major works there. After being apprenticed to a goldsmith, Brunelleschi began his career as a sculptor and in 1401 submitted a competitive design for the bronze doors of the baptistery of San Giovanni. Upon losing this commission to Lorenzo Ghiberti, his interests increasingly turned to architecture; but his early sculptural bent was never

and largely determined

his subsequent approach to Typical of this is Brunelleschi's Foundling hospital (begun 1421) its famous arcade is a sculptor's rendering, in three dimensions, of the flat faqade arches on the Romanesque church of San Miniato. Likewise, the interior effect of his churches of San Lorenzo (begun 142 1) and Santo Spirito (begun 1435) primarily depended on a sculpturelike handling of spatial units, disposed in simple mathematical ratios. From these predilections, Brunelleschi's interest in the theory of perspective followed naturally; His important discoveries in that area were incorporated in Leone Battista Alberti's Delia Pittura, the 1436 (Italian) edition being dedicated to him. Brunelleschi's major place in the development of the Renaissance was as a pioneer in its new concepts of controlled space rather than as a reviver of Roman architecture. In his youth, Brunelleschi may have visited Rome with Donatello (g.v.) and made drawings of Roman buildings, including the Pantheon; but his work shows little more than strong reminiscences of them. The dome that Brunelleschi designed to complete Santa Maria lost,

architectural design.

THE

—

PITTI PALACE.

FLORENCE.

del

Fiore,

in space,

the

and

is

executed on the principles of

The same concern

for

forms

medieval vaultproportioned rela-

late

in space, in

tionship, distinguishes the Pazzi chapel

work of Brunelleschi. He died in Florence, April 16, See Renaissance 1446, and was buried in the city cathedral. Architecture; see also references under "Brunelleschi, Filippo"

also the

in the

Index volume.

—

Bibliography. Von Fabriczy, Filippo Brunelleschi (1892) P. La Cupola di Sta. Maria del Fiore (1941) L. H. Heydenreich, Spdtiverke Brunelleschis, in Jahrbuch der Preussischen Kunstsammlung (1930) G. C. Argan, "The Architecture of Brunelleschi and the Origins of Perspective Theory," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institute (1946) G. C. Argan, Brunelleschi (1955). (An. G.) ;

Sanpaolesi,

;

;

;

JACQUES CHARLES

BRUNET, (1780-1867), author of the standard French bibliographical work of his time. He was born in Paris on Nov. 2. 17S0. the son of a bookseller. In 1802 he printed a supplement to the Dictionnaire bibliographique de livres rares (1790) of R. Duclos. In 1810 there appeared the first edition of his Manuel du libraire et de I'amaieur de livres, a great bibliographical dictionary, which rapidly became the standard work. Among his other works are Nouvelles recherches bibliographiques (1S34), Recherches stir les editions originales de Rabelais 1S52 j and an edition of the 16th-century French poems of G. G. Alione (1836). He died in Paris on Nov. 14, 1867. .

.

.

(

BiBLioGR.APHY. Catalogue de J. C. Brunei with a biography by A. J. V. Le Roux de Lincy (1868) A. Laporte, Bibliographie contemporaire, Supplement de Brunei (1SS4-85); T. de Banville in L'Artisle (April-June, 1S66) Gazette bibliographique (May 20, 1868). ;

;

BRUNETIERE, FERDINAND

(1849-1906), French and controversialist, was born in Toulon, 1849, and educated in Lorient. in Marseilles and at

critic, literary

July

19,

historian

He volunteered for militar>- ser\-ice in 1870 and was profoundly affected by his experiences during the Shortly afterward he started contributing articles on Darwin. Huxley and Spencer to the Revue Bleue and on classical and contemporary French (and occasionally foreign) literature to the Revue des deux mondes. Here he was undoubtedly unjust to Zola and Baudelaire (although no more so than most contemthe lycee Louis-le-Grand.

siege of Paris.

DESIGNED BY BRUNELLESCHI. 1440: COMPLETED AFTER HIS DEATH BY LUCA FANCELLl

)

BRUNHILD— BRUNING

3o6

porary reviewers) but he showed considerable discernment in his studies of Pascal, Bossuet and George Eliot. His critical approach was more flexible than is commonly supposed and he examined various possible answers (including those of evolutionary science and comparative religion to the moral issues of the day. In iS86 he was appointed with no academic qualification other than the baccalaiireat ) to a chair at the £cole Normale. In 1889 he outlined his celebrated theory of the evolution of literary genres. His many adversaries made much of this theory in their attempts to invalidate his criticism but he himself explicitly abandoned it several years later and excessive attention to it has obscured the value of his other innovations (e.g., the impetus he gave to the development of comparative literature). In 1894, after he had been elected to the Academy and had become an influential editor of the Revue des deux mondes, an audience with Pope Leo XIII decisively affected his outlook. Thereafter, although he never became an orthodox apologist or even, except in extremis, a true convert, he made many public pronouncements in favour of Catholicism. He died in Paris. Dec. 9, 1906. Bibliography. Brunetiere's published works include Le Roman naturaliste (1883) Les Epoques du theatre fraitfais {1892) Evolution de la poesie lyrique en France, 2 vol. (1894) nine series of Etudes )

(

— ;

;

V

;

critiques (1880-1925) (i8g8) a monograph

;

Manuel de

I'histoire de la litterature francaise

on Balzac (1906) and the Discours de Combat, vol. (1900-07). A voluminous correspondence is deposited in the Bibliotheque Nationale. Among modern studies see \' Giraud, Brunetiere (1932); J. van der Lugt, L'Act'wn Religieuse de Ferdinand Brunetiere (1936) J. G. Clark, La Pensie de Ferdinand Brunetiere (I9S4). (J. G. Ck.) ;

;

3

.

;

BRUNHILD,

After Childebert's death (595 or 596), Brunhilda failed to set herself up as guardian over Childebert's elder son Theudibert (Thiof Austrasia and so stirred up against him his brother Theuderic (Thierry), who had succeeded to Burgundy. Theudibert was finally overthrown in 612. but Theuderic died soon afterward (613), whereupon Brunhilda tried to make the latter's eldest

bert)

The Austrasian magnates, reluctant to endure her tyrannous regency, appealed to Clotaire II of Neustria against her. Brunhilda tried in vain to enlist the help of the tribes east of the Rhine, then fled to Burgundy. son. the 12-year-old Sigebert, king of Austrasia.

Garnier, the mayor of the palace, was however in communication with Clotaire, and the queen's army refused to fight when it met Clotaire's on the Aisne river. Handed over to Clotaire at Reneve (northeast of Dijon), she was tortured for three days, bound on to a camel and exposed to the mockery of the army and finally dragged to death at a horse's tail (autumn 613). Brunhilda's ashes were interred in a mausoleum erected near the abbey of St. Martin at Autun, which she had founded; and there her memory was highly venerated. Gregory of Tours applauds her for her personal morality and for her political wisdom, but Fredegarius presents her as a new Jezebel. Modern historians likewise have conflicting opinions about her. The Franks over whom she sought to rule resented her Gothic origin, and the tragic course of her life has made her a figure of legend.

—

Bibliography. G. Kurth, Etudes franques, vol. i (1919) F. Lot, la France (1948) P. Goubert, Byzance et I'lslam, vol. ii, et les Francs (1956). (Je. H.)

Naissance de

;

;

Byzance

BRUNI,

LEONARDO

(1370-1444), also called Leonardo

a female figure from the heroic literature of the ancient Teutons, known from Old Norse sources (the Edda poems and the Volsiingasaga) and from the Xibeliingenlied (g.v.)

Aretino. Italian scholar and historian whose major work, Historiarum Florentini Populi libri XII, in Latin, is the first history of

German. In the former she plays the leading role in those poems in which she appears, whereas in the Nibelungenlied, be-

Florence based on an accurate critical examination of the sources. Born at Arezzo in 1370, he was secretary to the papal chancery

in

cause of a shift of emphasis, her prominence

Common

to both,

and no doubt

is

greatly reduced.

the conception of her as the central figure of a stor>' in which she vows to marry only a man of the most outstanding qualities. One man, Siegfried original,

is

(q.v.), is able to fulfill her conditions, but he woos and wins her, not for himself but for another. When Brunhild discovers this treachery she exacts vengeance and this involves the death of

In some of the Norse sources she has supernatural and is described as a valkyrie; it is still a matter of dispute whether these attributes are an accretion or whether their absence from the German version is due to an omission. Many critics who doubt their originality seek the source of the poetic figure in the history of the Merovingian kings of the Franks, in which Queen Brunichildis plays an important part; the name is also found as an element in place and field names in the region of the Rhine and in northeastern France and Belgium, but this could have resulted from the popularity of the literary figure. (K. C. K. (Brunechildis; Fr. Brunehaut') (d. 613), queen of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia, was the daughter of the Visigothic king Athanagild. In 567 she married Sigebert iq.v.), king of Austrasia, changing her religion from Arianism to Catholicism. In the same year her sister Galswintha married Siegfried.

qualities

BRUNHILDA

Sigebert's half brother Chilperic I, king of the western part of the Frankish territory, but in 567 or 568, at the instigation of his concubine Fredegund, Chilperic had Galswintha murdered. Prompted by Brunhilda, Sigebert then exacted Galswintha's marriage settlement (Bordeaux, Limoges. Quercy. Beam and Bigorre) as retribution from Chilperic. When Chilperic tried to recover this territory war broke out between him and Sigebert (573). At first it ran in Sigebert's favour, but in 575 he was assassinated and Brunhilda was imprisoned at Rouen. There, however, Merovech. one of Chilperic's sons, went through a form of marriage with her (576). Chilperic soon had this union dissolved, but Brunhilda was allowed to go to Metz in Austrasia, where her young son Childebert II had been proclaimed king. There she was to assert herself against the Austrasian magnates for the next 30 years. In 584 she gave some encouragement to the pretender Gundobald against Guntram king of Burgundy. Guntram to conciliate her made Childebert his heir.

from 1405. and from 1427

to his

death (March

9,

1444) was chan-

cellor to the republic of Florence.

His Latin translations from the Greek classics (Demosthenes, Xenophon, Plato. Aristotle among others) greatly advanced the knowledge of Greek literature, and his lives of Dante and Petrarch are important documents. His Latin has elegance, and his republican outlook was well suited to the style of Livy and Cicero, which he tried to imitate.

(F. Dl.)

BRUNING, HEINRICH

(1885German states), man, chancellor from March 1930 to May 1932, was born at Miinster in Westphalia on Nov. 26, 1885. As a student of philosophy, history and politics, he visited France and England. Volunteering for military service in 1915. he rose, in the course of World War I, to the command of a machine gun company. After the war, he decided to make politics his career. He felt himself in sympathy with the younger generation and also believed that solidarity between ex-servicemen would form the basis for solving

many

A quiet, hypercritical man with ascetic an open-minded son of the Roman Catholic Church, one who saw the faults of society yet remained basically conservative, Briining received his political training as the protege of .\dam Stegerwald and as the business manager of the German Economic federation (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund). From 1924 as a member of the Centre party, he represented Breslau in the Reichstag, winning recognition as an expert on finance and taxation. In the spring of 1929 he became the leader of the Centre party in the parliament, an important post which brought him leadership of the party as a whole. In March 1930, although he had done his utmost to save the Hermann Miiller coalition, Briining was called to form a government himself, to face the spreading world economic crisis. His immediate aim was to put the German finances in order as a measure toward the fulfillment of the Young plan. In July 1930, when an essential feature of his fiscal program was rejected by the Reichstag, he found himself obliged to resort to legislation by presidential decree, according to the emergency clause in the conAfter the elections of Sept. 1930, the Nazis (who had stitution. enormously increased their share of the vote and completely upset the older balance of parties in the Reichstag exerted increasing pressure against the government, and Briining adopted a "national" political questions.

features,

)

BRUNN— BRUNO an attempt to win their co-operation. The sincere pursuit of this aim brought him closer and closer to President von Hindenburg and the army leadership. In view of the worsening economic situation it soon became clear that without foreign understanding and support Brijning would not be able to withstand his opponents. His discussions with the British and French prime ministers Ramsay Macdonald and Pierre Laval, together with the Hoover moratorium, did in fact help to overcome the worst effects of the July crisis of 1931. In April 1932, however, Briining's attempt to gain Allied recognition of Germany's right to equal armaments failed despite his reputation as a diplomat. Finally, when he wanted to widen his cabinet to include rightist elements with a view to settling the reparations question, intrigue and provocation forced him to reforeign policy in

sign

(May

Brijning

Germany: History.) played no further part in German politics. 30. 1932).

(See

Forced

to

he went to the U.S. and received a professorship Returning to Germany after World War II, he was at Harvard. for a time professor of political science at Cologne. emigrate

in 1934,

See K. D. Bracher, Die Aufiosung der (1960).

Weimarer Republik, 3rd

BRUNN: see Brxo. BRUNNER, (HEINRICH) EMIL

ed.

dSSQ-

),

Swiss

toward a reaffirmation of the central themes of the Protestant Reformation against the liberal theologies. Brunner was associated with Karl Barth (q.v. in the early days of this movement, sometimes called the "dialectical theology," but Brunner developed his system in divergence from Barth. His theology presented itself, as did Earth's, as an alternative to literalistic orthodoxy and idealistic liberalism. While preserving the uniqueness of the Christian faith it sought a continuing dialogue between theology and humanistic culture. Brunner's theology was influential in Europe and in the United States. His works are widely read in )

Asian theological schools.

Brunner was born

New York

in

He was eduUnion Theological

Winterthur, Dec. 2i. 1889.

Germany and went

to

exchange student after World War I. He received the doctor of divinity degree from the University of Ziirich in 1913, was ordained to the ministry of the Swiss Reformed Church and from 1916 to 1924 was a pastor in Switzerland. In 1924 he became professor of systematic and practical theology in the University of Ziirich, where he continued to teach except for extensive lecture tours in the United States and city, as the first

Asia.

The close link between Brunner's theology and that of Barth was broken early in their theological careers when in 1934 Brunner wrote a monograph entitled Natur und Gnade: Zum Gesprdch mit Karl Barth ("Nature and Grace; a Conversation With Karl Barth"). Brunner held that while God's saving revelation is

known only

in

Jesus Christ, there

is

a revelation in the creation;

"image of God." which man bears and which is never wholly lost. This provoked a vigorous reply from Barth. who attacked Brunner's view that the image of God remains formally but not materially in man after sin has en-

Brunner

replied, insisting

as the "point of contact"

upon the sense

of responsibility

between sinful human nature and the

divine.

Among Brunner's earlier works are The Mediator (1927), a study of Christology, and The Divine Imperative (1932) on Christian ethics. His thought took a decisive new turn with the publication of The Divine-Human Encounter in 1957 and Man in Revolt in 1938. In these works he adopted a position that had been given significant expression by Martin Buber in his / and Thou

— that there

fundamental difference between knowledge and knowledge of other persons (see Bi'BER, Martin). Brunner took this doctrine as a key to the biblical conception of revelation and developed his position in a series of books, among which are Revelation and Reason (1941 ), a threevolume Dogmatics (1946-60), Justice and the Social Order ("1945 is

main relevant

is

and philosophical

to cultural

issues.

All of Brunner's major works except his study of F. D. E. Schleiermacher {Die Mystik und das Wort, 1924 have been translated into English, and most are mentioned above. The discussion with Karl Barth was published under the title Natural Theology, introduction by John Baillie (1946). A critical review of this discussion is given by Baillie in Our Knowledge of God (1939). )

—

Bibliography. Critical discussions and bibliographical guides will be found in P. King Jewett, Emil Brunner's Concept of Revelation (1954); J. W. Moran, Catholic Faith and Modern Theologies: the Theology of Emil Brunner (1948); David Cairns, "The Theolog>' of Emil Brunner," Scottish Journal of Theology, 1:294-308 (1948) Cornelius van Til, The Neu' Modernism : an Appraisal of the Theology of Barth and Brunner (1947) Bernard E. Meland, "The Thought of Emil Brunner an Evaluation," Journal of Bible and Religion, vol. xvi (D. D. Wl.) (1948). ;

;

—

(1840-1915), German legal

his-

whose work laid the foundations of the systematic study Germanic law and institutions, was born in Wels, Upper -Austria, June 21, 1840. He studied at Vienna and became, successively, professor at Lemberg (Lviv), Prague, Strasbourg and Berlin, where he remained from 1S74 until his death. His study of the laws and institutions of the Franks and early Germanic peoples, begun in 1872, was of great value in illuminating and classifying the groundwork of German law and formed the basis for his position as an authority on the administrative law of his time. His Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (1887-92) and Grtindziige der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (1901 ) became classics for their blend of the enthusiasm of early

of the 19th-century historian with a lawyer's precision.

Bad Kissingen,

a

of impersonal objects

)

He

died at

.\ug. 11, 1915.

BRUNNOW, FRANZ FRIEDRICH ERNST

(1821-

1S91), German astronomer, is best known for his Lehrbuch der sphdrischen Astronomie (1851), which was translated into several languages and, in several editions, extensively used well into the

20th century. He was born in Berlin on Nov. 18, 1821, and after graduating as Ph.D. at Berlin in 1S43 he spent four years with J. F. Encke at the Berlin observatory, working in the field of gravitational astronomy. He was appointed director of the Bilk observatory, near Diisseldorf, in 1847, first assistant at the Berlin observatory in 1851 and the director of the new observatory of the His journal. AsUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1854. tronomical Notes, was started at Ann Arbor. In i860 he went, as Albany, N.Y., but associate director, to the Dudley observatory, returned to Michigan in 1861 and to Berlin in 1863. In 1865 he was appointed astronomer royal for Ireland and .'\ndrews profesFor his memoir sor of astronomy in the University of Dublin. on De Vico's comet (1849) he was awarded the gold medal of the

Amsterdam academy.

Brijnnow retired to Basel, Switz., in 1874 Heidelberg on .\ug. 20, 1891. (0. J. E.) (Brun I, SAINT (925-965), archbishop of Cologne, youngest son of King Henry I the Fowler, of Germany, and St. Matilda, and brother of the emperor Otto I the Great, was educated at the cathedral school of Utrecht and the court school of Proficient in Otto I, then a fresh centre of studious activity. Latin and Greek and an influential teacher, he remained always a sincere patron of learning. As chancellor from 940, he prepared

and died

this revelation is reflected in the

tered.

Brunner's writing

cern for the personal dimension of religious faith and the search for a distinct and autonomous theological standpoint that will re-

torian

Reformed tradition who helped to change the course of Protestant theology in the 20th century. He was one of the leaders of the movement, at the close of World War I,

seminary.

307 and Civilization (1948-49). characterized by extensive learning, con-

lectures, Christianity

BRUNNER, HEINRICH

(T. V.)

theologian in the

cated in Switzerland and

and the Gifford

at

BRUNO

official papers, and after ordination to the priesthood accompanied Otto to Italy in 951. Already abbot of Lorsch and Corvei, where he restored monastic observance, he was elected to the see of Cologne in 953 and soon after named duke of Lorraine. As bishop, Bruno was a zealous and exemplary pastor and founder of many institutions, the monastery of St. Pantaleon among them, and his episcopate marked a new epoch in the city's growth. In the troubled duchy of Lorraine, by his prudent and statesmanlike policies, he restored peace and devised a new administrative division, maintaining at the same time cordial relations with France. During Otto's absence in Italy for his imperial coronation (962), Bruno shared the responsibilities of government and

his brother's

BRUNO

3o8 care of the emperor's son, Otto II.

Reims

at

(Oct. ii, 965)

and

in

On

France he died wish was buried

a mission to

accord with his

Pantaleon. His feast day is Oct. 11. Bibliography. F. L. Cross (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of the G. Derry in The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. Hi, with bibliography (igoS), the best notice in English; J. Gallagher, Church and State in Germany Under Otto the Great (1038). (J. J. Rn.) at St.

—

Christian Church, with bibliography (1957)

BRUNO, SAINT,

of Cologne

(c.

;

1030-1101), founder of

the Carthusians, noted for his learning and for his sanctity, was born in Cologne and was educated there and afterward at Reims and Tours, where he studied under Berengar (g.v.). He was ordained at Cologne, and in 1057 was recalled to Reims to become head of the cathedral school and overseer of the schools of the diocese.

Urban

II.

Among his pupils ,was Eudes de Chatillon, later Pope He was made also canon and diocesan chancellor. Hav-

ing protested against the misdoings of a

new

archbishop, he was On the deposition of the archbishop in loSo, Bruno was presented by the ecclesiastical authorities to the pope for the see, but he refused as he was already determined to forsake the world. With six companions he retired to the mountains near Grenoble, and there founded the Carthusian order (see Chartreuse, La Graxde) in 10S4. After six years Urban II called him to Rome and offered

deprived of

all his otiices

and had

to fiy for safety (1076).

him the archbishopric

of Reggio; but Bruno refused it, within Calabria, where he established tw'o other monasteries. He died in iioi. He did not himself write a rule for the order, but the customs he established as modifying the Benedictine Rule became the basis for the new foundations. Bruno was never formally canonized, but Oct. 6 has been observed as his

drawing to a desert

feast

For

day since 1623.

See also Carthusians.

bibliography see H. Thurston and D. Attwater (eds.), Butler's Lives of the Saints, vol. iv, p. 40 ff. (1956). (Fs. P. C.) critical

BRUNO

(Brun, Bruxs),

SAINT,

or Querfurt

(c.

974-

looq), German missionary bishop and martyr, belonged to the family of the counts of Querfurt in Saxony. He was educated at the cathedral school at Magdeburg, and at the age of 20 was attached to the clerical household of the emperor Otto III. In 997 he accompanied the emperor to Rome and there came under the influence of St. Romuald. When the news reached Rome of the martyrdom of Adalbert, bishop of Prague (997), Bruno entered the monastery of St. Alexius, taking the name of Bonifacius. In 1004, after being appointed by the pope archbishop of the eastern heathen, he set out for Germany to seek aid of the emperor Henry II. The emperor, however, being at war with Boleslaw I of Poland, op-

posed his enterprise. Bruno went to the court of St. Stephen of Hungary, and, finding but slight encouragement there, to that of the grand prince Madimir at Kiev. He was so successful in converting the pagan Pechenegs who inhabited the country between the Don and the Danube that they made peace with the grand prince and were for a while nominally Christians. In lOoS Bruno went again to the court of Boleslaw, and, after a vain effort to persuade the emperor to end the war between Germans and Poles, determined at all hazards to proceed with his mission to the Prussians. With 18 companions he set out; but on the borders of the Russian (Lithuanian) country he and his company were massacred by the heathens, on March 14. 1009. His feast day is June ig. During his stay in Hungary (1004) Bruno wrote a life of St. Adalbert, the best of the three extant biographies of the saint; it is given in G. H. Pertz, Moniimenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores, vol. iv.

See H. Thurston and D. Attwater (eds.), Butler's Lives of the Saints, ii, p. 585 (1956). (Fs. P. C.)

vol.

.

BRUNO, GIORDANO

(baptized Filippo) (1548-1600), Italian philosopher and representative of late Renaissance thought, was born in Nola. In 1562 he went to Naples, where he attended the courses of G. V. de Colle ("il Sarnese" 1. known for his Averroist tendencies, and studied logic under an Augustinian friar. To continue his studies, he entered the Neapolitan convent of San

Domenico Maggiore in 1565. On becoming a Dominican friar, he assumed the name of Giordano. While in the convent he began to develop theological doubts and to profess the necessity of Christian liberty, which led him into trouble with the monastic authori-

ties.

to

After taking holy orders he was suspected of heresy and tied in 1576. In Rome he was involved in a murder case

Rome

and had

to flee again: he first went to Liguria (April 15761 and then to Venice. After further wanderings in northern Italy, he crossed the .Alps in 157S and went to Geneva. There he abandoned

Dominican habit and earned his living by proofreading. In 1579 he adhered to Calvinism; but after publishing a broadsheet

the

against the Calvinist professor Antoine de la Faye he was imprisoned. On his retracting, he was allowed to leave Geneva and to Lyons and thence to Toulouse, where he was granted the degree of master of arts and obtained a lectureship in philosophy. In the summer of 15S1 he moved to Paris, where he enjoyed the protection of Henry III, who appointed him one of his lecteiirs. In 1582 he published in Paris the comedy // Candelaio and a

went

group of mnemotechnic works (De umbris idearum, Cantus circaeus, De compendiosa architecttira et complemento artis Lultii), which show the influence of Raimon Lull and of Nicolaus Cusanus. In the spring of 1583 he disputed at Oxford against John Underbill in the presence of Albert Laski and delivered some lectures on the immortality of the soul and on the quintuple sphere, which had an extremely hostile reception. Thereupon he left for London, where he stayed with the French ambassador Michel de Castelnau and became associated with Robert Dudley's circle. In London he published the Ars reminiscendi (1583) and. between 1584 and 1585, the following Italian works in dialogue form:

La Cena de

le Ceneri, in which, after a qualified acceptance of Copernicus' solar system, he postulates the infinity of the universe as composed of an infinity of worlds and criticizes Oxonian

pedantry and English society; De la causa, principio et una, in which he tries to demonstrate the basic unity of all substances as well as of form and matter and the coincidence of contraries; De I'intinito, imiverso et mondi. in which he uses pre-Socratic teachings in an attack against Aristotle and introduces for the first time the notion of minimum; Spaccio de la bestia trionfante (dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney and Cabala del cavallo Pegaseo, which express his ideal for an ethical and social reform in accordance with )

his anti-ascetic and anti-Christian tendencies; and De gl'heroici dedicated to Sidney i, in which he seeks for a harmony between the human soul and nature. Back in Paris in Oct. 1585. he published the Figuratio Aristotelici physici aiiditus (1586) and Latin accounts of Fabricio Mordente's geometrical studies. Because of an attack on Aristotle at the College de Cambrai. Bruno had to leave France in June He went first to Marburg and then to Wittenberg, Ger., 1586. where he was allowed to teach and where he published a number of Latin works inspired by Lull. When the Calvinist party prevailed in Wittenberg, he had to flee once more (March 15S8) and W'ent to Prague, Czech., and to Helmstedt, Ger., where he stayed until his excommunication by the local Protestant church. Among the works composed in this period are three Latin poems: De niinimo, in which Bruno holds that it is impossible to confine the fitrori (also

infinite fluidity of nature within the limits of quantitative

systems; immetiso, which is based on a theory of cosmic monism and in which he attacks mathematical astronomy; and De monade, which shows the same anti-metaphysical approach. In order to publish these poems he went to Frankfurt (June 1590), where he stayed, except for a short absence, until Aug. 1591. Then he accepted an invitation to Venice by the Venetian nobleman Giovanni Mocenigo, who later denounced him to the Inquisition. Arrested, he was transferred to Rome in 1 593 and remained in prison for

De

seven years. stake, in the

After a long

Campo

trial for

de' Fiori,

heresy, he was burned at the

on Feb.

17, 1600.

—

B1BL10GR.APHY. The chief editions of Bruno's works are: Opera latine conscripta, ed. by F. Fiorentino and others (1879-91) // Candelaio, Dialoghi metafisici and Dialoghi ed. by V. Spampanato, 2nd ed. (1923) morali, ed. by G. Gentile, 2nd ed. (1925-27) Due dialoghi sconosciuti, ed. by G. -Aquilecchia (1957). For a critical edition of the Italian dialogues, see La Cena de le Ceneri, ed. by G. Aquilecchia (1955), and subsequent publications. V. Spampanato, Vila di Giordano Brurto A. Mercati, // Sommario del processo di Giordano Bruno (1921) (1940); G. Gentile, // Pensiero italiano del Rinascimrnto (1940); A. Corsano, // Pensiero di G. Bruno (1940) and F. .A. Yates, articles in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. ii and iii (193840). See also V. Salvestrini. Bibliografia bruniana (1926). (G. A.) ;

;

;

;

;

BRUNSWICK BRUNSWICK, HEINRICH JULIUS, Duke

of (1564-

founder of modern German drama and a representative baroque culture. Born at Schloss Hessen, VVolfenbiittel, Oct. 15, 1564. he became rector of Helmstedt university (1576) and. though a Protestant, bishop of the Catholic see of Halberstadt (1578). Dorothea of Saxony, whom he married in 1585, died in 1587, and he then married Elizabeth of Denmark (1590). Heinrich Julius succeeded his father in 1589. By 1607 his earlier interest in his duchy had waned and he moved to Prague, becomHe died there, July 20, ing an adviser to the emperor Rudolf II. 1613"). a

of early

1613.

Autocratic by conviction and a persecutor of Jews and witches, Heinrich Julius was a gifted scholar, theologian and jurist, a keen student of science and a generous patron of the arts. Of his own plays 11 have survived (10 were printed in 1593-94). Nearly all were written for English actors (notably Thomas Sackville) who Typical pieces (Von visited Wolfenbiittel from 1592 onward. einem Buler iind Bulerin, Von einer Ehebrecherin, Von einem

Wirthe) treat middle-class topics realistically and often humorously;

some

features, e.g., the fool, are

lish tradition.

much

Von einem imgeratenen Sohn,

influenced

by Eng-

a crude, pretentious

horror-play on a desperate villain's fate, foreshadows certain features of baroque tragedy, while Vincentius Ladislaus, portraying a braggart's downfall, is a successful early baroque comedy. Bibliography. All the plays are reprinted in Die Schauspiele des Herzogs Heinrich Julius von Braunsch-tveig, ed. by W. L. Holland (1855). J. Tittmann's selection (1880) has the same title. Vincentius Ladislaus is in Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 22. A. H. J. Knight, Heinrich Julius, Duke of Brunswick (1948) is a general study, with special emphasis on the plays. (J. R. We.) (Braunschweig), a German duchy from medieval times to 1918, then one of the German Lander until 1946. when its territory was merged with other states to form the Land of Lower Saxony in the Federal Republic of Germany. Originating in the dominions of the house of Welf. the duchy

—

BRUNSWICK

and Land comprised three larger and

six

smaller parts.

The

principal or northern part, containing the tow'ns of Brunswick,

Wolfenbiittel and Helmstedt (qq.v.). with an extension northward

from Helmstedt to Parsau, is mostly arable land and has little forest. South of this the two other major parts, separated from one another by the Harz mountains, were; (1) the western, namely Holzminden (until 1941), Gandersheim and (from 1941) Goslar; and (2) the eastern, namely Blankenburg (the greater part of Blankenburg, however, went to the Soviet zone of Germany after

World War

11). Of the six smaller parts, Calvorde, enclaved with former Prussian Saxony, also went to the Soviet zone in 1945. Brunswick also included Harzburg in the Harz mountains east of Goslar; Bodenburg, enclaved in Hanover north of Gandersheim; Oelsburg and Ostharingen, both enclaved in Hanover to the west of Brunswick; and Thedinghausen, far to the northwest, near Bremen.

the

HISTORY Brunswick-Luneburg

—

to 1635. When in 1180 Henry the Lion (q.v.), duke of Saxony and Bavaria and ancestor of all the later branches of the house of Welf, was defeated in his conflict with the emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. his two duchies were confiscated. Nevertheless, in 1181 he received back his allodial lands, which were chiefly in eastern Lower Saxony, between the Elbe and the Weser rivers, as well as in the Harz district. From

emperor Frederick II constituted the duchy Brunswick-Liineburg (Aug. 1235) for Otto the Child, Henry's grandson. The descendants of Otto have since borne the title of duke of Brunswick and Liineburg. For a long time the two cities which gave the duchy its name remained in the common possession of the house of Welf (Liineburg until 1512, Brunswick until 1671 ), but from 1267 the other territories underwent a series of partitions among the branches of the family, which at times were as many as six in number. As a result of the partition of 1257 the large and compact territory of Liineburg was established in the north, and this underwent no further divisions until the 16th century. The southern Welf lands, however, were ruled by the Brunswick line, which in the 13th century split up into the these territories the of

309

branches of Wolfenbiittel, Grubenhagen and Gottingen. Constitutionally, however, the unity of the house was not affected by these divisions. There was only one duchy of Brunswick-Liineburg as the general fief of the house of Welf. The territories resulting from the partitions should more properly be designated as principalities (Fiirstentiimer) than as duchies, and all the rulers used the same ducal title and the same armorial bearings.

The possessions of the Welfs, considerably increased by inheritance during the 14th and 15th centuries, were, at the beginning of the 16th, divided between four lines; (1) Liineburg, whose territory had approximately the same extent as the modern administrative district: (2) Grubenhagen, holding two districts situated around Einbeck and Osterode; (3) Calenberg-Gottingen; and All the Welf dukes eventually accepted (4) Wolfenbiittel. Lutheranism. the last line to do so being that of Wolfenbiittel, which Duke Henry II (q.v.) had maintained as the last outpost of Catholicism in Lower Saxony until his death in 1568. By the end of the 16th century the Welf dynasty had acquired the countships of Hoya, Diepholz, Blankenburg and Hohnstein and had also secured the appointment of members of the family as administrators of the neighbouring Lutheran bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, Verden and Osnabrijck. The Calenberg line having died out in 1584 and the Grubenhagen in 1596, both these principalities were successively united with Wolfenbiittel, which was enjoying a period of great prosperity under its princes Julius (1568-89) and Henry Julius (1589-1613). On the death of Duke Frederick Ulrich of Wolfenbiittel in 1634 the entire inheritance fell to the surviving Liineburg line, but in 1635 the dukes of Liineburg again divided the territory into three parts; Liineburg, with its princes residing at Celle (Zell); Calenberg-Gottingen, with its princes from 1636 at Hanover; and Wolfenbiittel, which went to the colDannenberg, The new Calenberg-Gottingen line, soon known as the house of Hanover, became an electorate of the Holy Roman empire in 1692 and inherited the principality of Liineburg in 1705 and the kingdom of Great Britain in 1714, (See Hanox-er), lateral line of

The Duchy

of Brunswick (1635-1918).— The Wolfenbiittel whose principality from the 18th century onward was generally designated as the duchy of Brunswick, did not rise to such power as the Hanoverian. Its possessions, moreover, were small and extremely scattered. The land, however, was prosperous being not only fertile but also sharing in the Harz silver mines, partly through a form of common ownership with Hanover, and it enjoyed good government under conscientious rulers. Augustus, duke from 1635 to 1666, founded the famous library at WolfenHis son Anton Ulrich, coregent biittel (the Bibliotheca Augusta). with his elder brother Rudolf Augustus from 1685 and sole ruler from 1704 to 1714, likewise had a reputation as a patron of the arts, and as a writer, but exhausted himself in a fruitless struggle with the Hanoverian electorate and in short-lived alliances with line,

France.

The

elder Dannenberg male line died out in 1735 with Anton whose lands were then inherby the house of Brunswick-Bevern. This house was bound Prussia both by treaty and by family ties and provided the Prus-

Ulrich's younger son Louis Rudolf, ited to

Among these were Duke sian army with many senior officers. Ferdinand (q.v.), famed as a commander during the Seven Years' War. and his nephew Charles William Ferdinand (q.v.). The latter, duke of Brunswick from 1780, commanded the Prussians at Valmy (1792J and was mortally wounded at Auerstadt (1806). From 1807 to 1813 Brunswick belonged to Jerome Bonaparte's kingdom of Westphalia. Duke Frederick William's attempt to recover the duchy in 1809 was unsuccessful but his bold retreat from Bohemia to the North sea enabled him to bring his forces safely to England. Killed at the battle of Quatrebras (June 1815), Frederick William left the liberated and restored duchy to his son, Charles II (d. 1873), who after an unfortunate reign was driven from his land by a popular rising in 1830. Under his younger brother W'illiam, duke from 1831, Brunswick's industries rapidly developed. With William's death, in 1884, the Brunswick line of the Welfs became extinct.

BRUNSWICK

3IO

As Prussia had annexed Hanover in 1866 (the Harz mining area was partitioned between Brunswick and Prussia in 1874\ the duchy of Brunswick was "the last sod of Welf earth" (H. von Treitschke). It should accordingly have passed to the Welfs of the royal Hanover line, but Bismarck was able to prevent the duke of Cumberland. Ernest Augustus (q.v., 184S-1923), from taking possession of it. for. like his father, the last king of Hanover, he was unwilling to renounce his rights to the kingdom. From 1885, therefore, Brunswick was ruled, in accordance wth a regency law of 1879, by Prince Albert of Prussia (d. 1906) and by Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg from 1907 to 1913. In 1913. however, the duke of Cumberland's son Ernest Augustus 1887-1953 married Victoria Louise, daughter of the German emperor William II. Ernest Augustus was then permitted to reign over Brunswick without having to renounce Hanover. With the outbreak of revolution in Germany at the end of World War I he had to abdicate (Nov. 8, 1918V The Land of Brunswick, 1918-1946. Under the Weimar constitution of 1919 Brunswick was recognized as a Land or free state of the German Reich. Heavily industrialized and a stronghold of socialism, it experienced extreme political vacillations: it had a radical leftist government from 1019 to 1922. then an extreme conservative one from 1930. with Nazi participation in the government thereafter. After Hitler's seizure of power Brunswick, like the other German Lander, was divested of its independence as a state by the law of Jan. 30. 1934. Under the jurisdiction of the Reichsstntthalter for the Ga2i (district ) of South Hanover-Bruns(

)

—

wick,

it

nevertheless kept an administration of

its

own.

In 1941

was considerably reduced when the western Kreis or subdistrict of Holzminden. on the Weser. was accorded to Hanover, though it received in exchange the Kreis of Goslar and the its

territory

new Stadt kreis (municipal

district) of Salzgitter

with the impor-

works of Lebenstedt. In 1945. the major part of Brunswick, then under British miliwas reconstituted as a state. In Nov. 1946. with the approval of the German authorities for the zone, the military government incorporated Brunswick into the Land of Lower tant

tary government,

Saxony

(q.v.).

—

Bibliography. ^\'. Lowe, Bibltographie der hannoverschen und braunschweigischen Geschkhte (1908); F. Busch. Bibliographie der ttiedersdchsischen Geschkhte fiir die Jahre 1908-32 (1938), with supplements (1959-61); G. Schnath, Geschichtlicher Handatlas Niedersachsens (1939). General Histories: H. Sudendorf, Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der Herzoge von Braunschu'eig-Liineburg und ihrer Lander, 11 vol. (1859-83) O. von Heinemann, Geschichte von Braunschweig und Hannover, 3 vol. (1884-92); F. Beckurts, Grundriss der Braunschweigischen Geschichte, 3rd ed. (1931). (Ge. S.) ;

BRUNSWICK

(Ger.

Braunschweig V

a

city of

Germany

which before partition of the nation following World War II was capital of Braunschweig Land (state) and until 1918 of the former duchy of that name. After the merger of Brunswick. Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe Ld?tder with Hanover in 1945. Brunswick city was incorporated into the new Land of Lower Saxony in the Federal Republic of Germany. The city is situated in fertile country on the Oker 53 mi. (85 km.) N.W. of Magdeburg. Pop. (1960) 246,200. After very hea\'y damage during World War II, the city was rebuilt. The main streets. Bohlweg. Steinweg. Neue Strasse and Damm. were made broader; the old commercial streets were reconstructed; and modern blocks of flats were built in the city centre and the suburbs; but there remained two "isles of tradition." the Castle square and the Old town market with its ancient houses and churches. The cathedral of St. Blasius (1173-94) in the Castle square (Burgplatz) is in Romanesque style. The chancel is decorated with 12th-centur>' frescoes by Johannes Gallicus and contains the tombs of the founder. Henry the Lion, and his consort, and also that of the emperor Otto IV. In the vaulting beneath, rest the remains of the Guelphs of the Brunswick line from 1681. An ancient building on the Castle square is the guildhall (the

Haus) with its beautiful 16th-century oak carvings. The Burg Dankwarderode with the famous Treasure of the Guelphs is a fine modern structure, erected after 1865. restored Huneborstelsche

On the emblem

monument (Lowendenknal), by Henry the Lion in 1166. market is a gem of Gothic architecture 5th centuries) with arcades, damaged by bombs during II and carefully restored. St. Martin's church (1180-

Castle square

is

the Lion

of Brunswick, erected

The Old town (14th and

1

hall in the

World War 90) was originally

a Romanesque basilica, enlarged in the 13th century in Gothic and also remarkable for the splendid late Gothic Annenkapelle (1434) and three magnificent portals. Near this church is the 13th-century cloth merchant's hall (Gewandhaus). with a richly ornamented Renaissance fa(;ade. Parts of this ancient house are occupied by the chamber of commerce. Other churches in Brunswick are St. Katharine's church, with a fine tower. It was begun by Henry the Lion in 1172 and finished in 1500. Of the 13th. 14th and 15th centuries are St. Andreas' church and St. Aegidien's church. St. Magni's church (13th and 15th centuries) was completely destroyed in World War II. On the same site a new church has been built. New buildings of note include three skyscrapers, one in Hamburger street, the second in Oker street and the third near the technical institute. To the left of the Wolfenbiitteler street is Richmond palace, built in 1768-69 by Prince Charles William Ferdinand, eldest son of Charles I of Brunswick and Philippine Charlotte, sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia. This prince married Princess Augusta

London in 1764. She was sister of George III of England and daughter of Prince Frederick of Wales. The town is surrounded by parks and boulevards. The largest are the Citizen's park (Biirgerpark near the old railway station in the south of the town. Prince Albrecht's park. Buchhorst forest and Querums forest with an airport in the north. Brunswick has many schools and technical colleges and is interin

)

nationally famous for

its scientific

research.

The Technical

univer-

founded as the Collegium Carolinum in 1745 had. in the early 1960s, more than 4,000 students. There is also a teacher-training college and institutes for physics and technology, agriculture and forestry, and aeronautical research. Works by Rembrandt, Rubens and other Dutch. French and Italian painters are to be found in the galler>' of the Herzog-Anton-Ulrich museum and the

sity

municipal museum. Brunswick is on the main line from Berlin to Hanover and the west. Other lines run to Vorsfelde. Oebisfelde, Bad Harzburg, Hildesheim and Elze. It has direct connection with the Mittelland canal, and with the Autobahn from Berlin to the Ruhr. The chief industry of Brunswick is metal. Machinery and factory equipment, trucks, buses, boats, bicycles, photographic apparatus, calculating machines, office machinery, tin plate and pianos are made. Publishing and food preserving are also carried on. Legend says that Brunswick was founded about 861 by Bruno, son of Duke Ludolf of Saxony. Probably the town was founded

much

later. Fortified and improved by Henry the Lion, it became one of the most important cities of northern Germany. In the 13th century it ranked among the chief cities of the Hanseatic League. It later declined in prosperity in consequence of the division of territory, the jealousy ofthe neighbouring states, the Thirty Years' War and the French occupation at the beginning of the 19th century, under which it was assigned to the kingdom of Westphalia. During the Reformation the s>'mpathies of the people were with the new doctrines, and the city was a member of the League of Schmalkalden. In 1830 it was the scene of a violent revolution, which led to the removal of the reigning Duke Charles II. In World War II Brunswick was captured by Allied forces in April 1945. (H. 0. S.)

BRUNSWICK,

a seaport city in Georgia, U.S., and the seat on the Atlantic coast 77 mi. S.E. of Savannah. It is a railroad terminus and one of the important sea food centres in the southeast. ^ Ft. Frederica. on nearby St. Simons Island, was the southernmost British outpost in North America during the colonial era and the area was early caught up in the Spanish-British of

Glynn county,

is

colonial rivalry.

The town was

laid out in 1771 by the council of the royal provand named after the seat of the reigning house of was settled the following year but was not incor1856. Brunswick's live oak and palm-lined streets

ince of Georgia

Hanover.

It

porated until

BRUNSWICK— BRUSH and parks, arranged in a symmetric pattern and bearing 18thcentury English names, give the community a graceful appearance. Glynn academy, chartered in 1778, is one of the oldest public schools in the state.

Near Brunswick are three islands

of the

on the Atlantic coast:

the latter being state-owned.

most important

all-year resort

Simons, Sea Island and Jekyll, In the early 1960s the area could

St.

accommodate appro.ximately 3,000 courts and numerous guest homes.

visitors in its hotels,

mi.

(Js. C. B.)

town of Cumberland county. Me.,

X.E. of Portland, on the Androscoggin

an attractive recreational area brings residents.

Among

the inhabitants are

U.S., 27

Its location in

river.

many visitors and summer many French Canadian im-

migrants and their descendants. First known as Pejepscot, the town was settled in 1628, but Indian hostility retarded its early development. Significant growth commenced with Brunswick's incorporation as a township in 1717. Control of town affairs by town meetings open to all registered voters continued into the second half of the 20th century in spite The of repeated efforts to win local support for a city charter. falls of the Androscoggin river furnished power for the manufacture of paper, textiles and other products but the closing of the Verney mill in 19SS appeared to have ended the textile era. The Brunswick naval air station, established in World War II, was reactivated in 1951.

Brunswick

is

Brunton's papers on his early work on the use of digitalis, nienzymes, etc., were included in Collected Papers on Circulation and Respiration (1906). BRUSASORCI: see Riccio, Domenico. trates,

BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST

home

the

of

Bowdoin

college, a

widely known

men, with an enrollment of approximately 800 students. Founded in 1794 by act of the Massachusetts general court, the college was named for Gov. James Bowdoin (q.v.). Among its graduates have been many men of prominence in American letters and public life, including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Franklin Pierce, Melville W. Fuller, Oliver Otis Howard. Thomas Brackett Reed and Robert Edwin Peary. For comparative population figures see table in Maine: Popu-

CWm.

lation.

BRUNSWICK BLACK,

B.

W.)

BRUSH,

attractive and reasonably durable.

of manufacture

dissolving premelted

simple, consisting essentially of

—white

in

—

a solvent

turpentine the bitumen until the desired consistency for application is

being thinned

down

achieved.

common

If

is

bitumen or natural asphaltum

of suitable boiling point

of the black finish is

spirit or

rosin (colophony) is included the lustre improved, but the amount used must be care-

fully controlled or the quality of the residual film will suffer, either

cracking on aging or softening with heat. is

More satisfactory and tougher films result if boiled linseed added with the bitumen. The proportions of the individual

in-

may

be

gredients vary considerably, but the following formulas

oil

taken as representative: (i) dark rosin 50 lb., asphalt 112 lb., white spirit 22 gal.; (2^ gilsonite 112 lb., boiled linseed oil 2 gal., white spirit 25 gal. More elaborate formulation may be needed for finishes intended for exterior protection, but the basic ingrediis retained and blends of blown and unblown bitumen have been successfully employed. (E. G, Es.)

ent

BRUNTON,

a tool

composed

of animal, vegetable or

man-made

bound, cemented or punched into a back or handle, implement being dictated by its intended use, whether for cleaning, polishing or painting. The history of the brush, at least in its function of applying pigment, is of a hoary antiquity, as evidenced by the magnificent cave paintings of Altamira in Spain and the Perigord in France. These monumental art works demonstrate that the Paleolithic European knew how to manage his brush and palette with consummate skill. Within historical times, through the successive periods fibres twisted,

of his history,

SIR

THOMAS LAUDER,

ist Bart. (1S44-

from the tomb paintings of ancient Egypt and the

inception of the characteristic writing of the Chinese to the present,

form of quick-drying black var-

a

ment, stoves, fenders and the like. Because of its bitumen content the preservative properties are high and, in the better qualities, is

U.S.

April 24, 1941.

man

has applied animal hairs and vegetable fibres in contriv-

ing tools for the expression of his pictorial

nish used for metal, particularly iron, surfaces of indoor equip-

The process

(1855-1941),

whose penetrating representations of family groups were suggestive of the work of the Dutch, German and Flemish masters, was born at Shelbyville, Tenn., on Sept. 28, 1855. He was a pupil of J. L. Gerome at Paris, and became a member of the National Academy of Design. New York, and of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. From 1883 onward he attracted much attention by his paintings of North American Indians, his "Moose Hunt," "Aztec King" and "Mourning Her Brave," achieving great popuThese were larity and showing the strong influence of Gerome. followed by picture portraits, particularly of mother and child, line and mass, and worked out in great decarefully arranged as to Several of his paintings had tail with consummate technical skill. for subject his own children and his wife; one of these is in the Boston Museum of Fine .\rts. His "In a Garden" is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city; "Mothers and Children," in the Pennsylvania academy, Philadelphia; and "Mother and Child," in the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. He received gold medals from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 1897. and Paris exposition, 1900. He died in Hanover. N.H.. on

the material used and the design of the

liberal arts college for

the finish

He was He died

Sept. 16, 1916.

painter,

lation.

a

in 1895 physician, a post which he resigned in 1904. knighted in 1900 and in 1908 was created a baronet.

and

motor

Other than livestock growing, little agriculture existed but lands were profitably devoted to forestry products, the processing of which was the leading industry. The freezing and packaging of sea foods ranked second. For comparative population figures see table in Georgia: Popu-

BRUNSWICK,

311

Bristle.

and

literary art.

— Of the many types of animal hair used

for centuries

brush manufacture none is more important than the bristle of the wild or semiwild boar or hog. One species of the animal is found in Germany, Poland, the U.S.S.R. and China, while three other distinct species are native to India, Tibet and Japan respecAll are important sources of supply, with China and the tively. U.S.S.R. leading in both the quantity and quality of the bristle in

obtained.

The

individual bristle has a broad, sturdy base and a tapered commonly termed a "flagged"

tip split into several fine filaments,

Flexible and resilient, with an excellent paint holding capacity, bristle is particularly well suited to use as paintbrush stock. The hair on the neck of the animal is considered to be of finer tip.

Several methods of removing its sides. from the hide have been developed. Soaking the skin calcium sulfide or sodium sulfide bath serves to loosen the Bristle held in a coating bristle so that it is easily detached. of resin applied immediately after the death of the animal can be torn out after the resin has hardened. The bristle is then freed by melting down the resin. Also used are mechanical methods that employ the principle of toothed rollers revolving in opposite directions at different speeds. The skin is introduced quality than that on bristle in a

rollers from a moving belt and the upper and faster tears loose the bristle that remains on top of the skin, which it is readily removed. The finer neck hairs are gener-

1916), Scottish physician, a specialist in problems of circulation,

between the

was born at Hiltonshill, Roxburghshire, on March 14, 1844. He was educated at Edinburgh university, and after three years of medical work in continental cities was appointed in 1870 as lecturer in materia medica and pharmacology at Middlesex hospital, London. In 1871 Brunton went in the same capacity to St. Bartholomew's hospital where, three years later, he became assistant physician

roller

from removed by hand.

dressing of bristle involves washing of the hairs according to length and colour. They are then straightened out. tied to a short wooden rod and further cleansed and sterilized by boiling or steamally

and

ing.

The

disinfecting, followed

(See Bristle.)

by a sorting

BRUSH

312

—

Other Animal

Hairs. Many other types of animal hair are brush manufacture. Horsehair is widely used. The mane hairs, softer than those of the tail, make excellent polishing brushes. Other animal hairs utilized in brushmaking are ox ear, obtained from the tufts of silken hair found in the ears of cattle, goat, weasel, kolinsky (Asiatic weasel), squirrel (camel's-hair), civet (spotted American skunk), fitch (European weasel, or poleBadger hair has had a wide application as cat) and badger. material for shaving brushes. Man-Made Fibres. Periods of scarcity and costliness of

employed

in

—

natural bristle prompted intensive research in the field of synthetics. A previously acquired knowledge of nature's method of building protein-type animal fibre (keratin) and vegetable fibre (cellulose) by linking up simple molecules, such as amino acids, in a molecular chain construction pointed the way to the chemical

combining of molecules in similar chains. In this way, after much experimentation, nylon filaments were successfully produced. Manufacturing methods were devised for making both tapered and untapered nylon brush fibres. The former compare favourably with hog bristle in the manufacture of paintbrushes and the latter are profitably utilized in making household and toilet brushes, particularly toothbrushes.

The chemical compound is extruded in a broad band and then reduced to flake form and melted in a spinning container. The molten substance is forced through the fine holes of a spinning jet and hardens into filaments upon contact with the atmosphere. These filaments pass under rollers in a cold water bath and emerge to be taken up through gripper-type rollers and wound on a reel. To align the molecular chains in proper formation, the filaments are drawn or stretched by running them through two sets of four rollers each, the second set revolving at a speed about four times that of the first. The drawn filaments are taken up on a collecting The reel and relieved of strain by being relaxed in warm water. completely processed filaments are then cut into lengths suitable for brush use. Tapered fibres are made by varying the speed of the gripper rollers during the manufacturing process, producing alternate thick and thin portions in the filament, a formation undisturbed by the drawing process, except that the degree of taper Cutting is controlled by the rate of speed of the stretching rollers. the filaments at the proper points results in fibres with broad bases and tapered tips similar in form to natural bristle. Splitting or "flagging" the tips of the fibres brings about an even closer approximation. In addition to nylon, brush fibres are made of vinyl, polyethylene and polystyrene. Useful vinyl fibres are produced by cutting thin Rather short, stumplike sheets of the material into fine strips. polyethylene formations are satisfactorily employed in making massage brushes. Polystyrene fibres, which are readily chargeable with static electricity, possess the interesting and useful property Two substances of animal origin, casein, deof attracting dust. rived from skim milk, and the protein constituent of animal skins, are utilized in the production of other man-made brush fibres. Plant Fibres. Plant cellulose can be converted into brush material by a process of dissolution and re-creation. \n example is the dissolving of cotton fibres by treatment with acetic acid followed by diffusion of the acetylated product in acetone. Allowed to stand until sufficiently viscous, the solution can be spun and projected through the tiny orifices of a spinnerette. Emerging in a cylinder through which warm air circulates, the filaments solidify by evaporation of the acetone. Many natural vegetable fibres have long been used in the manufacture of various types of brushes. Among these is Bahia bass, or piassava, a tough brown fibre obtained from a Brazilian pinnateleaved palm. The young leaves are steeped in water, beaten into Palmyra bassine is obseparate fibres, sun-dried and hackled.

—

tained from the large leaves of the palmyra

palm found

in Africa,

The central rib of the material for very large revolving brushes, while shorter and softer fibres are obtained from the remainder of the leaf stalk. Kittul is a pliant, resilient Ceylon and on the eastern coast of India.

leaf stalk,

when

split lengthwise, furnishes

from the leaves of a palm tree native to India, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya and Thailand. In thickness, kittul ranges from fibre derived

almost hairlike fineness to a diameter of about ^ inch. Other vegetable materials used are Para or monkey bass; Sulima, Calabar, Cape Mount, Cape Palmas and Monrovia bass, all products of the African continent; gumati fibre from the sugar palm of southeast Asia, and fibres from the agave and yucca plants of Mexico. Methods of Manufacture. Brush fibres are united to handles or backs of wood, plastic or metal in several different ways. The amount of bristle used for any single paintbrush or varnish brush is determined by weight. The material is divided into two equal portions and rolled until the flagged tips point upward. The two portions are then placed one over the other so that the flags are turned inward. The bristle assumes the desired brush form in a metal cup whose interior is a pattern of the finished brush. The butt ends that protrude above the cup are leveled off by trimming, and the bristle is held in formation by a thread binding at the top. The material is transferred to a metal ferrule into which a pitch or cement "setting" is poured. When the setting has dried to hardness, the brush handle is securely fastened to the ferrule. A gum rubber solution may be used also to set paint-

—

brushes.

Art brushes also, for the most part, are cupped and set. Some very fine brushes are shaped entirely by hand. Artists' brushes set in quills are still made in some parts of Europe, particularly in France, where quills are plentiful. Many types of household and toilet brushes are made by inserting tufts of fibre into holes drilled in brush backs. Formerly such brushes were hand-set or hand-drawn. Set brushes were made by dipping knotted tufts in boiling pitch, binding them with thread, dipping them again in pitch and then punching or pegging them into the drilled holes. Hand-drawn brushes were made by drawing the tufts into the holes from the back of the brush by wire. The brush was finished by bonding a veneer to its back. By another method, called trepanning, the tufts were taken up into the holes, which were drilled only to a certain depth, by loops in a thread running through a perforation extending the length at the back and into which the small holes opened. Except for brushes with backs and handles of such luxury materials as tortoise shell and ivory, the earlier handmaking of brushes has yielded to mechanical methods of production. Economical quantity production of brushes has been made possible by automatic drilling and tufting machines. Knots of fibre can be punched in and securely stapled in a single operation. Twisted-in-wire brushes are made by inserting the fibrous material between two wires that are twisted together spirally by machine.

Some brushes

of this type have a looped wire handle, but

others are finished by inserting the twisted wire ends in wood or plastic handles. For some purposes, the wires are bent in a loop,

making

Useful in

a

brush of substantial face.

many

areas, particularly in industry, are brushes

made

by clamping wire-secured brush filler in a fold-over metal channel. Such brushes are made in continuous strips by automatic machinery that forms the channel from metal strips, feeds the brush filler uniformly under a wire, clamps the channel over wire and filler in a secure grip, trims the fibre and cuts the clamped brush strips into desired lengths.

The brush

strips

may

be

wound

spirally

for use as rotary brushes.

Steel-gripped brushes can be produced in any required length or diameter.

—

Brooms. Closely associated with brushes is the familiar stiff-fibre cleaning tool, generally applied in the large, vigorous motions of sweeping, or in rather coarse brushing operations. The broom had its origin in the primitive besom composed of twigs bound to a wooden stick. Both vegetable and man-made fibres, such as polystyrene, are

broom, a

employed in broom manufacture. Of the plant fibres, broomcorn and bassine are t-he most widely used. Bassine is the processed fibre of the palmyra palm. Broomcorn is a sorghum having a jointed stem terminating in a stiff spike, the stems of which sup-

The plant has been cultivated for centuries Europe and is said to have been introduced in America by Benjamin Franklin. Two varieties of broomcorn are grown, the standard ranging from 10 to 15 ft. in height with a brush or spike 18 to 24 in. in length, and the dwarf or whisk, 3 to 6 ft. in height

port oblong florets. in

BRUSILOV— BRUSSELS

313

with a spike 10 to 18 in. long. The fibres from which brooms are made are obtained from the terminal spikes of the plant. Before being used they are scraped or seeded and aged in well-ventilated

vards (du Midi, de I'Abattoir, Barthelemy, de Nieuport, d'Anvers, du Jardin-Botanique, Bisschoffsheim, du Regent, du 9™* de Ligne and de Waterloo). In 1868-71 the Senne river was covered over

sheds.

and now carries the central boulevard, called successively, from southwest to northeast, Maurice-Lemonnier, Anspach and Adolphe-Max. This boulevard links the two railway stations, the Gare du Midi and the Gare du Nord. The Place de Brouckfere, at the junction of the boulevards Anspach and Adolphe-Max, is

Broommaking was once

largely a

home

industry'.

The

stalks

water to render them pliable, drained and arranged in a regular order with the best on the outside. They were bound together at the top with cord, after which a twine wrapping was applied covering a two-inch space. The broom was then clamped between two boards to hold it in a flattened formation. Twine was wound once or twice around the broom three or four inches below the two-inch wrapping and tied, a length of twine being

were soaked

in

A wooden

or iron needle from six to eight sew back and forth through the stalks. two or three times. The pointed end of a handle was driven into the neck of the broom and secured left free

for sewing.

inches long

was used

to

the sewing process being repeated

with nails.

broom handle, which was held in a revolving barrel by a set screw. After the material was securely wire-bound to the handle the broom was flattened in clamps and sewed. Improvements in mechanical methods culminated in automatic machinery. A sizing machine sorts the

An

stalks according to size

and cuts them

to precise

is taken up and rapidly on a winding machine, from which the broom passes to an automatic stitcher. Such machines can produce upward of a thousand brooms a day. See also references under "Brush" in the Index volume.

lengths.

bound

exact quantity of the material

to the handle

BRUSILOV, ALEKSEI ALEKSEEVICH

(E. L. Y.) (1853-1926),

Russian general who played a distinguished part in World War I, was born on Aug. 19, 1853. Educated in the imperial corps of pages, he began his military career as a cavalry ofiicer in the Caucasus. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he distinguished himself by his bold and original tactics. On the outbreak of World War I he received command of the Russian 8th army and played a brilliant part in the campaign in Galicia. Then, in the spring of 1916, he succeeded the elderly and irresolute general N. Y. Ivanov as commander in chief of the 7th, 8th, 9th and 11th Russian armies, standing then between the Pripet and Prut rivers, south of the Pripet marshes. In the following summer he launched a massive offensive against the Austro-Hungarian forces. Though they suffered heavy losses mainly through shortage of artillery supplies, Brusilov's armies had by Aug. 1916 captured the whole original army lines and overrun much of eastern Galicia and all Bukovina. taking 375,000 prisoners. This effort, known as "the Brusilov break-through," served also to relieve pressure on Russia's allies on the Italian and western fronts. During the Feb.-March Revolution of 1917, Brusilov and other generals urged the tsar Nicholas II to abdicate in favour of his son. After the Bolshevik Revolution, he remained in the service of the new regime and on May 2, 1920, during the war with Poland, was appointed chairman of the special commission commanding all Russian armed forces. Later he became inspector of cavalry in the Red army, retiring in 1924. He wrote A Soldier's Note-Book 1914-1918 (Eng. trans. 1930). Brusilov died in Moscow on March 17. 1926. (I. Gy.) BRUSSELS (French Bruxelles, Flemish Brussel), the capital and largest city of Belgium and chief town of the province of Brabant, lies in the valley of the Senne (Flemish Zenne), a small tributary of the Scheldt. Pop. (1955 est.) city or commune 175,301; greater Brussels (including the 18 suburban communes)

Brussels.

various periods.

Its fine tower, 330 ft. high, is crowned copper statue of St. Michael. Opposite the town hall is the smaller but extremely ornate Maison du Roi, which was almost entirely rebuilt during 1873-95 and contains the Hisetc., of

by

With the introduction of broommaking machines, at first of a simple order, factory production of brooms began. The fibres were fed under a wire supplied from a reel and attached to the

modern

the central point of

The lower town is the commercial quarter. It extends from the western outer boulevards to a little east of the central boulevard and includes (southeast of the Place de la Bourse in the Boulevard Anspach) the historic Grand-Place, the heart of the old town. There the Gothic town hall (1402-54) occupies the greater part of the south side of the square and contains pictures, tapestries, a 16-ft. gilded

torical

museum.

Nearby

is

a long arcade, called the Galeries

One of the town is the Manneken-Pis fountain, noted for a bronze statue of a boy urinating whom the people of Brussels call their oldest "citizen." The statue, based on a model by the Brussels sculptor Frangois Duquesnoy, was erected in 1619. The upper town is the remaining eastern area of the city proper. It is also crossed from southwest to northeast by a thoroughfare formed by the Rue de la Regence which, at the Place Royale, becomes the Rue Royale. The upper town contains the church of St. Michael and Ste. Gudule, built on an earlier foundation on the side of a hill. Begun about 1220, it is considered to be one of the finest specimens of pointed Gothic and the stained glass of the 13th-15th centuries is very rich. The principal ISth- and 19th-century buildings in the Rue Royale are the Palais du Roi and the Palais de la Nation, erected by the Austrian governors. The last-named palace (1779-83) is shared by the senate and the chamber of representatives. It stands at the intersection St.

Hubert, with shops, two theatres and cafes.

curiosities of the lower

981,636.

The what

earliest inhabited site in the area

is

thought to have been

now

the southwestern suburb of Anderlecht, a natural clearing in the primitive forest, where foundations of a Roman villa and Prankish cemeteries have been discovered. Only some traces of the Neolithic period have been found in the city. is

The 14th-century walls surrounding the city proper were removed between 1812 and 1840 and replaced by broad outer boule-

TOWN HALL

IN

THE GRAND-PLACE. BRUSSELS; 1402-54

BRUSSELS

314 of the sels.

Rue Royale and the Rue de la Loi, the Whitehall of BrusAlong the Rue Royale. between the two palaces, lies the

On

large public park.

the Palais du Roi

is

the opposite side of the Place Royale from the Royal library containing the famous collec-

known as the Bibliotheque des dues de Bourgogne, originally owned by Philip the Good. The Museum of Modern Painting and the Royal Museums of Ancient Painting and of Sculpture are close by. The latter contains many Flemish and other masterpieces, among them works by Rogier van der Weyden, Quentin Massys, Hugo van der Goes, P. Christus. Gerard David, Hans Memling, D. and A. Bouts, Pieter Brueghel, Hieronymus Bosch and Peter Paul Rubens. The Rue de la Loi is one of the most important thoroughfares running eastward toward the monumental Palais du Cinquantenaire (1905) with its park, and continued by the Avenue de Tervueren. The Palais du Cinquantenaire houses the Musees Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire with its splendid collection ranging from prehistoric objects to fine tapestries, lace and examples of other crafts. In the southern part of the upper town stands the huge Palais de Justice (186683) in the heavy style of Karnak and Nineveh, but surmounted by a dome. It suffered some war damage in 1944 but was restored. The improvements effected in Brussels during the 19th century transformed the city, among them the Theatre Royal de la Monnaie (1817), the Bourse (stock exchange) and the central post office. The column of the congress (i.e., of the Belgian representatives who founded the kingdom of Belgium), surmounted by a statue of King Leopold I, was erected in the Rue Royale in 1859. After World War I the body of a Belgian Unknown Soldier was placed in a crypt in the base of the column. In the early years of the 20th century new and spacious avenues were driven into the suburban communes in many directions. One tion of illuminated manuscripts

of the most fashionable is the Avenue Louise, starting from Porte Louise (near the Palais de Justice) and running southeast toward the Bois de la Cambre. After World War II great public works were undertaken in order to link the two main railway stations, the Gare du Nord and the Gare du Midi. This junction railway, partly underground, was opened on Oct. 4, 1952. In addition, the southern outer boulevards were widened, and in the 1950s four tunnels and an overhead road were built to ease the traffic. In 1788 the faculties of law, medicine and philosophy were removed from Louvain to Brussels, and in 1834 the Free University of Brussels was constituted with the addition of a faculty of

natural science. is

linked

by

rail

with

From

of northwestern Europe.

depth), a works quay and an outer harbour (21 ft.). After 1922 these were linked to the north by a canal with the Rupel and the Scheldt, taking seagoing vessels up to 49-ft. beam and 19-ft. draft. Southward, Brussels is linked by another canal to the industrial town of Charleroi (q.v.). Although mainly the seat of the

government and a industries

On

the east, Woluwe-St.-Lambert (32,129) and Woluwe-St,Pierre (25,696) produce garden vegetables, machinery and building materials. Etterbeek (51,473), nearer to the city centre, was first mentioned in the early 12th century. It makes chemicals, clothing,

metalwork and machinery as well as foodstuffs.

Auderghem (23.003),

residential centre, Brussels has

among which

numerous

light

the chief are the manufacture of laces,

carpets, furniture, beer, cigars

and

cigarettes.

Greater Brussels.—The area of the city proper was increased by including the communes of Laeken, containing a residence of the royal family, Haeren and Neder-Overin 1921 to 12.7 sq.mi.

Heembeek, with parts

of

Molenbeek and Schaerbeek.

Toward

the end of the 18th century the city proper, or commune of Brussels, had about 74,000 inhabitants; in 1920 it had 154,801; in

1938, in a larger area, it had grown to 191,678. However, with 18 other communes, usually considered as part of the agglomeration of Brussels, the total population in 1938 was 912,774.

its

Beginning in the north of the city and east of the Senne and working around in a clockwise direction, the first of the 18 communes is Evere (pop. [1955] 18,421), with its restored romanesque church of St. Vincent and with mining industries. Schaerbeek (120,150), a village until 1795, manufactures foodstuffs, clothing, chemicals and machinery. St. Josse-ten-Noode

At

to the southeast, Aleyde, duchess of Bra-

bant, founded a convent at the end of the 13th century.

Ixelles

(92,338), sprawling to the south and southeast, makes much the as the other suburbs. Watermael-Boitsfort (22,270>, mentioned as early as a.d. 914, lies beyond Ixelles and stretches to the forest of Soignes, Uccle (64,594), to the south,

same products

was formerly a separate town dating back to the 12th century. It is now mainly residential. Forest (48,974), once part of the forest

of

Soignes,

now makes

chemicals, paper,

photographic

materials, clocks, clothing, leather goods and foodstuffs.

(57.289), formerly Obbrussel.

makes products

St.-Gilles

similar to those

of Forest, as does Anderlecht (91,143), on the Senne to the southwest, the original kernel of the city. Molenbeek-St.-Jean (62,-

Koekelberg (15,099), Berchem-Ste.-Agathe (13,213), 592). Ganshoren (11,849) and Jette-St.-Pierre (30,792) are all in the west and northwest of Brussels. Apart from the products common to most parts of Brussels they make rubber goods, electrical equipment, clocks, liqueurs and tobacco products. History. The Franks settled in the area in the 7th century, at the time of the evangelization of Brabant. They established themselves on the hill above the frequently flooded Senne valley, near the present collegiate church of St. Michael and Ste. Gudule. On an island in the valley Duke Charles of Lower Lorraine built a fortress containing a chapel dedicated to St. Gery (now marked by the Place St. Gery) and Charles transported there the relics of Ste. Gudule (transferred to St. Michael's in 1047). The first town grew up around the fortress and was called Bruocsella or Broecsele ("the settlement in the marshes"). It was at this point that the ancient road running north-south, between Antwerp and Nivelles, crossed the Senne which there ceases to be navigable. The great east-west road between Cologne and Bruges did not become an important highway until the end of the 12th century, and the commercial development of Brussels, which had already begun, was greatly increased as a result of its position at these

—

crossings.

The merchants

many of the important cities the airport at Melsbroek, 7.5 mi. N.E. of the city centre, there are regular international air services. In addition, there are regular helicopter services to several large cities including Paris. Brussels also has a port, lying to the north of the outer boulevards, comprising two docks (21 ft. and 11 ft. in Brussels

(25,310), a town since the 13th century, adjoins the centre of Brussels and produces much the same products as Schaerbeek.

of the 12th-century industrial town, free

from

the authority of an overlord, created a market (the origin of the

Grand-Place) and built a meetinghouse (the forerunner of the town hall). While the commercial town flourished and gradually formed the nucleus of the lower town, a ducal residence (on the site of the Place Royale) and the abbey of St. Jacques, both on the Coudenberg, on the edge of the plateau bordering the Senne valley, were built. This was the beginning of the ducal agglomeration and of the upper town. Around 1100 new ramparts, including seven gates and 24 towers, were constructed to protect the industrial city. In 1312. Duke John II of Brabant granted the citizens their charter, distinguished from others as that of Cortenberg. This charter, with the Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV (1356), was confirmed by the famous "joyous entry" of Duke Wenceslas into Louvain (1356). This established the early constitution of the South Netherlands, which remained almost intact until the Brabant revolution in the reign of Joseph II. The 11th-century wall was soon outgrown, and in 1357 Duke Wenceslas ordered a new wall to be built, enclosing a much greater area. It included 74 towers and eight gates, and survived until 1830. In the 14th century the dukes of Brabant transferred their capital from Louvain to Brussels, although residing for some time in their castle at Vilvorde. halfway between the two turbulent cities. At this time Brussels is said to have had 40,000 inhabitants, one-fifth the number of Ghent. In 1421 a further charter was granted recognizing the guilds of Brussels as the Nine Nations. The duchy was merged in the possessions of the duke of Burgundy in 1430. The castle of the dukes of Brabant on the Coudenberg was the scene of the abdication of Charles

V

in 1555.

BRUSSELS— BRUTTII In the 16th and 17th centuries, under the Spanish Habsburgs, Brussels was the capital of the Spanish Netherlands and one of

and most important cities of Europe. In 1695, the due Sixteen de Villeroi, a French commander, bombarded the city. churches and about 4,000 houses were burned down, and the historic buildings on the Grand-Place were seriously damaged or destroyed. Much of the damage was repaired in the 18th century. From 1714 Brussels was the capital of the Austrian southern the finest

Netherlands.

During the French Revolution the city was reduced to the rank of chief town of the French departement of the Dyle (1795-1814). becoming later, concurrently with The Hague, the residence of the king of the Netherlands.

The Belgian revolution

started in

Brussels on the night of Aug. 22-2i, 1830, and during Sept. 23-26

Dutch army there. King Leopold I enwas proclaimed the As capital of the kingdom of Belgium, Brussels recovered its former status of a great European metropolis. In World War I the German occupation lasted from Aug. 20, 1914, to Nov. 18, 1918. Numerous social relief movements were instituted: among them the Comite National de Secours et d'Alimentation had its headquarters in Brussels and with U.S. the Belgians defeated a

tered the city on July 21, 1831, and this date

national holiday.

The

aid organized the feeding of the Belgian population.

execu-

Edith Cavell lOct. 12, 1915) and Gabrielle Petit (.\pril 1, 1916) took place there. Adolphe Max, the burgomaster, acquired great fame for his resistance to the abuses of the Germans. The Belgian army recovered Brussels on Nov. 18, 1918, and King Albert I and Queen Elizabeth re-entered the city in state four days later. In World War II Brussels fell to the Germans on May 18, 1940. It did not suffer extensive physical damage but was subjected to harsh terms of occupation. Gen. Eggert Reeder, chief of the German military administration for Belgium, dissolved all municipal councils on April 11, 1941, dismissed the burgomaster, Francois Joseph van de Meulebroeck. and on Sept. 27, 1942, created "greater Brussels" by amalgamating the city with other communes for easier control. Brussels was liberated on Sept. 3. 1944, by the British, and the legitimate Belgian government returned to its capital from London five days later. The German-created "greater Brussels" then ceased to exist. tions of

(M. Ms.) World's Fair of 1958. Officially known as the Brussels Universal and International exhibition, the Brussels world's fair was held from April 17 to Oct. 19, 1958, at fairgrounds that covered 500 ac. of ancient woodlands in Heysel park, four miles from the Forty-five nations, six international and centre of Brussels. supranational agencies and four organizations of an international character took part in the 1958 e.xhibition, and more than 41,450,-

—

000 persons visited the

fair

during the six-month period (iee

Exhibitions and Fairs), See also references under "Brussels"

in the

Bruxelles, 3 vol. L. Verniers, Bruxelles

;

;

son agnos jours (1958) L. and P. Hymans, Bruxelles a travers les ages, 3 vol. (1882et

glomeration de 1830 a ;

89).

BRUSSELS SPROUTS, botanical

variety

of

early

In

its

common

it

in coastal areas

New

York. The advent of quick-freezsome expansion of production and use About 25,000 to 35,000 tons are produced of Brussels sprouts. annually on about 5,500 to 6,500 ac. in the United States. Over

produced

in California

and

ing preservation stimulated

40,000 ac. are devoted to the production of Brussels sprouts in (V. R. B.) Great Britain. See also Cabbage. (1662-1732), Italian sculptor and wood carver who created the supreme achievements of Venetian baroque furniture, was born on July 20, 1662, at Belluno. He went to Venice in 1677 and trained under Filippo Parodi, visiting Rome, 1678-80. On his return he undertook a certain amount of decorative carving in Venetian churches and created his most celebrated works, the furniture for the Venier di S. Vio and Correr di S. Simeone families (now in the Ca Rezzonico, Venice), exceedingly elaborately carved in walnut and ebony with Negro figures, cupids, etc. In 1685 he returned to Belluno and from that time devoted himself almost entirely to work in wood and occasionally ivory for religious uses. He died at Belluno on Oct. 25, 1732.

BRUSTOLON, ANDREA

See G. Biasuz and E. Lacchin, Andrea Brustalon (1928). (F. J. B.

BRUT

(Brute

or

Brutus the Trojan),

W.)

a legendary British

Monmouth and others, was the eponymous hero of Britain. He was reputed to be grandson of Aeneas, and the legend was that he was banished from Italy and made his way to Britain, where he founded New Troy (London ). The name is an obvious confusion between Bryt (a Briton) and the classical name Brutus. For the romance literature of the subject see Wage; Barbour, JohiN. BRUTTII, an ancient Italian tribe which occupied the southcharacter, who, according to Geoffrey of

western peninsula of Italy in historical times, the ager Bruttius, corresponding almost exactly to the modern regione of Calabria. The Bruttii, perhaps speaking an Indo-European language (see Indo-Europeans), may have occupied southern Italy before the conquest of Lucania, Calabria and Campania by Samnite tribes Ancient tradition suggested to the after the 5th century B.C. Romans that they were driven southward about 400 B.C. by the

The Bruttii Lucanians, a Samnite tribe who spoke Oscan. adopted Oscan as their language, together with Greek. The district of the Bruttii was separated from Lucania on the north by a line drawn from the mouth of the Laus (Lao) river on the west to a point a little south of the Crathis (Crati) river on the east. To part or the whole of this peninsula the name Italia was first applied. In alliance with the Lucanians the Bruttii the Greek colonies of the coast, seized Hipponium (Vibo Valentia) in 356 B.C., and held it until it became a Latin colony at the end of the same century. The Bruttii were at the Their chief height of their power during the 3rd century B.C. towns were Consentia ^Cosenza), Petelia (near Strongoli), and (lampetia (Amantea). Their coins belong to this period and they appear to have retained the right of coinage even after their final Bruttii first

came

into collision with the

Romans (280-275

)

In the war with Hannibal they were among the favour after the battle of Cannae (216j, and it was in their country that Hannibal held his ground during the last stage of the war at Castrum Hannibalis on the Gulf

first

along the stem develop into small heads (sprouts) similar to heads of cabbage but only one and onehalf inches or less in diameter. The plant is of obscure European origin and was possibly in

United States except

in the

state property.

Later

main stem rises two to three feet tall and the axillary buds

to declare in his

After his defeat (202 the Bruttii lost In 194 B.C. colonies of Roman citizens were founded at Tempsa and Crotona (Crotone), and a colony with Latin rights at Hipponium, called \'ibo Valentia (about 192), In 132 B.C. the consul Publius Popilius Laenas built the great road of Scylacium (Squillace).

)

their separate existence.

Belgium as early as Brussels sprouts brassica was first described in eracea form gemmiferaj ,

1200, but

grown

during the war with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to whom they nnt auxiliaries. After his defeat they were deprived of half their territory in the thickly forested Sila plateau, which was declared

the

growTi

It is little

315 known, even to botanists, for another century. a popular and widely grown vegetable in Eng-

or other districts having the mild, cool seasons that it requires. In the U.S. most of the crop is It is harmed by hot weather.

The

closely re-

cabbage.

little

Brussels sprouts is land and in Europe.

EC.

seedling stage and

development

sembles

was

subjugation by the Romans.

a

cabbage

(Brassica oleracea var. gemmijera).

It

made war on

Index volume.

— A.

Henne and A. Wauters, Histoire de la ville de (1845) P. Bonenfant, Une capitate au Berceau (1949)

Bibliography.

1587.

ol-

from Capua through Vibo and Consentia gio

di

Calabria).

to

Rhegium (mod. Reg-

Spartacus held out a long time in the Sila

BRUTUS— BRYAN

3i6

(71 B.C.). Vibo was the naval base of Octavian in the conflict with Sextus Pompeius (42-36 B.C.).

The most important products of the district were the wood from the forests of the Sila and the pitch produced from it. The coast plains were in parts very fertile, especially the lower valley of the Crathis. Under the empire the Sila was state domain, and most of the rest in the hands of large proprietors. When Augustus divided Italy into regiones he joined it with Lucania to form the 3rd region. Diocletian placed Lucania and the district of the Bruttii under a corrector ("governor"), whose residence was at Rhegium. From the 6th century a.d., after the fall of the Ostrogothic power and the establishment of that of Byzantium, the name Calabria was applied to the whole of southern Italy, and the name of the Bruttii entirely disappeared. After the eastern peninsula (ancient Calabria) had been taken by the Lombards, about A.D. 668, the western retained the name and still keeps it.

fashioned gravitas ("seriousness"). He was slow in decision, amazingly obstinate and, in his financial dealings with the provincials, both extortionate and cruel. Shakespeare's portrait of him is flattering. A Stoic, he wrote philosophical treatises and poetry, of which nothing has survived. Of the original nine books of his correspondence with Cicero two are extant. Bibliography. Cicero,

6,

—

R. Y. Tyrrell and L. C. Purser, Correspondence of pp. cix-cxxiv, 2nd ed. (1904-1918); G. Boissier, Cicero and

His Friends (Eng. trans. 1897)

BRY, THEODORE

;

M. Radin, Marcus Brutus

(Theodorus Dirk)

DE

(1939).

(1528-1598),

German engraver and publisher, whose illustrations for travel works are of special interest, was bom in Liege, Belgium, in 1528. He established an engraving and publishing business at Frankfurt, and also visited London in or before 1587. There he became acquainted with the geographer, Richard Hakluyt, with whose as-

Whatmough, The

sistance he collected materials for a finely illustrated collection of voyages and travels, Collectiones peregrinationum in Indiam

a cognomen or surname borne by members of the gens Junia, of which the first-mentioned, Lucius Junius Brutus, was the only patrician member to bear the name. Lucius Junius Brutus (consul 509 b.c), probably a historical figure, traditionally led the Romans to expel from Rome their

orientalem et Indiam occide?italem (25 parts, 1590-1634). Among other works he engraved a set of 12 plates illustrating the "Procession of the Knights of the Garter" in 1576, and a set of 34 plates illustrating the "Procession at the Obsequies of Sir Philip Sidney"; plates for Thomas Harlot's Brieje and True Report of the New Found Latid of Virginia (Frankfurt, 1595) the plates for

See R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects (1S97) Foundations of Roman Italy (1937).

BRUTUS,

in ancient

;

J.

Rome

despotic king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus {q.v.) and founded the republic, being elected in 509 b.c. one of the first two consuls {see Consul). When the two sons of Brutus joined in a conspiracy to restore the Tarquins, he himself sentenced them to death. He fell in

single

combat with the son of Tarquinius Superbus during who were trying to restore the dynasty

a battle with the Etruscans

Tradition associated the name Brutus ("dull') with Brutus' feigned stupidity before he rose to power. See Livy, History of Rome, i and ii. of the Tarquins.

Decimus Junius Brutus (consul 138 b.c), surnamed GalLAEcus from his victory over the Gallaeci (136) in northwestern Spain. He was a patron of literature and a friend of the poet Accius.

Marcus Junius Brutus (praetor c. 140 b.c), a jurist considered by Cicero to be one of the founders of Roman civil law. His son of the same name, also a jurist, was known as "the Accuser." See Cicero,

De

De

ii, and Brutus. 43 b.c), surnamed Albinus after his adoptive father A. Postumius Albinus, first served under Caesar in Gaul and afterward commanded his fleet. Caesar made him master of the horse and governor of Transalpine Gaul for 48 and 46 B.C., and, in case of Octavian's death, nominated him as one of his heirs; early in 44 B.C. Caesar gave him charge of Cisalpine Gaul. Nevertheless Brutus was one of his assassins in March 44. He then went to Cisalpine Gaul which he held for the republicans against Antony, standing siege at Mutina; he then advanced to Gallia Narbonensis against Antony, but deserted by his soldiers and betrayed by a native chief, he was put to death by Antony's orders (43) while attempting to escape to the other assassins Cassius {q.v.) and Marcus Junius Brutus in Macedonia. He figures in Cicero's correspondence.

Officiis,

ii,

Decimus Junius Brutus

Oralore,

(d.

Marcus Junius Brutus (85^2 Caepio Brutus after

B.C.), also

named Quintus

adoptive father Q. Servilius Caepio, supagainst Caesar (g.i).) but was pardoned by the latter after the victory of Pharsalus and subsequently appointed governor of Cisalpine Gaul (46). In 44 he was city praetor and Caesar promised him the governorship of Macedonia.

ported the cause of

his

Pompey

But at the prompting of Cassius he became leader of the conspiracy against the dictator, and was himself one of the assassins. But the republicans had no program and in Aug. 44 he fled to the east with Cassius, seized

Macedonia and

raised forces against Antony.

Philippi (42) they were defeated

At by Antony and Octavian, and

Brutus committed suicide. Brutus divorced his first wife Claudia, daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher (consul 54) in 46 and married Porcia, the daughter of his uncle M. Porcius Cato Uticensis. He was generally friendly with Cicero ( q.v.) who dedicated the works Brutus and Orator to him, but Cicero frequently speaks of his lack of enthusiasm. The Romans admired him for his respectability and old-

;

first four volumes of Jean Jacques Boissard's Romanae urbis topographia et antiquitates (1597-98), and a series of portraits entitled I cones virorum illustrium (1597-99). He died at Frank-

the

am Main on March 27, 1598. De Bry had been assisted by Jean Theodore de Bry (1561-1623), who carried on the Collectiones and the illustration of Boissard's work, and also added to the Icones. BRYAN, KIRK (1888-1950), U.S. geologist internationally recognized as an authority on geomorphology. Pleistocene and Recent chronology, and cryopedology (a term he coined for the study of perennially frozen ground and noted for his emphasis upon their relationship to climatic fluctuations and to the dating of early man in North America. Bryan was born in Albuquerque, N.M., July 22, 1888, and was educated at New Mexico and Yale universities. His first important scientific contributions, as geologist for the U.S. Geological survey, dealt with ground-water problems and the geomorphology of arid regions. His intense interest in the American southwest, especially the Rio Grande valley, is shown in his own publications and in those of his students at Harvard university, where he taught from 1926 until his death Aug. 22, 1950, at Cody, Wyo. furt

his eldest son,

)

,

For bibliography and detailed biography see E. Bryan," Proc. Geol. Soc. Amer., pp. 91-96 (1951).

BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS

S. Larsen, Jr.,

"Kirk

(L. L. R.)

(1860-1925), U.S. political leader and orator, was born in Salem, 111., on March 19, 1860. He graduated from Illinois college in 1881 and from the Union College of Law, Chicago, in 1883. He practised his profession at Jacksonville, 111., from 1883 to 1887 and then moved There he soon became conspicuous both as a to Lincoln, Neb. lawyer and as a politician, attracting particular attention by his speeches during the presidential campaign of 1888 on behalf of the candidates of the Democratic party. It was a time of depression and discontent in farming areas. From 1891 to 1895 he represented the 1st congressional district of Nebraska, normally Republican, in the national house of representatives. He soon attracted attention as a conscientious worker and became widely known for his ability in debate. His first great speech (March 16, 1892) was against the policy of tariff protection, and on Aug. 16, 1893, he made a remarkable speech against the repeal of the silver purchase clause of the Sherman act. Although the immediate loser in this contest, he attained a national reputation as the leader of the free-silver'movement in opposition to the more conservative gold standard policy. In 1894 he was a candidate for the U.S. senate but was defeated in a campaign largely restricted to the silver question. From 1894 to 1896 he edited the Omaha WorldHerald, in which he championed the cause of bimetallism, and lectured on the silver question. Although defeated in all elections in which he subsequently appeared as candidate, he was the recognized leader of his party for

BRYAN— BRYANSK international law.

London was cordially received as a great American orator. He was nominated again for the presidency by the Democratic party The free-silver at its national convention at Denver in 1908. theory was now dead, and while the chief issue was over the formulation of a policy toward business trusts, the campaign was confused by personal issues, Roosevelt himself intervening in favour of Taft, the Republican nominee. Bryan was defeated again, receiving 162 electoral votes to 321 for Taft. In 1912 Bryan announced that he was not a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination, but he attended the convention, dictated the platform, and inspired the general tone of proceedings at Baltimore. It was largely his inliuence that brought about the nomination of Woodrow Wilson (,q.v.) instead of Champ Clark. In recognition of this service Wilson appointed him secretary of

appeal.

—

in

state in 1913.

As secretary of

state

Bryan devoted much attention

to

negotiation of treaties with foreign nations to prevent war.

the

Prof-

from the sad experience of his predecessors in getting arbitration treaties approved by the senate, Bryan proposed new treaties that would provide a "cooling-off period" of one year during which the question in dispute could be studied by an international commission. These were agreed to in principle by 31 nations but World War I interrupted the movement. In 1913 Bryan went to California, where he urged, unsuccessfully, that the state legislature and the governor should delay action on the proposed Webb antialien land ownership bill, so displeasing to the Japanese goviting

ernment.

In 1914 he supported the repeal of the

Panama

canal

tolls bill, which excluded American coastwise shipping from the payment of fees. Both Wilson and Bryan had stated their opposition to interven-

Latin-American affairs, but they nevertheless took action was generally regarded in Latin America as interventionist. The most troublesome incident was the expedition sent into Mexico to capture the bandit leader Pancho (Francisco) Villa tion in

that

{q.v.) in 1916.

the outbreak of World War I, Bryan was deeply interested attempts to restore peace and keep the United States out of the conflict. He opposed war loans to belligerents, but as vigorously opposed an embargo on the shipment of arms as contrary to

From

in

317

After the sinking of the "Lusitania" (May 7, 1915 he signed the first strong note of protest to Germany. When the president wrote his second "Lusitania" note, Bryan resigned (June 8, 1915), saying in his letter of resignation, "You have prepared for transmission to the German government a note in which I cannot join without violating what I deem to be an obligation to my country." He continued, after his resignation, to work in the interest of peace; he opposed the Anglo-French war loan; attacked the Navy league and the National Security league,

His panacea for the depressed conditions of agriculture and industry that followed the panic of 1893 was an "easy money" policy based on the free and unlimited coinage of In 1896 he was sent as delesilver at a ratio to gold of 16 to 1. gate to the Democratic national convention at Chicago, and there easily captured control of the convention, wrote the party platform, which contained a plank providing for bimetallism, and in defense of his proposition delivered a celebrated speech containing the passage, "Vou shall not press down upon the brow of labour this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." As leader of the "silver" majority he became the Democratic nominee for president, champion of the agrarian west and south against the "hard money" policy favoured by most eastern bankers and industrialists. He also received the nominations of the Populist and the National Silver parties. In the ensuing presidential campaign he traveled over 18,000 mi. and made altogether 600 speeches in 2 7 different states an unprecedented number. In the election, however, he was defeated by William McKinley, the Republican candidate, receiving 176 electoral votes to 271. During the Spanish-American War he was colonel in the 3rd Nebraska Even though he lent his volunteers, but saw no active service. support to the ratification of the peace treaty, he opposed the permanent acquisition of the Philippines and in 1900 was again nominated for the presidency on a platform that declared against "imperialism" and for "free-silver." He was defeated a second time by McKinley, receiving 155 electoral votes to 292. After the 1900 election Bryan established and edited at Lincoln a weekly political journal. The Commoner, which attained a wide circulation. Although not an active candidate for the Democratic nomination in 1904, he was in attendance and assisted materially in framing The conservative element of the party had once the platform. more resumed control and nominated Judge Alton B. Parker of New York. In 1905-06 Bryan made a trip around the world, and the next 30 years.

)

and

tried

resist

to

the

growing demands for preparedness in

America.

However, when war was actually declared he asked

to be enthough then 57 years of age; he urged loyal support of the president's war measures, and in his own paper. The

rolled as a private,

Commoner

,

strongly

condemned obstruction

of the selective draft.

1916 Bryan was defeated in Nebraska as candidate for delegate-at-!arge to the Democratic national convention, but went as a reporter and gave full support to the renomination of Wilson. He was sent as a delegate to the 1920 convention at San Francisco, but when his motion for the introduction of a "dry" plank in the platform was defeated, he took no further interest in the proceedThe same year he refused the presidential nomination of ings. the Prohibition party, although he had been a tireless worker for the cause for the previous ten years. In 1921 he moved to Miami, Fla., and in 1924 attended the Democratic national convention in In

New York

from Florida, but he exercised very little As a politician his work was completed. Bryan laboured earnestly for the most important progressive measures adopted by the U.S. during his political career: the popular election of senators, an income tax, the requirements of publication of ownership and circulation of newspapers, the creation of the department of labour, national prohibition and woman suffrage. Their adoption was due in part to his popular persistent as a delegate

influence in the party councils.

Bryan's last public appearance was in 1925 at the trial of J. T. Scopes, a schoolteacher of Dayton, Tenn., who was arrested on a charge of violating the state law prohibiting the teaching in public schools of any theories that deny the divine creation of man as taught in the Bible. Scopes was a biologist and had been teaching evolution.

Bryan, a firm believer in the

the Bible, went to

Dayton

literal interpretation

of

Widespread In the hands of

to assist the prosecution.

popular interest was manifested in the case. Bryan and Clarence Darrow, chief defense counsel,

it

took the

form of a contest between fundamentalism and modernism. The outcome was that on July 21, after an 11 -day hearing. Scopes was found guilty and fined $100, though Bryan was prevented, through the tactics of Darrow, from delivering the elaborate speech which he had prepared in refutation of Darwin's theories. On the conclusion of the trial he was taken ill, and died at Dayton, Tenn., on July 26, 1925. Bibliography.

—

Lije and Speeches of William Jennings Bryan (1900) W. J. and Mary Baird Bryan, Memoirs of William Jennings Bryan (1925) Charles E. Merriam, Four American Party Leaders (1926) Paxton Hibben, The Peerless Leader, William Jennings Bryan (1929); Merle E. Curti, Bryan and World Peace (1931); Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era (1954). a city in Texas, U.S., 85 mi. N.W. of Houston. The seat of Brazos county, Bryan was founded in 1859 and named for William Joel Bryan, who inherited from his uncle Stephen F. Austin the land on which the city is built. The city is strategically located between three large metropolitan areas and immediately adjoins the Agricultural and MechaniIts agriculturally based cal College of Texas at CoUege Station. economy has shifted to one founded on higher education and an increasing number of small manufacturing, processing and distribBryan adopted a commission-manager plan of utive industries. ;

;

;

BRYAN,

Private schools include Allen Military government in 1917. academy. For comparative population figures see table in Texas: Population. (J. M. Na.) (Briansk), a town and administrative centre of Bryansk oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R.. stands on the Desna river, just below its confluence with the Bolva, 210 mi. S.W. of Moscow. Pop. (1959) 207,319. First

BRYANSK

1

BRYANT— BRYCE

3i8 mentioned

1 146, it was a fortified town on the Bryansk defensive mid- 16th century and was occupied by the Germans in I. It is now an industrial centre, with a large-scale engineering industry, producing turbines, diesels, refrigerator freight cars. and transport equipment. A steel castings factory was. after 1960, converted to make tractors. Clothing, shoes, bricks and reinforced concrete are also made, Bryansk is a railway junction, the focus of six lines, to Moscow, Vyazma, Smolensk, Gomel, Kiev and Orel. Around Bry'ansk is a group of industrial towns making iron castings, glass, cement and timber products. The largest, Bezhitsa, is now combined with Bryansk, Bryansk Oblast lies mostly in the broad, shallow basin of the Desna and its tributaries. In the north and east are low, rolling hills. The oblast (13,475 sq.mi.) is in the zone of mixed forest, and extensive forests remain in the eastern part, but elsewhere they have largely been cleared. Soils are mostly podzols, but richer chernozems occur in central and southeastern areas. The oblast, which was formed in 1944, has a population of 1,547,000 (1059), of which 35% (535,000) is urban. Apart from Bryansk itself, the towns are mostly small. The agriculture of Bryansk oblast is concerned chiefly with growing grain (rye, buckwheat and oats), flax, hemp and potatoes. Some sugar beet and tobacco are also produced. Industry is well developed and includes engineering (transport and agricultural machinery), steel and iron casting, glassmaking, timberworking ( especially match and papermaking processing flax and hemp and food, and the production of building materials. Part of the iron ore deposits of the Kursk magnetic anomaly lie within the oblast. (R. A. F.) (1794-1878), U.S. poet of nature, best remembered for "Thanatopsis," and editor for 50 years of the New York Evening Post, was born at Cummington, a farming village in the Berkshire hills of western Massachusetts, on Nov. 3. 1794. He was the son of Peter Bryant, physician and man of scholarship, and of Sarah Snell both descendants of early Puritan immigrants. At 16 Bryant entered the sophomore class of Williams college, where he was an apt student for a year but from which he withdrew without graduating because of limited finances and in the vain hope that his father might send him to Yale college. The number of his college days is a misleading measure of his training, for he possessed many traits that often are established only by books and academic regimen. On abandoning his hope of entering Yale, he studied law under private guidance at Worthington and at Bridgewater and at 21 was admitted to the bar. He opened an office in Plainfield. presently withdrew from there, and at Great Barrington settled for nine years in the attorney's calling, for which he had an aversion that he never lost. At the age of 26 Bryant married Frances Fairchild, with whom he enjoyed a happy union until her death nearly half a century later. In 1825

in

line of the

World War

)

,

BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN

—

he moved to New York city to become coeditor of the New York Review. Two years later he became an editor of the Evening Post; in 1829 he became editor in chief and part owner, and continued in this position until his death almost 50 years later. His careful investment of his income from the Post made Bryant wealthy. Since he was a resident of New York city, he was associated in the public mind with the Knickerbocker group, but in reality he had little in common with these authors. He was an active patron of the arts and letters; in this capacity and as a journalist he made six voyages to Europe. The religious conservatism imposed on Byrant by his mother and his grandfather Snell in childhood found expression in pious doggerel; the political conservatism of his father stimulated "The Embargo" (1808), in which the 13-year-old poet demanded the resignation of Pres, Thomas Jefferson. But in "Thanatopsis" (from the Greek "a view of death"), which he first wrote in 181 at the age of 16 and which made him famous when it was published in the North American Review in 181 7, he rejected Puritan dogma for Deism; thereafter this distinguished apostate from Calvinism was a Unitarian. Turning also from Federalism, he joined the Democratic party and macle the Post an organ of free trade, workingmen's rights, free speech and abolition, A thoroughgoing liberal, Bryant was for a time a Free-Soiler and later one of the

founders of the Republican party. At Cooper union in 1860 he introduced Lincoln to his first New York audience. (See Newspapers: The Party Press.) As a man of letters Bryant securely established himself at the age of 27 with Poems (1821 ). For a decade he was the most distinguished poet in the United States and, throughout his lifetime, one of the most revered. In his later years he devoted considerable time to translations, particularly from Homer and from Spanish poets, "I was always," Bryant said, "a delighted observer of external nature," In Massachusetts, his was a joyous and occasionally an ecstatic communion. In New York his disillusionment with the human race increased, as did his need for the consolation of nature, but his communion was now more often sober. As an early figure in the romantic movement in American literature, Bryant wrote also of the American past and that of Europe, of the liberal causes that he defended in the Post, and, like numerous English romanticists, of ethical problems. Once freed from his boyish addiction to the heroic couplet, he employed a richer variety of verse forms than had any American predecessor. But Bryant will be longest remembered as the poet of the Berkshire hills and streams, in such poems as "Thanatopsis" and "To a Waterfowl" in Whitman's phrase, "bard of the river and of the wood, ever conveying a taste of open air." Bryant died in New York city on June 12, 1878. Bibliography. The last edition of Bryant's poems that passed through his own hands is The Poetical Works (1876). Parke Gudwin, Bryant's son-in-law and fellow editor, collected much of Bryant's prose and verse in volumes iv-vi of The Life and Writings of Williaiii Ciillen Bryant, 6 vol. (1S83-S4). The Roslyn edition of The Poetical Works (1903) ed. by H. C. Sturges and R. H. Stoddard is the most inclusive one-volume collection. Useful are the biographical volumes by Parke Godwin, see above; John Bigelow, William Ciillen Bryant (iSgo); W. A. Bradley, William Cullen Bryant (1905). See also'F. L. Pattce, Side Lights on American Literature (1922) .Man Nevins, The Evening Post: a Century of Journalism {1922); Norman Foerster, Nature in American Literature (1923) W. L. Phelps, Howells, James, Bryant and Other Essays (1924) Gay W. Allen, .American Prosody (1935) Tremainc McDowell (cd.), William Ctillen Bryant: Representative Selections, with introduction, bibliography and notes (i93,s) (T. McD.)

—

—

;

;

;

:

'

.

BRYAXIS

was one of the four sculptors who, according to Pliny and Vitruvius, worked on the mausoleum of Halicarnassus His most famous statue was a colossal seated Sara(c. 350 B.C.). None of pis, which perhaps survives in numerous Roman copies. the other works attributed to him by ancient writers, including an Apollo at Daphne, a group of Asklepios and Hygieia at .Athens and a portrait of Seleucus Nicator, can be even tentatively identified.

The i8gi

signature of Bryaxis on a sculptured base found in Athens in

may

refer only to the lost statue surmounting

it.

See G. Lippold, Die griechische Plaslik, pp. 257-60 (1950). (G. M. A. R.)

BRYCE, JAMES BRYCE,

1st

Viscount (1838-1922),

British statesman and scholar, whose great learning and wide experience of many countries made him indispensable in the counsels of the Liberal party, and who was an especially successful ambas-

sador to Washington, was born at Belfast, Ire., on May 10, 1838, of a Scottish Presbyterian family. His father, James Bryce (1806-77), was a schoolmaster, and moved in 1846 to Glasgow, where the son attended the high school and university. In 1857 Brv'ce went to Trinity college, Oxford, as a scholar the first one

—

who

Oxford record included three first classes and five major prizes; he was elected began fellow of Oriel in 1862. When he to read for the bar, a after a year at Heidelberg, he had already published his famous prize essay. The Holy Roman Empire (1864). In 1870 Bryce became regius professor of civil law at Oxford, a chair he held until 1893, There he was successful in reviving the study of Roman law. "Bryce, who had sat at the feet of Van Vangerow in Heidelberg, conceived it," says his biographer, H. A. L. Fisher, "to be part of his duty to awaken an interest in the civil law not as an antiquarian curiosity, but as a great power in the moulding of European thought and history," Many of his Oxford lectures were published in his did not take the Anglican oaths.

His

brilliant

Studies in History and Jurisprudence, two volumes (1901). Bryce made the first of numerous visits to the United States in 1870 and laid the foundations of his knowledge of American A lifelong interest in the affairs of the institutions and life. Armenians began when he visited the Caucasus for a climbing holi-

BRYCE— BRYENNIUS He

stood for parliament without success at Wick in 1874, but later sat as Liberal member for the Tower Hamlets (1S80-8S) and for South Aberdeen (1885-1907). Bryce never carried in the house of commons the weight of less able men with This gift apart, he had much in the true "parliamentary gift." common with Gladstone, not least on the literary side; both were

day

1876.

in

Lord .\cton, with whom Bryce founded the English HisReview in ISSS. In the short government of 1886 Bryce undersecretary of state for foreign affairs. He was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in the Liberal cabinet of 1892 and was president of the board of trade in the reconstructed government of 1894-95. He presided over an important commission on secondary friends of

torical

w-as

education in 1894. which advised that a central education authority should be set up under a responsible minister. After the Liberal defeat of 1895 he visited South Africa. He protested against the handling of negotiations with the Boer rethe following years, and in the split in the Liberal party which followed the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 Bryce ranged himself with Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman publics in

in the campaign against Joseph Chamberlain and his policy. Throughout the war Bryce was uncompromisingly on the unpopular side. In the Campbell-Bannerman cabinet of 1905 Bryce was chief secretary for Ireland, and in 1907 was sent as ambassador to Washington. For six years Bryce was the interpreter of Great Britain to the American people. The appointment of a politician, outside the diplomatic service, was as usual criticized: but it was a most happy' one. Bryce had many friends in political, learned, and literary circles in .\merica. and was known -throughout the United States as the author of The American Commonvjealth, the most authoritative work on the structure and working of the American constitution. To this book, begun in 1883 and published in 1888. which remains a classic in its field. Bryce brought not only historical knowledge and legal training, but the sympathy of a friend of the .\merican people and an admirer, on the whole, of their institutions. .As ambassador, many of the problems he had to deal with concerned the relations of the United States with Canada, and in this connection he paid several visits to Canada to confer with the governor-general and his ministers. At the close of his mis-

sion he said that probably three-fourths of the business of the

embassy at Washington was Canadian, and that 9 of the 12 he had signed had related to Canadian affairs. He could boast that he left Canada and the United States on excellent terms. For his services he was created a viscount after he retired in 1913. He was made a member of the International Court at The Hague in 1914. He was extremely reluctant in the last days of July 1914 to contemplate the possibility of war with Germany, but the violation of Belgian neutrality decided him. He was chairman of the committee that considered the evidence of German atrocities in Belgium and France, and was much saddened by its work. He was appointed president of a conference on the reform British

treaties

of the house of lords in 1917 and. believing in the importance of

an active second chamber, worked hard on a problem both parties were inclined to shirk. Otherwise he devoted the rest of his life to forwarding the establishment of the League of Nations and to the continued study of democracies. The democratic process fascinated him. and he traveled over almost all the habitable earth to observe it. Unfortunately, Modern Democracies, two volumes in which he summed up his conclusions in a number of (1921 actual case studies, did not have the dazzling charm of his conversation, in which he seemed "to have been everywhere, known everybody, and read everything." He received no fewer than 31 honorary degrees. He had married, in 1889. Ehzabeth Marion, daughter of Thomas i

Ashton and sister of the 1st Lord .Ashton of Hyde; they had no children. His last speech in the house of lords, on the Irish treaty of Dec. 1921, was made within a few weeks of his death at Sidmouth, Devon, on Jan. 22, 1922. Bryce's other works include Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903) and International Relations, two volumes (1922). See H. .\. L. Fisher, 7amej Bryce, 2 vol. (1927). (M. R. D. F.)

BRYCE CANYON NATIONAL PARK,

in

southern

319

Utah, U.S., was established in 1928 to protect an area of approximately 36,010 ac. of colourful eroded limestone and sandstone formations. Five years earlier, part of the present park, 7,040 ac, had been set aside as a national monument. The canyon was named for Ebenezer Bryce, an early settler in the region. The area is most accurately described as a series of amphitheatres, rather than a canyon, below which stands an array of white- and orange-coloured columns and walls sculptured by wind, rain and frost. The geologic story of Bryce Canyon is related to that of nearby Grand Canyon (q.v.) and Zion National parks (g.v.), the stone of all three having been laid down while the region was inundated by a shallow sea or lake; but the sandstone and limestone beds of Bryce canyon were formed during a more recent period (see Eocene and Paleocene). The high rim country of the park is part forest and part grass and sage, with white fir, Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, bristlecone pine and trembling aspen the dominant species. At lower, drier altitudes, pirion pine and Utah juniper predominate. Some of the mammals that dwell in this sanctuary are mule deer, gray foxes, porcupines, marmots, mountain chipmunks and ground squirrels. A prairie dog town beside the park road inter-

Mountain chickadee. Townsend's solitaire, Clark's Rocky mountain and black-eared nuthatches are some of the birds that inhabit the park throughout the year. They are joined by mountain and chestnut-backed bluebirds, juncos, violet-green swallows, white-throated swifts and other migrants during warmer months. Like most national parks. Bryce Canyon has a museum and information centre. A rim ests visitors.

nutcracker, long-crested jay and

road has spurs that lead to outstandingly scenic overlooks such and Inspiration point; a trail system descends (Dx. B.) from the rim to wind among. the formations.

as Sunrise point

BRYDGES, SIR SAMUEL EGERTON

(1762-1837X

English genealogist and writer, and editor of rare Elizabethan

was born at Wootton, Kent, on Nov. 30, 1762. He studied Queens' college, Cambridge, and was called to the bar at the in 1787. In 1789 he persuaded his elder brother that their family were the heirs to the barony of Chandos, being descended from a younger branch of the Brydges who first held The case was tried and lost, but Brydges never gave the title. up his claim, and used to sign himself Per legem terrae B.C. of S. ("By the law of the land Baron Chandos of Sudeley"). He reedited A. Collins' Peerage, inserting a statement about his supposed right. In 1814 he was made a baronet. In 1818 he went to hve abroad, mainly near Geneva where he died on Sept. 8. 1837. Brydge's numerous works include Poems (1785); Censiira Literaria, ten volumes (1805-09); The British Bibliographer, four volumes (1810-14), with J. Haslewood; Restituta, four volumes (1814-16), containing accounts of old books; and Autobiography, Times, Opinions and Contemporaries of Sir Egerton Brydges (1834). From 1813 to 1822 he edited a number of rare Elizabethan texts, including Edward Phillips' Theatrum poetariim (1800). Robert Greene's Groatsworth of Wit (1813) and works by Nicholas Breton (1815). Eastern BRYENNIOS, (1833-1914), Church theologian and discoverer of the Didache manuscript, was born in Istanbul in 1833. He was educated at Chalcis, Greece, and at the universities of Berlin, Munich and Leipzig. In 1861 he became a professor at Chalcis and in 1863 director of the school there. He was made head of the Great School of the Nation in Istanbul in 1S67 and kept that position until 1S75. w-hen he was selected metropolitan of Serrai, Greece. In 1877 he became metropolitan of Nicomedia, in Turkey-. Bryennios discovered in Istanbul in 1873 manuscripts containing the Didache (or "Teaching of the [Twelve] Apostles"), the two espistles of Clement to the Corinthians and other important religious documents. He published from these the first complete text of Clement's epistle (187s) and the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (1883), both with valuable notes of his own. The discovery and publication of the manuscripts and Bryennios' commentaries on them are regarded texts,

at

Middle Temple

PHILOTHEOS

as

important contributions to theological literature and scholar-

ship.

BRYENNIUS, NICEPHORUS

(1062-1137),

Byzantine

BRYMNER— BRYOPHYTA

320 soldier,

introduced; by the early 1960s only a small percentage of the work-

Comnenian family

ing population

statesman and historian, wrote a history of the imperial in the nth century a.d. He was born in Adrian1062 and died in Constantinople in 1137. He had gained the favour of the emperor Alexius I Comnenus and in 1097 marBryenried his daughter Anna and was given the title of Caesar. nius successfully defended Constantinople against Godfrey of Bouillon (1097); conducted the peace negotiations between Alexius and Bohemund, prince of Antioch (1108): and played an imople in

was engaged

in

mining and

steel.

(C.

M.

S.

W.)

BRYONY

{Bryonia dioica ). a twining plant of the gourd fam(Cucurbitaceae, g.v.), native to Europe and western Asia. It has a large white root, large palmate leaves, pale yellow flowers

ily

and red berries. The black bryony (Tamus communis), a climbing plant of the yam family (Dioscoreaceae), in axillary clusters

of similar range, bears a black root, shining, heart-shaped leaves

portant part in the defeat of Malik Shah, Seljuk sultan of Iconium (1116). After the death of Alexius, he refused to enter into the conspiracy set on foot by his mother-in-law and wife to depose John, the son of Alexius, and raise himself to the throne. His wife

and

attributed his refusal to cowardice, but it seems from certain passages in his own work that he really regarded it as a crime to revolt

It is composed of liverworts and mosses which are usually small plants growing on trees, logs, rocks, soil and in fresh water. They

against the rightful heir.

He was

friendly with the

new emperor

John, whom he accompanied on his Syrian campaign (1137). but was forced by illness to return to Constantinople, where he died the same year. It was at the suggestion of his mother-in-law. the empress Irene, that he wrote the history (called by him Materials for a History), dealing with the fortunes of the Comnenian family in the nth century, particularly during the years 1070-76. This work has been described as a family chronicle rather than a history. He intended to include the activities of the emperor .•\lexius. but died before he could complete his work. In addition to information derived from older contemporaries (such as his father and fatherin-law) and from official sources, Bryennius used the works of Michael Psellus, Joannes Scylitza and Michael .Attaliata. His views are influenced by personal considerations and his intimacy with the imperial family, which at the same time, however, afforded him unusual facilities for obtaining material. His model was Xenophon he abstained from an excessive use of simile and meta;

phor, and his style is concise and simple. Bibliography. A. Meineke (ed.), Nicephori Bryennii commeniarii in Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz. (1S36) J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxvii (1864) H. Gregoire, French trans, and notes in Byzantion, xxiii (1953) and xxv-xxvii, fasc. 2 (1955-57) S. Wittek-De Jongh, "Le Cesar Nicephore Bryennios, I'historien, et ses ascendants," Byzantion, xxiii (1953) G. Moravcsik, Byzantinoturcica, i, pp. 443-444, 2nd ed. (195S) G, G. Buckler, Anna Comnena (1929). (J. M. Hy.)

—

;

;

;

;

;

BRYMNER, WILLIAM

(1855-1925), Canadian landscape and figure painter, whose work and teaching exerted a considerable influence on Canadian art. was born in Greenock, Scot.. Dec. 14, 1S55, the son of Douglas Brymner. He went to Canada while he was still a small child and was educated in the province of Quebec. In 1S78 he went to Paris, where he studied under ,Adolphe William Bouguereau and Tony Robert-Fleury. He subsequently exhibited his work at the Paris Saloti, the Royal Academy in London and at a number of expositions in the U.S., where he frequently won prizes. He was president of the Royal Canadian Academy from 1909 until 191 7. He died June 18, 1925, in England,

BRYNMAWR

(Bryn-mawr), an urban

district

scarlet berries.

Bryony has been used

as a cathartic

BRYOPHYTA,

the botanical name of a division or phylum of the plant kingdom, usually placed between the algae and ferns.

grow best in warm areas of high precipitation and humidity but are also found under desert and tundra conditions. The Bryophyta are variable in size and form. Some cannot be seen without a magnifying lens and a few may be a foot or more in height or length. Although usually a subordinate part of the vegetation they may form the ground cover of the northern coniferous forest or even dominate the vegetation of some bogs and tundras. A few may be found along shores. None, however, is marine.

The Bryophyta as a group are less aquatic and more complex than the algae, although many algal seaweeds are much larger. The two groups of plants are separated on a basis of their sex organs: the sex cells (gametes) of the algae are enclosed in a simple ceU wall while those of the Bryophyta are contained in a single-layered jacket of cells. Although some of the ferns and their relatives are mosslike in general appearance, the usually smaller Bryophyta are distinguished by the lack of true roots, stems and leaves and a vascular system through which plant sap can move. The division, Bryophyta. is subdivided into two, three and sometimes more, groups. They are separated into the liverworts and mosses on a basis of differences in their spore-bearing structures (sporophytes). The spore case (capsule) of the mosses has a cylinder of sterile tissue (columella in the centre surrounded by spores and usually opens by a definite lid (operculum). In contrast, the liverwort capsules either have no sterile tissue (except Anthocerotae or more frequently have sterile slender cells (elaters) among Moreover, the capsules split longitudinally into two the spores. )

)

or

more valves

or rupture irregularly.

The

liverwort capsules

most two layers of cells surrounding the spores while those of the mosses have a jacket several cells Also the in depth, many of which may form a spongy tissue. liverworts are more dorsiventral in growth form and some of them are almost ribbonlike. Mosses are more often erect and have a compact wall of

at

of Br.

nockshire (Breconshire), Wales, in the Brecon and Radnor p.uliamentary division, is 10 mi, E.N.E. of Merthyr Tydfil and 9 mi.

W.S.W'. of Abergavenny by road. Pop. (1961 6,471, It lies in the extreme southeastern part of the county and on the northern edge of the south Wales industrial area and is on the main road between the English midlands and southwest Wales, Unlike the long, straggling townships in the narrow valleys of south Wales, Brynmawr (meaning "great hill") is a compact community at 1,1001,300 ft. on the edge of Llangattock mountain (Mynydd Llangatwg overlooking the Monmouthshire valley of the Ebbw Fach. Linked by road and rail with the industrial valleys, and close to the agricultural areas of southeast Breconshire and to the natural ,)

1

sources of coal, ironstone and limestone, the town became a considerable business and social centre. Of early 19th-century origin

grew rapidly when coal came into general use in the iron-smelting With the decline of ironworking and the exhaustion ot its own mines, Brynmawr depended more on other mining centres to the south and on the steel industry at Ebbw Vale. This led during the periods of industrial depression 1925-35 to severe unemployment. A few small factories were established at that time, and the Society of Friends organized housing and alternative employment. After World War II additional and larger factories were it

industry.

(

and as

a diuretic.

)

MOSS-COVERED terrain in a hEMLOCh fORtsi uftu Fig. 1. TERMINAL MORAINE AT THE MOUTH OF GLACIER BAY. ALASKA

—

BRYOZOA

321

radial in construction.

the stems of underwater plants, debris and the like.

As a group Bryophyta have economic significance; cerAll tain mosses are exceptions.

bloodless invertebrates

The controversy

as to the

taxonomic position of these tentacled,

may

play a part in reducing rocks,

names given them Zoophyta ("plantlike animals"). the group. The term Bryozoa has been widely used by most zoologists; the

logs

and stumps to soil, in initiatoccupancy of bare soil

individuals that

little

however, prefer the term Polyzoa, which emphasizes the make up the colony. Since 1869 the broad group has been divided into two clearly defined subgroups, called Entoprocta and Ectoprocta, on the basis of the position of the anus (see Classification, below). Some zoologists favour discarding the terms Bryozoa and Polyzoa entirely, and elevating Entoprocta and Ectoprocta to phylum rank. Entoprocta (q.v.) is treated in its own article; only the Ectoprocta are dealt with here, according to the following outline: British,

ing plant

and

in

soils.

retarding the erosion of The bryophytes often

serve as nest-building materials for birds and rodents as well as

food and homes for insects, mites and other minute animals. No other group of plants demonstrates so well the two (haploid and diploid) generations of the cycle

hfe

by

exhibited

I.

Introduction 1.

2.

sexual

3.

Minute spores shed from capsules grow into green (haploid gametophytes plants plants.

4. 5.

the

II.

The Colony 1. Size and Colour 2.

Colony Origin

B, Individuals (Zooids) 1.

Maand female (archegonia). ture sperms which are formed in the antheridia may swim under

2.

3. 4.

moist conditions into the archegonia and one may fertilize the egg in the enlarged base (venter)

The

Background Impediments to Study Economic Importance Distribution and Collection Study and Experimentation

Historical

General Characteristics A.

with a single set of chromosomes) of varying form, which bear the sex organs: male (antheridia)

of the archegonium.

reflected in the scientific

is

Linnaeus called

5.

III.

ferti-

egg (zygote) produced by fusion this may then grow FEMALE PLANT OF MAR FIG. 2. through embryonic stages into CHANTIA POLYMORPHA, A COMMON the spore-bearing plant (diploid liverwort sporophyte with two sets of chromosomes) with the capsule at the apex. Special cells in the capsule by reduction division (meiosis) give rise to the minute spores which initiate the cycle all over again. lized

—

Terminology General .Anatomy Body Wall Polypide (Living Tissue) Reproduction

Class Phylactolaemata (Fresh-Water Ectoprocts) 1. Description and Distribution 2.

Colony Form

3.

Polypide Structure Reproduction

4.

rV. Class Gymnolaemata (Chiefly Marine Ectoprocts) A. Extinct Orders 1.

2.

Order Trepostomata Order Cryptostomata

B. Order Cyclostomata (Stenolaemata) 1. Description and Distribution 2.

Polymorphism

3.

Polypide Structure

4.

Reproduction

C. Order Ctenostomata 1. Description and Distribution 2.

Body Wall

3.

Polypide Structure

4.

Colony Form Reproduction Polymorphism

5. 6.

7. Cheilo-Ctenostomata D. Order Cheilostomata 1.

2.

ELATER. WITH PORTION

MORE MAGNIFIED

Description and Distribution

Colony Form

3.

Body WaU

4.

Tentacle Protrusion and Retraction

5.

Polymorphism

6.

Reproduction

V. Fossil Distribution VI. Classification 1.

2.

3.

Zoophyta Bryozoa v. Polyzoa Ectoprocta and Entoprocta I.

fig.

3.

— general

structure of the pellia epiphylla.

a

common

thalloid liverwort

See Fern; Liverworts; Moss.

Bibliography.— H. C. Bold, Morphology of Plants (19S7) D. H. Campbell, Mosses and Ferns (1918) G. M. Smith, Cryplogamic Botany, 2nd ed., vol. ii (1955) F. Verdoorn, Manual of Bryology (1932). (A. J. Sh.) ;

;

;

BRYOZOA,

a

name

of Greek derivation meaning "moss ani-

mals," refers to certain tiny aquatic animals that live in plantlike colonies. The many common names applied to bryozoans moss animals, corallines, sea mats, sea or horn wrack testify to

—

appearance. Some of the colonies resemble small, delicately branched seaweeds; others are single-layered encrustations on rocks and other submerged objects; and still others are relatively large balls or irregular gelatinous masses attached to their diverse

INTRODUCTION

the anus is outside the row mouth) number about 4,000 recent and about 15,000 fossil species. They are widely distributed in time and space but are not always recognizable except by specialists. These colony-building animals abound in present-day waters and in fossil deposits from many geologic strata (see Fossil Dis-

The Ectoprocta

(so

named because

of tentacles surrounding the

tribution, below).

Although often encountered by laymen, Ectoprocta colonies are usually mistaken for corals, sponges, hydroids, mosses, seaweeds, slime, pebbles and other animate or inanimate encrustations. Because most species are sessile, rather small or inconspicuously nondescript to the naked eye and lack the power of locomotion,

they evoke little interest or recognition. At present they have no exploitable commercial value and heretofore were considered as of minor importance except as fouling or stratigraphic organisms (see Economic Importance, below).

.

BRYOZOA

322

may become greater as their Ordinarily they cannot be accucompound micro-

Their geological importance, however, identification

becomes

easier.

rately identified without examination under a

scope.

There are few animal groups to compare with Ectoprocta for enchanting designs and geometric patterns. 1. Historical Background. Bryozoans, sponges, seaweeds

—

and coelenterates (corals, sea anemones, hydroids) usually grow in the same marine habitats, sometimes resemble each other superficially and are likely to show up together in a naturalist's collection. Consequently, during the 17th to early 19th centuries to study these organisms together, grouping them according to their texture and general growth habit (see Taxonomic Position, below). These early workers had at their disposal microscopes that would be regarded today as little better than good hand lenses. Because classification and understanding of all species of bryozoans depends upon a good compound microscope, obviously the early workers were unequipped to study carefully and comprehend the nature of their specimens.

naturalists gradually began

Theories.

—

It

is

inevitable that conflicting theories

(mineral-

ogical, botanical, zoological) should arise to explain the nature of

these aquatic formations. Little support

was given the mineralogical theory, which main-

tained that the stony bryozoans, algae and corals were mineral formations resulting from sedimentation, agglutination or crystallization of calcareous

and clayey matter.

Supposedly by chance

these deposits were fashioned into plantlike forms.

Predominant for many years was the botanical theory. The tiny bryozoan and coelenterate polyps with delicate tentacles spread out like the petals of a flower and the plantlike branching of some colonies lent support to this theory.

In time

it

became evident

that

the polyps possessed a far

greater sensitivity, range of behaviour and complexity of structure than did ordinary plants,

and the suspicion arose that perhaps

they were animals. 2.

Impediments

to Study.

—During the

19th century micro-

scopical equipment improved; better

methods of specimen preservation and preparation for microscopic study were devised; and the study of these minute organisms was begun in earnest by both amateur naturalists and professional biologists. Specimen collections, both fossil and recent, marine and fresh-water, were brought back from far and near. Cabinets of museums began to fill with specimens, some of which remain unstudied to this day. Because bryozoans flourish in all seas and fresh waters, specimens are readily obtainable. But since they are difficult to keep alive and healthy for any length of time in the laboratory, most of the observations on them have been made on either freshly collected, dead, dried or preserved material. Moreover, in the majorbryozoans the soft animal parts are encased in calcified exoskeletons, so the anatomy and physiology of the soft parts cannot be easily studied unless the exoskeleton is somehow removed. As of the early 1960s no successful method had been devised for removing the exoskeleton (zooecium) without harm to the living tissue inside. Because of these mechanical difficulties most of the bryozoan publications on the more heavily calcified types have been of a taxonomic nature (identification and description of species), and comparatively few papers have been produced on histology, physiology, embryology and development. ity of

Early attempts to classify bryozoans were crude and based on what was evident to the unaided eye. Species and sometimes genera were erected on the basis of whether the colonies were stony, fleshy, slimy or fibrous; and whether they were encrusting, meshlike, arborescent, laminated or nodular. Little attention was given to the tiny polyps (zooids) that constituted the colony. Species descriptions were usually brief, sometimes unaccompanied by any illustrations. The result has been chaos. It is impossible to say to which species some of these early names apply, or to determine the limits or validity of early genera and species.

Present-day taxonomy

is

seriously handicapped

by

this early

work.

As more collections were examined it became evident that there were many different bryozoan species, and that growth habit was

poor criterion for differentiating colonies. Colony size, shape, growth habit and texture can be influenced by factors such as age of colony, nature and extent of the substratum and other environmental conditions. New criteria for identification had to be a

found.

The beautifully illustrated works of A. D' Orbigny (1839-52), G. Allman (1856) and G. Busk (1852-86) stressed the importance of anatomical and skeletal details of individual zooids. These helped to turn the taxonomists away from preoccupation with mere colony growth form as the main criterion for classification. Bryozoologists also began stressing such features as ornamentaand the shape, size, number, direction and location of different structures. tion of the exoskeleton

The

current problems facing taxonomists concern the range of how much of the variation

variation of these external structures,

due to heredity and how much to environment. Other problems concern polymorphism, life cycles and larvae. There is an urgent need for more intensive study of the morphology, embryology, physiology and behaviour of the already known species. 3. Econom.ic Importance. Ectoprocta are not important in the food cycle of other organisms but may be ingested (more by accident than selection) by ducks, fish, sharks and invertebrate filter feeders. Statoblasts (asexual germinative bodies) of freshwater species of Phimatella and Pectinatella are ingested with food by fish and amphibians, sometimes passing undigested through is

—

the vertebrate gut. J. V. F. Lamouroux (1816) relayed accounts of Icelanders chewing "Eschara" (a Flustra species or retepore?) like tobacco, and S. F. Harmer (1929) surmised that bryozoans were undoubtedly used in medicine and as a dentifrice in classical times. The fresh-water Plurtiatella, Fredericella and Paliidicella have in the past fouled drinking water and irrigation systems. If filters through which water enters pipes are lacking or ineffective, stateblasts, larvae or colony fragments may enter the pipes. Here they may attach and develop into colonies, thus interfering with the flow of water, clogging valves, aiding bacterial growth, forming a base or home for other fauna and flora, and by decay pollut-

ing the water.

Bryozoans have been troublesome

many

in the

water supply systems

Burma, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, the Malay peninsula and some U.S. cities (Boston, the borough of Brooklyn, etc.); and in the irrigation pipes of Benton county, Washington. Marine bryozoans are also common fouling organisms growing on ship bottoms, buoys, submerged objects and shells of dead or Ectoliving mollusks, crustaceans and other sessile organisms. of

places

procta larvae

including

may pre-empt

Belgium,

the settling space of oyster spat, thus

seriously interfering with the settling and development of oysters,

Osburn (1944) and P. Korringa (1956) reported for Chesapeake bay and for South Africa, respectively. Some Ectoprocta are toxic. Colonies of Lophopodella carteri and Pectinatella gelatinosa, if torn or damaged, release substances that are lethal to nearby fish. as R. C.

R.

S.

Bassler (1922) reported that fossil Ectoprocta, particu-

abundant in American Paleozoic strata, should be the fossils upon which to rely in correlation work, but that they had not yet received the attention they merit as key stratigraphic species. They preserve well, are of convenient size (only small fragments are necessary for identification) and are represented by numerous species, some of which do not have too great a vertical range all features that characterize good stratigraphic species. M. K. Elias and G. E. Condra (1957) reported that bryozoan reefs are known from the Silurian to the Late Tertiary age and that Soviet scientists recently discovered that the massive oilproducing knoWs J shikhany) in the west central Urals were built principally by bryozoans, which evidently provided an intricate framework on which other organisms became attached. 4. Distribution and Collection. Most Ectoprocta are marine. Only about 50 species inhabit fresh water. Bryozoans occur in all the oceans, from icy polar waters to the tropic seas. Those of the arctic, antarctic and temperate regions have been more intensively collected and studied than those of the tropics. larly

—

—

;

,

BRYOZOA and the protected surfaces of rocks are favourite sites for bryozoan attachment. Muddy and sandy bottoms are far less favourable. Marine species can be scraped off ship bottoms, algae and other substrates, or can be brought in on coral, ascidian tests, Fresh-water species hydroids, worm tubes or crab carapaces. dwell in stagnant pools, shallow sloughs only a few inches deep, lakes or running waters, on water lilies, pond weeds, submerged objects and occasionally in water pipes. The families Penetrantiidae and Immergentiidae bore into shells of living snails and dead bivalves, riddling the shells with crisscrossing stolons. L. Silen (1947) suggested that phosphoric acid

medium used by Penetrmitia. Ectoprocta occur from surface water level down to abyssal depths. The greatest depth from which a fresh-water bryozoan has been reported is 214 m. (about 700 ft.) for Fredericella sultana from Swiss lakes by F. Forel (1885). The deepest marine record is 3,125 fathoms or 5,719 m, (about 18,750 ft.) for four bryozoan species collected by the "Challenger" expedition (Busk, 1884). Current deep sea research may break this record. Shore forms can be gathered without any special equipment other than containers for water and specimens; deeper species must be dredged for. Since bryozoans are benthic and sessile (except during the brief pelagic larval stage), in collecting specimens it is often necessary to bring in the substratum (algae, rocks, shells, etc.) to which the colonies are attached. Separation from the substratum without is

323 MEMBRANOUS COLLAR

SQUARED ORIFICE

TENTACLES

Shells

-ZOOIDS -

'

STOLON

LOPHOPHORE

(*',l^

.tentacles' ZOOIDS

the likely boring

destruction of the colonies species

form a

is

impossible in those cases where the adherent crust over

fragile, one-layered, entirely

the substratum.

The colonies of the fresh-water Fredericella, Lophopodella and Phtmatella can be more easily scraped off the substratum than can calcareous marine species, because the former adhere less firmly or closely and have a 5.

more open mode

Study and

Whenever collection.

from 8

of growth.

—

—

Experimentation. Methods of Study. possible, specimens should be studied alive soon after In

some

number

species tentacle

is

significant

;

it

may

Soft species

70%

G FIG.

1.

.»

alcohol preservative.

be thus treated and stored; but hard species,

tentacles evaginated on one zooid; (B) Bowerbankia, two evaginated and two retracted: (C) jelly ball (Pectinatella magniSca) ,P(j twig: (D) Lophopodid colony (Lophopus or Lophopodella) polypide pended in common sac; (E) PlumateUa with four zooids evaglhowing dichotomous branching, nodes and internodes; (G) nated; (F) Cella Cellarinella which fo careous slab or flabeltate colony; upper right diagram is end view of flat blade; (H) Kinetoskias with zooids In fernlike sprays atop stalk; (I) calcareous "sea lace" (RetepoTa)', (J) Bugula colony

Amathia.

(A)

ids

leathery, fibrous, mossy, fuzzy or gelatinous encrustations, depend-

upon the

ing

in

strange

veal hidden internal

be sectioned

in several planes to re-

fragments can be etched out of larger blocks of fossiliferous limestone by 3% hydrochloric acid solution (Bassler, 1953). Bryozoans also have been studied under polarized light and with X-rays. Experimentation. Since dependable methods of long-continued indoor cultivation of bryozoans have not been developed, extensive experimental work has not been undertaken on this group. Most of the experiments, in addition to the observations on the normal behaviour, have been concerned largely with the study of responses of lar\'ae, individuals and colonies to (1 ) different forms of stimulation mechanical, thermal, photic, chemical, rheotactic (2) alteration of the environment; or (3) the presentation of miscellaneous (treated or untreated) substrates for larval attachment or selection. The culture media have been varied by changing the pH, salinity and other chemical or nutrient constituents. The addition of assorted solutes and suspensions to cultures has permitted the study of ciliary action, storage of materials by cells, routes followed by ingested or excreted particles in zooids and the effects on larval behaviour and metamorphosis. A detailed account of the experimental results is summarized in the work of L. H. Hyman structures.

Also, small

—

(

)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS A,

Bryozoans form

that

early

naturalists

mistook these encrustations for

The Colony

sessile (attached

)

colonies called zoaria, which

cover stones, shells, submerged objects and organisms with stony.

moss or slime

crystallized mineral matter, coral, seaweeds, aquatic

(see Historical Background, above). P.

MacGillivray

(Adeona)

cellulosa,

(1880) shaped

a colony of Dictyopora head of lettuce, 9 in. high and

described like a

circumference. G. Johnston (1847) confirmed D. Landsborough's observations on the thin "web of silvery lace," Flustra (Membranipora) membranacea, which could attain a length of five 16

in. in

feet

and a width of eight inches on

a blade of the

brown seaweed

Laniinaria; such a colony perhaps consisted of over 2,000,000 K. Reichert (1870) described a soft Zoobotryon colony

zooids.

formed a mass 18 in. high and 3 to 4 ft. in circumference. Bassler (1953) mentioned a massive fossil Trepostomata colony more than a foot and a half in diameter. that

Pectinatella magnifica, the fresh-w'ater jelly ball, sometimes forms gelatinous, clammy masses larger than a man's head, with hundreds of star-shaped colonies covering the surface and many

bloodworm larvae boring through. Many bryozoans form single-layered

crusts less than one mil-

limetre thick, but others, such as Smittina species, can develop into multilayered, fist-sized, lightweight, porous "rocks" or nodules.

The number

of zooids in a colony

distans) or exceedingly large (some

(see Bibliography). II.

—

diameter) or form cobwebby sheets several square feet in {Membranipora species). However, the individuals, called polyps or zooids, that make up the colony are microscopically minute, ranging from about 0.25 mm. to 4 mm. in length. It is not in.

state.

to

species.

1. Size and Colour.—5/se. In some instances colonies attain considerable bulk (a globular Trepostomata colony measured 19.7

area

may have

FORMS OF BRYOZOAN COLONIES OF THE GROUPS: (A. Bl D, E) PHYLACTOLAEMATA; (F. G, H, I, J) CHEILO.

(C.

..:_„ growing

those with a thick, opaque, calcareous exoskeleton. lend themselves to other techniques, particularly if one is unconcerned with saving the soft internal tissues. Hard species can be kept in a dry

i.e.,

Fossil species

ROOTLETS (KENOZOOIDS)

— GROWTH

CTENOSTOMATA; STOMATA

ranges

depending on the species, being constant in some, variable in others. By treatment with chloral hydrate or other anesthetics the tentacles can be fixed in an extended position beto 106.

fore the colonies are placed in

ZOOECIAl CAVITIES

may

be few ( Hippothoa depending on

M embranipora)

,

the species, ecological conditions or the amount of suitable subIf the substratum is extensive and conditions are favourstrate. able (as for example on a large laminarian frond), a number of colonies might develop side by side and coalesce, their boundaries

merging.

—

BRYOZOA

324 Colour.

—Bryozoa

from utmost opacity. They also have a considerable colour range, from iridescent white to ivory, buff, tan, yellow, amber, pale orange, brown, rose or purplish red. The colour of some species may be determined genetically, whereas in others it may depend on diet, age or environmental conditions. Biolutninescence, claimed for several bryozoan species, appears to be due to agents other than the bryozoans themselves, except possibly in the case of Acanthodesia serrata. 2. Colony Origin .All Ectoprocta are colonial. Most of the colonies develop by asexual budding from an ancestrula, the initial zooid or parent of the colony. The ancestrula originates from the sexually produced larva. New zooids are budded laterally and distally, producing colonies of definite shape and growth habit. Some organic continuity exists between neighbouring zooids through tiny pores present in their lateral and end walls (see Interzoidal Communications, beexhibit

all

degrees

of

translucency.

glasslike transparency to

—

low).

Fresh-water species have developed additional asexual ways of initiating colonies by hibernacula and statoblasts. Paliidicella produces hibernacula (chitin-encased resting buds), whereas the Phylactolaemata produce statoblasts (chitin-encapsuled seedlike bodies). Each germinates by splitting open and thrusting out a new zooid from between the two separated valves.

—

B. Individuals

turies used the

ments

in the 18th to

mid-19th cen-

word

"cell" for the individual zooids or compartthat constitute a colony. In 1865 F. Smitt replaced cell

with the word "zooecium." In 1892 H. Prouho suggested that zooecium be used only for the protective external envelope or exoskeleton of each individual of the colony and that a new word "bryozoite" be used for the entire complex of soft internal organs and hard exoskeleton of a single individual. In time "bryozoite" became "bryozooid," "bryozoid," and now it is simply "zooid" or "zoid." Many terms have been coined for various parts of a zooid and of a colony. The terminology developed for fossil species

is

pohTDide.

ing continually. 4. Polypide (Living Tissue).— Ectoprocts are tentaculate coelomates having specialized musculature, nervous and reproductive systems and a Y-shaped digestive tract between whose two approximating ends is located the ganglionic centre of the nervous system. The coelom is ciliated in spots and sometimes traversed or cluttered with loose tissue (parenchj-ma) or tissue strands ("funicular strands), muscle fibres and gonadal products. Circulatory and respiratory systems are absent. Whether any excretory organs are present is debatable. Tentacular Crown. The tentacular crown consists of a single row of ciliated hollow tentacles borne on a flexible fold of skin, the lophophore. The lophophore sits atop the tubular introvert ("tentacular sheath) and surrounds the mouth. Great retractor muscles attach to the lophophore base. They pull the tentacular crown downward into the body cavity when occasion demands or when something disturbs the zooids. Simultaneously the tentacular sheath turns outside in, like a glove, forming a tubular cover or sheath for the retracted tentacles. Tentacle extrusion is accomplished by various methods, depending on the species and on the construction and flexibility of the body wall. Digestive Tract. The autozooid gut consists of the mouth, phar>Tix, esophagus, stomach (which is divided into the cardia, caecum and pylorus) rectum and anus. A gizzard appears in some ctenostome species. The mouth and anus are close together at the top of the polypide. The caecum is anchored to the body wall by a funiculus in fresh-water species. A funiculus does not seem to be common in marine forms (Harmer, 1915). Except for the funicular attachment the gut is suspended freely

—

—

(Zooms)

Terminology.—Early workers

1.

may sometimes be reoccupied by a new. regenerated A colony may be dead at its point of origin, where its zooecia are empty of polypides, but may be flourishing at the periphery, where new polypides are developing and new buds formzooecium

,

body cavity. When the tentacular crown is withdrawn into body cavity the gut folds up or twists around in whatever

in the

the

coelomic space

is

available.

The mouth, pharynx and part

truly formidable.

An

Ectoprocta colony usually has many zooids. like a building that has many apartments. The zooids may be all of one kind or may be polymorphic, i.e., of two or more different types, functionally and structurally. Not all species have all types. Antozooids.—'T)it most numerous zooids of a colony are the selfmaintaining ones, called autozooids to distinguish them from other kinds of zooids (heterozooids) that might also occur in the same colony. Sometimes the distinction between autozooids and heterozooids is not very great. Other times there can be no mistaking the different types. Heterozooids. These are individuals or chambers in which there is no polypide (gut and tentacular crown) or only a vestige of polypide and some or no musculature. Heterozooids, which will be discussed in detail under the sections on classes and orders, in-

—

beating of

cilia

of the pylorus are ciliated.

The

that cover certain areas of the tentacles, lophophore

and mouth creates a current that sweeps food into the gullet. The food consists of microorganisms: protozoa, bacteria, algae, larvae, Crustacea, etc. Undesirable or overly large particles may be rejected by ciliary action and by flicking of the tentacles. Sometimes hardy organisms such as rotifers may be deposited in the fecal pellets, unharmed, after a sojourn in the gut. The anus opens outward below the tentacular crown and outside it.

The bryozoan gut

embryologically peculiar in that

is

it

origi-

body wall, which is ectodermal and mesoentoderm cells take part in the formation

nates from the colony's

dermal

in origin.

of the gut.

No

—

(rootlets, spines, stolons,

Reproduction. Zooids can reproduce in two ways: asexby budding off new zooids to increase the population of the colony and sexually by production of larvae that develop from

ularia, vibracula

fertilized eggs.

gonozooids

clude

(for

reproduction

or

brooding)

;

kenozooids

chambers), nanozooids (dwarfs), avicand ancestrulae. Some bryozoan species have

only autozooids in the colony. Other species may have one or more heterozooid types in addition, but no species contains all the different kinds of zooids known. 2.

General Anatomy.

major

parts, the polypide

—A

typical autozooid consists of

and the body

Body Wall.

cryptocyst,

body wall and its exoskeletal products names; cystid, zooecium, ectocyst, endocyst,

gy-mnocyst,

tremocyst, etc., depending upon their position, nature, composition or origin. The exoskeleton secreted by the soft layer of the body wall in a few species is gelatinous, in others cuticular, chitinous or siliceous, but in the vast majority it is calcareous. Each little box housing a polypide is generally termed a zooecium. After a pol>'pide dies and degenerates, shrinking to a lump called a brown body, its pleurocyst,

Some bryozoan species are hermaphroditic (havmale and female organs in the same zooid) others are ;

dioecious (having separate sexes).

UI.

two

—The

are given a variety of

ing both

CLASS

PHYLACTOLAEMATA

(FRESH-WATER ECTOPROCTS)

wall.

The polypide consists of the movable, living inner soft parts the tentacular crown, digestive tract and nerves and muscles associated with the gut and tentacular crown. 3.

5.

ually

The

name, derived from the Greek meaning "guarded body wall (epistome) that overhangs Statoblasts are produced and the lophophore is bi-

scientific

gullet," refers to the flap of

the mouth.

horseshoe-shaped. 1. Descriptiori and Distribution. There are approximately 50 Phylactolaemata species, all inhabitants of fresh water and of world-wide distribution. Their spread to new regions is facihtated by statoblasts, which can be transported by aquatic birds, amphibia, reptiles, aquatic vegetation, boats, floods, winds or other agencies. Statoblasts cling to bird feet or plumage or can be eaten by ducks, frogs, salamanders and turtles. A small percentage of such ingested statoblasts can survive passage through the vertelateral, usually

—

BRYOZOA brate digestive tract, emerge in the feces and

still

325 VENTRAL

germinate (C.

Brown, 1933).

TENTACLE

Species of Cristatella, Lophopus, Lophopodella and Pectinatella can be easily differentiated from each other by the characteristic arrangement and number of rows of spines on their statoblasts. These four genera are alike in having a clear, gelatinous, colour-

-

as the

MOUTH

^~ EPISTOME EXCRETORY PORE

They are sometimes lophopodid type of Phylactolaemata, as opposed to

outer body covering called the ectocyst.

less

known

LIP

LOPHOPHORE GENITAL PORE

the plumatellid type.

The plumatellid Phylactolaemata Fredericella and Stolella.

genera Plumatella, is firmer, coloured

are the

In these the ectocyst

Sometimes sand grains or debris

and usually chitinized.

cling to

The statoblasts of these Phylactolaemata are spineThe plumatellid species are very hard to tell apart from each other, and it is uncertain just how many of them are valid and how many are merely phenotypes, M. Toriumi's experiments surface.

its

less.

FORKED CANAL (EXCRETORY)

on Phylactolaemata indicate that variation in this group is far greater than early workers suspected. The genera Hyalinella, Gelatinella and Stephanella are intermediate between the two above-mentioned groups. Their ectocyst is more of the lophopodid type, whereas their statoblasts are of

LOPHOPHORE VESTIBULAR PORE

NTERTENTACULAR ORGAN

the spineless, plumatellid type.

Colony Form.

FIG. 2.

—

A lophopodid colony is somewhat like a from the common body cavity and can withdraw their tentacular crowns and sheaths into it when necessary. Thus the basal attached part 2.

Its zooids protrude, like glove fingers,

glove.

— DIFFERENCES

IN

'

ANUS

D

BRYOZOAN TENTACULAR CROWNS, TOP

VIEWfS

(A) Representative enloproct; (8-D) ectoprocts: (B) Plumatella (Phylactolaemata) (C) Fredericella (Phylactolaemata); (D) ctenostome or chellostome ;

(Gymnolaemata)

colonial

sometimes lobed but not partitioned, sac in which are suspended the polypides whose tentacular sheaths and crowns protrude from the free surface of the colony. The body cavity is cluttered with the dangling digestive tracts, strands of retractor muscles, funiculi, statoblasts and sometimes larvae, like scaffolding inside a room. The number of zooids per colony ranges from a few to about 45 in Lophopus and Lophopodella. Pectinatella magnifica forms a large central mass of jelly covered by a thin layer of numerous adjacent star-shaped colonies whose sizes range from S to 30 mm. Each colony contains about 18 zooids (or fewer): The composition of the jelly is 99.7% water. The remaining 0.3% contains various salts, protein, chitin, etc. (K. Kraepelin, 1887). Cristatella forms a narrow gelatinous colony that has been likened to a hairy caterpillar because it looks fuzzy and can creep Young colonies of other lophopodid genera can also creep a bit. short distances. Cristatella colonies may reach a length of 30 and cm. a width of 1 cm., but are usually much smaller. The plumatellid colony is more plantlike, its firm brownish zooids branching like twigs. There is greater separation between successive zooids. If a large number of statoblasts germinate in of the colony

is

a large, hollow,

a small area, the resulting colonies

may become

with their zooecial tubes cemented together remaining free.

Polypide Structure

—

densely matted,

and only

their tips

—The

epistome is a ciliated, flexible fold of skin arising from the lophophore between mouth and anus. It overhangs the mouth. Muscle fibres pass anteroposteriorly across its cavity, the protocoel. When food particles are whirled down toward the mouth, the epistome aids in warding off the undesirable particles. Tentacidar Crown. The tentacular crown consists of a row of 16 to 106 hollow tentacles borne on the lophophore. In Fredericella the lophophore is orbicular to oval, surrounding the mouth. In the remaining Phylactolaemata the lophophore, laterally prolonged into two free arms, is horseshoe-shaped, with the mouth 3.

Epistome.

—

in the is

in

bend of the horseshoe.

The

single circular

row of tentacles

thus bent into a double horseshoe-shaped row, with the tentacles front of the

mouth

constituting the outer

row and those behind

mouth the inner row. The lophopodid zooid generally has more tentacles than the The tentacle number varies more in the Phylactolaemata than in the class Gymnolaemata (see below). The the

The very flexible lophophore and tentacles are supplied with nerves and muscle fibres. Each tentacle tip has a small pore or canal. Whether the function of these pores is excretory or whether they are for equalization of internal body pressure is not certain. Perhaps they serve both purposes. Coeloni.

than

succeeding zooids. colony may vary too.

The

tentacle

may have

fewer tentacles a given

number within

filled

with

amoeboid

is

lined with a tiny

mem-

containing phagocytic tracts, attached funiculi,

fluid

cells, suspended digestive bundles of retractor muscles and sometimes sperms and larvae. It is incompletely partitioned into at least three communicating cavities: mesocoel, metacoel, protocoel. The mesocoel is the space around the pharynx and extending into the lophophore. It is sometimes called the ring canal or the subtentacular canal. The metacoel is the largest and the main body cavity. The protocoel is the cavity of the epistome. Two ciliated canals, one from each lophophore arm, converge around the epistome and open sometimes first into an enlarged vesicle, other times directly into the cavity of the median tentacles back of the mouth. The function of these so-called forked canals is

uncertain.

—

The musculature is of the smooth type in Phylactolaemata. The body wall has a circular and a longitudinal muscle layer, but the digestive tract has only a circular muscle layer. The tentacles have longitudinal fibres, but circular ones Muscular System.

are absent.

In addition to the muscle layers or fibres of the body wall, gut and tentacles there are special groups of muscles and ligaments: retractors, vestibule dilators, diaphragmatic sphincter and duplicature bands.

The retractors are the most conspicuous muscles of the zooid. They are two bundles of long muscle fibres, a bundle along each side of the digestive tract. One end of the retractors attaches to the body wall. The other end attaches to the polypide from the esophagus upward to the lophophore. Contraction of the retracand tentacular crown into the body cavity, would close an umbrella. Healthy polypides do not remain retracted in the body cavity for long. Their normal position is one of expansion or protrusion,

tors pulls the polypide

folding the tentacular crown as one

with the tentacles reasonably spread so that feeding can take place. Retraction occurs when there is a disturbance in the surrounding medium or when other organisms attack the bryozoan.

Emergence

plumatellid zooid.

ancestrula, or initial zooid of the colony,

—The extensive body cavity

brane, the peritoneum, and

When

is

facilitated

by

several structures and activities.

the vestibule dilators, consisting of single muscle fibres,

contract and the diaphragmatic sphincter (see below) relaxes, the polypide is pushed out because of the coelomic pressure exerted

on

it

by the contraction of the body wall musculature.

BRYOZOA

326

The diaphragmatic sphincter surrounds the base of the tentacular sheath. It attaches to the body wall by the radiating ligamentous duplicature bands. When the polypide is retracted and the tentacular crown is withdrawn into the inturned tentacular sheath, the diaphragmatic sphincter contracts like a drawstring to close the sheath above the tentacles.

Nervous System.

—The

nervous system (lophopodid type) consists of a large central ganglion from which arise two main lophophoric nerve trunks (also called ganglionic horns) and central

POLYPIDE

LOPHOPHORE

MOUTH -

MANTLE OR LARVAL COVERING

PHARYNX

GANGLION

ANUS

VESTIBUUR PORE

number of small nerves. The ganglion is located in a closed sac in the mesocoel between the pharynx and anus. The ganglion is kidney-shaped; its core

a

STATOBLAST

POLYPIDE

FUNICULUS

and its surface layer ganglion-celled. The two tubular ganglionic horns arising from the sides of the ganglion supply the tentacles and lophophore arms. They also give off nerve fibres that form an epistomial ring and a circumoral ring to supply the epistome and the tentacles. is fibrillar,

POSTERIOR

\ PARIETOVAGINAL MUSCLES ~ STOMACH

The ganglion gives off independent nerves that directly supply the epistome, tentacular sheath, pharynx and the rest of the gut. tentacular sheath and gut nerve supply form a plexus that is connected to a nerve plexus in the body wall. Special sense organs are unknown.

RETRACTOR MUSCLES

MANTLE OR LARVAL COVERING

The

4.

Reproduction

—

Sexual

LOPHOPHORE -•-^((f^^

RETRACTOR MUSCLES

Reproduction.— 7\iy\a.-pide buds appear in definite locations and in a definite sequence. Between these main buds appear secondary, tertiary, etc., buds that may grow while the main buds are thriving, degenerating or dying.

—

The amorphous

cell

mass

of a

bud speedily

differentiates into

vaguely outlined lophophore, retractor muscles and gut.

Later, polypide, which enlarges and differentiates, does not evaginate its tentacles until the digestive tract and tentacles are sufiiciently developed so that the polypide can tentacle stubs appear.

The

feed.

New buds food.

seems

form and evaginate at a rapid rate if there is sufficient Because of difficulties in cultivating, colony development be much slower under laboratory conditions than under

to

natural conditions.

In Lophopodella carteri the initial zooid is sometimes sufficiently mature to evaginate on the same day that the statoblast from which it has developed cracks open; at other times it is not ready to evaginate for a week.

The second polypide

is

the next day;

thereafter the budding process

nourishment

adequate.

is

ready to evaginate is

speeded up

if

STATOBUSTS FIG. 3.

MANTLE OR URVAL COVERING

REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHYLACTOLAEMATA

(A) Mature plumalellid (Plumatella) zooid containing all reproductive products, although not all of them actually occur simultaneously at this stage of development; (B-E) stages of a plumatellid {Hyalinella) from "larva" (cyslid) to young colony showing (B) ciliated larva; (C) later larva with polypides better differentiated (arrows indicate direction along which mantle will fold back as polypides evaginate) (D) larva with mantle peeled down developing into colony; (E) young colony of four zooids with remnants of degenerating mantle sucked Into colony body cavity ;

A laboratory-reared colony of Hyalinella punctata evaginated 45 polypides by the 20th day after the original polypide had emerged from the

statoblast.

In Phylactolaemata and Cyclostomata {see below) colonies a new polypide develops first, then the zooecial, or cystid, wall grows around it and differentiates to house the polypide. The reverse situation prevails in the Ctenostomata and Cheilostomata: in these groups the cystid develops first, forming a hollow chamber within which a polypide will develop later. Statoblasts. Phylactolaemata alone among the bryozoa produce statoblasts. These chitin-encased, brownish germinative bodies, formed in great numbers during most of the life of the colony, are extremely useful in identification. Some bryozoans can be identified from a single statoblast. They pass out of the colony through a special scarcely detectable vestibular pore located ventral to the anal region (E. Marcus, 1941). Statoblasts are released in large numbers during the growing season (spring to autumn). Many of them float to the surface of the water, sometimes forming noticeable drifts at the water's Brown (1933) reported drifts one to four feet wide, half edge. a mile in extent, along the shores of Douglas lake, Michigan, in spring and late autumn drifts composed mainly of statoblasts. Special names are given to different types of statoblasts. Statobuoyant float of air cells but no spines blasts provided with a are called floatoblasts. Statoblasts provided with a buoyant float and with spines are spinoblasts. Both types may float to the Statoblasts that remain permanently surface of the water. attached to the inside of zooecial tubes or to the substratum, and that lack a float or have only a vestigial annulus instead, are Piptoblasts are without a float but are not called sessoblasts, permanently attached; they lack spines. .Although statoblasts normally germinate shortly after release (except when they overwinter), they can withstand dr>'ing or chilling for considerable periods of time, up to 4^ years for

—

—

Lophopodella, and still remain viable. Statoblasts develop on the pol>'pide funiculus along with the When together, the testes, though not always at the same time.

BRYOZOA

327 ZOOECIAL TUBE

testes are closer to the polypide gut, while the statoblasts, strung like a row of diminishing discs, are closer body wall (P. Brien and C. Mordant, 1956).

below the testes

to the

ZOOECIAL ORIFICE

ACANTHOPORES

The very youngest statoblasts appear as opaque, white swellings on the funiculus. As they develop, their colour and shape change, from white to yellow to brown and from a small lump to a thick, flattened disc. The capsule, with its germinal material, is distinguishable earlier than the lighter coloured float. As many as

may appear any one time.

eight developing statoblasts

on the funiculus,

at

in a

graded series of

ZOOECIAL ORIFICE

,

sizes

ZOOECIAL ORIFICE

m

ZOOECIAL CAVITY

FRONTAL WALL

Colonies die out usually at the onset of winter or earlier, their tubes sometimes loaded with statoblasts. When spring comes, the overwintered statoblasts hatch and start new colonies.

-ZOOECIAL CAVITY

IV. CLASS GYMNOLAEMATA (CHIEFLY MARINE ECTOPROCTS)

The name

lophophore is circular. bryozoan species.

To A.

from the Greek meaning "naked an epistome to guard the mouth. The this class belong most of the 19,000

Extinct Orders

Order Trepostomata.

—This

is

a wholly fossil

Paleozoic

order, named for the difference in the appearance between the inner and outer zones of the zooecial tubes. The inner, axial part of the tube is

is

thin-walled.

thick-walled.

The

The

transition

The trepostomes, sometimes

outer, superficial part of the tube is

for

years were considered to be fossil corals. They have long calcareous tubes (tubular zooecia) consolidated by branching and growth habit into massive colonies or lamellar fronds.

The

zooecial tubes are transversely partitioned

may

represent floors laid

down by

5.

— EXTINCT

BRYOZOA

Small clumps of elevated "cells" (monticules) are scattered over the colony surface at regular intervals. Trepostomes, apparently closely related to Cyclostomata, are reported by Bassler (1953) as comprising 105 genera. 2. Order Cryptostomata This group is so-named because the zooecial orifice (opening through which tentacles and tentacular sheath are extruded) is concealed at the bottom of a tubular

—

This is also a wholly extinct Paleozoic order. The colonies are calcareous, but not massive. They form branched stems or delicate reticulated fronds, like a sheet punched full of regularly spaced holes. As in the trepostomes the zooecial tubes have a thick-walled outer zone and a thin-walled inner zone, but the tubes are much shorter than in trepostomes. Structurally the cryptostomes appear to be related to the Cheilostomata. Bassler (1953) suggests that possibly the Cryptostomata are really Paleozoic cheilostomes. He reports 127 cryptostome genera, but Elias and Condra (1957) have detached the family Fenestellidae from the cryptostomes and have made a new order, the Fenestrata, out of it. shaft or vestibule.

sudden.

called the stony bryozoans,

many

that

ZOOECIAL TUBE FIG.

of this class, derived

gullet," refers to the lack of

1.

•PROXIMAL END

(A-C) Trepostomata (Batostoma) showing (A) fragment of stone colony; (B) enlargement of surface of colony; (C) longitudinal section through colony. (D-F) Cryploslomata {Ulricbostylus) showing (D) longitudinal section of colony; (E) end view of colony; (F) side view of colony fragment

by "diaphragms"

successive occupants and

builders of the tubes.

B.

The group

Order Cyclostomata (Stenolaemata) is

so-named because the zooecial

orifice is

round and

not closed by an operculum.

Because a class of fishlike vertebrates is already named Cyclostomata (hagfishes, lampreys) bryozoologists have suggested other names for the cyclostomatous Bryozoa; Stenolaemata (F. Borg, 1926) and Stenostomata (Marcus, 1938). Borg's Stenolaemata (meaning narrow gullet) was intended as an order name for cyclostomes and possibly trepostomes, but for etymological reasons his

name was

rejected by others.

Marcus

proposed the name Stenostomata (meaning narrow mouth) as being more suitable. Although at present all three names are in use, preference should perhaps be given to Borg's term on the basis of priority. 1.

Description and Distribution.

— Stenolaemata form sim-

Their zooids, narrow, cylindrical, sometimes very elongated tubes, have calcified walls that in some families (but not in the Horneridae and Lichenoporidaej are provided with minute pores (pseudopores). Stenolaemates are entirely marine. Fossil cyclostomes appeared in the Lower Ordovician and became the predominant Early and Middle Mesozoic Bryozoa. Bassler (1953) reports about 303 genera of fossil and recent cyclostomes. The cyclostomes, like the Phylactolaemata, are a more primitive or simpler group than the Cheilo-Ctenostomata. The zooecial orifice is rounded, terminal and closed not by an operculum but by an uncalcified terminal membrane of which the vestibule and tentacle sheath are an inward continuation. The whole polypide is suspended in a membranous sac seemingly peculiar to the stenolaemates, yet having a hydrostatic function. Embryonic development occurs inside the membranous sac of a fertile zooid. Polyembryony, the formation of several embryos from one egg, occurs among the stenolaemates. Embryos are ple-looking colonies without avicularia or vibracula.

FIG.

4.

— PHYLACTOLAEMATA

FLOATOBLASTS:

(G. H)

STATOBLASTS: (A-D) SPINOBLASTS: SESSOBLASTS; (I) PIPTOBLAST

(E.

F)

(A) Pectinatella: (B) Lophopus: (C) CristatelJa : (D) LophopodeUa. germinated spinoblast showing its two valves forced apart by growing coenoecium or cystid sac containing tentacled polypide; (E, F, G, H) common to Hyalinella, Plumatella and Stolella: (I) Fredencella

BRYOZOA

328

GONOZOOIDORinCE

incubated gonwzooids AUTOZOOIOS (in the family Crisiidae) or in coelomic spaces or brood chambers between zooids (in the Lichenoporidae). TENTACLES\ Stenolaemata fall easily into two natural groups: the articu- gonozooid in

special

and

lated-jointed, erect Crisiidae

—

f.^nr---'

the unjointed, erect or encrusting,

remaining families.

The

colonies

of

ZOOECIAL ORIFICE

brown

of short, yellow to

nodes

cuticu-

alternating

(joints)

AUTOZOOIDS' FIG.

6.

— PORTION

UJJ

PSEUDOPORES

OF

CYCLOSTO-

with long, white calcareous interMATA (STENOLAEMATA) COLONY

The internodes

nodes.

consist of

zooecial tubes branching either in

a

single

or

series

spray.

a

in

Tubes may be grouped

into

Crista colony showing autozooids (one with tentacles evaginated) one gonozooid

radial,

transverse or longitudinal

The colonies of nonarticulated forms are heavier, less elegant. One of these has star-shaped colonies. The other families form rounded colonies. Arborescent colonies may occur in either articulated or non-

fanlike, discoid or

2.

Polymorphism

eral kinds of zooids

—A

stenolaemata colony

may

contain sev-

—nanozooids, kenozooids, gonozooids and auto-

zooids.

Na?iozooids are miniature tubular zooids of unknown function, among the regular autozooids. They contain muscu-

interspersed lature, a

low,

membranous

fingerlike

sac, a tentacle sheath, a single short, hol-

tentacle

function.

Both smooth and striated muscles are present; the polypide

bundles called fascicles.

articulated species.

—

—

articulated

forms are necklacelike, consisting lar

In Lichenoporidae there may be two to eight apertures to the brood chamber. Resorption of the calcareous walls about the opening or elsewhere occurs in some species to make the opening larger for the exit of embryos. Brood chambers, gonozooids and ooeciopores are important in identification of stenolaemate species. 3. Polypide Structure. The polypide is similar to those of other Bryozoa except that it is suspended in a special membranous sac that seems to have no equivalent in other bryozoan groups. The membranous sac divides the main coelom into two parts the inner endosaccal and the outer exosaccal part a coelom within a coelom. These two coelomic cavities have no connection with each other. The regular body wall (cuticular, calcareous and inner epithelial) layers enclose the exosaccal coelom. The tentacular crown cannot be extended very far out of the zooecium. There are few tentacles, about 8 to 16. In addition to their normal function of directing food into the mouth by ciliary action they probably have a respiratory and excretory

and

a

solid

mass

of

cells

Borg

that.

(1926) regards as a greatly reduced, nonfunctional alimentary

retractors and the tentacular muscles are striated, whereas the atrial sphincter

Little

is

and the vestibular extensors are smooth. of the peripheral nervous system.

known

Reproduction.

—

Stenolaemates reproduce asexually by budding and sexually by polyembryony and production of larvae. Budding. Colonies develop from a hollow, calcareous-walled, attached primary disc that originates from the metamorphosis of a larva devoid of an alimentary canal (Borg, 1926). The primary disc contains the "common bud," which will produce the succeedBefore the upper wall of the primary ing zooids of the colony. 4.

—

common bud

sprouts a tube that will become but in time an oblique calcareous partition begins to grow into the zooid from the basaldisc calcifies the

The zooid

the next zooid.

tip is uncalcitied,

canal. TERMINAL MEMBRANE

Kenozooids are of several types including hollow tubes and spines as well as spaces or chambers in which no polypides are

ever developed.

Kenozooids met with most frequently are

VESTIBULE

zoids and spines.

The

ADHESIVE SAC

SPHINCTER

rhi-

MEMBRANOUS SAC

rhizoids of living stenolaemates are long, slender, articu-

EXOSACCAL COELOM

lated rootlets, sometimes branched, having nodes and thin tubular ENDOSACCAL COELOM

They sprout from the basal part of the colony. Their membranous. Their internal cavity, like that of the spines mentioned below, contains a network of mesenchyme cells. New colonies or branches may bud from some of the rhizoids. Other rhizoids probably help to fasten the colony more firmly to the internodes.

CUTICLE

tips are

FOLLICLE "-

EGG

substratum.

The One is

spines, also called processus spiniformes, are of

two kinds. TENTACLE SHEATH

the very long, jointed type, often longer than the autozooids. The other is short and unjointed. The tips of both kinds are calcareous and blunt. Spines are located usually more distally

on the autozooids and internodes than are the rhizoids. function

is

Their

unknown.

Spaces or chambers, also called alveoli, occurring between zooecia or in angles formed by diverging or converging zooecial tubes, are regarded as kenozooids. Gonozooids, or brood chambers, are concerned with reproduction. Their number is small, their capacity large and their posiFemale tion in the colony or along the internodes very definite. germ cells develop and embryos are incubated in gonozooids. In all stenolaemates, except the Lichenoporidae, the gonozooids,

INTESTINE

ESOPHAGUS

also called ooecia or ovicells, are individual zooids transformed

into inflated, sometimes vase-shaped brood chambers.

Polypides

present in gonozooids degenerate as the embryos approach maturity, providing nutriment for the embryo. In the Lichenoporidae the embryos are incubated in special communal brood chambers rather than in single enlarged zooids. The alveoli and spaces between zooids are roofed over by a calcareous

form a large communal nursery or zoarial brood chamber. The calcareous alveolar walls, now internal partitions, are resorbed to make the brood chamber larger. The gonozooids open to the outside by a single short tube usually

FUNICULUS

layer to

like the

neck of a

bottle.

Its

opening

is

the ooeciopore or aperture.

FIG

7.

REPRODUCTION

IN

CYCLOSTOMATA (STENOLAEMATA)

(A-C) Polyembryony In Crista showing (A) upper portion of gonozooid with egg e iclosed in follicle: (B) egg developed into multinucleate primary embryo: rging primary embryo budding off secondary embryos (D) longitudinal (C) (F) adult male zooid of la ction of cyclostome larva: (E) external vii r

—

BRYOZOA

329

tube into two tubes, each of which becomes a zooid. Each zooid contains common bud material that will keep on producing more tubes and new zooids. The growing zone of the common bud is the distal edge of the lateral wall, dividing the

membrane. Here new cells originate and cells can detach and wander to new locations. Here also originate the new

terminal

from

it

polypides (soft parts of the zooid). pide precedes the differentiation of a

The formation its

of the poly-

zooecium (exoskeleton)

condition similar to that found in Phylactolaemata but

reverse of what occurs in the Cheilo-Ctenostome groups

below). Sexual Reproduction. olaemate spermatozoa.

—

the {see

Harmer 1893 was the first to see stenSubsequent studies revealed that some stenolaemates are hermaphroditic (Berenicea patina, Diplosolen obelia, Stomatopora granulata, Tubulipora species), whereas others are dioecious (Crista occidentalis, Lichenopora vernicaria). )

(

Some Lichenoporidae have male, female and hermaphroditic

TRANSVERSE WALL

zooids

same colony. Male germ cells are of mesodermal origin. The stenolaemate testis becomes unusually large compared with those of other within the

Bryozoa. Its location is similar to that of the Phylactolaemata. It encases the lower part of the gut (caecum tip) and extends along the funiculus, which attaches the gut to the coelomic wall. Both gut and testis are in the membranous sac, which attaches to the

body wall

few places.

in a

When

mature, the sperms are released into the body cavity, moving freely therein and eventually accumulating in great numIt is not bers around the atrial sphincter, near the tentacles. known how sperms escape from the body cavity, but Borg postulated that they pass through a break in the tentacle sheath, then out through the vestibular orifice. How they gain entrance into the female zooids or access to eggs has not yet been solved. Harmer (1893) described polyembryony in Crisia. Eggs develop in the common bud or growing zone of the terminal membrane. An egg becomes associated with the potential alimentary The gut grows around it, forming canal of a young gonozooid. the egg follicle. Those germ cells that do not attach to a polypide The egg cleaves a number of times, producing a degenerate. solid mass of undifferentiated cells, i.e., many nuclei imbedded in a protoplasmic mass, the whole of which

is

the primary

called

Gradually, several finger-shaped cellular processes grow out from the primary embryo. They pinch off transversely into a large

number (up

to 115) of rounded cellular masses, the secondary embryos. These become two-layered and speedily increase in size by absorption of nutriment from the surrounding tissue in the gonozooid. The yellowish embryos develop external cilia and escape through

the ooeciopore.

The young back

larva attaches to the substratum

and

down The

its

mantle

by

its

sucker, then

toward the undergo partial dissolution (histolysis). After this metamorphosis the first polypide develops from the free surface of the flattened remains of the larva, which now is known as the primary disc. rolls

attached, flattened base.

covering

larval tissues

The most famous brackish-water ctenostome

Order Ctenostomata

C.

The name

of this order refers to a "comblike

found on the flexible fold of body wall that closes the zooecial This supposed row of setae is really a membranous collar

i

fold in definite creases like a fan or umbrella.

The

sometimes saw the creases but not the membrane stretching between them. 1. Description and Distribution. Of the about 43 genera of ctenostomes (recent and fossil) most are marine; only a few early workers

—

:

r

I

I

I

[

species inhabit brackish or fresh waters.

Seaweeds, hydroids and the green colonial tunicate Perophora are favourite substrates for the dainty Aeverrillia and Bowerbankia colonies. The grayish to brownish Alcyonidium and Flustrellidra

form a

Ascophylhim. mass nearly 1

thick,

rubbery coating over the marine brown alga

A. Lacourt (1949) found Alcyonidium forming a 1

in.

high.

Victorella pav-

salinity

fresh-water genera. Although the first three are poorly known and rarely reported, Paludicella is common and has been well studied. 2.

(See Fossil Distribution, below.)

Body Wall Ctenostomes have soft walls. Their zooecia membranous, leathery or horny, but not calcareous, although

(1887) reported that minute scattered calcareous granules are sometimes present in the chitinous cuticle of hiberKraepelin

row of setae"

orifice.

may

is

reported from nearly every continent, from waters of low and on occasion even from fresh water and marine localities (H. Brattstrbm, 1954). R. C. Osbum (1944) reported it to be a fouling and oyster-smothering nuisance in Chesapeake bay, where it formed plushlike mats up to half an inch thick. Arachnoidea, from central Africa; Hislopia, from India; Pottsiella, from the U.S.; and Paludicella, cosmopolitan, are four ida,

are

that

— MORPHOLOGY OF CTENOSTOMATA i

embryo.

peels

FIG. 8.

(A) Colony of Paludicella articulata showing growth habit and mode of branchting from upper Ing; (B) two hibernacula hibernaculum; (C) zooid vlth polypide evaglnated; (D) i with polypide retracted Into body oavlty

nacula.

The body wall consists of cuticle, ectodermal epithelium and cells, with an occasional small band of circular (transverse) muscle fibres called parietal muscles. In Paludicella the parietals are arranged on the right and left sides of the body in several circular bands containing two to six muscle fibres each, sparse peritoneal

lining the

The and

bod> cavity. may be thick or

thin,

cuticle

sometimes of several

layers,

chitinized.

In ctenostomes the its utmost

pulled in to

orifice its

is

shape

When terminal or nearly so. be round, slitlike, square or

may

pentagonal, depending on the species. Its closing is simple: after the tentacles, tentacular sheath, collar

and vestibular wall are

all

pulled

in,

the vestibular opening either

BRYOZOA

330

puckers up or is closed by folds of the body wall, or it is simply plugged by the folded membranous collar. 3. Polypide Structure. Introvert. The anterior end of the

—

—

polypide that is capable of turning in is called the introvert. Respective positions of the introverted parts are the tentacular crown, with its 8 to 34 tentacles, at the top of the tentacular sheath; and the membranous collar, surrounding the base of the sheath and diaphragm. The tentacles, sheath and collar can be extended far out by the combined forces of the contraction of the muscles of the body wall, the pressure of the coelomic fluid and the relaxation or action of the retractors and posterior parietovaginal (vestibular) muscles. The whole tentacular complex can be introverted by the contraction of the great polypide retractors and the co-ordinated action This of the sphincters and the anterior parietovaginal muscles. description is based on the behaviour in Paludicella. Digestive Tract. The gut is extremely long in some ctenostomes. Some species have a bulbous gizzard in the cardial part of the stomach. The gizzard wall, a thick layer of circular muscle fibres, bears individual chitinous teeth or two or four denticled shields. The size and thickness of the teeth or denticles vary with age. The gut is anchored to the body wall by a single funiculus in

—

some

by two funiculi in Paludicella or by no Harmer (1915) noted that a funicumarine Bryozoa but that there was a more

species (Victorella),

distinct funiculus in others.

was not common in arrangement of funicular tissue. 4. Colony Form Two main types of colony, based on the mode of budding, occur in ctenostomes. Each characterizes a suborder. In suborder Stolonifera the zooids bud from stolons. In suborder Carnosa zooids bud from each other. In both types the colony originates by asexual budding from an ancestrula (see Colony Origin, above). The saclike ancestrulae are of two types. One type, as in Victorella and Pheriisella, contains a polypide. The other type, as in Walkeria and Vesictdaria, apparently does not have a polypide but buds off stolons from which zooids with polypides develop lus

diffuse

—

later.

—

—

5. Reproduction. Sexual Reproduction. The number of developing oocytes in a bryozoan ovary is generally few, but there may be about 30 in Hypophorella. Fertilization is internal. In species that brood internally, generally only one fertilized egg is destined to produce an embryo at any given time; the other fertilized eggs presumably dissolve to provide nourishment for the developing embryo. A developing embryo becomes enclosed in a sac, the embryonary, on the body wall near the orilice. Although the exact mode of escape of embryos or larvae from the zooid has not been observed often, some are known to emerge through a tardily developed channel where the embryonary attaches to the parental body wall; others leave by evaginations of the parental body wall and still others break through thin spots in the degenerating wall of the parent zooid. ;

An

opening, the coelomopore, close to the anal and tentacular few ctenostomes, but whether it serves for exit of eggs or entrance of sperms or perhaps some other region, has been observed in a

function

is

undetermined.

Fertilization takes place in the

must occur

in

some

body

cavity.

species, self-fertilization

Cross-fertilization

may presumably

occur in others, although actual observations on the latter condition are meagre. Larvae. The sexually produced ctenostome larvae vary greatly in appearance and complexity. They may be wedgelike, kidneyshaped, plum-shaped, etc. Ctenostomes may be hermaphroditic (Nolella) or dioecious (Alcyonidium). Some species are oviparous, releasing eggs (early embryos). Others are viviparous, giving birth to larvae. Ovicells for incubation of larvae are lacking in ctenostomes. The eggs of oviparous species become free-swimming so-called cyphonautes larvae that exist for about two months, at the end of which time they settle on a substrate and undergo metamorphosis. Because of a well developed functional ciliary, muscular, nerve and digestive tract apparatus and a protective bivalve shell

—

the cyphonautes is designed for a free living existence of longer duration than are the other bryozoan larvae in which the gut is either not present or vestigial, and which swim about for only a few hours before attachment and metamorphosis. Ctenostomes producing cyphonautes larvae are species of Hypophorella, Farrella

and Pherusella.

The viviparous

species (Alcyonidium polyoum, Bowerbankia) an unnamed type, that are much shorter lived in the free-swimming state than the cyphonautes. Their gut is incomplete or undeveloped, and metamorphosis must come quickly release larvae, of

or the larva will perish.

—

Asexual Reproduction. Some ctenostomes have evolved special methods of asexual reproduction and regeneration, such as budding from stolons, formation of hibernacula and of blastogenic branches.

—

Stolons. These are mostly delicate partitioned tubes containing mesodermal funicular tissue. They may be basal (creeping); lateral or axial

(upright); or branching or anastomosing tubes Stolons propagate themselves

that sprouted out of an ancestrula.

by further budding and partitioning. They can be very slender (Aeverrillia) or very broad (Zoobotryon). New zooids that originate from the stolon may bud off as individual units (Aeverrillia) or in clusters from the sides of the stolon (Bowerbankia) or even in a spiral around the stolon (Amathia). The stolon ectoderm initiates the formation of the zooids by evagi-

mesoderm or funicular cells joining soon after. Since stolons are without polypides or special internal organs, they are regarded as a special kind of zooid (kenozooid). The

nation, with

ordinary zooids that sprout from them are autozooids, since they contain functional, well-developed internal systems. Hibernacula. Ctenostomes of fresh water (Paludicella) and brackish water (Victorella) can produce, in addition to ordinary buds, special "winter buds" called hibernacula. These are brownish, chitin-encased, variously shaped seedlike bodies containing germinative material. They remain after the parent colony has disintegrated, and germinate when conditions are appropriate. Paludicella hibernacula are of two types, internal and external, with respect to the autozooids: the internal, cigar-shaped hibernacula are inside the autozooid; the external, irregularly-shaped ones are like stunted, distorted buds sprouting from the autozoVictorella hibernacula are external. oids. Blastogenic Branches. Harmer (1931) reviewed the studies of G. Zirpolo (1922-25) on the production of special germinative branches of Zoobotryon colonies around Naples. These branches contained large quantities of yellow, nutritive, "blastogenous" (yolk?) substance. When the colonies disintegrated, the blastogenie stalks sank to the bottom and remained dormant until conditions were suitable for their germination, at which time the branches sprouted new buds (stolons or zooids).

—

—

i

I

i

—

6. Polymorphism. Ctenostomes exhibit little polymorphism. Only autozooids, occasionally gonozooids and some kinds of kenoOvicells, avicularia and vibracula, which

zooids are present. characterize

many

of the closely related cheilostomes, are absent

from ctenostomes. In the shell-boring Penetrantia, saclike gonozooids are present attached to the autozooids. These gonozooids, which contain a rudimentary polypide, serve to incubate the embryo. The kenozooids include stolons and special spine-bearing pads. The latter occur between the regular autozooids in Flustrellidra. 7. Cheilo-Ctenostomata. Silen (1942) after an extensive

—

Cheilostomata and Ctenostomata are so closely allied that they should be classed as a collective group, the Cheilo-Ctenostomata, and that the ctenostome part should be divided into two suborders: Carnosa and Stolonifera. Carnosa. Colenies of this suborder are fleshy or chitinous, and encrusting. The zooids may be baggy or broadly ovoid tO' hexagonal, and touch each other on all their sides (Alcyonidium), or they may be slender and widely spaced from each other (Palustudy

asserted

that

—

dicella).

The

zooecial orifice

by simple

is

closed by the

circular folds of the

thick lips replace the folds.

body

membranous

collar

Common

and

In Flustrellidridae two carnose genera are Alcyoni-

wall.

:

jj

BRYOZOA dium, Arachnidium FlustrelUdra and Paludicella. Stolonijera. This suborder is characterized by thin, erect or creeping, tubular branches called stolons, which sprout from the ,

—

membranous sac. By lateral membranous or chitinous colony

ancestrula, a scarcely distinguishable

budding the stolons produce a whose zooids are separate and bottle- or vase-shaped. New stolons bud from the old, thus spreading the colony. New zooids arise from the stolons and not from each other. Internal partitions mark off the stolon segments from each other. Common stoloniferous genera are: Aeverrillia, Amathia, Mimosella, Penetrantia. Members of the last-named genus bore into moUusk shells and barnacles, scarring

them with

pits

and delicately etched

lines.

refers to the

movable

lip

1.

Description and Distribution.

depths.

many

— Cheilostomes

localities,

ovicell

and perforated by pores. Differences in zooecial shape and frontal decoration are

zooecial frontal area

walls are single

avicuurial stalk-

-

often useful in identification of ,,„^^„^„ species.

The thickness

avicuurial mandible

of the zooecial

depends on environment, heredity and age. Some species walls

in the families Smittinidae, Cel-

leporidae, etc., as they age. un-

from shore

or

fills

in

many

of the distinguish-

ing characteristics and markings,

are repre-

sented by numerous species, at least 632 genera and 82 families (Bassler, 1953). They are the commonest marine bryozoans encountered, occurring in

some exceptions may The end (transverse)

the frontal wall that obliterates

(operculum) that closes the

zooecial orifice.

occur.

dergo a secondary calcification of

D. Order Cheilostomata

The name

although

level to

ocean

pores, spines, avicularia, zooecial

boundaries,

ovicell

boundaries,

by a thick calcareous

etc.,

coat.

In such species the lateral and

back walls are not affected.

—

Colony Form. Colony growth form is extremely diversibut usually characteristic for the species. It can be bushlike, interconnecting, encrusting, fan-shaped or nodular.

Protrusion or retraction of the polypide are facilitated by spe-

Mawatari (19S1) The growth rate of young reported that Biigula neritina buds required two days to develop to functional status. J. Orton reported Bugula flabellata capable of developing 100 zooids in a fortnight and producing larvae by

portion CHITINcompensation sac in the suborder ^'p^- '° OUS DENDRITIC ANASCAN COLONY Ascophora and a flexible frontal (BUGULA ABYSSICOLA) membrane in the suborder .\nasca. 4. Tentacle Protrusion and Retraction. Tentacles numbering 9 to 2,2. depending on the species, are protruded through

2.

fied

colonies is fast.

S.

the eighth week.

As

in

3.

Body Wall.

other bryozoans

—The

regenerative processes are great. zooecial wall ranges from

membranous,

chitinous, siUceous to calcareous, the last type being the

common-

cial

and technology-:

"""'"ion

hydrostatic devices, a frontal

©

is.

of the pubi

—

otherwise closed by a chitinous flap, the operculum. The operculum operates somewhat like a drawbridge by means of special occlusor muscles. the zooecial orifice that

is

Compensation 5ac.— The mechanics of tentacular crown or

est.

The boxlike zooecia

are variously shaped.

Their frontal wall

often beautifully sculptured, embossed or pitted. In most cheilostomes the lateral walls of adjacent zooids fuse together to form a double wall, but have interzooidal communication pores. The basal (dorsal) walls are usually imperforate and undecorated, is

polypide protrusion in cheilostomes encased in a hard exoskeleton were not clearly understood until J. JuUien's discovery of the compensation sac (compensatrix in 1S88. The compensation sac, a delicate, almost imperceptible membranous pocket between the rigid exoskeleton and the soft inside body wall of the zooid, has its edges attached to the body wall by groups of parietal muscle fibres. The compensation sac works i

somewhat like a bellows. When water flows into the sac, pressure is built up in the coelom and the tentacles are forced outward.

When

water leaves the sac, pressure is reduced and the tentacles have space for withdrawal by the great retractor muscles. The size of the compensation sac varies with the species. In

OVICELL ORIFICE

some

much

occupies

of the frontal surface. In others it is as opens to the outside either by an independent pore, the ascopore, or at the base of the operculum of the zooid. The Cheilostomata are divided into two major suborders, Ascophora and Anasca, on the basis of the presence or absence of the compensation sac. Frontal Membrane. Instead of a compensation sac the Anasca have a flexible, uncalcified, frontal membrane to which are attached either small groups of parietal muscle fibres or the two tendons of the depressor muscles. The frontal membrane may cover an uncalcified area of the zooid or it may overlay an internal calcareous but perforated layer (cryptocyst) of variable extent. The cr>'ptocyst gives added protection to the zooid. Through the perforations the two depressor muscle tendons are inserted on it

small as a bib.

It

—

FRONTAL MEMBRANE

EMBOSSED CALCAREOUS ZOOECIAL WALL

(&

the

COMPENSATION SAC

membrane.

The contraction

of

the parietal

or

depressor

muscles lowers the membrane, which in turn creates pressure within the coelomic cavity and forces out the polypide. Relaxation of these muscles permits the retraction of the polypide. 5. Polymorphism. Polymorphism is developed to a greater degree in Cheilostomates than in other bryozoans. Polymorphic

PARIETAL MUSCLES

ESOPHAGUS

—

INTESTINE

PORE PLATE

STOMACH

individuals include ancestrulae, autozooids, gonozooids, avicularia, rhizoids, vibracula and spines. Not all cheilostomes have all kinds,

TESTES

but most have several. Ancestrulae. In some species the primary zooid of a colony looks very different from the succeeding zooids. It may have an uncalcified frontal area that is covered by a membrane and bordered by 2 to 13 spines, with an operculum at the distal end of

—

FIG. 9.

— MORPHOLOGY OF CHEILOSTOMATA

(A) Colony fragment of an anascan cheilostome containing nine calcined ovicelled zooids; (B) lateral section of single zooid of an ascophoran clieilostomo

BRYOZOA

332 The succeeding

the area. fied area

number

zooids

may have a much

(sometimes limited only

smaller uncalci-

to the orifice itself) or a smaller

of spines or be generally of larger zooecial size.

Such

an ancestrula resembles a Membraniporan zooid. In other species there is little difference in appearance between the ancestrula and the later zooids. The colony may originate from a single ancestrular zooid or from twins. Usually three buds sprout from the distal end of the ancestrula Sometimes buds also sprout proximally and in cheilostomes. laterally. The growth pattern of the colony is determined by the location of these sprouting zones in the ancestrula and on subsequent zooids. Silen (1942) reported that a spiral growth pattern was very common in a number of species. Autozooids and Gonozooids. In some cheilostome species all zooids of a colony look and function alike. There is no differentiaEach zooid feeds and can tion into autozooids and gonozooids. produce both male and female germ cells. In others, such as Terminofliistra membranacea-truncata, there are hermaphroditic zooids and male and female gonozooids, aU in the same colony. The difference between them is very slight. In still others (Hippothoa), there are asexual (sterile) autozooids and male and female gonozooids, each easily identifiable

—

because of differences in general size, shape of orifice and other Asexual zooids have a larger size and larger orifice. features. Gonozooids are smaller. Female gonozooids have an ovicell and an unusually shaped orifice. Fertile zooids may develop ovicells either internally or externally. The ovicells of different species vary in size, shape, strucSome ovicells are like a hood over the ture and decoration. Others zooecial orifice, opening near or into it (Osthimosia). (Cellaria) are flattened, with an opening some distance away from

own

bases or avicularial chambers. The avicularial chamber contains muscles that move the mandible. One set of these, the abductor mandibuli, consisting of a number of isolated smooth fibres, opens the mandible. The other set, the adductor mandibuli, which consists of more powerful, bunched, striated fibres, snaps the mandible shut. In addition to musculature the avicularial chamber in some cases also contains a vestigial polypide, avicularial glands and a sense organ. The function of these organs is unknown. Avicularia may be plentiful in some colonies and rare in others of the same species. Vibracida. A vibraculum is a heterozooid very much similar to

—

an avicularium except that the mandible has been transformed into a very long, slender, chitinous bristle, seta or whip that is capable of moving in all directions. The seta may be smooth or serrate and many times longer than its vibracular base or chamber.

The chamber

contains in addition to the vestiges of a polypide

the powerful muscles that control the action of the seta.

—

Many autozooids and ancestrulae have spines around Spines. the orifice or sometimes elsewhere on the frontal wall. Spines may be mere hollow extensions of the wall or actual jointed kenozooids (degenerate or abortive zooids). Their presence, number, size and shape depend on a number of factors. In some species spines are present in young zooids as temporary structures that become broken off or covered over by secondary calcification as the colony ages. In other species they may be permanent.

Spines are usually needlelike but some may be very stout, bladehke, straight or curved, forked or even antlered. Rootlets. These are delicate chitinous tubes produced by many

—

of the dainty arborescent cheilostomes (Bugula, Cellaria, toplites).

They occur

singly or in groups, and are

Camp-

budded from some

the zooecial orifice.

the zooecia at or near the base of the colony, although in

Ovicells develop if there is an egg already forming. The embryos develop at the expense of the parent polypide. After an embryo or larva vacates an ovicell, the ovicell can be used a second or third time, provided a new polypide can regenerate in the zooecium and produce a new batch of eggs. The transfer of embryos from the zooid body cavity into an external ovicell is accomplished by the embr>'os squeezing through the coelomopore near the two median tentacles on the anal side In those species that lack ovicells (e.g., Electra (in Callopora). pilosa) a special, temporarily formed tube, the intertentacular organ, permits the exit of embryos to the outside. An avicularium is an appendage, heterozooid or Avicularia. special zooid of striking appearance but obscure function that is present on or among the autozooids and gonozooids of many cheilo-

Camptoplites they can sprout anywhere along the colony. Their function is to anchor, attach or support a colony or even to bridge gaps between adjacent substrates. Interzooidal Communications. As mentioned earlier some communication is possible between the body cavities of neighbouring and succeeding zooids because communicating pores are present in the intervening lateral and end walls. The pores, however, are loosely plugged by mesenchymal funicular cords that traverse the

—

stomes.

opening

It consists of a calcareous or chitinous is

by a

chamber whose homologous

cuticular flap, the so-called mandible,

to a zooecial operculum.

Avicularia are of prime importance in species identification because in some instances they exhibit a great constancy of position, uniqueness of appearance and uniformity of size and structure. The actively swaying, snapping, stalked avicularia ("birds' heads") of Bugula are presumed to be defensive, serving to keep offending organisms or strange larvae and debris from settling down on the colony. This explanation, however, might not apply to some fi.xed avicularia with extremely weak musculature (the

—

zooidal

body

cavities.

The pores may be

either single isolated perforations or groups.

group contains only a few pores perforating a bhsterlike chamber of the lateral wall the blister is called a pore plate or rosette plate. If the group contains a large number (two or three dozen pores) puncturing a transverse or end wall it is called

If the

a sieve plate. Silen (1944) made an exhaustive study of interzooidal communications as well as of the nature of the zooecial walls. 6. Reproduction. Reproduction is asexual and sexual. Gonads develop in the zooid wall from the peritoneum, with in connection sometimes ovaries more distal than testes, the latter with the funiculus. Self-fertilization occurs in some species, as in Bugula neritina, but in others cross fertilization between zooids occurs. Sperms presumably exit through coelomopores or inter-

—

zooidal communication pores.

Fertilization in

some cheilostomes

occurs in the ovary.

on the inner surface

Oviparous species release fertilized eggs into the water, some species producing a small number per zooid (Electra pilosa, 17),

Avicularia look very different from other zooids of the colony. are so tiny that they look like pores on the body wall others

Viviparous others a large number ( Membranipora membranacea) species incubate fertilized eggs in ovicells until they reach the

Reteporidae)

or those inside the orifice or

of the calcareous frontal wall (Cellarinella).

Some

may As

;

be larger,

taller or longer

than the regular zooids.

to location avicularia are either adventitious or vicarious.

located dependently on autozooids and The sometimes also on ovicells, either fused directly to the body wall or attached by a stalk. Some are fastened flat against the regular

adventitious kind

is

others bulge like a tepee (in Escharoides bubeccata). Camptoplites avicularia are shaped like a bird head and mounted very long stalk attached to the autozooid. Other forms are on a spatulate, rounded, oval or triangular in outline. The number of avicularia per zooid varies from none to several. Vicarious avicularia, found between regular zooids, are on their

zooids,

.

Generally an ovicell contains only one embryo. In few species however, several developing embryos may be incubated simultaneously in the same ovicell: two to six in Thalanuh porella; up to seven in Scruparia. The oviparous species seemingly produce a cyphonautes larva, whereas the vivaparous species produce larvae of varied shapes larval stage. a

and appearance.

The larvae attach to many kinds of metamorphose into an ancestrula and

substrates, shed their

cilia,

new

The

start a

colony.

succeeding zooids of the colony arise by linear and lateral budding, their zooecia (exoskeletons) remaining to a greater or

:

BRYTHONIC— BRYUSOV each other through interzooidal com-

lesser extent in contact with

munication pores

in

V.

the lateral and transverse walls.

FOSSIL DISTRIBUTION

The earliest fossil Ectoprocta, a supposed trepostomate and a questionable stenolaemate (cyclostome), were reported from the Early Paleozoic rocks of western England and western Canada. The oldest fossil ctenostome, the threadlike Marciisodictyon, was reported from the Ordovician of Estonia. Reports of Mesozoic or Tertiary ctenostomes are not numerous, either because the presumably soft-bodied ctenostomes left few fossils or because the remains are not readily identifiable. Many of the now recognized Paleozoic ctenostomes had been in the past regarded as sponge borings, foraminifera or trilobite eggs (Bassler, 1953).

The only

truly fossil fresh-water phylactolaemate, Plumatellites

proHfertis,v;siS reported

(1901) from the Cenomanian (Cretaceous,

Mesozoic) beds of Bohemia.

The Paleozoic limestones

at least

ica is in Paleozoic species.

The stenolaemates likewise begin in the Ordovician and develop to predominance as compared with other bryozoans by the Middle Mesozoic, then assume less importance as cheilostomes surpass them in numbers in the Cretaceous period. The cheilostomes originated in the Jurassic seas of Europe and fast extended Today cheilostomes are their territorial and geological conquest. the dominant ectoproct order all over the world. The Trepostomata and Cryptostomata are exclusively fossil orders seemingly limited to the Paleozoic era, although some Trepostomata, whose classification in that order is questioned, have been reported from the Triassic. The Cryptostomata appeared in the Ordovician, attained their greatest development in the Devonian and Mississippian and died out in the Upper Permian. formations.

VI.

CLASSIFICATION

—Linnaeus

in

758 coined a special term Zoophyta

1

for these creatures that looked like plants

That Linnaeus was

mals.

Bryozoa. H. Milne-Edwards (1843) placed Bryozoa into the group Molluscoidea, where they remained until the 1930s, along with other problematic organisms. The group Molluscoidea was at one time under the phylum Mollusca, then later was considered an independent phylum, and finally "died a quiet death by dismemberment'" when Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Rotifera, Tunicata and other subgroups were gradually removed from it. 3. Ectoprocta and Entoprocta. As knowledge of bryozoan diagnostic features accumulated, H. Nitsche (1869) was impelled Ectoprocta and Entoprocta, to divide Bryozoa into two groups, on the basis of location of anal opening and other differences. In Ectoprocta the anus is outside the tentacular circle. In Ento-

—

procta it is inside. Since 1869 Bryozoa became an independent phylum, then was split into two phyla (Ectoprocta and Entoprocta by various noted zoologists. Some bryozoologists concur with this last division but other bryozoologists still consider Ectoprocta and Entoprocta as belonging to the one phylum, Bryozoa.

unsolved are the problems as to where in the animal king-

Still

Bassler (1953) indicates that ctenostomes have been reported from the Ordovician but seem rare in the Mesozoic and Tertiary

Zoophyta.

term Polyzoa, while most others use

)

North America, from which

of

1,500 species have been described, are especially rich in Bryozoa (Bassler, 1922). Europe is as rich in Mesozoic Bryozoa as Amer-

1.

333

British zoologists use the

and behaved

like ani-

unsure of their exact nature

still

is

evident from a letter he wrote in 1761 to his highly esteemed

dom

these forms belong, to which other animal groups they are

related

and from which groups they evolved.

The following

classification of the ectoprocts is a

composite

from several sources and viewpoints Subphylum (or Phylum) Ectoprocta Class Phylactolaemata (Lophopoda) Family Fredericellidae Family Plumatellidae

Family Lophopodidae Family Cristatellidae Class

Gymnolaemata (Stelmatopoda)

Order Trepostomata Order Cryptostomata Order Cyclostomata (Stenolaemata or Stenostomata) (common genera: Crisia, Diastopora, Lichenopora, Tubulipora) Order Ctenostomata Suborder Carnosa Suborder Stolonifera Order Cheilostomata Suborder Anasca (common genera: Bugula, Cellaria, Cribrilina, Flustra,

Membranipora)

Suborder Ascophora (common genera:

Cellepora, Hippothoa, Microporella, Retepora, Schizoporella, Smitlina)

—

BrBLioGRAPHY. R. S. Bassler, "Bryozoa," part G in R. C. Moore (ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology (1953) P. Brien and C. Mordant, "Relations entre les reproductions sexuee et asexuee a propos des Phylactolemates," Ann. Soc. Zool. Belg., 86 (2):169-189 (1956); M. K. Elias and G. E. Condra, "Fenestella from the Permian of West Texas," Mem. Geol. Soc, Amer., 70 (1957) L. H. Hyman, The Inverte;

wherein Linnaeus referred to Zoophytes as "vegetables, with flowers yet as they are endowed with sensation and voluntary motion, they must be called, as they are, Irish friend

John

Ellis,

.

.

.

;

animals."

Although many scientists of the early 18th century are credited with having the insight that some bryozoans and coelenterates were animals rather than plants, the fact remained to be proved. It was not until the mid-century that Ellis, in his handsomely ." (1755), definitely established illustrated "Essay on Corallines the animal nature of zoophytes. From that time onward support began to shift from the mineralogical and botanical theories to .

.

the zoological theory of the nature of zoophytes.

The term Zoophyta continued in use for about a century after Linnaeus had coined it for bryozoans, some coelenterates and diverse animals that he grouped into the class Vermes. 2.

Bryozoa

v.

Polyzoa.

— In December 1830 appeared an inno-

"On Polyzoa, ." new animal discovered as an inhabitant of some Zoophytes by the Irish naturalist John Vaughan Thompson. Practically upon its heels appeared the C. G. Ehrenberg papers (1831) in which the term Bryozoa was first used. Later (1834) Ehrencent but subsequently crucially controversial paper a

.

.

written

berg further elucidated the term, splitting zoophytes into two distinct classes: Anthozoa (mostly coelenterates) and Bryozoa. Thompson and Ehrenberg apparently had arrived at their discoveries independently and almost simultaneously; but unfortunately, Thompson's term Polyzoa, or Polyzoae, was so vaguely defined that it led to various interpretations and disagreements among subsequent workers. Ehrenberg's term Bryozoa, on the other hand, was more precise. It stood for a definite class of organisms. To this very day the controversy is unresolved. Most

brates, vol. 5 (1959) G. Johnston, A History of the British Zoophytes, 2nd. ed., 2 vol. (1847) A. Lacourt, "Bryozoa of the Netherlands," Arch. Nierland. Zool., 8 (3):l-33 (1949); A. Pennington, British ;

;

Zoophytes (1885).

(M. D. Ro.)

BRYTHONIC DIALECTS: see Celtic Languages. BRYUSOV, VALERI YAKOVLEVICH (1873-1924), Russian poet, novelist, playwright, translator and critic, a pioneer of Russian modernism, was born in Moscow Dec. 13 (new style; Dec. 1, old style), 1873. His Russkie simvolisty, two parts (1894), containing original poems and translations from the French, was an important landmark, and he later became the recognized leader of Russian Symbolism, editing its leading journal, Vesy ("Balance"; 1904-09). The most important of his ten volumes of original poetry published between 1895 and 1921 were Tertia vigilia (1900), Urbi et orbi (1903) and Stephanos (1906). Influenced by Verhaeren, whose work he translated, he cultivated urban themes. He also translated other modern European poets, including Verlaine, Rimbaud, Mallarme, Maeterlinck and D'Annunzio, as well as ancient classics. His prose fiction includes Ognenny angel (1908; Eng. trans. The Fiery Angel, 1930), a novel about witchcraft in 16th-century Germany; Altar pobedy (1911-12), a novel set in 4th-century Rome; and two volumes of stories: Zemnaya os (1907; 2nd ed. with four stories added, 1911) and Nochi i rfm' (1913). The former volume contains "Respublika Yuzhnogo Kresta," a fantasy about the decline of a totalitarian state of the future (Eng. trans, of this and some other stories, The Republic of the Southern Cross, 1918). Bryusov was an

BRZOZOWSKI—BUBBLE CHAMBER

334

important literary critic and student of Pushkin and Russian verse. After 1917 he joined the Communist party, holding for a time a post in the commissariat for education. He died in Moscow, Oct.

9,

1924.

;

i-ii

Bast

is

hand and has a small bag hung over The significance of these emblems is not known. was carried to Italy by the Romans and traces of it have been found in Rome, Ostia, Nemi and Pompeii, (M. A. ) a so-called aegis in her left

—

Bibliography. G. Donchin, The Influence of French Symbolism on Russian Poetry (1958); R. Poggioli, The Poets of Russia, 1S901930 (1960); O. Raggio, "Brjusov e la poesia francese," Letlerature Moderne, vol. vi, no. 5, pp. 569-582 V. Setschkareff, "The Narrative Prose of Brjusov," International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics, vol.

worn as amulets on the person. represented as a woman with a cat's head; she wears a highly patterned dress and carries a sistrum in her right hand, ship or to be

(1749-1820K

first

general of

the restored Society of Jesus, was born near Malbork, in

Her

cult

BUBB DODDINGTON, GEORGE:

M

see

Melcombe,

George Bubb Doddixgton, Baron.

(G. St.)

(1959).

BRZOZOWSKI, TADEUSZ

her left arm.

Warmia,

BUBBLE CHAMBER. in nuclear physics,

An

instrument used for experiments

particularly in connection with high energy

Pol.,

particle accelerators, to observe collisions of fast charged particles

He

with atomic nuclei. The bubble chamber, developed by Donald A. Glaser at the University of Michigan in 1952, forms precisely

on Oct. 21, 1749. In 1765 he joined the Jesuits was ordained priest in Vilnius (Wilno) and taught

in Poland. in Minsk. In 1805. after serving 16 years as secretary and assistant to his predecessors, he was elected superior of the order, which had survived in Russian-annexed Poland and Russia and had been recently revived in the two Sicilies (kingdom of Naples). When Pius VII restored the Society of Jesus throughout the world in 1814. he conferred full powers on Brzozowski, making him the 19th general. During his tenure of office he w'itnessed the expulsion of the Jesuits from Russia (1815), but also their rapid restoration in the old and new continents. He died in Plock, Pol., on Feb. 5, 1820. Brzozowski translated into Polish C. F. Nonnotte's Dictionnaire philosophique de la religion, four volumes (1782). See C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, vol. ii, col. 307-309 (1891) S. Zalenski, Les Jesuites de la Russie-Blanche, ;

(E. J. Bs.)

2 vol.

BUACHE, PHILIPPE

(i

North America and the Pacific. From the Rusdeduced the existence of Alaska and the Aleutians. He was an active cartographer and a pioneer the geography of

sian discoveries in Bering strait he

use of contour lines to express relief

Paris on Jan. 24, 1773.

in

He died (R. A. Sn.)

maps.

volume of high density material. It makes use of a pressure-tight vessel, containing liquid heated far above its boiling point and maintained

under high pressure so that boiling is prevented. When the pressure on the liquid is suddenly reduced by an expansion device, the hquid becomes highly superheated, with the result that charged particles speeding through it create strings of tiny bubbles along their paths. By taking high-speed photographs of these bubble tracks through the strong glass windows of the chamber, it is possible to make precision measurements of the details of nuclear processes caused by the high-speed particles. Collisions producing rare nuclear events are frequent because of the high density

New- events can be recorded every few seconds is exposed to bursts of high-speed particles showers of cosmic ray particles. The bubble chamber has proven ver>' useful in the study of highenergy nuclear physics and elementary particles. Similar in function to the cloud chamber (q.v.). developed by C, T, R. Wilson, the bubble chamber differs in principle of operation and in usefulness for experiments in high-energy physics. Basic Principle of Operation. Since charged particles penetrating a liquid or solid medium deposit exceedingly small quantities of energy along their paths, an amplification technique is needed to produce an observable effect from the original microof the liquid.

when

700-1 773). French geographer who made original contributions to the theory of physical geography and to cartographic technique, was born in Paris on Feb. 7, 1700. He worked for the cartographer Guillaume Delisle (q.v.). whose daughter he married. He was appointed geographe du rot in 1729, and elected to the Academic des Sciences in the next year. His physiographic system divided the earth's surface into four basins, separated by a "scaffolding" of mountain ranges extending overland and beneath the oceans. This theory was expounded in Buache's Cartes ct tables de la geographie physique et naturellc (1757), and he applied it particularly to the interpretation of

in the

localized tracks of particles interacting in a large

in

BUBASTIS, once an important city in the Nile delta, now a heap of ruins known as Tell Basta. Its beautiful temple, founded during or before the 4th dynasty (c. 4000 B.C.), is described by Herodotus. Bubastis became of consequence when the Pharaohs of the 19th dynasty (1320-1200 B.C.) moved their capital from Thebes to the delta, and reached its highest peak of prosperity when its prince, Sheshonk I (the Shishak of the Bible; 952 B.C. 1, became Pharaoh. Later, however, it shared in the decay of the rest of the country when Egypt became the prey of one foreign invader after another, and fell into utter ruin. The goddess of Bubastis. worshiped in the form of a cat. was Bast. (The reading of her name as Ubast is not satisfactory, for in none of its forms is there an initial vowel.) AU the deities of Egypt worshiped in animal form were indigenous and strictly localized, belonging to that primitive period when Egypt was a congeries of small independent states, each with its own chief and its own deity. Bast was essentially a goddess of the home and greatly beloved. The ritual in the temple and the home is not known, but Herodotus describes her great annual festival, which was of the usual orgiastic type common in ancient religions. In the New Kingdom (\590-c. 1200 b.c. many changes were made in the official religion, and Bast became equated with the lioness war-goddess. Lioness-headed statues labeled Bast were dedicated in the temples by warlike Pharaohs who, perhaps, wished to show an appreciation of the domestic virtues combined with the ideal of military glory. Bast, however, never lost her cat identity nor her hold on popular affection, as is shown by the number of small figures of the goddess evidently intended to be used in home wor-

from

the

chamber

particle accelerators or to

—

scopically small disturbance. The technique employed in the bubble chamber makes use of the fact that liquids can be heated far above their normal boiling points if they are heated in clean, smooth-walled vessels. Liquids in this condition are called superheated. Superheated liquids are unstable and will begin to boil

)

—

THE F)RST BUBBLE CHAMBER IMMEDIATELY BEFORE AND AFTER PRESSURE REDUCTION Fig.

1

BUBBLE CHAMBER

335

Since great care was taken

and unstable.

glass walls of the bottle

in

making sure that the

were smooth and clean, no boiling oc-

curred for several seconds. This gave time for an ionizing event After recompression the chamin the liquid to cause an eruption. ber was ready for a new expansion. This type of bubble chamber is

called a "clean" bubble chamber.

To

construct large bubble chambers it is necessary to use metal windows sealed to the metal by means of gaskets.

walls with glass

When

reduced by expanding the chamber, boiling and gaskets. By expanding very rapidly it is possible to maintain a low pressure within the bulk of the liquid even though boiling is occurring at the walls. As the boiling at the walls proceeds, the vapour evolved finally raises the pressure throughout the liquid so that it is no longer sensitive to ionizThe sensitive time of such a chamber is limited, ing radiation. therefore, and may range from a few milliseconds to several hundred milliseconds, depending on the design of the chamber, the expansion device and the properties of the liquid used. Chambers that operate in this way are called "dirty" chambers and may be quite large; dimensions of several feet on a side are feasible. In order to achieve the very rapid expansion required for the successful operation of these dirty bubble chambers it is necessary to reduce the hydrodynamic resistance to the flow of the liquid during the pressure

always begins

Fig

2.

—A

LARGER BUBBLE CHAMBER FABRICATED OF GLASS AND ALU-

MINUM The chamber itself Is on the left; on the right are the expansion valve, which controls the compressed air, and the apparatus for filling the chamber and adjustDuring operation the chamber is surrounded by a ing the expansion volume. small oven to maintain the required operating temperature

violently

if

is

at the joints

foreign bodies with rough edges are introduced into

an excess of heat is added. This irregular, eruptive bumping, and can be observed readily by heating clean water in a smooth glass test tube. At first the water gets hotter and hotter without visible boiling, until suddenly it erupts with a violent evolution of vapour, settling down again to repeat the cycle. The first successful bubble chambers were based on the idea that a very pure hquid heated in a clean, smooth glass bottle might become so highly superheated that even the microscopic effect of a high-speed charged particle could trigger the boiling process. High-speed movies of the triggering process reveal that tiny bubbles mark the path of a charged particle during the first few milliseconds of the boiling eruption. Such triggering can be made the dominant cause of boiling in superthe liquid, or

boiling

if

called

is

TEFLON DIAPHRAG

magnetic pressurerelease valve

^Rubber Diaphragm Diaphragm PLJVN Fig.

3.

simplified schematic diagram of a six-inch chamber SIM-

ILAR TO THAT PICTURED IN FIG. 2

heated liquids by keeping

all

AND

ITS

EXPANSION MECHANISM

foreign bodies and sharp edges

from

contact with the liquid.

The

explained by the fact that a fast charged particle ionizes and excites the atoms and molecules of the liquid as it collides with them. After the electrons and ions have retriggering action

is

combined many atoms are left in an excited state. When these atoms collide with their neighbours the excitation energy converted into the kinetic energy of the rebounding atoms, and the liquid gets hot locally. These local hot spots are thought to cause the growth of the bubbles which are finally observed. Construction and Operation. The first bubble chamber was a small glass bottle, containing a few cubic centimeters of diethyl ether, immersed in hot mineral oil at a temperature of about 135° C, and connected with a pressure regulating device by means of a heavy walled glass capillary tube. Boiling of the liquid was prevented by keeping it under a pressure of about 20 atm. This was accomplished by applying compressed air against a flexible rubber diaphragm in the pressure regulating device. When the air pressure was released, the liquid became suddenly superheated

excited is

—

CONDITION OF CHAMBER DURING EXPANSION CYCLE Fig. 4. (A) Violent boiling occurs at the gaskets, but no bubbles form in the Interior (11 milliseconds); (B) A jet of vapour shoots out of the expansion orifice at the bottom of the chamber (12.5 milliseconds); (C) With radium source nearby, some bubble tracks become visible and the chamber is at full sensitivity (6 milliseconds) (D) Seven milliseconds after the start of expansion, bubbles on the oldest tracks have grown large and new tracks are being formed; (E) With weaV radium source nearby new fine tracks continue to appear, but oldest tracks become too coarse to be useful (S.5 milliseconds); (F) A vapour jet from the expansion orifice causes a sudden pressure wave 12.5 milliseconds after the start of expansion. It distorts the track and abruptly ends the sensitive time ;

BUBBLE CHAMBER

336

through the bubble chamber. When a sufficiently large number of such particles is detected, which often takes less than a millisecond, a signal discharges a bright electronic flash. The proper duration of the light flash varies from several microseconds to several milliseconds for different kinds of chambers. Stereoscopic

cameras with their shutters open record the tracks illuminated by

^%

the light flash.

After the

flash, a signal is

for recompressing the Uquid; at the

given to apply pressure time, the film in the

same

camera is advanced in readiness for the next pulse of particles which may arrive in a few seconds. Because it has been found necessary to expand the chamber before the particles arrive, it is impossible to make countercontrolled expansions, as is done with cloud chambers. There is no disadvantage to this mode of operation for experiments with high-energy particle accelerators, but it makes cosmic ray experi-

k-

—A

MESON HAS BEEN PRODUCED BY A COLLISION OF A 3.000,000.. HERE IT ENTERS 000 ELECTRON-VOLT PROTON AGAINST A COPPER TARGET. A PROPANE-FILLED BUBBLE CHAMBER 30 CM. LONG. STRIKES A PROTON THE IN A PROPANE MOLECULE. AND COMES TO REST AFTER THE REBOUND. THEN THE r MESON DECAYS RECOIL OF THE PROTON CAN ALSO BE SEEN. THE POSITIVE INTO A NEGATIVE tt MESON AND TWO POSITIVE w MESONS. T MESONS ARE STOPPED AND DECAY CHARACTERISTICALLY INTO A MESONS. WHICH ALSO STOP AND DECAY INTO POSITRONS FlG.

S.

T

ments very

difficult

to

do with bubble chambers.

One method

that can be used for doing cosmic ray experiments with bubble chambers is to expand and recompress the chamber continuously in a rapid cycle, so that for

40%,

high as

the

chamber

some is

fraction of the time, perhaps as

sensitive to the possible occurrence

of an interesting cosmic ray event. Whenever Geiger counters or other types of particle detectors associated with the bubble cham-

simple way of achieving this is to install the flexible diaphragm of the expansion mechanism as one wall of the bubble chamber. By means of this movable, flexible wall the pressure in the chamber can be regulated accurately and changed

ber indicate that such a cosmic ray collision has occurred the camera lights can be triggered and a photograph of the event taken. Applications of Bubble Chambers. Several types of measurements can be made with bubble chambers. Energies of particles can be deduced from the depth of penetration required to stop

very quickly.

them

the expansion process.

A

—

—

in

the dense liquid.

When

a

chamber

is

immersed

in

a

Bubble Chamber Liquids. Many pure liquids and some soluSince all the Hquids tions have been used in bubble chambers. tried seem to work satisfactorily, a wide choice is available to the nuclear physicist. His choice is made on the basis of the type of target material he wishes to study, the kind of particle source he The first large chambers conis using and practical convenience. tained diethyl ether, pentane, butane or propane, since these are readily available and operate at convenient temperatures and presThese liquids are especially useful because they are rich sures.

hydrogen, which is the simplest possible target nucleus. The nucleus of ordinary hydrogen consists of a single proton. For experiments requiring a pure proton target, bubble chambers have been run with liquid hydrogen. When it is desired to observe interactions involving neutron targets, bubble chambers filled with in

liquid deuterium or

heavy hydrogen can be used.

By comparing

ordinary hydrogen bubble chambers it is possible to deduce what portion of the nucleus. deuterium in the neutron the extra effects seen is due to Liquid helium bubble chambers can be used for other special types of experiments. Uncharged particles do not ionize the atoms of liquid as they results thus obtained with those obtained in

through it, and hence do not produce tracks. In order to "see" X-rays, gamma rays and uncharged particles a very dense liquid must be used, because only in such a medium does a neutral projectile have a good chance of making a collision that reveals its presence and position. To attain the necessary high density unfly

usual liquids have been used, including stannic chloride, methyl iodide dissolved in propane, tungsten hexafluoride and xenon. These heavy liquid bubble chambers are valuable because they yield information about the electrically neutral part of the sub-

microscopic world, a part that

is

inaccessible to

many

experimental

techniques.

Use With Particle Accelerators and in Cosmic Ray Experiments. When the bubble chamber is used in conjunction with a high-energy particle accelerator, special electronic equipment is employed to synchronize its operation with the production of parSince at least several milliticle bursts from the accelerator. seconds are required to expand a bubble chamber to full sensitivity, and the lifetime of the latent image in bubble chambers is very short, certainly less than o.i milliseconds, the expansion process

—

is

started before the particles are ejected from the accelerator. is then fully sensitive when the beam of particles

The chamber

Often high-speed particle counters such as scintillation counters are arranged to count the number of particles passing

arrives.

—

6. A NEGATIVELY CHARGED K MESON ENTERS A LIQUID HYDROGEN THE CHAMBER 10 IN. IN DIAMETER IMMERSED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD. MESON COMES TO REST IN THE HYDROGEN AND IS ABSORBED BY A PROTON MESON. THE 2 HYPERON MAKING A NEGATIVE I HYPERON AND A POSITIVE GOES ONLY A SMALL DISTANCE BEFORE IT DECAYS INTO A NEUTRON AND A MESONS FINALLY GO TOWARD THE NEGATIVE V MESON.- BOTH OF THE FROM THE CURVATURES OF UPPER RIGHT-HAND CORNER OF THE PICTURE. TO DEDUCE THE MOMENTUMS POSSIBLE PICTURE IT IS THIS TRACKS IN THE OF THE PARTICLES WHICH CAUSED THEM. THE SPIRAL TRACKS OCCURRING HERE AND THERE IN THE PICTURE ARE DUE TO ELECTRONS WHICH ARE LOSING ENERGY AND THEREFORE MOMENTUM AS THEY PENETRATE THE DENSE LIQUID. THE SPIRAL SHAPE RESULTS WHEN THE CURVE OF MOTION OF THE ELECTRONS BECOMES TIGHTER AND TIGHTER AS THEY SLOW DOWN AND COME TO REST

Fig.

ir

7r

—

BUBER— BUCCANEERS magnetic

field the

curvature of the particle track can be used to

compute the momentum of the

particles. From the density of bubbles along a track the charge and speed of the particle can be found. The crookedness or "scattering" of a particle track is a

measure of its momentum times its speed. When these measurements are combined with simple geometric measurements of track lengths and angles between tracks, it is possible to calculate the For the masses, charges and lifetimes of particles observed. various types of events that can be seen it is similarly possible to calculate the energy released, the relative frequency of different kinds of processes and the angular distributions of the outgoing Such information is basic to the understanding of nuparticles. clear structure and processes. For a short, popular description of the bubble chamber, see Scientific (D. A. G.) American, 19::46-50 (Feb. 1955).

BUBER, MARTIN

(1878-19651, Jewish religious philosothought as leading e.xponent of the philosophy of "dialogue," as translator pher,

who made

a decisive contribution to 20th-century

Judaism and re-creator of Hasidic legend and thought, was born in Vienna on Feb. 8. 1878. He studied philosophy and history of art in Vienna and Berlin and served ten. years as professor of Jewish religion and ethics at Frankfurt University and then of social philosophy at the HebrewUniversity in Jerusalem, where he went in 1938 after Hitler's accession to power in Germany. From 1916 to 1924 he was editor of the

Der Jude. Buber's philosophy of dialogue finds its classic expression in his poetic masterpiece / and Thou (1923). its elaboration in Between Man and Man, Eclipse of God, and Pointing the Way. Cenbetween "I-Thou" relations and presentness and "I-It" relations in which persons merely know and use one another as objects of their experience. While Buber's philosophy of dialogue has had a growing influence on education and psychotherapy, his insistence that God is the "eternal Thou" whom one can talk to but not about has had a radical transforming effect on contemporary religious thought, both Christian and Jewish. In particular, his thought has influenced Protestant theology, as exemplified by Emil Brunner, Reinhold and H. Richard Niebuhr, Paul Tillich, and Karl Barth. His most philosophical work is The Knowledge of Man (1965). In a series of highly significant studies Moses (1952), The Kingship of God (1932; 3rd rev. ed., 1956), The Prophetic Faith (19S0), and Two Types of Faith (1950) Buber develops the thesis that the biblical covenant and messianic redemption mean tral to this

philosophy

is

a distinction

of mutuality, directness,

—

God in all areas of communal life unconditional trust (the Prophets and Jesus) rather than faith with a knowledge content (Paul and John ). Through such works as The Tales of the Hasidim (1950), For the Sake of Heaven (a chronicle-novel; 1944), and Hasidism and the realization of the kingship of

and that

biblical

faith

is

Modern Man (1960). Buber transformed

the popular

communal

mysticism of East European Jewry from a little-known sect to one of the recognized great mystical his Tales of the

movements

of the world.

Hasidim Buber "enriched world

Through more

literature

than any other living author." wrote the Swiss novelist Hermann Hesse when nominating Buber for a Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949. Many would agree with Ludwig Lewisohn's characterization of Buber as "the most distinguished and influential of living Jewish thinkers," even while questioning his nonadherence to the Jewish law, or his religious Zionism, with its stress on Jewish-Arab cooperation. He died June 13, 1965, in Jerusalem. S. Friedman, Martin Buber: the Life of Dialogue (1960), comprehensive study and systematic analysis and evaluation of Buber's thought, with a bibliography of works by and about Buber complete up to 1960. (M. S. F.)

See Maurice

a

BUBNA VON [

\

I

!

the

LITIC,

COUNT FERDINAND VON

(1768-1825), Austrian soldier, was born in Zamrsk, Bohemia, Nov. 26, 1768. He was with the Austrian army from 1792 until Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, except for the years 1812-13, which he spent in Paris as Austria's representative. He fought at Austerlitz (1805) and at Wagram (1809), and after the Austrian defeat in the latter battle was one of the ambassadors who traveled to Vienna to negotiate the peace of Schonbrunn. He took part in the

Dresden and Leipzig

Piedmont uprising of 1S21, Bubna

down the Bubna died

put

in

1813.

During

led the Austrian troops that

insurrectionists. in

Milan. June

BUBONIC PLAGUE:

6,

1825.

see Plague.

BUCARAMANGA, a city of Colombia in South America. is

at an

elevation of 3,340

ft.

in

It

N.N.E. of

the capital of Santander department, about 185 mi.

Bogota

the Cordillera Oriental.

Pop. (1951) in the mid-20th century was very rapid. Founded in 1622 near 102,887; (1961 est.) 208,640 (mun.). the Lebrija and Sogamoso rivers with several colonial mines nearby, Bucaramanga gained commercial significance at an early

Growth

date.

It is in a coffee-

and tobacco-producing area, and

its

manu-

factures include cigars, cigarettes, textiles, straw hats and iron It is connected by rail with Puerto Wilches on the products.

Magdalena river, by highway with the major cities of eastern Colombia and Venezuela, and has regular air service to Bogota and the cities of the Caribbean coast.

(T. E. N.)

BUCARELI Y URSUA, ANTONIO MARIA

Bible, interpreter of biblical

of the periodical

337

battles of Liitzen, Bautzen,

(1717-

1779), Spanish soldier and colonial administrator, was born in After distinguished military service in Seville on Jan. 24, 1717. Italy and Portugal, Bucareli was named governor and captain general of Cuba in 17oO and, in 1771, was promoted to viceroy of New Spain Mexico ), an office he held until his death on April 9, 1779. (

His administration in New Spain was characterized by rapid economic development and Bucareli enjoyed widespread personal popularity. Among other accomplishments, he founded several charitable institutions, improved the public services of Mexico City, encouraged scientific investigation, reorganized the army and strengthened the defenses of the viceroyalty, and he promoted the expansion of Spanish settlement in California. (L. N. McA.) were English, French and Dutch adventurers seaboard of and the Pacific of the sea who haunted the Caribbean South America during the second half of the 17th century. The chief bond between these "Brethren of the Coast," as they styled themselves, was hostility toward the Spaniards, who at that time regarded those seas as their monopoly. The buccaneers were

BUCCANEERS

largely inspired

by the example of the seamen of

Sir

Francis

Drake's times, but they are to be distinguished from genuine privateers (g.v.) because the commissions that they held were seldom valid. They are also to be distinguished from the outlawed pirates of the 18th century, though some of their actions can indeed be called piratical. In their own day the buccaneers were usually referred to as word "buccaneer" coming into use after the publication in 1684 of Biicaniers of America, the English translation of De Americaensche Zee-Rovers. The original work, by Alexanprivateers, the

der Esquemeling (or Exquemelin), was composed in obscure circumstances but achieved international fame after its first publication in Dutch in 1678 and has been the source of many tales about The word "buccaneer" is derived from the the Spanish Main. French boiican, a grill for the smoking of viande boucanee, or dried meat, for use in ships at sea. The French called their adventurers fiibus tiers

the

Dutch

corsarios.

(from Dutch vrijbuiter, "freebooter"; see Filibuster), called theirs zeerovers ; and the Spaniards called them The earliest buccaneers were hunters in western His-

(Haiti), whence they spread to the island of Tortuga, the French governors of which were liberal in the issue of commissions for attacks on Spanish maritime trade. Jamaica, after

paniola

its

capture by the English

activities.

The

in

1655, also afforded a base for their composed of

early bands of these sea rovers were

adventurers, escaped servants, ex-soldiers and the logwood cutters of the Gulf of Campeche. They exercised a democratic discipline among themselves when they went off "on the account," electing their captains, marooning mutineers, arranging for the equitable distribution of shares of plunder and drawing up elaborate insurThey were brave, cruel, ance schemes for injuries suffered.

tough seamen, excellent navigators and often first-class shots. Since they attracted to their ranks such remarkable men as William Dampier (q.v.). Lionel Wafer and Basil Ringrose, who wrote racy accounts of their adventurous cruises, they exercised a greater

;

BUCCLEUCH— BUCER

338

influence on subsequent generations than their exploits justified in

themselves.

The earliest buccaneers went under assumed names, such as (properly Jean David Nau) or Rock Brasiliano, a Dutchman who had Hved in Brazil. With the appearance of Henry Morgan (g.v.), a natural leader, they began to organize themselves L'Olonnois

into powerful bands

Panama

in

which captured Porto Bello

in

1668 and

1671, where the old town was so thoroughly burned

that the Spaniards were compelled to build another, the present

on a new site nearby. Few of the 2,000 men who accompanied Morgan on this first crossing of the isthmus benefited from the city,

plunder because their leader absconded with most of the loot on their return. As the treaty of Madrid (1670) had only recently been signed to compose Anglo-Spanish differences in those parts, the news of his success at Panama was not officially welcome. Morgan was arrested and brought back to England, but on the renewal of trouble with Spain he was knighted and sent out again as deputy governor of Jamaica. In this capacity he and his superiors attempted to suppress the buccaneers but, as he told the government at home, this was no easier than suppressing highway robbery. Until a police force of regular naval vessels began to appear in those seas, this policy was therefore not particularly successful. What finally brought buccaneering in the Caribbean to an end was the outbreak of the War of the Grand Alliance (g.v.) in

when

1689,

these freebooters

became legitimate privateers

in

the service of their respective nations. Some of the French, for example, assisted in attacking Cartagena, among them the renowned Louis Granmont (or Grammont) and Laurent de GraH, who is the reputed founder of the city of Mobile. Sir Henry Morgan died a respectable citizen of Jamaica some months before England entered the war. In his day the buccaneers had certainly enriched and protected the infant colonies, even if their depredations had made legitimate trade with Spain im-

possible.

Morgan

also pointed the

way

chief followers in this direction were

mew

Sharp,

who

into the South seas. His John Coxon and Bartholo-

led another party across the isthmus to attack

Panama in 1680. This time they were not so successful. Coxon and 70 others returned across the isthmus. Sharp took a captured vessel, the "Trinidad," south for a cruise off the coasts of Chile and Peru, using as his bases the Galapagos Islands and Juan Fernandez Islands (where Alexander Selkirk was marooned on

Dampier's third voyage in 1704). A party which included Dampier and Wafer returned overland after a quarrel with Sharp. As Wafer was left behind with the Darien Indians for some months before rejoining the others; his account of this sojourn and of the habits of the Indians is still of value to anthropologists. Sharp himself later returned to Barbados after a remarkable voyage during which he never sighted land between Juan Fernandez and the West Indies; he was the first Englishman to sail around Cape Horn. In order to avoid the attention of the authorities, he escaped to England, where he bought his pardon by presenting the king with the first Spanish charts of the Pacific. He was given a commission in the navy but soon reverted to his old trade of buccaneering. It is not known how or where he died. Another ship, the "Batchelor's Delight," commanded by John Cook with Ambrose Cowley as his pilot, reached the Pacific by way of Cape Horn in 1684. On Cook's death Edward Davis, the most competent of all buccaneers, took command. Off Panama they joined other parties under Charles Swan, Townley, John Eaton and a French contingent under Grogniet, which had crossed the isthmus; the adventures of the latter were described by one of their number, Ravenau de Lussan. This was the largest concentration of buccaneers ever seen, a force of about 3,000 men, a result of an accident.

,

who attacked Panama

They met with little Cowley and Eaton returned home did Dampier in another vessel; he described first and most popular book, A New Voyage for the third time.

success and soon broke up.

Williamsburg, Va.. Davis probably became a companion of the pirate William Kidd {q.v.). After this period many, like Dampier, became privateers in the War of the Spanish Succession, and the age of the buccaneers came to an end. Historically their importance lies in the influence that they had on the Darien scheme and on the foundation of the South Sea company, as also in the way in which they inspired later and more serious voyages of exploration in the Pacific by the publicity enjoyed by their writings. From a literary point of view the books describing their adventures have been of lasting value from the days of Jonathan Swift and Daniel Defoe to those of Robert Louis Stevenson and John Masefield. Bibliography. Original Sources: Basil Ringrose, The Dangerous Voyage and Bold Attempts by Capt. B. Sharp and Others (1684; new ed. 1923) Ravenau de Lussan, Journal du voyage jait a la Mer du Sud (1689; Eng. trans, by M. E. Wilbur, 1930); William Dampier, A New Voyage Round the World (1697; new ed. 1937); L. Wafer, A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America (1699; new ed. by L. E. Elliott Joyce, 1934) and Ambrose Cowley, A Voyage Round the Globe, printed by W. Hacke in his "A Collection of Original Voyages" (1699). For general accounts see J. Burney, A Chronological History of Discoveries in the South Sea, vol. iv (1816) C. H. Haring, The Buccaneers in the West Indies (1910) P. Kemp and C. Lloyd, The Brethren of the Coast (1960). (C. C. L.)

—

;

;

;

BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF.

The

Scottish

mare ("We wed thee, sea"). The last bucentaur, built was destroyed by the French in 1798 for the sake of its golden decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in the Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal. (Martin Kuhhorn) (1491(Butzer),

samus

te,

in 1729,

BUCER

MARTIN

Round

the

World (1697).

ragua.

One

ship with Davis and

Alsace, Nov. 11, 1491.

his

adventures

in his

Others returned home across NicaWafer on board returned via the Horn to the Chesapeake, where they were arrested; Wafer's fine was used for the building of the College of William and Mary at

of

BUCENTAUR

German Protestant reformer, best known for attempts to make peace between conflicting reform for his own particular program for reform, was born at

around the world, as

dukedom

Buccleuch was created on April 20, 1663, when Anne Scott (16511732), countess of Buccleuch in her own right, married James, duke of Monmouth (see Monmouth, James Scott). They were then created duke and duchess of Buccleuch. She was a member of the border family Scott of Buccleuch which traced its descent from Richard le Scott (c. 1265-1320) and its power from large grants of land to Sir Walter Scott (1426-69) of Kirkurd and Buccleuch in return for his support of James II of Scotland against the Douglas rebels. The family gained a peerage in 1606 and an earldom in 1619. Anne Scott was the daughter of Francis (162651), 2nd earl of Buccleuch. She retained, after Monmouth's execution, those titles which she held in her own right, and was succeeded by her grandson, Francis Scott (1694-1751), 2nd duke of Buccleuch, in 1732. His grandson Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and on the death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry, in 1810, succeeded also to that dukedom and its estates. Henry married the daughter and eventual heiress of George, duke of Montagu. He was succeeded by his son, Charles William Henry (1772-1819), 4th duke. Alice, the daughter of Charles's great-grandson, John Charles Montagu-Douglas-Scott (18641935), 7th duke, married the duke of Gloucester, third son of George V, in 1935. Walter John (1894) 8th duke, succeeded his father in 1935. See Sir \V. Eraser, The Scotts of Buccleuch (1878). (Itahan Bucintoro), a highly decorated galley formerly used by the Venetians at their annual ceremony of the "wedding of the sea" (sposalizio del mare) on Ascension day. This ceremony symbolized the maritime supremacy of Venice and originated about a.d. 1000 in commemoration of the doge Orseolo II's conquest of Dalmatia. It took the form of a solemn procession of boats, headed by the doge's maesta nave (from 1311 the Bucentaur), out to sea by the Lido port. In 1177 Pope Alexander III gave to this ceremony, which had originally been placatory or expiatory, a sacramental or nuptial character in recognition of Venice's services against the emperor Frederick I. The pope gave one of his rings to the doge, bidding him cast such a one into the sea each year on Ascension day. Every year thereafter, the doge dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, with the words Despon-

1551),

his ceaseless

groups, and Schlettstadt,

In 1506 he entered the Dominican order and was sent to study at Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the works of Erasmus and Luther. Withdrawing from his

BUCEROTIDAE— BUCH order in 1S21, Bucer entered the service of the elector palatine, but in 1522 became pastor of Landstuhl, where he married ElizaAfter his excommunication in beth Silbereisen, a former nun. 1523 he made his way to Strasbourg where his parents' citizenship

gave him protection. His personal charm, intellectual abilities and zeal brought him eventually to a position of leadership in Strasbourg and in southern Germany. Bucer wanted a reform that would be a renewal of the whole of

Under the influence Erasmus he had accepted the ideals of Christian humanism and which called for a rebirth of the true good, When he became a the original rightness, in man and society. Protestant reformer he envisioned a renewed, converted man and society that would result from the preaching of the true Gospel society, church, state, education, morals, etc. of

of the Renaissance,

and the faithful following of the divinely given pattern in the Bible. This reform through conversion, piety and discipline found its fullest expression in the massive program for the reformation of England which he presented to King Edward VI of England in 1551.

Strasbourg lay between the north German area, influenced by and the south German and Swiss areas, influenced by the reform movement led by Huldreich Zwingli and others. As the leaders in these two reform movements clashed after 1524 over the Lord's Supper, Bucer spent two decades in countless journeys and conferences in an effort to mediate. He was a participant in nearly every conference on religion in Germany and Switzerland in the years 1524 to 1548. In these conferences between Protestants and Catholics, or between German Lutherans and Swiss Reformed churchmen, Bucer often advocated the use of obscure language and ambiguous formulas when explicit agreement became impossible. His justification was that actual reform of the people was the real goal and that doctrinal issues Conferences held in 1536 produced could be worked out later. the Second Confession of Basel (see Helvetic Confessions) and the Wittenberg Concordat. These seemed to unite the Zwinglians and the Lutherans, but Bucer's evasive approach had concealed the The civil authorities in many south German areas sought issues. Since his advice and guidance in arranging forced compromises. these compromises were regarded by Bucer as of necessity tailored to local circumstances, he soon came to be charged by all parties as having no convictions except that the end justified the means. His defense was that each of these compromises was made only for the time being. Gradually, he hoped, further changes could be made. A better aspect of this policy of agreement by compromise appeared when it was applied to the problem of religious toleration; under Bucer's policies Strasbourg had less persecution of Anabaptists and other minority groups than did most of Europe. The most controversial of Bucer's pragmatic solutions of problems were in the cases of the Regensburg Book of 1541-46 and the bigamy of Philip of Hesse. Philip was a Protestant prince the Lutheran reformation,

whose support Bucer. Luther and many other reformers owed much. Because Philip had serious marital problems, and divorce was impossible for him, Bucer aided Philip in persuading Luther, Melanchthon and others to sanction a second wife for him on the basis of Old Testament plural marriages (see Philip [the Magnanimous] ). Great efforts, even flat lies, were used in a fruitless effort to keep the matter secret, and the venture caused serious harm. Bucer had long dreamed of a healing of the ProtestantCatholic rift. In an effort to bridge these differences he engaged in secret negotiations with certain liberal, reform-minded Catholics as John Cropper and Gasparo Cardinal Contarini. When his rather far-reaching concessions were used at the colloquy of Regensburg 1546 by Charles V as the basis for an official solution of the controversy over the Reformation, Bucer was taken by surprise, and in panic denied all connection with the scheme. Both Catholics and Protestants rejected the Regensburg Book. Charles then broke the Protestant powers by military force and laid down his own compromise scheme, the Augsburg Interim of 1548 (see also Charles V [Roman emperor]). Although the Augsburg Interim did not concede much more to to

(

,

I

'

)

Catholicism than some of Bucer's earlier compromise solutions had, he opposed vigorously its acceptance by Strasbourg. His view

339

was that even a poor compromise was justified if it made some progress toward reform, but that for Strasbourg to accept the Interim would mean going backward. The city, however, would not oppose Charles's armies. Finally they discharged Bucer and several other ministers, among them Pietro Martire Vermigli. Paul Fagius and Emmanuel Dryander, all of whom were then invited by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer to come to England. There Bucer supported solidly the official, cautious reform program of Cranmer and Nicholas Ridley against the more radical program urged by John Hooper and John Knox. The Second Prayer Book (1552) and the Anglican Ordinal of 1550 owed much to Bucer's counsel. He died in England Feb. 28, 1551.

—

Constantin Bibliography. Hastings Eells, Martin Bucer (1931) Hopf, Martin Bucer and the English Reformation (1946); G. J. Wilhelm Pauck, ;

Van De Poll, Martin Bucer's Liturgical Ideas (1944) Das reich Gottes auf Erden (1928).

BUCEROTIDAE,

;

(L. J. T.)

family of birds characterized by a brightly coloured horny growth, or casque, on their large bills. HoRNBiLL. See a

BUCH, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON,

Baron (1774and geographer, a member of an aristocratic Prussian family, was born at Stolpe, Pomerania, on April 26, 1774. In 1790-93 he studied at the mining school of Freiberg under A. G. Werner (g.v.), one of his fellow students He completed his educathere being Alexander von Humboldt. In 1797 he met tion at the universities of Halle and Gottingen. Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him explored the geological formations of Styria and the adjoining Alps. A visit to Italy in 1798 shook his faith in the Wernerian Neptunist theory of the aqueous origin of igneous rock, of which he had been the outstanding exponent. In 1799 he paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned to study the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac, when they witnessed an eruption which supplied 1853

I,

German

geologist

Von Buch with data regarding volcanoes.

many erroneous ideas then held In 1802 he explored the extinct volcanoes

for refuting

he embodied in his Geogtiostische Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland mid It alien (1802-09). Von Buch spent two years among the Scandinavian islands; he showed that many of the erratic blocks on the north German plains must have come from He also established the fact that the whole of Scandinavia. Sweden is slowly but continuously rising above the level of the sea from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of these discoveries are given in his Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland (ISIO). In 1815 he visited the Canary Islands (q.v.) in company with Christian Smith, the Norwegian botanist, to study their volcanic origins. His classic physical description of the Canary Islands was pubof Auvergne.

The

scientific results of his investigations

lished at Berlin in 1825.

After leaving the Canaries,

Von Buch

proceeded to the Hebrides and the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. He published in 1832 the magnificent Geological Map of Germany, 42 sheets. He also helped to establish the stratigraphy of the Jurassic system. He died at Berlin on March 4, 1853. A complete edition of his works was published in 1867-85, edited by J.

W. Ewald and

others.

BUCH, JEAN

DE GRAILLY,

Captal de (1321III 1376), the chief vassal and officer in Gascony under the English king Edward III and Edward (the Black Prince), was a shining example of 14th-century chivalry, frequently extolled by Froissart His for his valour in battle, for his courage and for his loyalty. great-grandfather, the Savoyard noble Jean I de Grailly (or Grilly),

went

to

England and was on three occasions appointed

seneschal of Gascony for Henry III and Edward I, who gave him Jean Ill's father, the viscountcies of Benauges and Castillon. Pierre II de Grailly, by his marriage with Assalide de Bordeaux

acquired the captalat of Buch;

i.e.,

the principal seigniory in the

pays of Buch, the chief town of which was La Teste de Buch (on the edge of the Arcachon basin). Jean was the son of Pierre's Jean later marriage to Blanche, daughter of Gaston V of Foix. de Grailly remained steadfastly loyal to Edward III who increased his hereditary possessions by the addition of the county of Bigorre and made him a knight of the Order of the Garter, Jean de Grailly was, with Sir John Chandos, the chief agent of

BUCHAN— BUCHANAN

340

the Black Prince's victory at Poitiers in 1356. In 1357 he went with his cousin Gaston Phoebus of Foix on a crusade against the

pagans

On

in Prussia.

returning to France (1358

).

the two cousins

released the dauphine (Jeanne de Bourbon) and the duchesse d'Orleans (Blanche de France), whom the rebels of the Jacquerie were

In 1364, however, he commanded the Navararmy which was defeated by Bertrand du Guesclin at Cocherel. He then took part in the battle of Najera in Castille (1367), when besieging in Meaux. rese

the Black Prince defeated Du Guesclin. In 1371 he was nominated constable of Aquitaine by the Black Prince, but was taken prisoner

by French troops near Soubise to serve Charles V,

he died

in Saintonge.

in the

Obstinately refusing

Temple prison

in Paris in 1376.

(Y. R.)

BUCHAN, EARLS

earldom of Mar and Buchan was one of the seven original Scottish mormaorships; later Buchan was separated from Mar and passed with an heiress to the Comyns, of whom Alexander (d. 1290) and John (see Comyn, John) were both constables of Scotland. John's wife, Isabel, crowned Robert I (the Bruce) at Scone in 1306, and was afterward imprisoned by the English in a cage at Berwick. After John's death (1308), the earldom was claimed by Henry, Lord Beaumont (d. 1340), husband of John's niece and coheiress, Alice Comyn; but although summoned to parliament in England as earl of Buchan, his title was not recognized in Scotland and Alice's younger sister, Margaret, who married Sir John Ross, may in that country have been styled countess of Buchan. But the title was not claimed by the issue of either sister, and Sir Alexander Stewart (d. c. 1405), called "the wolf of Badenoch," a son of King Robert II, became earl of Buchan (c. 1382). The earldom was then held for about 150 years by the Stewarts, of whom one of the most important was Sir Alexander's nephew, John (c. 1380-1424), who became constable of France and was killed fighting for Charles VII at the battle of Verneuil. Subsequently the title passed twice through heiresses: first to Robert Douglas (d. 1580) and his son James (d. 1601) and then in 1617 to James Erskine (d. 1640), a member of the family which retained it thereafter. Most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was David Steuart Erskine (1742-1829), 11th earl. His pertinacity was instrumental in effecting a change in the method of electing Scottish representative peers, and he founded the Scottish Society of Antiquaries

OF. The

(17S0). Among his many correspondents was a reluctant Horace Walpole, and he wrote Essays on the Lives of Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson (1792). He died at Dryburgh abbey on April 19, 1829. Donald Cardross Flower Erskine (1899succeeded his cousin, as 16th earl, in 1960. (T, I.) )

BUCHAN, ALEXANDER

(1829-1907), the most eminent was born at Kinnesswood, Kinross-shire, Scot., on April 11, 1829. He took up teaching as a profession and botany as a hobby. In Dec. i860 he was appointed secretary of the Scottish Meteorological society and edited and largely wrote the society's journal, thereby gaining an international reputation. In 1887 he was made a member of the Meteorological council and in 1898 was elected a fellow of the Royal society. In 1902 he received the first award of the Symons medal as the most eminent British meteorologist. He had a full share in the opening, in 1883, of the Ben Nevis observatory and in British meteorologist of the 19th century,

the discussion of the observations until it closed in 1904. Buchan died in Edinburgh on May 13, 1907. In 1867 Buchan published his Handy Book of Meteorology, for many years a standard textbook. In 1S69 he contributed to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a paper on "The Mean Pressure of the

Atmosphere and the Prevailing Winds Over the Globe, for the Months and for the Year" which secured for him a pre-eminent place among meteorologists. He contributed memoirs on "Atmospheric Circulation" (1889) and on "Oceanic Circulation" (1895) for the "Challenger" expedition reports. Buchan Spells In papers contributed to the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (1869) on "Interruptions in the Regular Rise and Fall of Temperature in the Course of the Year" Buchan discussed temperature records for the years 1857-66 which suggested that there were nine periods each year, in six of which the temperature was below the seasonal normal and in three of which

—

was above, but he made no claim that they would always recur and did not again refer to this paper. In 1927 statisticians began to reconsider the evidence for the cold and hot spells which came to be called "Buchan spells." The modern view is that nonseasonal temperature fluctuations are very largely of a random nature. it

(E. M. 'Wn.) (1738-1791), religious fanatic and founder of a Scottish sect called Buchanites, proclaimed in 1783 that the second coming of Jesus Christ was at hand, that she herself was the woman predicted in Rev. xii and that the Rev. Hugh White of Irvine was her man-child who would rule the earth with a rod of iron. The magistrates of Irvine expelled her followers, who settled in Dumfriesshire, in a farmhouse called Buchan hall, where they practised peculiar rites, during which Mrs. Buchan "breathed" the Holy Ghost upon them. After her death in May 1791 they soon disappeared, the last adherent, Andrew Innes, dying

BUCHAN, ELSPETH

in 1846. See J. Train, The Buchanites From First to Last (1846) History of the Buchanite Delusion, 1783-1846 (1904).

;

J.

Cameron,

(H. Wa.)

BUCHAN, JOHN: see Tweedsmuir, John Buchan. BUCHANAN, FRANKLIN (1800-1874), U.S. naval ficer,

was born

in

Thomas McKean,

of-

Baltimore, Md., Sept. 17, 1800, grandson of a Delaware signer of the Declaration of In-

dependence. He became a midshipman Jan. 28, 1815. George Bancroft, the historian, then secretary of the navy, appointed him the first superintendent of the United States Naval academy, opened at Annapolis, Md., on Oct. 10, 1845. He commanded the U.S.S. "Susquehanna," flagship of Commodore M. C. Perry, in Japan, 1852-54. Believing that Maryland would secede from the Union, he resigned his commission on April 22, 1861, while in

command

Washington navy yard. He tried to recall this was dismissed May 14 and entered the Confederate States navy. He commanded the ironclad ram "Virginia" ("Merrimack") when she sank the Union ships "Cumberland" and "Congress" in Hampton Roads, March 8, 1862; his brother, McKean Buchanan, was an officer on board the "Congress." Promoted to the rank of admiral on Aug. 26, 1862, Buchanan was the senior officer of the Confederate navy thereafter. In Mobile bay, Aug. 5. 1864, he fought Farragut's ships with the ram "Tennessee" after other vessels of his own squadron were disabled or captured. He was wounded on board the "Virginia" and again on the "Tennessee." He died May 11, 1874. (J. B. Hn.) (1506-1582), Scotland's greatest humanist, was born in Feb. 1506, near Killearn, Stirlingshire. His father, who claimed descent from the house of Lennox, was poor and died early; but George, having showed great promise, was There he sent by his uncle in 1520 to the University of Paris. began a course in arts, but in 1522 his uncle's death recalled him to Scotland. He took part in the duke of Albany's brief expedition against England in 1523, but thereafter suffered a breakdown in health. Only in 1525 was he able to resume his studies, at St. Andrews, attracted no doubt by the fame of John Major. He completed his B.A. in 1526 and returned to Paris as a bursar in the Scots college. After a period of penury he graduated master in 1528, and became a regent (teacher) in the enlightened College de Ste. Barbe. Rejecting the old-fashioned grammar of Alexandre of the

resignation, but

BUCHANAN, GEORGE

de Villedieu, he taught Latin according to the method of Thomas Linacre, whose book, in English, on Latin grammar he translated into Latin (1533). His reputation grew and in 1529 he was made In 1531 he became tutor "procurator of the German nation." to the young earl of Cassillis, with whom he returned to Scotland in 1534 or 1535. He was next entrusted with the education of eldest of James V's natural sons. with Cassillis he had attacked the Franciscans in Somnium little more than a translation of a poem by William Dunbar and in' 1537 he produced the still more bitter satire Franciscanus. He was attacked as a heretic in 1539, and escaped through the window of his prison in St. Andrews. Suspect, he was unwelcome both in England and in Paris and accepted an invitation from his Portuguese friend, Andre de Gouvea, principal of the College de Guyenne in Bordeaux, who was introducing the new method of education. There Montaigne was one

James Stewart, the While

still

— —

BUCHANAN Buchanan found diversion in translating Euripides' Medea and Alcestis in Latin, and in writing two original dramas, Jephthes and Baptistcs, the latter a thinly veiled attack upon persecuting tyranny. Of the years which followed his departure from Bordeau.x in 1542 or 154,^ little is known, but 1547 found him in Portugal, where Gouvea had become head of a new college in the University of Coimbra. Gouvea, himself a Roman Catholic, held liberal views but on his death Buchanan and other teachers were accused of heresy. After having been immured in a monastery for instruction, he was allowed to leave Portugal in 1552. In captivity he had composed a paraphrase of the Psalms which, published in the 1 560s, was long used to instruct Scottish youth in Latin. Once more in France, he acted for a time as tutor to the son of Marshal Brissac. In this congenial employment he began what he thought would be his magnum opus. This was the De Sphacra, a poem in five books which, although in distinguished Latin, was but a defense of the old Ptolemaic system and remained unpublished until after his death. Among other poems written at this time was the Epithalamium on the marriage of Mary Queen of Scots with the dauphin (1558) from which he hoped great things; but the dauphin's death (Dec. 1560) and the recrudescence of persecution disillusioned him and he returned to Scotland in 1561. There he was at once recognized as Poetarum nostri seciili facile of his pupils.

princeps ("unquestionably the foremost poet of our generation"). He had become Protestant, but since Mary pursued a politique course he was able to commend himself to both kirk and crown. sat on four occasions in the general assembly of the Scottish He instructed the queen in

He

kirk; yet also acted as court poet.

Livy, was consulted about the reform of the University of St.

—

Andrews and was granted a pension somewhat irregularly paid. He reconciled himself to the queen's Catholic marriage in 1565 probably because her bridegroom, Henry, Lord Darnley, was a scion of his own house of Lennox. In 1566 he was made principal of St. Leonard's college; in the same year he dedicated to the queen, in a charming epigram, the second edition of his paraphrase of the Psalms, and as late as December helped to compose the masque which graced the baptism of the infant James VI. After the murder of Darnley in 1567 he became Mary's bitter enemy and served each of the regents who ruled after her enforced abdication Moray, Lennox, Mar and Morton. He helped Moray to prepare the case against Mary presented to Elizabeth I, and in 157 1 published the Detectio which gave Europe a lurid version of

—

Under Lennox (1570-71) he became tutor young king and was made director of chancery and keeper These offices he continued to hold, though he re-

the queen's conduct. to the

of the privy seal.

signed the seal in 1578, but his influence declined because of his waning health and perhaps because his political opinions did not

commend themselves to the authoritarian Morton. He died on Sept. 29, 1582, and was buried in Edinburgh. De jure regni apiid Scotos (1579), the most important of his political writings, and immensely popular, was a resolute assertion of limited monarchy in dialogue form and on the classical model; and Rerum Scoticarnm Historia (1582) (which he was completing at the time of though it accepted the 108 kings from the mythical Fergus and superabounded in patriotism, was strongly coloured his death),

by

his theories.

By

the partisans of Mary, Buchanan has been regarded as an unprincipled turncoat who repaid benefits with black ingratitude, but generally he survives in Scottish tradition as a hero of Protestantism, reform and liberty. This is at first sight odd. He wrote, almost entirely, not in Scots but in Latin; he became a Protestant only about 1560; for long he was known throughout Europe as a

who composed among other things erotica; his astronomical theories were outmoded; his political ideas were not new; his History, compared by his admirers with Caesar, Livy

scholar and a poet,

and

Sallust, was, according to modern ideas, uncritical. It might be thought that he should instead be regarded as essentially a humanist, who wrote with the first pen in Europe.

Yet there is justification for the traditional view. He could Erasmus, regard with easy tolerance views and instituwhich he disagreed. He set himself to destroy what he regarded as corrupt and inefficient; he expressed himself with

not, like

tions with

341

power and eloquence; and his disregard of convention made him the colourful figure who survives in many exaggerated stories. With all his shortcomings he was a fearless champion of truth as he saw it and he well deserves his place in Scottish tradition. The standard complete edition of Buchanan's works is by T. Ruddiman (171 5). His writings in Scots were edited for the Scottish Text society by P. Hume Brown (1892). The most useful translation of his history is that used by James Aikman as the foundation of his History of Scotland, six volumes (1827-29). De jure regni apud Scotos was translated by C. Flinn Arrowood (1949). Bibliography. The best bibliography of Buchanan's works is

—

George Buchanan, "Glasgow Quatercenlcnary Studies" (igo6), which includes valuable articles on the materia). The colourful Life of Buchanan in Mackenzie's Lives of Scots Writers, 3 vol. (1708-22) is not reliable. D. Irving, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan, 2nd ed. (1S17) is useful, but the standard biography is P. Hume Brown, George Buchanan, Humanist and Reformer (i8qo) though this must be supplemented by later material, notably G. J. C. Henriques, George Buchanan and the Lisbon Inquisition: the Records of His Trial With a Translation Thereof Into Ent;lish (iqo6). (JN. D. M.)

BUCHANAN, JAMES

(1791-1868), ISth president of the United States, was born near Mercersburg, Pa., on April 23, 1791. Both parents were of Scottish-Irish Presbyterian descent. He graduated from Dickinson college, Carlisle, Pa., in 1809 and studied law at Lancaster for two years. He was admitted to the bar in 1812 and served in the lower house of the state legislature, 1814-16. From 1821 to 1831 he served in the U.S. congress. As chairman of the judiciary committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830) of Judge H. Peck, led an unsuccessful movement to increase the number of supreme court judges and to relieve them of their circuit duties, and succeeded in defeating an attempt to repeal the 25th section of the Judiciary act of 1789, which gave the supreme court appellate jurisdiction by writ of error to the state courts in cases where federal laws and treaties were in question. After the dissolution of the Federalist party, of which he had been a member, he came to be definitely associated

with the Democrats. He represented the United States at the court of St. Petersburg from 1832 to 1833 and there negotiated an important commercial treaty. He was a Democratic member of the U.S. senate from Dec. 1834 until March 1845, ardently supporting President Jackson, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President Polk from 1845 to 1849 a period marked by the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War and negotiations with Great Britain relative to the Oregon question. After four years of retire-

—

ment, following his failure to secure the Democratic nomination for president, he was appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain in 1853. Sometime in the 1830s Buchanan had begun developing a consuming ambition for the presidency. He realized that as a northern man he must impress the southern party leadership with his respect for the constitutional safeguards of slavery. He felt that the institution was morally wrong, but held that congress could not interfere with it in the states in which it existed, and ought not to hinder the natural tendency toward territorial expansion through a fear that the evil would spread. He voted for the bill to exclude antislavery literature from the mails, he supported the Compromise of 1850 (see Compromise of 1850) and opposed the Wilmot proviso. Fortunately for his career he was abroad during the Kansas-Nebraska debates, hence did not share in the unpopularity which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as the author of the Kansas-Nebraska bill and to President Pierce as the executive who was called upon to enforce it. At the same time, by joining with J. Y. Mason and Pierre Soule in signing the Ostend manifesto (g.v.) in 1854, Buchanan retained the good will of the south. This "manifesto," which was bitterly attacked in the north, was agreed upon (Oct. 18, 1854) by the three ministers after several meetings at Ostend and at Aix-la-Chapelle. These meetings were arranged in pursuance of instructions from President Pierce to aid in mobilizing powerful financial influences in the European capitals to bring pressure on Spain for the sale of Cuba so that Spain would have the money to pay some of its debts long due these financiers. These diplomats, as far as is known, did nothing toward this end. Rather they spent their time in drafting

—

BUCHANAN— BUCHAREST

342 work

recommended that In view of the fact that many feared that the Negroes might take over Cuba as they had Haiti, the diplomats added a caution. Such action would be a menace to the southern states, where it might encourage a slave uprising. The diplomats expressed their view that if such "Africanization'' took place, the United States might then, had Spain refused to sell, have to take over Cuba in self-defense. Spain would not sell and the island did not come under Negro rule, so the document served no practical purpose. However, the rising a report, largely the

of Buchanan, which

the United States purchase the island.

Republican press proclaimed it a "manifesto" pointing a gun at Spain and saying "sell it or we seize it," a partisan interpretation not warranted by the facts. On Buchanan's return from England in 1856 he was nominated by the Democrats as a compromise candidate for president and was elected, receixdng 174 electoral votes to 114 for J. C. Fremont, Republican, and 8 for Millard Fillmore, American or "KnowNothing." Buchanan's character, the breadth of his legal knowledge, and his experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplomat, would have made him an excellent president in ordinary times; but he lacked the soundness of judgment, the self-rehance and the moral courage needed to face the slavery crisis. His idea of saving the Union was to prevent northern agitation and to

BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS

(1841-1901), English poet, novelist and playwright, chiefly remembered for his attacks on the Pre-Raphaelites, was born at Caverswall, Staffordshire, Aug. 18, 1841. London Poems (1866) established him as a poet. His first novel was The Shadow of the Sword (1876) and he continued to pour out poems, novels and melodramas of which. Alone in London (1884) may be taken as typical. His own forcefulness and moral fervour led him to criticize Swinburne and other contemporary poets, and his attacks culminated in an article "The Fleshly School of Poetry" published pseudonymously in the Contemporary Review (1871). This provoked a violent literary argument Rossetti's reply, "The Stealthy School of Criticism," appeared in the Athenaeum (1871), and Swinburne's as a pamphlet Under the Microscope (1872). Buchanan died in London, June 10, 1901. ;

;

BUCHAREST

(Rum. Bucuresti), an administrative and economic region of southeast Rumania, is located between the Olt and the Danube. Area 20,479 sq.km. (7,907 sq.mi.). Pop. (1956) 1,571,876. It is divided into 19 administrative districts. The chief towns are Bucharest, the capital of Rumania and administrative centre of the region, Giurgiu, Oltenita, Rosiorii-deVede and Alexandria. The region comprises a part of the Rumanian plain and a portion of the Danube water meadow and is

participate in

drained by the Danube and its tributaries, the Olt, Arges, lalomita and Dimbovita. A steppe vegetation prevails. With 75% arable land, Bucharest is the grain centre of Rumania. It grows wheat, maize (corn), vegetables, rice, sunflower and tobacco, and has 14% of the countr>''s vineyards. Industries include food processing and textiles. There are important oil and natural

to force through the admission of

gas deposits.

enforce the fugitive slave law. At the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas and assured him of his determination to adhere to the popular sovereignty principle. The president, however, lost patience with the "free state" Kansans when they refused to

making the Lecompton constitution. He then tried Kansas under that constitution so that the slavery agitation might cease. He believed that the citizens could eliminate the proslavery features of the document soon after admission. His Kansas policy was dictated by his sincere desire to get the issue out of congress.

Also he was at odds with both Douglas and Walker because they would not recognize him as party leader. The panic of 1857 was disastrous in the north but affected the south little and thus gave the southerners a false impression of their economic independence. The religious revival of 1858 and John Brown's raid in 1859 stirred up emotions that made the south fearful that Yankees w^ere plotting to destroy their society. Nothing of importance that Buchanan attempted in domestic or foreign policy succeeded. The Democratic party split in two and the way for Lincoln's election was cleared.

The

election of Lincoln in 1860 convinced

that the Republican party

was now

many

in a position to

southerners send more

John Browns

to stir up slave revolts. In Dec. 1860 South Carolina began a secession movement that soon involved seven states. Buchanan denounced secession but could find no means to stop it. He would not surrender any of the forts that he could hold. The most notable example was Ft. Sumter in Charleston harbour. He permitted its commander, Maj. Robert Anderson, to strengthen his position in the harbour and sent him supplies in the "Star of the West" in Jan. 1861. When that ship was fired on (Jan. 9) and turned back, he awaited the outcome of a truce. Nothing came of it but neither did hostihties break out, so Buchanan held the second relief expedition to await Major Anderson's call. When word came that aid was needed it was too late to act, and Buchanan turned over the problem to the new administration. On the e.xpiration of his term of office (March 4, 1861) he retired to his home, named Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pa., where he actively supported the Union until his death on June 1, 1868. He was never married. His mistakes as president have been so emphasized as to obscure the fact that he was a man of unimpeachable honesty, of the highest patriotism and of considerable ability. See also American Civil War; United States of America;

History.

—

BmiiOGRAPHY. G. T. Curtis, The Life of James Buchanan (18S3) ; J. B. Moore (ed.). The Works of James Buchanan, Comprising His Speeches, State Papers, and Private Correspondence (1908-10) Allan Nevins, Emergence of Lincoln (1950); R. F. Nichols, Disruption of American Democracy (1948) and Franklin Pierce, 2nd ed. (1958). (R. F. N.) ;

BUCHAREST

(Rum. Orasul Bucuresti),

the capital of

Rumania and

the administrative centre of the Bucharest region, shallow depression in the middle of the slightly undulating Walachian plain, 82 m. (269 ft.) above sea level. It is traversed lies in a

by the Dimbovita

river

larger part of the city

from northwest is

situated on

to southeast,

and much the

bank.

Bucharest is 85° F.) being

its right

summer heat (up to followed by cold winters (down to 20° F. below zero). The popuwhich more than doubled after World War I, was estimated

subject to extremes of climate, lation,

at 1,225,507 in 1960.

thickly populated part of the city lies between the bank of the Dimbovita and the chain of lakes to the north. There are the largest buildings of the modern city among which stand the few surviving old buildings, the earUest of which is the Curtea Veche (Old Court) church, the former chapel of the princely palace, built by Prince Mircea Ciobanul in 1545-59.

The most

left

Outstanding among other old buildings are the Coltea church, which dates from the end of the 1 7th century, the St. Gheorghe Nou (1707), Stavropoleos (1730) and Kretulesscu (1722) churches. The most typical buildings of the medieval town stand on the right bank of the Dimbovita, which used to mark the southwestern limits of the 16th-century town. Three churches crown the hills close beside the river: the centre one, the metropolitan cathedral, was built in the middle of the 17th century; the church of the former Prince Mihai monastery stands to the west, built in 1594 by Prince Michael the Brave. Beyond the medieval settlement, Bucharest began to spread out in the second half of the 17th century. Two famous monastic settlements were established the Antim monastery, founded in 1715, and the Vacaresti monastery, built in 1718-22; both are characteristic of the architecture of the ISth century.

The aspect of the town in the early 1960s was that of a modem Amid the irregular network of the older, narrow and

metropolis.

tortuous streets, there are several broad thoroughfares, the two intersecting each other almost at right angles and diOne viding the city into four sections of roughly equal area. of these thoroughfares (called in succession boulevards Ardeal,

main ones

March

the Sixth and Republic) crosses the city

from

east to west.

western end he the botanical gardens and near In this street, too, are some of outstanding modern buildings including the faculty of built in 1902 in the neoclassical style, some ministerial

Along

its

the Cismigiu gardens.

the centre

the city's medicine, buildings,

BUCHER— BUCHEZ

343 tan archbishops until 1660. Gradually the town achieved greater importance, especially af-

Michael the Brave had driven out the Turks at the end of the 16th century (see Rumania: History). In the 17th century Bucharest steadily spread out across the right bank of the Dimbovita, around the big Radu Voda and ter

Mihai Voda monasteries. The city experienced a remarkably commerce and in the arts in the time of Serban Gantacuzino (167888) and Gonstantin Brancovan (1688-1714). In the 18th century the majority of the popuflourishing period both in

ART MUSEUM OF THE RUMANIAN PEOPLES REPUBLIC. FORMERLY A ROYAL PALACE. BUCHAREST; 1935-37 the opera house and ballet theatre

(1953) and the university, the central body of which was destroyed during air raids in 1944. The second thoroughfare (boulevards Ana Ipatescu, Magheru, Balcescu and 1S48), which traverses the city from north to south, is lined with blocks of apartments, mostly built after World War I. The main street is Galea \'ictoriei, named in honour of the victory won in the war of independence (1877). Along and close to this street, which runs from south to north, and beginning from the left bank of the Dimbovita, are many of the most noteworthy buildings of the

modern

city:

the palace of justice (partly con-

verted into a libr'ary), an imposing building in the French neoRenaissance style built in 1895, the palace of the Athenaeum (1888), the central university library, the palace of the council of ministers (1938) and the natural history museum. Galea Victoriei continues as the famous Kiselev avenue constructed in 1832, at the

end of which

is

the Scinteia printing house, the largest build-

Gardens extend along Kiselev avenue museum was arranged. From different parts of the country original and characteristic specimens of houses were brought there, together with auxiliary buildings and many household utensils required in daily life, in order to help visitors to understand and study the life of country ing in Bucharest (1950-55). to

Lake Herastrau where

in 1936 a village

folk.

Bucharest has many institutions of higher education including the college of engineering (founded in 1850), the university (1864) and the institute of pharmacy and medicine (1869). It has also some notable museums, specializing in archaeology, popular art and military matters. The art museum includes a national art gallery and sections devoted to both western and oriental art. Bucharest is well endowed with sports facilities, and possesses three large stadiums and the modern Floreasca sports complex. The public transport system includes streetcars, buses and trolley buses. Gommunication with provincial towns and other European countries is by rail and air. The city has four railway stations and an airport at Baneasa, 7 km. (4^ mi.) from the centre. There are many modern factories, making textiles, farm machinery and automobiles. The city also possesses tanneries, shoe factories, oil refineries and engineering works and produces 20% of Rumania's

History.

— Although excavations suggest that

nian society in the first half of the 9th century, and under the influence of western ideas and trends in art, a start was made in modernizing the city. It became the capital of the united principalities, Walachia and Moldavia in 1859, and the capital of the kingdom of Rumania in 1862. 1

Bucharest was occupied by the Russians from 1828 to 1834, during 1848-51, in 1854 and 1877. The Austrians occupied it during the Grimean War (1854-56). In World War I the Germans entered the city on Dec. 6, 1916, and remained there until Nov. 30, 1918.

In World

War

II they

moved

into

Rumania

in Sept.

1940

was the scene of a successful coup d'etat: war was declared on Germany and the Soviet

as allies but

on Aug.

23, 1944, the capital

army entered Bucharest as an ally. (G. I.) BUCHER, (1817-1892), German publicist and one of Bismarck's most trusted assistants, was born at Neustettin, Pomerania, on Oct. 25, 1817. A member of the Prussian national assembly in 1848 and of the Prussian second chamber (in which he sat with the extreme left) in 1849, he was sentenced in 1850 to 15 months' imprisonment for organizing a movement against the payment of taxes. Fleeing to London, he worked there as correspondent of the National Zeitiing (1850-61). On his return to Berlin, Bucher continued writing for the National Zeitung and collaborated with Ferdinand Lassalle. In 1864 he was given a position in the Prussian foreign office by Bismarck, whose complete confidence he soon won. He drew up the text of the constitution of the North German confederation (1867), was sent on confidential missions to Spain in connection with the HohenzoUern candidature for the Spanish crown (1870), assisted Bismarck at the final negotiations for the treaty of Frankfurt at the end of the Franco-German War (1871) and was secretaire arcliiviste to the congress of Berlin (1878). He was also responsible for Bismarck's relations with the press and for "inspired" articles in newspapers and magazines. His special relationship with Bismarck, however, aroused the animosity of some of the most influential Prussian

LOTHAR

aristocrats,

and

this led to his resignation

from the foreign

office

After Bismarck's dismissal in 1890, Bucher assisted him composition of his memoirs, the Gedanken und Erinnerungen. Bucher died at Glion, Switz., on Oct. 10, 1892.

in 1886.

at Friedrichsruh in the

His works include: Kulturhistorische Skizzen aiis der Indus(1851); Bilder ans der Fremde, two volumes (1862); Der Parlamentarismus me er ist (1882); Kleine Sc/iriften politisches Inhalts (1893). Bibliography. H. von Poschinger, Ein 48er: Lothar Buchers Leben und Werke, 3 vol. (1S90-94); A. Manheim Vitters, Bucher und Lassalle, 1S4S-64 (1930) B. Brohl, Lothar Bucher als PubVrJsl (1941). trieaiisstellung alter Volker

gross industrial output.

the site has been

inhabited since Paleolithic times, Bucharest was probably founded

second half of the 14th century. Situated on trade routes from Gonstantinople, it was in a position of some strategic importance. It is mentioned in 1368 under the name of Getatea Dimbovitei (fortress of the Dimbovita). The name Getatea Bucurestilor first appears in a document signed by Vlad IV (Tepes) in 1459, when the city, which shared the position of capital with the more ancient Tirgoviste. extended along the left bank of the Dimbovita. Tirgovifte was the seat of the princes and metropoliin the

ation consisted of Phanariot Greeks from Gonstantinople. Goncurrently with the structural changes initiated in Ruma-

—

;

BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN

(1796-

1865), French philosopher and politician who was a precursor of modern Ghristian socialist movement. Born on March 30,

the

1796, in the Flemish village Matagne-la-Petite, he studied medicine at Paris and obtained his doctorate in 1825.

A

bitter op-

BUCHHOLTZ— BUCK

344

Bourbon restoration, in 1821 he founded the Charbomierie jrani;aise, modeled on the Italian Carbonari (q.v.). After 1825, attracted by the social philosophy of Henri de Saint-Simon (q.v.). he became a supporter of Saint-Simonism and a contributor to its magazine, Le Producteur, but he left the movement at the potient of the

end of mained

8 29 in opposition to its pantheistic tendencies.

1

He

re-

faithful, however, to Saint-Simonist doctrine and presented his views in a new magazine, L'Europeen, which appeared intermittently from 1831 to 183S. During these years he also published his three most important works. Introduction a la science de I'histoire (1833 ). Histoire parlementaire de la Revolution frangaise

1833-38 and Essai d'un traite complet de philosophie au point de vue du catholicisme ct du progres (1839-40), Following the revolution of Feb. 1848, he was elected to the constituent assembly and became its first president. Under the second empire, having previously opposed the rise of Loiris Xapoleon, he prudently withdrew from politics. He died, while visiting Auvergne, at Rodez on .\ug. II, 1S65. See .\. Cuvillier, P. J B. Biichez el les origines du socialisme Chretien (

)

.

(1948)-

BUCHHOLTZ, JOHN THEODORE who

botanist

(1888-1951),

US.

studied particularly morphology and genetics, was

born in Polk county. Neb,, on July 14, 1S88. He attended Iowa Wesleyan college. Mt. Pleasant; the State University of Iowa, Iowa City; and The University of Chicago, where he received a Ph.D. degree in plant morphology in 1917. Buchholtz headed the science department at Arkansas State Normal school, Conway, 1911-18, and was professor of botany at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville (1919-26 ), the University of Texas, Austin (1926-29), and the University of Illinois, Urbana (1929-51), He was for 20 years visiting investigator at the department of genetics of the Carnegie institution. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.. and served as president of the Botanical Society of America in 1941. In 1947-48 he studied botanical problems in New Caledonia. Buchholtz wrote numerous botanical articles, including those concerning the morphology and embryology of conifers and the genetics of Datura and gymnosperms. He died on July I, 1951. at Champaign. 111. (1860-1917), German chemist who specialized in research in fermentation and enzyme action and won the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1907, was born at Munich, May 20, 1860. He was professor at Berlin (1898). Breslau (1909) and Wiirzburg (1911). In 1897 he was able to confirm Traube's theory by demonstrating that the active cause of alcoholic fermentation is the action of different enzymes contained in yeast and not the yeast cell itself. Concerning the physiological nature and meaning of fermentation he showed that a ferment (zymase can be e.xtracted from yeast cells which causes sugar to break up into carbon dioxide and alcohol. Buchner was killed in World War I on Aug. 24, 1917. See Fermentation; Buchner:

BUCHNER, EDUARD

)

Cell-Free Ferincntatio7i.

BUCHNER, GEORG

(1813-1837), German dramatist, a forerunner of the E.xpressionists of the 20th century, was born at Goddelau near Darmstadt on Oct, 17, 1813, the son of an army doctor, and studied medicine at Strasbourg and Giessen, At Giessen he was caught up in the revolutionary movement inspired by the Paris rising of 1830; he published a revolutionary pamphlet,

Der

hessische Landbote (1834), and founded a radical society, Die Gesellschaft der Menschenrechte, He escaped arrest by fleeing to Strasbourg. He became a lecturer in natural science at Ziirich in

1836, and died there of typhoid fever on Feb. 19. 1837. The three plays Buchner wrote during his short life, clearly influenced in style by Shakespeare and the Sturm iind Drang move-

ment, were in content and form far ahead of their time. In short, abrupt scenes, they combine extreme naturalism with visionary power. His first play, Dantons Tod ("Danton's Death," 1835; first performed in Berlin, 1902), is a drama of the French Revolution, suffused with deep pessimism. Leonce und Lena (1836; performed at Munich, 1885), a romantic comedy, shows the influence of Alfred de Musset and Clemens Brentano. His last work, Woyzeck (1836; performed 1913), which remained a fragment, anticipates the social drama of the 1890s with its compassion for

Except for Dantons Tod and the frag-

the poor and oppressed.

ment of

a novel, Lenz (1839), Biichner's writings appeared only after his death, Woyzeck not until 1879, w^hen the manuscript was

deciphered and edited by K, E. Franzos, Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck (1925),

served as libretto for

It

Bijchner exercised a marked influence on the naturalistic drama of the 1S90S and, later, on Expressionism. He is now recognized as one of the outstanding figures in German dramatic literature. Bijchner's IVerke und Brieje were edited by F, Bergemann (6th ed., 1953); The Plays of G. Biichner (1952) is an English translation

by G, Dunlop,

—

Bibliography. A. Pfeiffer, Biichner (1934) E. Diehm, Biichners Leben und Werke (iq46) K. Victor, Biichner, Politik, Dichlung, Wissenschaft (iq4q) .\. H. Knight, Biichner (1951). (H. F. Gn.) ;

;

;

BUCHNER, LUDWIG became one

(1824-1899), German physician who

most popular exponents of "crude" materialism, Darmstadt on March 28. 1824. He began teaching

of the

was born at medicine as Privatdocent at the University of Tubingen, but the outspoken materialism of his masterpiece, Kraft und Stoff (1855; 2nd Eng. trans, from 10th Ger. ed.. Force and Matter, 1870), caused such an outcry that he had to retire to his home town and practise as a doctor there. He continued, however, to expound his materialistic and atheistic views in numerous publications, including Natur und Geist (1857), Aus Natur und Wissenschaft, two volumes (1862-84), Die Stellung des Menschen in der Natur (1869; Eng. trans., Man, Past, Present and Future, 1872), Der Gottesbegriff und dessen Bedeutung in der Gegenwart (1874), Der Fortschritt in Natur und Geschichte im Lichte der Darwin' schen Theorie 1884), Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem geistigen Leben der Gegenwart (1890), Gott und die Wissenschaft (1897), Am Sterbelager des Jahrhunderts (1898). Rejecting all distinction of mind from matter, he appealed strongly to contemporary freethinkers but was condemned as "bourgeois" by dialectical materialists, especially after he had accepted competitive capitalism as exemplifying the Darwinian "struggle for survival." Biichner died at Darmstadt on April 30, 1899. .

.

.

(

See the memoir by his brother Alexander appended to the postselection of essays by Ludwig Biichner, Im Dienste der Wahr(1S99).

humous heit

BUCK, PEARL

(nee Sydenstricker)

(1892-

),

U.S.

author, was awarded for her novels and biographies the Nobel prize in literature in 1938. She was born in Hillsboro, W,Va,, on

June 26, 1892, but spent her youth in Chen-chiang, China, where her parents were Presbyterian missionaries. She received her early education in Shanghai and was graduated from Randolph-Macon Woman's college, Lynchburg. Va., in 1914; she returned to China and later became Her articles and stories about a university teacher in Nanking, Chinese life first appeared in U.S. magazines in 1923. but it was not until 1931 that she reached a wide audience with The Good Earth, which described sympathetically the struggles of a Chinese peasant and his slave-wife to gain land and position. This novel,

awarded the Pulitzer prize (1932) and widely translated, was followed by Sons (1932) and A House Divided (1935); the trilogy was published as The House of Earth (1935), In 1934 she was divorced in the United States from John L. Buck, a missionary in China whom she had married in 19 17. In the following year she was married to Richard J. Walsh, a New York publisher, and thereafter hved in the United States. She continued to write under the name Pearl Buck. Mrs. Buck turned to biography with lives of her father Absalom Sydenstricker, Fighting Atigel (1936), and her mother Caroline, The Exile (1936), Her later books include The Patriot (1939), Other Gods (1940), Dragon Seed (1942) and Imperial Woman (1956), novels; TJte First Wife (1933) and Far and Near (1947), short stories; The Child Who Never Grew (1950), concerning her retarded daughter; and an autobiography, My Several Worlds (W. L. Ps.; X.) (1954). BUCK, in zoology, the male of several animals: deer (except the genus Cervus, males of which are called stags), antelope, goat, hare, rabbit, rat, etc.

It is often used, especially in

indicate the male fallow deer (q.v.).

The names

England, to many an-

of

BUCK BEAN— BUCKINGHAM telopes (q.v.) contain the term buck: bushbuck, prongbuck, black

On Humphrey's

Buckingham

buck, reedbuck. etc.

BUCK BEAN

(Bog Bean; Menyanthcs trifoliata), a member of the family Gentianaceae (^g.v.), a bog plant with a creeping stem, alternately arranged large leaves each with three leaflets and

The plant, widely distributed through the north temperate zone, makes a useful bog-garden subject, as a ground cover. spikes of white or pink flow-ers.

BUCKEYE: see Horse Chestnut. BUCKFASTLEIGH, an urban district

of Devon, Eng., best

known

for the abbey at Buckfast (1 mi. N.), is situated 21 mi. E.N.E. of Plymouth by road, above Totnes on the river Dart which

The original Pop. (1961) 2,550. provides trout and salmon. Benedictine abbey, founded in 1018, was refounded and rebuilt in the 12th century as a Cistercian house which became very prosperous. After the Dissolution it became a ruin and remained so for 300 years, but in 1882 a group of French Benedictine monks site and with their own hands re-erected the abbey on its original foundations, the work being completed in 1937. There were rarely more than six monks engaged on the work at any one time and four worked almost continuously for 32 years. Cruciform in plan, with choir and central tower, the building, largely of local limestone, is impressive. The high altar, of wrought metal, gilded and enameled, is an excellent piece of craftsmanship. There are 15 altars and behind the high altar an ambulatory with The tower contains a fine peal of 14 bells, the largest six chapels. weighing eight tons. The monks, long famous for their tonic wine, are also well-known for beekeeping. Serge and blankets are manufactured in the urban district; other activities are dealing in hides, quarrying and agricultural engineering. The parish church stands on a limestone hill riddled by an-

acquired the

cient caves containing

only.

numerous

bats.

(Fr.

M.

S.)

BUCKHAVEN AND METHIL, a

small burgh and port of Fife, Scot., lies on the north side of the Firth of Forth, 8 mi. N.E. of Kirkcaldy. Pop. (1961) 21,104. The burgh takes its name from tw'O villages which were united in 1891, since when a system of modern docks has been constructed at Methil. Buildings are mostly modern, Buckhaven high school (1958) being notable for its design. The chief industries are coal mining and the production of steel, plastics and fertilizers. Coal is exported and raw K. Fe.) fertilizers and pulp for papermaking are imported. BUCKIE, a small burgh and fishing town of Banffshire, Scot., on the Moray firth, at the mouth of Buckie burn which runs into sandy Spey bay, Kes about 20 mi. W. of Banff by road. Pop. (1961) 7,666. It is the centre of a fishery district and the harbour for one of the largest Scottish fleets in the herring season, and The harbour, is also the chief centre of line fishing in Scotland. It was with an outer and inner basin, covers an area of 30 ac. considerably extended in 1921. Beside the fisheries and fish-curing trade, ship repairs, malting, whisky distilling and the making of barrels and food products are carried on. The burn (stream) divides the town into Buckie and Buckpool. Portgordon, 2 mi. W., is a thriving fishing village; its harbour was built by the duke of Richmond and Gordon in 1874. Rathven, 2 mi. E., lies in a fertile district, where there are several antiquities. (

BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The origin of the earldom of Buckingham (to be distinguished from that of Buckinghamshire [g-V.]) is obscure. According to J. H. Round (in G. E. C.'s Peerage) there is some charter evidence for its existence under William Rufus; but the main evidence for reckoning Walter Giffard, lord of Longueville in Normandy, who held 48 lordships in the county, as the first earl, is that of Orderic Vitalis, who describes Walter as "Comes Bucchingehamensis," in 1097 and at his death in 1102. After the death of Walter Giffard, 2nd earl, in 1164, the title was assumed by Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke ("Strongbow"), greatgrandson of Richard de Clare (d. 1090) who had married Rohese, daughter of Walter Giffard, the 1st earl; it died with him in 1176. In 1377 Thomas of Woodstock (duke of Gloucester) was created earl of Buckingham at the coronation of Richard II (July 15), and the title of Gloucester having after his death been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey bore that of earl of Buckingham

in

earl of Stafford,

345

death, his sister

Anne became countess

of

her own right. She married Edmund Stafford, and on her death (1438) the title of Buckingham

passed to her son Humphrey Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was created duke of Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family until the attainder and execution of Edward. 3rd duke, in 1521 (see

Buckingham, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke

of).

In 1617 King James I created George Villiers earl, in 1618 marquess and in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st Duke of). The marquessate and dukedom became extinct with the death of the 2nd (Villiers) duke in 1687; but the earldom was claimed, under the special remainder in the patent of 1617. by a collateral line of doubtful legitimacy claiming descent from John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck. The title was not actually borne after the death of John Villiers, styling himself The claim was extinguished by the earl of Buckingham, in 1723. death of George Villiers, a clergyman, in 1774. In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby, was created "duke of the county of Buckingham and of Normanby." His collected Works were published in 1723 (see also his Miscellanea, 1933), He was succeeded by his son Edmund, who died in Oct.

1735 when the

The

title

titles

became

extinct.

of marquess and duke of

Buckingham

in the Grenville

family (to the holders of which the remainder of this article applies) was derived, not from the county, but from the town of

Buckingham. It originated in 1784, when the 2nd earl of Temple was created marquess of Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham," this title being elevated into the dukedom of Buckingham and Chandos for his son in 1822. George Nugent Temple Grenville, 1st marquess of Buckingham (1753-1813), the second son of George Grenville, was bom on June 17, 1753. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1774 to 1779. In the house of commons he was a sharp critic of the American policy of Lord North. In Sept. 1779 he succeeded his uncle as the 2nd earl of Temple in July 1 782 he became a member of the privy council and lord lieutenant of Ireland in the Rockingham ministry. On his advice the Irish Judicature act of 1783 was passed, which supplemented the legislative independence granted ;

By royal warrant he created the Order of St. Patrick in Feb. 1783, with himself as the first grand master. Temple left Ireland in 1783 and again turned his attention to English to Ireland in 1782.

He enjoyed the confidence of George III, and having opposed Fox's East India bill, he was authorized by the king to say that "whoever voted for the India bill was not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy," a message which ensured the defeat of the bill. He was appointed a secretary of state when the younger Pitt formed his ministry in Dec. 1783, but resigned two days later. In Dec. 1 784 he was created marquess of Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham." In Nov. 1787 he was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but his second tenure of this office was hardly as successful as the first. He was denounced by Grattan for extravagance; was censured by the Irish houses of parliament for refusing to transmit to England an address calling upon the prince of Wales to assume the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resorting to bribery on a large scale. He resigned in Sept. 1789 and subsequently took very little part in politics, although he spoke in favour of the union with Ireland. He died at Stowe house, Buckinghamshire, on Feb. 11, 1813. His elder son, Richard Grenville, 1st duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1776-1839), was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1797 to 1813 and, as Earl Temple, took an active part in politics. In Feb. 1813 he succeeded his father as marquess of Buckingham, and having married the only child of the 3rd duke of Chandos, he was created duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. Because of financial embarrassments the duke lived out of England for some time, and in 1862 an account of his travels was published as The Private Diary of Richard, Duke of Buckingham and Chandos. He was succeeded by his only child, Richard Grenville, 2nd

politics.

BUCKINGHAM

346

duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). Educated at Eton and at Oriel college, Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple and subsequently as marquess of Chandos. He was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839 and was responHe sible for the "Chandos clause" in the Reform bill of 1832. was lord privy seal from Sept. 1841 to Jan. 1842 and, partly because of his opposition to the repeal of the Corn laws, was known In 1847 his residences were seized by as the "farmers' friend." his creditors and the duke left England for a time. He died in London on July 29, 1861. He wrote Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III (18S3-SS) Memoirs of the Court of England During the Regency (1856); Memoirs of the Court of George IV (1859); and Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV and Victoria (1861). Richard Grenville, 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823-89), the only son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford and, as marquess of Chandos, was member of parhament for Buckingham from 1846 to 1857. After succeeding to the dukedom in 1361 he became lord president of the council and subsequently secretary for the colonies in the Conservative government of 1866-68. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of Madras. Since he left no son the dukedom became extinct on his death. BUCKINGHAM, VILLIERS, 1st Duke of (1592-1628), English royal favourite and statesman, whose vast influence during the reigns of James I and Charles I contributed to the unpopularity of their governments and was therefore among the long-term reasons for the English Civil War, was born on His father. Sir Aug. 28, 1592, at Brooksby, Leicestershire. George Villiers, was sheriff of the county; his mother, a woman of beauty who was married three times and was later known as Lady Compton and as countess of Buckingham, ambitiously pushed her good-looking son forward. George was educated at a school in Billesdon "where he was taught the principles of music and other light literature," and at the age of 18 he was sent to complete his studies in France, where he met Sir John Eliot (g.v.) to whom he was later to act as patron. ViOiers was introduced to James I in Aug. 1614, when the king was hunting at Apthorpe in Northamptonshire. Always susceptible to handsome young men, James took an immediate liking to Villiers. He was appointed cupbearer in 1614, and knighted and made a gentleman of the bedchamber in 1615. He had a sponsor in George Abbot, archbishop of Canterbury, but at first his advance resisted the reigning was by favourite, Robert Carr, earl of Somer;

GEORGE

After Somerset's fall (Oct. 1615), however, Villiers' progress was swift. In Jan. 1616 he was appointed master of the horse, in May he was made a knight of the Order of the Garter and in August he was created Baron Whaddon and Viscount Villiers. In 1617 he became earl of Buckingham and a privy councilor, receiving grants to the value of £15,000. Sir Francis Bacon, the lord keeper, then warned him; "You are as a new risen star, the eyes of all men are upon you; let not your negligence make you fall like a meteor." The star continued to rise: with the king's infatuated help, he forced an heiress, the daughter of Sir Edward Coke, to marry his half-witted brother, John; in 1618 he himself was created marquess, in 1619 lord high admiral, and in 1620 he married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of the earl of Rutland. Unlike Somerset, Buckingham aspired to be both an active statesman and administrator. But his many occupations and the necessity for dancing attendance on the king prevented his doing much, although he was by no means an incompetent lord high admiral. Buckingham played his first important part in politics in 1623 when he accompanied Prince Charles (afterward Charles I) on an incognito visit to Madrid in an attempt to win the hand of the infanta. The mission failed, Buckingham proving himself to be an arrogant and unrealistic diplomatist, but the breakdown of the negotiations in Spain was inevitable and when Buckingham (raised to a dukedom while in Spain) returned to England with Charles he found himself unexpectedly a public hero. In Feb. 1624 he addressed both houses of parliament, accusing the Spaniards of duplicity. He took a highhanded line with James, blamed hinj for set.

demanded war against Spain and, to further it, advocated the marriage of Charles to Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France. Parliament wanted a war against Spain at sea, on the Elizabethan model, but Buckingham's ideas were more temporizing,

grandiose: he urged war on land as well and an alliance with the Dutch. James was induced to accept his schemes and England, allied with Denmark as well as with the Dutch, went to war against

both the Austrian and the Spanish Habsburgs. Meanwhile, negotiations were completed for the marriage with Henrietta Maria, but Buckingham, who was personally responsible for the treaty with France, was unable to persuade the French government to take any open part in the war for the recovery of the Palatinate and antagonized the French on his embassy of 1625 by publicly flirting with Anne of Austria, the French queen. Buckingham retained his position as "grand vizier" after the accession of Charles I in March 1625. But the war, for which Buckingham was largely responsible, strained English resources to the breaking point. He proved himself a poor military organizer and when in the autumn of 1625 a combined naval and military expedition against Cadiz turned into a disastrous failure, parliament refused to grant any more subsidies if he remained responsible for the conduct of the war. He had intended to lead the expedition to Cadiz in person but Charles had sent him as special ambassador to The Hague, where in Nov. 1625 he concluded a treaty with the Dutch and the Danes, renewing their subsidies. However, the king had not the money to give; in Feb. 1626 he was obliged to call a parliament. There an assault upon Buckingham, on whom the fiasco at Cadiz was blamed, gathered momentum; it was led by his former friend, Sir John Eliot. "All the king's council rides on one horse" it was said, and Buckingham was opprobriously compared to the royal favourites of the middle ages. Vainly Buckingham defended himself in a plausible speech, but a virulent criticism of his conduct by John Digby, earl of Bristol, formerly English ambassador in Madrid, added fuel to the flames. A bill of impeachment was introduced; to save his minister Charles dissolved parliament in June. Buckingham was acquitted in the Star Chamber of the charges brought against him. Meanwhile England also had become involved in war with France. Buckingham threw himself into this conflict with his usual resilience, personally taking

command

of a large expedition

La Rochelle, held by French Protestants against their king (1627). The lie de Re, two miles from the city, was occupied to relieve

but the English intervention was resented by both French parties and, after a long campaign in which Buckingham showed bravery and a comprehensive ignorance of the arts of war, the expeditionary force was compelled to withdraw, shattered and demoralized.

Once again parhament was called (1628) and met in an angry mood. It devoted itself to drawing up a petition of right, but the commons were determined to force the king to dismiss Buckingham. "I think," said Sir Edward Coke, "the duke of Buckingham But Charles was unflinchingly is the cause of all our miseries." loyal to his friend together they pushed on with their plans to relieve La Rochelle. In August Buckingham, who seems to have been pessimistic, made his will and went to Portsmouth to organize the preparations there. On Aug, 23, 1628, he was stabbed to death by John Felton, a naval lieutenant with a grievance, who had served at Cadiz and Re and lost the use of his left arm, Charles I always blamed Buckingham's assassination on the political agitation against him in the house of commons led by Eliot. Buckingham was a man of immense charm, "one of the handsomest men in the world, generous and brave," and of an "imperious nature and careless munificence." He was a discerning collector of paintings and manuscripts. Though he received much money, he contributed a great deal of it to the royal service and died heavily in debt. He was too haughty and tactless as a diplomat, too inexperienced as a general. His foreign policy was inconsistent and overambitious. His disloyalty to his friends was a weakness of character: he contributed to the fall of Sir Walter Raleigh and of Francis Bacon, he betrayed Lionel Cranfield, earl Judged by these of Middlesex, and he treated Eliot carelessly. other figures of his age, he seems puny; but he was a magnificent ;

failure.

BUCKINGHAM Bibliography.— M. A. Gibb, Buckingham, 1592-1628 (1935) Hugh Ross Williamson, George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham (1940); Philip Lindsay, For King or Parliament (1949); Philippe Erlanger, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, Eng. trans, (1953). For his early life, see Sir Henry Wotton, Reliquiae Woltonianae (1651). See also R. H. Tawney, Business and Politics Under James I (1958); H. Hulme, The Life of Sir John Eliot, 1592 to 1632 (1957). (M. P. A.) ;

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS,

2nd

Duke

of

(1628-1687), English politician who at various times carried conKing Charles II, was born on Jan. 30, As a result of the 1628, at Wallingford house, Westminster. assassination of his father, the 1st duke and favourite of Charles I, on Aug. 2i, 1628, his education became the peculiar care of the king, and he was brought up with the young princes, later Charles Entered at Trinity college, Cambridge, in the II and James II. company of his younger brother Francis, he was admitted to the degree of M.A. on March 5, 1642, and, although scarcely yet in his teens, took part on the royalist side in the first phase of the English Civil War, serving under Prince Rupert at the siege of Lichfield close in April 1643. Thereafter he traveled abroad and spent some time in Italy, but returned to join in the second phase of the Civil War, in the course of w-hich Lord Francis was killed near Kingston, Surrey, on July 7, 1648, and he himself, surprised by his parliamentary pursuers at St. Neots, near Huntingdon, three days later, was lucky to cut his way through them and escape siderable influence with

unharmed.

With

this catastrophe the

most creditable part of

his life

came

an end. Joining Charles II in Holland, he did much, according to Bishop Gilbert Burnet, to initiate the new king into the vices he had himself acquired and to introduce a seriously disturbing element into counsels which were already sufficiently distracted. Although honoured with the Order of the Garter on Sept. 19, 1649, and admitted to the privy council on April 6, 1650, he professed dissatisfaction with his position at the exiled court, refused to accept the leadership of the king's older and more responsible advisers, notably Sir Edward Hyde, later earl of Clarendon, and was instrumental in persuading Charles to throw in his lot-with the Scottish Covenanters, accompanying him to Scotland in the summer of 1650. There he had little difficulty in ingratiating himself with his austere Scottish hosts and found an ally in their leader, the marquess of Argyll; but Charles was inspired by his experiences in Scotland with a dislike of Presbyterianism which clouded his outlook for the rest of his life, and after the defeat of the whole enterprise at the battle of Worcester on Sept. 3, 1651, Buckingham's influence with the king greatly declined. The effect on the duke was to make him reconsider a project which he had already several times entertained, of coming to terms with the existing English government and so securing the return of some part of his forfeited estates. Having first endeavoured to do so through John Lilburne and the Levellers, he then decided to base his hopes on the Presbyterians, returned to England in the summer of 1657 and on Sept. 15 that year married Mary, only child of the former parliamentary general Lord Fairfax, who had been rewarded for his services with a large amount of Villiers property. This Oliver Cromwell and his supporters interpreted as evidence of a conspiracy by the royalists and Presbyterians against the government; Buckingham was sent to the Tower of London and, had it not been for the still powerful influence of Fairfax and the opportune death of the protector, might well have been put to death. Milder counsels prevailing, he was required to find surety for his good behaviour, and was released on Feb. 2i, 1659, being allowed to spend his time thereafter in unwonted inactivity at his father-in-law's house at Nun Appleton, near York. Thus, at the moment of the Restoration Buckingham's position was highly equivocal, and when he joined Charles on his landing at Dover he was coldly received. A few months in the atmosphere of Restoration England, however, enabled him to recover his favour with the king; after bearing the orb at the coronation he was appointed gentleman of the bedchamber on July 9, 1661, lord lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire on Sept. 21, and a member of the new privy council on April 28, 1662. To his influence may probably be attributed the failure of the king. to

347

after an initial effort, to take his duties seriously and face with

resolution the

immense

difficulties of his position.

Buckingham

could never be serious for long, and in addition was still opposed to Clarendon and the more experienced statesmen on whose advice a serious-minded king was bound to rely. Setting himself at the

head of the younger men who resented the dominance of

the prewar generation, he accordingly endeavoured

mine the chancellor's

position,

and

in spite of

to underan unexpected re-

versal of fortune in 1667, involving the temporary loss of

all

his

and a short imprisonment in the Tower, was instrumental in bringing about Clarendon's fall in the autumn of the same year. Buckingham's ambition was to drive all the remaining "Clarendonians" from office, replace them with his own nominees and secure the position of chief minister for himself; but while he was moderately successful in achieving the first of these aims, and offices

for a time believed to have achieved the second, he soon proved too completely unreliable to be the directing force in any government, and had in practice to share his position with his abler though less brilliant rival, Henry Bennet, earl of .Arlington On the jealousies of these two men and their supporters iq.v.). Charles, who had no desire for any chief minister, then played w'as

with such success as to secure the adoption of his own policy in the secret treaty of Dover (by which Charles agreed to help Louis XIV conquer the United Provinces and also promised, with Arlington French help, to restore Catholicism to England). signed the true version on June 1, 1670, while Buckingham was deluded with a false version, signed by all the members of the so-called Cabal {q.v.) on Dec. 31 of the same year and in an amended form on Feb. 12, 1672. The partial failure of the Anglo-French attack on Holland for

which these

treaties provided, the

growing suspicion that the declasame time was really a first

ration of indulgence issued at the

step toward the restoration of Catholicism and the widespread distrust of the standing sarily involved all

army which

combined

the outbreak of war neces-

to raise a storm of indignation against

those held responsible. When in Jan. 1674 parliament delivered its long-expected attack upon them Buckingham endeavoured to save himself by blaming Arlington for all that had gone amiss, and reflections even on the king and duke of York; but the result of his ill-advised behaviour was only the most spectacular reversal of fortune in his whole career. At the request of both houses of parliament and with the full approval of the court he was dismissed from all his oflices, even his one major post of master of the horse being conferred on the duke of Monmouth,

by casting unseemly

although, as he bitterly complained, he had purchased it for hard cash in 1668 and had been granted it for life. For the brief remainder of his active career Buckingham was generally in opposition to the government of the day. In the spring of 1675 he took a leading part in obstructing the passage of the

Danby's Nonresisting Test bill. In 1677 he was sent to for maintaining in the house of lords that, by a prorogation exceeding the period during which parliament could legally be dispensed with, the existing parliament, which was believed to be full of government pensioners, had been dissolved. After a confinement of several months he made his peace with the king and was released, but his restoration to favour did not involve restoration to office or any serious change in his general attitude. He promoted the return of Whig candidates to parliament, maintained close relations w-ith opposition circles in the City of London and in the autumn of 1678 gave his whole support to the agitation which followed the revelations of Titus Oates. Only when that agitation threatened to have revolutionary consequences did he draw back and refuse to countenance the exclusion policy advocated by the earl of Shaftesbury. He was absent from the great debate of Nov. 15, 1680, when the Exclusion bill was rejected by the house of lords, took no part in the conspiracies of the succeeding years and during the reign of James, with whom he had long been on bad terms, remained in retirement. Like so many of his contemporaries Buckingham endeavoured to combine eminence in politics with success in practically every other sphere of human activity open to a gentleman. He aspired to be a general, served with some distinction under the vicomte de earl of

the

Tower

BUCKINGHAM— BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY

348 Turenne

mand

youth, tried to displace David Leslie from the comarmy on the march to Worcester and resigned when he was himself superseded by the duke of Schom-

in his

of the Scottish

in disgust

on the Wye and Severn barred his passage, in a few days his troops dispersed and Buckingham, with a price on his head, was a fugitive at Wem, Shropshire. There he was taken, and brought by

floods

command of the force designed to fight against the He was interested in science, was an original

John Mitton, the sheriff, to the king at Salisbury. On Sunday, Nov. 2, having forfeited his estates, he was beheaded in the mar-

fellow of the Royal society, studied chemistry and at one time believed he was on the point of finding the philosopher's stone.

ket place. The connection of the Stafford family with the dukedom of Buckingham was finally broken by the attainder and execution of Henry's eldest son, Edward, 3rd duke, in May 1521. He had been restored in lands, blood and title by Henry VII (Nov. 1485). As constable he was one of the most powerful men in the kingdom

berg in the

Dutch

in

1673.

He

dabbled in literature; but his verses and satires are remarkable for promise rather than performance, and of the plays which

he wrote or adapted only The Rehearsal, a satire on the heroic drama first performed on Dec. 7, 1671, achieved at the time, or has been accorded since, any reputation. Among less elevated pursuits his passion was for racing and fox hunting, and

it is

said

that he died as the result of a chill contracted on the hunting field.

He

died at Kirkby Moorside, in the house of one of his own tenants, on April 16, 1687, and as he had no legitimate children his title died with him.

—

W. A. H. C. Gardner (Baroness Burghclere), George 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1903); H. W. Chapman, Great Villiers, with bibliography (1949). See also article by C. H. Firth in the Dictionary of National Biography (1899). Bibliography.

VilUers,

BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, (c.

2nd

Duke

of

14S4— 1483), was the son of Humphrey, earl of Stafford, killed Albans in 1455, and the grandson of Humphrey, 1st duke

at St.

of

Buckingham (created 1444),

killed at

Northampton

in 1460,

both fighting for Lancaster. The 1st duke, earl of Buckingham in the right of his mother, was the son of Edmund, 5th earl of Stafford, and Anne, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, the youngest son of Edward III. Henry's mother was Margaret, daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somergrandson set, of John of Gaunt. Her three Beaufort brothers, Henry, Edmund and John, were all killed by the Yorkists (146471). In 1460

Edward IV made the young Henry and

Humphrey

royal wards, and for several years they lived in the

his brother

Buckingham was directly descended from III and his vast estates lay all over central England, so adherence to the Yorkist cause was vital, and his marriage in 1466 to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister, was designed to bind him even more closely to the reigning house. Yet, despite these precautions, it seems that, as the greatest of the old nobles, Buckingham was never fully trusted by the court. Except for acting as seneschal at the duke of Clarence's trial (1478) he took no part in public affairs while Edward IV lived. When the king died, however, Buckingham, through his servant Persivall, quickly came to terms with the duke of Gloucester, the future Richard III, and from April to July 1483 he was in the forefront of affairs. Arriving in London as Richard's chief supqueen's household.

Edward

his

Buckingham busied, himself in striking down the queen's relatives and in arranging the seizure of Edward V and his brother. He then publicly denied their legitimacy and pressed the Londoners

porter,

At Richard's corto take Richard, already protector, as king. onation (July 6, 1483) Buckingham served as great chamberlain, while more material benefits were also showered on him. He became chief justice of Wales, keeper of the royal castles there and in the border counties, steward of the honour of Tutbury, sole heir of the old Bohun family (g.v.) (by virtue of his descent from Eleanor Bohun and Thomas of Woodstock) and possessor of their ancient hereditary dignity as constable of England. Yet, in Aug. 1483, Buckingham, now at Brecon, was plotting to overthrow the new king. His abrupt change of sides has never been satisfactorily explained. He may, with reason, have coveted the crown himself, or perhaps a smouldering sense of family wrong at Yorkist hands suddenly burst into flame. Some have suggested that he mistrusted Richard and shrank from the murder of the princes, which he knew was contemplated. Certainly John Morton, bishop of Ely (q.v.), then his prisoner at Brecon, had much to do with securing Buckingham's active support for a rising in favour of Henry Tudor. The revolt was to begin on Oct. 18, 1483, when Buckingham moved east into Herefordshire with a Welsh army. A week earlier Richard, at Lincoln, had proclaimed him traitor, and now even the elements warred against him. High

under the

was

ill,

Tudor, and on at

first

least

one occasion when Henry VII

Buckingham was widely considered

as a possible successor,

but he later quarreled with Wolsey, who effected his ruin.

—

Bibliography. The chief contemporary sources are Historiae Croylandensis Continualio, vol. i, Rerum Anglicarum scriptorum veterum, ed. by T. Gale (1684), Eng. trans, by H. T. Riley (1854) R. Fabyan, New Chronicles of England and France, ed. by H. Elhs (1811) D. Mancini, The Usurpation of Richard the Third, trans, by C. A. J. Armstrong (1936) T. More, The English Works of Sir T. More, ed. by W. E. Campbell, vol. i, History of King Richard III (1931) A. H. Thomas and I. D. Thornley (eds.), The Great Chronicle of London (1938). (Gy. T.) ;

;

;

;

BUCKINGHAM,

a market town and municipal borough in Buckingham parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, Eng., 17 mi. N.N.W. of Aylesbury by road. It is situated in the north-

the

west corner of the county in the open valley of the upper Ouse, which encircles the main portion of the town on three sides. Pop. (1961) 4,377. Buckingham, once the site of a Roman settlement, was an important stronghold in pre-Conquest times, and was the only burg to receive separate mention in the Domesday survey, having been created the county town by Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his army for four weeks and built two forts, one on either side of the water. There are early mentions of markets and fairs and there are still two fairs in October. Edward III fixed there one of the staples (marts) for wool, but after the removal of the staples to Calais the trade decayed so much that in an act of Henry VIII Buckingham is mentioned among 36 impoverished towns. The town received no charter until 1554, when Mary I created it a free borough, and Charles II granted a second charter in 1684 in recognition of its loyalty in the English Civil War. The decline of Buckingham may be partly attributed to the development of other routes from London and the consequent growth of such towns as Aylesbury (now the county

town). High

Wycombe and Wendover, and

to the great fire of

1725, which destroyed most of the town. From 1545 until 1867 Buckingham returned two members to parliament.

The Old Latin school, converted into a grammar school and endowed by Edward VI, in part occupies buildings of earlier date (part of a chantry) which retain a Norman doorway. Stowe house, former seat of the Grenvilles, dukes of Buckingham, is now part In the grounds are of Stowe school for boys, opened in 1923. remains of the 17th-century castellated Stowe castle. The manor house, probably dating from the 14th century, has a fine twisted chimney, added about 1520. In Castle house Catherine of Aragon heard the news of the battle of Flodden in 1513. Buckingham is a market town with agricultural trade and factories for paints, carpets, diesel equipment and light engineering products, as well as condensed milk and leather.

BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEF1st Duke of (1648-1721), English statesman, patron of Dryden, and author of poetic essays in heroic couplets, was

FIELD,

born on April 7, 1648, in London. The son of Edmund, 2nd earl of Mulgrave, he succeeded to the title on his father's death in 1658. He served 'under Charles II and was a favourite until 1682 when he incurred Charles's displeasure by courting Princess Anne and was banished from court. He made his peace within two years and on the accession of James II was again in high favour, receiving appointments first as a privy councilor and later as lord chamberlain. Despite his acquiescence in the revolution of 1688 he belonged essentially to the opposition during William's reign, but on Anne's

BUCKINGHAM PALACE— BUCKINGHAMSHIRE accession in 1702 she

made him

a

member

of the privy council, and

and duke of Buckingham and Normanby. The Whig ascendancy between 1704 and 17 10 compelled him to resign his appointments but during the period of Tory government belater lord privy seal

tween 1 7 10 and 1 7 14 he held several high offices, including that of lord president of the council. After the accession of George I 1714 his active pohtical life was at an end. He died in London on Feb. 24, 1721. As a poet Sheffield is chiefly remembered for An Essay Upon Poetry (1682) and An Essay on Satire (circulated in manuscript An Essay Upon Poetry, in 1679 but not published until later). written in couplets and in a manner intended to resemble that of in

Horace's Epistles, aims to delineate the chief characteristics of the Its invarious literary kinds: the ode, the elegy, the epic, etc. as one of the attempts to naturalize terest is chiefly historical

—

—

but it received high praise from Nicolas Boileau's L'Art poetiqiie Dryden and Pope, and as an example of the way in which poets and critics of the later Restoration were trying to establish definite literary styles

An

it

is

of permanent interest.

Essay on Satire begins as

but develops into

a critical treatise

a satire, attacking Charles II, the earl of Rochester and many The work was frequently attributed to distinguished courtiers.

Dryden saulted is

appears in most editions of his work and he was as-

(it

by

hirelings of the earl of Rochester because of it) but

generally

touched up

acknow^ledged to be Sheffield's.

a little

by Dryden. Account of the Revolution

Sheffield's prose

It

is

it

was probably interesting his-

he is not entirely reliable when he is personally concerned. He also adapted Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, breaking it up into two plays, Julius Caesar and Marcus Brutus, introducing choruses between the acts (two of which were written by Pope), and a love scene between Brutus and Portia. (Jn. C.) torically although

BUCKINGHAM PALACE,

London residence of the British sovereign, takes its name from Buckingham house, and was built early in the 1 8th century for John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham and Normanby. In 1761 it was bought for £2 1 ,000 by George III for his wife and was known for the next 60 years as the

In George IV's reign the building was reby John Nash, and the entrance was through the Marble Hyde park from which the royal standard was flown. Queen Victoria was the first sovereign to live there. Facing the Mall, the east front, designed by Sir Aston Webb, was refaced in 1913 to make a dignified background for the Queen Victoria memorial. The garden (or west) front is virtually unchanged from Nash's design. The rooms inside are splendid (the throne room is 64 ft. long) and show to advantage the collections of pictures and furniture largely made by George IV. The Royal Mews or stables, which house the state carriage (designed by Sir William Chambers in 1762), are to the south of the palace. The ceremony of changing the guard takes place each morning "the queen's house."

built

arch (now in

(11:30 A.M.)

)

in the forecourt

when

the sovereign

is

in residence.

(R. T. B. F.)

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS

OF.

The

first

earl of

I

Buckinghamshire was John Hobart (i 693-1 756), a descendant of Sir Henry Hobart (d. 1625), attorney general and chief justice of the common pleas under James I, who was made a baronet in 161 1, and who was the great-grandson of Sir James Hobart (d.

I

I

I

I

1507), attorney general to

,

Henry VII.

In 1740 Hobart became

lord heutenant of Norfolk and in 1746 earl of Buckinghamshire,

I

his sister, Henrietta

'

i

'

'
' with John Wilkes. Slough was the home of Sir William Herschel, who set up his great telescope there. A most notable institution in Buckinghamshire is Eton college, while another important educational establishment is Stowe school, once the home of the Grenvilles, Disraeli,

later

of

earl

Beaconsfield;

the

;

;

;

dukes of Buckingham.

—

Population and Administration. The population of Buckinghamshire was 486,183 in 1961, compared with 386,291 in 1951. The municipal boroughs are Aylesbury, the county town (27,891), Buckingham (4,377), High Wycombe (50,301) and Slough (80,503), the other large towns being Beaconsfield (10,019), (17,093), Chesham (16,236), Eton (3,901), Marlow (8,704) and Wolverton (13,116). Other towns in the county are Amersham, Linslade, Newport Pagnell, Olney, Princes Risborough, Wendover and Winslow. Several of the villages on or near the

Bletchley

banks of the Thames have become centres of residence, such as Burnham, Taplow, Wooburn and Wraysbury. Buckinghamshire is on the midland circuit and assizes are held at Aylesbury. It has one court of quarter sessions, sitting at Aylesbury, and is divided into 14 petty sessional divisions. The county is entirely within the diocese of Oxford, but gives its name There are five parliamentary conto a bishopric suffragan. stituencies, those of Aylesbury, Buckingham, Eton and Slough, South Buckinghamshire and Wycombe, each returning one member.

Industries

and Communications.

—There

is

no hea\'y manu-

facturing industry in the county, but there are important factories at Slough. Aylesbury and Bletchley. High Wycombe is a centre of furniture manufacture, particularly chairs, originally because Chesham of the presence of the beech woods of the Chilterns.

has a wide variety of industries ranging f"rom the production of chocolate to lead pencils and electronic valves. The printing industry is well established in Aylesbury and Wolverton. Other The industries include those connected with communications. Wolverton works, belonging to British railways, give employment to the largest number of workers in the county.

Although much of Buckinghamshire

is

pasture, the

amount of

land under crops remained high in the early 1960s as a result of the intensification of food production inaugurated during W'orld War II. Of a total of more than 360,000 ac. under crops and' The principal crops were grass, about 170,000 ac. were arable. barley, wheat and oats. The raising of sheep, cattle, poultry and pigs

A

was

significant.

consideration of communications

tural facts that

have been outlined.

is

best based on the struc-

Thus

there are chains of

villages along the water-bearing strips at the foot of the Chilit was along the Icknield way that the medieval traffic passed from the west of England to East Anglia. In Roman times Watling street was built, crossing the Chilterns near Dunstable in the transverse direction from southeast to (^Durocobrivae northwest. Akeman street used the low route between Tring and

terns, while

)

j

\

j

I

I

'

BUCKLAND— BUCKNER The medieval, turnpike and modern roads chose the same gaps, using the Thames valley in the south and the High Wycombe, Wendover and Tring routes within the county. There Berkhamsted.

are altogether 1,7SS mi. of roads in the county, and the opening of the

London-Birmingham motorway

1959 necessitated the

in

Newport

creation of a special service station area at

Pagnell.

—

;

;

;

Buckinghamshire (1S5S); R. Gibbs, Worthies of Buckinghamshire (18SS), The Buckinghamshire Miscellany (1891); E. S. Roscoe, Buckinghamshire Sketches (1891), Buckinghamshire, rev. by R. L. P. Jowitt and E. C. Rouse (1950) P. H. Ditchfield (ed.), Memorials of Old Buckinghamshire (1901); Victoria County History of Buckinghamshire, 4 vol. and index (1905-28) A. M. Davies, Buckinghamshire (1912) W. R. Bradbrooke and F. G. Parsons, "The .Anthropology of the Chiltcrn Hills," J. R. Anthrop. Inst., vol. iii (1922) A. Mawer and F. M. Stenton, The Place-Names of Buckinghamshire (1925); D. W. Fryer, Buckinghamshire, "The Land of Britain Scries," .

.

The second volume, which still did not conclude his introduction, was published in 1861 but the finishing of the work was prevented by his death. immediate success.

The

The

main line of the London Midland region of British railways uses the gap between Berkhamsted and Ivinghoe and crosses the northBletchley is an important junction on this east of the county. system, branches diverging northeast to Bedford and Cambridge and west to Oxford and Banbury. In the south the chief railway line is that of the Western region passing through Slough and Taplow. The Grand Union canal, which passes through 30 mi. of the county (Marsworth to Wolverton), carries a considerable amount of barge traffic between Birmingham and I>ondon. Bibliography. Browne Willis, The History and Antiquities of the Town, Hundred, and Deanry of Buckingham (1755) D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. i, pt. 3 (ISIJ) G. Lipscomb, The History and Antiquities of the County of Buckingham, 4 vol. (1847) .Architectural and .Archaeological Society for the County of Buckingham, Records of .

;

351

ceived the plan of his book. By 1853 he had decided to restrict his study to England, and the first volume (1857) achieved an

decline in Buckle's

in that

fame was

rapid.

He was

unfortunate

currents of opinion were already running counter to his

views, and he wrote just too soon to assimilate Darwin's theories Buckle believed that "the progress of every people of evolution. is

regulated by principles

...

as certain as those which govern

the physical world," and sought to determine their nature through

He equated an inductive study of relevant historical material. the progress of civihzation with the advance of knowledge, arguing that the "diminishing influence of nature" in Europe increased the aptitude for rational inquiry among its populations. His History was much criticized and in its capacity to stimulate thought perhaps its greatest importance. and controversy lay Yet its inconsistencies do not altogether impair the grandeur of its design, and it remains witness to an erudition and mastery of language admitted even by Buckle's opponents.

—

Bibliography. The History was edited by J. M. Robertson in 1Q04. See also A. H. Huth, Life and Writings of Henry Thomas Buckle (1880) G. St. Aubyn, A Victorian Eminence: the Life and Works of Henry Thomas Buckle (igs8). ;

;

;

;

pt.

(R. E. Mo.)

54 (1942).

BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN

(1826-1880),

English zoologist, an authority on fishes, is w-ell known for his writings on natural history and fish culture. The son of Dean William Buckland, the geologist, he was bom at Oxford on Dec. 17, 1826. He was educated at W'inchester college and Christ Church, Oxford, and became house surgeon at St. George's hospital, London, in 1852. The pursuit of anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way research in zoology, and in 1856 he became a

BUCKMASTER, STANLEY OWEN BUCKMASTER, Viscount

861-1934), English lord chancellor and advocator was born at Cheddington, Buckinghamshire, on Jan. 9, 1861. He was educated at Aldenham school and at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1884 he was called to the bar by the Inner Temple and in 1902 he joined Lincoln's Inn and took silk. In 1906 he was elected to parliament for Cambridge as a Liberal, and after defeat at the general election of 1910, Keighley returned him in 1911. In 1913 he became solicitor general and was knighted, and in 1915 he was made lord chancellor and was 1ST

(i

of divorce law reform,

raised to the peerage.

and powerful

in

He was energetic, He went out

debate.

receptive of of office in

new

ideas igi6, but

In 1867 he was appointed government inspector of fisheries. BuckLondon on Dec. 19, 1880. Among his publications,

continued to sit in the lords and judicial committee, where he fully earned his reputation as a first-rate appellate judge. In 1933 he was created viscount. Buckmaster died in London on Dec. 5, (R. E. My.) 1934.

besides articles and official reports, were Fish Hatching (1863); Curiosities of Natural History ( 1857-72) an edition of G. White's

ate general during the

regular writer on natural history for the newly established periodical Field.

In 1866 he started

Land and Water on

similar lines.

land died in

;

Natural History of Selborne, with notes (1875); Natural History of British Fishes (1881). See Life by G. C.

Bompas

(1885).

BUCKLAND, WILLIAM who devoted himself

(1784-1856), English geologist examination of the geological

to a systematic

was born at Axminster, Devonshire, on March 12, 1784. Educated at Tiverton grammar school, Winchester, and at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, and ordained an Anglican priest in 1808, he was reader in mineralogy at Oxford in 1813 and the first occupant of the chair in geology in 1819. In 1818 he was elected a fellow of the Royal society and was chosen president of the Geological society in 1824 and in 1840. Buckland's first great work was Reliquiae Diluvianae ; or Observations on the Organic Remains Contained in Caves, Fissures and Diluvial Gravel, and on other geological phenomena attesting the action of a Universal Deluge 1823) and his 2 vol. Geology and Mineralogy Considered With Reference to Natural Theology was published in 1836 as one of the Bridgewater treatises. He died in London on Aug. 14, 1856. structure of Great Britain,

(

BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS

(1821-1862), English hisauthor of the History of Civilisation in England, was born Kent, on Nov. 24, 1821. Because of his delicate health he received little formal education, acquiring his knowledge through travel and wide but selective reading. He visited the continent several times between 1840 and 1S44, and from Oct. 1861 to March 1862 he traveled in Egypt. From there he journeyed through Sinai to Petra, Hebron, Jerusalem and Nazareth, where he contracted typhoid. He died at Damascus on May 29, 1862. Buckle had first won fame as a chess player, gaining an international reputation before he was 20. But already he had con-

BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR

(1823-1914). Confeder-

War, was born near Munfordville, Ky., April 1, 1823. He graduated from West Point in 1844, served in the Mexican War (1846^8) and thereafter at various army posts until 1855, when he resigned his commission to become manager of family property in Chicago. After the outbreak of the American Civil War he worked for Kentucky's neutrality but finally espoused the Confederate cause and was commissioned a brigadier general in the Confederate army, rejecting a similar offer from the Union. Ordered to reinforce Ft. Donelson, he found the Confederate situation hopeless and surAmerican

Civil

rendered unconditionally to Gen. U. S. Grant, Feb. 16, 1862. .^fter war prisoner exchange, he was promoted to the rank of major general and finally lieutenant general. He served the in many areas and was in command of the District when the war ended. In 1868 Buckner returned to Kentucky, became editor of the Louisville Courier for a short time and eventually recovered his valuable real property in Chicago. After some years in private business he entered politics as a Democrat and served as governor of Kentucky from 1887 to 1891. His term ended, he retired to his birthplace estate. The Gold Democrats nominated him for vice-president of the United

Confederacy of Louisiana

He

died Jan.

torian,

States in 1896.

at Lee,

His only son, Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. (g.v.), became a lieutenant general in the U.S. army during World War II. See A. M. Stickles, Simon Bolivar Buckner (1940). (A. M. St.)

8,

1914.

BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR,

US

JR. (1886-1945), soldier, was born at Munfordville, Ky., July 18, 1886. Upon graduation from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, Feb. 13, 1908, Buckner was commissioned in the infantry. His career of more than 41 years in the U.S. army was clima.xed in his command of the 10th army, whjch invaded the Ryukyu Islands and

BUCKRAM— BUDAPEST

352

fought the last great land battle of World War II against the Japanese on Okinawa, April-June 1945. Rising in rank through the various grades, he became a brigadier general in the regular

commanding

army and from Aug. 1940 to June 1944 was command, with headquarters

general, Alaskan defense

at Ft. Richardson, Alaska.

Following a short assignment to the in Sept. 1944 commanding general, 10th army, holding in this command the rank of lieutenant general. Buckner was killed in action on June 18, 1945, while visiting a forward observation post near the southwest tip of Okinawa. The big naval anchorage on the east side of Okinawa, formerly called Nakagusuka Wan, was renamed Buckner bay in 1945 in his honour. (R. E. A.) central Pacific area, he

was appointed

BUCKRAM,

in modern English, a coarse fabric of linen or cotton stiffened with size or glue, and used for the stiffening of parts of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's "men in buckram'' (Shakespeare, Henry IV, pt. I, ii, 4) has become proverbial for any imaginary persons, and the word is often used as implying

a false

show of strength because

of artificial stiffening.

buckram was an

continental usage and apparently in early English,

The

expensive and delicate fabric of cotton or linen. of the

word

is

In early derivation

uncertain.

BUCKTHORN,

a

common name

for trees or shrubs of the

Rhamnus (family Rhamnaceae), especially R. catharticus, much-branched shrub reaching 10 ft. in height, with a blackish bark, spinous branchlets and oval, sharply serrated leaves, 1 to 2 in. long, alternately arranged and somewhat clustered at the ends of the shoots. The small green flowers are regular and have the parts in fours; male and female flowers are borne on different plants. The fruit is succulent, black and globose, and contains four stones. Buckthorn is native in Europe, north Africa and north Asia and naturalized in parts of eastern North America. In England it is found in woods and thickets, chiefly on chalk; it is rare in Ireland and not wild in Scotland. The fruit has cathartic genus a

properties

An

;

the bark yields a yellow dye.

Rhamnus frangida, is also common in England, and is known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is distinguished from buckthorn by the absence of spiny branchlets, its nonserrated leaves and bisexual flowers with parts in fives. In the United States there are several native species of buckthorn, most numerous on the Pacific coast, especially in California. One of these, allied species,

R. purshiana, yields the medicinal cascara sagrada (q.v.). Seabuckthorn is Hippophae rhamnoides (family Eleagnaceae), a willowlike shrub. 1 to S ft. in height, with narrow leaves silvery on the underside, and globose, orange-yellow fruits j in. in diameter. It occurs on sandy seashores of England, but is not common. In the United States the name buckthorn is also applied to a tree. Bniinelia lyc'wides,

found

in the south.

BUCKWHEAT,

the fruit (so-called seeds of Fagopyrum sagittatum (or esculentum) and of the allied species, F. tatariciim, 1

herbaceous plant, native of central Asia but cultivated also in Europe and North America. The fruit has a dark brown or gray tough rind enclosing the kernel or seed and is three-sided in form, with sharp angles, similar in shape to beech mast, when the a

name from

the German, Biichweizen, "beechwheat." Tartary buckwheat fruits have rounded angles. The attractive white flowers depend upon bees and other insects for their pollination. Buckwheat grain is used for livestock feed. The hulled seeds, or groats, and the flour are used for human food. The chief food use in the United States and Canada is in the form of griddle cakes made from buckwheat flour. This flour is often mixed with wheat flour. Buckwheat cakes are brown, palatable and nutritious. Buckwheat often is grown for smothering weeds. It is an important honey plant. On good soils buckwheat less productive than other grain crops but it is particularly adapted to unproductive hilly lands. Its quick maturity makes buckwheat well adapted as a late-sown "catch" crop. Two varieties (viz., Japanese and SilverhuU are commonly grown in various is

)

The U.S.S.R., France, Poland, Canada and the in buckwheat production. In Great Britain it not of sufficient importance to be separately distinguished in the annual agricultural returns. It is mainly used in England for feedparts of the world.

United States lead is

ing pheasants, for which

it is considered specially suitable, and it is also valuable for other kinds of farm stock. The crop is sometimes sown for feeding off green by sheep, or for plowing under as green manure. (J. H. Mn.)

poultry, but

BUCOLICS (from Gr. boucolos, "a herdsman"), a term occasionally used for rural or pastoral poetry. The expression has been traced back in English to the early 14th century, being used to describe Virgil's Eclogues, which had been given the name early by grammarians, perhaps by the poet himself, to challenge comparison with his model Theocritus {q.v.), whose idylls or bucolics are the earliest collection to have been preserved. Counting certain associated apocryphal works, they number about 30. In modern times the term bucolics has not often been specifically given by the poets to their pastorals; the main exception being that of Pierre de Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title of Les BucoUques. See also Pastoral. (J. F. Ke.)

BUD: see Stem; Leaf. BUDAPEST, the capital

of Hungary, consists of the ancient and town of Buda, on the high right bank of the Danube, and the town of Pest on the low left bank. After the two towns had been united in 1872 many suburbs were included in the city area which in 1957 covered 203 sq.mi. and had a population fortress

(1960) of 1,807,299. The beauty of Budapest is, above all, the product of harmonious blending of the landscape and the city. The Danube, which some 25 mi. N. of Budapest turns sharply from an eastward direction to the south, is wide enough to constitute a monumental element in the setting of the massive buildings without rupturing the two parts of the city. Budapest has a moderate climate with an average July temperature of 62° F. and an average January temperature of 34° F. The yearly rainfall averages 23 in. Buda, with Obuda (Old Buda) to the north, lies on the hilly western bank of the Danube with Castle hill (590 ft.) and Gellert hill (1,066 ft.) to the south. Impressive caves and hot mineral springs (85° F. to 150° F.) are to be found in the Buda hills. Some of the springs have radioactive properties and others contain lime and sulfur and are of value in the treatment of rheumatic diseases. The waters were used by the Romans and later by the Turks. These springs and the swimming pools on the banks of the river add the character of a health resort to the beauty and

While Buda was traditionally the government offices, with many mansions belonging to the landed gentry, Pest, lying on a plain formed by the Danube in the Pleistocene era, was the town of trade and historical interest of the city.

seat of the rulers and of

industry.

The

City.

—The royal

Buda was built at the southern on Castle hill. The later palace, in baroque style (1715-70), designed chiefly by Jean Nicolas Jadot and Franz Anton Hillebrandt, was partially destroyed by fire in It was heavily 1849 but restored and enlarged in 18S1-1904. damaged by fighting in 1944-45 but by the early 1960s was being restored. The war damage uncovered remains of the medieval castle, some of the original designs of which have been incorpoelevation

castle of

of the plateau

work of restoration. Ramparts dating from the middle ages and the Turkish occupation circle the palace and the buildings of the castle district. St. Matthias' church, the ancient coronation church of the Hungarian kings, is in Holy Trinity square. It was built from 1255 to 1269. enlarged several times in the 14th and 15th centuries, and entirely rebuilt by Frigyes Schulek The Fisherman's bastion, built in neofrom 1874 to 1896. Romanesque style (1901-02) by the same architect, stands in the centre of the section of the ramparts nearest to the Pest side. The city on the left bank of the Danube can be seen in all The its splendour from the passages of the Fisherman's bastion. lowland between Castle hill and the river bank is called \'izivaros. Its mosf important monuments are St. Anne's church (1740-70), the former church of the Elizabethan nuns 1731^1), and the spa (16th century) built by the Turks and preserved, with Hiivosvolgy, the three others, as relics of Turkish architecture. valley jutting deep into the Buda hills, begins at the foot of the northern slope of Castle hill off Moszkva square. Villas of every rated in the

(

description cover the hillsides.

BUDAPEST

353 there in the

new

5th district.

industrial quarters are in the

The new

13th district beyond the outer boulevards. The most beautiful

square

Budapest,

in

square,

is

in this

Kossuth

area in front of

the house of parliament. St. Stephen's neo-Renaissance basilica with a dome 315 ft. high (built in

1845-67 by Jozsef Hild, and 1867-89 by Miklos Vbl) is one of the most impressive monuments in the inner city. Nepkoztarsasag (formerly Andrassy is the finest avenue in the capital. Laid in the last quarter of the 19th century, it runs from the inner boulevard to the spa)

Heroes'

cious

square

with

the

monument commemorating the 1,000th anniversarj' of the Magyar conquest of the country. The square

seum

is

bordered by the

Mu-

of Fine Arts and the Art

The outstanding monument on Nepkoztarsasag is the Opera house (1879-84) built by gallery.

Miklos ST. MATTHIAS' CHURCH. THE CORONATION CHURCH. IN HOLY TRINITY SQUARE BUDAPEST, DATING FROM THE13TH CENTURY. FISHERMAN'S BASTION (1901-02) IS IN THE FOREGROUND

Obuda

lies

on the

site of a

Roman

militar>'

camp.

The

relics

Roman

baths are exhibited there in underground museums. The ruins of the military amphitheatre dominate the panorama, and those of the Trinitarian monaster^' (1745-60) on the nearby hills and the fine baroque castle (1746-57), that belonged to the of

two

Zichy family, are the newer outstanding monuments.

The remains

of the

Roman town

(the public bath, the Mithras

north of Obuda: and those of what was once Roman governor are opposite Obuda on an island in the Danube. The palace was built in a.d. 107 by Hadrian, governor of Aquincum. who later became the Roman emperor. Steep Gellert hill is crowned by a grim citadel built after the Hungarian defeat in the 1848^9 War of Independence by the Austrian sanctuary, etc.)

lie

a vast palace of the

military authorities to keep the town under control.

monument

erected after

World War

tion of the country affords a contrast to the citadel.

ment

is

the w'ork of

The massive

H to commemorate the libera-

Zsigmond Kisfaludi

This monu-

Strobl.

spanned by many bridges. Between the Arpad and Margit (Margaret) bridges, w'hich cross the river at Obuda, lies Margit Island, a parklike resort and amusement area; the Lanchid is a suspension bridge built by the British engineer Adam Clarkf and Erzsebet bridge, one of Europe's most notable feats Szabadsag in bridge construction, 'was rebuilt in the early 1960s. and Petofi bridges are at the southernmost point of the capital. Budapest perhaps appears most beautiful from the Danube. The traveler arriving from Vienna by boat will gradually become aware of an impression of vastness and massiveness about the city astride the river. On the Pest side there stands the majestic house of parliament, built in neo-Gothic style in 1884-1904 by Imre Steindl. The row of palaces along the embankment to the south of the

The Danube

is

includes

\1)1.

the

New

construction stadium,

People's

holding 100.000 spectators, which stands near the east railway station.

The university, founded at Nagyszombat in 1655, ^^'ss transIn addition to the Hungarian ferred to Ofen (Buda) in 1745. Academy of Sciences Budapest has schools and colleges of apdrama, fine arts, economics and agronomy; and various technical institutions. There are also 9 museums, under the aegis of the Hungarian National museum which is also in the city; a library for the national archives, and many public libraries attached to the university or other institutions; and 18 Five daily theatres and concert halls besides the Opera house. newspapers were being published in Budapest in 1955. Communications. From the point of view of transport and communications Budapest occupies a favourable geographical position. It is linked by way of the Danube with Austria and Germany and also with the Black sea. The river is navigable by sea-going vessels as far as Budapest. At the river ports of Csepel and Ujpest imported ores, coal and timber are unloaded. All main railway lines and highways radiate from the capital. Budapest has become, therefore, almost exclusively the foreign trade centre of Hungary, with transit traffic between the countries of southeastern and western Europe. The modern Ferihegy airport, 10 mi. from the city, provides for the greatest part of the country's air transport and is served by international services, direct from many parts of Europe and indirectly linking Budapest

plied arts, music,

all

—

with the rest of the world. The brunt of the capital's passenger transport is borne by about 150 mi. of streetcar lines. Occupations and Industries. In the early 1960s just over

—

one-half of the working population was employed in industry, about one-third in the civil service and various branches of learnBudapest's share in ing and about 9% in trade and commerce.

parliament building includes, near the Lanchid, the Renaissancestyle building of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1862-64). In the inner city, which stands on the site of medieval Pest, the

the industrial output of the country is substantial. Most of the well-known Hungarian goods, such as precision instruments, pharmaceutical products and electric locomotives, are made there.

most important historical monument is the parish church, with Romanesque and Gothic details. In place of the former town walls, a semicircle of the inner boulevards encloses the inner city. The streets radiate from there in every direction, like the spokes

The machine-building industry has the ployees followed by the textile industry.

of a wheel.

Beyond the outer boulevards are the industrial districts. The fprmer Szent Istvan district, to the north of the inner city, has preserved most of its classic monuments. Since World War II the major governmental buildings and ministries have been located

History.

— Budapest

greatest

number

of

em-

is one of the European cities with the oldbackground. There is evidence of settlement in the In about Neolithic age. 70 B.C. the Eraviscans, who were of Celtic In 9 B.C. the origin but Illyrian culture, settled in these regions. Roman empire pushed forward to the line of the Danube. From that time onward Aquincum, the Roman predecessor of Budapest, played a significant part in the defense of the empire as one of

est historical

BUDAUN— BUDDHISM

354 the cornerstones of the limes

("fortified frontier").

After the

collapse of the empire the dark ages descended on the settlement and the surviving population gradually disappeared.

The Magyars, who occupied the Carpathian basin at the end of the 9th century, took possession of this important river crossing. Slavonic and Germanic settlers also peopled the villages that were founded on the right bank of the river (Obuda on the site of the Roman camp, and a village that was the forerunner of Buda) and Pest on the left bank. The passing through of the crusaders and the lively transit traffic contributed to the development of a prosperous commercial and cultural life. This was interrupted by the catastrophe of the Mongolian invasion in 1241 that struck the whole country. After the retreat of the Mongolian armies King Bela IV built his residence on Castle hill in 1247 and the royal palace and the adjoining settlement were surrounded by walls. From the beginning of the 14th century t)nward, Buda became recognized as the country's capital, a role which had been previously filled by Esztergom and Szekesfehervar. The leadership of Buda became more

pronounced under the reign of the Angevin kings and later, in the 15th century, during the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg and Matthias Corvinus. The palace built in the time of Sigismund was one of the biggest in Europe. After Matthias' death the city's prosperity was followed by the decline of central power and the Turkish invasion. Buda, which fell into Turkish hands in 1541, became the centre of the territories under Turkish occupation and the seat of the governing pashas. During the 150 years of Turkish rule the Gothic and Renaissance Buda began to decay and Pest fell into ruins. Toward the end of the 17th century the decline of the Turkish empire opened the way for the liberation of Buda in 1686 by the Austrians, and of the whole country a few years later. In the course of the war the greater part of the town was destroyed. Normal life was resumed slowly and under difficult conditions. During the i8th century Buda was rebuilt on a modest scale, in baroque style. In 1800 the combined population of Buda (including Obuda) and Pest was about 54,000. .\l the beginning of the 19th century a movement was started to throw off the Austrian yoke and to attain Hungary's independence. Pest was the centre of this movement which at first developed rapidly, and with it the growth of the population of both Buda and Pest. It was Pest that, with the revolution of March 15, 1848, gave the start to the bourgeois transformation of the social order. Neither the defeat of the War of Independence nor the oppression that followed could halt the two cities' development. In 1872 Buda and Pest were united, with a total population of 750.000.

Budapest, as the capital of the country, became the

economic and cultural centre. The characteristic features of the city were essentially shaped at the end of the 19th century when the architectural requirements of a metropolis were political,

successfully co-ordinated with the preservation of historical values and with the special features of the landscape. By 194 1 the popu-

had risen to 1,164,963. Budapest was severely damaged in World War II. The royal was burned to the ground and most of the castle district, which contained some of the major historical monuments in Hungary, became a heap of ruins. All the bridges spanning the Danube were blown up by the retreating Germans. After 1945 reconstruction was rapid. The bridges were rebuilt and the restoration of monuments was begun. Many new factories were also built. New damage, however, was inflicted on the city during the 1956 uprising, which was put down by troops of the U.S.S.R. See Hung.^ry; see also Index references under "Budapest" in the Index volume. lation of the city

castle

—

BiBLioGR.^PHY. E. Waldapfel-Trencsenyi, British Travellers in Old Budapest (1937); B. Kelenyi, La vecchia Pest e Buda (1942); H. Ziergiebel, Budapest, Ein Spaziergang durch die Donaumelropole (1956) J. Reismann, Budapest, the Hungarian Capital in Pictures Thomas Schreiber, Xagel travel guide series, Hungarv, Eng. (1956) version by Lynton Hudson (1958). (M. Pi.; B. Bs.) municipal town and district in the Rohilkhand division of Uttar Pradesh, India. The town is near the east bank of the Sot river. 27 mi. S.W. of Bareilly. Pop. (1961) 59,587. ;

;

BUDAUN,

According to tradition Budaun was founded about a.d. 90S by a Hindu raja called Buddh. Captured by Kutb ud-Din Aibak in 1196 it became an important northern frontier post of his Muslim kingdom of Delhi. It remained a major provincial governorship under this and succeeding Indo-Islamic dynasties until Shah Jahan mov£d the local administration to Bareilly in 1657. (See also Uttar Pradesh.) It became headquarters of a district in 1S3S.

The town contains a ruined fort and the imposing Jamma Masjid or Great mosque, with faqade 288 ft. across. The mosque was built in 1223 from the materials of a Hindu temple, under the patronage of the Delhi monarch Shams ud-Din Altamash, who had been governor of Budaun. It was extensively restored in the 14th century, in 1571-75 after a great fire in Budaun and in the lS70s.

Budaun is on the road and Northeastern railway main line (metre-gauge) between Mathura and Bareilly. There are only a few cottage or small-scale industries.

Budaun District (1,998 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 1,410,229) is part of the great plain of the Ganges, the river forming its southwestern boundary; Sot,

by the Ganges tributaries There are many jhils. or marshy

also watered

is

it

Mahewa and Ramganga.

meres, and lakes. Agriculture supports SS'^'c of the population, the main crops being millets, rice, wheat, gram and barley. (B. Si.)

BUDDHA:

see

Gautama Buddha.

BUDDH GAYA Bihar, India, 6 mi, S.

(Bodh Gaya), a village in Gaya district, of Gaya town; one of the holiest places

Buddhist world. It was there, under the sacred pipal or Bodhi (Bo) tree, that Gautama Buddha (Prince Siddhartha or Sakyamuni) attained enlightenment and became the Buddha. In the 3rd century B.C. the emperor Asoka built a simple shrine to mark the spot and erected a pillar there. Part of a later stone railing enclosing this shrine survives; it is of the Sunga period, mid-lst century B.C. The uprights have representations of the Vedic god Indra and Surya, the sun god; the railing medallions in the

The shrine at this period is depicted on several reliefs from Sanchi and Bharhut. It appears to have been a roofed and gabled structure with supporting pillars, enclosed by a railing. The actual Bodhi tree is shown are carved with fantastic beasts.

emerging from the roof or gable ends. This shrine was replaced by the present Mahabodhi temple, begun in the Kushan (Mathura) period, 2nd century a.d. provided with a revetment and statuary in the Pala-Sena period, a.d. 750-1200; heavily restored by Sir A. Cunningham and finally restored in 1882 by Burmese Buddhists. The central tower, supported on a podium 20 ft. high and 50 ft. wide, stands ISO ft, above the ground. See A. K. Coomaraswamv, History of Indian and Indonesian Art ;

(1927)

;

Sir A.

Cunningham'. Maliabodhi (1892).

BUDDHISM

is

the religion of the

(F.

followers of

R. A.)

Gautama

Buddha

(q.v.). Arising in the 6th century B.C. as an offshoot of Hindu religion of north India, it flourished #v'idely country until the 11th century a.d., spreading meanwhile to other parts of Asia. Today Buddhists in influential numbers are present in Burma (90% of the population), Thailand (89%), Ceylon (60%) and Japan (60%). In less influential numbers they are in China (about 17%), and in small numbers in India, Pakistan and the Philippines. In Indonesia there are some Buddhists in the midst of the predominantly Muslim population. Cambodia, Laos and Tibet are recognized as Buddhist countries, though statistics are not available. In Nepal the two religions are Hinduism and Buddhism. Outside Asia, Buddhists are present in North America (165,000), South .\merica (135.000) and Europe (10,000). The total number of Buddhists in the world is approximately 150,310,000.

the prevailing in that

ORIGINS

—

AND DEVELOPMENT

Origins in India. Buddhism arose in an age of religious fei> ment. Many wandering ascetic teachers emerged, proclaiming various ways of deliverance from spiritual ignorance and suffering. An earlier polytheistic worship of the powers of nature, based on the sacred literature of Arj'an invaders (Vedas and

BUDDHISM Brahmanas), had developed at the hands of priests into a burdensome sacrificial and ritual system. To this had been added a social theory of caste and a conception of retribution for deeds done (karma), carried out in transmigration through many sucEscape from evil consequences of deeds could cessive lives. come about only through the performance of prescribed ritualistic Reaction to this formalized, meacts by Brahman priests. chanical practice in religion was inevitable. It had already appeared in the latest development of V'edic literature, the Upanishads (c. 600-500 B.C.), which mark the beginning of a pantheistic philosophy, seeking a single reahty behind all individual gods and aiming at deliverance from ill, not through ritualistic acts but in realization of union with this reality.

At

first

Buddhism was only one among numerous similar proformalism. Like them it looked else-

tests against the prevailing

where for a deeper solution of problems of the inner life. In it was unique. Ethically, it sought reform by rejecting the authority of the Vedas and in teaching an independent moralPhilosophically, it denied any substratum in the world of ity. things or in any of the gods of the Vedic pantheon. Apart from all old Vedic theories it offered a way of spiritual attainment and release from endless births and deaths which it set forth as the procedure

discovery of its founder. Earliest Teaching. According to the oldest Buddhist literature (preserved in the Pali language), Gautama Buddha began his teaching career at Benares with a sermon traditionally accepted

—

known as TurnRighteousness"; Dhammacak-

as the first e.xposition of his basic doctrine.

It is

Wheel of Doctrine (or "of kappavattana) and has remained authoritative for all Buddhists. The discourse is addressed to "him who has given up the world," in the conviction that worldly life cannot give final happiness. There are two extremes that ought not to be followed the profitless life of indulgence in sensual pleasure, and the equally profitless way of self-mortification. By avoiding these two extremes Gautama Buddha "has gained the enlightenment of the middle path which produces insight, produces knowledge, and conduces to tranquillity, to higher knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nirvana." This enlightenment consists in the realization of four basic truths, reverently named the Four Noble Truths: 1. The Xoble Truth of Pain (or Suffering): birth is pain, old age is pain, sickness is pain, death is pain. Union with the unpleasant is pain, separation from the pleasant is pain, not obtaining what one ing the

—

wishes 2.

pain. In short, the live groups of clinging to existence is pain. of the Cause of Pain: the craving that leads to accompanied by delight and passion, rejoicing at finding dehere and there, namely, the craving for lust, for existence, for nonis

The Noble Truth

rebirth, light

existence. 3.

The Noble Truth

—

of that craving

from

its

of the Cessation of Pain: the complete cessation forsaking, reUnquishment, release and detachment

it.

4. The Noble Truth of the Path that Leads to the Cessation of Pain: this is the Noble Eightfold Path, namely, right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right Uvelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

The motive of this first sermon is practical; viz., to awaken recognition of the universality of suffering inherent in existence, to indicate its cause in craving and to teach a way of deliverance through rightness in thought, conduct and inner discipline. The description of the Path covers the whole training of the disciple. Its full significance is best

seen in other reported discourses of the

Buddha as found in Pali and later Buddhist literature. Authoritative Buddhist Scriptures. As followers of the Buddha spread his teachings in India and beyond, a large number of scriptures came into being, purporting to record his exact words, setting forth his rules for governing the monastic community and preserving later systematic analyses of doctrine by able scholars. All these writings, however, were put into their present form after the split-up of the original community into sects, each of which made its own collection. Only one of the collections now exists in completeness in any Indian language, the Canon of the

—

School of Elders (Theravada). as authoritative sacred

Written in Pali, this is treasured Ceylon, Burma, Thailand,

scripture in

Laos and Cambodia. It owes its preservation to the fact that it was introduced into Ceylon by Buddhist missionaries in the 3rd century B.C. According to the Great Chronicle (Mahavamsaj of

355

Ceylon, it was committed to writing for the first time in the 6th century after the Buddha (c. 25 B.C.). Thence knowledge of it spread to other countries of southeast Asia. Other canons that once existed in Buddhist schools of northern India are known in fragmentary form through surviving Sanskrit texts and through Chinese and Tibetan translations of Sanskrit texts now lost. These show dissimilarities and divergence from the Pali canon, the result of oral transmission of teachings in widely separated communities

When

of monks.

finally written

down

the changes

became

fixed

between rival schools of interpretation. In all older schools accumulated scriptures were classified in a threefold division called the Three Baskets (Tipitaka in Pali, Tripitaka in Sanskrit). In the Pali canon this consists of (1) as characteristic differences

V'inaya Pitaka, a collection of 227 rules of discipline (vinaya) binding on the monks; (2) Sutta Pitaka, arranged in five collections of discourses (sutta), of basic

(3)

importance for doctrine; and Pitaka, a collection of higher doctrinal treatises psychological and philosophical in character, on

Abhidhamma

(abhidhamma),

terms and ideas found

in the first

two

In

collections.

all

this

and later elements are discernible, and the whole represents a slow and complex growth of tradition over several centuries, with the third collection taking shape much later than

literature, earlier

first two. It reflects authentically, however, how the School of Elders (Theravada) understood the teaching of the Buddha.

the

—

Developed Doctrines of Early Buddhism. In addition to the Four Noble Truths including the Noble Eightfold Path, other important conceptions appear in the Pali scriptures. Buddhism stood in opposition to rival systems and was compelled to define its attitude on certain important points. As against both Hinduism and Jainism

it denied a permanent, unchanging self (atta) or substantial soul that transmigrates intact from one life to the next. Instead it analyzed the individual into five groups of chang-

ing constituents: corporeality, feelings, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness. Like all else in the phenomenal universe, a person

in process of

continuous change, with no fixed underAll is transitory and impermanent (anicca), in continual unease and unrest (diikkha), and substanceless (anatta). In this ever-flowing stream of psychophysical events everything takes place according to universal causality, the law of deeds is

lying entity.

Pali kamma) by which each act brings on its own inThe idea of karma was not original with the Buddha, but he gave it a distinctly ethical interpretation. Good deeds bring good results, evil deeds bring evil results. This furnishes the basic condition for moral improvement. By following the Eightfold Path of right living the process of personal continuous change is directed onward and upward through successive lives toward the ultimate goal of Nirvana (Pali Nibbana). Fuller explanation of the Eightfold Path is given as follows:

(karma;

evitable result.

Right view is understanding the Four Truths. Right thought is free from lust, ill will, cruelty and untruthfulness. Right speech is abstaining from lying, talebearing, harsh language and vain talk. 4. Right action is abstaining from kUUng, stealing and sexual mis1.

2.

3.

conduct. 5. Right hvelihood is earning a living in a way not harmful to any Uving thing. 6. Right effort is to avoid evil thoughts and overcome them, to arouse good thoughts and maintain them. 7. Right mindfulness is to pay vigilant attention to every state of the body, feeling, mind. 8. Right concentration is concentration on a single object so as to induce certain special states of consciousness in deep meditation. By following the Path a disciple aims at complete purity of thought and life, hoping to become an arahat, one freed from the necessity of rebirth, ready for Nirvana.

How

the cycle of life goes on in the world of transmigratory

existence

is

formulated

(Pali paticcasamuppada

in

the "law of dependent origination"

: Sanskrit pratityasamutpada) This is a of 12 causal states of the individual, each of which is thought to determine the next: ignorance, volitional activity, the consciousness that links one birth with another, mind-and-body, the six .

list

senses (five physical, one mental), impressions (sensory and mental), feeling, craving, attachment, becoming, rebirth, old age and death. E.xplanations of this list have varied, but its evident aim is

to

emphasize the causality operating through continuing cycles

—

BUDDHISM

356

from birth to death to rebirth in successive lives. ultimate enlightenment dispels ignorance the successive factors cease to operate and suffering as well as transmigration ends. The final goal is Nirvana, a transcendent state free from craving, of progress

When

and sorrow. Its positive character is inexpressible in any terms of finite experience, for its reality transcends the realm of birth and death. Whether the purified saint exists or does not suffering

exist after

guage

is

death the Buddha

inapplicable to what

existence.

Early Order of Monks. was common

left is

indeterminate because such lanbeyond both existence and non-

— In the India of the Buddha's day,

for religious teachers with

numerous followers

it

to

organize their initiates into regulated communities. Gautama Buddha did likewise. His order had distinctive features. It re-

moved all restrictions of caste, placed upon all members alike the same requirements, denounced extreme ascetic practices and emphasized moral principles. A monk's equipment was simple alms bowl, vestments, staff, razor, toothpick, etc. His activities consisted of daily recitations, going the rounds for alms, fasting after the noonday meal, meditating and listening to religious discourses by senior monks. They also included giving regular instruction to junior monks, preaching to laymen during the rainy season, and joining twice a month in a general ceremony of confession in which an early code of rules (the Patimokkha) was recited. His preaching to laymen enjoined abstention from taking life, from drinking intoxicants, from lying, stealing and unchastity. It emphasized the social virtues in relations between parents and children, husband and wife, friend and friend, masters and servants, laity and clergy. Ordination into the order was a simple ceremony, the central part of which was taking the Threefold Refuge: "I go to the Buddha for refuge, I go to the Doctrine for refuge, I go to the Order for refuge." This Threefold Refuge (Buddha, dharina [Pali dhamma], Sangha) later came to be called the Three Jewels, or Three Treasures, in all Buddhist lands. Support for the order (Sangha) came from the laity who in gratitude gave gifts as they were able. Originally this was chiefly a matter of giving alms to the monks. As the number of monks and lay-followers increased, the corporate Sangha received large gifts in money, lands, parks and buildings from rulers and other wealthy patrons. This led to settled monastic establishments. Not everyone was accepted to this way of life. Persons suffering from mental or bodily defect, those who were vicious, gamblers, debtors or minors without the consent of parents were not adOrdination of women was at first not contemplated by mitted. the Buddha, and it was with some reluctance that an order for nuns was sanctioned. Rules for nuns involved obedience to the order of monks in all respects. The order of nuns appears never to have been numerically large, but it has continued, as has the order of monks, into modern times.

SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM Emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. About

—

a century after Gautama's death, divisions began to appear in the Sangha. The growing community separated into two schools. One, conservative, held strictly to doctrine and practice as originally formulated; this was the School of Elders (Pali Theravada; Sanskrit Sthaviravada). The other, liberal, interpreted doctrine and practice with greater freedom; this was the School of the Great Assembly (Mahasanghika). As groups of monks multiplied and spread to different parts of India other schisms followed. By the 1st century B.C. about 18 or 20 could be named. Under the emperor Asoka (c. 274-c. 232 B.C.) missionaries of the Theravada school carried their form of Buddhism to southern India and Ceylon. Eventually its Pali scriptures were preserved in Ceylon. Another early group, differing little at first from the Theravada

was the Sarvastivada school. It put its scriptures spread northward and flourished eventually in Gandhara and Kashmir. From there its ideas passed to China and Tibet. This school argued for the existence of all entities mentioned by the Buddha, whether past, present or future, whence its name Sarvastivada, which means literally the "all-is doctrine." in doctrine,

into

Sanskrit,

In the meantime, the liberal tendency, working both within and without the Sarvastivada school, was bringing about changes in interpretation of the Buddha's meaning. From inchoate beginnings the tendency developed into an increasingly self-conscious movement which around the year a.d. 1 issued in a new form of Buddhism calling itself Mahayana or Great Vehicle (i.e., conveyance to salvation. In derogation it called the earlier, strictly orthodox teaching and practice Hinayana, or Little Vehicle, which it criticized as inferior, elementary, and merely preliminary to its own deeper insights into Buddhist meanings. Primarily its target of attack was the position of conservatives in the Sarvastivada school. Today, without using the derogatory term, the differences between the earliest teaching of the School of Elders and the Mahayana may be seen by comparing Theravada ideas as found in the Pali scriptures with Mahayana ideas in the Sanskrit tradition. This will make clear the essential characteristics of the two )

major divisions of Buddhism.

Theravada and Mahayana

—Major

contrasts appear as fol-

lows:

Theravadins revere profoundly the personality of the historic Buddha, his teachings (dhamma) and the order he founded (Sangha). Mahayanists remember Gautama Buddha also, but regard him as one of many Buddhas who have appeared in many universes, all being manifestations of one primordial Buddha nature, and teaching variously according to needs of beings in their different realms.

Theravadins hold that the ideal Buddhist is a follower of the Eightfold Path, the layman going as far as he is able, the monk striving further to fulfill all conditions for the perfected saint (arahat) whose goodness issues in universal love (metta). Mahayanists hold that the ideal Buddhist is a Bodhisattva; i.e., one to become a Buddha, inspired by great compassion to work good of others through perfecting himself in the six virtues iparamita) of generosity, morality, patience, vigour, concentration (in meditation) and wisdom. Theravadins hold that the Buddhist works out his own salvation by faithful adherence to the way demonstrated by the Buddha. Mahayanists hold that the Buddhist may also rely on the aid of supramundane Buddhas and Bodhisattvas whose wisdom, mercy and re idiness to help are unbounded. Theravada philc ophical literature (abhidhamma) is mainly Mahayana philosophy {abanalytical, psychological and ethical. hidhanna) is prefaminantly dialectical and metaphysical. Theravadins regard faith (saddha) as essentially confidence in the truth, taught by the Buddha and progressively realized oneself. Mahayanists regard faith (sraddha as trust in the avail-

vowed

for the

)

ability of merit

Bodhisattva

iransferred from

{e.g.,

Amitabha

some superhuman Buddha or

or Avalokitesvara)

ships with devotion and gratitude.

Literature of the Mahayana. ture, which embodies the earliest

whom

—As compared with tradition,

one wor-

Pali litera-

Mahayana

literature

exhibits a wide variety of tendencies growing out of the tradition

from about 100 B.C. to a.d. 500. and Tibetan, works roughly under monastic rules (vinaya), discourses (sutras) and philosophical treatises {sastras) but subject matter often differs from that found in Pali, is not the product of one single school and shows mixtures of materials compiled While conservative tradiover considerable periods of time. tions are sometimes cited or repeated, they are quite freely reinterpreted and new ideas are unfolded. In discourses the Buddha is still the great teacher, but in the t>'pical Mahayana sutra he is a transcendent, eternal being, preaching to innumerable Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, gods and demigods along with human disciples. In treatises, arguments centre around concepts of Ultimate Reality such as Voidness -{because it is inexpressible). Consciousness-only (metaphysical idealism) and Suchness (or the Truly So). In the that developed in northern India

As

is

were

known from

still

texts in Sanskrit, Chinese

classified

:

full

Mahayana

narrative of the

life

of the

Buddha

(the Lalita

Vistara), there is great expansion of miraculous, legendary and numerical elements. Sutras. Among notable Mahayana sutras in the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka are (1) Saddharma Pundarika (Lotus of the

—

BUDDHISM

357

Wonderful Law), whose chief doctrine is the Eternal Buddha; (2) Sukhavativyuha (Land of Bliss), teaching salvation into the Pure Land of the celestial Buddha Amitabha through faith; (3) Karandavyuha, which describes qualities of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Avalokitesvara; (4) Prajnaparamita (Perfection of Wisdom), teaching the doctrine of Voidness or Emptiness of all phenomena; (5) Lankavatara, whose chief doctrine is that all discriminated entities are mind-only; (6) Avatamsaka, which teaches the interpenetration and identification of all things in universal consciousness; (7) Suvarnaprabhasa (Splendour of Gold), a miscellany of doctrine of Emptiness, praises of altruism, legends,

and magical spells; (8) Vimalakirtinirdesa, which named Vimalakirti; (9) Maharatnakuta (Heap of Jewels), a collection of 49 discourses on a wide esoteric rituals

extols an ideal Bodhisattva

variety of Sastras.

Mahayanist

topics.

—Outstanding

among

the philosophical treatises (sas-

are (1) the Madhyamika-karikas (Aphorisms on the Madhyamika System) by Nagarjuna (c. a.d. ISO), who argues tras)

Emptiness (sunyata) of all relative determinations in thought, and for the Absolute as void (sunya) of such determinations since it transcends thought; (2) Mahayanasamparigraha (Acceptance of the Great Vehicle) by Asanga (4th century a.d.). who teaches that all things exist in a fundamental (or receptacle) consciousness; such idealism also marks; (3) his Yogacaryabhumi Sastra. in which he sets forth the stages in a Bodhisattva's career toward Supreme Enlightenment; (4) Vijnaptimatrata (Ideation- or Representation-only), two treatises in 20 and 30 stanzas respectively, written by Asanga's brother Vasubandhu, who argues that all seemingly external objects are only mental representations, ideations-only; (5) Mahayanasraddhotpada (Awakening of Faith in the Great Vehicle), a work known only in its Chinese version, which teaches that mind in its own nature is pure, that it becomes sullied through ignorance but may be cleansed through right understanding and faith in Buddhahood and through practice of charity, unselfish kindness, patience, zeal, tranquillity and wisdom, all of which issues eventually in the attainment of Perfect Enlightenment. dialectically for the

REGIONAL VARIATIONS IN BUDDHISM A. India

—

Decline of Buddhism in India. As a vigorous distinctive Then it faith Buddhism flourished in India until about a.d. 500. began to decline. Its Theravada form already had passed out of northern India to the south and to Ceylon. The Mahayana form, more pliable and tolerant, could not maintain resistance to steady pressures from without. From its beginning. Buddhism was surrounded in India by other religious beliefs and practices the old Vedic ritualism and Brahmanism, ascetic Jainism (q.v.) and later Hinduism with its complex variety of deities and cults. Though it had some influence on these as it spread, it never really

—

predominated except as rulers gave it special patronage. Its rivals continued active and tenacious. With the passing of time. Mahayana Buddhism, in constant contact with Hindu cults, gradually absorbed elements and tendencies from them until its distinguishing marks grew dim. Chinese pilgrims, traveling to India between A.D. 629 and 695, report the decline of monasteries once prosperous, the presence of Hindu temples near deserted Buddhist sites, or their close connection with functioning Buddhist temples where Buddhists and "heretics" intermingled. In the 8th and 9th centuries a Hindu revival under the influence of two masterful dialecticians, Kumarila and Shankara, gave strong doctrinal competition to Buddhist teachers, while organized Saiva ascetics opposed Buddhist monastic groups. With the establishment of

Muslim power from

its

old

in a.d.

home

in

1193,

Buddhism

northwest India.

practically disappeared

Elsewhere

it

lingered on in

corrupted forms, eventually becoming a subsidiary sect under Hinduism, which accepted Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu.

—

Tantric Buddhism. A factor marking the decline from the onward was the assimilation of a system of esoteric beliefs and practices kno\\Ti as Tantrism. The name derives from its literature, tantras (or "manuals"). At this time Tantrism appeared in both Hinduism and Buddhism as a magical ritual, using 7th century

BUDDHIST TEMPLE OF THE PALLAVA PERIOD OF DRAVEDIAN ART AT MAHAULAPURAM. INDIA; 7TH CENTURY (mantras'), mystic syllables (dkaranis), occult diagrams (mandalas) and s>Tnbolic gestures (mudras) to attain the goal of religious life. The goal here conceived is a state of mystical union with reality wherein all dualities cease, s>Tnbolically expressed as In Hinduism the the union of a given deity with his consort. In Buddhism they were Buddhas and deities were Hindu gods. Bodhisattvas. each pictured with a feminine partner. Meditation on the symbol was intended to lead to an inner unification of the devotee and his identification with the deity, which is supreme spiritual bliss. The symbolism of sexual union was used to indicate an ultimate mystical realization. In some forms of Tantrism, however, the symbol was a literal ritual union, celibacy and ascetic morals were rejected, and a general indulgence of the senses was approved. It is evident that the mystical metaphors of the tantras, taken literally, were easily open to abuse and could be interpreted to sanction conduct quite opposed to the precepts of early Buddhism. Historically, this brought condemnation from ascetic religious groups and upon late Buddhism itself in India. spells

B. Tibet

The form

of

Buddhism

that entered Tibet in the 8th century

was of the late Indian variety. It brought in not only the Hinayana and Mahayana traditions, but also the Tantric interpretations and practices which an Indian Tantric scholar, Padmasambhava. introduced. This mixed form of Buddhism combined with the Tibetan indigenous religion, Bonism. The latter was A.D.

essentially a worship of nature spirits, hostile or benevolent, in

which human and animal

sacrifices, divination,

magic (black and

white), exorcism and sorcery were practised. The resulting complex of beliefs and practices is the distinctive religion of Tibet and Mongolia. In general it is an advance over original Bonism,

but a less pure form of Buddhism than the Theravada of southeast Asia and the Mahayana of China and Japan. The canonical scriptures of Tibetan Buddhism are voluminous. consist of translations of basic texts from the Sanskrit, commentaries upon them, literature of the Old Translation school, founded by Padmasambhava, and lesser collections made up of ritual texts, doctrinal summaries, guides to meditation, invocations and classical tales of the Buddha's previous births (Jataka).

They

BUDDHISM

358

Most important are the first two sections, the Kagyur (or Kanjur), sacred because it contains the direct words of the Buddha, and the Tangyur (or Tenjur), containing the commentarial explanations.

The

Kag:>'ur consists of the Threefold Collection

(Tri-

and Treatises, plus what are called the Four Great Tantras ("manuals"). These last are (1) the Tantra of Activities (Kriya), (2) the Tantra of Application (Charya), (3) the Tantra of Perfection (Yoga) and the Tantra of Supreme Perfection (Anuttara Yoga). For Tibetans the Tantra section is very important, for here are set forth the magical rites, powerful spells, complex symbolisms and mystical meditations, claimed to lead to realization of Supreme Truth by developing intuitive wisdom and compassion. One edition of the Kagyur runs to 108 volumes. Even larger is the Tangyur, 225 volumes of commentaries on sutras and tantras. Doctrinally, Tibetan teachers have recognized three ways to the highest goal in Buddhism. These they regard as designed by the Buddha for persons on different levels or stages of development. These are: (1) Hinayana, or the way of self-emancipation through self-discipline; (2) Mahayana, the way of philosophical insight into reality for the sake of saving others; (i) Tantrayana, the way of magical rites and mystical meditations. Theoretically, these are successive steps in an all-inclusive One Way (Ekayana, or One Vehicle) which the Buddha had in mind from the beginning. Accordingly a monk is expected to spend 15 to 20 years studying literature of the first two yanas before going on to learn the practice of the third under qualified masters in mystical realipitaka") of Rules. Discourses

zation.

Historically, the magic ritualism of Tantrayana made the first and readiest appeal in Tibet, where Bon magic was well-known and This opened the way for introduction of all forms of tantric teachings from India, including the most literal interpretations. By the 11th century the amoralism of the literalists called for reform, and more adequate knowledge of the higher teachings. Atisha for Atisa). arriving from India in a.d. 1042, and Tsongkha-pa (1356-1418) both disapproved of tantric extravagances, practised.

taught the

more balanced doctrine of the three yanas, required among the monks and gave more spiritual inter-

stricter discipline

pretations of tantric teachings. This led to the establishment of the now dominant Ge-luk-pa ^Virtuous Way) sect to which the

supreme head of the belongs.

The patron

ecclesiastical hierarchy,

the Dalai

Lama,

deity of Tibet

is Chen-re-zi (i.e., the Bodhisattva of Great Mercy, Avalokitesvara), of whom the successive Dalai Lamas are regarded as reincarnations. A feminine deity popularly worshiped is Tara the Saviouress. {See further Tibetan

Buddhism.) C.

Among

Burma and Southeast

Asia

countries in which the earliest form of

Buddhism

is fol-

lowed today. Burma is notable for preservation of original monastic practices and adherence to the tradition of councils called to maintain purity of the faith. Its yellow-robed monks guide their lives by the ancient rules of the order (Sangha). They are expected to study diligently the Pali scriptures, practise the ethical precepts, meditate regularly and aspire to the purity of character and insight leading to Nibbana. They also maintain close contact with the people. Every village has at least one monastery radiating its influence through the community. iSIonks minister to the people through teaching and conducting religious rites and ceremonies for them. They give training to the youth entering the order for a limited period of religious education. According to ancient custom, they go the round for alms among the laity, affording them opportunity to practice the householder's virtue of giving. Ideally, the monk stands before the people as an example of complete devotion to the higher life taught by the Buddha. The laity respect the monk (pongyi, or "great glory"), and expect much of him as a moral leader. If he should stray from the right path of his vows they are quick to disapprove. On the whole, the situation in

modern Burma

illustrates

how

the early order must

have operated.

Theravada form of Buddhism was not prevawhole of Burma until after the 11th centurj' a.d.

Historically, the lent over the

--•i--"*'

' committees of the details of estimates or of the public accounts after expenditures are made, as compared with the practice in the United States and the

United Kingdom,' Discussion in the committee of supply on estimates normally concerns either matters of policy relating to them or particular grievances related to the service concerned, rather than matters of administration. The estimates are prepared initially by the various departments

government under the direction of the ministers responsible for Each minister forwards his estimates to the treasury board, The staff is a committee of the cabinet established by law. of this board, provided by the department of finance, examines of

them.

which

BUDGET, GOVERNMENTAL proposals in the light of general government policy and also from the standpoint of economy and efficiency. The treasury board considers the proposed estimates, together with the comments from the department of finance and information and arguments furnished by the department concerned, and it then determines what will be submitted to parliament. The cabinet as a

and

whole settles any major questions of policy or matters on which the treasury board cannot reach agreement with the ministers concerned and gives the necessary final approval to what will be proposed to parliament. The budget proper, including as its main elements the proposals for tax changes, is normally presented to parliament after the main estimates, often in late March or April, close to the beginning of the fiscal year to which it will apply. The budget is very largely the personal responsibility of the minister of finance, assisted

by

department and by the minister of national revenue and his it must be approved by the cabinet before presentation to parliament. For months before presenting the budget the minister of finance and his senior officers concerned with tax matters receive many proposals and representations from the pubhe and study these together with the financial requirements and suggestions from officials. It is the practice to present the revenues and expenditures of the past financial year and the forecasts and proposals for the new year against a broad background of economic conditions and analysis, relating policy in the field of public finance to economic policy in general. To make this possible without too long a speech, it is usual to present the details in the form of a printed White Paper containing in one part the figures of government revenues, expenditures, assets and habilities and in another a review of economic statistics and other facts. In the analysis of the financial results of the past year and the requirements for the future, account is taken not only of budgetary revenue and expenditure proper but also of public debt transactions and other receipts and disbursements, including payments giving rise to certain types of liquid his

senior officers, but

or interest-bearing assets.

In concluding the budget speech, the minister moves that the house of commons constitute itself a committee of ways and means to consider resolutions, which he thereupon tables, summarizing the substance of his tax proposals. These resolutions must be approved by the house before the bills embodying the actual changes in the tax laws are introduced. A general debate on the budget as a whole, which normally covers a wide ground, follows the motion to go into committee of ways and means subsequently there is a debate on the individual resolutions concerning particular tax changes and finally a more technical discussion on the bills themselves. When approved by the house of commons, the bills then go to the senate, where they are usually handled with expedition and due respect for their character as money bills, for which the lower chamber accepts special responsibility. The over-all size of the Canadian budget was greatly influenced by World Wars I and II and the economic and social changes that accompanied them. In 1914 the total of expenditures provided for in the budget was about $180,000,000; in 1924 it was about $440,000,000; by 1939 it had grown to $550,000,000; at the peak of the war in 1943 it was $5,500,000,000; by 1947 it was down to a postwar low of $2,100,000,000; and by 1961 it was up to $6,415000,000 plus an additional $607,000,000 payable out of a special fund for old-age security pensions into which certain earmarked taxes were placed. Prior to World War I budget deficits were frequent, but surpluses were the general rule during the prosperity of the 1920s. In the 1930s deficits were reluctantly accepted as a consequence of depression and, during the war, as a necessity to be minimized by a "pay as you go" policy. From 1947 through 1954 budgetary surpluses were usual, because of the rapid growth of the economy and varying degrees of anti-inflationary fiscal policy. BiBLioGR.\PHy. R. M. Dawson, Government of Canada (1957); W. C. Clark, "Financial Administration of the Government of Canada," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, vol. iv, no. 3, A. E. Buck, Financing Canadian Government pp. 391-419 (1938) (1949) D. M. Fleming, "Budget Speech and Papers," Canada, House of ;

—

;

;

Commons

Debates, 1960-61, VI, 6639-680S.

(R. B. Br.)

369

BRITISH COMMONWEALTH AND EUROPE Many features of the United Kingdom's fiscal system, described

criticizes the

above, are also found in other countries. The similarities are, understandably, greatest in the independent countries of the British commonwealth whose constitutions and administrative apparatus were to a large extent modeled on that of the United Kingdom.

The

most marked in countries which have a federal government or have been greatly influenced in their administrative arrangements by the doctrine of the separation of powers. Even in commonwealth countries, however, there are important variations in practice. Budget making in the sense used here, the raising of revenue and the authorization and control of public expenditure Ues at the heart of all government, and the methods of each country are bound to be profoundly influenced by its constitutional, parliamentary and economic development. In what follows the chief characteristics of fiscal and budgetary practice outside the United Kingdom are analyzed on the basis of the experience of a selection of countries. (For Canadian practice, see the separate section Canada above.) The main questions differences are

as against a unitary system of

—

—

considered are the timing of the budget in relation to the financial year; the administrative and parliamentary processes necessary for

passage into law; the form and structure of budgets; the purposes they are designed to serve; the methods of control over expenditure and revenue and the system of accounting and scrutiny its

;

of accounts.

Financial Year and Date of Budget.

—The

financial year is

from April 1 to March 31 from Jan. 1 to Dec. 31 {e.g., in France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland) and from July 1 to June 30 (e.g., in Australia, Italy and Sweden). The financial year largely determines the date of introduction of the budget, though in some countries it comes before, in some after, the beginning of the new year. In Australia the normal date is sometime in August; that usually chosen from one of three periods

{e.g.,m India)

:

;

;

more than a month after the financial year has begun. In India, on the other hand, the central budget is normally introduced toward the end of February. On the continent of Europe the usual practice is to present the budget, whatever legislative form it may take, well in advance, so that it may be passed into law before the new year begins. This interval may be long; in Sweden, for example, where the financial year begins on July 1, the budget is normally introduced in the second week of January. Legislative Framework and Parliamentary Procedure. Countries which separate the procedures for examining and authorizing government expenditure from the procedures involved in raising revenue may here conveniently be distinguished from countries where the two sides of the budget account are considered by the same bodies and at more or less the same time. The method of separation, which is that of the United Kingdom, is followed with variations by most independent countries of the British commonwealth. In Austraha the estimates appear at the same time as the budget. The estimates are first referred to a committee of supply and after being voted are embodied in appropriation bills which subsequently receive legislative sanction. In is,

—

India the practice

is

somewhat

different, since the estimates are set

out in the budget itself. Even there, however, the first stage, following a general discussion, is the voting of demands by the lower house of the legislature, after which the votes are incorporated in

an appropriation bill which is debated in the ordinary way. The voting of revenue in the independent commonwealth countries is on lines analogous with those of the United Kingdom. The principal changes in taxation will normally be outlined in the budget speech of the minister of finance or treasurer and voted as a series of resolutions. Together with more detailed amendments of the taxation laws they will then be included in either one or more bills and subsequently debated. In Australia taxation proposals are given effect in a series of bills; in India, on the other hand, changes in the existing taxation law are enacted through a single finance bill, but proposals for new types of taxation are enacted through separate bills in each case. On the continent of Europe the budget proposals normally take the form of a bill in which details both of expenditure and of the

BUDGET, GOVERNMENTAL

370

revenue proposals to meet it are set out at the same time. The is for the bill to be considered by a budget or finance committee, which then reports to a chamber of the legislature. This is the course followed in France (where the bill is first considered by a parliamentar>' committee, which, then reports to the national assembly), in Sweden (where the bill may ultimately be passed on a combined vote of both chambers) and in Italy (in which case the budget measures take the form not of one but of a number of bills each of which deals with a separate department). In Swtzerland the budget proposals of the federal council (or cabinet) are considered first by a joint commission of both chambers and then by the finance committee of each chamber, which reports through its chairman to the whole chamber. Each chamber votes separately, and the budget is continually referred back and forth until agreement is reached. This procedure is similar to that applied to other bills; both chambers are equally competent general practice

in financial matters.

In several countries, as in the United Kingdom, provision is for the voting of funds on account to permit the business of government to be carried on if the passage of the budget is delayed. Thus in India a vote on account is passed to provide the

made

when it is not possible to complete all stages through which the budget must pass before the financial year beIn France, under a new procedure introduced at the beginning of 1959, if the finance bill has not been approved within the time limit established in the constitution (70 days after the submission of the bill) the budget may be brought into force by decree. In Italy a provisional budget for four months may be approved as from the end of the previous financial year, based on the new finance bill. Most countries also have arrangements for granting supplementary estimates during the financial year. Form of the Budget. Subject to the minor qualification already noted (under which orders for payment drawn by departments before March 31 are included in the appropriation accounts, whether or not they were cashed before that date) the budget accounts of the United Kingdom are cash accounts in the strictest sense. This system in its unqualified form is to be found also in India and Australia. Some countries, however (e.g., Canada), work on a modified cash basis. On the continent of Europe and in some other countries the budget accounts are drawn up on an income-and-expenditure rather than on a cash basis; in other words, they include all income receivable in a particular year, as well as all expenditure appropriated for that year. Mention should be made here of a distinctive feature of the Swiss budget. Though the accounts presented to the parliament are formally on the basis of estimates of income and expenditure, in fact the scope for variation on both sides of the account is strictly limited, since the sources of the federal government's revenue are laid down in the constitution and can be varied only by means of emergency decree or of special tax laws which are subject to referendum. The budget, therefore, is based on an estimate of income from predetermined sources against which are set details of expenditure restricted to conform as far as possible with the available income. There are two other important variations in the form of the public accounts of different countries. In some, all government receipts and expenditures are concentrated in a single account or fund; in others, more than one fund will be kept in some cases many more. Further, some countries make no distinction between capital and current items in their accounts; others draw a fairly sharp distinction. In Australia, in addition to a consoHdated revenue fund, there are two other accounts the loan fund and the trust fund. The distinction between these and the consohdated revenue fund does not correspond strictly to the distinction between current and capital already mentioned. Much capital investment is in fact financed from the revenue fund; the loan fund itself is confined to those expenditures which are financed by borrowing by the commonwealth government and the states. Contributions from the revenue have been made to the loan fund to assist the borrowing programs of the Loan council. India draws a sharp distinction between its revenue budget and capital budget. executive with funds gins.

—

—

—

Practice on the continent of Europe varies widely.

The French

made no distinction between current and capital in their budget, but did so for the first time in the 1960 budget. In Italy the general budget is divided into two categories, "effective receipts and e.xpenditure" and "movement of capital." But effective expenditure includes most of the government's capital outlays, movement of capital being confined to direct loans and advances to private industry or local authorities and to special funds for the financing of industry and, on the receipts side, mainly to governlong

ment borrowing.

In Sweden the capital budget constitutes a plan and an annual program is dra-rni up for each of the ten funds of the trading enterprises and spending agencies controlled by the government. Capital investment by the state came to play a large part in the national investment of most countries not only the relatively new and unfor state investment during the fiscal year,

—

developed ones (e.g., Australia and India) but also the more developed such as France (where in the late 19SOs capital investment by the state amounted to about 24%). The Budget as an Instrument of Economic Control. Traditionally the budget is a fiscal machine for raising revenue to meet authorized government e.xpenditure. By the 1960s some countries continued to regard it only in this light. Others had come to look upon it also as a balancing factor in the national economy, designed to serve broader economic ends such as eliminating inflation or preventing trade depression, securing a large volume of investment, In France, as alor correcting balance-of-pa)Tnents difficulties. ready noted, the budget is used as a major instrument in the national investment plan and also in an attempt to secure a greater balance in the economy; this was well demonstrated in 1959 when the important program of economic reform was based to a large extent on budgetary measures. In Italy and Germany, on the other hand, the budget continued to be used primarily for fiscal purposes. In theory, Switzerland lies midway between the extreme positions. The Financial law of Jan. 1, 1958, specifically recognizes the need to take account of the general economic situation when provision is made for the repavmient of national debt. In practice, the lack of scope for variation on the revenue side and public pressure to have taxes reduced in times of surplus are likely to tie the hands In Sweden by the 1950s the budget of the federal government. was employed as an instrument of planning, annual balancing having been discarded. Moreover, in order to emphasize its importance in the field of economic control, two emergency budgets as well as the ordinary budget are provided and voted each year to meet the situation which might arise in case of war or depression and unemployment. No revenue is voted for either of these budgets, which are confined to authorizing expenditure (in the latter case grants for public-works schemes to relieve unemployment), but authority is given for the raising of loans to cover expenditure should the emergencies in question arise. Control Over Revenue and Expenditure. In most independent countries of the British Commonwealth the system of parliamentary and administrative control over revenue and expenditure follows the United Kingdom's practice, on which it is largely based, though not without differences. In all these the control is generally on a statutory basis and is exercised first through parliament and then through executive action. In Australia control is mainly directed by the treasur>' through the medium of the

—

—

Audit act and treasury regulations. Under the act only treasury The issue of money officers may transfer money to departments. so transferred to meet expenditure is super\'ised by officers in departmental accounts branches, who are designated by the treasury to see that it is in accordance with parUamentary and other authority. In India the system is less rigid; sums authorized by parliament are placed at the disposal of the controlling authorities in the various departments, who are themselves responsible for seeing that e.xpenditure* does not exceed the amount authorized without prior authority. Powers of reappropriating expenditure to purposes other than those originally authorized are also wthin limits delegated to departments. Collection of revenue is in the hands

number of special departments, but over-all control over both revenue and expenditure is exercised by the finance ministry.

of a

The practice in European countries varies considerably. In France control over a department's expenditure is exercised by

;

BUDWEIS— BUENOS AIRES the minister, but he in turn

is

assisted

by controllers of current

who are officials of the ministry of finance. In Italy, on the other hand, day-to-day control over revenue and expenditure is exercised by the director-general of the treasury, who has In Sweden, to certify the legality of proposed disbursements. spending is largely in the hands of the spending agencies and, once it is authorized, no special parliamentary or administrative control is exercised, apart from the duties performed by the general accounting office (see below). Scrutiny of Accounts. Independent audit of accounts by an officer responsible to the legislature and not to the executive or to any department thereof is a practically universal feature of finanIn independent countries of the British commoncial control. wealth the system is again, in part, modeled on that of the United Kingdom. In Australia departmental accounts are under continuous examination by audit inspectors throughout the year, and expenditure,

—

the Audit act requires the treasurer to furnish the auditor-general

each year with a statement showing the financial under various heads. This is then transmitted by the auditor-general to parliament with a report thereon. In India a similar system prevails. In France and Italy, though the ministry of finance and treasury respectively are concerned with scrutinizing day-to-day expenditure of departments, accounting results come under examination or are reported on by an independent In Italy this court is also concerned with court of accounts. the accounts of institutions in which the state has a financial interest. In Sweden a general accounting office is responsible for accounting procedures applied by the spending agencies and it also has authority to supervise the arrangements for disbursements on current account. At the same time the national debt office is responsible for arranging disbursements in respect of the capital budget. The general accounting office also has the function of collecting monthly details of expenditure from spending agencies and consolidating them into a central account, which is submitted as a monthly report to the cabinet, together with a statement of estimated budget revenues and expenditure to date. In a number of countries parliamentary scrutiny of expenditure is carried on by committees comparable with the public accounts committee of the United Kingdom. Committees of this name operate in Australia and India. In Switzerland a delegation des fiat the close of

results for the year

nances,

consisting of

three

members drawn from

the

finance

committee of the two chambers, has the task of examining departmental accounts. The accounts are subject to continuous control by a small department of officials who are responsible to the dMigation des finances. In Sweden a post-audit by a specially appointed committee of both chambers of the riksdag is made, as well as by the general accounting office. The object of the first is to review administrative practice and recommend improvements in the interests of efficiency and economy; the second is concerned with post-audit in the narrower sense. (E. E. Bs. F. G. L.) ;

BUDWEIS: iff Ceske Budejovice. BUELL, DON CARLOS (1818-1898), Union

general of the

War, was born near Marietta, 0., on March 23, graduated from West Point in 1841 and fought in the Mexican War, winning two brevets for gallantry. In Dec. 1860

American 1818.

Civil

He

he was sent to Charleston, S.C., to report to Maj. Robert Anderson the position of the Buchanan administration on the defense of Fort Sumter. At the outbreak of the Civil War Buell aided in the organization of the army of the Potomac and in Nov. 1861 succeeded Gen. W. T. Sherman in command of the army of the Ohio.

He

captured Nashville in Feb. 1862, joined Gen. U. S. Grant at Shiloh, and served under Gen. H. W. Halleck in the advance on Corinth. Buell was then to invade and liberate eastern Tennessee but only after protracted maneuvering, during which his army fell back toward Louisville before Gen. Braxton Bragg, was the Con-

Kentucky ended at the indecisive battle of For failure to advance vigorously against the enemy, Lincoln removed Buell from command on Oct. 24, 1862. Buel! resigned from the army in 1864, engaged in private business and died |near Rockport, Ky., on Nov. 19, 1898. (J. R. Co.) PARK, a city of Orange county in southern California, U.S., about 20 mi. E.S.E. of Los Angeles, is on the Santa federate invasion of Perryville.

BUENA

371

Ana freeway, which connects Los Angeles and San Diego, and on Industries include aircraft manufacture and the processing of milk products. Within the city limits lies Incorporated Knott's Berry farm, a popular recreational area. in 1953, the city adopted the council-manager form of government the Riverside freeway.

in the

same

year.

For comparative population

figures see table in

California:

(Wm. H. K.)

Population.

BUENAVENTURA,

the main Pacific port of Colombia, South America, in Valle del Cauca department. Founded in 1540 on the island of Cascajal where the Dagua river reaches the Bay of Buenaventura, it was later burned by Indians and virtually ceased to exist for many years. It was relatively unimportant until the 1930s, being handicapped not only by an oppressively hot and humid climate but by poor transportation connections with the interior. There was an unpaved highway, impassable in rainy seasons, and a single-track railroad w^hich reached the Cauca valley but not Bogota. But by the 1930s the often unnavigable state of the Magdalena river hurt the commerce of Barranquilla, then Colombia's major port. In the same years Buenaventura's inland connections were improved, resulting especially in the growth of road-borne traffic. By the mid-1950s Buenaventura exported products valued at about eight times those shipped from Barran-

and imported half again as much. Modern port facilities and an airport were constructed. The port for the sugar and coffee of the fertile upper basin of the Cauca valley, Buenaventura also handles most of the gold and platinum of the Choco region quilla,

to the north.

The

city

in 1951.

grew from a population of 14,515

The 1958 estimate was 80,440 (mun.).

in 1938 to 35,087

(T.E.N.)

BUENA

VISTA, a village 8 mi. S. of Saltillo, Mex., at the northern edge of the battlefield where one of the major battles of the war between the United States and Mexico was fought in 1847. A U.S. force of about 5,000 under command of Maj. Gen. Zachary Taylor occupied a defensive position on the rugged terrain south of Buena Vista. A Mexican army of about 20,000 came from the south under the command of Gen. Antonio L. de Santa Anna on Feb. 22. 1847. and attacked early the next morning. The At one time an tide of battle wavered throughout the day. American order to advance was relayed as an order to retreat, The thus causing confusion which nearly turned into a rout. situation was saved by the calmness of Taylor, who had returned from Saltillo, and the effective support of the artillery. Later, when Taylor's army held a decided advantage, Santa Anna requested a truce, which proved to be a ruse to permit him to extricate some of his units from untenable positions. When darkness brought the fighting to a halt, it was not clear that either army had gained a victory. Both had suffered heavy casualties. The Mexican army remained numerically stronger, but its morale was at a low ebb, and during the night Santa Anna ordered a general retreat. After a desultory pursuit of Santa Anna, Taylor withdrew to Monterrey and the campaign in northern Mexico was over. See also

The Mexican War.

See (1941)

Holman Hamilton, Zachary ;

R.

S.

Taylor, Soldier of the Republic War (1950). (H. W. By.)

Henry, Story oj the Mexican

BUENOS AIRES, Argentina.

largest and most populous province of Area 118,753 sq.mi. Pop. (1960) 6,734,548, excluding Buenos Aires, located on the estuary of

the federal district of

the Rio de la Plata in the northeastern corner of the province. Roughly square in shape, Buenos Aires is bounded on the north by the Parana river and the provinces of Santa Fe and Cordoba, on the by the Rio de la Plata (which separates it from the republic of Uruguay), on the east and south by the Atlantic ocean and on the west by the provinces of Rio Negro and La Pampa. The island of Martin Garcia, located on the estuary of the Rio de la Plata near the mouth of the Uruguay and Parana rivers (area 0.7 sq.mi., pop. [1947] 1,537) and site of a military prison, is usually considered part of the province of Buenos Aires. Physical Geography. The province forms the major part east

—

humid pampa

grass-covered plain which, through the production of cattle, sheep and wheat, brought of the

of Argentina, a vast

BUENOS AIRES

372

wealth to the area in the late igth century. Rainfall is usually adequate for agriculture, although drought is not unknown; the annual average in the northeast is 39 in., dropping off to approximately 20 in. in the south and west. The region enjoys mild winters and hot summers with the growing season ranging from 300 days in the north to 140 days around Bahia Blanca in the south. Absence of any continuous snow cover makes grazing possible throughout the year. Variable weather and windstorms are characteristic of the area. The pampa is monotonously flat with a soil of alluvium and wind-blown dust or loess, entirely free of stones or pebbles. There are only two low mountain ranges; the Sierra del Tandil (1,660-ft. elevation), which starts on the coast at Mar del Plata and extends inland approximately ISO mi. in a northwesterly direction; and the Sierra de la Ventana (highest point [Tres Picos] 4,078 ft.), about 60 mi. in length and extending in the same direction from the coast near Bahia Blanca. The province is well watered with a ground-water table which Ues close to the surface, but most of the drainage is underground and there is little running water. As a result there are numerous sloughs, occasional swamps and temporary lakes in the rainy months, particularly in the central region. One principal river, the Rio Salado, traverses the entire province from northwest to southeast for a distance of 360 mi. None of the provincial streams can be navigated, and they are used primarily for irrigation. Population. The bulk of the population is concentrated in the northeastern section of the province around the federal district of Buenos Aires. An enormous and continuous urban cluster, which comprises more than one quarter of the total population of the republic or over 6,000,000, is formed by the cities of Vicente Lopez, San Isidro, General San Martin, San Justo, Moron, Lanus, Lomas de Zamora, Avellaneda and Quilmes; the population of none of these is less than 100,000. This commercial, industrial and cultural conglomeration known as Greater Buenos Aires dominates not only the province but also the nation. Several other industrial and commercial centres have developed within the province, such as the port of Bahia Blanca in the south, the provincial capital and port of La Plata approximately 33 mi. S. of the federal district, the seaside resort of Mar del Plata, and the agricultural centres of Pergamino in the north and Azul and Tandil in the south. There are important foreign elements within the province, exceeding 1,000,000 persons by the 1960s. The most numerous nationalities represented are Spanish, Italian, French, German, Russian and Polish. History. Throughout the period of the Spanish empire the area of the province was virtually unexploited save for the hides from the vast herds of cattle and horses which ran wild on the pampa. Actually the interest to sell such hides and salted meat on the world market free of Spanish commercial restrictions, in addition to the natural restlessness and independence of the gauchq, led the inhabitants of the province to support a separation movement from Spain in 1810. Subsequently the province under

—

—

Buenos Aires became involved in efforts to impose a type of government on the autonomous provinces which would someday form Argentina. A degree of national unity was imposed by the governor of Buen s Aires province, Juan Manuel de Rosas, from 1829 to 1852. His despotic rule eventually led to revolution, and in the ensuing strife Buenos Aires separated itself from the Argentine confederation. When in 1862 another Buenos Aires governor, Bartolome Mitre, was elected president, national organization was achieved with Buenos Aires as the first province of the nation. Continued strife within the province was resolved in 1880 with the federalization of the city of Buenos Aires as the residence of the national government and the subsequent move of the provincial authorities to La Plata. At the same time a major campaign against the pampa Indians removed the danger of their raids from the southern boundaries of the province. Peace was thus assured in time for economic the leadership of the city of

prosperity to benefit the province in the final decades of the iQth century. Refinement of refrigeration techniques, making the transport of beef to Europe feasible, led to improvement and

expansion of cattle raising. Simultaneously it was discovered that wheat, corn and alfalfa would grow extremely well on the

pampa. The provinces of Santa Fe and Cordoba also benefited from these economic developments, but it was the province of Buenos Aires, heartland of the pampa, which prospered most. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants, primarily Italian and Spanish, arrived in the province to provide labour for this eco-

nomic boom, and

British, French and Germans responded with managerial experience and capital. The trend toward industrialization, especially marked during and after World War II, again greatly benefited the province since its area contained the major urban concentrations and the centre of transport and commercial facilities of the nation.

Government. able

autonomy

—The

necessary.

provincial government enjoys considermatters although the national government intervene in provincial matters if judged

in local

retains authority

to

Because of

its

important relationship and proximity

autonomy is probably less in the case of Buenos Aires than in some other Argentine provinces. There are three branches of government an executive or governor elected by popular vote; a bicameral legislature; and a judiciary (with to the federal district, this

:

commercial and criminal courts in several cities, a court of appeals and a supreme court in the provincial capital at La Plata). The province is divided into no districts and 8 electoral sections. Each of the municipalities which heads a district has an elected mayor and council. Public primary education with free compulsory schooling from age 6 to 14 is provided, but a considerable portion of this group does not attend school. Relatively few continue to secondary school, although national colegios exist in all civil,

the principal cities.

Buenos Aires located

In addition to the National University of in the federal district, there is a national

La Plata. Economy. Modern economic expansion

university at

—

of the province of

Buenos Aires started near the end of the 19th century with the production of beef, wool and wheat for the European market. The cattle, which had multiplied and roamed the pampa and had previously been utilized only for their hides and for salted meat, were fenced, bred and fed alfalfa. Even a dairy industry began to develop. Sheep raising, from a modest start at mid19th century, became concerned with improvement of slock and wool. Gradually, however, the cereal products assumed more importance, and in 1903, for the first time, the value of agricultural exports (corn, wheat and linseed) exceeded the value of animal products. Although Buenos Aires ranks first in the republic for the number and quality of its livestock and utilizes

more than 50%

of its land for grazing, an increasing area has been given over to agriculture. Livestock raising is concentrated below the federal district, extending inland 150 mi. and southward to Mar del Plata. A broad band running north and south through the province and growing wider in the southern coastal region is devoted to wheat. The maize area is situated in the northern part of the province, while around the in the eastern coast

federal district for a radius of 50 mi. are the intensive truck gardens which supply the urban population with its fresh fruits and vegetables. In the 1960s approximately 40% of the nation's area sown to cereals and linseed was located in the province of

Buenos Aires. Although the province has 1,000 mi. of coastal frontage on the Atlantic and the Rio de la Plata and 300 mi. of river frontage on the Parana in the north and the Rio Negro in the south, there

San Nicolas and Zarate (on the Parana), Bahia Blanca (chief Argentine naval port) and La Plata (provincial seaport) are the major exceptions. Both at the federal district of Buenoi Aires and at Mar del Plata, extensive artificial The former handles the bulk of ports have been constructed. Argentine foreign trade and shares the important river trade with Zarate, Campana and La Plata. Eighteen miles southwest of the federal district is the large and modem Ezeiza airport, com^ pleted in 1950, which serves as the hub of domestic and foreign are few natural ports.

flights in

Argentina.

Indeed the centre of Greater Buenos Aires

is

the veritable com-

All the main railroad lines pass mercial hub of the nation. Although through the province and converge on this centre. industry, the industrial expansion led packing is the major meat

)

BUENOS AIRES

373

to the building of flour mills, foundries, breweries, t.inneries, refineries, distilleries

and innumerable consumer goods factories

in

R. S. AIRES, capital city of Argentina situated in the federal district on the west bank of the Rio de la Plata estuary Pop. (1960) 2.966,816. The temperaat an elevation of 65 ft. ture is moderate; July is the coldest month with a me.in of 49° F., while January is the warmest at 73.6° F. The mean annual temperature is 61° F. Average rainfall is 38 in., April being the wettest this

urlian zone.

(Js.

BUENOS

Humidity

month.

high throughout the year and most objec-

is

tionable in January

and February.

out in a rectangular pattern extending back Deliberate widening of streets and occasional elimination of entire city blocks have created the beautiful thoroughfares of Avenida de Mayo, the central avenue running back from the river and extending under the name Avenida Rivadavia a distance of i.iSo blocks (each roughly 136 yd. long) to the western limit of the federal district: the diagonal avenue

The

city

is

laid

from the river front.

1-

(Diagonal Norte) which fans out from the the 425-ft. wide Avenida 9 de Julio which cuts across the previous two. The Avenida General Paz skirts the federal district on three sides for a distance of iS mi. Well known though shorter are the ten blocks of narrow Calle Florida, lined with shops and turned over to pedestrians during daytime and evening hours when motor traffic is barred. The

Roque Saenz

Peiia

principal Plaza de

heart of old

Mayo; and

Buenos Aires and of the modern downtown

small, limited to an area

18 city blocks square.

city

is

Self-contained

suburbs have developed within the federal district, and additional suburbs within Greater Buenos Aires (some at 15-20 mi. from the city centre) have built the urban population to a total of nearly 4,000,000 in the early 1960s.

Reminiscent of the Spanish heritage are the public buildings surrounding the Plaza de Mayo: the Casa Rosada (government palace), the Intendencia Municipal (executive branch of munici-

government), the historic Cabildo (meeting place of the town council), the Roman Catholic cathedral and the Banco de la Nacion. Approximately 20 blocks west along the Avenida de Mayo is the seat of the Argentine congress. Few buildings reach skyscraper dimensions in the city, and the Kavanagh ofifice building with 29 stories is one of the tallest. The architecturally magnificent Colon theatre attracts famous artists during the winter opera season of June, July and .'\ugust. pal

colonial

A

relatively large area

of

the

federal

district,

three square

is devoted to parks which dot the city. The largest, 3 de Febrero, covers nearly i.ooo ac. on the riverbank north of the

miles,

Other notable parks include Parque del Retiro, two the zoological garden and the innumerable squares and plazas which offer trees and quiet walks even in the city centre.

botanical

gardens,

heart of the

downtown

area.

Approximately 350 public brary

is

libraries, of

which the National

li-

the largest, represent a selection of over 2,000.000 vol-

umes, although few permit circulation of books for home reading. Outstanding among the museums are the Nacional de Bellas Artes and the Historico Nacional. The numerous theatres, cinemas, stores, hotels and restaurants uphold the city's position as the "Paris of South America." The citizens of Buenos Aires proudly identify themselves as porteiios (people of the port). Although the basic racial stock, as in the rest of Argentina, is Spanish and Italian, a striking variation is caused by large foreign elements located in the city, numbering more than 750,000 in the 1960s. Demonstrating the homogeneity of these groups is the fact that seven foreignlanguage newspapers and seven hospitals are supported by their members. To the traditional groups of English, French, Italians, Spanish and Germans, significant numbers of Poles. Russians, Portuguese, Syrians and Turks were added in the period 1920 to 1955;

History.

—The

cious beginning,

Buenos Aires did not enjoy an auspinational and world importance are phe-

city of

and

nomena which began

its

in the late 19th century. Juan de Solis, chief navigator of Spain, entered the estuary of the Rio de la Plata in 1516 in hopes that he had found a route to the Indies and was

PLAZA DE MAYO. BUENOS AIRES, SHOWING PLETED 19TH CENTURY

IGHTi THE CATHEDRAL. COM-

on the shores by hostile Indians. A Spanish royal expediunder Pedro de Mendoza set up Nuestra Sefiora Santa Maria del Buen Aire settlement on the same shores in 1536. After enduring great hardship and Indian attack for five years, the settlers moved upriver and established themselves at Asuncion on the Paraguay river. Not until 15S0 did Juan de Garay, arriving from Asuncion, plant a permanent Spanish settlement at Buenos Aires. By this date, wealth and glory had been found by the Spaniards in Mexico and Peru, and for two centuries Buenos Aires remained the neglected stepchild of the Spanish empire in America. The population at mid- 17th century numbered approximately 1,000 inhabitants largely sheltered in mud huts. In 1776, in response to dangers of English and Portuguese expansion in the area and increased smuggling through the port, Buenos Aires was made the seat of a Spanish viceroyalty. The relaxation of trade restrictions at the end of the i8th century, however, only served to make more evident to the porteiios the advantages of separation from the Spanish empire. Further self-reliance was dev-eloped when English invasions in 1806 and 1S07 were repulsed without Spanish help. When the separation movement from Spain developed within the empire in 1810, the city and port of Buenos Aires stood to gain the most from independence and killed

tion

free trade.

After an

initial

declaration of

autonomy

in iSio, the city led

the attack on Spanish strongholds; at one point in 1816

it

was

the only centre of importance in the western hemisphere not re-

conquered by Spanish arms. Independent of Spain, the area found that its immediate problem was organization of some form of national government, and the igth century was marked by the repeated efforts of the city of Buenos Aires to originate and control such a government. Moderate success was attained when a porteiio,

Bartolome Mitre, became president of the republic

in

1862. To complete his program, the city was federalized and made permanent capital of the republic in 1880. Stability and

order brought economic growth and foreign immigration in increasing amount to the city and to Argentina in the closing decades of the 19th century. Internal military cliques caused the collapse of political democracy during World War II and instituted the rule of Juan D. Peron, which lasted from 1946 until 1955. Ex-

treme industrialization which took place most noticeably during and after World War II contributed to the unprecedented growth of Buenos .Aires and reinforced the financial, economic and political dominance which that city enjoyed over the rest of the country.

BUERGER'S DISEASE— BUFFALO

374 Government.

— The presence of a

local municipal government and a national federal government within the same city occasioned much difficulty in the igth-century history of Buenos Aires and has necessitated a delicate division of responsibilities and duties. The municipal government is composed of two branches: the executive known as the intendente municipal (mayor), who is ap-

pointed by the national president subject to senate confirmation; and the consejo deliberante (city council), which is elected by popular vote. Since there is intimate contact between the city as a municipality and as a residence of the national authorities, the intetidente is empowered to present to the national congress matters which affect the municipality and to the consejo deliberante matters which have originated with the federal government. The national government, meanwhile, is charged with the expenses and control of the police and fire departments, public health and An example of divided over-all supervision of public education. duties is public sanitation; the national government controls port sanitation and the city water and sewer system, while the municipality supervises laboratories, bacteriological tivities

and

and disinfecting

ac-

relief services.

Education.

—The

public-school system in the city

is

under

blueness and painful ulceration or gangrene of one or toes. Amputations of toes or fingers are sometimes necessary. Major amputations of arms and legs are seldom necessary, especially if the victim stops smoking. coldness,

or

more

fingers

(R. W. Gd.) York, U.S., and the seat of Erie county, is at the eastern end of Lake Erie and the upper end of the Niagara river, about 400 mi. N.W. of New York city. High land fits altitude varies between 572 and 699 ft. above sea level), temperate climate and the excellent drainage and water supply make Buffalo one of the most healthful cities. The Buffalo standard metropolitan statistical area (Erie and Niagara counties) had a population of 1,306,957 in 1960. The population of the city of Buffalo was 532,759. Metropolitan area communities include in Niagara county the cities of Niagara Falls, North Tonawanda and Lockport (qq.v.), and in Erie county the cities of Lackawanna and Tonawanda (qq.v.), the towns of Amherst, Hamburg, Cheektowaga, Lancaster, Tonawanda and West Seneca. (For comparative population figures see table in New

BUFFALO,

a city

York: Population.) The population in

and port of entry

in

New

the second half of the 20th century included

large elements of Polish,

German,

Irish,

Canadian and Italian birth

the supervision of the national council of education, although the

or descent.

Primary education is and compulsory for children from 6 to 14 years of age. A number of public and private colegios provide intermediate schooling. The National University of Buenos Aires has six faculties scattered throughout the city: medicine, law, natural sciences, agriculture, economics, and philosophy and letters. Except for a nominal registration fee, tuition is free, and many classes are

History. The first Europeans to visit the Buffalo area were French trappers and Jesuit missionaries. In 1679 Rene Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, built his ship, the "Griffon," on the banks of the Niagara river. At the river's mouth he constructed Ft. Conti, which burned the same year. In 1687 the marquis de

municipality administers certain schools. free

held in the evening.

—

Transportation. The urban and tem is well developed and adequate for independent subway systems provide outlying areas of the city, and buses excellent transport service.

The

city

The

and

chase,

is

a

trolleys

complete the

highway hub and the

—

BUERGER'S DISEASE

(Thromboangiitis Obliterans) characterized by inflammation of the arteries and veins of the arms and legs. It is rarely fatal since it seldom affects vital organs. The cause is unknown, but tobacco has been implicated because most patients with this disease are heavy smokers, and abstinence from tobacco usually leads to improvement. Of the persons affected, 99% are men. The symptoms first appear between the ages of 20 and 45 years. The acute lesions of the veins are painful and subside spontaneously in a week or two but may recur. More serious is involvement of the arteries, because obstruction may occur which will a chronic and

uncommon malady

interfere with the blood supply to the hands and feet.

include acfiing in the calves or arches

Denonville built Ft. Denonville, the predecessor of the fortifications later known as Ft, Niagara. The area was the scene of military operations up to the close of the Revolutionary War. The earliest known map with the name Buffalo on the present city site was made in 1 764. The origin of the name is still widely disputed.

interurban transport sysFive rapid communication to

even rush hour flow.

terminus of every major railroad in the country. Port Facilities. Just as the city serves as a communication centre with the rest of Argentina^ so it is the country's primary Unk with the outside world. As one of the world's largest ports, it is significantly entirely man-made, vessels reaching it through a tortuous channel up the broad Rio de la Plata estuary. Five distinct port units comprised of interlocking basins and docks stretch along the river front for a distance of five miles. Puerto Nuevo, completed in 1935 and including Darsena Norte, is reached from the main La Plata channel by a branch channel approximately six miles long (depth in both channels 31 ft.). This is the main passenger port as well as an important freight centre due to its adjacent location to the Retiro train yards where railroads for northern and central Argentina originate. Southward along the river front are located Puerto Madero, Darsena Sud, the outer-port or port for inflammables, and the Riachuelo. A separate channel (depth 27 ft.) connects these port units with the main La Plata channel. An enormous bulk of foreign trade enters Argentina via the port of Buenos Aires, averaging more than twice the tonnage of all other ports combined. By the 1960s, however, several other ports such as Rosario, La Plata and Bahia Blanca were rapidly increasing their share of export trade. See Argentina. (Js. R. S.) is

—

when

Symptoms

the patient walks, and

of Buffalo, originally part of the Phelps-Gorham purbecame the property of the Holland Land company in 1797. Joseph Ellicott, company agent and surveyor, known as the "father of Buffalo," laid out a town named New Amsterdam, by which name it was known on the company's books until 1810 but the name Buffalo proved more popular. In 1808 it became the seat site

of newly created Niagara county.

In the War of 1812 with Great Britain, Buffalo was the headquarters for most of the military operations on the Niagara frontier. Several vessels used in later naval operations were built at a Scajaquada creek navy yard by Lt. Jesse D. Elliott of the U.S. navy. On Oct. 9, 1SI2, he captured two merchant vessels moored

under the guns of Ft. Erie in Canada. On Nov. 30 Gen. Alexander Smyth made an unsuccessful attempt to cross the river and attack On July 13, 1813, the British crossed the river and Ft. Erie. fought a sharp skirmish w'ithin the present limits of Buffalo. On Dec. 30-31, 1813. and Jan. 1, 1814, British, Canadians and Indians under Gen. Sir Phineas Riall burned the greater part of Buffalo, Black Rock and other frontier communities in retaliation for simiThe surrender of Ft. lar devastation by U.S. forces in Canada. Erie to U.S. forces under Gen. Jacob Brown on July 3, 1814. was followed by the battles of Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 25), with the U.S. forces retiring to Ft. Erie. The ensuing British siege of Ft. Erie was temporarily abandoned on Sept. 17. Another American advance to Chippewa was turned back in October. On Nov. 5, 1814, Maj. Gen. George Izard abandoned Ft. Erie and withdrew across the river to Buffalo.

was incorporated as a vilThe first steamboat on the Great Lakes, "Walk-inthe-Water" (named after a famous Wyandot chief), was built in Buffalo in 1818. The village remained a seat when the state legisWith the completion of the lature created Erie county in 1821. Erie canal in 1825 and the westward movement of population Buffalo, rapidly rebuilt after the war,

lage in 1816.

Buffalo's importance greatly increased because of its strategic location at the transportation break of the east-west route.

commerce

Expanding

led to manufacturing, beginning in the lS20s.

Buffalo's

showed a population of 2,095, which increased to 8,653 in 1830. In 1832 Buffalo was incorporated as a city and Ebenezer Johnson was chosen the first mayor populafirst

federal census (1820)

;

—

BUFFALO The

rapid developby that time had reached about 10.000. ment of railroads in the 1850s appeared at first to threaten the economic life of the city, dependent upon water and turnpike transportation, but the American Civil War, by deranging lines of communication in the middle states, threw much commerce to the Trade with the expanding west grew rapidly northern routes. during and after the war and the railroads, attracted by existing markets and established trade routes, converged upon Buffalo. This in turn stimulated manufacture and Buffalo industry grew At the end of the century the development of hydrorapidly. electric power from Niagara falls furnished another impetus to tion

expansion of industry. In the 10th century Buffalo was the home of two U.S. presidents. Millard Fillmore, a Buffalo attorney, was elected vice-president

1848 and became president upon the death of Pres. Zachary Tayon July 9, 1850. Grover Cleveland, elected mayor of Buffalo went on to become governor of the state the foUowinjg year and president in 1884 and again in 1892. In 1901 the city held its Pan-.\merican exposition, marred by Other notable the assassination of Pres. William McKinley. events included the opening on Aug. 7, 1927, of the Peace bridge, an international vehicular bridge to Fort Erie, Ont., Can. and a memorial to a century of the U.S. -Canadian peace. In July 1932 in

lor

in 1881,

the city celebrated its centennial with an exposition.

The

long-

discussed St. Lawrence seaw^ay (q.v.) stimulated commercial activity in the city and in Sept. 1957 Buffalo held a world port celebration to signal

its

position as the

first

major U.S. port of

call

on

the seaway.

The

and became the Commercial in 1835. The first daily was the Western Star (1834), which later became the Courier. In the second half of the 20th century there were two dailies, the News and the Courier-Express. Government. From 1916 to 1928 Buffalo had a commission form of government, with the legislative and executive powers united in five commissioners, chosen at nonpartisan primaries and

—

The 1928 charter

restored a mayor-council plan of gov-

Elective offices are those of the mayor, comptroller, president of the council, five councilmen-at-large and nine district

ernment.

councilmen.

The mayor prepares

the budget and executive powers

are strongly concentrated in his hands, with the unicameral council

holding a check through powers of taxation, appropriation and confirmation. The mayor, council president and councilmen-at-large

may

not succeed themselves after their four-year terms. District councilmen may be re-elected to a second two-year term. Commerce, Industry and Transportation. Situated almost equidistant from New York city. Boston, Mass.. Philadelphia, Pa., Baltimore, Md., and Chicago, 111., at a natural junction point for lake, rail and highway transportation, Buffalo is one of the leading commercial and industrial centres of the United States. Within a 500-mi. radius firms could reach over 75,000.000 U.S. consumers and over 70% of Canada's population in the early 1960s. Handling over 20,000,000 tons of cargo annually, Buffalo ranked first in value of commerce handled by all inland U.S. ports. The outer harbour is protected by a breakwater 4^ mi. long enclosing an area of about 680 ac. Municipal piers supplement private dockage; the Niagara Frontier Port authority handles the expansion of port facilities to meet the traffic increase from the St. Lawrence seaway. The New York State Barge canal provides transport to the seaboard for barges up to 2,000 tons capacity. Buffalo is also an important rail centre. A large municipal airport and the development of the state throughway and expressway systems made it an

—

international trucking

and

airline

hub as

well.

The Buffalo area

is a leading flour-milling centre and a major Other important products in the 1960s included rubber, airplanes, chemicals, electrical motors and apparatus, radios, television, hand tools, clothing, automotive parts and meat products. The activities of research laboratories were nationally

steel

producer.

significant.

A notable

feature of the area

is

the high diversification

Important agricultural interests include dairy prodpoultry, vegetables and fruits, especially apples, peaches and

of industry. ucts,

cherries.

founded

Buffalo,

in 1846,

— The

University

of

comprises faculties of arts and sciences,

business administration, dentistry, education, engineering, law, Canisius college medicine, nursing, pharmacy and social work. (Jesuit), established in 1870 and chartered in 1883, offers curricu-

and sciences and business administration. D'Youville, and Mount St. Josephs Teachers college (Catholic colleges for w'omen offer liberal arts and teacher education programs. College of Education at Buffalo, a unit of the State University of New York, prepares teachers in divisions of art education, home economics, industrial arts, elementary and secondary education and the education of exceptional children. The Erie County Tech-

lums in Rosary

arts

Hill

)

institute, affiliated with the state university, offers twoyear associate degree programs in ten technical fields. Important libraries include the Grosvenor, a major reference library, and the Buffalo Public, both parts of the county library

nical

system, and the specialized libraries of the Historical society, the 8th judicial district (law) and the Catholic institute. Outstanding cultural assets are the .Mbright Art gallery, the Historical museum, the Museum of Science, the Buffalo Philhar-

monic society and the city's 23-ac. zoological gardens. Parks and Recreation. Major municipal facilities include Kleinhans music hall, Civic stadium. Memorial auditorium, a Lake Erie beach and more than 50 parks and playground areas. More than 400,000 city-owned trees grace the parks and local streets. With excellent county and state parks nearby, the area offers unusual opportunities for recreational activities in any season.

—

Publications of the Biifalo Historical Society (1879 Frank H. Severance, J. N. Larned, History of Buffalo (1911) Frontier of France (1917) Henry W. Hill (ed.), Municipality of Buffalo, New York, 4 vol. (1923); Louis L. Babcock, The War of 1812 on the Niagara Frontier (1927) M. M. Milner, Niagara Frontier, 4 vol. (1931): Robert W. Bingham, The Cradle of the Queen City (1932) John T. Horton, Edward T. Williams and Harry S. Douglass, (A. G. Se.) The History of Northwestern New York (1947). BiBLiOGR.-vPHY.

Buffalo newspaper, the Gazette (a weekly), was estab-

first

lished in 1811

elections.

375

Education and Cultural Activities.

et seq.)

:

;

An Old

;

;

;

BUFFALO,

a

name

applied to several different cud-chew-ing

(ruminant) mammals of the ox family (Bovidae). The true or Indian buft'alo (Bubalus bubalis). also knowm as the water buffalo, or arna. exists both as a wild and a domestic animal. It has been domesticated in Asia from very early times and was introduced There the name "bubalus" is said to into Italy about a.d. 600. have been transferred to it from a north African antelope, and then corrupted to ''buffalo." As a truly wild animal the buffalo is found in Nepal, Assam, the old Central Provinces and perhaps some other parts of India, and in Burma. As a feral animal, roaming wild but descended from domestic stock, it is more widespread and occurs in Ceylon, Indochina, Borneo and Malaya. It is also found as a domestic animal throughout the warmer parts of the old world from China to Egypt, and in Hungary, France and Italy. It is so widespread in domestication that the status of apparently wild animals

is often difficult to assess. Buffaloes are large oxlike animals of massive and rather clumsy build with large horns which are triangular in cross section. The

Indian buffalo, standing 5 ft. or more at the shoulder (over 6 ft. has been recorded), has a dull black body, often very sparsely covered with hair. 'The horns, which may be over 6 ft. long, spread outward and upward, approaching each other toward the tips; they meet more or less in one plane above the rounded foreThe head and elongated face. horns of the cow are more slender than those of the bull. There are many domestic races in which the size, body build and shape and size of the horns differ. Wild buffaloes live in herds in

swampland and

grass jungle, less

often on open plains and rarely in forest; they graze morning and AFRICAN OR CAPE BUFFALO (SYN- evening and spend most of the day lying down or wallowing in CERUS CAFFER)

,

BUFFALO—BUFFLEHEAD

376

Propagation is effected by seeds and cuttings. Seeds should be over winter and planted in nursery rows in spring. or three years are required to grow plants large enough for sale. Cuttings are made and handled like currant cuttings. Plants may be dug from native thickets, but they do not readily bear transplanting. Since the buffalo berry is dioecious, it is necessary to set out one male plant with each four to six female plants. Male plants may be distinguished by their dense clusters of plump buds, while the female plants have looser clusters of pointed buds. The smaller thomless Canadian buffalo berry (S. caiuidensis) 4 ft. to 8 ft. high, with ovate leaves, silvery only on the undersurface, grows on wooded banks from Newfoundland to Alaska, and southward to New York and Oregon, extending in the Rocky mountains to New Mexico. Its rounded red or yellowish currantstratified

Two

like fruit is insipid.

BUFFALO BUR

(Solatium rostratum), called also beaked nightshade and prickly potato, a North American annual of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), native to high plains east of the

Rocky mountains from North Dakota grows from

A TEAM OF INDIAN OR

WATER BUFFALO (BUBALUS BUBALIS). BURMA

marshes. They are bold and even savage animals and will frequently charge an intruder. A herd of domestic buffaloes is sometimes used to stampede a wounded tiger out of cover. Domestic buffaloes are mainly kept as draft animals and for Jnilk and butter. Cows give birth to one or two calves in the summer, ten months after mating. The Cape or African buffalo (Syncerus eager) is a black animal of similar massive build, standing up to S ft. at the shoulder and sparsely covered with hair. The heavy horns are distinctive, although those of some races of the Asiatic buffalo are somewhat similar in shape; typically they curve downward, then upward and inward and at their bases form large bosses that almost meet. African buffaloes, formerly found all over the continent from the Cape to the Sahara, have been greatly reduced in numbers by disease and hunting. They are animals of the open or scrub-covered plains and open forest. In the forests of the western part of the continent the buffaloes are much smaller, reddish in colour and have shorter horns which are less wide-spreading and without bosses at their bases. The African buffalo is as bold as its Asiatic cousin and when wounded is regarded as one of the most dangerous animals to man. It has never been domesticated and is a gregarious grazing animal, as fond of wallowing in swamps as is the Asiatic species.

A

dwarf relative of the Indian buffalo, the anoa (q.v.; Anoa is found in the Celebes; it stands a little over 3 ft. high and has short, almost straight, backwardly directed horns. A slightly larger race, the timarau. is found in the Philippine island of Mindoro. Although exceedingly wild it has been so dcpressicornis),

depleted in numbers that it is now completely protected. The American bison (q.v.) is generally, though zoologically inaccurately, known as the "buffalo" in its native land. See Bovidae; see also references under "Buffalo" in the Index volume. (L.

H. M.)

BUFFALO BERRY,

called also rabbit berry and Nebraska currant (Shepherdia argeiitea I, a hardy North American shrub of the oleaster (q.v.) family (Elaeagnaceae), allied to the seabuckthorn {Hippophae rhamnoides) of English coasts. The buffalo is native to stream banks in the Great Plains region from Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta southward to Kansas, New Mexico and Nevada. It grows from 6 ft. to 20 ft. high, with whitish, somewhat thorny branches and small, oblong, silvery leaves, and in August or September bears a profusion of oval, scarlet-red or golden-yellow berries about the size of currants. The fruit has a tart flavour and makes a good meat relish. The plant is not only an attractive shrub but, because of its spiny branches, is suitable also for hedges. Attempts have been made to cultivate it for its fruit, and some nurserymen catalogue it, but the sale of plants is limited. The bushes are productive, and great quantities of the berries could be gathered from the wild.

berry

'

to

The

Mexico.

plant

high and in aspect strongly resembles the potato, to which it is closely related, but is more slender, has bright yellow flowers and is armed throughout with needlelike prickles, especially on the burrlike covering inclosing the berry. The buffalo bur is the original host or food plant of the destructive Colorado potato beetle (q.v.) and has now become an aggressive 1

to 2^

weed through most

ft.

of the eastern

and northern

states,

and also

in

southern California.

BUFFET:

see

BUFFIER,

Cabinet Furniture.

CLAUDE

French philosopher,

(1661-1737),

historian and educationalist,

who has given

Jesuit

was described by Voltaire as "the only a reasonable system of philosophy." He

was born

in Poland of French parents, who returned to France and Rouen. He taught in the college of the Jesuits in Paris, where he spent the rest of his life. He seems to have been an admirable teacher, with a great power of lucid exposition.

settled at

His object in the Traite des verites premieres et de la source de nos jugements (1717), his best-known work, is to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. This he finds in the sense we have of our own existence and of what we feel within ourselves. He thus takes substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he

In order to know what sense" is necessary. Common sense he defined as "that disposition which nature has placed in all or most men, in order to enable them, when they have arrived at the age and use of reason, to form a common and uniform judgment with respect to objects different from the internal sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the rejected the a priori

exists distinct

from the

(q.v.) self,

method.

"common

consequence of any anterior judgment." Buffier's aversion to scholastic refinements gave his writings an appearance of shallowness and want of metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed entirely even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity which he ascribed to his "eternal verities"; he was, however, one of the earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished from the metaphysical side of Descartes' principle, and to use it, with no inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the human mind, similar to that enjoined by Locke. He anticipated the spirit and method as

well as

many

of the results of

Thomas Reid and

the Scottish

school.

He

wrote also Elements de Metaphysiqtie (1724), a French

a new plan, and a number of historical essays. Most of his works appeared in a collected form in 1732, and an English translation of the Traite was published in 17S0.

grammar on

BUFFLEHEAD, the common name for a North American duck (Glaucionctta or Bticcphala albcola), or butterball, allied to the goldeneyes (q.v.). In colour the male bufflehead is blackish above, white below, with a white band extending around the back of the large head from eye to eye, and with the remainder of the head and the neck of a purplish-green sheen the female is darkgray above, whitish below, and has a white spot on either cheek. This small duck, about 15 in. long, is noted for its powers of quick ;

BUFFON— BUGANDA which it pursues and captures beneath the surface. It breeds from central .Alaska and western Ontario south to British Columbia, northern Montana and Manitoba, wintering southward. The bufflehead has been seen diving.

It

feeds in part on small

fish,

(G. F. Ss.)

rarelv as a visitor in England.

BUFFON, GEORGES LOUIS LECLERC,

Comte de (1707-1788), French naturalist famous for his comprehensive work on natural history, the first modern attempt to embrace all He was born on Sept. 7, 1707, at Montbard scientific knowledge. (Cote-dOr), where a large estate (including the "terre de Buffon") was acquired by his parents in 1717. Georges added the name Buffon to his original name of Leclerc at about the age of 25-

In 1726 he obtained a degree in law at the Jesuit college at

Dijon, where his father was a councillor in the Burgundian parhament. Two years later he left for Angers. In 1730 Georges

young Englishman, Lord Kingand entomologist. With Kingston, Buffon visited England, and while there was elected a fellow He published a French translation of of the Royal society. Stephen Hales's Vegetable Statics in 1735, and of Sir Isaac Newton's Fluxions in 1 740. Having made researches on the properties of timbers and their improvement in his forests in Burgundy, he was appointed keeper of the Jardin du Roi, and of the museum which formed part of it, at the age of 35. He acquired this post, on the death of C. F. Du Fay, through the patronage of the minister of m.arines, J. F. P. de Maurepas, who realized the importance of science and was anxious to use Buffon's knowledge of timber for Maurepas the shipbuilding projects of the French government. also charged Buffon to undertake a catalogue of the king's museum which Buffon's ambition transformed into an account of the whole of nature. This became his famous Histoire naturelle, generate et He was elected to the Academie frangaise (his inparticuliere. augural address being the celebrated Discours stir le style, 1753) and was treasurer to the Academie des Sciences. Buffon's Histoire naturelle was the first work to present the previously isolated and apparently disconnected facts of natural histor>' in a generally intelligible form. It passed through sevThe eral editions, and was translated into various languages. first edition is highly prized by collectors because of the beauty of its plates: it was published in Paris (1749-1804) in 44 quarto volumes, the publication extending over more than 50 years. In the preparation of the first 15 volumes of this edition (1749-67) Buffon was assisted by Louis J. M. Daubenton, to whom he had entrusted the descriptive and anatomical portions of the treatise, and subsequently by P. Gueneau de Montbeillard, the abbe G. L. C. A. Bexcn and C. N. S. Sonnini de Manoncourt. The following seven volumes, which form a supplement to the preceding, appeared in 1774-89, the famous opaques de la nature (1779) being contained in the fifth of them. They were succeeded by nine volumes on birds (1770-83), and these again by five volumes on minerals The remaining eight volumes, which complete this (1783-88). edition, appeared after Buffon's death, and comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans. They were executed by B. G. E. Lacepede, and were published in successive volumes between 1788 and 1804. A second edition, begun in 1774 and completed in 1804, in 36 volumes quarto, is in most respects similar to the first, except that the anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the supplement recast. Buffon died in Paris on April 16, 1788. He left one son, Georges Louis Marie Leclerc Buffon, whom he envisaged as his successor and whom he sent with J. B. Lamarck on his botanical travels in Europe. But the youth proved a spendthrift and his imprudences finally led him to the guillotine at the age of 30, on July 10, Buffon

made

and of

ston,

the acquaintance of a

his tutor, a botanist

upper part is beset with rapids, utilized for hydroelectric power, and the lower has numerous sandbanks and rocky stretches which prevent navigation above 55 mi. upstream. The Western Bug (Zapadny Bug) is a tributary of the 'Vistula iq.v.), 481 mi. long, and rises in the western Ukraine east of Lvov (Lemberg). It flows north through Hrubieszow whence, for about 125 mi. downstream, it forms the boundar>' between Poland and the Soviet Union. Near Brest it swings west to meet the 'Vistula 23 mi. below Warsaw, and in this navigable section is linked to the Polish capital by a short canal which avoids the Its difficult currents at the confluence of the Bug and Vistula. main tributaries are the Narew (Narev) and the Muchawiec (Mukhavets), which provide navigable routes via the Augustow and Muchawiec canals respectively to the rivers Neman and (Ed. Br.)

Dnieper.

BUG,

—

common name

for insects belonging to the suborder Heteroptera of the order Hemiptera, frequently referred to as "true bugs," but also used in North America for almost any kind of insect, often in a combined form: ladybug (ladybird beetle),

the

June bug (June beetle), lightning bug (a beetle), mealy bug (a homopteran), doodlebug (a neuropteran larva). In fact, even a crustacean not an insect at all is termed sow bug or pill bug {see Wood Louse). In a restricted sense, especially in England, the term bug is applied to the bedbug, Cimex lectularius {see Bedbug). Bedbugs and most other true bugs produce characteristic buggy odours that seem to offer them some protection from birds and other predators. They have a wide range of habits: some are aquatic, others terrestrial; the majority are plant feeders, but

—

—

many

are predators.

Within the suborder Heteroptera

common names

bugs stinkbugs (Pentatomidae ), (Belostomatidae) and many others. Common names for species likewise include bug, as in chinch bug {Blissus leucopterus). squash bug {Anasa tristis) and kissing bug {Reduvius personatus). See also

Hemiptera: Heteroptera; Insect.

BUGANDA,

The

character.

name

The Southern' Bug (Yuzhny Bug)

of the Ukrainian Soviet

nitski

Khmel-

(Proskurov) and flows generally southeast through Vinnitsa

ft.

or

in the

Basement complex, but the lakeside hills hills of West Mengo belong to

Kampala and Singo

the Pre-Cambrian Toro system.

Farther west the

consists of granites of post-Toro Age.

especially dissected in the area marginal to

of two rivers of Europe.

Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., 532 mi. in length, rises near

to the east of

of Buganda, 4,000 most part developed

flat-topped plateaus

sea level, are for the

Mubende

the

Sr.)

comprises the four districts of East Mengo, West Mengo, Mubende and Masaka. Its position to the north and west of Lake Victoria, where it occupies a total area of 25,096 sq.mi., including 8,958 of open water and swamp, is fundamental to its geographical

vol,

BUG,

I.

(1879-1924), Lithuanian linguist, whose loanwords in the Baltic languages and of Baltic river names in present Belorussia and central Russia were He was born on Oct. 25, 1879, in Paziege of great importance. near Dusetos, eastern Lithuania. From 1905 to 1913 he studied linguistics at the University of St. Petersburg and was a lecturer there in 1916. In 1917 Buga became associate professor in the University of Perm, Russia. He returned to Lithuania in 1920 and from 1922 was professor in the University of Kaunas. After Buga's premature death on Jan. 1, 1924, at Kaunas, his greatest work, the dictionary of the Lithuanian language, was continued by Between 1908 and 1924 he published a J. Balcikonis and others. nimiber of articles in Lithuanian, Russian and German periodicals; his collected works, in two volumes, Bugos Rastai, I-II were published at Vihiius in 1958. Buga's deep and wide linguistic interests had a lasting influence on the next generations of Lithu(Ma. G.) anian. Baltic and Slavic linguists. the largest of the kingdoms of Uganda, east Africa, and in federal relationship with its central government, Slavonic

gneisses of the Archean

(1952).

(R.

BUGA, KAZYS

studies of

Bibliography. The Histoire naturelle was translated into English by W. SmeUie, Natural History (1781-1812), with Life of Buffon by W. Wood. See also R. Heim (ed.), Les grands naturalistes jrangais, I

families are known by word bug, examples being

many

that incorporate the

lace bugs (Tingidae), giant water

more above

1793.

377

and Pervomaysk before entering the long winding Black sea estuary confluent with that of the Dnieper below Nikolayev. Its

hill

country of

The landscape

Lake

is

Victoria, while

a smoother relief prevails in northern Mengo and in western Masaka. The Lake Victoria zone is the best watered part of Buganda and uncultivated areas are characterized by high grass-

BUGEAUD— BUGGE

378

low tree savanna and relict forest. With a mean annual rainfall of less than 40 in. and more pronounced dry seasons, northern Mengo and western Masaka are short-grass areas. Temperatures

much above 80° F. or falling below 60°. 1959 census the population of Buganda was 1,881,149, including 47,021 non-Africans. More than half the non-Africans in Uganda were living in Buganda, the great majority of them in West Mengo. The non-African total for Buganda included 6,683 Europeans, 33,080 Indians, 3,789 Pakistanis, 2,101 Goans, 562 Arabs and 806 others. Ganda (Baganda) numbered 1,044,878; i.e., 57% of the total African population of the province. The main immigrant groups were Ruanda, Rundi and Nkole; but most of the tribal groups of Uganda, western Kenya and northwestern Tanganyika were strongly represented in this land of economic opportunity. In many subcounties the immigrants were in excess of the Ganda, often considerably so. Population is concentrated in the Lake Victoria zone where rural densities of 200-400 per sq.mi. are normal and where the three towns Kampala, Entebbe {qq.v.) and Masaka are situated. The 1959 figures of total population and (in parentheses) nonAfrican population for each of these towns are; Kampala 46,735 (22,679,); Entebbe 10,941 (1,854); and Masaka 4,782 (2,325). The Lake Victoria zone with its intensive garden cultivation comprises an essentially humanized landscape. Most of the land is held in freehold, but the original mailo estates of 1900 have been much fragmented. Cooking bananas and to a lesser extent maize (corn) form the main food crops of Buganda, but sweet potatoes, peanuts and cassava are also extensively grown. Robusta coffee and cotton are the main cash crops, the former being restricted to the Lake Victoria zone. Cotton is entirely produced by African cultivators, and coffee largely so; but estate coffee, tea and sugar are grown in southern Mengo. Cotton ginneries and coffee-curing works are mainly in the lake zone, where there is abundant electric power. There is a limited production of consumer goods in and near Kampala, and the Jinja textile factory and brewery are in the Buganda town of Njeru. The railway line from Kasese in western Uganda to Mombasa passes through central Buganda; farther south the port of Bukakata on Lake Victoria serves the rich area of eastern Masaka. Road communications, of which there is a close network, focus on Kampala. The kabaka of Buganda is a constitutional ruler, whose principal are equable, rarely rising

According

to the

—

—

ministers are the katikkiro (chief minister), the oimdamuzi (chief justice) and the onmwanika ^'treasurer). The Itikiko (council) is

composed

members, not more than 20 county chiefs, 6 members appointed by the kabaka and those ministers, not of 68 elected

6, who are not otherwise members of the council. The lukiko legislates on a considerable variety of subjects of concern to Buganda, and the kabaka's government controls a range of de-

exceeding

partmental services, for which grants may be received from the central government. There is a Buganda courts system and a kabaka's police force.

The status of the kingdom of Buganda was redefined in the Uganda Constitutional conference, 1961, and in the Buganda agreement,

1961 (subsequently modified), under which instrument Buganda was united federally with the rest of Uganda. It was further agreed that Buganda should be represented in the national assembly by 21 members elected in Buganda and 3 members elected within Kampala municipality. Members from Buganda outside Kampala are elected by an indirect procedure. Provision was made for Kampala to keep its distinctive position as national

Uganda, with a municipal council deriving authority from the national government. See Uganda. capital of

Bibliography.

—

.\.

I.

Richards (ed.), Economic Development and

Tribal Change: a Study of Immigrant Labour in Buganda (1954) S. K. Baker, "Buganda: a Geographical ,\ppraisal," Transactions and Papers of the Institute of British Geographers, no. 22 (1956); J. W. ;

J.

Pallister,

"The Physiography

Journal, vol. 21 ference (1961).

of

Mengo

District,

Uganda," Uganda

(1957); Report of the Uganda Constitutional Con(S. J. K. B.)

BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, Due dTsly (1784-1849;, marshal of France who played an important part in the French conquest of Algeria, was born at Limoges on Oct. 15, 1784. In 1793, during the French Revolu-

tionary period, his father,

who belonged

to the nobility of Perigord,

was imprisoned; his mother, who was of Irish origin, died in 1796, so that the young Bugeaud was brought up by his sisters among the peasants of the Dordogne. Enlisting in the light-armed troops of the foot grenadiers of Napoleon's imperial guard, he was appointed sublieutenant in 1806. Under Marshal Suchet, he distinguished himself in the closing campaigns of the Peninsular War, rising to the rank of colonel. Having declared himself for the Bourbons at the first Restoration (1814), he was forced by his men to revolt during the Hundred Days (1815) and so was put on half pay at the second Restoration. A rich marriage having enabled him to repurchase his family lands, he took up farming and interested himself in the improvement of agricultural methods until the July revolution of 1830 allowed him to resume his military career. Elected deputy for Excideuil, he served Louis Philippe's regime as jailer of the duchesse de Berry at Blaye (1833) and helped to suppress the Paris riots of 1834. Sent to Algeria for a short period in 1836, Bugeaud defeated Abd-el-Kader at Sikkah (July 6). At the same time he began to criticize the way in which the Algerian war had hitherto been conducted. At first in favour of a restricted French occupation, he made remarkable concessions to Abd-el-Kader in the treaty of Tafna when he was sent to negotiate with him in 1837, In 1841, however, he returned to Algeria with the rank of governor general and the task of conquering the whole country. Abandoning the strategy of fixed positions, he formed mobile columns of light troops with which he systematically devastated the lands of the natives. This ruthless method won early success, and in 1843 he was made marshal of France. On Aug. 14,' 1844, he crushed Abd-el-Kader's Moroccan allies at the battle of Isly, for which he received his ducal title. By inciting the prince de Joinville to bombard Mogador regardless of British objections, he showed himself ready to pursue his own policy without consulting the French government. After a short stay in France, however, he went back to Algeria to avenge the disaster of Sidi Brahim (Sept.

1845). Having returned to France in July 1846. he again went Finally, however, embittered by the to Algeria in April 1847. government's neglect of his plans for military colonization, he resigned his post in Sept. 1847.

On took

the outbreak of revolution in Paris in Feb. 1848,

command

of the

army

Bugeaud

for Louis Philippe but could not save

the monarchy. Under the second republic he published numerous pamphlets against socialism and also accepted the command of the army of the Alps. He died of cholera on June 10, 1849. Bugeaud remained true to his origins proud of his noble birth, conservative, deeply attached to the land and concerned for the welfare of his soldiers as long as they observed the discipline to which he had once been subject. A self-taught man who hated intellectuals and was quick to solve particular problems arbitrarily, he wrote copiously in defense of his own views. He was ready to teach his soldiers how to handle the flail and the plow, and his efforts to protect the Algerian peasantry against the French civil administration, which he despised, give him some claim to be regarded as a colonial precursor of Gallieni and Lyautey. His collected military writings were published in 1883.

—

—

H. d'Ideville, Memoirs of Marshal Bugeaud, Eng. (18S4); E. de Lamaze, Bugeaud (1943); P. .\zan, Bugeaud et (1931) and Par I'epee el par la charrue (1948); C. A. Julien, (L. G.) "Bugeaud," in Techniciens de la colonisation (1946). Bibliography.

trans.

I'.AIgerie

BUGGE, (ELSEUS) SOPHUS philologist,

the author of the

first

(1833-1907), Norwegian

critical edition of

the

Edda

was born at Laurvik, on Jan. 5. 1833. He was educated at Christiania, Copenhagen and Berlin and in 1S66 became professor of comparative philology and Old Norse at Christiania university. He was a pioneer- in the collection and study of Norwegian folk Bugge's critical edition songs, traditions and runic inscriptions. of the elder Edda (Norroen jornkvaedi) was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the Edda and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His next most important work was the monumental edition (1891 His writings also et seq.) of ancient Norwegian inscriptions. (q.v.),

.

BUGI— BUHAYRAH, AL include Gamle norske jolkeviser (1S58), a collection of Old Norse folk songs: and Helgedigtene i rfen aeldre Edda (1896; Eng. He died on July 8, trans., The Home of the Eddie Poems, 1899). 1907, at Oslo. a

with military band and also in the featuring of the instrument in

^

^^mamy ^^WWfc •^iP ^^^^^^^"

Malayan people, about 2,500,000 in number, who and most advanced ethnic group in the Celebes and Macassarese. The Bugi

^M

"f ^K^^Bi '

III

are the largest

often linked with the closely related

is in the southern portion of the Celebes but they are expanding into adjacent territory as well as into Borneo. They were among the early Malayan converts to Buddhism who accepted many Indian customs. These include a graded society, ranging from the raja at the top down through district officers and princes to village heads. Along with such borrowings came an Indian form of writing in which a rich literature was recorded. Early in the 17th century the Bugi were converted to Islam, Today a priestly organization deals with matters pertaining to religion, marriage and inheritance. In former times even the houses indicated the rank of their owners by the number of gable ends and by carxangs on the ridge Today these structures serve as matrilocal family houses, poles. often with as many as 20 inhabitants. There are no fixed rules concerning marriage although unions are usually between people Child marriage occurs, bridewealth of the same area and status. is paid and polygyny is allowed.

stronghold steadily

important, as is the raising of cattle, horses and Each vallage is practically self-supporting, but increasing demands for foreign goods and conveniences are leading part of the men to seek work for wages or to produce export Agriculture

is

water buffalo.

crops.

Village schools are well attended and at least one-fourth

of the population

is

able to read

and

write.

See also Celebes.

See R, Kennedy, Field Notes on Indonesia (1953) W. Kaudern, Ethnographical Studies in Celebes, 5 vol. (192S-38) ; P. and F. Sarasin, (F.-C, Ce.) Reisen in Celebes, 2 vol. (1905) ;

BUGLE, lips

wind instrument sounded by the vibration of the As a modern military signaling dates from c. 1750, when Hanoverian jager battalions a

against a cup mouthpiece.

instrument it adopted a large semicircular copper horn, with widely expanding bore, used by the Flilgelmcister, an official of the hunt. English light infantry then did the same, the German Fliigelhorn or Horn

name bugle horn, a term of medieval origin derived from Old French bugle ("bullock"'). This early bugle was pitched in C or D, often lowered to B flat by a coiled crook; its semicircular form may still be seen in many light infantry and rifle regiment badges, for which it was adopted in 1814, though from c. 1800 the bugle itself was once-looped in trumpet shape and was officially so made from 1812. The compact British design, twicecoiled with narrow bell, became official in 1858. Bugle calls and marches employ the natural harmonics from the second to the sixth, written middle C, G. C, E, G. but sounding a taking the

note lower, the

modern bugle being

built in

B

flat.

The

calls are

and routine calls. Some of the most familiar, including the Reveille and the "Last Post," remain virtually unchanged since 1815 if not earlier. Others, especially among field calls, were originally played at a lower pitch, making greater use of the low C, though essentially the same in pattern and rhythm as the calls laid down from I860 onward. The first official list of calls was issued in 1798. The popularity of the bugle horn at the end of the 18th century is reflected both in the publication of many bugle marches

grouped as regimental

calls,

field

calls

Inevitably this led

light operas.

.,.

''fif

BUGI,

379

BY couRTEsi OF THE CINCINNATI ART MUSEUM

sPANisH CAVALRY BUGLE. 19TH cEN^""^

^" invention whereby its purely musical scope was enlarged. In 1810 in Dublin, Joseph Halliday, bandmaster of the Cavan militia, patented the key bugle, or Royal Kent bugle, with brass keys fitted to the oncecoiled bugle of the period to give it a complete scale. Usually with six keys (five closed, one open'°

Standing), thls was most succesS" ful and became a leading solo in-

strument in military bands until replaced by the cornet iq.v.). had some success in Germany (Klappenhorn) and in France, where it inspired the ophicleide {q.v.}, its bass version. Valves, invented in Berlin c. 1815, were fitted to the same once-coiled bugle on the continent during the 1820s, the new instrument in Germany keeping the old name Fliigelhorn, and in France being called bugle (the French word for the field bugle being clairon). It became and still remains the principal treble brass instrument of continental military and brass bands, pitched in B flat, though sopranos and altos in E flat are sometimes used

The key bugle

with

it.

also

In England, this valved bugle, with

its

German name

by the cornet a reguband includes one, but a military band none. It possesses the full tone of the bugle, softened by use of a deeper mouthpiece, and in the orchestra it has a part in Vaughan Williams' Eighth Symphony and Stravinsky's Threni. Bugles have also been fitted with a single valve that lowers the pitch by a fourth as a simple method of providing a partly diatonic compass and dominant harmony. Flugel Horn, has always been overshadowed

;

larly constituted brass

See

WixD Instruments; Trumpet.

—

Bibliography. A. Carse, Musical Wind Instruments (1939) H. G. Farmer, "Bugle," and "Military Calls" in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed, (1954) G, Kastner, Manuel general de Mtcsique Militaire (1S48) Trumpet and Bugle Sounds for the Army (London, ;

;

;

War

Office,

1902 etc.),

(.\.

C. Ba,)

BUGULMA,

a town of the Tatar Autonomous Soviet SocialRepublic, U.S,S.R.. is located at the confluence of the small Bugulminka and Stepnoi Zai rivers, on the Ulyanovsk-Ufa railway. Pop. (1959) 61,000. Founded in the mid-18th century, ist

Bugulma remained an unimportant township

until the 1930s

when

began rapid development as one of the major centres of the Second Baku (q.v.) oilfield. There is a refinery there and a pipeline connection to the Ufa refineries. Bugulma also has important food-processing and building-materials industries. (R. A. F.) AL Beheira a governorate of lower Egypt it

BUHAYRAH,

in the

(

i

,

northwestern corner of the Nile delta,

is

triangular in shape,

bounded by the Mediterranean, the Western desert and the Rosetta branch of the Nile. Pop. (1960) 1,682.000: area 1.777 sq.mi. The governorate capital is Damanhur (q.v.) on the main railway from Cairo to Alexandria (38 mi. W.N.W.). Other chief towns are Idku and Rosetta. The northern part of the governorate contains the lakes Maryut and Idku, with their contiguous saline marshes, which reduce the over-all population density to 947 per square mile in spite of dense population in the south. Al Buhayrah is one of Egj'pt's principal cotton-growing governorates, about 2S%-30% of the cultivated land being under cotton each year. Production increases toward the south and includes some of the longest stapled varieties, but there is some yield from the reclaimed portion of the lagoon area. Agriculture is the principal occupation; besides cotton the main crops are maize (corn), rice, barley, wheat and clover, and some grapes are grown near Alexandria. Mineral resources are few: limestone from Al Maks, near Alexandria, supplies a cement works and provides building

sodium carbonate and bicarbonobtained from the lake-dotted depression of Al Barruqi, 12 mi. S.W. of Damanhur. There is rice milling, cotton ginning and textile manufacture, including modern rayon and cotton textile stone, while natron (a mixture of

ate)

SINGLE-VALVED BUGLE

is

BUHTURI— BUILDING

38o

Kafr ad Dawwar. The Nile control works at Idfina, 12 mi. above Rosetta, constructed in 1951, supply irrigation canals and, in the low-water season, prevent sea water from penetrating

industry by developing better materials and better distribution

up the

velopments by

mills at

river.

A

separate small administrative unit. At Tahrir (Liberation), was formed out of Al Buhayrah on the desert side in the late 1950s. (A. B.

M.)

predecessor, Abu Tammam. Bibliography. Buhturi's poems were published in Constantinople and in Cairo in 1911. The Hamasa was published in Leyden in 1909 and in Beirut in 1910. For his life see Ibn Khallikan, Biographical Dictionary, trans, by M' G. de Slane, ui, p. 657 ff. (1842) Abulfaraj, Boo* o/ 5ong.?, vol. xviii, pp. 167-175 (1906) M. T. Houtsma et al. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam (1913).

—

in 188J

;

;

BUILDERS' RITES. The customs of turning the first shovelful of earth for the foundation of a new building, of placing various objects such as coins, newspapers and documents in the cornerstone of the structure and of celebrating the completion of the skeleton of the building are remnant rituals of great antiquity. Primitive farmers still make offerings to the resident spirits of the forest before clearing a plot of land. The sacrifice of living victims to the gods to ensure stability and permanence to religious structures was formerly widespread. In the 15th century the wall

Holsworthy church in England was built over a living human When this became unlawful, images of living beings were substituted. Such rituals symbolize the importance of the occasion to the participants and the successful accomplishment of group purposes. (F. R. E.) of

being.

see

Sav-

ings AND Loan Association.

BUILDING INDUSTRY. In all technically developed communities the building industry, comprising skilled and unskilled workers in many trades, manufacturers of components, supervisory and managerial staffs, and professional and technical advisers, employs a considerable proportion of the available labour force. In the United States, for example, 10% of the working population owes its livelihood directly or indirectly to the building industry, making it the largest single industry in the country. Relationship of Architect and Builder. -Variations in the

—

structure of the industry in different parts of the world appear principally in the definition of the roles of architect and builder.

In the past, the skilled craftsman who had sufficient ability may have become a master builder, and in this capacity he not only conIn Europe the first distinction between builder and architect began to appear in the 15th century, but it was not until the 19th century that real division of the two functions occurred. The status of the architect as one of an organized professional group dates in the United States only from 1857. In Latin America and in parts of Europe the architect is still, in effect, his own building contractor, employing his own building labour. Other countries follow the practice of Great Britain, where architect and contractor are entirely separate. The Modern Building Industry. The building industry in the United States is made up of the following professional and structed but designed buildings.

—

business interests: 1.

The

contractor,

who

co-ordinating the

work

and contributing

his

is

the

manager of the building

The

4.

engineer,

who has made

possible

modern

structural de-

his ability to use existing materials in

new and

startling forms.

The

5.

architect,

who with

his artistic

and technical knowledge

introducing new visual ideas that are changing the future of building and are providing a background to modern conditions of is

BUHTURI, AL- (Arab. Walid ibn Ubayd al-Buhturi) (820-897), Arabian poet, spent many years as court poet to the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Of the tribe of Tai, he was born in 820 at Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates, and died, also at Manbij, in 897. Although long resident in Baghdad he devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his love poetry is dedicated to Aiwa, a maiden of that city. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the 10th century. Buhturi also made a collection of early poems entitled the Hamasa which, however, was less popular than the Haniasa of his

BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATION:

methods.

project,

of assembling materials into a structure,

knowledge of costs and building methods through consultation with the architect and the owner. 2. The labour forces, whose productivity is being increased by new techniques and equipment and more efficient use of existing equipment. 3. The manufacturer, who has helped revolutionize the building

living.

The Building Owner.

—

Construction of buildings is the reco-operation between the building owner or client, the architect and his professional consultants, and the contractor. sult

of

Other parties also may assist in a project; for example, a financing agency may be called upon to provide the necessary funds, and governmental agencies may be consulted about building safety and health regulations, zoning restrictions, etc. Recent years have seen the growth of a new type of owner called the corporate client, the large business organization that erects buildings for

its

own

use.

brought about changes

own

Building owners of this type have procedures because in some

in building

and construction personnel can design and build without resorting to outside labour. In other instances where buildings such as apartments, offices or shopping centres are constructed as a financial speculation, the so-called cases their

staffs of architects

package plan may be used, the "builder" in this case being the financing agency, contractor, architect and owner, each contributing to the project and sharing in its success or failure.

Planning.

— In general,

chitect

who,

in

all

projects are constructed following

The owner engages

the services of an arconsultation with the owner and other interested

certain specific lines.

program and basic specifications for the proposed project. During this stage the architect may consult a competent building contractor for aid in preparing budget estimates. This is a normal and logical procedure because the contractor's knowledge of site problems, organization of the labour force, and practical limitations imposed by materials and working methods can help to enable the architect's ideas to be executed to the satisfaction of the owner. In most modem projects the architect employs professional consultants to prepare detailed plans and specifications for the structural and mechanical portions of the project. The complexities of modern structures and of air conditioning and electrical systems, for example, require the advice of specialists. The architect has the over-all responsibility for the design and co-ordination of the complete project to fulfill the owner's requirements. Bidding and Contracts. There are various procedures under which the contract for a building may be awarded. For example, bids may be taken from a selected group of building contractors whose qualifications are known to the architect. These may be lump-sum bids when complete plans and specifications are available. If it is not possible to wait for complete plans and specifications to be prepared, "cost-plus" bids can be submitted; in this parties, prepares the

—

case, the contractor

work. built

Many

is

paid a set fee in addition to the cost of the

of the larger

'

I

I

and specialized types of structures are

under the cost-plus-fee plan.

In Great Britain quantity surveyors are employed to prepare detailed bills of quantities of materials required in the project,

and the building contractors bid or tender on these quantities. This practice is not followed in the United States. When bids are received by the architect, the contractor submitting the lowest bid is generally awarded the contract, unless there After the decision of the owner, in consultation with the architect, to accept the proposal of a certain contractor, the acceptance is followed by the execution of The a formal contract between the owner and the contractor. contract outlines the work to be done as shown by the architect's drawings and specifications; it shows the amount the contractor is to be paid and in what manner; and it indicates the date agreed upon for completion of the work. Standard contract forms in general use in the LTnited States are those prepared by the American Institute of Architects and approved by the Associated General Contractors of America and organizations representing other are special reasons to the contrary.

I

I

'

BUILDING— BUKHARA segments of the industry. In Great Britain the relevant form of contract is that approved by the Royal Institute of British Architects.

—

Construction Management. The modem building conis organized for more efficient production of the work than in the past. The use of specialized equipment and tools, as well as the prefabrication of building components, is employed to offset the rising cost of labour. Some building contractors have

tractor

become what

is

known

as brokers; in other words, they take

plete responsibility for a project but turn over all of the

comwork

This method of operation has certain drawbacks, including the widening of the gap between management and labour in the construction industry and the division of reto subcontractors.

sponsibility

among

the subcontractors.

See also references under "Building Industry" in the Index volume. (C. B.'s.; E. C. D.) SOCIETY: see Savings and Loan Associa-

BUILDING

tion.

BUILTH WELLS,

a market town and urban district of Breconshire, Wales, in the Brecon and Radnor parliamentary di64 mi. N. of Cardiff by road. Pop. (1961) 1,602. The town is at the focus of the Irfon. Ithon and Wye valleys in a small vision,

plain beneath high hills.

became

Under

the

Normans

the district

known

marcher (a border area under military jurisdiction of an earl annexed to Brecon, but it fell away on the marriage of the daughter of William de Braose (Breos). At the eastern end of the town is a fine motte and bailey castle which may have been erected either by Philip de Braose (William's grandfather) or Bernard de Newmarch; there are traces of a 13thcentur>' stone castle. In 12 78 Edward I granted the town a charter which later fell into disuse. As an advanced outpost of the invaders in the upper Wye valley, the castle suffered severely, notably at the hands of Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, prince of Wales, In this neighbourhood Llewelyn fell in ambush in 1282 in 1260. and with him collapsed much of the W'elsh resistance. The lordship remained in the Marches until the Act of Union, 1536, when it was grouped with others to form the shire of Brecknock or Brecon iq.v.). With the development of better roads in postmedieval times, Builth became an important gathering centre for shipment of cattle to England. Its fairs and marts for livestock are still well attended. The old town was destroyed in 1691 by a fire and was rebuilt in the 18th century. It is an agricultural town and a summer resort with mineral springs, known as Park wells, and salmon and trout fishing. Builth has been an urban district since 1894. In 1898 the urban district was made conterminous with the civil parish and renamed Builth Wells. BUISSON, (1841-1932), French educator, reorganizer of the French primary school system, whose work for international understanding led to his receiving, jointly with Ludwig Quidde, the Nobel peace prize in 1927, was born in Paris on Dec. 20, 1841. From 1866 to 1870 he held the chair of philosophy at the Academy of Neuchatel, Switz., and in 1867 took part in the first Geneva peace conference, where he advocated a united states of Europe. He was also an early advocate of the League of Nations. After the fall of Paris in the war of 1870 he organized an asylum for war orphans. He became secretary of the statistical commission on primary education in 1870 and inspector general in 1890, during this period publishing his Dictiontiaire de pedagogie (1882-93). In 1896 he became professor of education at the Sorbonne, Paris. From 1902 to 1914 he was a member of the chamber of deputies and from 1913 to 1926 was president of the Ligue des Droits de I'Homme. Buisson died at Thieuloy Saint-Antoine (Gise) on Feb. 16, 1932. (S. J. C.) (Bokhara). (1) A khanate of central Asia which ceased to exist as such in 1920; (2) an oblast of the Uzbek as Buellt

a lordship )

FERDINAND EDOUARD

BUKHARA

Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R.;

(3) a city, capital of the

former khanate and now of the oblast of the same name. 1. The khanate of Bukhara was founded in the 16th century. The most important part of it originally belonged to Sogdiana {q.v.}, which, after the conquest of Alexander the Great, formed part of the Seleucid empire. For many centuries the country was inhabited by the Sakas, who, toward the end of the 2nd century

381

were driven out of the Oxus (Amu-Darya) country by the Yue-Chi, who, in their turn, were ejected by the Hephthalites, or White Huns, in a.d. 450. One hundred years later the Turks of central Asia defeated the king of the Hephthalites near Bukhara and became possessed of the rich lands between the Oxus and the Jaxartes (Syr-Darya) rivers. The Hephthalites were engaged in a continual warfare with the Sassanian rulers of Persia, and when the Turkish khan drove them out of Bukhara he wrote to the Persian king that "the blood of their common enemy had reddened A.D.,

the waters of the Oxus." Down to the time of the invasion of Transoxania by the Muslims at the end of the 7th century Bukhara had remained under the overlordship of the western Turks. The town of Bukhara fell in the year a.d. 676. It was not, however, until 30 years later that Transoxania was finally subdued. The Arab historians gave to the country the name of Mavera-unnahr or "what lies beyond the river" {i.e., the Oxus). Down to the beginning of the 9th century Transoxania was under the jurisdiction of the governor of the eastern provinces of the caliphate. Hitherto Arabs had been appointed to this governorship, but in 820 it was given to a Persian named Tahir in whose family the post became hereditary. These governors in their turn appointed subgovernors to various provinces, and several members of a Persian family known as the Samanids were employed in this capacity in Transoxania. One of the Samanids, named Ismail, managed in 904 to make himself a semi-independent ruler with Bukhara as his capital and founded a dynasty which lasted down to the end of the 10th century. It was under the Samanids iq.v.), the first Persian dynasty to rule in Islam, that Bukhara became a centre of learning. On the fall of the Samanids Transoxania again fell into the hands of the Turks, and it continued to be governed by various branches of this race until the Russian occupation. In 1220 Bukhara was sacked by Genghis (Jenghiz) Khan. It attained its greatest importance during the rule of the Shaybanids (1500-99). Bukhara was conquered by Persia in 1740. In 1753 the amir Mohammed Rahim freed himself from Persian vassalage but lost control of the provinces of Khorezm, Tashkent and Fergana. Toward the middle of the 19th century Bukhara became an object of rivalry to Russia and Great Britain and envoys were sent by both nations to cultivate the favour of its amir. Two of the British emissaries, Col. C. Stoddart and Capt. A. Conolly, were thrown into prison by the amir NasruUah and there put to death in 1842. In 1866 the Russians invaded the territory of Bukhara proper and crushingly defeated the amir's forces. In 1868 the Russians entered Samarkand and a treaty was concluded whereby the amir of Bukhara became, to all intents and purposes, a vassal to the conquerors and undertook to protect Russian trade. In 1882 a Russian political agent was appointed to reside in Bukhara and a Russian bank was established; thus gradually Bukhara became a part of Russian Turkistan. In 1892 the amir made a journey to the Russian court and left his two sons to be educated in Russia. In 1920 revolution broke out in the khanate, the amir fled to Afghanistan and the Bukharan People's Republic was set up. An anti-Soviet rising largely directed by Enver Pasha {q.v.; formerly minister of war in Turkey) and known as the Basmachi revolt began in 1922, but collapsed after Enver's death the same year. In 1924 Bukhara was declared a Socialist republic but in the same year its territory was divided up among the newly formed Uzbek, Tadzhik and Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republics. 2. The oblast of Bukhara (area 47,452 sq.mi.) includes the lower Zeravshan valley and a large section of the Kyzylkum desert. The economy mainly consists of cotton cultivation, sericulture and fruit farming. The Trans-Caspian railroad crosses the southern is a branch line from, Kagan to Tadzhik S.S.R. Apart from the capital the main towns are Gizhduvan and Kagan (formerly known as Novaya [New] Bukhara). The population was 573,000 in 1959, consisting mainly of Uzbeks. By the 1960s there were about 500 schools

section of the oblast; there

Dushanbe

in the

in the oblast. 3.

The

city of

Bukhara

the Shahrud canal.

mi.

away

at

Kagan)

is

situated in the Zeravshan valley on

Pop. (1959) 69,000. is

on the Ashkhabad

The railway station (8 Bukhara is a town

line.

BUKHARI— BUKIDNON

382

whose foundation is unknown. It was already an important commercial and cultural centre when it was conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. After a.d. 999, when it was captured by the Karakhanid Turks, it lost some of its status to Samarkand. In the mid-1 2th century it was occupied by the Kara-Kitais. Laid waste by Genghis Khan, it was reestablished by Jagatai and at the end of the 14th century was included in Timur's dominions. In the 17th century it became the seat of the Bukhara amirs and remained so until 1920. The city, formerly called Staraya (Old) Bukhara, was to some extent modernized under the Soviet regime but it retains much of its medieval appearance and character: mosques, mausoleums, flat-roofed houses of sun-dried brick, and bazaars. Many of the mosques and all the Muslim schools have been closed and only one theological seminary is still active. Bukhara contains many outstanding examples of Muslim architecture. The oldest is the mausoleum of Ismail Samani (9th or 10th century). Other monuments are the Minareh Kalyan (12th century), a 203-ft. tower from which state criminals used to be thrown, the Mir-i-Arab madrasah (16th century), and the Abdul-Aziz madrasah (17th century). The main square of the city is called Registan. Modern buildings include the House of the Soviets (parliament) and various residential hostels. The population is mixed. Uzbeks predominate but most of them speak Tadzhik (Tajik), a form of Persian. There are also Arabs, Afghans and a Jewish colony. of great antiquity, the date of

Educational establishments include a pedagogical institute; of the six middle schools two teach in Tadzhik, two in Uzbek and two in Russian. In the early 1960s about 4,000 pupils were learning in Russian, 2,500 in Tadzhik and 2,500 in Uzbek. Bukhara has a considerable amount of light industry including karakul processing, silk spinning, cotton ginning and cloth manufacture. BiBLiocRAPHY, N. Khanikov, Bokhara: Its Amir and People, trans, by C. A. De Bode (1845) A, Vimbery, Travels in Central Asia (186S), Sketches of Central Asia (1868) and History of Bokhara (1873) A. Fedchenko, "Geographical Sketch of the Zarafshan Valley," in /. R. Ceogr. Soc, vol. xl (1870) F. v. Hellwald, Die Russen in Centralasien (1873) F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross, The Heart of Asia (1899) V. I. Lipsky, Upper Bukhara, in Russian (1902) Lord Ronaldshay, On the Outskirts of Empire in Asia (1904) G. Le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (1905) J. Castagne, Les Basmatchis (1925) V. V. Bartold, Turkestan Down to the Time of the Mongol Invasion (1898-1900; Eng. trans. 1927); Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 2nded., vol. 6 (1951). (G. E. Wr.)

—

;

.

.

.

;

self. Variations in the text, as he received it, are carefully recorded, although this did not prevent the occurrence of further variants arising from new and different recensions.

Al-Bukhari also wrote a Ta'rikh (published ing critical biographies of the authorities

in 1941), contain-

who formed

the links in

the chains of transmission of the Tradition. See I. Goldziher, Die Muhammedanische Studien (1890) and C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, vol. 2 (1902). ;

(F'U. R.)

BUKHARIN, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH Russian

Communist

leader

and

active

Marxist

(1888-1938), propagandist,

by Lenin "the most valuable and greatest theoretician of the party," was born in Moscow on Oct. 9 (new style; Sept. 27, At the age of IS he joined the All-Russian Social called

old style), 1888.

Democratic Labour party (R.S.D.R.P.).

In 1908 he was co-opted Bolshevik committee. He was imprisoned in 1911 and deported to Onega, but fled to Germany. He was in Cracow in Austrian Poland in 1912, where he met Lenin, in Vienna 191314, in Switzerland 1914-15 and later in Sweden, Norway and Denmark. In Oct. 1916 he arrived under the false identity of Dolgolevski in New York city, where he edited a Russian Communist newspaper, Novy mir. After the outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917, Bukharin returned to Russia through Japan. The sixth congress of the R.S.D.R.P. elected him member of the central committee in Aug. 1917, and he was editor of Pravda from the end of that year. He opposed Lenin at the time of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty, but to the

Moscow

later regretted this attitude. He was elected to the executive committee of the Communist International (Comintern) at its first congress in March 1919, and often visited western Europe. In 1920 he published The Economy of the Transitional Period, a book in

which he maintained that once the dictatorship of the proletariat had been firmly established the revolution would be completed, the class struggle exhausted and the propaganda of communism would proceed by natural evolution. Lenin himself criticized

;

;

;

;

;

.

.

.

.

;

.

.

;

BUKHARI, AL- (Mohammed

ibn Isma'il 'Abdallah alal-Bukhari) (SlO-870), Arab author, almost uniregarded by Sunni Muslims as the greatest of the Tradi-

Ju'fi, called

versally

tionists; i.e., recorders of the sayings and acts of Mohammed. His compilation, entitled Kitab al-Jami'al-Sahih (French trans., Les Traditions islamiques, 1903), ranks second only to the Koran as the source of Muslim doctrine and law. Of Persian origin, alBukhari was born on July 21, 810, at Bukhara in central Asia, and at 16 began his travels throughout the middle east recording the Prophetic Tradition. He died on Aug. 31, 870, at Khartank, whither he had been exiled as a result of his attitude in a fundamental theological controversy, in which he held that the words of the Koran were the creation of an inspired prophet and not a

transcript of eternal divine law.

Al-Bukhari's scrupulousness as a compiler is illustrated by his reported statement that he never entered a tradition except after taking a bath and offering special prayers and that his final selection was made by sifting 600,000 traditions, choosing only what was absolutely sound (sahih). His mastery of his subject is attested

by the

chroniclers,

Baghdad

who

record that, in order to try him, the

him a series of traditions in which from the transmissional chain of His definite theological views are illustrated by his refusal to record traditions from those who did not believe that faith included good works and by his break with his teacher, Muhammad ibn Yahya, in the theological controversy which led to his exile. His comtraditionists of

offered

the texts had been dislocated

authorities (isnad), and that he always detected the fault.

This sometimes quoted prove several different points of law. Each chapter heading followed by a short discourse or comment by al-Bukhari himis

involves

much

is

In 1924 Bukharin became a member of the Politburo, having been a candidate member since 1919. Although he disliked and distrusted Stalin, he supported him in his campaign against L. D. Trotski, G. E. Zinoviev and L. B. Kamenev, believing it his duty to uphold Lenin's policy of 1921; i.e., that of maintaining a firm alliance between the peasants and the proletariat, and laying the foundations for industrial growth in a prosperous agriculture. When Stalin suddenly reversed this policy in 1928. Bukharin, with A. I. Rykov and M. P. Tomski, opposed him. Bukharin's argument that industrialization was possible on the basis of capital accumulated from the savings of the peasantry without forcible means is contained in an article entitled "Notes of an Economist," published in Pravda on Sept. 30, 1928, the only

reasoned case against Stalin's forcible policy ever to be published Union. Bukharin was stripped of his Comintern and party appointments and expelled from the Politburo in Nov. 1929. in the Soviet

Although he recanted his views, under pressure, he never occupied any influential post thereafter, though he played a leading part in drafting the constitution of 1936. Early in 1937 he was suddenly arrested, and in March 1938 he was put on trial with others as an

member

of a counterrevolutionary organization, condemned and shot (March 14). The charge has since been admitted to have been false; the evidence adduced can be assumed to have been faked, and the partial confession made by Bukharin to have been extracted by force. Bukharin's published works include: World Economy and Imfperialism (1918); Vom Sturze des Zarismus bis zum Sturze det

alleged

to death

Bourgeoisie (1918); Programme of the World Revolution (1920); The A. B.C. of ^Communism (1921); Historical Materialism (1925) The Way to Socialism and the Peasant-Worker Alliance (1925); Die okonomische Theorie des Rentners (1926); Poetry, Poetics and the Problem of Poets in the U.S.S.R. (1935). ;

divided into chapters according to legal topics.

pilation

to

these views as being too "scholastic."

repetition as a single tradition

is

(L. B. Sc.)

BUKIDNON,

Mindanao, since they appear

a pagan people of north central

the Philippine Islands, are of special interest

approximate the pre-Spanish condition of the

now

in

to

Christianized

BUKIDNON—BULANDSHAHR Today

Bisayans (q.v.).

and means

their settlements, possessions

little from those of the poorer people two aspects dress and religion the Bukidnon remain unique. Women's jackets and voluminous skirts are made of strips of coloured cloth decorated with embroidery and applique designs. To such outfits are added earrings, ear plugs, necklaces, finger and toe rings and huge combs. The men's dress is equally colourful; their jackets, long trousers and carrying bags

of gaining a livelihood differ

However,

of the coast.

—

in

Most

are covered with designs.

have the incisors cut

addition,

peoples.

the conservative

in

Postwar conditions have Bukidnon people.

led to rapid change in

;

(1955).

(F.-C. Ce.)

BUKIDNON,

the only interior province of Mindanao, Reis roughly coextensive with the Bukidnon plateau, a volcanic tableland that is cut by deep canyons and public of the Philippines,

The

moderately

but erosion is a problem in some areas. Principal agricultural products are com, upland rice and pineapples; livestock grazing is probably better developed in Bukidnon than in any other province. A lS,000-ac. pineapple ravines.

soils are

fertile,

modern cannery at Bugo (Misamis Oriental province) with sufficient fruit for year-round operation. Pop. (1960) 195.630; area 3,104 sq.mi. Malaybalay (mun. pop. [1960] plantation supplies a

34,183)

the capital and principal town.

is

BUKITTINGGI, stands on the to the coast. district of

inces

in

Agam

a

Pop. (1957

est.)

52,824.

the redivision of

Bukittinggi

Formerly capital of the Sumatra into six prov-

became provincial

capital

of

West

Sumatra. It is in the Menangkabau country, one of the most beautiful parts of Indonesia, with mountains, lakes, valleys, rich green rice fields and villages

among

characteristic sight of this region

is

a profusion of

palm

trees.

A

the local house with saddle-

shaped roof, the ends pointing upward like buffalo horns. Bukittinggi is the most important commercial centre in the Menangkabau region. It is connected by road with all other Sumatran provincial capitals and by rail with Padang and Sawahlunto. The town has a museum set in botanical gardens. Its former name, Fort de Kock, derived from the stronghold built by the

Dutch

in 1825.

BUKOVINA,

a segment of the northeastern Carpathians with the adjoining plain, the whole having an area of 3,396 sq.mi.; the peace treaty of 1947 divided it between Rumania and the U.S.S.R. Of the total area, 45% is covered with fir and beech forest and only 29% is arable. Timber processing is the main industry of the region. There are a number of mineral deposits,

some oil. The mountain streams are a Dniester, the Prut and the Siret rivers all

including manganese and

source of power. run southward.

—

The

in

many

in

the towns,

Jews.

—

of

summer of 1941 Rumania, as Germany's ally against the U.S.S.R., regained the northern districts; but the Russians reocthe

cupied them in 1944 and secured them for the U.S.S.R. under the peace treaty of 1947. The boundary between north and south took Chernovtsy into the Soviet part but left the ancient Moldavian capital Suceava and the most famous of the monasteries to Rumania. The population of the Rumanian portion was 300,751 in

became a part of the region of Suceava in the People's Republic. The Soviet portion is now part of the Ukrainian S.S.R. (B. Br.) a province lying immediately north of Manila 1948.

It later

Rumanian

BULACAN,

(An. C.)

town of western Sumatra, Indonesia,

plateau, a ridge of high land running parallel

Agam. under

1957

hill

in

the finest examples of Rumanian art and architecture its unique painted monastic churches of the 15th and 16th centuries. On the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, a local Ukrainian national committee voted the incorporation of the Ukrainian districts of northern Bukovina into the West Ukrainian Democratic Republic. Rumanian troops marched in soon after, and on Nov. 2S a congress of local Rumanians, Germans and Poles voted the union of the whole province with Rumania. The Rumanian government put through a land reform in 1921 and pursued a policy of Rumanization, In the census of 1930, in a total population of 853,009, the Rumanians stood to the Ukrainians in the ratio of 35 to 28 (as against one of 27 to 30 in 1910). On June 28, 1940, the U.S.S.R., occupied northern Bukovina (2,096 sq.mi.); the Germans of the whole province (more than 93,000) were then repatriated by agreement between Germany and the U.S.S.R. In

The Bukidnon of Mindanao (1956) R. Lynch, Bukidnon Between 1910-1950," Anthropological Quarterly,

vol, 28, no. 3

and Rumanian number of Germans and Poles and, When Rumania achieved independence

solidly Ukrainian in the north

Each person has seven body all

If all are present in the

See F.-C. Cole,

"Changes

was almost

the south, while there were a

1879, Bukovina became an object of irredentism. It was not only the cradle of the Moldavian principality but also the repository

is well, but if one or more wanders trouble or death ensues. This has led to the art of soul snatching and soul catching. In addition gimokod the there bewildering to is a number of spirits for whom many elaborate ceremonies are held at critical periods in the life of the individual or of the group. To cope with them there has developed a trained group of men and women, known as baylan, who conduct ceremonies, make offerings and act as soul catchers. However, they are not mediums in the sense that is usual among

Malayan

trading centre after the opening of the railway in 1886. The Austrians kept the balance between the various nationalities; the population

adults blacken the teeth and, in or inlaid with brass wire.

off

Religious beliefs are of great complexity. indwelling spirits, or gimokod.

—

383

Cemauti) was made the seat of a provincial diet. Under Austrian rule the country was developed, and Chernovtsy, which had been endowed with a university in 1875, became an important or

History. Both Ukrainians (Ruthenians) and Rumanians (Moldavians) claim to be the first inhabitants of the country, but in the 14th century it became an integral part of the principality of Moldavia {see Rumania: History). Suceava, in the south of the territory, was the capital of that principality from 1388 to the 1560s. Bukovina, however, had no separate history or name until 1775, when it was detached from Moldavia (then under Turkish suzerainty) and annexed by Austria as a strategic link between Transylvania and Galicia. From 1786 to 1849 Bukovina was administered as part of Galicia; then, as a duchy, it became a separate Austrian crown land. In 1861 Chernovtsy (Czeraowitz

on the island of Luzon, Republic of the Philippines. Pop. (1960) 557,691; area 1,021 sq.mi. Its western half lies on the central plain of Luzon and is drained by the Angat and Pampanga river systems which flow into Manila bay. The eastern portion consists of uplands that gradually increase in altitude toward the east, where they become the foothills of the Sierra Madre or Eastern Cordilleras. The Angat watershed and the Ipo dam and reservoir, which supply water to metropolitan Manila, lie in southeastern Bulacan. Climatically there are two distinct seasons, wet from May or June until December and relatively dry the rest of the year. Malolos, the capital (pop., 1960, 49,267, mun.), is on the plain and has an annual rainfall of 89 in. Ipo, at a higher elevation has 135 in. Typhoons occur, most often between June and September. Temperatures are high and humidity is especially high except during the dryer months. Agriculture is the chief economic activity and paddy rice is easily the most important crop. Sugar is important around Calumpit. River fishing by means of locally made gear is a subsistence activity, but commercial fishponds on the tidal swamp lands at the head of Manila bay are of much greater significance. With 42,000 ac, Bulacan led all other provinces in fishpond acreage in the mid-1950s. Hagonoy is the largest fishing community. There are a few mineral deposits, principally a low-grade iron ore, now essentially exhausted, and limestone, in the eastern hill section. The province is divided into 24 municipalities, four of which (Malolos [g.t).], San Miguel, Hagonoy and Baliuag) had populations of more than 35,000 in 1960. The people are principally Tagalogs. (An. C.) a town and district in Uttar Pradesh, India. The town, 42 mi. S.E. of Delhi on the Grand Trunk road, is located on the right bank of the Kali Nadi river on an elevated site, from which it derives its name Bulandshahr ("elevated town"). A district headquarters with population of 37,496 (1951 census), it has one college connected with the Agra university. Bulandshahr District is situated on a level plain slightly sloping to the south and east, in the upper Doab of the Ganges

BULANDSHAHR,

BULAWAYO— BULFINCH

384

and Jumna rivers which flow along its eastern and western boundaries respectively. Area 1,887 sq.mi.; pop. (1961) 1,737,397. The district is intensively cultivated and amply irrigated by tubewells and the two main branches of the Ganges canal. The Lower Ganges canal has its headquarters at Narora near Dibai. Wheat, barley, sugar cane, maize (corn), millets, pulses and some cotton are grown. The chief trade centre is Khurja (pop. [1961] 41,491).

Mahmud

of Ghazni received the submission of the

After being

in A.D. 1018.

much

Hindu Raja

fought over during the 14th cen-

tury, the district enjoyed a period of peace under the Moguls. Further periods of unrest followed, and in 1805 it passed into the

hands of the'British, as part of the

district of Aligarh (g.v.).

(S. S.

BULAWAYO,

Bh.)

the second largest city in Southern Rhodesia,

Africa, and the chief

town

of the Matabeleland region, lies near

the western border of the region 4,450 ft. above sea level amid undulating pastoral country. The 1956 census gave a population of 93,490 non-Africans and employed Africans; in 1961 there were 154.830 Africans; the 1962 census reported 50,140 Europeans, and 5,630 Asians and Coloureds. The climate is healthful, temperatures varying from 56° to 72° F, from June to October and

The average November to March.

November.

rising to 100° in

wettest season being

rainfall is 23 in., the

Bulawayo was first occupied in 1893 and declared a town by Leander Starr Jameson on June i, 1894. It became a municipality on Oct. 27, 1897, and was made a city on Nov. 4, 1943. When first formed it was on the site chosen by Lobengula, last of the Matabeleland kings, for his kraal, but in 1894 the settlement was moved to its present site 3 mi. away. Government house, however, built by Cecil John Rhodes, still occupies the original position. Among the principal buildings and monuments are the city hall, the magistrates' court and large government offices; the National museum, the general hospitals for Europeans and Africans, the cloistered war memorial and the bronze statue of Rhodes. It has a municipal orchestra, a large public library and many educational, cultural and sporting facilities. The burial place of Rhodes in the

Matopos

hills lies

28 mi. south of the city.

Khami

ruins, 12 mi.

Bulawayo, the headquarters of the Rhodesia railways, is Southern Rhodesia's industrial centre and an important commercial and distributing centre for all imports from the Republic of South Africa. Its manufactures include car tires, iron and steel, tin ware, bricks, sugar, flour, textiles, dairy products, beer, plows and (Ed.

freight cars.

S.

W.)

BULB,

a compound plant organ consisting of a compressed or telescoped stem to which is attached a series of closely overlying leaves, the whole representing a kind of subterranean bud.

Anyone who has examined an onion

—actually

is

can produce their flowers rapidly, almost precociously, in early when growing conditions are favourable. Other bulbous plants, for example the lilies, are summer-flowering while a few, like

meadow

saffron,

bloom

common among

species are also

familiar with a bulb.

—

A

plain a highly fertile black cotton

impossible because of lack of necThis period may be a cold winter season, when soil water is frozen and hence unavailable, or one of the periodic droughts characteristic of semiBotanists recognize two main types of bulbs. One, the tunicated bulb typified by the onion, has a thin papery covering protecting the fleshy leaves. The other, the scaly bulb, to be seen in the true lilies, has naked storage leaves, unprotected by any ,

J.

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TULIP bulb-showing thick basal leaves and shoot, from which flowers and leaves will develop

Khamgaon

(44,432), 20

mi. farther N.W.,

gaon has a college of Nagpur university and Malkapur centre of the grain trade.

named

after

The

district has

Hemadri, minister

kings.

BULFINCH, CHARLES

arid regions.

soil.

Malkapur (29,687), 30

Kham-

are both important cotton markets on the Central railway.

Yadava

essary water.

papery tunic, making the bulb appear to consist of^ a series ofc angular scales. Bulbs vary m size from insignificant pea-sized

early spring-flowering plants of

A

few bulbous species are of economic importance to man. The onion as well as its relatives the shallot, garlic and leek have served as useful vegetables since the dawn of history. Bulbs often contain poisonous principles. One such is the red squill (Urginea) whose bulbs are the source of an important and highly effective rat poison. In horticulture the term bulb is applied incorrectly to a number of botanical structures with a similar food-storing function. Among such so-called "bulbs" are the solid corms (technically thickened leafless bases of plant stems) of the crocus and gladiolus and the elongated rhizomes (fleshy underground stems) of iris. Most hardy ornamental bulbs are planted in the garden in the fall, at the end of the growing season. Depth of planting varies with the species, but is in general proportional to the average diameter of the bulb, with small bulbs usually planted a little shallower than larger ones. See also Stem. (Wr. H. H.) BULBUL, a group of starling-sized passerine birds comprising the family Pycnonotidae of Africa, Madagascar, southern Asia and the Philippines. The 109 species are variously gray, brown and olive-green (sexes similar), sometimes boldly streaked, and often with bright contrasting colours, especially on the head or under tail coverts. Several forms are crested. All are essentially arboreal and subsist on insects and fruit. Their abundance, gregarious habits, and varied calls, both harsh and musical, render the bulbuls conspicuous wherever found. The bulbul of PersoArabic poetry probably is Luscinia hafizi, a nightingale (g.v.). (E. R. Be.) (Buldhana), a town and district in Maharashtra state, India. The town is on the northern edge of the Deccan plateau, 247 mi. N.E. of Bombay and on the main north-south road crossing the Bombay Deccan uplands. Pop. ( 1961 ) 15,985. It has an arts college which is affiliated to Nagpur university. BuLDANA District (pop. [1961], 1,059,678; area 3,751 sq.mi.) is enclosed west and south by the Ajanta hills; traversed southeastward by the Penganga river, which rises in their northern spur west of Buldana town; and bordered on the north by the Purna, a tributary of the Tapti. The Purna alluvium gives the northern the north temperate zone.

temples,

leaf

in the fall.

Bulb-producing species are especially abundant in the lily and amaryllis families which are particularly well represented in countries with pronounced dry seasons such as South Africa. Bulbous

mi. N.E. of Buldana, and

expanded

whose individual

spring

bases are fleshy, being filled with stored food materials enabling a plant to lie dormant and thus to survive an unfavourable period when active growth is

leaves

lilies

may be upward of 15 lb. Because of their bulbs many common garden ornamentals like the narcissus, tulip and hyacinth weight

BULDANA

west, have relics of past African culture.

bulb's

Crinum

structures to those of the large

is

also a

many Hemadpanthi

to the 13th-century

Hindu

(D. G.'Na.)

(1763-1844), first professional U.S. architect, was born in Boston. Mass.. on Aug. 8, 1763. His father, Thomas Bulfinch, a wealthy physician, sent him to the Boston Latin school and Harvard (1778-81). In 1785 he went to Europe. In Paris he met Thomas Jefferson who advised him to see more architectural monuments in Italy and France, He returned, There he married his cousin via London, to Boston in 1787. Hannah Apthorp in 1788. Once established at home, he was sought as architect for many important projects. Among these were the state house. Boston (designed 1787-88, built 1795-98, surviving, though obscured 6y later additions), the Connecticut state house, Hartford (1796), the three Harrison Gray Otis houses, Boston (1796, 1800, 1805), the Federal Street church (i8og, his only Gothic building). University hall. Harvard (1813-15) and the state capitol, Augusta, Maine (1830). While achieving architectural fame he was also chairman of the board of selectmen of Boston (1797-1818) and instrumental in improving the street

—

BULGAKOV— BULGARIA In 1787 he helped promote Robert Gray's (1755-1806) voyage in the "Columbia," the first U.S. ship to sail around the When B. H. Latrobe (1764-1820) resigned as architect world. of the national capitol, Bulfinch succeeded him, used Latrobe's designs to finish the wings, and made a new design for the central rotunda with a high semicircular dome. His architectural ideas were mainly derived from the English Georgian style (q.v.). His works are characterized by refined proportions and the use of classical orders. Bulfinch died at Boston on April 4, 1844. system.

A son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch (1809-70), was a Unitarian clergyman and poet: another son, Thomas Bulfinch (1796-1867), wrote Bill finch's Mythology. Bibliography. Ellen Susan Bulfinch, The Life and Letters of

—

Charles B. Bulfinch (1896) Charles A. Place, Charles Bulfinch. Architect and Citizen (1925) R.'B. K. McLanathan, "Bulfinch's Drawings for the Maine State House," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vo\. 14 (Mav 1955). (P F ) ;

;

BULGAKOV,

NIKOLAEVICH

N

SERGEI (1871-1944), Russian theologian, developer of the theological system called sophiology and a leader of Orthodox participation in the ecumenical

movement, was born

family.

He began

in

Livny, on June 16, 1871, of a priestly

his clerical training at the

seminary of Orel,

but under the influence of Marxism broke with the church and became a student of political economics. After extensive studies in Moscow, Berlin, Paris and London, he taught at the universities of Kiev (1901-06) and Moscow (1906-18). During this period he published Capitalism and Agriculture (1901) and Philosophy

and Economics (1912). An active participant in the intellectual, spiritual and artistic revival that characterized the life of the Russian intelligentsia at the turn of the century, he

became

disillu-

sioned with Marxist philosophy and, together with a group of former Marxists, N. Berdyaev. S. Frank and P. Struve. returned to

Orthodox Church. The story of his conversion is told in his book The Undying Light (1917). In 1918 he was ordained priest, but the Communist government prevented him from resuming his teaching and in 1923 expelled him from the Soviet Union. After two years of academic work in Prague, he was appointed professor of theology and dean of the newly founded Russian Orthodox Theological Institute of Paris, where he died on July 12, 1944. Bulgakov spent the last 20 years of his life elaborating a system of theology known as sophiology, a doctrine centred on the concept of Sophia (Gr. "Wisdom"). Taken from the Old Testament (Wisdom of Solomon, Proverbs), this concept was used by medieval mystics and, especially, modern Russian philosophers V. S. Soloviev and Paul Florensky, in addition to Bulgakov in an elaboration of cosmology as living and organic unity revealing the Divine Wisdom. In the teaching of Bulgakov, Sophia is the link connecting God and the created world. His theories met with strong opposition among certain Orthodox hierarchs and theologians, and were condemned in 1935 by synods of Russian bishops in Yugoslavia and Moscow. Supported, however, by his own bishop and by his colleagues on the faculty of the institute, he was able to teach and write freely. A prolific writer, Bulgakov published more than ten books {The Unburning Bush, 1927; The Ladder of Jacob, 1929; The Lamb of God, 1933; The Comforter, 1936; etc.) and innumerable articles. He had great influence as priest and teacher. the

BrBLiOGRAPHY.— S. Bulgakoff, The Orthodox Church (1935) and The

Wisdom of God: A brief Summary of Sophiology (1937), both in English translations; V. Zenkovskii, History of Russian Philosophy, vol. ii, ch. 6 (1953). (Al. S.)

and a deputy commissar for defense. In minister of the armed forces and a deputy prime minister of the U.S.S.R. and promoted to the rank of marshal of state defense committee,

1947 he was

(1895Russian Communist leader who was prime minister of the U.S.S.R. from 1955 to 1958, was born on June 11, 1895, of middleclass parents in Nizhni Novgorod (now Gorki). He joined the Communist party just before the Nov. 1917 revolution and from 1918 to 1922 was an official of the Cheka, the first secret police organization, in his native region. For the next nine years he held administrative posts in industry. In 1931 he was made chairman of the Moscow city council. He became prime minister of the Russian S.F.S.R. in 1937 and one of the deputy premiers of the U.S.S.R. and chairman of the State bank in 1938. After the German invasion in World War II he was appointed to the military

made

the Soviet Union. He became a candidate member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1946 and a full member in Feb. 1948. On Stalin's death in 1953 Bulganin remained a member of the ruling party presidium (as the Politburo had been renamed) and was made a deputy prime minister and minister of defense. He succeeded G. M. Malenkov as prime minister on Feb. 8, 1955, and in this capacity headed the Soviet delegation to the summit conference in Geneva in July 1955. With N. S. Khrushchev, the first secretary of the C.P.S.U., he paid official visits to India, Burma and Afghanistan in 1955 and to Great Britain in 1956. According to his later admissions, Bulganin sided with Malenkov and V. M. Molotov in the opposition to Khrushchev which developed in 1956, but he did not share their defeat in July 1957 and remained prime minister until replaced by Khrushchev on March 27, 1958. From then his influence declined rapidly. After serving once again briefly as chairman of the State bank he was given in Aug. 1958 the relatively obscure post of chairman of the economic council of the Stavropol region in southern Russia. He was removed from the presidium of the C.P.S.U. in Sept. 1958 and dismissed from the party's central committee at the end of 1958. In March 1960 he retired from his Stavropol post on a pension. At the 22nd congress of the C.P.S.U. in 1961 he was named as a member of the MolotovMalenkov "antiparty" opposition and his expulsion from the C.P.S.U. was demanded. (D. Fd.) (People's Republic of Bulgaria; Narodna Republika Bulgariya), a country of the Balkan peninsula, Europe, of roughly rectangular shape, lies to the east of the peninsula and has an area of 42,830 sq.mi. and a population (1963 est.) of 8,1 1 1 ,100. The southern and western frontiers run through hilly country, separating it from European Turkey and Greece on the one hand and from Yugoslavia on the other. With Rumania, the frontier is mainly the line of the Danube river, while there is an eastern frontage on the Black sea. This article contains the following sections and subsections:

BULGARIA

I.

Physical Geography 1.

2.

3.

II.

Physiography Climate Vegetation and Animal Life

History 1.

2.

The Bulgars Early Dynasties

Empire West Bulgarian Empire Second Empire

3. First 4. 5. 6.

10. 11.

Postwar Settlement and the People's Democracy

9.

III.

Turkish Rule

The Principality Kingdom Under Ferdinand The Reign of Boris III World War II

7.

8.

The People 1.

Religion

2.

Population

rV. Administration and Social Conditions 1. Constitution 2. Living Conditions 3. Welfare Services 4. Justice 5.

BULGANIN, NIKOLAI ALEKSANDROVICH ),

385

councils successively of the Western, Baltic and Belorussian fronts. In 1944 he was made a member of Stalin's small war cabinet, the

6.

V.

Education Defense

The Economy 1.

2.

3.

4.

Agriculture Industry

Trade and Finance Communications I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—

Physiography. The transverse Balkan mountains divide the main agricultural area of Bulgaria into two parts: the northern platform sloping gently down to the Danube (q.v.) and the basins and valleys of the Upper Maritsa system lying to the south. The latter are separated physically from the open waters of the 1.

;

BULGARIA

386

Aegean sea by the Rhodope mountains, while the Maritsa lowland is separated from the Burgas coastal lowland by low rounded hills. The Balkan chain, because of the presence of passes and the slope of the northern tableland, is not, as might be supposed, a Two great serious barrier between the two agricultural areas. highways may be said to converge in the land which has become central Asia by Bulgaria. One is the route which comes from way of the steppes and grasslands of southern Russia and can be continued to the south over the Balkan passes. The other is that which links Asia Minor to Europe by the straits and can be continued along the Maritsa valley and so to the Morava and the Danube at Belgrade. The two unite in southern Bulgaria. Balkan Mountains. Also known as the Stara Planina, the Balkan mountains extend from the valley of the Timok, near the frontier with Yugoslavia, as an extension of the Alpine- Carpathian folds for a distance of about 375 mi., first in a southeasterly and then in an easterly direction to the Black sea, where they break off abruptly. They are composed largely of granites and slates interspersed with broad bands of limestone, and though in the central part they rise to a height of 7,795 ft., their summits are rounded, giving the appearance of an upland rather than a mountain chain. The Zlatishki pass to the west and the Iron Gate pass (north of Sliven) to the east divide them into three sections, of which the central is the highest and narrowest, being about 18 mi. wide. The

—

western section has a maximum height of about 7,000 ft. while the eastern is lower and is divided into two or three separate ridges. South of the Balkans and running parallel to them stretches the range of Sredna Gora. The Topolnitsa and Stryama valleys di\'ide this range into three parts, the eastern of which is sometimes known as the Sarnena Gora. This range is separated from the Balkans proper by the discontinuous sub-Balkan depression, made up of several east-west valleys. Its western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Topolnitsa and Tundzha, tributaries of the Maritsa.

Though as a whole scantily peopled, the Balkan region contains number of valley widenings or basins suitable for settlement, of which those of Troyan, Dryanovo, Kotel and Gabrovo may be

a

mentioned. of fertile

Despite high elevation and the absence of large tracts the Balkan mountains have a wide range of prod-

soil,

ucts and possible occupations

—woodworking and

dustry in addition to agriculture.

wool-textile in-

National feeling has always

persisted in this region and certain mountain towns and villages

served as focuses for the early Bulgarian nationalist movement.

—

Danubian Platform. Often called the Balkan foreland, this is an area between the low northern scarp of the folded Balkans and Danube. It is a tableland floored by horizontally disposed rocks, mainly Cretaceous and Tertiary limestones often concealed by a mantle of loess. The Danube, which forms the northern frontier to a point near Silistra, has a high bank on the Bulgarian To the east side, formed by loess reaching a thickness of 200 ft. the

of the platform the horizontal stratified rocks are strongly eroded

upstanding plateaus with scarped edges, In the west the Iskur, the second largest river in Bulgaria, cuts through the whole Balkan chain, thus bringing the high basin of Sofia (c. 1,800 ft.) into communication with the Danubian tableland. Both west and east of the Iskur smaller streams, rising in the Balkans, flow direct to the Danube. All carry a comparatively small amount of water and some almost dry up in summer, but because of the soft loess deposits all have cut out deep valleys. At the eastern end of the platform the Provadiya and Kamchiya find their way direct to the Black sea, not by way of the Danube. The wide plateau levels are dry because of the hmestones which underlie the porous loess; exposed to cold winds in winter and to desiccating blasts in summer, they are practically devoid of wood; and, though very productive, not attractive to settlement. The deep river valleys have a better climate due to shelter from winds spring water is available and a greater variety of crops can be produced. They serve, therefore, as natural sites for towns, though necessitating long daily journeys to the fields above. The northern part of the platform underwent great changes after the congress of Berhn in 1878. Before that date it was the seat of in

places, leaving flat

especially between Kolarovgrad, Provadiya and Varna.

great feudal domains, the Turkish chiflik. After that time it was divided up into small holdings, worked by peasants whose industry,

and high level of agricultural skill were remarkable. Valleys and Basins of the Maritsa System. These comprise a region of young depressions, formed by down-faulting during frugality

—

Alpine earth movements.

The Maritsa

river rises in the Rila

and

after leaving the mountains enters the Thracian plain, the largest

of the areas of depression which are characteristic of the Balkan

between the Sredna Gora to the north and the to the south and thus the river has two sets left bank tributaries are steep in their upper reaches and, flowing over open slopes, show great fluctuations in volume; in flood they carry large amounts of silt. Tributaries coming from the wooded Rhodope have a fairly even flow. Where the Sredna Gora sinks down eastward to the plain, the Tundzha swings round at a sharp angle, running southward to join the Maritsa at Edirne (Adrianople). The western valleys are thus higher, smaller and more cut off by gorges than the eastern ones. The largest valley is that of the Kazanluk in the Tundzha section, always celebrated for its beauty and fertility. In the western part, sunny and sheltered by the hills to the north, is an area favourable to agriculture. Farther east the climate becomes drier and the country more steppelike, while to the southeast are the wooded slopes of the Strandzha hills. Rhodope and Rila Massifs.- These form the central core of the Balkan peninsula and are composed of granite and gneiss, chiefly of Archean age though overlain by later deposits. They are formidable mountains; the peaks are bare and rocky with old glacial cirques and moraines and the valleys are deeply cut and steep. From the western Balkan mountains there extends a region of broken country, called Kraishte, along which runs the frontier between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The southern part of this passes into the Osogove mountains (Osogovska Planina) and has a certain individuality of its own, due both to its height and to the fact that the Struma river makes a definite line of separation between it and the still higher mountains of Rila and Pirin to the east. The Struma, which has a general north-to-south direction, rises in the Vitosha mountains, southwest of Sofia, a mountain mass rising to heights of nearly 7,500 ft. To the east of the valley line is a long belt of mountain country extending from the Vitosha to the Rila mountains (a beautifully wooded group with glaciated summits reaching a maximum height of more than 9,600 ft.) and continuing to the Pirin to the south and into the Rhodope in the southeast. The Iskur river, which passes through the basin of Sofia, rises in the Rila mountains and turns south to the source of the Struma, their headwaters overlapping. The Vitosha mountains form an obstacle to routes from Sofia into the Struma valley but can be turned both to the northwest and the southeast. There woods are abundant, with beech and oak below and pine and fir above. There are extensive summer pastures at the higher levels. Though the more elevated areas are unfit for permanent habitation, the margins and secluded valleys offer opportunities for settlement. This area, even more than the Balkans, served as a refuge for fugitives and thus as a centre for the growth of a peninsula.

It lies

Rhodope mountains of tributaries. The

—

spirit of revolt. 2.

Climate.

climate

is

—Although Bulgaria

more continental

is

near the Mediterranean

in type, particularly in

its

the north,

and may be termed temperate continental as a whole. The Danubian tableland is continental in type, with cold winter winds from the Eurasian high-pressure system causing frequent prolonged frost (only 180-215 days are frost-free on the average) which damages the orchards and vineyards the summer, average temperature varies between 70° and 80° F. The Balkan mountains form the limit of mediterranean influence, but a true mediterranean summer drought is found only in the Struma and Mesfa valleys of the southwest and the south-facing The mountain ranges, which slopes of the Rhodope mountains. have a high rainfall (e.g., up to 75 in. average annual rainfall in and lower temperatures in both summer Rila mountains) the and winter, generally protect the inland basins and valleys from Summers are hot and the winters mild. The strong winds. Thracian plain (Trakiyska Nizina) in central Bulgaria has a ;

BULGARIA climate that

is

transitional

between mediterranean and continental

(with such extremes as 113° F. recorded near Plovdiv); there are 198-206 days frost-free. Rainfall can be very low (average 20-25 in.) so that small rivers tend to disappear and irrigation is

sea coast

is

warmer than the

interior in the winter

(241-260 days frost-free) but the summer is cooler. There are frequent gale storms, causing great loss in the rural areas, and as many as 320 windy days a year. A wind corresponding to the African sirocco, the "black wind." can have an adverse effect on crops during the calmer summer days. Rainfall tends to be less than 20 in.; an absolute minimum of 7.6 in. was recorded in the

Dobruja region.

—

3. Vegetation and Animal Life The same zones that are apparent geologically, physically and climatically are seen in the natural vegetation although the country as a whole lies in the middle latitudes forest and steppe area. In the north the Danubian platform is steppe-like in character but in the Ludogorie or Deli Orman "forest"' to the west of the Dobruja there is some scrubby deciduous woodland. Much of this was cut down or mutilated for firewood as well as for timber, and grazing animals, especially goats, have caused much damage. The Balkan range is covered for the most part with oak and beech, with conifers at higher levels. The Thracian plain and the Black sea coastlands have mediterranean flora, including maquis, and also deciduous woodland, but the area is largely cultivated. True mediterranean vegetation can be seen in the Struma and Mesta valleys and in the Strandzha, where broadleaf evergreen shrubs include the rhododendron. The western mountains and the Rhodopes are forested with fine coniferous forests as well as with deciduous. Roughly one-third of Bulgaria is forested of this, 52'^c is high forest and 48% brushwood, which is important as a watershed protection. Except in the mountainous southwest, deforestation has caused the gradual disappearance of such wild animals as bears, wolves, boars, fo.xes, elk, and wildcats. Fisheries yield poor supplies mainly of mackerel from the Black sea. Carp, sturgeon and whitefish are found in the rivers. (S. H. Br.)

—

U.

The ancient

HISTORY

history of the country that

was divided

is

now

Bulgaria

is

that

Moesia and Thrace (gq.v.). Subjected first to the kingdom of Macedonia iq.v.), then to the Romans, the country was overrun by the great immigration of the Slavs {q-v.; see also Europe: History) that spread over the lands between the Danube and the Aegean sea from the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 7th century a.d. The old Thraco-IUyrian population was partly expelled by the Slavs and partly merged with them. Faint traces of similarities in the Bulgarian and Rumanian languages, as well as tumuli, bas-reliefs and inscriptions on stone tablets, are survivals of the ancient lUyrian race and speech in the eastern half of the Balkan peninsula (for the west see Illyria; also Albania). The Slav tribes had no central government. They tilled the land and were organized in democratic local communities. Contact with Roman civilization had considerable effect on their way of life, especially in the areas along the sea coast and near the old of regions into which

garrison centres of the 1.

or Isperikh,

moved westward under the impact of crossed the Danube in 679 and

the Khazars (q.v.)

necessary.

The Black

3»7

next name to appear is that of the khan Kubrat. ruler of a tribal confederation north of the Black sea that lasted until the middle of the 7th century. One of the Kubrat's sons, Asparukh

The

The Bulgars.

it

Roman

—The

first

in classical times,

empire.

mention of the Bulgars

in

European

history occurs toward the end of the Sth century a.d., the

name

being applied to some of the numerous tribes of non-Indo-European origin that had followed in the w-ake of Attila's invasion and settled down temporarily in the steppes north of the Black sea

and to the northeast of the Danube. These tribes of fierce, barbarous horsemen, despotically ruled by their khans (chiefs) and boyars or bolyars (nobles), lived mainly from war and raiding. Little is known about their religion. In a.d. 433 their federation of tribes split into two main groups the Utiguri to the east and the Kutiguri to the west. About 560 the Avars {q.v.) conquered the Kutiguri and assimilated the survivors, so that the Kutiguri then disappeared from history. Less than a decade later the Utiguri were enslaved by the Turks.

—

.

the advance of settled

down

in

Moesia, which was then a province of the Byzantine empire. In 681 the Bulgar state in Moesia was officially recognized by the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV. Asparukh's horde, probably not very numerous, was gradually assimilated by the more advanced Slavs, whose language and ways of life the Bulgars adopted. Only the military aristocracy remained predominantly Bulgar. keeping their names, titles and privileges, against the policy of the khans, whose title changed to the Slavonic one of knez (prince). This dualism in the social organization of the Bulgarian state had far-reaching effects on its fortunes and contributed to its downfall. (Bulgaria on the Volga, a state that emerged later in southern Russia, is the subject of a separate article.) 2. Early Dynasties. The early Bulgarian state lay along both banks of the Danube, although the suzerainty of their princes over the northern bank, which at the time was practically a no-man's land, was probably always shadowy. To the south, however, the rulers gradually extended their frontiers in numerous campaigns against the Byzantines, from whom Kardam (777802?; and Krum (802?-814) again e.xacted the tribute that had been paid to Asparukh. Krum waged a desperate campaign against the emperor Nicephorus, who invaded Bulgaria and burned Preslav; but Krum annihilated the army as it returned through the Balkan passes (811), slew the emperor and converted his skull into a drinking goblet. In the following years he devastated Thrace and besieged Constantinople; the city was saved by his sudden death. Moreover, Krum and his son Omortag (814831) succeeded to the heritage of the Avars in much of eastern Hungary and Transylvania; but with the arrival of the Magyars and Pechenegs at the end of the 9th century, all territory north of the Danube was abandoned, and even the southern half of the Danube valley was depopulated by raids and filled with alien races who settled there in considerable numbers. Pressian (836-852) and Boris I {q.v.; 852-889) extended the frontier of Bulgaria far to the southwest, to include Dibra (Debar) and Ohrid (Ochrida), now in Yugoslavia, and all the upper Struma valley, as well as the Morava valley on the west. The great majority of the enlarged Bulgarian state was now almost purely Slav; and for 300 years, while the whole of northeastern Bulgaria was repeatedly ravaged by Russians, Magyars, Pechenegs and Kumans, the Slav centre and the southwest were to become even more the centre of gravity of the Bulgarian state. This process was accelerated by the conversion of Bulgaria to Christianity. The adoption of the Slavonic or Old Bulgarian language as that of the official liturgy was the final stage in the assimilation of the original Bulgar race. Boris, who was baptized into the Orthodox Church in 865, probably adopted Christianity from political motives, though according to legend he was frightened into it by the ghastly picture of hell painted on his palace walls by a Byzantine monk, and he ended his days in The great controversy between Rome and Cona monastery. stantinople regarding the patriarch Photius had broken out in 860, and after his baptism Boris wavered between the rival churches; but when the pope failed to fulfill the hope that he had held out of Bulgaria's getting an independent and national patriarch, Boris in 870 decided for the Eastern Church. The decision was fraught with momentous consequences for the future of his country. The nation altered its religion in obedience to its sovereign, and some of the boyars who resisted the change paid with their lives for their fidelity to the ancient belief. The independence of the Bulgarian Church was recognized by the patriarch, The Bulgarian a fact much dwelt upon in later controversies. primates subsequently received the title of patriarch; their see was transferred from Preslav to Sofia, Voden and Prespa suc-

—

cessively and finally to Ohrid.

—

3. First Empire. The national power was at its zenith under Simeon (893-927), a monarch distinguished in the arts of war and peace. In his reign, says Gibbon, "Bulgaria assumed a rank among

BULGARIA

388

the civilized powers of the earth." It was under Simeon that the trans-Danubian possessions were finally lost; but he extended his frontiers to the Adriatic in the southwest and as far as the Sava and Drina rivers and also brought the Serbs under his sway. Having become the most powerful monarch in eastern Europe,

Simeon assumed the title of "emperor and autocrat of all the Bulgars and Greeks," a style which was recognized by Pope John X. Simeon also aspired, however, to secure the Byzantine imperial crown for himself and so led numerous campaigns against Constantinople. His pursuit of this dream left his country nearly exhausted. While he reigned his people made great progress in civilization; literature flourished, and his capital, Preslav, is described as rivaling Constantinople in magnificence and as full of "high palaces and churches." 4. West Bulgarian Empire. After Simeon's death, the BulThe upper gar power declined because of internal dissension. classes were demoralized by the Greek manners introduced by the wife of Peter, Simeon's successor, and the peasants, who endured great hardships, embraced in large numbers the doctrines of opposition to the church and to the nobility preached by the Bogomils (g.v.), who acquired great prominence at that time. Serbia recovered its independence in 933. New waves of eastern invaders harassed northern Bulgaria; and in 972 the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimisces took advantage of a Russian attack to dethrone Tsar Boris H and recover eastern Bulgaria. Macedonia,

—

however, remained independent under the four sons of a local count, probably of Armenian origin, called Nicolas. One of these four brothers, Samuel (980-1014), assumed the title of tsar, actually recovered Serbia and northern Bulgaria for this new Bulgarian empire and extended his power southward to Thessaly; but in 1014 he was defeated at Belasitsa by the Byzantine emperor Basil II (q.v.), thereafter called Bulgaroctonus, who reputedly put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners taken in the fight. Samuel died of grief. Four years later his dynastry was extinguished; for more than a century and a half (1018-118S) all the former Bulgarian territories remained subject to the Byzantine emperors. 5. Second Empire. After a general insurrection of Vlachs (g.v.) and Bulgars under the brothers Asen and Peter Asen of Turnovo, northern Bulgaria recovered its independence (1185) and Asen assumed the title of Ivan Asen I, "tsar of the Bulgars and Greeks." (5eeAsEN.) The Asens asserted their descent from the old rulers of Bulgaria; but they are said to have been actually of Kuman-Bulgar origin and are generally referred to in contemporary documents as "tsars of the Vlachs and Bulgars." They received great assistance from the Kumans, now settled on the northern banks of the Danube, to whom they were allied by treaty and marriage. Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nis and Skopje; he acknowledged the supremacy of the pope who, in his own words, "extolled him above all other Christian monarchs," received the royal crown from a papal legate and was certainly the strongest part in the three-cornered warfare which was waged for many years between the Greeks, the crusaders (at that time established in Constantinople) and the Bulgars. The greatest of all Bulgarian rulers was Ivan Asen II (1218-41), a man of humane and enlightened character. After a series of victorious campaigns, particularly after the battle of Klokotnitsa (1230), he established his sway over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace and governed In his his wide dominions with justice, wisdom and moderation. time the nation attained a prosperity hitherto unknown commerce, capital, enlarged was arts and literature flourished; Turnovo, the and embellished and great numbers of churches and monasteries were founded or endowed. At this period, to judge from contemporary chronicles, civilization in Bulgaria was as high as anywhere else in Europe. The last representative of the Asens ceased to rule in 1280.

—

:

None

was able to establish a strong central authority, and feudal anarchy prevailed. Further, northern BulTwo other garia was repeatedly devastated by Mongol raids. of their successors

dynasties, both of at

Kuman

origin, followed; the Terter,

who

Turnovo and the Shishman, who founded an independent ;

ruled state

at Vidin but later reigned in the national capital. Eventually, on July 28, 1330, the tsar Michael Shishman was defeated and slain by the Serbs, under Stephen Urosh III, at the battle of Velbuzhd (Kyustendil). The Macedonian provinces of Bulgaria then came under Serb rule and formed part of Stephen Dushan's empire (1331-55). For the last time before the Turkish conquest, literature flourished in Bulgaria during the reign of Ivan Alexander (1331-71). By 1340 Ottoman Turkish invaders had begun to ravage the entire valley of the Maritsa; they took Philippopolis (Plovdiv) In 1371 Bulgaria's last tsar, in 1362 and seized Sofia in 1382. Ivan Shishman, son and heir of Ivan Alexander, was forced to declare himself the vassal of the Ottoman sultan Murad I. The rout of the Serbs, Bosnians and Croats at Kosovo Polje in 1389 sealed the fate of the whole Balkan peninsula. The Turks soon turned on Ivan Shishman. His capital, Turnovo. after a siege of three months, was captured, sacked and burned in 1393. What happened to the tsar is not known; according to national legend he fell in battle near Samokov. Vidin, where his brother Srazhimir had established himself, was taken in 1396, and the last remnant of Bulgarian independence disappeared. 6. Turkish Rule.— The five centuries 1396-1878 form a dark era in Bulgarian history. The invaders carried fire and sword through the land towns, villages and monasteries were sacked and destroyed, and whole districts were converted into desolate wastes. Inhabitants of the plains fled to the mountains, where they founded new settlements. Many of the nobles embraced Islam; others, together with numbers of the priests and people, took refuge Among the people only the religious sect across the Danube. of the Paulicians adopted Islam in large numbers: the conversion of the Pomaks of the Rhodope mountains was still incomLarge colonies of plete at the beginning of the 17th century. true Turks were, however, settled in the plains both north and south of the Balkans, the true Bulgarian element being driven back into the less fertile districts. All the regions formerly ruled by the Bulgarian tsars, including Macedonia and Thrace, were placed under the administration of a governor general, styled the beglerbeg (beylerbey) of Rumili (Rumelia), residing at Sofia; Bulgaria proper was divided into vilayets (provinces) and these into the sanjaks (districts) of Sofia, Nikopol, Vidin, Silistra and Kyustendil. A new feudal system replaced that of the boyars; fiefs or spahiliks were conferred on the Ottoman chiefs and renegade Bulgarian nobles. The Christian population was subjected to heavy imposts, the principal being the jizie, or capitation tax, paid to the imperial treasury, and the tithe on agricultural produce, ;

which was collected by the feudal lord. Among the most cruel forms of oppression was the requisitioning of young boys between the ages of 10 and 12, who were sent to Constantinople as reYet the conquest once comcruits for the corps of janizaries. the condition of the peasantry during the first three centuries of Turkish government was not worse than it had been Military service was under the tyrannical rule of the boyars. not exacted from the Christians, no systematic effort was made to extinguish either their religion or their language, and within certain limits they were allowed to retain their ancient local administration and the jurisdiction of their clergy in regard to Many districts and classes eninheritance and family affairs. joyed special privileges: chief of these were the merchants, miners and the inhabitants of the "warrior villages" (voi7iishki sela), who received self-government and exemption from taxation in Some of these towns, such as return for military service. Koprivshtitsa in the Sredna Gora, attained some prosperity, which So long as declined after the establishment of the principality.

pleted,

the

was

Ottoman power was at its height, the lot of the subject races tolerable. The law was enforced, commerce prospered, good

roads were constructed, and the great caravans from Ragusa (Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) traversed the country. Down to the end of the 17th century there was only one serious attempt at revolt, as distinguished from the guerrilla warfare maintained in the mountains by the haiduks, or outlaws: and that was occasioned by the advance of Prince Sigismund Bathory into Walachia in 1595. Both this revolt and an equally unsuccessful

BULGARIA

SCENES IN CITIES Top left: Cathedral of Alexander Nevski in Sofia, capital of Bulgaria Top right: Maria Luisa boulevard in Sofia, and the Banyabashi mosque Centre right: View

of Plovdiv ( Philippopolis) centre of the tobacco industry

,

Plate

AND TOWNS OF BULGARIA

second city of Bulgaria an

tttom left: Town of Bansko in the Pirin ittom right: The meeting place of the royal palace, Sofia

i

St Bulgaria jrmorly the

I

Plate

TI

BULGARIA

BULGARIA 1688 were arranged in conjunction with Austrian forces; but after the peace of Belgrade (1739) the Austrian government temporarily suspended its active Balkan policy. Its heritage was taken over by Russia, who as early as 1687 had for political rising in

reasons assumed the role of protector of the Orthodox Christians of the Balkans, a claim officially put forward in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (Kaynardzha; 1774). As the power of the sultans declined after the unsuccessful siege of Vienna (1683),

anarchy spread through the Balkans. less

Bulgaria, however, suffered

from the oppressions of the feudal lords than the remoter

Early in the 18th century, however, the inhabitants from the ravages of the Turkish armies crossthe land during the wars with Austria. Toward its close their ing condition became even worse with the horrors perpetrated by the Kurdzhali, troops of disbanded soldiers and desperadoes who, districts.

suffered terribly

Turkish authorities, roamed through the country, committing atrocities. In 1794 Pazvantoglu (1758-1807), a feudal lord who was occasionally in aUiance with the Kurdzhali, established himself as an independent sovereign at Vidin, putting to flight three Turkish armies which were dispatched against him. This adventurer possessed many remarkable qualities. He adorned Vidin with handsome buildings, maintained in defiance of the

plundering

and

and issued a separate coinage. At the beginning of the 19th century Bulgarian race was almost unknown in Europe. Disheartened by ages of oppression, isolated from Christendom by their geographical position and cowed by the proximity of Istanbul, the Bulgars took no effective part in the insurrectionary movement which resulted in the liberation of Serbia and Greece, though legions of Bulgarian volunteers fought beside the Serbs. The Russian invasions of 1810 and 1828 only added to their sufferings, and great numbers of fugitives took refuge in Bessarabia, annexed by Russia under the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. The people's national consciousness, however, which throughout the centuries of foreign rule had brought forth a fine folklore ballads, songs and legends and had kept the Bulgarian language intact, offered fertile ground for those revolutionary aspirations to national independence linked with social reform which had been agitating many parts of Europe since the end of the 18th century and appeared in clearer ideological outline after the Napoleonic Wars, concurrently with the development of order, levied taxes

The National Revival. existence

the

of

—

the

—

—

socialism.

The precursors

movement in Bulgaria were Macedonia, Greece) who wrote and saints (1762), and Bishop Sofronii of Vratsa. After 1824 several works written in modern Bulgarian began to appear, and in 1835 the first Bulgarian school was founded at Gabrovo. Within ten years about 50 Bulgarian schools came into existence, and 5 Bulgarian printing presses were Paisii, a

monk

of

of the national

Mt. Athos

(in

a history of the Bulgarian tsars

at

work.

The

literary

movement

led to a reaction against the

and authority of the Greek clergy. The spiritual domination of the Greek patriarchate had tended more efi'eclually than the temporal power of the Turks to the effacement of Bulgarian nationality. After the Turkish conquest of the Greek peninsula the Greek patriarch had become the representative at the Sublime Porte (Turkish government) of the Rum millet, the Roman nation, in which all the Christian nationalities were comprised. The independent patriarchate of Turnovo was suppressed by the Turks; that of Ohrid was subsequently influence

made Greek.

—

The Phanariot clergy (^see Phanariotes) unscrupulous, rapacious and corrupt monopolized the higher ec-

—

appointments and filled the parishes with Greek priests, whose schools, in which Greek was exclusively taught, were the only means of instruction open to the people. Greek became the fashionable language of the upper classes in many Bulgarian towns, and the Bulgarian language was written in Greek characters. The Slavonic liturgy was suppressed and in many places the old Bulgarian manuscripts, images, testaments and missals were burned. Thus, although from 1828 sporadic military revolts had been led by Georgi Mamarchev, Georgi Rakovski, Panayot Khitov, Haji Dimitr and Stefan Karadzha, these isolated Bulgarian patriots could not hope for success until the Greek asclesiastical

389

cendancy had been removed.

For 40 years the pioneers of Bulgarian nationality fought for the establishment of an autonomous church. At one time they even secured from the pope the appointment of an archbishop of the Uniate Bulgarian Church, causing Russia to urge the sultan to grant Bulgaria's wishes; and on Feb. 28, 1870, a firman (decree) was issued establishing a Bulgarian exarchate with jurisdiction over 15 dioceses, including Nis, Pirot and Veles (now Titov Veles) in Yugoslavia. The first exarch was elected in Feb. 1872. He and his followers were at once declared schismatics and excommunicated by the patriarch, but national feeling in Bulgaria was now greatly enhanced. The Revolt of 1876. A nation-wide rising for the liberation of the country had been in preparation since the 1860s by revolutionary underground organizations in Rumania with numerous local "committees" in Bulgaria. The principal leaders were Vasil Levski, Khristo Botev {q.v.) and Lyuben Karavelov. The Turks eventually caught Levski, who was active mostly inside Bulgaria, and executed him. The revolt broke out prematurely in May 1876, at Koprivshtitsa and Panagyurishte, but did not spread

—

much beyond

sanjak of Philippopolis (Plovdiv). It was by Pomaks, bashi-bazouks and recently settled Circassians and Tatars. About 15,000 Bulgarians were massacred near Philippopolis, including 5,000 in Batak, and 58 villages and the

cruelly repressed

5

monasteries were destroyed.

side of

Isolated risings on the northern

the Balkan mountains were

crushed with similar bar-

These atrocities were denounced by the British statesman W. E. Gladstone (q.v^) in a pamphlet which aroused the indignation of Europe. The great powers remained inactive, but Serbia declared war in the following month, and 2,000 Bulgarian volunteers joined the Serbian army. Reforms proposed by a conference of the powers at Istanbul at the end of the year were disregarded by the Porte, and in April 1877 Russia declared war {see Russo-TuRKisH Wars). In the ensuing campaign the Bulgarian volunteer contingent in the Russian army accompanied Gen. O. V. Gurko's advance through the Balkans, behaved with great bravery at Stara Zagora, where it suffered heavy casualties, and rendered valuable services in the defense of Shipka. 7. The Principality.—After advancing to Chatalja (Catalca, now in Turkey in Europe), Russia dictated the treaty of San Stefano {see Eastern Question), which fulfilled almost all Bulgarian ambitions. A principality was created, the western frontier of which ran down from the Timok river to embrace Pirot, Vranje, Skopje, Debar (Dibra), Ohrid and Kastoria. Leaving all Macedonia to Bulgaria (except Salonika and Chalcidice), the proposed frontier left the Aegean coast southeast of Xanthi, ran northward barity.

along the of Edirne

Rhodope mountains, then turned eastward passing north (

Adrianople), reaching the Black sea coast north of

The Dobruja was reserved to Rumania as a reward for help in the war and as compensation for Russia's annexation of Bessarabia. The area included in the new Bulgaria constituted Midye.

three-fifths of the

Balkan peninsula, with a population of about The powers, however, fearing that this

4,000,000 inhabitants.

would become practically a Russian dependency, intervened. The congress of Berlin (q.v.), by the treaty of July 13, 1878, reduced the principality of Bulgaria (which was to be autonomous, but under the sovereignty of the Porte) to the territory between the Danube (excluding the Dobruja) and the rest of the Balkan mountains, with Samokov and Kyustendil. Vranje, Pirot and Nis were given to Serbia, Turkey retaining nearly all Macedonia. An autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, subject to the sultan but with a Christian governor general, a diet and a militia, was created between the Balkan and the Rhodope mountains, A European commission was to draft a constitution for Eastern Rumelia. For Bulgaria, an assembly of notables was to meet at Turnovo within nine months, draw up an organic law and elect a prince; their choice was to be confirmed by the Porte with the assent of the powers. The country was meanwhile occupied by Russian troops and administered by Russian officials. Alexander. The constituent assembly, which met at Turnovo on Feb. 22 (new style; Feb. 10, old style), 1879, was overwhelmingly democratic in character. The majority of its members were peasants, and the Liberal party, under Dragan Tsankov, state

—

BULGARIA

390

Lyuben Karavelov and Petko Rachev Slaveikov (q.v.), easily predominated over the Conservatives. The constitution adopted at this assembly was among the most democratic in Europe.

On

first regular Bulgarian assembly elected throne Prince Alexander of Battenberg (q.v.). a

April 29, 1879, the

to the Bulgarian

scion of the grand-ducal house of Hesse and nephew of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. Prince .\lexander arrived in Bulgaria

and took the oath to the constitution on July 8 amid general Elected rejoicing; but from the first his position was difficult. as Russia's candidate and autocratic by nature and training, the 22-year-old prince was meant to be an agent for his protector's foreign and domestic policy rather than a Bulgarian ruler. Indeed, little else was expected of him by the courts of Europe, but on both these scores he came into early conflict ^^•ith the Bulgarian Liberals, who commanded the bulk of Bulgarian public opinion and were strongly averse to any policy against the national wishes or any infringement of the democratic constitution. The prince first formed a Conservative ministry to take the place of the outgoing Russian officials, but was forced by popular agitation to form a Liberal government under Tsankov. As the Liberals, once in power, initiated a violent antiforeign and anti-Russian campaign, the prince dismissed them, formed a new Conservative government under Gen. J. C. Ehrnroth, a Finn in the Russian service, and charged him with arranging new elections to the grand Sobranie (unicameral national assembly). The general obtained a subservient Sobranie which agreed (July 1881) to suspend the constitution and invest the prince with absolute powers for seven years. A period of dictatorship followed, under the Conservatives and the Russian generals L. N. Sobolev and A. V. Kaulbars. The prince's own adherents, however, disagreed among themselves over the question of railway concessions. The prince, whose relationship with Russia was less cordial after the death of Alexander II in 1881, quarreled with Sobolev and began to favour Bulgarian aspirations. In Sept. 1883 he restored the constitution by proclamation and formed a coalition government of Conservatives and moderate Liberals, which was succeeded in July 1884 by a government of the left-wing Liberals under Karavelov. In Eastern Rumelia, as in Bulgaria, political life had brought forth a Conservative and a Liberal party. The differences between them were rather personal than of principle, for each was equally eager to promote the union with Bulgaria but the Conservatives, who were RussophUe, had declared, in compliance with Russia's wishes, that the time was not yet ripe for the union. The Liberals, who were in opposition, seized the opportunity and in Sept. 188S, having assured themselves at the last moment of Prince Alexander's consent, seized the governor general, Krastevich Pasha, and proclaimed the union. The prince arrived in Plovdiv a fewdays later, took over the government and mobilized all available troops on the Turkish frontier to resist a possible attack. Turkey, however, beyond massing her troops on the frontier, made no move, but awaited developments in the international situation. The western powers showed Bulgaria sympathy, and Germany preserved a neutral attitude, but Russia, incensed by such independence of action, recalled the Russian officers from the Bulgarian army and, at conferences summoned in Istanbul in September and October, urged that the union be canceled and the sultan's authority be restored in Eastern Rumelia. This was opposed by Great Britain. Meanwhile King Milan of Serbia, announcing that the balance of power in the Balkans was endangered, suddenly declared war (Nov. 14, 1885). The Serbs advanced as far as Slivnitsa; but there they were encountered and defeated by the untrained Bulgarian army, which pursued them across the frontier, took Pirot and was stopped only by the inter\'ention of Austria (see Serbo- Bulgarian War). Peace and the status quo were ;

(March 3, 1886) and by the convention of Top-Khane (April S). Prince Alexander was appointed governor general of Eastern Rumelia, and the Rumelian administrative and military forces united with those of Bulgaria. Disappointment at these events set afoot a conspiracy among Russophiles in Bulgaria and certain discontented officers who, on Aug. 21, 1886, seized the prince in his palace, forced him to sign his abdication, transported him out of the country and handed restored by the treaty of Bucharest

Danube port of Reni. The disapproved the plot; Stefan Stambulov (q.v.), the president of the assembly, and Col. Sava Mutkurov, com-

him over country

to the Russians at the

in general

mandant of the troops

at Plovdiv, initiated a counterrevolution,

overthrew the conspirators and recalled the prince. The Russian III, however, whom he had informed of his return, answered: 'T cannot approve your return to Bulgaria." As no European power would support him in the face of Russia's ill will, Alexander of Battenberg abdicated on Sept. 8. appointing The regency as regents Stambulov, Karavelov and Mutkurov. was successful, in difficult circumstances, in preserving order and securing the good will of Turkey. The election of a new prince was a more difficult task. Russia sent Gen. Nikolai Vasilievich Kaulbars to Bulgaria to arrange for the election of the prince of Mingrelia (region of Georgia) but, finding fresh causes of discontent, broke off relations on Nov. 17. The Bulgarian delegates who toured the courts of Europe found it very hard to select a prince who should be agreeable to Russia and to the rest of Europe alike. At last their offer was accepted by Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Ferdhiand. The new prince was elected by the grand Sobranie on July 7, 1887, and took over the government on July 14. His position was difficult, as Russia denounced him as a usurper and brought pressure on the Porte to declare his presence in Bulgaria illegal. Stambulov, who became prime minister on Aug. 3, had to rule almost as a dictator in the face of a raid led by the Russian captain Dmitri Nikolaevich Nabokov, a refusal by the bishops of the Holy Synod to pay homage to the prince and a military conspiracy under Maj. Konstantin Panitsa (1890). Fortunately Stambulov's foreign policy was successful. The powers withheld recognition, but Ferdinand was received personally in Vienna, London and Rome; and relations with Turkey became cordial, the Porte granting the Bulgarian schools and church valuable concessions in 1890, 1892 and 1894. While, however, Stambulov sought the friendship of the Porte, Ferdinand was anxious to recover the favour of Russia and thus secure his own recognition. Relations between the two grew ever more strained, until Stambulov resigned in 1894. Under his successor, Konstantin Stoilov, Ferdinand inaugurated a Russophile policy, which was facilitated by the death of the emperor Alexander III in Nov. 1894. The banished Russophiles and other victims of Stambulov's autocratic regime were amnestied; in July 189S some of these murdered the prime minister in the streets of Sofia. In the spring of 1893 Ferdinand had married Princess Maria Luisa of Bourbon-Parma and Stambulov had persuaded the grand Sobranie to alter the constitution to allow the issue of the marriage to be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. However, Ferdinand had his eldest son. Prince Boris, baptized into the Orthodox faith (Feb. 14, 1896) with Tsar Nicholas II as godfather, a step which, although it incurred the grave displeasure of Austria-Hungary, sealed the reconciliation with Russia. On March 14, after the powers signified their assent, Ferdinand was nominated by the Turkish sultan prince of Bulgaria and governor general of Eastern Rumelia. Russian influence again became noticeable in Bulgaria. It was no longer conspicuous in her internal affairs, but a secret military convention was concluded in Dec. 1902. The question which was now to dwarf all others in importance and to sway all Bulgarian poUcy was that of Macedonia. The narrow limits drawn by the treaty of Berlin had left Bulgars under foreign rule in Rumania, Serbia and Turkey. The hope of recovering portions of the Dobruja and southeastern Serbia had prevented the Bulgarian government from initiating cordial relations with the former two countries. With Turkey, however, matters were different: Macedonia constituted the largest Bulgaria

emperor Alexander

—

irredenta; there the sense of Bulgarian nationality

was

especially

strong and genuine; there, too, there was a fair chance that the Turks would soon leave the field, and territorial acquisition prove possible. The Macedonian revolt of 1903 brought Bulgaria to the verge of war with Turkey; and despite a convention of April 8, 1904, Bulgaria had to maintain an army with a view to possible war, which, together with the maintenance of

tute refugees

from Macedonia, proved a heavy drain

many

desti-

financially.

BULGARIA Nor

did the question end there. Other countries laid claim to Macedonia. Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, Vlachs, as well as Bulgars, carried on their rival propagandas, often by force of arms. Outrages committed by Greek bands in 1906 led to reprisals on the

Greek population in Bulgaria, while with Serbia the situation was even more strained, e.specially since the return of the Karageorgevich dynasty in 1903, the consequent increase in Serb propaganda in

Macedonia and the favour enjoyed by Serbia in Russia. Kingdom Under Ferdinand.— It was partly the desire

8.

country on an equality with Serbia, as well as the growing impatience of prince and people alike with the nominal vassalage to Turkey (even though the tribute imposed in 1878 was never paid that decided Prince Ferdinand to proclaim Bulgarian independence. On visiting Vienna in Feb. 190S, he was well received; though Bulgaria's aspirations toward the Dobruja and Nis made an alliance with Austria-Hungary impossible, the two states were now in sympathy. After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908 an understanding was reached between Ferdinand and the emperor Francis Joseph I of Austria. Further pretexts were supplied by a diplomatic incident in Istanbul and by a to set his

)

strike in those sections of the Eastern Rumelian railways which were owned by Turkey but leased to the Oriental railways. On Oct. 5, 1908, the day before the Austrian annexation of BosniaHercegovina, Ferdinand proclaimed Bulgaria (including Eastern Rumelia) an independent kingdom, himself taking the title of tsar. {See Ferdinand, Ma.ximilian Karl Leopold Maria.) Balkan Alliance and the First Balkan War. Bulgarian policy swung back into its old groove. Turkey claimed an indemnity of £4,800,000 for the declaration of independence. Bulgaria had agreed to pay il, 520,000. In Feb. 1909 Russia undertook to advance the difference. A preliminary Russo-Turkish protocol was signed on March 16, and in April, after the final agreement had been signed, the independence of Bulgaria was recognized by the

—

powers.

The cabinet under the Democrat leader Aleksandr Malinov, who had taken office in 1908, fell in March 1911. Ivan Geshov, head of the National party, became prime minister. Negotiations began for a Balkan alliance against Turkey. The first, between Bulgaria and Greece, were conducted through J. D. Bourchier, Balkan correspondent of the Times (London). A secret treaty of defensive alliance was signed between Bulgaria and Greece

on May 29, 1912. The Serbo-Bulgarian treaty was signed in Sofia on March 13 and supplemented by the secret military conventions

Varna (May 12 and July 12). The great powers tried to prevent war by the tardy ofi'er of a guarantee for the autonomy of Macedonia. On Oct. 8, Montenegro, with which country no formal agreement had been made, declared war on Turkey. On Oct. 13 the Balkan allies sent an ultimatum to the Porte; on Oct. 18 Greece declared war on Turkey. The successes of the allies were swift, although the casualties of Bulgaria, especially, were heavy. On Dec. 3 an armistice was signed between Turkey, Bulgaria and Serbia. A conference met in London to decide terms of peace, but negotiations broke down over the possession of Edirne (Adrianople). On Feb. 3, 1913, hostilities reopened. Again the allies were everywhere successful, and after the surrender of Edirne to the Bulgars and Serbs the Turks sought the mediation of the powers, and a second armistice was concluded between Bulgaria and Turkey on April 16. On of

May 30, 1913, the delegates to the second London conference were induced to sign a treaty, the terms of which had been drafted by the powers. The Turks surrendered their possessions in Europe up to a line drawn from Enos (Enezj on the Aegean to Midye Midia on the Black sea. Albania was granted inde(

)

pendence.

{See

Balkan Wars.)

Second Balkan War.

—

Difficulties

interpretation of the treaty.

immediately arose as to the

The Serbs and Greeks

held

much

Macedonia that had originally been assigned to Buland they seemed to be preparing for a permanent occupa-

territory in garia, tion.

Eariy

On June

in

1913 Bulgaria prepared for action.

Geshov and Nikola Pasic, the Serbian prime minister, met in the hope of averting war; on the same day a treaty between Serbia and Greece was signed at Salonika. Geshov, find1

391

ing no support from

King Ferdinand in his efforts for peace, resigned; he was succeeded by Stoyan Danev. On June 29 the Bulgarian IV army, acting on orders signed by Gen. Mikhail Savov, made a treacherous attack on its Serbian and Greek allies, Rumanian divisions then marched into northern Bulgaria. The fighting soon ended with Bulgaria's defeat. Geshov states in his memoirs that the reports of the ministerial council contained no minute ordering the attack. A judicial inquiry into the case was opened in Sofia, but never concluded, Savov asserted that Ferdinand as commander in chief had given the order to attack. The Second Balkan War brought calamity on both Bulgaria and Macedonia. By the treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10, 1913 Rumania acquired the rich lands of the southern Dobruja, which had belonged to Bulgaria since 1878; Serbia and Greece divided Macedonia between them; Bulgaria was accorded the mountainous region of the Pirin and Dospat down to the Aegean, with the two indifferent ports of Dedeagatch (later Alexandroupolis and Lagos. World War I. The government under Vasil Radoslavov, which took office in July 1913, abandoned the Russophile policy. When France, Great Britain and Russia refused to grant a loan to meet )

)

—

obligations and for constructive work, Bulgaria turned to the Central Powers and in July 1914 obtained a loan of 500,000,000 leva from the Disconto-Gesellschaft of Berlin, the group securing control of the Bulgarian state mines, the port of Lagos and the projected railway to it. Negotiations for a treaty had been going

on simultaneously and were approaching completion in August; and thus, when Worid War I broke out, although most Bulgars wished to preserve neutrality, the pro-German sympathies of the

who also believed Germany invincible, were reinforced by a widespread feeling that the Central Powers, and they alone, might king,

yet gain Macedonia for Bulgaria. The efforts made by the entente through the summer of 1915 to win over Bulgaria were frustrated by the refusals of Serbia and Greece to cede territory. On Sept. 6 Bulgaria signed a military convention and treaty with the Central

Powers at Pless (Pszczyna), and Turkey made the concessions demanded by Bulgaria. -On Sept. IS the entente promised Bulgaria part of Macedonia unconditionally in return for a declaration of war on Turkey. The opposition protested vehemently against the king's policy, Aleksandr Stamboliski {q.v.), leader of the Agrarian party, being in consequence condemned to imprisonment for life for lese-majeste but mobilization was decreed on Sept.

and Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on Oct. 12. Great and Italy declared war on Bulgaria on Oct. IS, 16 and 17 respectively. In spite of the initial military success in Serbia and later in

22,

Britain, France

the Dobruja, there was widespread opposition to the war, particamong the peasants and radical and left-wing politicians,

ulariy

and from the Military league formed

in

1913 by army

officers re-

sentful of the costly mistakes in Bulgaria's foreign policy. Shortages of food and armaments, exhaustion in the malaria-infested

trenches in Macedonia and hopes raised by Pres. Woodrow Wilson's 14 points greatly influenced the numerous agitators to press for a separate peace. The army in the field was on the brink of rebellion when the Democrat leader Malinov replaced Radoslavov

on June IS, 1918. Three months later (Sept. 15) the Macedonian front collapsed: several divisions simply left the trenches in open mutiny, led by members of the Agrarian party, which had provided most of the opposition to war. Stamboliski was released and sent to calm the troops who had proclaimed a republic and were marching on Sofia. The government asked the Allies for an armistice, which was signed unconditionally on Sept. 29. After some fighting, internal order was restored by loyal troops with German assistance. On Oct. 3 King Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his son Boris and left the country. 9. The Reign of Boris UI.— Under the treaty of Neuilly {q.v.) Bulgaria was disarmed and condemned to pay a heavy indemnity. The southern Dobruja went to Rumania again, Tsaribrod (Dimitrovgrad) and Strumitsa (Strumica) to Yugoslavia, and the recent gains in Macedonia to Greece. The Aegean coast line was occupied by the Allies and associated powers, who assigned it to Greece at the conference of San Remo (April 1920). Stamboliski. Postwar revolutionary crisis in Bulgaria took the in office

—

BULGARIA

392

form of a reaction against the war policy. Aleksandr Stammost courageous opponent, was the hero of the hour. elections of March 28, 1920, gave the Agrarians a large majority, and Stamboliski, as premier of an Agrarian cabinet, opened a campaign against the middle classes, which in its methods copied the Russian Bolsheviks; he was also the author of a plan for a "Green international" of peasants. He used the Communists of Bulgaria as a threat to the middle classes but denounced and persecuted them as enemies of property. His valuable measures, which survived his fall, were an agrarian law whereby crown and church lands and property of more than a certain size (30 hectares for peasant proprietors and 10 ha. for married and 4 ha. for single urban proprietors who did not themselves cultivate the soil) were expropriated in favour of landless peasants, and the

the Balkans.) larly difficult.

institution of a year's obligatory state service.

He attempted on peaceful terms with his neighbours and to fulfill treaty In the face of grave economic difficulties, Bulgaria began payment of the reparations, the total of which was finally reduced from £90,000,000 to £22,000,000, payable over 60 years. Despite this, the Bulgars failed at the two conferences of Lausaime to secure an adequate fulfillment of clause 48 of the treaty of Neuilly, which had guaranteed them access to the Aegean (see Thrace), and their relations with neighbouring states were kept Stamboliski's foreign policy was conciliatory.

to live

obligations.

by the issue of the Bulgarian minorities in Thrace, Dobruja and Macedonia. The treaties of Bucharest (1913) and Neuilly had left large numbers of Bulgars under foreign rule. Many took refuge in Bulgaria, while others were brought in under the exchange-ofpopulation scheme with Greece. After 1918 about 260,000 refugees entered Bulgaria, mostly from Macedonia and Thrace; and most of these were landless, destitute and resentful, while the Bulgarian state, with its shattered finances, could do little to relieve their miseries. A large proportion of the population of Bulgaria, refugee or otherwise, was of Macedonian origin, and the powerful and ruthless Internal Macedonian Revolutionary organization (I.M.R.O. i.e., Vatreshna Makedonska Revolutsionna Organizatsia or V.M.R.O.), under their capable and terrible leader, Todor Aleksandrov, gained much sympathy for its fight for Macedonian in a state of tension

;

who at various times worked together in Relations with Greece, especially, became particu-

or Irredentist partisans

boliski, its

The

Acute dissensions broke out within the Macedonian organization, one group of which wanted autonomy for Macedonia, the other a federative scheme. There was a further disagreement as to how far the help of Moscow ought to be accepted. On Aug. 31, 1924, Aleksandrov was murdered and the subsequent reprisals deprived the organization of most of its coherence and moral justification. The Agraro-Communist agitation, too, continued unabated. There were about 200 assassinations in 1924; on April 14, 1925, an attempt was made on King Boris' life, and Gen. Kosta Georgiev was killed the next day. At his funeral, which was held on April 16 in the cathedral of Sveta Nedelya, Sofia, a bomb was exploded, killing 123 persons and wounding 323. Martial law was proclaimed. Five persons were later hanged publicly for the crime, but large numbers were either shot summarily or imprisoned. To maintain order, the government obtained the permission of the Conference of Ambassadors (a session of ambassadors con-

cerned with the execution of treaties) for a temporary increase armed forces of 10,000 men; and in fact, its energy prevented any general rising. The Tsankov government also successfully survived a fresh frontier incident with Greece, which occurred on Oct. 19, when Greek troops occupied 70 sq.mi. of Bulgarian territory near Petrich. The matter was settled by the League of Nations on appeal from Bulgaria. The repressive measures which Tsankov had taken were, however, more fitted for emergencies than for normal times, and as the Agraro-Communist agitation was checked by the dreadful events of April 192S, Tsankov resigned on Jan. 2, 1926, in favour of a more liberal government under Andrei Liapchev {q.v.), a leader of the Demoin its

cratic party.

—On

Andrei Liapchev. mulgated for certain 6,325 persons.

The

Feb. 4 the Liapchev government proan amnesty which affected

political offenders

results of this

The Agrarians were allowed

change were most

beneficial.

to reconstitute their party in Bul-

and about 2,000 emigres who remained in Yugoslavia soon On June 11, 1926, the council of the League of Nations decided that the state of Bulgaria warranted the grant

garia, lost

credit.

autonomy and thus formed an underground

of a loan for the settlement of the destitute Bulgarian refugees.

in

The

factor of importance Bulgarian politics. While the Bulgarian delegates to the League of Nations (which Bulgaria joined on Dec. 16, 1920)

voiced at every opportunity the grievances of the

Bulgarian

minorities in Macedonia, Thrace and the Dobruja, the refugee organizations, particularly the Macedonians, raided the territory of Bulgaria's neighbours from their strongholds in the Bulgarian

mountains and thus helped to perpetuate a state of discord between Bulgaria and its neighbours. The Bulgarian government was not the least of the sufferers from the situation; and an agreement concluded by Stamboliski with the Yugoslav government at Nis (March 1923) was believed to contain a clause directed against the Macedonian committee. Upon this the Macedonians combined with the Bulgarian Nationalists and those of the officers and middle classes who had suffered most from Stamboliski's arbitrary rule. A coitp d'etat in the night of June 8-9, 1923, overthrew the Agrarian government. Stamboliski was killed, most of his ministers imprisoned, and his Orange Guards dispersed. Aleksandr T'.san^oz).— Aleksandr Tsankov now took office at the head of a government subsequently strengthened by the fusion of all political parties, except the Liberals, Communists and Agrarians, into the single Democratic entente. For some time Bulgaria was on the verge of civil war. The Agrarian refugees migrated in large numbers to Yugoslavia, where the government gave them shelter, and allied themselves with the Communists, who attempted to bring about a revolution. In September armed risings broke out in many parts of the country. They were repressed with great severity, and the chief organizers, Georgi Dimitrov (subsequently hero of the Reichstag fire trial) and Vasil Petrov Kolarov, fled to Russia, narrowly escaping capture. Several thousand persons were killed, and others imprisoned for long periods without trial. Meanwhile the komitaji raids on the frontier continued. {Komitaji were so-called "committeemen"

question

financially

and

was of supreme importance for Bulgaria, both politically, for it was partly from among these

refugees (with whom the population sympathized) that the komitaji were recruited, whose incessant frontier raids troubled Following the Bulgaria's relations with neighbouring states. decision of the League, the Bank of England on Aug. 26 advanced

£400,000 for immediate work, which was at once set afoot. An arrangement with the bondholders of Bulgaria's prewar debt was signed on Dec. 11 and the loan, for £2,400,000 nominal in England and $4,500,000 in the United States of America, was floated successfully on Dec. 26. Bulgaria had been politically almost isolated for more than a decade; a treaty of friendship signed with Turkey on Oct. 18, 1925, was no compensation for continual tension with Yugoslavia, Greece and Rumania. The last years of the 1920s were on the whole outwardly quiet. On May 15, 1930, the cabinet of Liapchev was reorganized after a dispute within the Democratic entente between the premier and his rival Tsankov. In the same year King Boris III married Princess Giovanna, a daughter of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. The 1930s.— Tht Liapchev cabinet fell on June 21, 1931. After a brief ministry under Malinov, a new cabinet under the former minister of the interior, Nikola Mushanov, was appointed on It comprised Oct. 12, 1931, and reorganized on Dec. 31, 1932. representatives of the Democratic, Liberal, Agrarian and Radical parties, all four represented in the government coalition, the soThe year 1932 brought to Bulgaria the called National bloc. full weight of the world financial and economic crisis.

Under these conditions the authoritarian trend noticeable in other Balkan countries made itself felt also in Bulgaria. On May 19, 1934, the ministry was overthrown by the Military league, and King Boris accepted a semidictatorial government under Kimon Georgiev. The government disbanded all political parties and sup-

[

BULGARIA pressed their newspapers. A strict censorship was introduced and measures were taken to reduce the indebtedness of the populaThe government, which represented the so-called Zveno tion. group, closed a large number of high schools, as it was afraid of

an overproduction of intelligentsia, and set up a national youth

The Zveno group of army and radical politicians (the name means link in a chain)

organization after totalitarian pattern. officers

under Col. Damian Velchev, leader of the Military league, lost its when King Boris asserted his authority. Thenceway with the help of a cabinet headed by Georgi Kiosseivanov. A new electoral law in Oct. 1937 prohibited all party candidates and fixed the number A return to democracy was of seats in the parliament at 160. influence in 1935.

for\vard Boris himself ruled in an authoritarian

impeded by the disunity of the opposition groups. The dictatorial government succeeded in establishing better relations with Yugoslavia and in easing the tension with Turkey. On Jan. 24, 1937, a treaty of "inviolable peace and sincere and perpetual friendship" was signed with Yugoslavia. 10. World War II On July 31, 193S, Bulgaria signed a nonaggression pact with the Balkan entente; in exchange it was permitted, officially, to rearm. Bulgaria's revisionists then clamoured for restitution of the country's former frontiers, and the outbreak of World War II in 1939 seemed to offer them some hope. On Feb. IS, 1940, Bogdan Filov became premier; his pronouncedly pro-German government and King Boris himself leaned heavily toward the German cause. To win Bulgaria completely over to their side, the Germans aw'arded southern Dobruja to Bulgaria (Sept. 7, 1940). On March 1, 1941, the government subscribed to the Tripartite pact; German troops were permitted to enter the country and establish bases therein for subsequent operations against Greece and Yugoslavia. In return, Bulgarian troops were later permitted to occupy Greek Thrace and Yugoslav Macedonia,

—

as well as part of Serbia.

The Bulgarian government, however, refused to declare war on when Hitler attacked it in 1941. King Boris feared a

the U.S.S.R.

revolt of the predominantly pro-Russian masses.

He

howwar on Great Britain and the United States. King Boris died in mysterious circumstances. A council of regents, headed by the late king's brother. Prince Cyril, was appointed to rule until the sLx-year-old Prince Simeon came of age. The Germans tightened their grip on Bulgaria. A new cabinet was formed under Dobri Bozhilov; it was entirely subservient to Germany, whose minister Adolf Heinz Beckerle became virtually gauleiter. Meanwhile, the resistance movement, led by Communists closely supported by the Military league and the left-wing Agrarians, was gaining ground throughout the country. Sabotage and armed clashes with the police became more frequent did,

ever, declare

On Aug.

28, 1943,

and serious.

After Italy's surrender, opposition to the governarmed forces grew deeper and spread wider. The Fatherland front, which was soon to play such an important part in the country's history, was formed in 1942 and had by the summer of 1944 done much work under its national executive committee, which consisted of Kimon Georgiev (Republican, a prominent member of the Military league), Nikola Petkov (leader of the left-wing Agrarians), Kyril Dramaliev (Communist), Grigor Cheshmedzhiev (Social Democrat) and Dimo Kazasov (Independent). A general revolutionary rising was planned for Sept. 2. Confronted with civil war, Bozhilov's gov-

ment and

disaffection in the

in May 1944, and was replaced by Ivan Bagrianov's cabinet which hesitatingly tried to cut itself adrift from the Germans, seemed ready to make concessions to the U.S.S.R. and, in August, approached the Allies for an armistice.

ernment resigned

While the preliminary talks were dragging on, the Soviet army was rapidly advancing through Rumania toward the Danube. On Aug. 26 it was officially announced from Sofia that Bulgaria had withdrawn from the war and had ordered the disarmament of German troops on her territory. Under the pressure of the worsening internal position Bagrianov resigned on Sept. 1, and Kosta Muraviev, an Agrarian, formed a new government which on Sept. 5 proclaimed strict neutrality. The Soviet government found Bulgaria's neutrality "absolutely insufficient" and, on the same night of Sept. 5, declared war. At midnight, the Bulgarian

393

minister in Ankara informed the Soviet ambassador that Bulgaria was at war with Germany and asked for an armistice with the U.S.S.R., whose troops marched into Bulgaria unopposed.

According to plan, the Fatherland front's national committee had ordered general insurrection throughout Bulgaria on Sept. 2, and groups of armed partisans took control of several districts in the following few days. In the night of Sept. 8-9 army formations under the command of Gen. Kyril Stanchev one of the chief organizers of the resistance movement in the army occupied the government offices in the capital and the Fatherland front formed a government with Kimon Georgiev as prime minister. An armistice with the Allies was signed on Oct. 28. The Bulgarian army passed under Soviet command and took an active part in the final defeat of the German forces in Yugoslavia, Hungary and Austria. 11. Postwar Settlement and the People's Democracy.^ The former regents and a number of political and mililar>' personalities, civil servants and businessmen were arrested; legislation was passed for dealing with war criminals, as stipulated in the armistice. Trials began in Dec. 1944; on Feb. 2, 1945, the three

—

—

—

regents, including Prince Cyril, 21 ministers, 68

members

of par-

liament and 8 of King Boris' advisers were executed. Further trials and executions went on until late spring, and, after the tribunals had completed their task, 2,680 death sentences and 6,870 sentences of imprisonment were officially stated to have been pronounced. The army and administration underwent a thorough purge, and a special police force (mOitia) was organized and put

under the control of trusted members of the Communist party. On March 16, 1945, Georgi Dimitrov returned to Bulgaria, after

many

years of activity in the Soviet Union as secretary-general of member of the supreme soviet. Earlier, VasU

the Comintern and

Kolarov, Dimitrov's companion in the 1923 risings, had also returned from Russia to become president of the Bulgarian parliament. In the summer of 1945 a grave political crisis broke out

when

six cabinet ministers, including the deputy premier Nikola Petkov, resigned after Georgiev had virtually refused their demand for independent lists of candidates and freedom of vote in the impending election. After representations from the United States and Great Britain the election was postponed, but this issue led to further diplomatic action. At the Moscow conference of the British, U.S. and Soviet foreign ministers (Dec. 16-26) it was decided that the Soviet government should advise the Bulgarian

two suitable representatives was agreed that as soon as this was done, the U.S. and Great Britain would recognize the Bulgarian government with which the Soviet Union already had diplomatic relations. This recognition was of great importance in connection with the treaty of peace that was to be negotiated. The Soviet diplomat A. Y. Yyshinski himself went to Sofia and tried hard but without success to persuade Petkov and the Social Democrat leader Kosta Lulchev to join the cabinet. The government resigned, and a new cabinet was formed entirely of Fatherland front members. A referendum vote on Sept. 8, 1946, decided with 92% majority to proclaim Bulgaria a republic. The regency was dissolved and King Simeon II and the queen mother left the country on Sept. 16. After elections on Oct. 27, 1946, Dimitrov became prime minister in the new government of the Fatherland front. Great Britain recognized the Bulgarian government in Feb. 1947, and the United States gave its recognition on Oct. 1. The treaty of peace with the Allies (Feb. 10) was ratified by the Bulgarian national government

to include in the cabinet

of other democratic groups.

It

assembly on Aug. 25. On Dec. 4, 1947, a new constitution, proposed in Oct. 1946, came into force. At the year's close Moscow radio announced that Soviet troops had left Bulgaria. After his resignation Petkov became the most vocal opponent of the Fatherland front regime. He was arrested in June 1947, charged with plotting to overthrow the goverrmient. and in spite of strong protests by the U.S. and British governments, was sentenced to death and executed on Sept. 21. A fortnight later, Gen. Stanchev, with whose help the Fatherland front had seized power in 1944, was sentenced to imprisonment for life on a charge of organizing a military plot. Another prominent member of the Fatherland front, the Communist Traicho Kostov, deputy prime

BULGARIA

394 minister,

was suddenly relieved of

his post in 1949, excluded

from

the Bulgarian Communist party's politburo and later condemned to death and executed. Dimitrov died in July 1949, and Kolarov, who had taken over from him, early in 1950. Vulko Chervenkov, secretary of the central committee of the Communist party and Dimitrov's brotherin-law. became prime minister. The purge of the party, army and administration continued intermittently; many first-rank personalities of the Fatherland front's early days were replaced by members of the Communist party trusted by Moscow. In Feb. 1950

diplomatic relations with Bulgaria. The social structure in Bulgaria had to be recast to fit into the pattern of a Communist state. Rapid industrialization was enforced without regard to Bulgaria's lack of raw materials and of the United States broke

technically educated

off

manpower

lectivization of peasant holdings

heavy industry; and the colwas pursued despite the resent-

for

population. Farm output fell constantly behind schedule and the country suffered from food shortages and scarcity of consumer goods. The internal tension began to relax after StaHn's death (19S3).

ment of three-quarters

of

the

Terror and political persecution relented somewhat. The party's central committee was reorganized. Chervenkov gave up his post

Todor Zhivkov became first secretary. During 1955 the Communist leaders tried to enlist popular support for the party by resuscitating the Fatherland front and the Agrarian party. In 1956 the change in the political climate was emphasized by the revision of the treason trials of 1949; after Anton Yugov, who had been disgraced in 1950, had succeeded Chervenkov as prime minister (April 1956), Rostov, the chief victim of the trials, was rehabilitated posthumously in September. of secretary-general and

Bulgaria's international relations also reflected the change after

Frontier disputes

death.

Stalin's

were settled and diplomatic

resumed with Greece in 1954. Bulgaria became a member of the United Nations in Dec. 1955. In 1956 an attempt was made at friendlier relations with Yugoslavia. Diplomatic relations relations

with the United States were resumed in March 1959. There were signs of dissension within the Communist party during 1961, apparently over the pace of collectivization of agriculture. In 1959 the party put forward a plan by which agriculture was to treble its output by 1965. Total production in 1961 was, however, only slightly above the prewar averages, and the number of cattle and sheep were still below this level. An "antiparty group" within the party was discovered in 1961; among many expelled was Todor Prahov, a candidate member of the Politburo and chairman of the Trade Union organization. Chervenkov, who had been expelled from the Politburo at the end of 1961, was accused of being responsible for "violation of Socialist legality," and expelled from the central committee at the party congress in Nov. 1962. Also Yugov was expelled from both party key bodies for his "Stalinist" methods. He ceased to be prime minister and was succeeded by Todor Zhivkov, first secretary of the party. Some 6,000 prisoners, about 500 of whom were classed as pohtical offenders,

An accord tion of

were released.

with Greece was reached in June 1964 over the ques(N. I. M.; X.)

war reparations.

in.

The Bulgarian

THE PEOPLE

people, generally described as belonging to the

Slavonic group of nations, are racially the most mixed among They were originally a tribe of Turanian or Turkish stock, which migrated south of the Danube from the Volga region, to which fact is probably due their name Volgar or Bolgar. the Slavs (q.v.).

a land the population of which was Slavonicspeaking and adopted the language of the conquered. The Bulgars are a virile and industrious race; as compared with other Balkan peoples they are both more reserved and more capable of a susIn 1958 Bulgars constituted 85% of the populatained effort. tion, the remaining 15% being mainly Turks and gypsies. 1. Religion. Most of the people belong to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, a national form of the Orthodox Eastern Church The National church was disestablished in 1949 and deiq.v.). clared to be "in form, substance and spirit a People's Democratic

They conquered

—

Church."

In 1953 the Bulgarian patriarchate was revived with its The church, although granted freedom of conscience and belief, is not allowed to maintain schools, hospitals or institutions, all of which have been taken over by the state. Theological colleges, however, are allowed. Approximately 6,000,000 people belong to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church there are minorities of Turkish and Bulgarian Muslims, seat at Sofia; there are 11 dioceses.

:

Roman 2.

Catholics, Armeno-Greeks, Jews and Protestants. Population. The total population at the 1956 census was

—

7,613,709, giving an average density of 178 persons per square mile; 1962 est. 8,045,200. The population doubled during the first

Almost 60% are engaged in agriculture, and the main areas of settlement are thus in the plains and plateaus below about 1,500 ft. and particularly in the Sofia basin, the Danubian platform and the Maritsa, Struma and Mesta valleys.

half of the 20th century.

Area

BULGARIA the assembly is not in session. The council of ministers, the supreme executive and administrative organ, is elected larly

when

by the assembly and accountable to it. In fact, although not mentioned by the constitution, the real power in the state is exercised by the Communist party through its Politburo and local The original constitution provided for two local committees. administrative units: municipalities and counties; but, in 1949, 14 districts were also created. In 1959 the counties and districts were abolished and 30 new provinces which are also economic regions were set up in their place. The municipal people's councils were enlarged in area and reduced in number, while the newprovincial councils were given greater powers in the management of the economy. 2. Living Conditions. ^Labour is paid in accordance with the qualification of the worker, the nature of the work and its importance for the national economy. There is a fixed minimum monthly wage. Labour norms were introduced and workers who overfulfill them receive extra pay and premiums. Taxation rises progressively according to the monthly wage. Income up to 200 leva is exempt from any taxation. Compensation for temporary disablement is also exempt. Direct ta.xation constituted 4.5% of the total revenue under the state budget in

—

1960.

395

tutions which date

from before

also controlled. The rent for a two-roomed apartment constituted about S'^'c of a worker's average monthly wage. 3. 'Welfare Services. State social insurance is extended to all employees in public enterprises and to private persons. It guarantees cash relief for temporary disablement and provides old-age Insurance is paid for by the pensions, family allowances, etc. state or the employers; workers paying nothing. Social insurance of one kind or another is extended to nearly all the population. Medical services are free for all citizens. In the early 1960s there were claimed to be more than 1,000 general hospitals, about 800 maternity hospitals, and nearly 2,000 outpatient and polyclinic establishments; also sanatoriums, children's welfare centres and nurseries. 4. Justice. This is administered by the people's and district courts and by the supreme court. Judges and assessors are elected: those for the people's courts directly by the population for a term of three years; for the district courts by the district people's council for a term of five years; and for the supreme court by the national assembly for the same term. In Feb. 1952 a code of criminal procedure based on Soviet law was enacted. Forced residence and deportation were introduced as disciplinary measures under the People's Militia law (March 29, 1955;

—

—

amended Jan. 16, 1959). Labour disputes are examined by

conciliation commissions

and

disputes between economic enterprises go to arbitration courts. Courts have a legally defined responsibility for scrutinizing the acts of the administration,

and similar responsibility is also a part Citizens have unlimited right

of the public prosecutor's function.

through the appropriate court. Independent Bulgaria made strenuous efforts Between 188S and 1934 to develop a national education system. in the proportion of illiterates decreased from &&% to 31.4'~c 1950 it was 19Sf and in the early 1960s it was claimed that there was almost no illiteracy among citizens under 50 years of age. Education is secular and primary education free and compulsory for children from 7 to 15 years. Ofiicial statistics claimed more than 6,000 kindergartens with about 2 75,000 pupils; 6,400 primary schools with more than 1,000.000; 350 secondary schools with 170,000; about 300 vocational schools with 72,500; and 40 schools for the handicapped. There were also specialized technical schools and 27 teacher-training colleges. Twenty institutions of higher education were attended by about 45,000 students, the principal being the state university of Sofia (founded 18S8 as a high school). The state pays particular attention to public libraries, of which there are 16,000. There are more than 4,500 library clubs, instito appeal 5.

Education.

—

;

.

from Turkish

rule.

The

Bulgarian Bibliographical institute (1941) receives copies of all publications issued in the country. There are about 130 museums, learned societies and research institutes. 6. Defense Bulgarian defense forces were limited by the terms of the peace treaty signed in Paris in 1947. The maximum strength permitted included a land army of 55,000, a navy of

—

3,500 with a tonnage up to 7,250, and an air force of 5,200 with up to 90 aircraft, none of which might be bombers. In May 1950, however, a new army command was formed, with Gen. Petar Panchevski as minister of national defense and commander in chief, and Gen. Asen Grekov as chief of general staff; both were Soviet

Bulgarian origin. The armed forces were entirely reorganized on the Soviet model and there was evidence in 1953 that they numbered about 220,000 men, including about 40,000 in the

officers of

forces of the interior. In May 1955 and May 1958 Bulgaria took part in the Warsaw military agreements with the Soviet Union

and other Communist countries.

men

In the

summer

of 1955 a cut of

armed forces was announced and in 1958, at which time Panchevski was removed, there was a further reduction of 23,000 men. From May 1956 the term of national service was reduced from three years to two in the army and the air force and from four years to three in the navy. (X.) 18,000

in the

Special loans are allocated by the state to encourage private and co-operative housing construction. The state also carries out

housing construction in the towns and rents apartments to workers. In the early 1960s rents for houses leased by private persons w'ere

liberation

V.

THE ECONOMY

State economic planning on the Soviet model began in 1947. Nationalization of private industry started with the first two-year plan in 1947 and by 1952 the private sector was virtually nonexistent.

1958-62.

Three five-year plans followed: 1949-53, 1953-57 and The main goals of the latter were a 60% increase in

industrial production, a

30%

increase in agricultural production

and a doubling of the power output. 1. Agriculture. Until 1947 Bulgaria presented an

—

agricul-

typical of the peasant countries of southeastern Europe. Manorial rights were abolished with the proclamation of independence (1878). Small farms were parceled out into very tural picture

small allotments and, in 1934, 30% of the cultivated land accounted for 63% of the holdings (all less than 5 ha.) and 53% of the agricultural population.

Only

1 1

%

of the holdings were

more

than 10 ha. and these were mainly cereal producing. Between the two world wars efforts were made to stop this overdi\asion of the land, but they were not successful, although the Bulgarian Agricultural

and Cooperative bank did much

to help in the importing

of machinery and in the buying and selling of agricultural products.

After World co-operative

War

with the first and second five-year plans, the movement spread further until probably more than 80% of the arable land was in co-operative farms. By Jan. 1959 ail 3,453 collective farms were to be fused into 640 large units with an average area of 17,500 ac. forming the basis of the country's agricultural system. In the 1960s there were plans for further mechanization and better fertilization of the land, using machine tractor stations and state farms. Irrigation progress was furthered by the construction of five dams, notably the VasU Kolarov (completed 1951) and Stalin (1956) reservoirs. Cereal crops utilize two-thirds of the cultivated land. W'heat is by far the most important, with 35% of the cultivated land, then maize (corn) with nearly 19% and barley 7%; rye, oats and rice are also grown. Other food crops are very varied as the farmers produce most of their own vegetables and fruits. Industrial crops are important, particularly tobacco, oleiferous plants such as sunflowers and also cotton and sugar beet. Of these, tobacco is by far the most important, accounting for about 30% of the total value of exports. It is good quality Turkish tj^pe and is grown mainly in the south and southwest, an area forming the eastern part of the Macedonian zone, where the dry summers are of great help in the drying of the leaf; but tobacco is also found in most other areas. Sunflowers are the chief (80%) oleiferous crop; after the extraction of the oilj the pulp forms a valuable cattle food. Sunflowers, like sugar beet, grow mainly on the northern platform and were introduced after 1918. Vines produce a good quality grape and viticulture provides the main Uvelihood of more than II,

—

;

BULGARIA

396 30%

of

all

co-operative farms.

Market gardening and

fruit

grow-

Most

farms, private and co-operative, raise animals, especially where mountain slopes give pasturage. Cattle, pigs and poultry are found in the livestock sectors of the

ing are also important.

co-operative farms, while sheep tend to be concentrated on the private farms.

—

2. Industry. Before World War II industries were of minor importance in Bulgaria. The census of 1934 showed only 266,405 persons (7.8% of the total economically active population) engaged in industry, including 186,200 in handicrafts. By the 1960s more than 600,000 workers were employed outside agriculture. Under Communist rule, industrialization became one of the principal aims of economic policy, with particular emphasis on basic industries such as electric power, ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy and chemicals. Central planning, on the Soviet pattern, of management, production and investment channeled into industry a steadily increasing part of the national resources and between 1952 and 19S7 industrial output increased by over 70%. Metallurgy and engineering before World War II were feebly developed; shipbuilding at Varna and foundries at Sofia, Plovdiv, Ruse and Dimitrovo were the most important. Metallurgical industries developed after World War II include iron and steel works at Dimitrovo, based upon local brown coal and iron ore from the Sofia district; the lead and zinc works at Kurdzhali, based on the ore fields of the Madan-Rudozem district in the Rhodope mountains; and the copper and sulfuric acid plant at Pirdop, near Vratsa. A large chemical industry has developed at Dimitrovgrad, based on the lignite and electric power there available, making fertilizers and other products. Textile industries in factories, as opposed to the almost universal domestic wool working, were, before World War II, mainly e.g., Gabrovo, to be found in the central part of the country together with Sofia, Varna and Sliven, Kazanluk, Khaskovo Ruse. These used locally produced wool, cotton or silk. Within the five-year plans large new mills were built at Sofia, Sliven and Plovdiv, and the total output of textile fabrics rose to three times what it was in 1939. Other industries that increased considerably after World War II are food processing and consumer-goods industries such as footwear, pottery and furniture. Mining. Coal output increased from 7,400,000 tons in 1952 to 15,341,000 tons in 1959 and Bulgaria's own requirements were

—

—

more than met. half the output

is

The plan called for 24,000,000 in 1965. About brown coal from the Dimitrovo (Pernik) field;

near is being developed in the Maritsa basin Dimitrovgrad), and there are smaller deposits of brown coal and

a large lignite field

(

lignite at Bobov Dol (Struma basin) and in the Sofia basin, while several small deposits of bituminous coal and anthracite occur in

the Balkan mountains. Petroleum was discovered in the southern Dobruja near Tulenovo, northeast of Varna, in 1951 and by the early 1960s more than 40%, of the country's total requirements were being produced,

though much of refinery at

Ruse

this

went abroad for refining. There is a small and after 1960 another one was built at

{q.v.)

Burgas {q.v.). Power. The major sources of power in Bulgaria are the Maritsa lignite field, which serves large thermoelectric plants at Dimitrovgrad, and the hydroelectric potential of the Rhodope mountains, where the Batak and Petrokhan schemes were a product of the second five-year plan. There are large thermal power stations also at Dimitrovo, Sofia, Plovdiv and Burgas, and many earlier hydroelectric stations in the Rila mountains and elsewhere. The network of transmission lines covers most parts of the country, and by the early 1960s it was claimed that the power output exceeded 3,800,000,000 kw.hr. The harnessing of the water re-

—

sources also resulted in a considerable increase in the area of irrigated agricultural land. 3.

Trade and Finance.

— Before

World War

II

Bulgaria's

trade was principally with western Europe, Germany and Italy, supplying about 60% of the imports and taking 50% of the exports.

At the end of the war the Bulgarian economy was absorbed and in the early 1960s exports to the U.S.S.R.

into the Soviet bloc

accounted for more than half of Bulgaria's total exports while the Soviets supplied a similar total of Bulgarian imports. Czechoslovakia, east Germany, Poland and west Germany were the main sources of remaining imports. Exports likewise went mostly to Czechoslovakia, east Germany, Poland and west Germany. Agricultural produce (cereals, tobacco, fruit, oils and hardwoods) made up the bulk of the exports, while machinery, tools, metals, chemicals, rubber, paper and drugs were the chief imports. The unit of currency the lev (plural leva), divided into 100 stotinki was before 1914 equivalent to the gold franc or 19.3 U.S. cents. Much depreciated during and after World War I, it was exchanged in 1939 at 1.192 U.S. cents. Another depreciation followed World War II and the official exchange rate from 1946

—

—

was 0.349 U.S.

cents.

On May

to the Soviet ruble.

old leva for

1

new

1952, the lev was revalued

11,

Ready cash was exchanged Funds owned by state, co-operatives,

and pegged

at 100

public enterprises and foreign diplomatic missions were exchanged at lev.

a rate of 100:4. The official exchange rate of the new lev was: 1 ruble = 1.70 leva, $1.00 = 6.80 leva, £1 = 19.04 leva, but for noncommercial payments was lowered by 40% in 1957. All banks, both public and private, were nationalized on Dec. 27, 1947, and the National bank is the main bank of issue. With "unlimited" capital its main task is to maintain the foreign exchange value and the purchasing power of the lev. The Bulgarian Investment bank is the only other bank of importance and finances longterm investment and advances credit to co-operative farms. With the introduction of Soviet-style economic planning, annual state budgets lost most of their character as fiscal blueprints and instead became mere addenda to the yearly economic plans. More than half of the revenue was coming from the turnover tax obtained by the sale of goods and materials in the nationalized shops and enterprises, while more than half of expenditure represented public money invested in the national economy. 4. Communications. Railways are the most important means of transport and the network extends to over 2,600 mi. The main lines are the Orient express route from Belgrade to Istanbul, passing through Sofia and Plovdiv; the Sofia-Burgas line and the SofiaVarna line, together with the trans-Balkan line from Gorna Oryakhovitsa to Plovdiv; and the British-built Ruse-Varna line of 1866, the oldest railway in Bulgaria. The road network has been much extended and improved, and there are car repair factories at Sofia and Plovdiv. There is a small Black sea fleet of merchant vessels based on Varna and Burgas and a river fleet for use in the Danube, where the principal port is Ruse. Air traffic is increasing, and there are airports at Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, Stara Zagora and Gorna Oryakhovitsa, with international connections to Berlin, Moscow, Belgrade and Athens. See also references under "Bulgaria" in the Index volume. Current history and statistics are summarized annually in Britannica Book oj the Year. (S. H. Br.)

—

—

Bibliography. V. N. Zlatarski, Geschichte der Bulgaren, 2 vol. (1917-18) S. G. Evans, Short History of Bulgaria (1960). For special periods see S. Runciman, History of the First Bulgarian Empire (1930) R. W. Seton-Watson, Rise oj Nationality in the Balkans (1917); C. N. Staneff, Jelavich, Tsarist Russia and Balkan Nationalism (1958) Histoire de Bulgarie, 1S7S-1912 (1924) H. Frost, La Bulgarie de 1912 a 1930 (1932); H. Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (N. I. M.) (1950) L. A. D. DelUn (ed.), Bulgaria (1957). ;

;

;

;

BULGARIA

(on the Volga), a country of Dl-defined boundwhich played a role of varying importance during the 9thISth centuries in the territories adjoining the middle Volga and Kama river basins in what is now the U.S.S.R. Almost nothing is known of the origins of the Bulgars, though it seems likely that they moved northward from the shores of the Sea of Azov where aries

their presence is reported as early as the 5th century. They can, therefore, be considered as "cousins" of the Bulgars of the Balkan peninsula, who moved there in the 7th century.

Ibn Fadlan, a member of an embassy sent by the caliph of to the Bulgars in 921-922, has left a detailed account of this people. At that time the Bulgar country must have stretched far to the north, since contemporary descriptions refer to the aurora borealis and to nights "too short to cook a pot of meat."

Baghdad

—

BULCiARIAN LANGUACiE— BULGARIAN LITERATURE When

Ibn Fadlan visited them, the Bulgars had already been con-

verted to Islam. The Bulgar land was not a country in the strict sense of the word, and it would be mistaken to take the Bulgars for a homogeneous nation. In the 10th century they were divided into three hordes of which only one was called Bulgar. At least two languages were in current use: a Turkish dialect and one (different from, though related to, the common Turkish languages which can be regarded as an ancient form of modern Chuvash. No texts exist, and knowledge of the language is derived from contemporary accounts, short funeral inscriptions and the testimony of Chuvashtype loanwords in Hungarian. In the 10th century the civilization of the Bulgars was rudimen)

They

practised a primitive form of agriculture, but lived mainly by fishing and hunting eked out by wild honey. They dwelt tary.

huts and felt tents. linked them with furs

A

—probably

mostly in more southerly lands, particularly with Khwarezm (in Uzbek S.S.R.). This contact with foreign peoples had a favourable effect on the development of their local civilization, which looked toward Islam rather than toward Byzantium. In 1024 a Bulgar embassy brought presents "the like of which wonders has never been seen" to Mahmud of Ghazni. By that time the Bulgars had already at least two flourishing cities; Bulgar itself and Suvar. The name of the second suggests that its inhabitants may have belonged to a different ethnic community, descendants perhaps of the Sabirs. In 1237, when the Mongols occupied Bulgar, the city was already "famous throughout the world for the strength of its position and its ample resources." Under the rule of the Golden Horde (q.v.) the city continued to flourish, and even the coins of the Mongol khans were minted there. The final eclipse of the town last remainder of the once independent country was brought about by growing Russian in

—

flourishing trade

—

—

pressure during the first quarter of the 15th century. Bibliography. A. P. Smirnov, Volzhskie Bulgary (1951) Zeki Validi Togan, "Ibn Fadlan's Reisebericht" in Abhandhingen fur die kunde des Morgenlandes, x.xiv, 3 (1939) A. P. Kovalevsky, Kniga Akhmeda ibn-Fadlana o ego putesheslvii na Volgu v 921-922 gg. (1956). (Ds. Sr.) Bulgarian, one of the south-

—

;

is

seen

in

397

the several tense formations expressing futurity with

the auxiliary verbs "to wish" (and the related particle sic) and "to have" (in the negative): ste {pro)cetd "I shall read," njdma da (pro)cete "he will not read," ste sme (pro)celi "we shall have read," stjdxte da (pro)cetete "you would read." The verb conjugation has been further enriched by the development of special tenses for dependent narration, contrasted with narration for which the speaker assumes independent, immediate responsibility: V tursko vreme toj bit [dependent imperfect] ucitrl, i ol usvoboideuieto postojdnno ddvase [indep. impf.J prosenija za peiisija (from Elin-Pelin). "In Turkish times he was [supposedly, as it was said a teacher, and after the liberation he was forever .

.

.

|

submitting petitions for a pension." Phonology. Some conspicuous phonetic characteristics of Bulgarian, as represented in the literary language, are its free stress accent with consequent reductions of unstressed vowels which has replaced Common Slavonic (CS) pitch accent and quantitative vocalic oppositions; the almost total absence of consonant palatalization except before back vowels (compare, for example, B [den] with Russian [d'en] Polish [zen] ) and the clus-

—

—

;

,

St, id, reflecting CS (7, dj (CS *svelja, "medja > B svesl, mezdA— compare Russian svecd, mezd and Polish swieca, miedza). The distinctive vowel b (roughly like the vowel of English but) and e replace the CS nasal vowels (CS *mgzb, *petb > B m'bz, pet) and

ters

the

ultrashort vowels called jers

*dbnb

"(CS

*s'hn'h,

*bhrz'h, *vblkl>,

>

B sbn, b'brz (brbz). vblk, den). As in the other South Slavonic languages (but also in Czech and Slovak), CS or, ol, er, el between consonants have undergone metathesis, with o a and

>

>

by e, a in B CS *golva, *melko > B glavd, mljdko (cf. Old Church Slavonic glava, mleko > Czech hlava, mteko > Polish glowa, mleko > Russian golovd, moloko). Dialects. The dialects are commonly divided into two main e

(reflected

e

)

:

—

groups, according to their treatment of inherited e. Generally speaking, west of a line running from Nikopol through Tatar Pazardzik to Salonika, this vowel has coalesced with e; east of the

;

BULGARIAN LANGUAGE.

ern group of the Slavonic languages (q.v.).

is

the

mother tongue

some 7,000,000 people living in Bulgaria and in parts of Greece, Rumania, Moldavia and the Ukraine. History. The modern literary language is of relatively recent origin. The Old Church Slavonic {q.v.) traditions of Old Bulgarian literature were continued in Bulgarian and Macedonian Church of

—

Slavonic from the uth to the 15th centuries. They were maintained only tenuously under the Turkish yoke, in such works as the popular Damaskini which consisted of translations of Damascene

line,

stress and environment, e may by a (with palatalization of the preceding con-

under varying conditions of

also be reflected

sonant)

— more frequently

in the south, less

The

(as in the literary language).

the W'Ords for "milk" and "milky":

variants

Church Slavonic mixed with Serbian, Russian, The language was so mixed

Bulgarian renascence, the monk Paisij, wrote his Slavo-Bulgarian history (1762) to stir the patriotic feelings of his countrymen. Only in the 19th century did the proponents of a national literary language based on the popular speech win their struggle. Important milestones in the conflict were Peter Beron's primer (1824) and the grammars of Neofyt Rylski that the herald of the

(1835

I

and Ivanco Bogorov (1844).

the historical circumstances of

As might be expected from the modern literary lan-

its birth,

—

;

:

Bblgaro-anglijski recnik, Bulgarian-English Dictionary (1947, 1953) G. Cakalov, Anglo-bblgarski recnik, English-Bulgarian Dictionary (1948) N. Gerov, Recnik na blbgankyj jazyk, I-V (1895-1904; supplement, 1908) S. Mladenov, Etimologiceski i pravopisen recnik na bblgarskija knizoven ezik (i94i),i(i., Bblgarski t'blkoven recnik, s ogled kbm narodnite govori I (A-K) (1951). History: S. Mladenov, Geschichte der bulgarischen Sprache (1929) B. Conev, Istorija na bblgarski ezik, I-IV (1919-40) K. Mircev, Istorija na bblgarskija ezik Dialectology: S. Stojkov, B'lilgarska dialektologija (1954). (1955). Manuals: E. Damiani, Corso di lingua bulgara (1942); S. Bernstejn, Ucebnik bolgarskoe.0 jazvka (1048). (F. J. Wd.) The birth of Bulgarian ;

;

;

;

;

BULGARIAN LITERATURE.

literature

ern languages.

I in

many ol its borrowings from Greek and Osmanli Turkish. Morphology. Together with Macedonian, Bulgarian contrasts shari)ly with other members of the Slavonic family by its almost complete loss of case declension and by a number of "Balkanisms,"

—

i.e.,

features also displayed by neighbouring languages of differ-

ent stocks.

As

in

Albanian and Rumanian, there

is

a postpositive

masata "the table," malkata masa As in Modern Greek, Albanian and Rumanian (and even Serbian), the infinitive has practically disappeared, being replaced by a clause: mo'.^a da imam "I can have," literally "I can that I have." A third Balkan feature definite article: 7ndsa "table,"

"the small table," mdsite "the tables."

be illustrated by SE mljdko,

;

guage bears in its vocabulary a considerable stratum of Russian, Russian Church Slavonic and Russian loan-translation from westIn addition, despite the efforts of purists, it continues to reflect the history of the Bulgarian people in preserving

may

mljdcen > NE and literary mljdko, mlecen. The dialect transitions from Bulgarian to Macedonian and Serbian are gradual, and any boundary lines laid down will be largely arbitrary. Bibliography. Grammars: L. Beaulieux, Grammaire de la langue bulgare (1950) S. Bernshtein, Short Grammatical Sketch oj the Bulgarian Language (1952) L. Andrejcin, Osnovna bblgarska gramatika (1944; Russian translation, Grammalika bolgarskogo jazyka, 1949); H. G. Lunt, Macedonian Grammar (1952) Dictionaries R. Russev, ;

the Studite into a

and more recent Bulgarian elements.

frequently in the north

W mleko, mlecen >

is closely linked to the spread of Christianity to the Slav world in the 9th century. After the conversion of Tsar Boris

865, the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, creators of the

founded at Ohrid (Ochrida) a school for the propagation of Slavonic liturgical texts which became the cradle of a national Bulgarian literature. The first golden age of Bulgarian letters dates back to the reign of Simeon (893-927), who assemCyrillic script,

bled at Preslav such eminent ecclesiastical writers as Bishop Constantine, John the exarch and the monk Tchernorisets Khraber. Medieval Bulgarian literature reached another peak during the second Bulgarian kingdom in the 14th century with the school of

Turnovo, whose most distinguished representative, Patriarch Evtimi, was the architect of an important linguistic reform. But although Bulgarian ecclesiastical literature in the middle ages was formed and perfected as a weapon against the cultural domination

BULGARIAN LITERATURE

398 of Byzantium,

its content on the whole remained dependent on the Byzantine tradition. The Romantic Age. Literature, in the sense of independent artistic creation, dates in Bulgaria from the second half of the 19th century, and was a concomitant of the great awakening of national consciousness generally known as the Bulgarian renaissance. The pioneer of this rebirth was Paisij (1722-98), a monk from the Hilendar monastery on Mt. Athos whose Istoriya Slavyano bulgarskaya (1762), w^ith its romantic glorification of Bul-

—

had a decisive influence upon coming generations of Outstanding among these were Georgi Sava Rakovski (1821-67), Lyuben Karavelov (1834-79), Khristo Botev (g.v.; 1848-76) and Petko Rachev Slaveikov (g.v.) who both as poets and as publicists helped to shape the image of the resurgent nation. The influence of the social and political conditions of their day, with its lack of civil or national freedom, comgaria's past,

Bulgarian writers.

bined with that of certain Russian ideological trends, taught these writers to believe that literature should be subordinated and adapted to the needs of social life. Thus their works dealt with definite national and social problems. Karavelov laid the foundations of Bulgarian realism in narrative prose based on the close observation of small-town life. Botev, one of the greatest Bulgarian poets, set the example of a life and an art entirely devoted to the ideals of liberty and fatherland. He not only wrote impassioned revolutionary poetry; he put his ardent patriotic beliefs

by crossing the Danube at the head of an armed band an uneven fight against Turkish forces. In his poetry Slaveikov (1827-95) drew upon the rich store of Bulgarian folk tales and popular songs. Folklore, an important formative influence on the first Bulgarian writers of the romantic age, remained constant inspiration also to many poets and writers of a source of into practice

and dying

in

later generations.

National Realism.

—The liberation of Bulgaria

best pages of

modem

While writers realized

dream

like

1878 created a political and social climate infinitely more favourable to literary development than the era of Turkish domination had afforded. Ivan Vazov (q.v.; 1850-1921 ) is the most significant of the writers who link the epoch before and after the liberation. His immense output, comprising poems, stories, sketches, novels and plays, reflects every facet of his people's life in past and present. His lyrics echo the joys and sorrows and the social and political aspirations of the Bulgarian nation. His cycle of epic poems Epopeya na Zabravenite (1881, 1884) evokes with great visionary power the the national struggle for independence. Chickortsi heroes of (1885), a realistic portrait gallery of Bulgarian provincial notables in Turkish times, is reminiscent of Gogol in its mastery of characterization. The narrative gifts which make Vazov a master of the short story are seen at their highest in his novel Pod Igoto It (1893), translated into almost every European language. vividly describes the struggle of the Bulgarians against the Turks, and is at once a work of art and a faithful picture of the political and social scene in Bulgaria at the most decisive moment of its history. Less successful were the novels Nova Zemya (1896) and Kazalarskala Tsaritsa (1903), in which Vazov depicted conditions in Bulgaria after the liberation. In the historical novel Svetoslav Terter (1907) and in a series of dramas, the best-known of which is Kum Propast (1910), Vazov evoked medieval Bulgaria before His most popular play, however, is the Ottoman conquest. Hushove (1894), a stage version of his unfinished story NemiliNedragi about the life of Bulgarian exiles in Rumania. Without equaling Vazov's powers of imagination and synthesis, his contemporary and friend Konstantin Velichkov (1855-1907) shared his moral aspirations and literary ideals. Like Vazov he attempted almost every literarj- genre, but his peculiar poetic temperament was best expressed in two collections of sonnets inspired by travels to Constantinople and Italy. Velichkov was the exponent of an Italianate cultural influence, and his translations of Dante, Petrarch, Silvio Peliico and others revealed the wealth of western poetry to Bulgaria's intelligentsia. He contributed also to the literature of memoirs which flourished in the first decades after the liberation. Its most notable representative was Zakhari Stoyanov (1851-89), whose lively reminiscences of the Bulgarian uprisings, Zapiski po Bulgarskite Vuzstaniya, contain some of the

Vazov saw

in

the

new

state

above

all

the

on the negative aspects of modern Bulgarian society and politics. In his satires, fables and epigrams Stoyan Mikhailovski (1856-1927) castigated vice and corruption in public life in a style influenced by the French 17th- and 18th-century moralists and philosophers whom he studied at the University of Aix-en-Provence. In his most ambitious work, Kniga za Bitlgarskiya Narod, contemporary satire takes the form of a moral-philosophical allegory. In a lighter satirical vein Aleko Konstantinov (1863-97) created in Bai Ganyu (1895) the comical prototype of the parvenu Bulgarian peasant whose progress through Europe is a In his travelogue Do Chicago i series of monumental faux pas. Nazad (1894) Konstantinov opposed the more advanced cultures of Europe and America to that of his country, but showed that he was not blind to their flaws. New Trends. From the 1890s Bulgarian literature showed two cast a critical eye

—

opposite tendencies; the older school of writers nurtured in the utilitarian literary tradition of the preliberation era was challenged by a younger group known as "Europeans," intent to free

from parochialism and social-poKtical militancy. The spearhead of the new movement was the review Mistd, founded in 1S92 by Krustyu Krustev (1866-1919), the first real Bulgarian critic, who stressed the paramount importance of the "aesthetic conscience." The "Young'' who sought to widen the scope and to develop the form of Bulgarian literature had two outstanding representatives in Pencho Slaveikov and Petko Todorov. Pencho Slaveikov (q.v.; 1866-1912) broadened the romantic art

by infusing it with more universal helped forge a poetic language capable of expressing

tradition of Bulgarian poetry

content.

He

the complexity of in

Bulgarian prose.

of the fighters of the renaissance period, others

human

existence.

A

partial paralysis reinforced

tendency to aristocratic isolation and meditation. Under Nietzschean influence he glorified the heroism of spiritual achievement; his poems on Shelley, Dante. Beethoven. Nikolaus Lenau and Leopardi were tributes to the giants of the human spirit. His philosophic and aesthetic ideas are expressed mainly in the apocryphal anthology of verse Na Ostrava na Blazhenite (1910), while his experiments with poetic form are revealed in the more intimate collection of poems Sun za Shtastiye (1906). His narrative poems Boyko and Ralitsa interpret folk themes from a psychological angle. His greatest work, Kurvava Pessen (A Song of Blood, 1911-12), is conceived as a modern epic distilling the essence of Even more than SlaBulgaria's history and spiritual destiny. veikov, Petko Yordanov Todorov (1879-1916), originator of the Bulgarian romantic short story, believed that literature is selfsufficient. His Idiliyi are imaginative evocations of folklore and popular legends, written in a rhythmic, harmonious prose saturated with symbolic undertones. The delicacy of his poetic touch is evident also in several dramas based on Balkan mythology, the best known of which is Zidari. Meanwhile the realist tradition continued to flower in the works of writers like Georgi Stamatov (1869-1942), Tsanko Tserkovski (1869-1926), Anton Strashimirov (1872-1937) and especially Elin-Pelin (1877-1949) and Yordan Yovkov {q.v.; 18801937). Strashimirov was an acute observer of the contemporary social scene in town and countryside. One of his best short stories of peasant life is Kochalovskata Kramola (1895). His works include the novels Essenni Dni, Krustoput, Sreshta, Klioro and the dramas Svekurva and Vampir. He influenced Elin-Pelin (pseudonjTH of Dimiter Ivanov), whose outstanding talent brought new lustre to the Bulgarian short story and whose popularity almost equaled that of Vazov. His short novels Zemya and Geratsite (1904-11) are subtle analyses of peasant psychology and a high point of Bulgarian critical realism. Yovkov excelled at describing the reality of war, which is the subject of his masterpiece Zemlyatsi (1922). His collections of short stories Vec/ieri v Anthnovskiya Khan and Staroplaninski Legendi (1927) reveal his unsurpassed mastery of narrative prose. His success as a novelist and playwright was almost as great. Symbolism. With the beginning of the 20th centur>' the antihis

—

traditional avant-gardist Uterary currents of

European inspiration

BULGARIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH gained

momentum and

led to yet another phase in Bulgarian litera-

movement in western Constant experimentation with novel forms is the hallmark of the lyric poetry of Kyril Christov (1875-1944"), composed of a Nietzschean individualism and a sensuality comparable to that His most modernistic volume of verse is Hymni of D'Annunzio. Christov, who lived a great deal abroad, produced za Zorata. some of the best Bulgarian translations of Pushkin, Shakespeare, Byron, Schiller, Goethe and Dante. The greatest of the Bulgarian symbolists was Peyo Kracholov Yavorov (q.v.; 1877-1914). a poet of exceptional powers who first succeeded in turning the Bulgarian language into perfect word music. His work reflects his spiritual development from his early preoccupation with social and political problems, that led to active ture that could be related to the symbolist

poetry.

participation in the

Macedonian revolutionary movement,

to dis-

illusionment with socialism and intense individualist introspection. His finest accomplishment lay in the field of pure lyric poetry, though he showed great promise also as a playwright. His works include collected poems (Sti/wtvoreniya, 1901; Bezsunitsi, 1907; the drama V Polite na Vitosha (1911); and memoirs, Haiditsliki Kopneniya (1908). Echoes of Yavorov are to be found in the melodious and sensuous poetry of Dimcho Debelyanov (1887-1916), whose death in World War I made him a symbol of tragic frustration for the intellectuals. United with him in the same symbolist avant-garde were Todor Trayanov (1882-1944), Nikolai Liliyev (1885-1960) and Lyudmil Stoyanov (1888), though Stoyanov later abandoned the aesthetic ideals of symbolism and in the 1930s wrote several novels of socialist inspiration. In the immediate aftermath of the war the literary left in Bulgaria was represented by Geo Milev (1895—1925), who embraced revolutionary Marxism by way of the symbolist and futurist poetic experiments of Aleksandr Blok (1880-1921) and Vladimir Mayakovski (1893-1930), and by Christo Smirnenski (1898-1923). The youngest and most gifted poet of the "proletarian triad" was Nikola Vaptsarov (1909-42), who died a martyr of the anti-Nazi resistance. His collected poems, published posthumously, hail the dawn of socialism and the machine age with compelling sincerity.

Podir Seiikite na Oblatsite, 1910")

Between World Wars

I

and

;

II.

—Although no prose writer

the interwar years challenged the pre-eminence of Elin-Pelin

in

and

Yovkov, the younger generation of narrators like Stilyan Chilingirov (1881-?), Dobri Nemirov (1882-1944), Konstantin Konstantinov (1890and Konstantin Petkanov (1891) ) brought a sharper sense of artistic refinement to the realistic portrayal of Bulgarian life. The mystical-fantastical evocations of ancient Bulgaria by Nikolai Rainov (1889represented ) Bulgarian neoromanticism at its best. Expressionist tendencies were felt in the work of Angel Karaliychev (1902- ), Svetoslav Minkov (1902- ) and especially Vladimir Polyanov (1899), as well as in the poetry of Assen Raztsvetnikov (1897Nikola Marangozov (1900- ), Dimiter Panteleyev ), (1901- ) and Nikola Furnadjiev (1903- ). The most satisfying fusion of traditional and new poetic modes was to be found in the limpid verse of the poetess Elisaveta Bagryana (1893), with whom the tradition of Bulgarian women writers rep-

Dora Gabe (1886), Anna Kamenova (1894and Magda Petkanova reached its highest expression.

resented by )

—

Realism After 1944 the Communist regime favoured exclusively writing produced according to the concept of "socialist realism" as defined by Soviet theory of art. The resulting uniformity of purpose of literary output in the Bulgarian people's republic, its devotion to didactic and political aims, makes it difficult to assess the real value of novelists like Georgi Karaslavov (1904), Dimiter Dimov, Emilyan Stanev (1907), Dimiter Talev, Pavel Vezhinov (1914- ), poets like Lamar, Bozhidar Bozhilov, Mladen Issaev, and playwrights like Orlin Vassilev (1904) and Kamen Zidarov. By the early 1960s literary critics were still engaged in revaluing the heritage of the past in terms of Marxist aesthetics. Socialist

—

Bibliography. E. Damiani, Le origini delta letteratura e del riscatto nazionale in Bulgaria (1928) ; D. Chichmanov, Le mouvement littiraire

399

en Bulgarie (1925) B. Penev, Istoriya na Novata Bulgarska Literatura, Georges Hateau, Panorama de la litthalure hulgare 4 vol. (1930-36) contemporaine (1937) P. Dinekov, Stara Bulgarska Literatura (195053) L. V. Picchio, Storia delta letteratura bulgara (1957). (L. By.) ;

;

;

;

BULGARIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH,

the national representative in Bulgaria of the Orthodox Eastern Church. The Bulgarian Church was responsible for the creation and preserva-

and for laying the foundation of a Slavonic through which the Slavs became inheritors of the ByBy imposing the Christian faith in the sec-

tion of a united nation literature,

zantine civilization.

ond half of the 9th century, King Boris I aimed at uniting the Slav masses with his small Bulgar tribe. Refused a patriarch of his own by Constantinople, he turned to Rome; after fruitless negotiations he appealed again to Constantihople and was sent an archbishop. The disciples of the two missionaries SS. Cyril and Methodius {q.v.), banished from the Moravian state after the death of Methodius, were enthusiastically welcomed by Boris and given every assistance. In Macedonia one of them, St. Clement, for many years celebrated the liturgy and preached in Bulgarian. He also trained a large number of Slavs for the ministry and in this way prepared the ground for a national church. Although Boris' son Simeon proclaimed his archbishop as patriarch, it was not until after Simeon's death that Constantinople recognized the Bulgarian

patriarch (927).

After 972,

when

the eastern districts of the

conquered by Constantinople, the patriarchate moved to western Bulgaria, When Basil II Bulgaroctonus conquered these provinces also (1018) he allowed the Bulgarian Church to remain independent, but turned it into an archbishopric, which soon became Greek in character. Later (12th century) it became known as the archbishopric of Ohrid (Ochrida). After freeing Bulgaria from Constantinople (1186) the two brothers Peter and Ivan Asen arranged that the Bulgarian priest Basil should be consecrated as bishop of Turnovo (the Bulgarian capital) and recognized as head of the Bulgarian Church. Their brother Kaloyan held lengthy negotiations with Rome, begging for an imperial diadem and a Bulgarian patriarch. Pope Innocent III sent him a royal crown and the archbishop of Turnovo was consecrated as primate (1204), Apparently the Bulgarians then broke off their contact with Rome. (See Asen.) In 1235 the Bulgarian tsar Ivan Asen II obtained the recognition of the independence of the Bulgarian Church and the revival of the Bulgarian patriarchate from the Byzantine emperor John III Ducas (Vatatzes) of Nicaea and from the patriarch of Constantinople. When, however, Turnovo was taken by the Turks (1393) the last patriarch, Eftimi, was exiled and the patriarchate ceased to exist. (See also Bulgaria: History.) For nearly five centuries Bulgaria was under Turkish domination and the church was administered by the patriarch of Constantinople, who sent Greek clergy into the country. In the late 18th century began the struggle for an independent Bulgarian Church, in which Bulgarians living in Constantinople took an active part. In this struggle the Turkish government and the Russian representatives in Constantinople (especially Count N. P. Ignatiev) looked favourably on Bulgarian aspirations, and in 1870 the BulIt was not accepted by the garian exarchate was established. patriarch of Constantinople, who declared the newly formed Bulgarian Church schismatic (1872). In 1877 the Bulgarian exarch Antim was deposed by the Turks and his place was taken by Joseph, metropolitan of Lovech (Lovec), who had to steer the Bulgarian Church through its most hazardous years, caused by political disasters after the liberation of Bulgaria from the Turks (1878) the treaty of Berlin, which much diminished the territory of the exarchate; and the Balkan War of 1913. In 1914 he moved His post remained vacant to Sofia where he died a year later. until 1945 when the metropolitan of Sofia, Stefan, was elected. With his name is connected the healing of the schism with Constantinople in the same year. He resigned in 1948, and in 1953

were

country

;

Kyril, metropolitan of Plovdiv,

became

patriarch.

In 1925 the Holy SjTiod published the Bible in Bulgarian. The paper of the church is the weekly Tsrkoven Vestnic and there is a monthly periodical Dukhovna Kultiira. There is one seminary in the Cheripish monastery in the Balkan mountains and official

BULGARUS— BULLER

400 a theological

academy

in Sofia.

The church

is

separated from the

state.

See S. Runciman, A History of the First Bulgarian Empire C1930) Snegarov, Kratka Istoria na Svremennite Pravoslavni Tsrkvi, vol. ii of Universiletska Biblioteka (1946). (Me. K.) ;

I.

BULGARUS

(d. 1166). Italian jurist, the most celebrated famous "four doctors" of the law school of the University of Bologna, was born at Bologna. He was sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of the 15th century. Bulgarus was regarded as the Chrysostom of the gloss writers, being called frequently the "Golden Mouth." He died in 11 66 at an advanced age.

of the

Popular tradition represented all the four doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius. but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting that tradition regarding Bulgarus, it has been held to be inadmissible regarding the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, Martinus being at the head of a school that accommodated the law to what his opponents called the "equity of the purse" (aeqiiitas bwsalis). while Bulgarus adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus ultimately prevailed, and it numbered among its adherents Joannes Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn e.xercised a commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus took the leading part among the four doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in 1158 and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. His most celebrated work is his commentary De Regulis Iiiris, which was at one time printed among the writings of Placentius. This commentary, the earliest extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the gloss writers, is a model specimen of the e.xcellence of the method introduced by Irnerius and a striking example of the brilliant results obtained in a short space of time by a constant and exclusive study of the sources of law.

GEORGE

BULL, (1634-1710), English theologian and bishop of St. David's, was born at Wells on March 25, 1634, and educated at Tiverton school and Exeter college, Oxford. He had to leave Oxford in 1649 because he refused to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained privately in 1655 and, after holding various preferments, became in 1 705 bishop of St. David's. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered to the forms of the Church of England and under James II preached strenuously against Roman Catholicism. He died on Feb. 17, 1710. His Dejensio Fidei Nicenae (1685), which tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the ante-Nicene fathers of the church, was a thoroughgoing examination of all the pertinent passages in early church literature. His other works include Hannonia Apostolica (1670), Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicac (1694) and Primitiva et Apostolica Traditio (1710). The best edition of Bull's works is that in seven volumes published under the superintendence of E. Burton in 1827. (1562/63-1628), English composer of outBULL, standing technical ability and keyboard virtuoso, was born in 1562 or 1563, possibly in Somerset, and educated as a chorister of the Chapel Royal, probably by William Blitheman, its organist. In the surviving fragment of his Gresham lecture, delivered in 1597, Bull appears to make oblique reference to Byrd also as "my mas-

JOHN

may refer to a later period. From Dec. 1582 to Jan. 1585 Bull was organist at Hereford cathedral, but then returned Chapel Royal, w-here in 1591 he succeeded Blitheman as

ter." but this

to the

organist. He became a doctor of music of both Oxford and Cambridge universities, though he was opposed in Oxford, according to

Anthony Wood's

Fasti, by "clowns and rigid puritans who could not endure church music." A fine portrait dated 1589, in possession of the Oxford music school, shows him as a handsome and saturnine young man. I had already contributed to the cost of Bull's studies, 1596 she appointed him to the professorship of music in

Elizabeth

and

in

the college newly founded in

1601 he traveled in France, his virtuosity as a

London by Sir Thomas Gresham. In Germany and the Netherlands, where much admired. On his

keyboard-player was

return to England he continued in the royal service, and although he resigned his professorship in 1607 in order to marry, he was evidently highly esteemed at court, being named "doctor of music to the king" in 1612. In 1613, however, he left England without permission and entered the service of the Archduke Albert in Brussels: the British ambassador claimed that he was a fugitive from the just punishment of numerous misdeeds, but this has not been otherwise confirmed. Bull remained in the Netherlands, becoming in 1617 organist at the cathedral of Antwerp, where he

died in 1628. Little of Bull's vocal

music survives, and

his reputation rests

on

his extensive compositions for virginals and organ (some 150 extant pieces), published in Musica Britannica (1951It is ). distinguished less by emotional depth or freshness of invention than by an unfailing resourcefulness in devising keyboard figura-

—

tion a characteristic that helps to explain the great length of of his sets of variations. Bull combined with an essentially conservative outlook a taste for technical experiment and the solution of unusual problems enharmonic modulations, for example, and asymmetrical rhythmic patterns. His command of the English virginalists' technique undoubtedly had an influence on his

some

—

friend and contemporary, organist,

man

J. P. Sweelinck (q.v.). the .Amsterdam and through him on Samuel Scheldt and the north Ger-

school.

See W. Mellers, "John Bull and English Keyboard Music," Musical Quarterly (July-Oct, 1954). (J. J. N.)

BULL, OLAF JACOB MARTIN LUTHER

(1883-

Norwegian poet, commonly considered the greatest of his He was born at Christiania (Oslo) on Nov. 10, 1883. Bull's first poems. Digte (igoq), showed him as a worthy heir to the tradition of Wergeland and Bj0rnson. Many of these poems describe scenes of spring and reveal unusual sensitivity and perception and the power to convey a wide range of emotion. Though 193.5*.

generation.

attached to his native town. Bull lived for long periods

in

j

Rome

!

and Paris and was influenced by the French Symbolists and by the philosophy of Henri Bergson. His early work is chiefly descriplive, but later he became more introverted and reflective. In Stjernene ("The Stars,'' 1924), Metope (1927) and Oinos og Eros (1930) his themes are his memories and meditations on death and loneliness. Throughout his work, especially in the last collec-

'

conscious of his forceful intellect which, notably cantata Ignis ardens (1932), enables him to convey a cosmic vision, inspired by the thought of Bergson and Einstein. Intellectual fervour animates De hundrede aar (1928), a tions,

one

is

in the university

poem about Norwegian achievement

the 19th century. town, where he died on June 2t,. 1933. Bull's collected poems, Samlede digte. were published in IQ42. (G. Rn.) (1810-1880), Norwegian vioBULL, linist widely acclaimed lor performances of his own compositions in a light virtuoso style and of arrangements of Norwegian folk tunes. Born at Bergen on Feb. 5, iSio, he was mainly self-taught and at the age of nine became a member of the Bergen orchestra. In 183 1 he went to Paris where he set himself the aim of emulating Niccolo Paganini. His career as a virtuoso violinist began in 1832 Between W'hen he gave a concert in Paris assisted by Chopin. 1843 and 1879 he made five visits to the United States. In 1850 he established a Norse theatre at Bergen and later attempted to establish a Norwegian colony in Pennsylvania. Bull's violin playing was remarkable for its chord effects which he achieved by using an almost flat bridge and a heavy and unusually long bow. He died at LysO, near Bergen, on Aug. 17, 1S80.

long

Oslo-hits (193

1 )

shows

in

his love for his native

OLE BORNEMANN

—

Bibliography. A. Bjorndal. Ole Bull og Norks folkemusik (1(340); M. Smith, The Life of Ole Bull (1943) Z. Hopp, Evantyret om Ole Bull (194s). ;

BULL. For the use of this term for animals see Cattle:. Terminology; Beef: Classes and Grades; for the use of the terra as an implement of sealing and in relation to papal documents, see Seals: European; Diplomatic: Papal Chancery; and Golden Bull: for the use of the term in speculative markets, see Stock EXCHA.VGE. (1839-1908 ), English BULLER, SIR VERS

RED

HENRY

1

I

!

1^

BULLFIGHTING who was

general,

unsuccessful as

commander

in chief in the

South

African War despite his distinguished previous record, was born near Crediton, Devon, on Dec. 7. 1839. He was educated at Eton and entered the army in 1858. He gained wide experience of staff

and command in the China campaign (1860), the Red River Canada (1870), the Kaffir and Zulu wars (1878-79) the Transvaal rebellion (1881) and the e.xpedition to Khartoum to

duties

expedition in

401

cloaks to avoid the repeated attacks of their savage bulls before Popular demand also led Augustus to build the killing them."

Taurus which, as the name implies, was the first Roman amphitheatre designed expressly for the imported Iberian spectacle known as taurilia, which gradually degenerated into sacrificing to wild beasts criminals and those professing a religion other than that Statilus

of the state.

He won the Victoria cross in 1879, and was knighted in 1882. He became quartermaster genHe eral to the war office in 1887 and adjutant general in 1890.

Conquest of the Iberian peninsula by Vandals, Swabians, Goths and Visigoths modified the customs of the people. Three centuries of Visigoth rule (a.d. 410-711) evolved a spectacle featur-

took a leading part in the military reforms of the period, in particular reorganizing the army's transport and supply system on

ing brute strength of men over bulls (forfados or pegadores) later adopted by the Lusitanos (Portuguese) and still retained as one of their specialties. The Muslims from Africa and Syrians who overran Andalusia in a.d. 711 gradually modified the existing games by adding delicate arabesque grace and mystic oriental fancy to the Helleno-Latin solidity and sense of rhythm. But as the Muslims were great horsemen, their dignity demanded that they take the lance from their vassals, relegating the peons to the inferior position of simply maneuvering the animals on foot so that their mounted masters might perform to better advantage. The crumbling Roman amphitheatres of Seville, Cordoba, Toledo, Tarragona, Merida and Cadiz were rebuilt and embellished. Tournaments developed as a result of the rivalry between Moorish

Gordon (1884).

relieve General

new and sound

lines.

In 1899, however, the South African failed to

when he was appointed commander

War

overcome the

in chief in

he was unfortunately past his best and

difficulties of the vast theatre of operations,

the small forces at his disposal and the early advantages gained

In Dec. 1899 after two of his subordinates had been defeated at Stormberg and Magersfontein, and the Natal field force under his personal command had been repulsed at Colenso in its first attempt to relieve Ladysmith, Buller was replaced in supreme command by Lord Roberts. Buller made two more unsuccessful attempts before finally breaking through to Ladysmith, but he did not quickly follow up his advantage. When he had finally occupied the eastern Transvaal he returned home (Oct. 1900) to take over the Aldershot command. His appointment was violently criticized, and after a tactless speech in answer to his critics (Oct. 10, 1901 j, he was retired from his command (Oct. 21). He died near Crediton on June 2, 1908.

by the Boers.

See C. H. MelvUle, Life of

.

.

.

Sir

Redvers Buller (1923). (E.

BULLFIGHTING,

W.

the Spanish national spectacle.

Sh.) (It is

more than ballet, and should not be evaluated as The Spanish name is corrida de toros, from the Latin cur-

not a sport, any such.j

rere, "to run,''

are not the is

and taunts,

Bulls used in corridas de toros

"bull."

commonly known

variety of

meat or milk

cattle,

basically domesticated, but a distinctly savage breed

known

as

Taurus

I.

to distinguish

it

which (often

from the domesticated breeds,

Bos taunts).

Combats and Crete, Thessaly trait

spectacles with bulls were

and imperial

Rome

common

in ancient

but depended on the inherent

of domesticated cattle to flee their attackers; the distinguish-

ing trait of savage Iberian stock

is its

spirited

and continuous

at-

tack without the slightest provocation.

— Prior

Punic Wars the Celtiberians knew the peculiarities of the savage cattle that inhabited their forests, having developed their hunt into a game and also having herded them aUve with the aid of domesticated stock for use as an important auxiliary in war where advantage was taken of their ferocity. Thus after founding the trading post of Barkinon (Barcelona) in his own name in 228 B.C., the Carthaginian Hamilcar Barca marched on Ilici and blockaded the city. Aided by domesticated cattle, the defenders gathered a great herd of savage horned beasts,

History.

to the

attached war chariots to them and lighted resin torches to their horns. In the ensuing battle Barca was killed and his army annihilated. Carthaginians and Romans, disputing the known world

between them, were astounded by accounts of Barca's annihilation. They were equally amazed at subsequent tales of games held in Betica (the Spanish province of Andalusia) in which men exhibited dexterity and valour before dealing the death blow with ax or lance to a savage horned beast. Popular demand for new entertainment prompted Julius Caesar to present the first spectacles in Rome which used bulls and men imported from the Iberian peninsula, 95-45 B.C. In Lives of the Caesars Suetonius wrote: "Between the years 41-45 [a.d.], Tiberius Claudius produced spectacles of wild animal baiting, Trojan games, and African hunts executed by Praetorian horsemen led by their Tribunes with their Prefect amongst them. He presented the Thessalian horsemen who give chase to bulls in the circus until, tiring them, they leap on their backs and taking firm hold of the horns, twist their necks and bring them down [known in U.S. rodeos as buUdogging] and also the Iberians who use their skins or ,

chieftains and Christian Iberian knights and, except in large cities which boasted amphitheatres, most festive occasions were held in the city square or plaza, from which all bull rings derive their names, or in the open fields outside the town. The first Castilian to lance a bull from horseback is thought to have been Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, "El Cid Campeador" ( 1043-99). After the Muslims were driven from Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, bull-lancing tournaments continued to be the fa-

By the time of the Austrian vourite sport of the aristocracy. accession it had become an indispensable accessory of every court function, and Charles V endeared himself to his subjects by lancing During the reign of a bull on the birthday of his son Philip II. Philip IV the lance was discarded in favour of the rejoncillo (short spear) and the leg armour (still worn by the picadors) was introduced. As knowledge of the nobles' prowess spread beyond their domains, they were invited to competitive jousts in provincial tournaments. The nobles' unfamiliarity with the spirit of bulls

other than their own caused the vassals to gain greater experience and fame than their masters. By 1700 they were performing on foot and had relegated their peons to a subordinate role on horse-

back (picador).

By able,

the early 1700s bull breeding had

and herds were bred for

become

financially profit-

specific characteristics.

The

royal

houses of Spain, France, Portugal, Italy and even the Catholic Church in Spain competed feverishly to present the best specimens in the ring. The banderillas (short barbed darts) were adopted and the perros de presa, or dogs of prey, were developed from the Pyrenee mastiff by Spanish breeders so that the receded nostrils and' protruding underjaw would permit the dog to breathe while hanging on indefinitely to worry bulls of poor spirit.

Papal threats of excommunication gradually wrought a radical transformation in the character of the lidia (bull joust), forcing the nobles to relinquish their role to professional subordinates who, because of class consciousness, discarded the lance in favour One of the .first great professional espadas, i.e., of the sword. the man who actually kills the bull, was Francisco Romero of Ronda in Andalusia (about 1700), who introduced the estoqiie (the sword still used to kill the bull) and the muleta (small heartshaped red worsted serge type cloth folded lengthwise over a 56-cm. staff), used in conjunction with the estoque. At the height of his fame, the artist Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes designed a distinctive professional uniform (worn only on commemorative gala occasions in Goya-style corridas or corridm goyescas). Performers began using a net to hold back their shoulder-length hair, later tying it in a knot at the base of the skull for protection in falls when tossed by the bull, just as football and soccer players used their hair to protect the head before the innovation of the helmet. This hair style later developed into the moiia y coleta, the satin-covered semispherical cork headpiece and short queue which

BULLFIGHTING

402

became the distinguishing mark of the profession. Expense and lack of native spirited stock prevented bullfighting from taking root in France proper (corridas are held in southern France, however) and Italy. Portugal retained the rejoneadores or cabaleiros en pra(a (lancers mounted on highly trained wellbred horses) who, with the forgados or pegadores and salteadores (men who pole vault over a charging bull), comprise what is known as Portugal's correidas in which the bull's horns are padded or brass-ball tipped; thus the horses and bulls are rarely killed. After the introduction of railways, the plazas de toros in Spain, Portugal and Latin America (where the conquistadors introduced corridas in the early 1 500s) greatly multiplied. Spain in the second half of the 20th century had about 400 plazas de toros of all sizes,

from those of Madrid and Barcelona, seating 28,000 spectators, to those of the small towns accommodating 1,500. The arena floor never varies more than several metres, those at higher altitudes being smaller than those at sea level to help compensate for altitude fatigue.

The plaza de toros in Mexico City inaugurated during the 194546 season, seats approximately 50,000. Legal admission prices vary from a few pennies to $50, but "scalpers" have obtained as much as $500 for a single ticket to important corridas such as Manolete's first fight in Mexico. Bull Breeding. The bulls used in corridas are invariably of pedigreed lineage reared on special ranches (ganaderias). the most celebrated being those of Miura, from Seville, which have killed more famous matadors, including the great Manolete, than any others. Shortly after weaning, vaccinating and branding, the yearling males are tested in the open fields (tienta de acoso y derribo, hazing and tumbling), and only those displaying the proper spirit Some yearlings of remarkable are retained for future corridas. pedigree, true coloration and fine physical construction are separated and when three years old are put through a series of tests (tentadero de sementales, stud tests) designed to prove the animal's If acceptable, such bulls are then used exspirit beyond a doubt. clusively at stud, usually 15 years; if not, they are sent to the slaughterhouse. At two to three years the heifers are tested in a small ring at the ranch {tentadero de vaqidllas, test of heifers to be used for breeding) through all the phases of the corrida and only

—

those acceptable are used; the rejects or culls go to the slaughterRoyalty attended these tests which became fortnightly social events at which famous matadors practiced new maneuvers (heifers being smaller are theoretically less dangerous than fullhouse.

grown bulls, but many matadors have been almost fatally wounded by heifers which were little more than calves), and an invitation to them was considered a social distinction.

satin richly embroidered in gold, silver or silk; dress capes of satin, heavaly embroidered in gold, silver and silk or combinations of them, worn only during the entry procession hand-drawn linen lace shirtwaists; coral-pink heavy silk stockings; flat heelless black ;

and monteras or hats made of tiny black silk chenille hand sewn in special designs on heavy buckram. Banderilleros wear similar garments, lacking only the gold embroidery which is reserved exclusively for the matadors. Picadors wear broadbrimmed, low-crowned, heavy beige-coloured hats called castorefws, jackets and waistcoats similar to those of the matadors but not as ornate, hip-to-ankle armour of steel one-eighth inch thick on the right leg and knee-length left-leg armour covered by tightly fitting trousers of heavy cream-coloured chamois and heavily protected slippers;

balls

chamois ankle boots. After the opening procession has crossed the arena, the presidente municipal (the mayor or his legal representative) throws down to one of the alguaciles the key to the toriles or bull pens. When the ciiadrillas not performing with this bull have left the arena and the others have taken their respective positions, the toril door is opened. As the bull passes through the toril door, an attendant perched above attaches a silken rosette made of the ranch colours into the shoulder muscles of the bull. A banderillero capes the bull with one hand only, so that the matador may judge whether the bull shows marked preference in the use of either horn or attacks equally from both sides. Then the matador goes into the arena and performs the initial passes, usually the basic veronica, working as gracefully and as close to the horns as possible. The picadors enter the arena and move into position, after a bugle signal,

and

it

during the cape work. is

The

bull then charges the horse,

the picador's duty to fend off the attack

by the use of

his pike pole, planting the point in the bull at the junction of the

Because of shocking and unnecessary disembowelment of the horses, complete protective armour made of three-inch thick compressed cotton encased in leather and canvas, encouraged by Sidney Franklin, the first L'.S.-born professional matador, was officially adopted in March 1930, thus virtually neck and shoulder blades.

harm to the horses. three matadors vie in the quites as gracefully as possible; taking turns in order of seniority (the matador performing with This is done this bull coming first, the others following in turn).

eliminating

The

a

minimum

of two times

and a maximum of four, stamina and number. A bugle call announces

spirit of the bull dictating the

the tercio de banderillas and the picadors retire from the arena. Banderilleros alternate in planting two to four pairs of banderillas

with the grand entry

(72-cm. staves decorated with coloured paper and with a 3-cm. barb at one end) in the bull's shoulders at the junction with the neck. This is done by attracting the bull's attention with violent gestures and shouts from a distance of 20 to 30 yd. As the bull charges, the banderillero runs forward and slightly to one side, and as both come together, the banderillas are deftly planted, the man spins away to safety, and the bull's momentum takes it out of goring range. The main object of both the banderillas and the picadors' use of the pike pole is to weaken the great neck muscle of the bull so that his head will be low enough at the end of the Some matadors, fight for the matador to kiU him with the sword. especially the Mexicans, are highly skilled with the banderillas and plant their own. Another trumpet call signals the third and final tercio, the This is done by the matador killing, known as the Hour of Truth. alone, his banderilleros being present only in case of emergency or should he request their assistance. The matador takes a position below the presidente's box and with montera held aloft in his right hand, muleta and estoque in his left, he formally requests permission to brindar (dedicate) the bull to some personage or friend to whom he tosses his montera. After the matador has performed many dangerous and graceful passes with the bull to prove complete mastery (using only the muleta which may be spread wider with the estoque), he prepares for the kill. This is done al volapie or "fleet-foot," in which man

procession of the ciiadrillas led by one or two mounted alguaciles The matadors wear short (bailiffs in 16th-century costume). jackets, waistcoats and knee-length skintight trousers of silk and

and bull attack each other from a standstill position, or rccibiendo, where the man stands still and receives the bull. The latter is rarely done because of the great precision and courage required.

Bulls are never used a second time in the corrida.

memory

is

First, their

remarkable and former experience would not permit

the tj'pe of performance expected; and second, to be acceptable for a corrida, they must be physically virgin as well as virgin of contact with any phase of the corrida. All cattle are colour-blind. for the work cape and muleta minimizes the sight of blood and other stains and blends advantage to produce a more colourful spectacle; the inside of the cape is yellow and the buUs charge just as readily at it as they do the red. Performers. Toreros or professional bull men consist of matadors banderilleros, assistants on foot who work with the cape and also place banderillas ; and picadors, mounted assistants with pike poles. Six bulls usually are killed during one corrida, the matadors,

The colour red has been adopted since

it

to better

—

;

whose ciiadrillas or troupes consist of two or three banderilleros and two or three picadors to each, alternating in the performance Matadors must pass according to seniority in the profession. through a trying novitiate as novilleros (professional no\ices) before receiving the altertiativa, the rituaUstic ceremony in which the senior matador confers on the novice professional status and acceptance as a professional equal, capable of dispatching any bull properly.

The Ceremony.

—The

corrida begins

.

BULLFINCH At no time is the matador permitted to touch the bull with the estoque except for the kill. Improper ethics on the part of any torero during a corrida may result in heavy fines or incarceration, or both.

The kill is executed by the matador thrusting forward the muleta with his left hand, causing the bull to lower his head in quest of his adversary, while with his right hand the matador sinks the estoque between the bull's shoulder blades at the junction with

The blade should penetrate

the neck.

aorta or great artery

and

well executed,

if

diagonally, severing the it

causes almost instant

death.

Following are definitions of some common bullfighting terms, in addition to those defined in the text of the article: Aliiio.—K faena de aliho is one where the bullfighter limits himself few functional passes, lining up the bull to kill as soon as pos-

to a

sible.

— A muleta —The charge. — To work to the Ayudado. — Un pase ayundado any pass where the muleta "helped" with the sword. Barrera. — Red wooden fence around arena rows stands. Becerro. — Calf, up to three years. Within that aHojo (yearling), (2-year-old) and utrero (between and Boleto. — Ticket for bull ring (Mexico) (Spain). Bravo. — Wild un toro bravo means wild, fighting bull a generic sense rather than simply "a brave bull" opposed to a cowardly one. Cajon. — Reinforced crate which bull shipped to the arena. Capote. — The big work cape. Chicuelina. — Cape Cojo. — Lame. — A right-handed muleta Cosladillo, pase Cruz. — The place on the bull where the sword should enter. Doblando. — The capework. Embestida. — The charge. Etitrar matar. — To go for the Estampa. — General appearance of coat condition, Estatuario. — Statuesque Faena. — All work done with muleta. Parol. — h two-handed spinning pass with cape. Fracaso. — Flop performance. Gaonera. — Pass wuth cape. Gilano. — Gypsy. There are always gitanos bullfighting, and many terms come from the gypsy language (calo) Hierro. — Brand. Bulls are branded when about a year Larga cambiada. — One-handed pass with the cape. Manoletina. — Muleta Manso. — Tame, as opposed to bravo. Mariposa. — Pass with the cape. Media-veronica. — Half -veronica. Molinete. — Muleta Muletazo. — .\ny pass with the muleta. Ole. — Roughly, "bravo." Orteguina or jrcgoUna. — Variation of the gaonera, which cape Alto, pase por.

pass.

Arrancada.

bull's

Arrimarse.

close

bull.

is

is

also, first

in classification:

;

After the kill the matador, with his bandcrilleros, arena to the applause of the spectators.

circles the

turns to the person

honoured by

if

acclaimed,

Then he

his brindis to retrieve his

re-

montera

which invariably is returned with money or a gift. If the performance has been excellent the matador receives, as a token of popular esteem, one ear of the bull. If it has been exceptional he receives two ears. But if his success should be extravagant he receives both ears and the tail. While the matador is being acclaimed, a puntillero (an attendant armed with a short blade) severs the bull's spinal cord at the base of the skull and the bull's carcass is dragged from the arena, quartered and dressed. Sometimes the bull's meat is given to the poor, but usually it is sold right at the plaza de toros. The ring is raked over by the chulos, the next bull is introduced, and the spectacle begins anew. Great Matadors. The star performer of this spectacle, the matador, can be and often is a wealthy man. When Manolete was killed at the age of thirty in 1947, he had made the equivalent of four million U.S. dollars. Many toreros (never "toreadors," a word popularized by Bizet in his opera Carmen) risk their lives for ten years or so, amass a fortune and then retire to a large ranch where they raise bulls for younger men to fight, as the great Juan Belmonte did.

—

was Belmonte who truly revolutionized the ancient spectacle Formerly, the main object of the fight had been only prepare the bull for the sword thrust; Belmonte, a small, frail Andalusian, emphasized the danger to the man by close and graceful capework, and the kill became secondary. He worked closer to the horns than people had ever believed possible and became an overnight sensation. The crowd does not actually wish to see a It

about 1914. to

man

killed, but, just as in a flying trapeze act, the possibility of death and the man's disdain and skilful avoidance of injury

crowd. The audience is not interested in simply seeing a man go into an arena, kill an animal in the safest manner and emerge unscathed; they want to see skill, grace and daring. Therefore a corrida is not really a struggle between a man and a bull but rather between a man and himself how close will he dare to let the horns come, how far will he go to please the crowd? Joselito Jose Gomez Belmonte's great friend and rival, considthrills a

;

(

)

,

ered the greatest bullfighter of

all

time, gave his

life

for the crowds

many men. Virtually every matador is gored once a season in varying degrees of severity. Belmonte was gored more than 50 times. Of the approximately 125 major matadors (since 1700). 42 have been killed in the ring; this does not include the beginning matadors or the bandcrilleros or picadors who have been killed. The greatest matadors of the 20th century have been the Mexicans Rodolfo Gaona. Armillita (Fermin Espinosa) and Carlos Arruza and the Spaniards Belmonte, Joselito, Domingo Ortega and Manolete (Manuel Rodriguez). In the second half of the 20th century bullfighting appeared to be attracting bigger crowds than ever; the mano-a-manos (the competitive corridas between just two matadors) of Antonio Ordofiez and Luis Miguel Dominguin in the 1959 season excited as much interest in the countries where bulls are fought as any corridas in in

403 GLOSSARY

1920, as have

at least

;

history.

Bullfighting developed in Spain and that country still is the hub of la fiesta brava, but there is also keen interest in Mexico, Peru, Colombia and Venezuela. A few other Latin-American countries have occasional bullfights, and bloodless bullfights sometimes are held in Texas and California.

eral

i).

2

billete

;

a

;

in

as

in

is

pass.

de.

pass.

initial

a

in

kill.

bull, size,

etc.

pass.

in

of its

old.

pass.

pass.

in

is flipped from one hand to the other behind the man's back after each charge. Orticina. A fancy quite pass. Parar. To stand still; one of the three rules of good capework, the other tW'O being mandar, to control, and templar, to move the cape or muleta very slowly and smoothly. Paron. Any pass where bullfighter does not move his feet until after the bull has passed. Recorte. Any pass where the bull is turned so sharply that he is stopped. Rodillas, de. Pass made on the knees. Serpentina. Swirling cape pass. Tanda. A set or series of passes. Tantear. First passes of a faena, in which the torero merely tries to size up how the bull is charging. Traje de luces. "Suit of sequins" or "suit of lights," the costume of the handerilleros and matadors. Tumbos. The spills taken by picadors.

—

—

— —

— —

— —

—

—

—

Bibliography. Ernest Hemingway, Death in the Afternoon (1932) Rex Smith, Biography of the Bulls 1957) Barnaby Conrad, La Fiesta Brava (1953), Gates of Fear (1957), The Death of Manolete (1958) Carlos .\rruza, Mv Life as a Matador (1956) Juan Belmonte, Killer Angus MacNab, The Bulls of Iberia (1957) Kenneth of Bulls (1937) Tynan. Bidl Fever (1955). (S. Fn.; B. Co.) ;

(

;

;

;

;

;

BULLFINCH,

a finch of the genus Pyrrhtda, especially the

common European Pyrrhula pyrrhula, bluish-gray and black above with a white rump, and generally of a bright rose-red beneath; the female differs in having its under parts pinkish-brown and

rw' ^§m^''''-mm^ '•'-'j*^

.;,i^-

BULLFINCHES (PYRRHULA PYRRHULA)

lit-n

;

BULLFROG— BULLION

404

upper parts gray-brown. The bullfinch breeds in northern Europe, occurring in southern parts only as a winter visitor. It a shy bird and frequents well-wooded districts. In May it builds a shallow nest of twigs lined with fibrous roots on low trees or thick underwood, and lays four or five bluish-white eggs speckled and streaked with purple. The young remain with their parents during autumn and winter, and pair in spring. In spring and summer they feed on the buds of trees and bushes, thus doing considerable injury to orchards and gardens. In autumn and winter they feed on wild fruits and on seeds. The note of the its

is

bullfinch, in the wild state, is low, soft and pleasant; it possesses great powers of imitation, and can be taught to whistle tunes.

Other subspecies are found in eastern Europe and Asia, and one which is native to southern and eastern Siberia (P. p. cassini) sometimes migrates to Alaska. The northern bullfinch {P. p. pyrrhula) breeds in northern Europe and western Siberia. The British bullfinch (P. p. nesa)

is

a breeding resident confined to

Other races are found Caucasus mountains. the British Isles.

in the

Azores Islands and

BULLFROG frog, call.

(Rana catesbeiana), the largest North American native to the eastern states, so-named because of its roaring It has been introduced successfully into western North

America. Hawaii, Japan, Cuba and Puerto Rico,

The name

is

also

(Rana grylio in southeastern U,S,, R. tigrina in India). The bullfrog has a greenish brown back, white to yellowish belly and dark-barred legs. Body length reaches seven to eight inches, and hind legs ten inches. A large adult weighs more than a

applied to other large frogs

R. adspersa

in Africa,

pound. Bullfrogs are usually found in or

near

water.

when

permanent

They breed

bodies

of

in the spring

the weather becomes

warm

their loud calls serve to attract

mates. Each female lays 10,000 to 20.000 very small, blackish eggs. The dark spotted, greenishibABELLE HUNT coNANT browtt tadpolcs mav attain a sixBULLFROG (RANA CATESBEIANA) jn^h length before 'transforming. Depending on climate, the tadpole stage lasts one to three years. After metamorphosis bullfrogs grow to breeding size in two to three years.

Small individuals eat insects, but large ones will take almost any animal they can swallow.

bullheads (/. platycephalus) inhabit coastal streams between North Carolina and Florida. The four groups have been introduced elsewhere. Female bullheads lay 2.000 to 10,000 eggs in the spring. The parents guard the young in compact schools until they are about two inches long. Young that leave the school are taken into the mouth of one of the parents and spat back into the school. Barbels feelers) around the mouth help the bullhead locate its food, which may consist of almost any dead or living organic matter. Adults usually do not exceed one foot in length, and often lakes and streams are so overpopulated that no bullhead exceeds seven inches. Bullheads of sufficient size are good eating. The miller's thumb (q.v.) and other sculpins are sometimes called bullheads. See Catfish. (C. Hu.) BULLI, a town in New South Wales, Austr,, within the city of Greater WoUongong, of which Bulli shire became a part in 1947, lies on the coast 44 mi, S. of Sydney by road and 43 mi. by rail. flat

f

Pop. (1961) 5,000. Bulli has a courthouse (ISSl), a library (1947). a high school (1957), an excellent surfing beach, and a sports ground and racing track. It is the centre of the Illawarra coal seams, the most productive of the Bulli coal beds which extend from Sydney to the Clyde river. The Illawarra seams attain a maximum thickness of 1,000 ft, and the collieries, most of which are mechanized, produce about 25,000 tons daily, while

estimated coal reserves exceed 600,000,000 tons. The coal is mostly used by the heavy industries at Port Kembla, by electrical power stations feeding the state grid and by the railways. Bricks

and

manufactured locally but most of the population the mines or at Port Kembla. .Access by land to the Illawarra coastal strip was first obtained (1815) by Charles Throsby, who cut a track, later known as the textiles are

work

in

Bulli pass,

The top

down

the escarpment of the Illawarra range (1,100 ft.). commands a splendid view of 90 mi. of coast-

of the pass

(W. H. Ml.) (1504-1575), Swiss reformer, an influential associate and successor of Huldreich Zwingli. was born at Bremgarten, Aargau, July 18, 1504. He studied at Emmerich, then at Cologne, where through the schoolmen Peter Lombard and Gratian) and the Fathers (Origen, Chrysostom. Ambrose and .\ugustine) he came to the Bible, also consulting Luther and the Loci Communes of Philipp Melanchthon (1521). On graduation he taught in the cloister school at Kappel. later becoming pastor. Further study at Ziirich brought him into touch with Zwingli, whom he assisted in the Bern convocation (Jan, 1528). He then moved to Bremgarten (1529 as Reformed pastor, marrying the former nun Anna Adlischweiler. With Zwingli's death at the battle of Kappel (Oct, 11, 1531 ), Bullinger succeeded him at Ziirich, where, in addition to his long pastoral ministry, he had much influence through his writings and correspondence, He had hospitality to religious refugees and ecumenical labours. a hand in the First Helvetic Confession (1536), reached the Consensus Tigurinus, on the Lord's Supper, with Calvin and Geneva (1549) and drew up the popular Second Helvetic Confession (1566). Though unable to reach agreement with Luther on the Eucharist, he deepened the Zwinglian conception and displayed an equable spirit. Close relations with the exiles under Mary Tudor gave him great influence on the English settlement under Elizabeth I. as seen in the Zurich Letters and his famous sermon Bullinger died at Ziirich on Sept. 17. 1575. series The Decades. His works, rnostly expository and polemical, have never been collected, but a useful list is found in the Parker society edition 1849-52). His in English of The Decades of Henry Bullinger Diarium (ed. by E. Egli, 1904 and History of the Su-iss Reformaline.

BULLINGER, HEINRICH

(

i

Many bullfrogs are caught for human food, the estimated commercial catch amounting to 3.000,000 Jb, yearly. Large numbers are also used in biological laboratories. (G. B. R.) a name applied to four North American catfishes Ictaluridae). Black bullheads (Ictaliirus melas) inhabit the Mississippi valley; yellow (/. natalis) and brown bullheads (/. nebulosus) inhabit the area east of the Rocky mountains; and

BULLHEAD, (

(

)

tion are of particular historical interest.

—

Bibliography. G. W. Bromiley (ed.), Zwingli and Bullinger, vol. xxiv of the "Library of Christiar Classics" (1953); F. Blanke, Der. junge Bullinger (1942) A. Bouvier, Henri Bullinger (1940) R. Chris-( toffel, H. Bullinger (1S75) K. Pestalozzi. Leben (1S5S) J. Sutz, (Ge. W. Br.) H. BulUnger (1913). the name applied to gold and silver considered ;

;

;

;

BULLION,

any value arising from its form bullion value of a coin is determined (proportion of precious metal to totaJ

solely as metal without regard to (TOP) BLACK BULLHEAD (ICTALURUS MELAS): HEAD (ICTALURUS NATALIS)

(BOTTOM) YELLOW BULL-

as coins or ornaments.

by

its

weight, fineness

The

:

BULL MOOSE— BULL RUN weight) and the current price of the metal.

;

The work of weighing and assaying bullion is done by bullion who deal with bars, gold dust and coins. As most countries dropped silver as standard' money, the silver bullion in subsidiary coins became w^orth considerably less than An exception exists when the issuing government inface value. flates its paper currency and reduces its purchasing power to the point that it becomes profitable to melt coins for their bullion Gold coins as standard money enjoy a value established value. by world markets for their bullion content. The value of gold stems from its use in industry and as money. The price of gold in a country that uses it as the standard money is determined by government action. The bulk of the world's monetary gold is held in bars rather than coins and moves between countries to settle trade balances when the gold standard is operative. Individuals hoard gold when they fear either monetary or political instabihty. In doing so they lose any profit they might gain by investing the money and they incur storage costs. They also risk confiscation by the government of any profits resulting from currency devaluation, such as occurred brokers,

in

many

countries during the great depression of the earlv 1930s.

BULL MOOSE,

(H. G. Gn.) the symbol of the Progressive party in the

American presidential election of 1912.

The

bull

moose

is

the

male of the large, ungainly branch of the deer family inhabiting forested parts of Canada and northeastern United States. It is closely allied to the European elk, standing over seven feet high and often weighing over 1,000 pounds. The origin of the term as a symbol probably lies in the remark made by Theodore Roosevelt "I feel as fit as a bull moose." Cartoonists seized upon the remark, and the animal quickly became the emblem of the Roosevelt forces, and then of the Progressive Party, popularly known as the "Bull Moose party." When the Progressive Republicans declared themselves opposed to the renomination of Pres. William H. Taft and brought about a three-cornered election, the bull moose became a very useful symbol as opposed to the elephant of the regular Republicans and the donkey of the Democrats. a device which, when swung round in the air by a string or other material, produces a whirring or roaring sound much like that of an airplane propeller. It is most commonly made of a flat, elongated piece of wood, from a few inches to a foot in length, with a hole in one end through which the string is fastened. Although used only as a toy by Europeans in recent times, it has had the highest mystic significance and sanctity among ancient and primitive peoples. The rhombus whirled at Greek mysteries is an example of such ancient practice. The bullroarer is still highly regarded by natives of Australia, where it is prominent in initiation ceremonies for males. The women and children are told it is the voice of a spirit. It symbolizes the sky heroes or totemic ancestors of the people, and even the sight of it stirs the deepest feelings of reverence. It has been reported for all other major world areas where primitive peoples live: on many islands of the south Pacific, in southeast Asia, in Africa south of the Sahara, and among Indian tribes of both North and South America. In all these areas it is a sacred symbol often associated with male initiations, although here and there it appears to have degenerated into a mere toy. The following uses illustrate its range of meaning to the primitive mind: to bring on or drive away sickness, to control the weather, to assemble people for religious ceremonies, to induce women and children to stay away from men's sacred ceremonies, to promote fertility of game animals and crops, and as a fishing charm. It has been reported for almost half the North American Indian tribes, who make it of bone and rawhide as well as wood. It is most frequently used in North America to control the weather, although it functioned only as a boy's toy among a sizable minority of tribes. In South America it is found among the marginal and tropical forest peoples who live east of the Andes. Some anthropologists believe that the almost world-wide geographical distribution of the bullroarer is best explained by a single invention of the instrument thousands of years ago, early association with male initiations and subsequent diffusion

BULLROARER,

to all continents.

405

BiBLiooRAPHY.— James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1915) Edwin M. Loeb, "Tribal Initiations and Secret Societies," Univ. Calif. PiM. Amer. Archaeol. Elhn., vol. 25, pp. 249-288 (1929); Emil Torday, African Races (1931); Karl Gustav Izikowitz, Musical and Other Sound Instruments of the South American Indians (1935) Curt Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (1940) A. P. Elkin, The Australian Aborigines (1938); Robert H. Lowie, Primitive Religion (1948), ;

;

Social Organization (1948).

(H. E. D.)

BULL RUN, a

small stream in northern Virginia, after which two famous battles of the American Civil War (q.v.) were named.

The

Gap

stemmed from the fact that town of Manassas was the junction of the Manassas Shenandoah valley and the

military importance of this area

the adjacent

railroad extending west to the

Orange and Alexandria railroad running south to Gordonsville. The first battle of Bull Run (called First Manassas by the Confederates) was fought July 21, 1861. Although neither army was adequately prepared at this early stage of the war, political considerations and popular pressures caused the Union government to order Gen. Irvin McDowell to advance southwest of Washington to Bull Run in a move against Richmond. The 22.000 Confederates under Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard} after initial skirmishing at Blackburn's Ford on July 18, retired behind Bull Run in defensive positions. McDowell, discovering that the Confederate right and centre were too strong for a frontal assault, determined upon a flanking movement around the enemy left, but his delay in advancing was fatal for the Union cause. Upon perceiving the Union movements Beauregard notified the authorities in Richmond by telegraph and Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, then facing a Union army under Gen. Robert Patterson near Winchester, was ordered to join Beauregard as quickly as possible. Johnston was able to mask his intentions and. utilizing the Manassas Gap railroad,. moved 10,000 troops to Bull Run. Johnston arrived on the scene July 20 and as ranking general accepted Beauregard's plan of attack against Centreville, but before it could be launched the Union army assaulted the Confederate left on July 21,

command of two divisions, controlled the Sudley Ford while one division demonstrated and the other remained at Blackburn's Ford in reserve. McDowell's inexperienced troops arrived at Sudley Ford more than two hours late, and Colonel Evans, who had been left to guard the Stone Bridge, was able to move 11 of his IS companies to Matthews Hill above Sudley Springs, supported by brigades of Gens. Bee, Bartow and T. J. Jackson. About 9:15 a.m. the Federal troops came under Confederate fire and were forced to deploy, but two hours later McDowell's flanking threat caused Evans, Bee and Bartow to withdraw in disorder to the Henry House Hill. Here Jackson's brigade stood "like a stone wall." as Bee shouted to his men, and the Union assault was checked. Continued attacks by McDowell against the Confederate positions made no headway, and the arrival of the last brigade of Johnston's army by railroad forced the Federals into a disorganized retreat to Washington. The victors were also exhausted and did not pursue although Johnston moved to the heights around Centreville. Estimates of losses (killed, wounded and missing) from McDowell's army of 37,000 range from about 2,600 to more than 3,300. Estimates of losses from the combined Confederate forces of approximately 35,000 range from about 1,700 to nearly 2,000. The second battle was fought (Aug. 29-30, 1862) between the army of northern Virginia under Gen. R. E. Lee and a newly-formed Federal force under Maj. Gen. John Pope. With the withdrawal of McClellan's army of the Potomac from the Peninsula after an unMcDowell,

turning

in

personal

movement

at

at the Stone Bridge

campaign, it became Pope's responsibility to cover Washington until the two armies could be combined for a new assault upon Richmond. Pope withdrew from the Rapidan to the Rappahannock river (Aug. 19) and was able to prevent Lee's advance until Aug. 24. Lee, determined to defeat Pope before the Union forces could be joined, took the calculated risk of splitting his army by ordering Jackson, screened by Stuart's cavalry, to march around Pope's right flank. Within two days Jackson had moved 54 mi. through Thoroughfare Gap to Bristoe and had cap-

successful

iln this and other American Civil War articles the generals, statesmen and ships are given in italics.

names

of Confederate

—

BULNES— BULOW

4o6

MANUEL

BULNES, (1799-1866), Chilean military figure and president for two terms (1841-51), was born in Concepcion in 1799. The important victory he won, commanding the Chilean forces against the Bolivian-Peruvian confederation in 1839, assured

Although he was the spokesof the Conservative oligarchy, Bulnes found posts for many

his election to the presidency in 1841.

man

His regime is notable in Chilean history Foreign investment and technological development were vigorously promoted. A wave of nationalism led to Chilean occupation in the Strait of Magellan and to the partial opening of the Araucanian Indian frontier. Social and political stability made Chile a haven for many intellectual refugees among whom were Andres Bello and Domingo Sarmiento iqq.v.) from dictatorships in neighbouring republics. Public schools and liberals in his

for a

government.

number

of reasons.

—

institutions of higher learning w-ere established, including the University of Chile, the first normal school in Latin America, a school of architecture and painting and a national conservatory

The new interest in learning produced a generation of who openly opposed the oligarchical domination

of music.

young BULL RUN, SITE OF TWO BATTLES DURING THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: JULY AND AUGUST 29-30, 1862

21.

intellectuals

that Bulnes represented.

In the face of growing discontent Bulnes (q.v.), and had him duly was obliged, however, to resort to military action to quell a brief but bitter civil war before Montt's tenure was secured. Bulnes died in Santiago in 1866. (J. J. J.)

1861.

named

tured Pope's supply depot at Manassas by midnight of Aug. 26. Jackson then withdrew his force north of the Warrenton turnpike, and by noon of Aug. 28 his three divisions were hidden in the woods

elected; he

on a flat-topped ridge about a mile northwest of Groveton. Pope had learned of Jackson's march and believed the Confederates were bound for the valley, but when the Union commander discovered (Aug. 27) that all of Jackson's corps had moved to Manassas, he determined to surround and destroy it. Without considering the presence of Longstreet's corps beyond the Rappahannock river, Pope marched to Manassas by noon of Aug. 28 but found that Jackson had disappeared. Arriving at the conclusion that Jackson's whole force had retreated north to Centreville, Pope ordered his whole army to move upon that position. Meanwhile Lee with Longstreet's corps had followed Jackson, and on Aug. 2i his advanced guard moved through Thoroughfare Gap after dark. Jackson realized that if Pope were allowed to concentrate his forces behind Bull Run the Union army would be entrenched in strong defensive positions where it could await reinforcements, and he, therefore, decided to reveal his own location deliberately to lure Pope back into Lee's clutches. In the late afternoon of Aug. 28 King's division of McDowell's corps was attacked by two of Jackson's divisions near Groveton, Pope fell into the trap and in spite of the fact that he had lost contact with some of his units and had misread the military situation determined to move against Jackson on the morning of Aug, 29. Two frontal assaults by Brig. Gen. Franz Sigel and six major attacks after Pope had reached the front at noon failed because of lack of co-ordination and Jackson's strong defensive positions. Moreover by noon of Aug, 29 Longstreet had deployed across the Warrenton turnpike, holding Porter and McDowell from attacking Jackson's right tiank and rear. By dark Jackson's position near Groveton was still completely intact.

Mistakenly believing that Jackson was retreating. Pope

at

of Aug, 30 ordered a pursuit of the unbeaten and reinforced

noon

enemy

and thereby relieved Longstreet of any opposition, McDowell, in charge of the pursuit, soon realized Pope's mistake and attempted to secure his exposed flank by occupying the Bald and Henry

House

same time organizing his attack against Jackson. Enfilading artillery fire by Longstreet prevented the success of the Union assault on Jackson's positions, and shortly after 4 p.m. Lee ordered the entire Confederate army forward in Hills while at the

Longstreet bore down on the Federal left while Jackson pressed the right toward the turnpike. The Confederate victory was not complete, because the Union forces w'ithstood repeated assaults against Henry House Hill although Chinn's a grand counterattack.

Ridge and Bald Hill fell. Pope withdrew his defeated army across Bull Run and eventually retreated to the fortifications of Washington.

Estimates of Pope's losses range from about 14,000 to 16,000 a total force of more than 70,000 while Lee's casualties were about 9,000 from an army of about 56,000. (J. R. Co.)

men from

his successor,

Manuel Montt

BULOW, BERNHARD,

Prince von (1849-1929), German

statesman, imperial chancellor from 1900 to 1909, was born at Klein-Flottbeck near Altona on May 3, 1849, the son of B. E. von Bijlow, who from 1873 was Bismarck's state secretary for foreign affairs. From the first the young Biilow was assured of a career imperial Germany by his family connecand urbane personality and by his undeniable talents and assiduity. On leaving the Francke institute at Halle, he went to study law at Lausanne, Berlin and Leipzig, He served as a volunteer in the Bonn hussars during the Franco-German War in the highest circles of

tions,

by

his brilliant

of 1870-71. In 1S74 he entered the German foreign service. After holding posts in Rome, in St. Petersburg, in Vienna and in Athens, he served in the secretariat of the congress of Berlin (1878) and then went to Paris to be secretary of the embassy under Prince

Having been embassy councilor in St, Petersburg (1884), minister in Bucharest (1888) and ambassador in Rome (appointed in the autumn of 1893), he was in 1897 made state secretary for the foreign department, under Hohenlohe. Created count in 1899 he succeeded Hohenlohe as imperial chanChlodwig Hohenlohe,

cellor in Oct, 1900,

Chancellor.

—

Born and bred in the diplomatic world, Billow the continental European capitals as no German statesman Bismarck had known them. To the German public, indeed, he long appeared as the continuator of the Bismarck tradition though in fact he stood rather for the developments and deviations from that tradition to which late 19th-century imperialism had given rise. In 1SS6, moreover, he had strengthened his own international connections by his marriage: this was to Maria Beccadelli di Bologna, daughter of Domenico, 5th principe di Camporeale, Her mother, Laura Acton, was a cousin of the English historian Lord Acton and had married as her second husband the Italian statesman Marco Minghetti, Maria's earlier marriage to Karl, Graf Donhoff, had been dissolved. Biilow encountered some opposition in his

knew since

plans for marriage with her.

1909 Biilow stood at the peak of his seemed to be the most talented of Bismarck's successors. It was only after World War I, prewar period were official documents of the when the records and made available, that a critical revaluation of Biilow began with

As chancellor from 1900

brilliant career.

To

to

his contemporaries he

—

Johannes Haller's passionate survey, Die Ara Biilow: eine hisBiilow, however, whose own torisch-politische Studie (1922), memoirs show him to have been thoroughly critical of the emperor William IPs weaknesses, is far more open than either of his predecessors in the chancellorship, Caprivi and Hohenlohe, or his successor Bethmann Holhveg, to the charge of having lent himself to these weaknesses to facilitate his rise to power and then to mainHis pliancy is often barely distinguishable from tain himself. flattery. He fully understood the theory of the monarchical power

BULOW based on the constitution of 1871 and experienced it for himself. Meanwhile, in both his foreign and his domestic policy, he trusted in his ability to overcome serious difficulties with adroit tactics and to avoid involvement with fundamental issues. Foreign Affairs. In his foreign policy, both as state secretary and as chancellor, BCilow was no doubt strongly influenced by Friedrich von Holstein (g.v.). Even so, he had more than a formal responsibility for what was done. His whole conduct of foreign affairs bears the stamp of the facile confidence with which he sought to employ the tradition of Bismarckian RealpolUik in the service of William II's policy of securing for the Reich "a place in the sun" among the world powers. He met at first with some easy but limited successes, such as the acquisition of Kiaochow bay, the Caroline islands and Samoa (189S-99). The idea of the Baghdad railway (q.v.) rested on the conviction that the perpetual conflict between Russia and Great Britain would allow the Germans to play one power against the other until they had made their way to the Persian gulf. Likewise, for Europe, Biilow and his advisers optimistically believed that by adhering to the Bismarckian policy of the "free hand" they could guarantee Geras

—

many's freedom of movement between the great powers of east and west. Even the Franco-Russian alliance did not seem to limit Germany's choice in the matter of continental power blocs, since it was hoped that the attention to German-Russian relations, as exemplified in the Bjorko treaty of 1905, might force France over to Germany's side in Russia's wake. This optimism lay behind the reserve with which Biilow and Holstein conducted their negotiations with Great Britain from 1S9S to 1901. These were aimed at a readjustment of the system of alliances in Europe, and the most that could have been expected of them was an experimental entente, such as Great Britain and France were to reach in 1904. As late as 1901, however, Holstein and Biilow- still did not see that a British alliance, with British guarantees for Austria-Hungary, was impossible, and they offered no concessions to Joseph Chamberlain. The negotiations were further embarrassed by the emotional reaction of German public opinion against the South African War and were damaged by the fact that Biilow allowed Alfred von Tirpitz a free hand in his development of the German fleet. The "all or nothing'' w'hich Biilow allowed to w-eigh upon the conclusion to the negotiations

became a parting of the ways. The Germany, Austria-Hungary and

Triple alliance of

rival blocs

— the

Italy against the

Franco-Russian alliance and the Anglo-French entente consolidated until World War I broke out.

—were

to be

On

Holstein 's advice, Biilow twuce tried to tear down the net of alliances that he had helped to weave, as it obstructed his policy of the free hand. The Morocco crisis of 1905-06, linked

with the profitless Bjorko treaty with Russia, was intended to demonstrate the basic weakness of the Anglo-French entente but in fact strengthened it. While Holstein did not aim at war but

was prepared to face catastrophe if it came, Biilow dissociated himself from him at the climax of the Morocco crisis and disregarded his opinion. Both emperor and chancellor were determined at all costs to avoid a decision by war. This, however, did not hinder Biilow from accepting Holstein's and A. von KiderlenWachter's advice at the time of the crisis of 1908-09 over the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Hercegovina. On this occasion the full weight of German power was used to ensure the

European recognition for the annexation when it seemed in danger from the support given by Russia, with Great Britain's approval, to Serbia's objections. This show of "Niebelung loyalty" to Germany's last reliable ally was accounted a great victory to Bulow by German public opinion, as he had thereby bypassed the danger of the Reich's encirclement.

In fact Biilow- must have appreciated the true seriousness of the by the end of his period of office. The damage done Anglo-German relations by Germany's naval program caused him great misgivings, and with unwonted vigour he insisted on a decision of the question whether there should be a change in preference from heavy battleships to smaller armaments such as cruisers, torpedo boats and submarines. By this time, however, situation to

William

was exhausted and Biilow question to his successor Bethmann

II's faith in his adroit adviser

had to leave

this

fateful

407 Though he

Hollweg.

World War

I

later accused

Bethmann

through incompetence,

Biilow himself, for

all his brilliance,

of stumbling into

it is beyond question that bore a decisive part of the

responsibility for the critical development in the

German situation. Domestic Affairs.

European and

— In

domestic affairs Bulow also had some early successes, but his tenure of the chancellorship was characterized by the way in which the major problems of Prussia and the Reich, at first obscured, were left finally unsolved. Biilow adhered to the tradition of government with the support of "varying majorities." This was intended to maintain power in the hands of the monarch and the administration, but became increasingly questionable under the pressure of the rising power of the masses. In the empire and Prussia it depended on the support of the Conservatives and of the Centre and, in certain connections, even that of the National Liberals. In Prussia, Biilow sacrificed the Rhine-Elbe canal project to the Conservatives and thereby gained acceptance of the hotly contested protective tariffs of 1902 (the increased cost of agricultural and industrial produce had to be met by the consumer). Though he took no steps to repress the Social Democrats and even introduced some cautious social measures through his state secretary, Artur Posadowsky, he made sure that the workers and their party should reap no political advantages. He studiously bypassed the truly urgent problems such as the repeal of the Prussian three-class suffrage laws, resolution of the dualism between Prussia and the empire, the radical reform of the im-

and the development of direct taxation. William II, the court and the Prussian Consaw the necessity of co-operating with the Reichstag. Thus he facilitated the transition from constitutional monarchy of the Bismarck type to a parliamentary government, though his administration up to 1905-06 can hardly be described as even semiparliamentary. In 1905, however, w-hen his relations with the emperor had already deteriorated (not least on account of questions of foreign policy), he made use of the opposition of the Centre on colonial questions as pretext for the dissolution of the Reichstag a measure directed against the Centre and the Social Democrats. The "bloc" system of politics then introduced by perial finances

— unlike servatives — Billow Even

so

—

Biilow with the assistance of the Conservatives, the National Liberals and the Liberals could have led in the long run to liberal constitutionaUsm if it had not collapsed in 1909. when the coalition parties objected to the inclusion of death duties in a project for the

reform of the imperial finances. Resignation. Already in 1908 Biilow had become estranged from the emperor for his handling of the Daily Telegraph affair. That newspaper's account of an interview with the emperor, intended to conciliate British opinion, had instead provoked great indignation among readers, and Biilow had to admit that he had not read the proof of it submitted to him before publication. The emperor, however, who then had to promise not to intervene in politics without consulting the chancellor, felt that Biilow had deliberately passed the proof to bring about his humiliation. Thereafter his antipathy to Biilow was ineradicable, and when the Conservatives and the Centre reunited on the question of death The duties they had no difficulty in forcing Biilow to resign. emperor then accepted his resignation (July 14, 1909). The inheritance that he left to Bethmann Hollweg. one of the men whom he had proposed for his successor, was a problematical one. Later Years. After his dismissal Biilow consistently attempted to regain power but was always met by the emperor's firm refusal. The criticism of Bethmann w-hich appears in his memoirs is especially painful reading because of the writer's total bhndness In Dec. 1914 he was tow-ard his own weaknesses and mistakes.

—

—

Rome to dissuade the Italians from entering but failed; and his charge that Bethmann was too Biilo-.v'.< own conduct of In July on his last affairs during the Bosnia-Hercegovina crisis. bid for power, a large section of the parties was prepared to support his return to office, and he even approached the Social Democrats, but once again the emperor refused his candidature. Biilow spent his last years either in his home town or in Rome. He died in Rome on Oct. 28, 1929. sent as ambassador to

World War weak in his

I,

dealings with Vienna ignores

.

BULOW— BUN

4-08 Billow's memoirs, Denkwurdigkeiten,

mously

at his

own

request edited

volumes (1930-31; Eng.

trans.

were published posthu-

by Franz von Stockhammer, four 1931-32).

historian, they nevertheless require a critical

sent a

major attempt

Indispensable to the

approach and repre-

to dispute his personal responsibility for the

German

collapse. In these memoirs, however, the strengths and weaknesses of his personality are mercilessly reflected, and he does not make good his contention that he left to his successors an intact inheritance which they squandered away. The memoirs, in fact, do littte to

make him seem anything more than

a moderately successful His was a talent whose and human weaknesses cannot be conjured out of the

opportunist, with no real statesmanship. intellectual

history of pre- 19 14

Germany.

the reed

—

Bibliography. For critical comment on Billow's memoirs see F. Thimme (ed.), Front wider Billow (1931) F. Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, Fiirst Billows Denkwiirdigkeiten: Untersuchungen zum ihrer Entstehiingsgeschichle and ihrer Kritik (1956). For accounts and appraisals of his career see J. Haller, Die Ara Biilow (1922); T. Eschenburg, Das Kaiserreich am Scheideweg (1929) J. Haferkorn, Billows Kampf urn das Reichskanzleramt im Jahre 1906 (1939) W. Schiissler, Die Daily-Telegraph-Agaire 1908 (1952) H. Rogge, Holstein und Harden {\959) (Ha. H.) ;

;

;

;

BULOW, DIETRICH ADAM HEINRICH,

Baron von

(1757-18071, Prussian soldier and military writer, brother of Gen. Friedrich Wilhelm von Bijlow^, entered the Prussian army in 1773 and remained in the service for 16 years. He wrote a number of brilhant but unorthodox books on military science and history in the opening years of the 19th century. These works distinguished by an open contempt for the Prussian system, cosmopolitanism hardly to be distinguished from high treason, and the mordant sarcasm of a disappointed man brought upon Bulow the enmity of the official classes and of the government. He was arrested as insane, but medical examination disproved the charge and he was then lodged as a prisoner in Kolberg, where he was harshly treated, though Count Neithardt von Gneisenau obtained some mitigation of his condition. From there he passed into Russian hands and died in prison at Riga in 1807, probably

—

—

as a result of

treatment.

ill

Biilow was an enthusiastic supporter of the method of fighting in small columns covered by skirmishers, which, more of necessity

from judgment,

French revolutionary generals had adopted. Battles, he maintained, were won by skirmishers. But his tactics, like his strategy, were vitiated by their dependence on than

the

the realization of an unattainable standard of bravery.

BULOW, HANS GUIDO, Freiherr von

(1830-1894), Gerand conductor, esteemed for his performances of Beethoven and as the interpreter of the music of Liszt and Wagner, was born at Dresden on Jan. 8, 1830. He studied the piano under Friedrich Wieck and Liszt and conducting under Wagner and Karl Ritter. In 1857 he married Liszt's daughter Cosima. In 1864 he was appointed director of music to Ludwig II at Munich where he conducted the first performances of Wagner's Tristan und Isolde (1865) and Die Meister singer (1868). Abandoned by Cosima, who married Wagner in 1870, Biilow continued to propagate Wagner's work both in performance and his critical writings. He conducted at Hanover (1877-80) and at Meiningen (1880-85), where his orchestra became one of the finest in Europe and where he largely established the later vogue of the virtuoso conductor. Biilow was also among the earliest interpreters of Brahms and Richard Strauss. He was admired for his performances of the Beethoven sonatas though his edition of them was criticized. He

man

pianist

died in Cairo, Egy., on Feb. 12, 1894. Bibliography. L. Schemann, Hans von Biilow im Lichle der Wahrheit (1925) H. von Biilow, Letters to Richard Wagner, trans, by H. Waller (1931) M. von Millenkovich-Morold, Dreigestirn: Wagner, Liszt, Biilow (1Q40) E. Stargardt-Wolff, Wegbereiter grosser Musiker (1954) H. von Biilow-R. Strauss, Correspondence, Eng. trans. (1955).

—

;

mace

or club rush, also

is

called bulrush, while in the

United States species of Typha usually are called cattail. The club rush grows in lakes, along the edges of rivers and in other such localities. It has a creeping underground stem; narrow, nearly flat leaves, three to six feet long, arranged in opposite rows; and a tall stem ending in a cylindrical brown spike, six inches to one foot long, of closely packed male (above) and female (below) flowers. The spike is a dense mass of minute one-seeded fruits, each on a long hairlike stalk and covered with long downy hairs, which render the fruits light and readily carried by the wind. The bulrush of Scripture, associated with the hiding of Moses, was Cypcnis papyrus, the Egyptian papyrus, which was abundant in the Nile. See also Rush.

BULTMANN, RUDOLF and the

(1884-

),

German

theologian

New Testament scholar, whose demand for demythologizing New Testament evoked a tremendous theological controversy

Germany and the world, was born Aug. 20, 1884, at Wiefelstede, Oldenburg. He studied at Marburg, Tiibingen and Berlin, and was Privatdozent at Marburg (191 2) and professor of New Testament studies at Breslau (igi6), Giessen (1920) and Marburg (1921), retiring in 1951. With Martin Dibelius (q.v.) and K. L. Schmidt, Bultmann was a pioneer of form criticism, the study of the origin and development of the oral tradition behind the Gospels {Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 1921, enlarged 1931; Eng. in

trans., 1963).

For Bultmann the Gospels are products of the believing community, not biographies of the historical Jesus, of whom little can be known except his preaching of radical decision in view of the coming Reign of God (Jesus, 1926; Eng. trans., 1934). Historical skepticism does not undermine faith, since faith's object is not the historical Jesus but Christ preached by the church as God's redemptive

act.

In 1941 Bultmann launched a demand for the demythologizing of the Church's preaching. Not only the Virgin Birth and the Empty Tomb but also the Incarnation, Resurrection, Ascension and

Second Coming are derived from the mythology of Jewish apocaThe mythology requires not lyptic and Hellenistic Gnosticism. elimination (as in Uberal theology) but interpretation, specifically Man is a prey to "inauthentic existence," in existentialist terms.

but can be delivered only by an act of God. which the New Testain Christ (Kerygma und Mythos, 5 vol., 1948-55). Other of Bultmann's major works are Das Evangelitim des Johannes (1941); Das Urchristenttim im Rahmen der antiken

ment proclaims

1956); Glauben tind Verstehen ii, 1955); Theologie des Neuen Testaments (1948-53; Eng. trans., 1952-55). In EngThe Presence Eternity: lish also are History and Eschatology of (R. H. F.) (1957); Jesus Christ and Mythology (1958). (Humblebee), the common name for bees of the genus Bombus, which have a thick hairy body, often banded with bright colours. There are numerous species, found generally throughout the world except the Australian region, where, however, they have been introduced as agents of pollination for some See Bee; Hymenoptera; of the cultivated species of clover. Social Insects. a small boat that carries fruit, vegetables and Religion-en

(1949; Eng. trans.,

(collected essays; 1933-52; Eng. trans., vol.

BUMBLEBEE

BUMBOAT,

small wares to ships lying in port or close offshore. The origin Apparently it was applied originally to of the term is obscure. In course of scavengers' boats that removed filth from ships.

time the practice of bringing supplies to ships w-as added and bumboats became a type of water-borne peddler's cart. To prevent stealing and the selling of illicit wares by bumboatmen (or bumboat women), regulations regarding them were adopted in England

;

;

;

BULRUSH, member

name

correctly applied to Scirpus lacustris, a of the family Cyperaceae (q.v.), which includes also the a

It is a common plant in wet places, with tall, spongy, usually leafless stems and bearing a tuft of many-flowered spikelets. The stems are used for matting, etc. In the United States the name bulrush is commonly given also to other species

papyrus and sedges.

of Scirpus, especially 5. validus.

In Great Britain Typha

latijolia,

at an early date.

BUN, a small cake, usually sweet and round. In the U.S. the word also means a "roll." In Scotland it is a rich spiced cake and in the north of Ireland a round loaf of ordinary bread. The derivation of the word has been much disputed. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate bread marked with a cross (possibly in allusion to the four quarters of the

moon)

at public

such bread being usually purchased at the doors of the temple and taken in with them a custom alluded to by St. Paul

sacrifices,

—

BUNCHE— BUNIN The

was eaten by the pagan Saxons in honour of Eostre, their goddess of light. The Mexicans and Peruvians had a similar custom. The custom, in fact, was practically in I

Cor.

x, 28.

universal,

cross bread

and the early Christian church adopted

it,

thus develop-

ing the hot cross bun.

BUNCHE, RALPH JOHNSON

(1904-

),

U.S. polit-

was born on Aug. 7, 1904. in Detroit, Mich. He was graduated from the University of California at Los Angeles iii 1927, received a master's degree in government from Harvard university in 192S and a Ph.D. in 1934. He taught political science at Howard university. Washington, D.C.. becoming a full profesIn the meantime, he traveled through French West sor in 1938. Africa on a Rosenwald field fellowship, studying and comparing the administration of French Togoland, a mandated area, and Dahomey, a colony. He later did postdoctoral work at Northwestern university, Evanston, 111., and at the London School of Economics in 1936 and 1937, before returning to Africa for further ical scientist,

studies of colonial policy.

During World

War

the Office of Strategic Services

and the department of

state.

He

He was assisting Count Folke Bernadotte mediating the Jewish-Arab warfare in Palestine when Bernadotte was assassinated in 1948. Afterward Bunche supervised the truce and armistice agreements there. For this and his of trusteeship in 1946.

Sweden

in

other efforts in behalf of the

UN, Bunche was awarded

the Nobel

peace prize for 1950, the first Negro to win the award, which amounted to $31,410. He later headed a United Nations committee to study water-development projects in the middle east, including the disputed diversion of Jordan river waters in Palestine. He

was principal director of the UN department of trusteeship from 1948 to 1954 and UN undersecretary for special political affairs from 195S. For a portrait see article Negro, American. (Bun Crakn.aighe), an urban district and market town of County Donegal, Ire., lies on the eastern shore of Lough Swilly, 14 mi. N.W, of Londonderry by road. Pop. (1961) 2,960. An agricultural centre and vacation resort. Buncrana also has a salmon fishery, sea fisheries and clothing factories. The town is sheltered on three sides by high hills, of which East Slieve Snaght (2,008 ft.) lies 6 mi. N.E. The square keep of the 15th-century O'Doherty's castle remains, but Buncrana castle is

BUNCRANA

a residence erected in 1717.

BUNDELKHAND,

now

included

broadly similar tract of Baghelkhand to the east in the northern part of Madhya Pradesh (q.v.). The surface of the country is uneven and hilly, except in the northeast part, which forms an irregular plain cut up by ravines. abruptly from a common level presented their steep and nearly inaccessible scarps eligible sites for castles rising

and strongholds, whence the mountaineers of Bundelkhand frequently set at defiance the most powerful of the Indian states. The chief streams flow in deep ravine-fringed channels and are of little use for irrigation though the waters of the Betwa (g.v.) have been impounded for an important canal. The main sources of irrigation are

Diamonds

numerous

artificial lakes.

are found over a considerable area of country, but

particularly near Panna.

The output

in Akbar's time is said to have been worth £100,000 a year; a magnificent jewel from the Gadasia mine was among the treasures in Kalinjar fort. Though

the quality

is

—

1817, by the treaty of Poona, the British government acquired from the peshw-a all his rights, interests and pretensions, territorial or pecuniary, in Bundelkhand. It was in Bundelkhand that the rani of Jhansi revolted against British rule during the 1857 dis-

Historically Bundelkhand included Hamirpur, Jalaun, Jhansi and Banda (gq.v.) districts, which now compose the Jhansi division of Uttar Pradesh, but politically prior to 1947 it was restricted to the princely states of the Bundelkhand agency, a subagency of the British Central India administration. These were Ajaigarh, Charkhari, Chhatarpur, Datia, Orchha, Baoni, Bijawar, Panna, Samthar and several small estates. The agency headquarters were at Nowgong (Chhatarpur state). On April 2, 1948, they merged with the states of the former Baghelkhand agency (Rewa [q.v.] and minor states and estates to form Vindhya Pradesh. Baoni, Charkhari and Samthar, enclaves in Uttar Pradesh, were transferred to that state on Jan. 25, 1950. Vindhya Pradesh became a part of Madhya Pradesh on Nov. 1, 1956. Both Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand have thus lost any political identity. )

See V. A. Smith, "History of Bundelkhand," J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. (1881) C. U. Aitchison, Treaties, Engagement and Sanads, vol. v (1933). (L. D. S.; C. C. D.) ;

BUNDI,

a town and district in Rajasthan, India. The town. 95 mi. S.E. of Ajmer. had a population in 1961 of 26,478, and is on the main road from .^jmer to Kotah.

BuNDi District includes many parts of the wild and hilly tract known historically as Haroti, inhabited by a large Mina population. It is watered by the Chambal and Mej rivers. Area 2,148 sq.mi.; pop. (1961) 358,010.

a tract in central India,

like the

Isolated hills

Banda and Hamirpur were transferred to the latter. In 1809 Ajaigarh was besieged by a British force, and again three years later Kalinjar was besieged and taken after a heavy loss. In the districts of

turbances.

II he served with the U.S. joint chiefs of staff,

joined the United Nations secretariat as director of the division of

4.09

In 1545 Sher Shah Sur, who had ousted the Mogul emperor Humayun, invaded Bundelkhand but lost his life while besieging the strong fortress of Kalinjar. In 1 569 Kalinjar surrendered to Akbar. Guerrilla warfare continued but the Bundelas were never fully subdued. With the decline of Mogul power the Marathas gradually extended their influence over Bundelkhand, and in 1 792 the peshwa was acknowledged as the lord paramount of the country. The Maratha power was, however, on the decline; and by the treaty concluded between the peshwa and the British government, the Jumna.

good, the size of the finds

is

now

small.

History. The earliest dynasty recorded to have ruled Bundelkhand, or Jekakabhukti. was that of the Gaharwars, who were succeeded by the Pratiharas. About a.d. 800 the Pratiharas were ousted by the Chandels. who were probably of Gond origin. By the early part of the 1 1th century the Chandels had extended their sway over the country between the Jumna and the Narmada, They

proved no match for the Muslim invaders and their ruler, Ganda, surrendered to Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1182 the Chandel dynasty was overthrown by Prithvi Raj, the ruler of Ajnier and Delhi, after which the country remained in ruinous anarchy until the close of the 14th century, when the Bundelas. who claimed descent from the Gaharwars. established themselves on the right bank of

The princely state of Bundi, with which the modern district corresponds, was founded about a.d. 1342 by the Chauhan Rajput chief Rao Dewa or Deoraj. who captured the town from the Minas. Its importance, however, dates from the time of Rao Surjan, who succeeded to the chieftainship in 1554 and by throwing in his with the Muslim emperors of Delhi (1569) received a considerable accession of territory. In the 17th century their pow-er was curtailed by the division of Haroti into the two states of Kotah and Bundi; but the title of maharao raja was conferred on Budh Singh for the part played by him in securing the imperial throne for Bahadur Shah I after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. In 1804 the maharao raja Bishan Singh gave valuable assistance to Col. William Monson in his disastrous retreat before Jaswant Rao Holkarand in 1818, by a treaty concluded with Bishan Singh, Bundi was taken under British protection, and was subsequently controlled through the Eastern Rajputana subagency of Rajputana. It was absorbed into Rajasthan on April 18, 1948. (S. M. T. R.) a form of dwelling, typically of one story and with a wide veranda, which originated in India and became populot

BUNGALOW,

lar in

Europe and the U.S.

BUNIN, IVAN ALEKSEEVICH

(1870-1953) Russian poet and novelist, the first Russian to receive the Nobel prize for hterature (1933j, was born in Voronezh, Oct. 22 (new style; old 1870. He worked as a journalist and as a clerk and wrote and translated poetry, publishing his first volume For his translation of Longfellow's Hiawatha he was awarded a Pushkin prize in 1903 by the Russian Academy, which later elected him an honorary fellow 1909). He also translated Byron's Manfred and Cain. Bunin, whose poetry had a Parnassian ring, belonged to the post-Pushkin tradition and had no style, 10),

later

of verse in 1891.

(

BUNKER— BUNKERING

4-IO

use for modern avant-garde trends. He made his name as a shortstory writer, with such masterpieces as "Gospodin iz San-Frantsisko," the title piece in one of his collections (1916; Eng. trans,

wings, the left under Pigot to attack the redoubt from the southeast, the right under Howe to get behind the fort and breastwork by marching northward along the bank of the Mystic.

by D. H. Lawrence, S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, The Gentleman from San Francisco, 1922). His last book of stories, Temnye allei (Eng. trans. Dark Avenues, 1949), was published in 1943. His longer works include Derevnya (1910; Eng. trans. The Village 1923), Mitina lyiibov (192S; Eng. trans. Mitya's Love, 1926). Zhizn Arsenyeva ("The Life of Arsenev"), a fictional autobiography (1930; Eng. trans. The Well of Days, 1933) and its sequel, Lika (1939). and two volumes of memoirs, Okayannye dni (1926, "The Accursed Days") and Vospominaniya (1950; Eng. trans. Memories and Portraits, 1951). He also wrote books on

Howe's advance was stopped by a deadly fire from a body of Connecticut, New Hampshire and Massachusetts troops, some detached by Prescott, others sent to the front when the British move-

Tolstoy {Osvobozhdenie Tolstogo, "Tolstoy's Liberation," 1937) and Chekhov, both of whom he knew personally. The latter book, Chekhove, remained unfinished and was published posthumously Bunin traveled much, visiting Palestine, Eg>'pt, India (1955). and Ceylon. In 1919 he left Russia and settled in France. He died in Paris, Nov. 8, 1953. Bunin is one of the best Russian stylists. Most of his work has been translated into EngHsh and other European languages. After his death some of his works were reissued in the Soviet Union.

—

Bibliography. C. Ledre, Trots romanciers russes (n. d. c. 1935) R. Poggioli, "The Art of Ivan Bunin," in The Phoenix and the Spider (1957; also in Harvard Slavic Studies, vol. i, 1953), The Poets of Russia, 1S90-1930 (1960); Gleb Struve, "The Art of Ivan Bunin," The Slavonic and East European Review, vol. xi, no. 32, pp. 423-36 ;

(1933).

BUNKER

;

(G.St.)

HILL,

the

name

of a hill in Charlestown, Mass.,

famous in connection with one of the most important engagements, June 17, 1775. in the American Revolution. Within two months after the day of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775), Massachusetts. Connecticut, New Hampshire and Rhode Island had assembled over 15,000 troops in the neighbourhood of Boston to prevent the 5,000 or more British troops stationed there under Gen. Thomas Gage from making further sallies, and perhaps, when enough heavy artillery and ammunition had been collected, to drive them away. Gen. Artemas Ward, with headquarters at Cambridge, was commander in chief of the Massachusetts troops and the senior New England ofiicer. There were two obvious points from which Boston was vulnerable to artillery fire. One was Dorchester heights, southeast of Boston at that time confined to a peninsula extending into Boston bay from the south. The other consisted of two high hills. Bunker's (110 ft.) and Breed's (75 ft.) on the Charlestown peninsula jutting southeastward into the bay, to within about a quarter of a mile of the north shore of Boston. As early as May 12 the Massachusetts committee of safety had recommended fortifying Bunker's hill but nothing had come of the proposal. By the middle of June, hearing that Gage was about to occupy this hill (he was, in fact, planning first to occupy Dorchester heights), the committee of safety and a council of war from among the higher officers of the besieging forces decided to forestall him. On the evening of June 16 about 800 Massachusetts and 200 Connecticut troops, under the command of Col. William Prescott of Massachusetts, were detached to carry out the project, but by some error, never explained, Prescott was ordered to fortify Breed's hill, which, though nearer Boston than Bunker's, was not only lower but could be more easily surrounded by the British. Prescott and his men had completed a redoubt (dirt fort), about 44 yards square, on the top of Breed's hill (now commonly called Bunker hill) by the time they were discovered by the British at daybreak of the 17th. Despite a cannonade by guns from British men-of-war in the harbour and from a battery on Copp's hill in north Boston, they were able further to strengthen their position during the morning by building a breastwork about 100 yd. long running northward down the slope of the hill toward the Mystic river.

On learning of the New Englanders' seizure of Breed's hill. Gage sent over a detachment of 2,300 or more troops under Maj. Gen. William Howe, with Brig. Gen. Robert Pigot, second in command, to dislodge or capture them. The British, landing without opposition under protection of British artillery fire, were divided into two

ment

to attack became known. Posting themselves behind a rail fence hastily stuffed with grass, hay and brush, they pluckily held

were very near. Pigot, too, was at first checked by a heavy fire from the redoubt and adjacent breastwork, but, on the second or third advance, he carried the redoubt and forced the surviving defenders, many of whom had exhausted their ammunition and were without bayonets, to flee. Their retreat was covered by the men at the fence, who now also retreated, and by New England reinforcements, spurred to the front by Gen. Israel their fire until the British

Putnam of Connecticut. The casualties, particularly the British, were extremely heavy in proportion to the number of troops engaged. The Americans lost about 450 killed, wounded and captured, the British 1,054 and wounded, including 89 officers. Among the Americans killed was Gen. Joseph Warren of Massachusetts who had

killed

who were

entered the redoubt as a volunteer. If the British had followed their taking of the Charlestown peninsula by the seizure of Dorchester heights their victory at Breed's hill might perhaps have been worth the heavy cost. But, presumably because of their heavy losses there and the fighting spirit displayed by the "rebels," the British commanders abandoned or indefinitely postponed their plan to occupy Dorchester heights.

Consequently, when Washington (who took command two weeks later) had collected enough heavy guns and ammunition to threaten Boston, he was able, in March 1776, to seize and fortify Dorchester heights without opposition and compel the British to evacuate the town and harbour. Another important effect from the American standpoint was that the lack of organization and discipline, especially among the Massachusetts officers and men, many of

whom

held back when sent to reinforce the troops at Breed's hill, gave impetus to Washington's efforts to correct these defects. Had the American volunteers been easily driven from their fortified position on Breed's hill by the troops of George III, resistance to the British government conceivably would have died out in North America through the colonists' lack of confidence. The battle of

Bunker

Hill, as

it is

commonly

called, reassured the colonists that

so overwhelming as to deny the See also American Revolution.

them were not

the odds against

prospect of ultimate success.

—

Bibliography. Allen French, The First Year of the American Revolution (1934) Harold Murdock, Bunker Hill (1927) Richard Frothingham, History of the Siege of Boston (especially the appendix containing important contemporary documents) (1896). (B. Kn.) ;

;

BUNKERING,

SHIP. This term denotes the process of derived from the word "bunker," a compartment on shipboard for storing fuel. Coal bunkering has naturally been in use ever since steamships came into existence. In the early fueling a ship

days

it

and

is

was performed by hand and was an extremely slow process.

To

decrease the time required for bunkering, either for fuel or for cargo, and thus decrease the cost of the operation, various types of mechanical bunkering devices have been developed to reduce a

important economic aspect in ship operation. been replaced, except for small commercial vesthus the loading of coal applies primarily to coal as a

ship's time in port, an

Coal as a sels,

by

fuel has

oil

;

cargo.

Coal Bunkering Devices. is

—The

De Mayo

bunkering device

a completely enclosed bucket elevator, suspended singly or in

series

from the

ship's tackle or

from the boom of a coaling barge;

it

discharges coal from barges alongside, both inshore and offshore, and at the intake porthole. With this system, portable conveyors

employed for trimming the coal in the bunkers, i.e., from one spot to another, or for loading through deck:

are sometimes

moving

it

hatches in connection with a portable elevator. The Suisted bunkering elevator consists essentially of a bucket mounted on two pontoons with room between for the coal barges one of the pontoons contains the generating plant for power and light while the other provides accomelevator and band conveyor ;

;

—

;

BUNNER— BUNSEN modations for the crew. It is so built that the upper structure straddles the barges to be unloaded, devouring their contents and disgorging them into the bunkers of a vessel. The important feature is the way in which the bucket elevator is mounted between the two pontoons, so that it can be raised and lowered mechanically from side to side in order to pick up the coal with the minimum amount of trimming. Oil Fuel Bunkering. Until such time as the propulsion of vessels by nuclear fission has become commonplace and ships no longer require conventional fuels, oil will be the fuel that propels them

—

over the sea lanes.

Oil has a great

many

points in

favour.

its

There are approximately 18,500 British thermal units (B.T.U.) per pound in liquid residual fuel against only 14,300 B.T.U. per pound in coal. Oil can be carried in spaces aboard ship that would be impractical for the carriage of coal

—

as in shallow double botrequires less bunker space, less handling and lends itself to speedy dispatch. When using oil there is no dust and very little

toms.

It

smoke; trimming disposed of.

no longer necessary and no ashes have to be makes unnecessary the large engine-room handle coal. In addition, modern high-pressure is

Oil also

crew needed to boilers cannot be fired with coal. The physical task of bunkering a ship with oil, compared to coal, is an extremely simple one. Vessels can be bunkered at a loading pier, oil dock or at anchor; in specialized cases vessels can even be bunkered while underway at sea. In essence, bunkering entails a hose or pipe connection between a storage tank and the ship with valves to control the flow. Most modern ports can bunker ships either by a system of fixed pipes and portable hoses or from oil barges without interfering with cargo or passenger operations.

Fueling Stations.

— In

the latter half of the 19th century, as

steam vessels replaced sailing ships in ocean transport, the trade of the world began to settle down upon fixed routes and, with the opening of the Suez and Panama canals, the great sea lanes encompassing the globe were completed. Along these lanes fueling stations sprang up at ports where merchant ships found it convenient to replenish their bunkers.

provements

The increased

size of ships,

im-

steam engine, the use of

oil fuel and the introduction of the internal-combustion engine added greatly to the time that ships could remain at sea without refueling. As a re-

the

in

some of the older coahng stations decreased in importance, while others, under the influence of oil, grew rapidly. At terminal ports on the great trade routes the bunkering trade, which carried sult

or coal

oil

from

its

sources to the fueling stations, formed no small of the world. Modern navies depended al-

commerce most entirely upon oil

part of the

for fuel and the fueling stations were consequently reorganized according to the needs of each individual nation.

—

Bunkering At Sea Naval vessels of all the great maritime powers are able to transfer fuel, supplies, water, ammunition and personnel from one ship to another at sea. This greatly increases their ability to stay at sea for long periods.

During World

War

II,

example, some ships cruised for several months without hav-

for

ing to return to port.

In general the

at sea

may

—

operation.

The destroyer approaches the tanker at a speed of three to four knots faster than the tanker and slows down to the same speed as the tanker when her forward fueling connection is abreast of the red

flag. In good weather the ships are approximately SO rough weather this interval may be increased to as

120

The

abeam

ft.

apart

much

as

indicated by a distance line. When the ships are in position the tanker throws a small line to the destroyer or, if the distance is too great, shoots a line ft.

desired distance

sea; the close-in rig, the

Elkwood

rig

and the Elkomin

rig.

These

being in the manner of hose between the ships. The transfer of supplies, personnel and ammunition is made as follows The supply ship sends to the receiving ship a rope or wire

rigs are similar, the principal difference

attaching and supporting the

oil

;

which

made

on the receiving ship and kept taut by the supis rolled back and forth on the rope or wire by two lines, one to haul out and one to haul in. Supplies and mail are handled by a hook suspended from the block. Men are transferred in special chairs, or in litters if they are injured. Bunkering at sea is mainly a support function for combat ships and is only an emergency measure for merchant ships. (M. O'N.) BUNNER, (1855-1896), U.S. writer of verse and fiction set mainly in New York city. He was born in Oswego, N.Y., Aug. 3, 1855, and died in Nutley, N.J., May 11, 1896. Educated in New York city, Bunner, after a brief experience as clerk in an importing house, turned to journalism, serving on the staff of the Arcadian and at 22 becoming assistant editor and later editor of Puck until his death on May 11, 1896. Since the staff of the comic weekly was very small and the funds were limited, there were many weeks when he wrote nearly half the issue. He developed Puck from a new, struggling periodical into a powerful social and political organ. In both his fiction and his charming vers de socicte, French influence is dominant. Made in France, French Tales Retold with a United States Twist (1893) and to a lesser extent his other stories reveal his indebtedness to Maupassant and other French masters. Technical dexterity, playfulness and smoothness of finish mark his prose as well as his verse Airs from Arcady and Elsewhere (1884), Rowen (1892) and, posthumously. Poems (1896). Bunner published several novels, including The Midge (1886) and The Story of a New York House (1887), but these are surpassed by his stories and sketches. Short Sixes (1890), More Short Sixes (1894), In Partnership (with Brander Matthews, 1884), Zadoc Pine (1891), Love ifi Old Clothes (1S96) and Jersey Street and Jersey La7ie (1896). A collected edition of his Poems, with an introductory note by Brander Matthews, appeared in 1912. The best of his Stories were republished in 1916. An edition of them in 1917 included Short Sixes and The Suburban Sage, the latter is

plying ship.

fast

A

single block

HENRY CUYLER

Of several plays (chiefly written was the Tower of Babel (1883).

originally published in 1896.

method of bunkering

be summarized as follow^s. Let us say the ship to be fueled is a destroyer and the ship furnishing the fuel is a tanker. The smaller ship makes the approach on the larger one. Before the approach is made, preliminary preparations must be completed on the tanker and destroyer the oil hoses readied, a red flag placed over the side to indicate the fueling station, telephones made ready for communication between the bridges of the two ships and the fueling stations, heaving lines, blocks and various gear readied for the

in

411

over by a line-throwing gun. Distance line and telephones are attached to the heaving line and hauled to the destroyer. A larger line, about 3 in. in circumference, called a messenger, is sent over to the destroyer. The messenger is used to haul the fuel oil hose aboard the destroyer. The oil hose is then attached to a fueling connection and the fueling begins. One ship does not tow the other during the fueling operation. At completion of fueling, oil hoses and lines are hauled aboard the tanker, the destroyer increases speed and goes on out ahead. Alertness of all hands plus the cushioning effect of the seas entering the narrow space between the ships renders the danger of collision during a fuehng operation very slight. The U.S. navy uses three systems, or rigs, to transfer fuel at

is

in collaboration) the best

See Gerard E. Jensen, Life and Letters (1940).

BUNSEN, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS,

Freiherr von

(I791-1S60), Prussian diplomat, orientalist and theologian, espe-

was Waldeck on Aug. 2 5, 1791, the son of an indiDutch origin. He studied theology, law and classical

cially distinguished in the ecclesiastical pohtics of his time,

born at Korbach gent officer of

in

and oriental languages and literature at Marburg, Gottingen and Jena and traveled extensively with the young W. B. Astor, son of the U.S. financier J. J. Astor. In 1817 he married a rich Englishwoman, Frances Waddington. A true child of German classical idealism and the Romantic age and a scholar of orreat ability, he made the acquaintance of B. G. Niebuhr (q.v. j. who, after his appointment as Prussian minister to the Vatican (1816), secured for Bunsen the post of secretary to the mission there. Himself minister in succession to Niebuhr from 1823 to 1838, Bunsen continued the activities by which Niebuhr had made the Prussian legation the centre of the

German

cultural circle in

Rome

BUNSEN

4-12

he also brought about the foundation of the archaeological institute there. His attempt, however, in collaboration with F. A. von Spiegel, the CathoUc archbishop of Cologne, to resolve the conflict between Prussia and the Vatican over marriages between Catholics and Protestants by a circumvention of the ambiguous papal brief of 1S30 led to his recall from the mission. Meanwhile Bunsen's work on the liturgy of the Evangelical Union inaugurated by King Frederick William III of Prussia had

resulted in his enjoying a close understanding both with the king

and with the future Frederick William IV, based on their common religious attitude. It was in the spirit of this understanding that Bunsen conducted the successful negotiations for the foundation of an Anglo-Prussian bishopric of Jerusalem in

1841.

After a

became Prussian minister to perhaps the most exalted post in the Prussian There he proved his worth as an intermediary

short period in Bern (1839-41) he

London (1842-54)

—

diplomatic service. between English and

German scientific and cultural circles. Frederick William IV shared Bunsen's romantic-conservative

outlook, as

is

manifest

in their

the historian Leopold von

correspondence, which was used by in his study of Frederick Wil-

Ranke

liam (1873). Bunsen, however, was less orthodox in the manner of the post-Napoleonic restoration than this correspondence would suggest. Theologically, he remained a man of peace and reconciliation who rejected Catholicism but nevertheless respected it and who strove toward a unity of reconciliation between the various

Evangelical churches, including the Anglican. His book Zeichen der Zeit (1855; 3rd ed., 1856) defended the freedom of the Christian conscience against the then dominant reaction exemplified F. J. Stahl and W. E. von Ketteler. Politically, Bunsen was unable either to persuade Frederick William IV to make timely concessions to the constitutional demands of the period or to ease the tension between Prussia and Great Britain created by the Schleswig-Holstein question (it was much against his will that he signed the London protocol of May 8, 1852). His attempt at the outbreak of the Crimean War to bring Prussia over to the western camp came to nothing because of the opposition of the Prussian Conservatives, who persuaded the king to recall him from London in 1854. The last years of his life were spent in Heidelberg and in Bonn, where he devoted himself to the defense of his arguments in Zeichen der Zeit and to his always extensive researches in Egyptology, patristics, religious history and philosophy. He died in Bonn on Nov. 28, 1860. Bunsen's publications include Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte, five parts (1845-57); Die Deutsche Biindesverfassung three parts (1857-58). (1848) and Gott in der Geschichte See Frances von Bunsen, A Memoir of Baron Bunsen (1870) also the larger German edition by F. Nippold, C. C. Josias Freiherr von Bunsen. Aus seinen Briejen .... 3 vol. (1868-71). (Ha. H.) BUNSEN, (1811-1899), German chemist and pioneer in the field of spectrum analysis, was bom at Gottingen on March 31, 181 1. He was professor of chemistry at Kassel, Marburg, Breslau and, from 1852 to a few months before his death on Aug. 16, i8qq, at Heidelberg. His first important research work was concerned with the cacodyl compounds, though he had already, in 1834, discovered the virtues of freshly precipitated hydrated ferric oxide as an antidote to arsenical poisoning. He began his research in cacodyl compounds in 1837 at Kassel, and during the six years he spent upon it he not only lost the sight of one eye through an explosion but nearly killed himself by arsenical poisoning. It represents almost his only excursion into organic chemistry, and is of historical interest as being the forerunner of the fruitful investigations on the organometallic compounds subsequently carried out by his English pupil, Edward Frankland. Simultaneously with his work on cacodyl, he was studying the composition of the gases given off from blast furnaces.

by

.

.

.

;

.

.

.

,

the carbon-zinc electric

employed

which

cell,

is

known by

his

name; he

first

and showed that from 44 equal to 1,171.3 candles could be obtained with the consumption of one pound of zinc per hour. To measure this light he designed in 1844 the grease-spot photometer. In 1852 he began to carry out electrolytical decompositions by the aid of the battery. He obtained magnesium for the first time in the metallic state, and studied its chemical and physical properties, among other things demonstrating the brilliance and high actinic qualities of the flame it gives when burned in air. From 1855 to 1863 he published with H. E. Roscoe a series of investigations on photochemical measurements, which W. Ostwald has called the "classical example for all future researches in physical chemistry." He is generally credited with the invention of the Bunsen burner it

to

produce the

electric arc,

cells a light

iq.v.).

Other appliances invented by him were the ice calorimeter (1870), the vapour calorimeter (1887) and the filter pump (1868). In 1846 he paid a visit to Iceland. There he investigated the phenomena of the geysers. But the most far-reaching of his many achievements was the elaboration, about 1859, jointly with G. R. Kirchhoff, of spectrum analysis. It led Bunsen himself almost immediately to the isolation of two new elements of the alkali group, cesium and rubidium. Having noticed some unknown lines in the spectra of certain salts he was examining, he set to work to obtain the substance or substances to which these were due. To this end he evaporated large quantities of the Diirkheim mineral water; he dealt with 40 tons of the water to get about 17 grams of the mixed chlorides of the two substances, and with about one-third of that quantity of cesium chloride was able to prepare the most important compounds of the element and determine their characteristics, even making goniometrical measurements of their crystals. See Chemistry: Analytical Chemistry. See also Index references under "Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm"

in the

Index volume.

See Sir Henry Roscoe's "Bunsen Memorial Lecture," Trans. Chem. Sac, 1900, which is reprinted (in German) with other obituary notices in an edition of Bunsen's collected works published by Ostwald and Bodenstein in 3 vol. at Leipzig in 1904.

BUNSEN BURNER, predetermined quantity of gas

is

ignited.

it mixes a stream of gas before the and air are correct the re-

a burner so designed that air with the

If the proportions of gas

The invention of this is hot and nonluminous. widely-used burner is ascribed to Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (g.v.), sulting flame

though investigations have proved that the credit for the actual design should go to Peter Desdga, if not to Michael Faraday (g.v.) who had previously designed an adjustable burner on this

;

ROBERT WILHELM

He show-ed that in German furnaces nearly half the heat yielded by the fuel was being allowed to escape with the waste gases, and when he investigated the conditions in English furnaces, he found the waste to amount to over 80%. These researches led to the elaboration of Bunsen's famous methods of measuring gaseous volumes, etc., which form the subject of the only book he ever published (Gasometrische Methoden, 1857). In 1841 he invented

principle.

The simple idea, attributed to Bunsen, of admitting air into a tube along with gas to produce a hot nonluminous flame is incorporated in the construction of millions of burners for heating and lighting purposes. The Bunsen flame results when air and gas are admitted in the proportion of about three volumes of air to one of gas; this mixture proBURNER TUBE duces the inner lower cone of the flame, evolving a mixture of water vapour, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The water gas and nitrogen reach the outer combustion zone ADJUSTABLE ,GAS VALVE

GASjNUT

^^--- tiliS"

where the water gas becomes burned up by the ordinary, or secondary, air supply. Various j5 fusion, oxidation and reduction, are obtainable with gffgj.(5^

the flame

and blowpipe.

Certain

metallic salts impart characteristic

coloration

to

the

otherwise

colourless flame. coujTESY OF THE cENiBAL SCIENTIFIC CO.

ADjusTABLE BUNSEN BURNER

Vaoeties of kboratory BunSens are chiefly distinguished by

,

BUNTING—BUNYAN improvements

in the control

and mixing of the

air

and

gas, giving

greater heating powers and enabling different sizes of flames to Among the most efficient of these are the Meker be obtained.

and the Fisher burners. Numerous fittings are made to go on the top of the tube for spreading the ffame, or for taking special holding devices. Several designs avoid the fault of the ordinary central gas jet, which may become choked up by matter falling down the tube, the gas being brought in at the side and the air at the bottom, with a coned regulator raised and lowered by a knob. Marshall's burner has a flat regulator working beneath Burners may be constructed to burn coal gas, oil gas, the base. acetylene or natural gas.

The Bunsen burners fitted to incandescent lights, the so-called Welsbach burners, require careful manufacture to ensure satisfactory results. The jet or injector must be exactly central with the Bunsen tube, and the interior surfaces finished smoothly and straight, with no raggedness at the orifice; otherwise the flame will not "fit" and heat the mantle properly. (F. H.) BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858), English Wesleyan minister whose determination to implement Wesley's ideas of ministerial supervision led him into conflict with the Methodist conference, was born in Manchester on May 13, 1779. After four years studying medicine, he began at the age of 19 to preach, being officially accepted as a minister in 1803. In 1835 he was appointed president of the first Wesleyan theological college at Hoxton, after the secession of Samuel Warren, a violent defender of lay privileges. Bunting was president of the conference in 1820. 1828, 1836 and 1844 and also acted as secretary of the "Legal Hundred," one of its committees, and, for 18 years, as secretary of the Wesleyan Missionary society. His attempts to secure what he called "the rightful authority of the pastorate" were defeated only after his death with the admission in 1878 of laymen to the annual conference. He died in London on June 16, 1858. His eldest son, William, was also a distinguished Wesleyan minister. See T. P. Bunting, Life of Jabez Bunting (1859) Bunting, the last Wesleyan (1955).

BUNTING,

common

the

English

name

;

J.

Kent, Jabez

of birds of the genus

members of the family Fringillidae. They are distinguished by the angular gape, bony knob on the palate and hairlike Eniberiza,

The corn bunting (E. calandra) inhabits Europe and most of Asia, nesting on the ground and forming flocks The voice is harsh. The even commoner yellow bunting or yellowhammer (E. citrinella) is widely distributed and its monotonous song (often rendered streaks on the eggs.

in winter.

"A-little-bit-of-bread-and-no-

'S'iK^l^f^'^l

as

"j^,(^K«

cheese")

'

land.

'll^ ^jfe'V.l^

cirltis), is

is very familiar in EngThe cirl bunting (£. with an olive-green head,

somewhat more southerly. The

bunting (E. schoenichis) recognized by its black head and white collar, is common in reed

marshy

places, to the exclusion

of the other species.

The snow

bunting iPlectrophenax nivalis) breeds farther north than any other true perching bird (passerine), reaching Spitzbergen. Of the American forms, the blackthroated bunting or dickcissel iq.v.; Spiza americana) inhabits CORN BUNTING (EHBERIZA CALAN the open country in central states, DRA) where it is migratory; the baywinged bunting or vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus gramineiis) of eastern

Canada and the U.S.

is

distinguished

by

its

chestnut wings; the lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) of the western states resembles a lark in habits and has a brilliant song. American buntings in general are brilliantly coloured.

Among them

are the indigo, lazuli and painted buntings (nonbelonging to the genus Passerina.

pareil; q.v.). all

See also Ortolan; Indigo Bunting.

BUNTLINE, NED:

see Judson,

Edward Zane Carroll.

BUNYAN, JOHN

+13

(1628-1688), English Puritan minister and preacher, and the author of The Pilgrim's Progress, was the greatest literary genius produced by the Puritan movement. He was born at Elstow near Bedford in Nov. 1628, the son of Thomas Bunyan, a brazier or traveling tinker, and came of a local yeoman family which in the 17th century was in decline. He learned to read and write at a local school, perhaps a grammar school; when in The Pilgrim's Progress he quotes a phrase in Latin he says: "The Latine I borrow"; and he declares elsewhere that he was brought up "among a multitude of poor plowmen's children." He probably left school early to learn the family trade. More important than formal schooling in the training of Bunyan's mind and imagination in these early years was his reading. He absorbed with delight the chapbooks of chivalric adventure such as Bevis of Southampton and The Seven Champ!07is of Christendom, which were sold at fairs like the great one held annually at Stourbridge near Cambridge; and also the varied popular literature of English Puritanism: tracts and sermons, books of melodramatic judgments and providences, sugared pills of doctrine in the form of homely dialogue and plain-spoken anecdote, and Foxe's Book of Martyrs, with the fearsome woodcuts of the Elizabethan edition. Above all. he read the English Bible which he seems to have known both in the Authorized Version and in the Geneva one preferred by many Puritans up to the mid- 17th century. It was wholly to the advantage of his development as an imaginative writer that his parents should have been "of the national church" (that is, the Church of England), and that he should have had access as a boy to the general store of country lore and tradition of which a narrower sectarian upbringing might have deprived him. Little else is known of his childhood, but he speaks in his autobiography (Grace Abounding) of being troubled by fearful dreams and visions. It may be that there was a pathological side to the nervous intensity of these fears; in the religious crisis of his early manhood his sense of guilt took the form of delusions of hearing and touch. Certainly it seems to have been an abnormal sensitiveness combined with the convert's tendency to exaggeration which made him look back on himself in early youth as "the very ring-leader of all the Youth that kept me company, into all manner of vice and ungodliness," In 1644 a series of hammer blows separated the country boy from his family and drove him into the world. His mother died in June, his younger sister Margaret in July; in August his father married a third wife. In November he was mustered in a parliamentary levy and sent to reinforce the garrison at Newport Pagnell, an important point on the lines of communication between the midlands and the south during the Civil War. The governor was Sir Samuel Luke, immortalized by Samuel Butler in Hudibras. In Newport Bunyan remained till June 1647 and saw little fighting, though once when he was "drawn out to go to such a place to besiege it," a comrade took his place and was shot, so that he later felt he had been preserved by divine providence. Bunyan's military service, even if uneventful, brought him in touch with the seething religious life of the left-wing sects within the army, the preaching captains, and those Quakers, Seekers and Ranters who questioned the authority of the army itself. Luke had trouble with many such religious agitators passing through his garrison; in this atmosphere Bunyan became acquainted with the prime notion of the enthusiastic sectaries, shared alike by Cromwell and his meanest trooper, that the effort toward religious truth meant an obstinate search, often from sect to sect, relying on free grace revealed to the individual, and condemning all forms of organization as "legal and dark." The devotion both in prayer and tactics of the New Model army left an indelible impression on him which is recalled later in the preaching, drilling captains. Credence and Boanerges, of the army of Shaddai in The Holy War. Some time after his discharge from the arm;, jin July 1647). and before 1649, Bunyan married. He says that he and his wife "came together as poor as poor might be, not having so much houshold-stuff as a dish or spoon betwixt us both." Their first child, a blind daughter Mary, was baptized in July 1650. Three more children, Elizabeth, John and Thomas, were born to Bunyan's first wife before her death in 1658. The record of Elizabeth's

BUNYAN

414

birth in the transcript register of Elstow shows that she, too,

was

baptized there in 16S4, though Bunyan had himself by this time been baptized by immersion as a member of the Bedford separatist church. As her dowry his first wife brought to him the awakening books Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Path-way to Heaven and Lewis Bayly's The Practice of Piety ; the former taught him that

even a manual of instruction could employ racy colloquialisms and salt its precepts with homely proverbs. Marriage was followed by a gradual process of conversion (1650-55) described in the autobiography, and including agonizing temptations to spiritual despair which lasted for many years. After an initial period of legal conformity in which he went regularly to church and looked with awe at the "priest" and his "vestments" (probably at this period a plain Geneva gown) he gave up, slowly and grudgingly, his favourite recreations of dancing and bell ringing and engaging in sports on the village green, and began to concentrate solely on his inner life. Calvinism led him by means of the grim doctrine of election and reprobation to question his own chances of salvation. The "storms" of temptation, as he calls them, buffeted him with almost physical violence; voices urged him to blasphemy; the texts of scripture which most alarmed him took on personal shape and "did pinch him very sore." Finally one morning he believed that he had surrendered to these voices of Satan and betrayed Christ: "Down I fell as a bird that is shot from the tree." It was only slowly and painfully that he emerged from this period of spiritual darkness, feeling that his sin was "not unto death" and that there were texts to comfort as well as to terrify; he was aided in his recovery by his discovery of the separatist church of Bedford and its dynamic leader John Gifford. He entered into full communion with it about 1655. The Bedford community was not strictly Baptist, though it practised adult baptism by immersion, but an open-communion church, admitting all who professed "faith in Christ and holiness of life."

ment but in the first, soon after the composition of Grace Abounding and when the examination of his inner life contained in that book was still strong upon him. The composition of the allegory was thus dated by those contemporaries who wrote obituary accounts and the knowledge remained current to be repeated by Robert Southey and Lord Macaulay. In 1672-73 Bunyan entered into controversy with William Kitfin and other London Baptists for his open-communion principles. In succeeding years he often preached in Congregational churches in London, for his fame as a preacher was now increased by his literary reputation. The spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, had been published in 1666; there followed, after The Pilgrim's Progress (1678), The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680), The Holy War (1682), and the Second Part of The Pilgrim's Progress (1684), as well as a stream of doctrinal and controversial treatises. But it was The Pilgrim's Progress which speedily found its way into every home and carried Bunyan's reputation to every part of the British Isles, to Europe and to America.

Under James II, when the last wave of persecution overtook Bunyan protected his family by a deed of gift trans-

the dissenters, ferring

"my

property to

his

all

well-beloved

wife,

Elizabeth

Bunyan" (Dec. 1685). In 1687 he shrewdly resisted the blandishments of James II's agent Lord Aylesbury, and his offer of an official position, while at the same time obtaining seats for members of his church on the reorganized corporation of Bedford.

He

died

on Aug. 31, 1688, in London after one of his journeys to preach there; he had ridden out of his way through heavy rain to Reading to settle a quarrel between father and son, and contracted a fever (probably pneumonia). He was buried in Bunhill Fields, the burying-ground for Nonconformists in the City of London. An anonymous biographer describes him as "Tall of Stature, strong boned, though not corpulent somewhat of a Ruddy Face, with sparkling eyes, wearing his hair on his upper lip, after the old British fashion ... his forehead something high and his habit always plain and modest." This agrees with the fine pencil drawing by Robert White (British museum, London, Cracherode collection) where the heavy face is given distinction by the strong nose and alert, humorous eyes.

Bunyan soon proved his talents as an arousing preacher; fresh from his own experience of spiritual .desperation, he was fitted to warn and console others: "I went myself in Chains to preach to them in Chains, and carried that Fire in my own Conscience that I persuaded them to beware of." He was also active in visiting and exhorting the Brethren. The Restoration of Charles II brought to an end the ten years in which the separatists had enjoyed freedom of worship and exercised a measure of influence on public policy. On Nov. 12, 1660, at Lower Samsell in south Bedfordshire, Bunyan was brought before a local magistrate and charged under an old Elizabethan act with holding a conventicle. Since he refused to give an assurance that he would not preach again, he was condemned at the assizes in Jan. 1661 and imprisoned in the county jail in Bedford. (It was a county offense and, in spite of a persistent legend, he can at no time have been imprisoned in the small town lockup on the

Bunyan's missionary activity on the liberal wing of the churches was of major importance in the fenland counties and in certain

bridge

fulness

Ouse.)

In spite of the courageous efforts of his second wife (he had married again in 1659) to have his case brought up at the assizes he remained in prison for 12 years. He relieved his family by making and selling "many hundred gross of long Tagg'd laces" {An Account of the Life and Death of Mr. John Bunyati, 1692); at times conditions were lenient enough for him to be let out to visit friends and family and even to address meetings. He was released in March 1672 under Charles II's Declaration of Indulgence; the Bedford community had chosen him their pastor in January, "after much seeking God by prayer" (The Church

Book

across

of

the

Bedford Meeting) and

a

new meetinghouse was

obtained.

In May he received a licence to preach together with 25 other Nonconformist ministers in Bedfordshire and the surrounding counties.

His nickname "Bishop Bunyan" suggests that he became the organizing genius in the area. As persecution was renewed, he was again imprisoned for preaching to conventicles, this time for a period of about six months; a bond of surety for his release has survived dated June 1677, so it is likely that this second imprisonment was in the first half of that year. Since The Pilgrim's Progress was published soon after this, in Feb. 1678, Bunyan had probably begun to write it, not in the second imprison-

THE WRITER AND HIS WORKS

the broad, "open-communion" stand he took long prevented him from receiving the attention he deserved as a religious leader from Baptist or Congregational historians, but

London congregations;

this

also

was amply compensated for by Congregationalism.)

Style.

—His

his

fame

as a writer.

literary achievement, in his finest works,

is

(See

by no

,

by earnest force-and the occasional happy expression which redeems the general crudity of uneducated speech (though this has been the view of many of his critics). His handling of language, colloquial

means

that of a naively simple talent, sustained

or biblical, of

it

is

that of an accomplished artist; so

to purposes as different as

social

satire,

is

j

l

his application

humour, heroic

splendour or the expression of religious fervour. He brings to human behaviour shrewd aw-areness and moral subtlety, and in both his autobiography and his allegories he demonstrates a faculty for endowing the conceptions of evangelical theology with concrete life and acting out the theological drama in terms of flesh and blood. He thus presents a paradox, since the impulse which originally drove him to write was purely to celebrate his faith and to convert others, and like other Puritans he was schooled to despise the adornments of s_tyle and to treat literature as a means to an end. As he says in the preface to Grace Abounding: I could have stepped into a Style much higher than this in which I have here Discoursed, and could have adorned all things more than here I have seemed to do but I dare not. God did his treatment of

i

i i\

;

not play in convincing of me the Devil did not play in tempting wherefore I may not but be plain and simple, and of me set down the thing as it was. ;

.

.

.

.

.

.

This effort to reach behind hterary adornments so as to obtain J

:

BUNYAN an absolutely naked rendering of the truth about his own spiritual experience causes him in Grace Aboimding to forge a highly origIn this style, rich in powerful physical imagery, the inal style. inner life of the Christian is described; body and soul are so involved that it is impossible to separate bodily from mental sufferHe feels "a clogging ing in the descriptions of his temptations. and a heat at my breast-bone as if my bowels would have burst out"; a preacher's call to abandon the sin of idle pastimes "did benumb the sinews of my best delights"; and he can say of one of the

him

te.xts

of scripture that echoed in his head and

to spell his

damnation that

it

seemed

"stood like a mill-post at

to

my

The attempt to communicate the existential crisis of the human person without style has created a style of its own. The prose of subjective analysis is Bunyan's first creative achievement. It was not produced without some external stimulaThe Calvinist tendency anxiously to probe the soul for tion. back."

tokens of election {i.e., predestined salvation) had led thousands of Bunyan's fellow countr>Tnen to think in this way, and some of them left spiritual autobiographies generally similar to his in form and treatment, if not in genius. What characterizes his treatment is his emphasis on the extreme loneliness of the convert's situation, the dreamlike isolation in which he interprets his inner conflicts. I lifted up my head, but methought I saw as if the sun that shineth in the heavens did grudge to give light, and as if the very stones in the street, and tiles upon the houses, did bend themselves against me methought that they all combined together to banish me out of the world. ;

In this isolation he attempts to see every incident, and every passage in the Bible, even if it is a historical one, as a guide to the condition of his soul: these words Simon, Simon, sounded in These texts did pinch me very sore. I had also once a sweet glance from that in Cor. 5.21

With a loud cry

my

learned this method of reading the Scriptures from in the years of sectarian ferment about 1650 (years crucial for his own growth), though he strenuously resisted their theology and their fanaticism. As well as this original instrument of a highly subjective prose style to express personal states of mind, Bunyan had at his dis-

Quakers and Ranters

posal the

more

traditional style he used in sermon, treatise and

scriptural exposition.

In the allegories some of his greatest imagi-

native successes are due to the development of the dreamlike, introspective style with its subtle personal music; but

it

is

the

workaday vigour and concreteness of the prose technique practised in the sermons which provide a firm stylistic background to these imaginative flights. The popular sermon manner is colloquial

common

with the

proverbial voice of folk tradition, whereas the Aboimding is the spontaneous outburst

colloquialism of Grace of a

man

in

agony.

In contrast to the acute class consciousness

some contemporary "mechanick preachers" Bunyan is completely natural in his use of common life and the culture of the of

countryside; in expounding the Gospel he can echo the very tones of the parables

agricultural

because he has grown up close to the

soil in

an

number

of

community.

In one sermon, for instance, he compares the small the elect to the gleanings in harvest:

are the gleanings to the whole crop? and yet you here You know it the gleanings are the saved compared often the cry of the poor in harvest, Poor gleaning, poor glean-

What see, to is

.

.

.

ing.

His comparisons always elucidate his moral message they appeal to common experience, and bring the preacher and his audience ;

nearer together in contexts where any suggestion of a literary flourish

would draw them apart:

Poor coming soul, thou art like a man that would ride fuU whose horse will hardly trot Now the desire of his mind is not to be judged by the slow pace of the dull jade he rides, but by the hitching and kicking and spurring as he sits on his

gallop,

!

back.

When Bunyan

later

came

of the proverbial

manner with

skilful moralizing:

His house is as empty of ReliKion as the white of an egg savour ... a saint abroad and a devil at home.

is

of

But by this time, in his fiction, the popular strength which he uses from time to time in the livelier sermons is diffused throughout the narrative in phrases like "all on a dung sweat," "loses his sheep for a halfpenny-worth of tar," "make hay while the sun shines'' and "she all-to-be-fooled me." The Pilgrim's Progress At the time when he wrote his autobiography (before 1666) Bunyan was still too near to his terrors and therefore too respectful of every detail of his religious experience to mold it creatively. In a few years, in The Pilgrim's Progress, probably composed later, in his first imprisonment, he was able to treat with more detachment both his conversion and the endurance of persecution which tested its reality. The process toward personification, already implicit in the language describing his fears, his doubts and the particular verses of the Bible which haunted him, is now completed. For instance, in Grace Abounding he saw the plight of his exclusion from the little band of Nonconformists at Bedford in the form of a vision; its geography

—

has the vagueness proper to a dweller in a

flat,

nondescript region

time the state and happiness of these poor people at Bedford was thus in a dream or vision presented to me. I saw, as if they were set on the sunny side of some high mountain, there refreshing themselves with the pleasant beams of the sun, while I was shivering and shrinking in the cold, afflicted with Methought also, betwixt me and frost, snow, and dark clouds. them, I saw a wall that did compass about this mountain ... At last I saw, as it were, a narrow gap like a little doorway in the wall, through which I attempted to pass, the passage being very strait and narrow ... At last with great striving methought I at first did get in my head, and after that, by a sideUng striving, my shoulders and my whole body.

About

this

ears.

He may have the

tic reality

415

to describe in his allegory the different

types of hypocrite and backslider he was able to combine the rus-

In The Pilgrim's Progress the little door in the wall reappears It is as the Wicket Gate, the entrance on the way to salvation. the symbol of Christ, who opens the door to Christian, weighed down by his burden. The vision of his conversion period has become a formal part of the allegory; the image, like so many in Bunyan, is based on a text: "Strive to enter in at the strait gate"; indeed the biblical influence is stronger on the form of the episodes in the allegory than on its language. Because it recapitulates in symbolic form the inner story of Bunyan's conversion, there is an intense, life-or-death quality about Christian's pilgrimage to the Heavenly City in the first part of The Pilgrim's Progress. The sense of urgency is established in the first scene as Christian in the City of Destruction reads in his book (the Bible) and breaks out with his lamentable cry, "What shall I do?" It is maintained by the combats with giants and monsters along the road; for although there is something of the hair-raising folk tale adventure dear to the childish imagination about these episodes, ApoUyon and Giant Despair embody The voices and demons of the Valley of the spiritual terrors. Shadow of Death are a direct transcription of Bunyan's compulsive and neurotic fears during his conversion. Episodes of stirring action like these alternate with more stationary passages: in the Interpreter's House Christian is shown a series of emblematic pictures, some traditional, some invented by Bunyan for the occasion, and there are various conversations between the pilgrims and those they encounter on the road, some pious, some providing light relief when hypocrites like Talkative and Ignorance are exThe halts at places of refreshment like the Delectable posed. Mountains or the meadow by the River of Life evoke in the simplest descriptive terms (the green pastures of the Psalms "beautified with lilies") an unearthly spiritual beauty. The narrative may seem episodic but Calvinist theology provides Only Christ, the Wicket Gate, a firm, underlying ground plan. admits Christian into the right road, and before he can reach it he has to be shown his error in being impressed by the pompous snob Worldly Wiseman, who stands for mere negative conformity Quite early in his journey Christian to moral and social codes. loses his burden of sin at the Cross, where it rolls from his shoulders into the sepulchre he receives white garments, a mark is set in his forehead, and he is presented with a roll with a seal upon ;

BUNYAN

4-i6 it

which he

is

to

hand

in at the Celestial Gate.

Christian

now

pardon of Christ and is nummight seem that all the crises of the

knows that he has received the

free

bered among the elect. It pilgrimage were past, yet this initiation of grace in the soul is not the end of the drama but the beginning. Christian, and the companions who Join him. Faithful and Hopeful, are fixed in the path of salvation, so that it is the horrors of the temptations they have to undergo, not the possibility that they may waver, which engage our attention. Likewise, when the pilgrims are plunged into the worldliness of Vanity Fair, Bunyan is illustrating the persecution the saints of God must endure. The most grievous temptations come when the bright hope of assured salvation is

dimmed, and Christian and Hopeful are

cast into the

dungeon of

Despair until the key called Promise (representing the assurances to the saints given by the Bible unlocks the door. Christian's agonized striving holds our attention because we look through his eyes and share his uncertainty about the outcome, even though on a longer view of the divine purpose there is no uncertainty. However, the narrative, so conscientiously symbolic throughout, does not lose the savour of common life. In the character sketches and humorous passages scattered through the book Bunyan's genius for realistic observation is exercised in a manner which prevents the conversion allegory from becoming too inward and obsessed. Faithful and Hopeful are not dimensional characters, but the charitable courtesies of their intercourse with Christian are touching and truthful, as when both Christian and Hopeful tr>' to take the blame for going aside into By-Path Meadow. In the pictures of the reprobate and the account of the ups and downs of the way there is a sharp eye for behaviour and a sardonic humour. A group of moral types is endowed with all the liveliness of individuals by a deft etching in of a few dominant features and gestures. The "very brisk lad" Ignorance, and Talkative, "a tall man, and something more comely at a distance than at hand," have the likeness of individual heretics while presenting their examples of typical heresies in the same way as the exempla of the medieval sermon; so has the shifty By- Ends. Tire Pilgrim's Progress is the culmination of the old allegory tradition, but whereas medieval allegory has different levels of meaning and suggestiveness, Bunyan sees only one thing at a time, or rather, in order to visualize a moral quality, he has to circumscribe it within the narrow but powerful outline of a type. His people could provide minor characters for a Restoration play or an ISth-century novel; even the heroic figure of Christian can appear later in a "character-part" as the seasoned spiritual campaigner who "snibbeth his fellow," the young Hopeful, and )

puts him in his place.

For after all Christian himself is a transcript Bunyan, the physician of souls with a shrewd eye for backsliders, had faithfully observed his own spiritual growth. A spurious Second Part of The Pilgrim's Progress, purporting Bunyan returned to to correct its frivolities, appeared in 1682. his dream and published his own continuation of the allegory in 1684. The atmosphere has changed: for the lonely, personal drama we have mellow reflection of personal experience; the emphasis is on the bustling life of the church and the social virtues of friendship and family responsibility. Women play a large part, as they had come to do in the Bedford congregation; and a special tenderness is shown to those with scruples of conscience which prevent them from entering into full communion with Nonconformist bodies. On the whole Bunyan has turned from high drama to comedy, and from poetry to efficient propaganda for open-

from

life;

communion

principles.

The

Christiana, sets out to follow

story

him

tells

how

Christian's

to the Celestial City,

wife,

accompa-

nied by her children and her friend Mercy. It is affection for Christiana rather than grace which sets Mercy on her way and The progress is gains for her admittance to the Wicket Gate. leisurely; the children grow up and marry and a bourgeois novel unfolds with charming, moralized pictures of courtship and domestic manners. But Bunyan can pull out the diapason and rise to the splendour of the final scene when the pilgrims cross the River of Death, chanting their formal, scriptural ejaculations of trust in

God's mercy. The Life and

Death

of Mr.

Badman.

— Bunyan had already

been prompted by the success of the first part of The Pilgrim's Progress to follow it with a study of the life of the reprobate. The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680). The tale is cautionary, related by an older Puritan to a younger one; it is not allegorical, but a primitive approach to the domestic middle-class novel as it was later to be developed by Defoe and Richardson. Though it lacks the emotional heights and depths of The Pilgrim's Progress it contains much hard, dry observation of manners intermingled with pious comment.

Badman

is

a highly unrealistic

compendium

of

all

the vices;

he has not the imaginative potentiality of Christian, who is Everyman. Realism enters into the admirable account of his commercial, middle-class background. He begins young with lying, swearing, stealing and sabbathbreaking. He runs away from a good master to serve one of like mind with himself; finally he persuades his father to set him up in a shop of his own where he can give free rein to his lusts,

and allows

the "jack-pay-for-all."

He

his loose

companions to make him by marrying a rich

retrieves his losses

orphan of godly upbringing. His courtship is a consummate piece of play-acting and provides a criticism of the evils of mixed marriages, for if The Pilgrim's Progress is the testament of the heroic spirit of earlier Puritanism, Badmaii reflects the problems encountered by Nonconformists as the tide of persecution withdrew and they began to find their place in the national hfe. Thus the sins chiefly denounced in Badman are those such as commercial dishonesty which were likely to bring the holy community into public contempt within the larger society. Bunyan's congregation contained alBuence, but his

many tradesmen

sympathy

still

lies

of varying degrees of with the poor countryman

dependent on the unscrupulous middleman in the town who can force up prices at a time of scarcity. He cherishes a medieval notion of the just price ("let the poor have a pennyworth, and sell thy Corn to those in necessity") while at the same time struggling to work out ethical standards suitable for the new competitive market. Sometimes the stress is laid on Badman's disorderly conduct of his affairs, sometimes his wealth is seen as a token of his inability to go through, the eye of the needle. Some of the best writing in the book is to be found in the additional anecdotes told by the narrator Wiseman to illustrate particular sins. These robust scarifying stories, in the tradition of the popular judgment books, speak with the voice of folk experi-

ence, reiterating a view of naturalistic restraint and that

is

common

sense

older than religious Puritanism.

The Holy War.

— Bunyan's

second allegory, The Holy War (1682), is a deeply meditated and carefully written work but it remains a splendid failure. Like many second novels by later writers it lacks the creative gusto which first impelled its author into fiction, and it suffers from an overambitious plan. The traditional metaphor of the Christian journey is true to the variety and unexpectedness of human life, while the metaphor of a military

'

is not. The perpetual tension, the strict division of characters into "friends" and "foes," which result from the choice

campaign

of allegorical setting, reflect also the Calvinist insistence on the total depravity of human nature; ordinary human beings are swallowed up by warring concepts. The city of Mansoul is besieged and taken by the devil. Diabolus, and his armies, and liberated by the prince Emanuel; later there is a second siege and a further rescue by Emanuel. The allegory is complex: the conversion and relapse of the individual soul, the grand theme of Grace Abounding and The Pilgrim's Progress, is treated once again; at another level there is the story of the Fall, the Redemption and the subsequent history of the church. There is also a more limited historical allegory in which Bunyan refers to the treatment of the godly in Charles II's reign; and a fourth theme concerns the millenarian hopes of the saints. There are noble echoes of Bunyan's earliest inspiration in the account of the marching and countermarching troops of Emanuel, and a certain top-heavy dignity in the whole grandiose plan of a work which comprehends the actions of Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained as only part of

its

material.

—

Bunyan's Reputation. Until the decline of religious faith and the great increase in books of popular instruction in the 19th


' strength in the 15th century. Jean, sieur de Montglat, a tax collector in Paris, had supplied artillery to the Burgundian and English forces in the Hundred Years' War before Charles VII of France took Paris (1436), He then adhered to Charles and was (d.

treasurer (1440), master of accounts (1443) and king's counselor (1444). He was in charge of the supply of artillery for the great sieges of Montereau (1438), Meaux (1439), Pontoise (1441 and Dax (1442) and discussed the terms for the capitulaGaspard, sieur de Villemomble, who tion of Bordeaux (1451). was more concerned with manufacture and who was appointed

made

)

master of the

artillery in 1444,

was associated with Jean

in all

BUREAUCRACY from 1441 and was appointed "reformer general and inspector of [)ublic works and workers" by Louis XI The brothers' artillery played a major part in the expediin 1461. tion to Lorraine (1444-45); in the siege of Cherbourg (1450), where they put their guns on the beach with leather bags to protect them from the tides; in the battles of Formigny and of Castillon (Qq.v.); and in the campaign in Spain (14611. They increased the supply of bombards and culverins and furnished wheeled gun carriages to make the artillery more mobile for use in the field. artillery enterprises

See L. L. Borrclli de Serres, Recherches sur divers services publics siecle, vol. iii (1909). (Ml. M.)

du Xllle au XVlIe

BUREAUCRACY

is

a

word

of

tain scholars, particularly those of

many

meanings. Among cerit is used in a com-

Germany,

and even laudatory sense to designate the permanent professional corps of officials. The word is employed to designate not only a permanent officialdom but temporary political officials or the behaviour and characteristics of individuals and groups of people in all types of largescale enterprise. As used in the English-speaking world, the word bureaucracy usually carries an invidious overtone and a charge of emotion. It has not been generally accepted as an objective, respectable

pletely

institution of a

also often

designation of a respected profession or of a type of social-administrative organization. There is, however, a growing tendency in social science literature to use the word bureaucracy to designate the world of officialdom as a social institution, there scientific

being no other term quite so convenient.

The words bureaucrat and bureaucratic have an even more negaconnotation in common English usage. The designation of

tive

an in

bureaucrat is almost invariably derogatory, whether Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, the Congressional Record

official as a

columns of British and U.S. journals.

or the editorial

word

The

fact

practically never used to designate a wise or reand that the word bureaucratic cannot properly be employed to designate fair, responsive and understanding administrative behaviour makes it difficult to secure acceptance of bureaucracy as a generic designation, carrying no critical connotation, for the increasing number of institutions employing people compelled by a world of high technology to earn their living and to perform the world's work in large organizational that the

sponsive

is

official

units.

The word stems from the French bureau, which has come to mean a department or subdivision of a department, usually of government. The French word, in turn, was derived from the word for writing desk or table with drawers

known

—

so called because

Just as the word was formerly associated only with public office, so the word bureau was at first identified only with public business, and the table covered with green baize remains to this day the symbol of official conferences. Literally, then, bureaucracy would mean bureau rule, much as autocracy means the rule of the despot and democracy the rule of the people. Bureaucracy in the Modern World. In modern democracies officials are considered the servants and not the masters of the people. The rule of law and judicial review, the constitutional rights of freedom of speech, assembly and press, the secret ballot and public disclosure and accountability, the duty of officials to respond to the policies of the day are all democratic guarantees originally covered with a cloth

as burel.

office

—

toward officials

In ancient despotic societies, however, public were uncontrolled and absolute, and the power of final

this end.

decision over the destiny of the country and a small

hereditary or self-perpetuating

its

citizens rested in

elite.

In the modern world, with the decline of kings, emperors and hereditary dynasties exercising absolute rule, new forms of des-

potism arose

in

communist and

fascist regimes,

control over the acts of the official

with no ultimate

who achieved power by

seizing

domination of the political machinery and command of the militar)- and police forces and the apparatus of terror. In less developed democracies temporary seizure of power by careerist groups is not uncommon, and government employment is still considered a reward for political activity and a species of government relief

on competence and the and the people.

rather than a respectable occupation based ideal of service to the state

421

James Burnham in his The Managerial Revolution ('1Q41) portrayed the rise of a new and powerful oligarchy of industrial and governmental leaders in management, whose inside knowledge and expcrtness put them in a position of self-perpetuation and power over ordinary citizens. The enormous growth of government agencies in the 20th century and the development of large departments manned by a corps of permanent officials has of course given rise to public concern and to scientific research on the problem of keeping such large cadres, often protected by tenure rights, responsive to popular and political changes in policy. But the problem is not a new one. Karl A. Wittfogel in Oriental Despotism vivid gave examples from ancient cultures of the power (1957) of officials in absolute states of antiquity. The classic example of entrenched officialdom was the civil service of China, in which an elaborate system of examinations for entrance and promotion in an elite corps dated back before the Christian era. Wittfogel made the interesting contrast between a ruling bureaucracy and a controlled bureaucracy, the former being characteristic of autocratic states and the latter of democratic societies. Bureaucracy as an Organizational Disease. The most useful concept of bureaucracy in a modern world characterized by high technology, minute subdivision of labour and a profusion of complex and gigantic social organizations is one that avoids the extreme poles of respectability and opprobrium and that does not depend on the social bias of its user. It is also a concept generally implied whenever the word is not employed as poUtical invective. This concept is the one to be used here: that bureaucracy is the

—

pathology of large organizational units. Just as every biological organism is susceptible to disease and deterioration, so every social organism is subject to certain illnesses. The large organizations of modern democracies are no exception to this rule. In spite of the fact that administration as a science is still in its infancy, it is becoming increasingly aware of the factors that make for a healthy organization and of the signs of morbidity in a sick one. Gradually the new sciences of

management are becoming more skilful in their diagnosis and cure, and agencies themselves are making greater use of experts in these new techniques to prepublic administration and of business

vent and correct bureaucratic tendencies.

Popular judgments also tend to be surprisingly uniform in their Thus, a highly popular agency such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBIj in the United States is rarely referred to as a bureaucracy. Even in the business world public judgments distinguish between older concerns, where tradition and inflexibihty tend to predominate, and the more modern and progressive enterprises in new fields. Bureaucracy as an illness, as most authorities have pointed out, is not confined to governmental agencies and can be found in many large organizational units, whether commercial, industrial, educational, charitable, fraternal or ecclesiastical. But in a democracy there is a continuing need to prevent bureaucratic tendencies in the government because of its powers over private rights and because it lacks the correctives of the market place. appraisal of the personality of agencies.

— Among

Types of Bureaucratic

Illness.

the

principal

ill-

nesses to which large organizations are prone are the polar tendencies of aggressiveness and imperialistic type of agency

recessiveness.

The aggressive or

preoccupied with the extension of The recessive type of unit, on its jurisdiction, size and power. the other hand, suffers from a kind of inferiority complex. It is

shrinks from innovation, hesitates to assert itself and tends to avoid responsibility and to shift it to others. A given agency may fluctuate between these two opposing tendencies, but as a rule it will be found to persist in one or the other. When an agency becomes overaggressive or overrecessive, a form of bureaucracy is at work. The respective influences of the permanent career staff and of the temporary political or polii > staff are out of balance. The cure consists in restoring a proper balance between these conflicting forces of continuity and flexibility. An agency, of course, is greatly influenced by the personality of its chief, but this is not necessarily determining. Lytton Strachey in his essay on Florence Nightingale in Eminent Victorians demonstrated how the British war office had a greater

,

BURFORD— BURGENLAND

422

on Sidney Herbert, the minister, than Sidney Herbert had on the war office. Similarly, a question might be raised as to how much influence, except in time of war, a U.S. secretary of the navy ever has on the navy department. One of the most baffling phenomena in large organizations is the elevation of status over function as a desirable objective. Officials in such organizations tend to give greater weight to the importance To the of their rights and prerogatives than to their functions. extent that this tendency is merely a corrective to exploitation of protest against spoils faithful officers or a and a career corps of favouritism in a service, it cannot be criticized. But when preoccupation with job status, rights, privileges, rank and emoluments becomes excessive and encroaches on the time of the personnel effect

so as to interfere with the discharge of their essential service

functions,

it

can be identified as a serious symptom of organizaWhile a growing spirit of professionalism has often

tional disease.

greatly benefited the competence of public services, an excessive

preoccupation with questions of status and rights of officials, as in the case of the medieval guilds, becomes a brake on flexibility

and innovation. Criteria of Health.

—

In democratic societies the simple virtues tend to be accepted as criteria of organizational health in the Suoh characteristics as integrity, industry, impartiality, efficiency, progressiveness, courtesy and responsiveness to the will and needs of the people are all signs of organizational health and freedom from bureaucracy. Bureaucracy obtains when an agency lacks these elements to any marked degree. Thus, graft and corruption, idleness, favouritism, w'aste. backwardness, arrogance and insensitivity to public needs and desires are all evidences of organizational disease. Simple as these symptoms sound, they are not easy to evaluate in a large, complex organistill

public mind.

zation.

Prevention and Cure.

—

Responses to changes in political and to national emergencies have demonstrated that the democratic process is the best protection against the dry rot and

parties

failure associated with bureaucratic trends.

The

right to criticize

In addition, improved personnel methods and incentives have been developed to attract and Administrative retain able officials and to eliminate weak ones. research and planning and scientific management have developed is

the best antibureaucratic hygiene.

techniques for the measurement and improvement of work performance. Administrative procedures to ensure fair rule making and adjudication are becoming better know-n. Vast improvements have been made in techniques for simplifying paper work and ehminating red tape and for informing citizens of their rights and privileges in simple, understandable terms. The war against bureaucracy in the modern world, with its growing organizational structure,

lance

is

is

an incessant one, and eternal vigi-

the price not only of liberty but of effective service to

men in democratic societies. See also Index references under "Bureaucracy" in the Index volume. Bibliography, Exposition and Analysis: Paul H. Appleby, Big Democracy (1945) Charles S. Hyneman, Bureaucracy in a Democracy (1950) J. Donald Kingsley, Representative Bureaucracy: an Interpretation of the British Civil Service (1944) Fritz Morstein Marx, The Administrative State: an Introduction to Bureaucracy (1Q.S7) Robert K. Merton el al. (eds.), Reader in Bureaucracy (1952) Max Weber, "Burcaukratie" in vol. iii of his Wirtschajt und Gesellschajl: Grundriss free

—

;

;

;

;

;

SozialokonOmik, 3rd ed. (1947) Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: a Comparative Study of Total Power (1957). Fiction and Satire: Honore de Balzac, Bureaucracy: or a Civil Service Reformer; Charles Dickens, "Circumlocution Office" in his Little Dorrit, ch. x; Pat Frank, Mr. Adam (1946); John Hersey, A Bell for Adano (1944) C. Northcote Parkinson, Parkinson's Law, and Other Studies in Administration (1957) Anthony Trollope, Three

der

;

;

'

;

(H. E.) a Cotswold town of Oxfordshire, Eng., near the Gloucestershire border, IS^ mi. W. of Oxford. Population of civil parish (1951) 8SS. The handsome High street, built of local oolite, rises steeply from the Windrush. The battle of Beorford (752) was not, as generally stated, at Burford, which was acquired in 1088 by Robert Fitz Hamon who gave it a market and the earliest datable guild merchant (see Guilds). Alderman Simon Clerks.

BURFORD,

Wisdom helped found

the

grammar

school in 1571.

Sir

Lawrence

whose memorial tomb dates from 1628 bought the town and manor (1617) and successfully challenged Burford's privileges (1621). He also built the priory on the site of an Augustinian hospital (13th century). This was sold by Lord Falkland to William Lenthall, speaker of the Long parliament (1637), and is now a convent. It was at Burford that Oliver Cromwell crushed the Levellers in 1649. St. John the Baptist's church, with massive Norman spire, was reconstructed (14th-15th century) with a delicate spire and the inclusion of the separate 13th-century chapel of St. Mary. (W. 0. H.) BURG, a town of Germany, is situated about 31 km. (19 mi.) N.E. of Magdeburg on the Berlin-Magdeburg railway line. Pop. (1959 est.) 29,373. A little stream, the Ihle, flows along the eastern edge of the town and on the western edge is the Ihle canal, Burg originally belonged to the a part of the Elbe-Havel canal. diocese of Querfurt which was joined to the archdiocese of Magdeburg in 1496. In 1635, together with other parts of the archbishopric, it was ceded to Saxony and in 1687 to Brandenburg. After the dissolution of Saxony-Anhalt in 1952, Burg became a regional capital in the district of Magdeburg, German Democratic Republic. The town has a rolling plant for sheet metal, and cloth, shoes, machines and crispbread are manufactured. BURGAGE, a form of tenure, both in England and Scotland, Tanfield,

applicable to the property connected with the old municipal cor-

porations and their privileges.

In England it was a tenure whereby houses or tenements in an ancient borough were held of the king or other person as lord at a certain rent. The term is of less practical importance in the Enghsh than in the Scottish system, where it held an important place in the practice of conveyancing, real property having been generally divided into feu holding and burgage holding. After the Conveyancing (Scotland) act, 1874, there was. however, not much distinction between burgage tenure and feu holding. The tenure persisted as a distinct form in Scottish conveyancing because burgage holding was an exception to the system of subinfeudation which remained prevalent in ScotWhile other vassals land when it was suppressed in England. might hold of a graduated hierarchy of overlords up to the crown, the burgh always held directly of the sovereign. It is curious that while in England the burgage tenure was deemed a species of socage (g.v.) to distinguish it from the military holdings, in Scotit was strictly a military holding, by the service of watching and warding for the defense of the burgh. In England the franchises enjoyed by burgesses, freemen and other consuetudinary constituencies in burghs were dependent on the character of the burgage tenure. Tenure by burgage was subject to a variety of customs, the principal of which was Borough English (g.v.).

land

— Sir F. Pollock and F.

Maitland, History of English Law Before Edward I, 2nd ed. (1898); Morley de Wolf Hemmeon, Burgage Tenure in Mediaeval England (1914) James Tait, The Medieval English Borough (1936). BrBLioc.R.APHY.

.

.

|

'.

i

.

;

BURGAS,

]

\V.

i

;

the medieval Pyrgos, a port and the capital of

southeast l?ulgaria, lies on an inlet of the Black 1956) 72.526. a low foreland between two lagoons. Pop. It faces open sea on the east and its own harbour on the south. At mid-19th century it was a fishing village of about 3,000 inhabitants, but it rose rapidly in importance after Bulgaria's liberation (1878), mainly by reason of the railway to Sofia (1890) and the building of a new harbour ( 1 904 It now rivals Varna as the chief port of Bulgaria, surpassing it in the grain trade; about 40% of, the country's Black sea trade passes through the port,. including

Burgas sea, on

district,

(

)

.

In and tobacco, fruit, fertilizers, cement and ore concentrates. near the town are flour mills, a sugar factory, soap factories, fish canneries and engineering works, and an oil refinery was conSome copper is mined in the vicinity, structed after 1960. and lignite at Rydnik; salt is produced at Pomorie. Burgas, with the small neighbouring port of Sozopol, also hanIt is a dles about three-quarters of the Bulgarian fish catch. cultural centre and a seaside resort. Sunny Beach, near Nesebur, also shares in the resort trade with Pomorie. noted for its mudbaths and its vineyards, and Sozopol, with fine stretches of sandy (An. Be.; S. H. Br.) beach.

BURGENLAND,

a

Bimdesland (federal state) of Austria.

•

BURGENLAND Area 3,965 sq.km. (1,531 sq.mi.); pop. (1961) 250,083. Forming the boundary area toward Hungary, it was derived from parts of the former four West Hungarian comitats (counties), Pressburg (Bratislava), Wieselburg (Moson), Odenburg (Sopron) and Eisenburg (Vasvar), It became a political unit of its own in 1921,

Physical Geography. and

tluviatile deposits of

coal in a

number

—

Its surface consists largely of

more

recent periods, containing

marine

brown

of places, although here and there outliers of

the Central Alps, consisting of crystalline base rock, appear as There also exist a

horsts above the level of these later strata.

few basalt mountains, the necks of Tertiary volcanoes. Antimony ores occur in the Bernstein mountains. There are a large number of mineral and thermal springs and still occasional micro or small earthquakes.

The most striking feature of the northern Burgenland is the Structurally, geologically and geographically Neusiedler lake. the low-lying parts of the northern Burgenland belong to the Hungarian plain which is linked with the southern Vienna basin by two gateways situated north and south of the Leitha mountains. The latter, hills

The Rust 1,585 ft. on the western shore of the Neusiedler

a horst of crystalline rock, rise to

(rising to

928

ft.),

lake, are a similar formation.

The crystalline Rosalia mountains are no longer an isolated range but are linked with the Alps, The Rosalia mountains rise In the southern branch to a plateau surface of about 2,000 ft. they are crossed by the Sieggraben pass. East of the Sieggraben the crystalline rocks are covered

by Miocene

gravel.

The middle Burgenland is the most mountainous part decreasing eastward to the Hungarian plain and rising to the Landsee and Bernstein mountains in the west and the Giins mountains in the south (Geschriebenstein, 2,897 ft,). The southern Burgenland is of pronounced relief, with hills Streams drain the region from northwest rising to over 1,500 ft. to southeast and are accompanied by systems of terraces. Climatically the Burgenland is more favoured than the rest of Austria. It has the longest growing season, with 235 to 252 days per year, experiences an early spring, has most sunshine and a rainfall of about 24 in. The north shows the strongest continental characteristics and has the warmest summers of the country. Protected by the mountains from northwesterly winds and regulated by the influence of the lake, the earliest fruit and vegetables in Austria can be grown there and conditions are suitable for viticulture. is absent and mixed forests and spruce covers only Landsee and Bernstein mountains, while the vegetation of the middle and southern part of the country is characterized by beech, pine and mixed forest of beech and spruce. Characteristic of the easternmost parts of middle and southern Burgenland are pubescent oak, hornbeam and black pine, Xorthern Burgenland has steppe and continental saline heath vegetation. The Seewinkel with its saline steppe lakes and the Neusiedler lake forms the habitat of a multitude of water birds. The entire Neusiedler lake area is protected, and 165 hectares (408 ac) in the Seewinkel

Alpine flora

the

rest of the

are nature preserves supervised at

by

a biological research station

Neusiedl,

History.

—Human occupance has beyond doubt been

continuous since the Paleolithic period. In the late Iron Age the southwestern part belonged to the Celtic kingdom of Noricum (q.v.). During the time of the Roman occupation, from 15 to about A.D., it was part of Pannonia (q.v.). Subsequently occupied turn by Teutonic tribes, Avars and Slavs, the first German came during the 8th century. Although part of Hungary,

375 in

settlers it

became an area of predominantly German settlement under a

Magyar

The history of the Burgenland is initially part of the history of Hungary and from 1529 onward part of that of the Habsburg empire. After World War I, the claims of the Austrian Republic to the predominantly German parts of western Hungary were granted nearly in full, but when largely

ruling class.

July 1921 Austria attempted to establish its administration, the Austrian Gendarmerie was attacked by Hungarian irregulars and in

had to withdraw.

As a

result of Italian mediation

Hungary handed

423

over the present Burgenland but retained control of Sopron (Odenburg) after a plebiscite. The loss of the Sopron area robbed the Burgenland of its natural capital and severed all communication lines from north to south, Eisenstadt was chosen as capital in 1925, Following the Anschluss (union with Germany), Burgenland was abolished as a political unit on Oct. 1, 1938, its northern part being incorporated in the Reichsgau Niederdonau and its southern part in the Reichsgau Steiermark (Styria) of Greater Germany, It was re-established as a Bundesland on Oct. 1, 1945,

—

Population and Administration. The population at the 1961 census was 250,083, a decrease since 1934; the density was 163.3 to the sq.mi. Because of its predominantly agricultural economy and poverty, emigration from this area is of long standing, both to other parts of Austria and also to Germany and overseas The absence of a sizeable (U,S,, Canada, Argentina, Brazil). industry and prevalence of small farms with extreme fragmentation of holdings give rise to a

low standard of

living,

underemploy-

ment and seasonal migration. Although ethnically predominantly German and speaking a dialect of the Bavarian group, the Burgenland has the highest proportion (c, 15%) of non-German minorities, Croat and Magyar, More than 85% of the people are Roman Catholics; the Burgenland became a diocese in its own right in 1960, There are few towns and only Eisenstadt has a population of more than 5,000. Rural settlement is characterized by a preponderance of villages of the regular colonial t>'pes. The characteristic house is the single file farmstead and forms developed from it. The Land government consists of the governor and five other members elected by and responsible to the provincial diet (Landtag), which has i2 members elected by popular vote. The Landtag is a legislative body but the acts it passes piust be approved by the federal government. In the Biindesrat (federal upper house) the Burgenland has 3 votes. Administratively it is divided into 7 districts and 2 "district-free" cities (Eisenstadt and Rust), Local government is in the hands of elected burgomasters and town and commune councils. The Economy. The Burgenland, 47% arable and 25% forested, produces a large surplus of grain, including maize (corn), and root crops. In the northern part, crops which include vines and also some tobacco, hemp and, experimentally (on the lake shores at Weiden), rice are grown. Livestock is partly stall fed, partly grazed on common pastures. Because of smallness of holdings which necessitates the use of cows as draft animals, milk yields

—

are the lowest of Austria, Total timber production in 1960 was 279,000 cu,m. Unique in Austria are the vast areas of reed along the shores of the Neusiedler lake. The annual production of reed for industrial use of about 700,000 cu,m, is capable of considerable increase. Some processing is done locally but more than half is exported raw to Germany,

The

—

lake also produces quantities of fish (mainly carp) approximately 200,000 kg, annually. There is quarrying for Leitha limestone, an excellent building stone which was used for most of the important public buildings in Vienna, and for basalt for use as road metal, China clay is produced near Stoob and there are a number of clay pits for brickworks. The chalk from Miillendorf near Eisenstadt is used both for writing and in industry. The veins of precious serpentine near Bernstein are used for making jewelry and vases. Antimony ore is produced near Schlaining, Fuel resources consist of brown coal. Industries are limited to small plants and include sugar refining and canning, sawanills and furniture industry, and the making of pencils. The large jute factory at Neufeld an der Leitha employs

more than 1,000 persons. The siting of the railways was determined by the Burgenland's former location within Hungary, The three main Hnes by which the Hungarian railway system was linked with Austria merely cross the Burgenland in the north, centre and south.

North-south

was maintained by branch lines but since all the railway junctions came to lie within Hungary there is no line linking the north of the Burgenland with the south, A peculiarity resulting from this is that one may travel by rail without any passport or traffic

BURGER— BURGH

4-24

customs control through Hungarian territory (Sopron). A modern north-south road of 230 km. (143 mi.) length from Kittsee to Jennersdorf and leading on to Graz has since been built. Although much has been done to improve road conditions, considerable improvement is necessary to provide for increased motor traffic.

—

Bibliography. G. Thirring, West Hungary (1920) A. F. Burghardt, Political Geography of Burgenland," Nat. Res. Council, Public. Burgenlandischcs Landesarchiv und Burgcnliindische 587 (1958) Landesbibliothck (ed.), Allgemcine Bibliographic dcs Burgenlandes (1958); Burgenlandische Landcsregierung (ed.), Burgenland, Landeskunde (1951). (K. A. S.) ;

"The

;

BURGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST

(17471 794) Gerpoet of the period of Sturm mid Drang, best remembered for his lyrical ballads, was born at Molmerswende, near Halberstadt, on Dec. 31, 1747, the son of a pastor. He studied theology at Halle and law at Gottingen, continually in difficulties because of his irregular life. He became friendly with the young poets of the literary group known as the Gottinger Hain and his first poems

man

appeared in their Musenalmanach. In 1772 he became a magistrate at Altengleichen, where in 1773 he wrote his vivid and dramatic ballad "Lenore." In 1774 he married Dorette Leonhardt, but soon fell in love with her sister, the "Molly" of his poems. Bijrger's first collection of poems was published in 1778 and in the same year he became editor of the Musenalmamuh. After his wife's death in 1784 he lectured on the theory of style, aesthetics, poetry and philosophy at Gottingen. In 1785 he marThis ried "Molly." who died in childbirth the following year. event profoundly moved him. as is shown in his letters and in the sonnets to her. In 1789 he was appointed extraordinary professor at Gottingen, though without a stipend, and in the same year paid a visit to Goethe and Schiller at Weimar. His third marriage in 1790 was a disaster and was dissolved in 1792. This, together with Schiller's unjust criticism of the second edition of his poems, hurt him deeply. He became ill with tuberculosis and died in poverty at Gottingen on June 8, 1794. Biirger began writing verse in the conventional rococo manner, but gradually developed a style based on folksong and the language of the people, characterized by naivety, simplicity and homely realism. With his popular ballads such as "Lenore," "Das Lied vom braven Mann," "Die Kuh" and "Der wilde Jager" he created a new lyrical poetry in Germany, His sonnets, which show the influence of Petrarch, became famous and he was admired and imitated by such poets as A. W. Schlegel and Novalis. Most of his translations (Homer, Ossian) were fragments. Biirger's love of English poetry is expressed in his translation of Thomas Percy's ballads and his prose version of Macbeth. His German adaptation of the stories of Baron Miinchhausen (1786) from the English original by R. E. Raspe enjoyed lasting success. Biirger's complete writings were edited by E. Grisebach, 5th ed. (1894) and by W. von Wurzbach, four volumes (1902-04). His poems were edited by E. Consentius, two volumes (1920); his letters were edited by A, Strodtmann, four volumes (1874). BiBi.iooR.ApnY. W. von Wurzbach, G. A. Biirger (1900) L. Filippi,

—

La

;

poesia di Biirger (1920) E. S. Blenkinsop, Biirger's Originality (1936) C. Janentsky, G. A. Biirgers Aslhetik (1909) H. B. Garland, Storm and Stress (1952); Rov Pascal, The German "Sturm und Drang" (1953). (Fh. W. W.) ;

;

BURGERS, THOMAS FRANgOIS

;

(1834-18811, South African statesman and theologian, who was president of the Transvaal republic from 1872, remained a controversial figure, because of his unresisting surrender of the republic to the British government in 1877 and because of his religious unorthodoxy. He was born in Cape Colony on April 15, 1834, and educated at Utrecht, Neth., where he graduated as doctor of theology and was ordained a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He was called to Hanover, Cape Colony, as minister in 18S9 but a synodal commission declared him a heretic in 1864 for holding modernist views, and he was suspended. He appealed successfully to the Cape supreme court, whose judgment was subsequently confirmed by the privy council in London (Feb. 1867). In 1871 the Transvaal volksraad (parliament), dissatisfied with their western boundary as defined under the Keate award (1871), decided to seek a president of greater diplomatic talent than M, W. Pretorius, and persuaded Burgers to stand for election. He was elected and took

office on July 1, 1872. Burgers carried an important education law, encouraged the new gold-mining industry, attempted to straighten out the government's confused finances and minted a gold coinage bearing his own effigy. He also planned to link the republic by rail with Delagqa bay, which was confirmed in Portuguese possession by the MacMahon award (1875). He visited Europe that year to negotiate a railway loan, but his scheme was ill-conceived, placing a severe strain on Transvaal finances and the patience of the republic's creditors in Cape Colony and Natal, and it failed disastrously. In 1876, Burgers' government was further embarrassed by conflict with Sekukuni, chief of the Bapedi in the northeastern Transvaal, part of whose territory was needed for the railway. This war was very unpopular, and peace had barely been made when, early in 1877, Sir Theophilus Shepstone entered the Transvaal under a special commission from the British government, with authority to annex the nearly bankrupt republic at his discretion. Burgers surrendered his state without resistance, though he was allowed to make a public protest, and retired to Cape Colony. He died there on Dec. 9, 1881. See Transvaal; History.

See

S. P.

Engelbrecht,

Thomas Francois Burgers

(1946),

(T. R. H. D.) (1844-1931), US political scientist, was born in Giles county, Tenn., on Aug. 26, 1844, the son of a slave-owning but pro-Unionist Whig. After serving two years in the Union army. Burgess attended Amherst college and graduated in 1867. He practised law briefly before going to Germany for study in history and public law. From 1876 until 1912 he was a distinguished member of the Columbia university faculty, and was the founder of its graduate school of political science in 1880, He served also as dean from 1890 to 1912, He was a leader in organizing and directing the study of political science in the United States and in the transformation of Columbia from college to university. His writings made him an important figure in American scholarship. Among his best known works were Reconstruction and the Constitution (1902) and Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law (1890-91). He advocated the doctrine of limited government, protection of personal liberty, economic laissez jaire and the rights of property. He died in Brookline, Mass,, on Jan, 13, 1931, (T. S. By.)

BURGESS, JOHN WILLIAM

BURGH

(

Bourke. Burke), the name of

a historic Irish family

which has been associated with Connaught for more than seven centuries. It was founded by William de Burgh (d. 1206), the brother of Hubert de Burgh iq.v.). William accompanied Prince John to Ireland in 1185, and was rewarded by grants of land. Remaining in Ireland, he was given a further grant of most of Connaught in Richard I's reign, but although he spent much time trying to establish his rule there, he was not successful. How-

Richard

1243) was again granted Connaught in Hubert de Burgh, Richard was appointed justiciar in 1228, and used his combined public and private influence permanently to establish his lordship in Connaught. He lost his office of justiciar in 1232, but by siding with the crown in the revolt of Richard Marshal, earl of Pembroke, in Ireland (1234) he managed further to extend his influence and territory After his death in 1243 he was succeeded after its suppression. in turn by his sons Richard (d, 1248) and Walter (c. 1230-71). ever, his son

(d.

1227, through the influence of

,

\

^

Walter continued to fight the native chieftains, and added greatly to his vast domains by obtaining a grant of the county of Ulster from Prince Edward (afterward Edward I), in consequence of which he was styled earl of Ulster. Walter was succeeded by In 1286 Richard his son Richard (c. 1259-1326), 2nd earl. ravaged and subdued Connaught and deposed Brian O'Neill as He also chief native king, substituting a nominee of his own. attacked the native king of Connaught in favour of that branch He led his of the O'Conorj whom his own family supported. forces from Ireland to support Edward I in his Scottish campaigns, and on Edward Bruce's invasion of Ulster in 1315 Richard marched against him, although he had given his daughter Elizabeth

marriage to Robert Bruce, afterward king of Scotland, about Occasionally summoned to English parliaments, he spent his 40 years of activity in Ireland, where he was the greatest noble of his day, usually fighting the natives or his Anglo- J in

1304,

most of

BURGH— BURGHLEY Norman in

rivals, the Geraldines.

The patent

roll

of 1290 shows that

addition to his lands in Ulster, Connaught and Munster he had Man, but had surrendered it to the king.

held the Isle of

Richard's grandson and successor, William (131 2-i3) 3rd earl, was the son of John de Burgh by Elizabeth, lady of Clare, sister and coheir of the last Clare earl of Hertford (d. 1314). William married a daughter of Henry, earl of Lancaster, and was appointed lieutenant of Ireland in 1331, but he was murdered in 1333, leaving a daughter, the sole heiress not only of the Burgh possessions but also of vast Clare estates. She was married in childhood to Lionel, son of Edward III, who was recognized in her right as earl of Ulster, and their descendant, the duke of York, ascended the throne in 1461 as Edward IV; since that time the earldom of Ulster has been held by members of the royal family only. On the murder of the 3rd earl in 1333, however, his male kinsmen succeeded in holding the bulk of the Burgh territories, and, adopting Their two main Irish names, became virtually native chieftains. branches were those of "MacWilliam Lochtar" in southern Connaught, later given the title of earls of Clanricarde (1543); and "MacWilliam Uachtar" who from 1603 held their territory as the ,

viscountcy of Mayo.

See Clanricarde, Earls of.

BURGH, HUBERT DE

(d.

1243), professional adminis-

England (1215-32) under King John and Henry III, the last great holder of that office, was a member of a knightly family of moderate estates in East Anglia. He served in John's household before he came to the throne and was his chamberlain by 1198. After Jphn's accession (1199) he became sheriff of five counties, custodian of several castles and warden of the Welsh Marches (1201 and of the Cinque Ports (1202). In Normandy, he had charge of Falaise castle (1202) and, for a time, of Arthur I, duke of Brittany, whom he is said to have preserved from the mutilation ordered by the king. He became constable of Chinon (1203) and was captured there when the castle fell to the French in 1205. After two years' captivity in France he became sheriff of Lincolnshire (1208), but his harsh administration was unpopular and the king removed him and his deputy in 1213, when he became one of the seneschals of Poitou. He was with the king when Magna Carta was sealed at Runnymede in June 1215 and was there made chief justiciar. Although appointed partly because he was more acceptable to the barons than his predecessor, Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, Hubert remained loyal to John and Henry III during the war with the barons. He led a successful defense of Dover castle (1216 and 1217) against Prince Louis of France, who had come over to oppose King John, and was one of the leaders in the naval victory at Sandwich in Aug. 1217 which finally destroyed Louis' hopes of obtaining the English crown. After the end of the war 1217), Hubert was one of the most influential men in a government consisting of an increasingly untrator

and chief

justiciar of

)

1

easy coalition of men held together initially by the regent, William Marshal, earl of Pembroke (d. 1219), and by the presence of papal legates up to 1221. Thereafter a struggle developed between

Hubert, supported by Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, and Peter des Roches, the king's tutor, who headed a group of alien administrators and soldiers and who was occasionally supported by various English barons. Hubert managed in 1223-24 to recover many castles from the rival party and to deprive most of the aliens of office. He was now predominant and seemed secure when Henry III declared his majority in 1227 and Peter des

'

to be the king's tutor. He enjoyed enormous terripower, partly as a result of royal favour, and partly as a result of his three marriages, in 1209, 1217 and 1221, with Beatrice de Warenne, an heiress from East Anglia, with Isabella, countess of Gloucester, who had been divorced by King John in 1199 and was the widow of Geoffrey de Mandeville, 5th earl of Essex, and with Margaret, sister of Alexander II of Scotland. He was made earl of Kent in Feb. 1227 and chief justiciar for life in April 1228. Hubert was a typical member of the administrative class created jby Henry II and his sons. His revival in the 1220s of some ad•ministrative policies condemned in the 1215 version of Magna Carta contributed to the renewed struggle for the charters from 1225 onward and provided excuses for attacks upon him. His love

Roches ceased torial

'

,

425

of power, wealth and title also

made

enemies, especially in Wales and the Welsh Marches where, by 1231, he held the castles of Skenfrith, Grosmont and Llantilio, and the castles and lordships of Montgomery, Cardigan and Carmarthen, the honour of Gower, and the wardship of the honours of Gloucester and of Brecon and Radnor. This threatened the interests of the earls of Pembroke

and Chester and other Marcher lords, and provoked unsuccessful wars with Llewelyn of Wales in 1228 and 1231. The first sign of his fall came in 1229 when Hubert was violently blamed by the king for the breakdown of an expedition to France. Peter des Roches, who had been abroad since 1227, returned in 1231 to intrigue against him. Scattered attacks on alien clergy in England, for which Hubert was held responsible, were used as an excuse to try him in 1232 on trumped-up charges and to deprive him of the justiciarship and of his offices and custodies. He was humiliated and later imprisoned at Devizes, but not deprived of his private lands and earldom. Released by the baronial opponents of Peter des Roches's party (1233), he was admitted to the king's peace with them (1234), but was subjected to another inconclusive trial (1239). He died at Banstead, Surrey, on May 12, 1243, and his lands, but not his title, descended to his son, John de Burgh. Hubert was the last of the great chief justiciars and was not replaced in office. While earlier justiciars owed their prominence to long royal absences abroad, Hubert owed his to the minority

Henry

III. After the loss of England's continental possessions 1204 and 1214, and following the increasing specialization of administration, fiscal the office had outlived its most obvious and

of in

useful functions. See Clarence

Ellis,

Hubert de Burgh (19S2).

BURGH: 5ee Borough. BURGHERSH, HENRY

(J. C.

Ho.)

(1292-1340), English bishop and

chancellor, several times changed his political allegiance during

Edward

and survived to become a trusted emissary of Edward III. At the urgent request of Edward II he was appointed bishop of Lincoln (1320) by Pope John XXII, despite the fact that the chapter had already made an election. After his uncle and patron, Bartholomew, Lord Badlesmere, had fought against the king at the battle of Boroughbridge, Burghersh's lands were seized by the king in 1322, and were restored to him only in 1326. Burghersh took part in the movement which led to the deposition and murder of King Edward II, and became chancellor of England (May 1328) through the influence of Queen Isabella, mother of the young Edward III. On her disgrace (Nov. 1330j he lost his position and favour for a time, but was treasurer from 1334 to 1337 and was entrusted with many important diplomatic commissions by the king. He died at Ghent on Dec. 4, 1340. (J. R. L. H.) CECIL, Baron (1520-1598), English statesman, who was the chief minister of Queen Elizabeth I, was born at Bourne in Lincolnshire on Sept. 18, 1520. He was descended from a family of minor gentry living on the Welsh border in Herefordshire. His grandfather, David d. 1537), yeoman of the guard of Henry VII and yeoman of the chamber to Henry VIII, began the Cecil connection with Lincolnshire. His father, Richard (d. 1553), rose to be yeoman of the wardrobe under Henry VIII and Edward VI. William Cecil, after attending the grammar schools at Grantham and Stamford, went to St. John's He was in Cambridge for six years college, Cambridge, in 1535. and closely associated with some of the most distinguished scholars of his time, notably with John Cheke who was his tutor. Cecil fell in love with Cheke's sister Mary, and in spite of parental opposition married her in Aug. 1541, shortly after leaving Cambridge. They had one son, Thomas, who was later to become earl of E.xeter. Mary died two years later, and in 1545 Cecil was married again, this time to Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke and one of the most learned ladies of her time. Pier father belongs with the pioneers of Protestantism, and her sisters all married men prominent in the English Reformation movement. Cecil's connection both with the Chekes and with the Cookes was an important factor in determining his own Protestant leanings. From Cambridge Cecil went to Gray's Inn. His first public ofHe sat again in 1547, fice was as member of parliament in 1543. the disturbed reign of

II

BURGHLEY, WILLIAM

(

BURGHLEY

426

as a commoner or a peer in virtually every succeeding parliament as long as he lived. During the first of Elizabeth's decade reign he was her chief spokesman in the house of commons and after that in the lords. He was generally recognized as a fluent and effective speaker. His career at court began in 1547 in the ser\'ice of the duke of Somerset, lord protector of the young King Edward VI. In matters religious he supported Somerset's program of moderate reform, of which Thomas Cranmer was the chief exponent, as opposed to the radical reformers led by Bishop John Hooper. Cecil also supported Somerset's spirited attack upon the enclosure movement He recognized however to make common land private property. that the English gentry, the pow'er behind the throne, had a vested interest in enclosures, and thought it unwise to antagonize them. In fact, Somerset's identification with the so-called commonwealth men led to his downfall. Cecil fell with him and followed him to the Tower. Like Somerset he was released after a brief imprisonment, though the power of the crown passed to the duke of Northumberland. When Somerset conspired to recover his old position Cecil declined to follow him and came to terms with Northumberland, who appointed him principal secretary in Sept. 1550 and elevated him to a knighthood the following year. Under Northumberland Cecil was a competent, hard-working public servant. He seems to have had little to do with the formulation of policy, either foreign or domestic. With Northumberland's He bereligious policy Cecil was evidently not in sympathy. friended Cranmer against Northumberland's attacks, but was careMoreover, alful not to antagonize the virtual ruler of England. though, with the rest of Edward's council, Cecil gave his reluctant Northumberland the change in succession contrived by approval to and, in fact, continued as principal secretary during the nine days' reign of Lady Jane Grey, he was opposed to the change and conspired actively with those who soon achieved Northumberland's

and thereafter served either

downfall. Cecil

was therefore

dulgence when first to

in a position to

Mary came

receive her pardon.

in office, but

it

came

make

to the throne,

a strong claim for in-

and he was among the

There was some talk of his continuance When, under Mary, England

to nothing.

Roman

Catholic communion, Cecil returned also. one of those who went to the Low Countries to when he came to authenticate the return to Rome. English Protestants, particularly those in exile, regarded Cecil as a renegade. The opinion that he was active in support of them is ill founded, though he got in some trouble with the government by his defense in the house of commons of their property rights. When Elizabeth succeeded Mary in 1558 she appointed Cecil her principal secretary. He had been in her service and in her pay as manager of her real estate (surveyor) since 1550. In 1561 she made him master of the court of wards, one of the most lucrative offices in the gift of the crown, upon the proceeds of which Cecil grew rich. For 14 years he remained her principal secretary, virtually the administrative head of her government. During that period he engineered the establishment of the Anglican Church and protected it from Catholic assaults on the right and Puritan assaults on the left. His personal sympathies inclined him toward the Puritans, but Elizabeth's rooted antipathy to them convinced him that their belligerent attitude toward the Establishment might well drive the queen back to the old church. He therefore did his best to curb their reforming zeal. But his chief fear was of the CathoHcs, who were numerically strong in England, particularly among the old nobility, and were constantly encouraged by both the Spanish and French crowns. Their menace was accentuated by the fact that the heiress presumptive to the English throne was the young and charming Catholic queen of Scots, Mary Stuart. For that reason Cecil did his best to persuade Elizabeth to marry and perpetuate the Tudor line. He supported in turn an Austrian and a French match, but he was resolutely opposed to her marriage to Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, who was, and remained during the whole course of his life, her chief favourite. Indeed, Cecil's policy antagonized the favourite, the old nobility and the Roman Catholics. The outcome revealed itself in an attempt in

returned to the

He

was

in fact

escort Cardinal Pole to England

1568 to drive him from office, and in 1569 to destroy the English Protestant government by an uprising in the north. Both efforts failed.

Meanwhile Cecil had been instrumental in weakening the posiMary Stuart in Scotland by building up the strength of the Scottish Protestant party. Mary herself facilitated his efforts by her ill-advised marriages, first to Lord Darnley and afterward to the earl of Bothwell. The outcome was that she was forced to flee from Scotland into England in 1568, where for the residue of her life she remained a prisoner and the focal point of Catholic tion of

disaffection.

In foreign affairs during Cecil's term of service as secretary he leaned on the whole to Spain rather than France, his Spanish proclivities being accentuated by the fact that Spain held the Low Countries, which were England's principal foreign market. But here religious considerations intervened, and the active part which the Spanish ambassador played in stimulating Roman Catholic revolt led Cecil in the other direction. In the so-called Ridolfi plot of 1571 to which the captive Scottish queen, the old English nobility led by the duke of Norfolk, and the Spanish ambassador were all parties Cecil unraveled the designs of conspirators, brought Norfolk to the block and secured the expulsion of the Spanish ambassador and the more rigorous confinement of Mary After this his position was secure. In 1571 Elizabeth Stuart. raised him to the peerage as Baron Burghley and in the following year appointed him lord treasurer. He was relieved of the day-by-day burden of administration, but

—

—

he remained until the end of his life Elizabeth's chief counselor. Together they formed one of the most remarkable partnerships in English history, in which his wide knowledge and worldly wisdom tempered her feminine impulses, and her versatility forced him to cast off the shackles of precedent. But she was always the mistress and he always the loyal servant. What they both wanted was a strong and secure England; all other considerations, religious as well as secular, were subordinated to that end. Throughout his life as Lord Burghley, the same major problems confronted him as had confronted him during the first critical decade of Elizabeth's reign. On the religious issue Burghley remained in the via media. The papal excommunication of Elizabeth in 1570 and the Jesuit missionary efforts in the 1570s and '80s increased or seemed to increase the menace from the Catholics. Burghley continued to oppose them and the captive Mary Stuart,

whom they looked for relief. Probably he was the one who took the last decisive step which led to her death at the block, tlis one considerable contribution to controversial literature was his Execution of Justice in England, in w'hich he vindicated the increasing severity of the government toward the Catholics on the grounds not of their faith but of their treasonable purposes. The Puritans steadily increased in numbers and in influence. They virtually controlled the house of commons and developed Indeed, the privy considerable strength in the privy council. council after 1573 was split between a moderate group led by Burghley and a Puritan group led by Sir Francis Walsingham and to

Leicester.

The Puritan

faction regarded the religious issue as the

dominant one in determining Elizabeth's policy toward Scotland, Spain and France. They wished Elizabeth to set herself at the head of a Protestant league and to give active support to the Dutch rebels against Spain in the

against Spain in the

Low

Countries, to militant enterprises to Huguenot rebels in France.

new world and

Burghley and

his royal mistress would have preferred to build neighbours' houses by measures short of war. It was a war party against a peace party. In 1585 the war party won the day, and from that time on until the end of Elizabeth's reign, England was at war. By a strange perversity of fate, since Leicester died in 1588 and Walsingham in 1590, Burghley himself, during

fires in their

life, when he was past 70, had to conHe died in London on Aug. 4, 1598. Burghley led an exemplary private life. He was a good husband, By his second wife he a careful father and a considerate master. had three children who survived infancy, a son Robert and two daughters, Ann and Elizabeth. Robert succeeded him as principal adviser to the aging queen; Ann and Elizabeth both married well,

the last eight ye'ars of his

duct that war.

BURGKMAIR— BURGOS though Ann's marriage to Edward de Vere, 17th earl of Oxford, was an unhappy one. In matters economic, Burghley was an orthodox mercantilist. He was a good scholar in the classical tradition and he loved the company of scholars. He showed little or no interest in the development of English literature and had a Puritan distaste of the drama. He was a great builder. His house at Theobalds was one of the show places of England. It is gone. Gone also is his London house in Covent garden. The one monument to his building which remains is Burghley house at Stamford Baron, still occupied by the descendants of his first-born son. Theobalds was inherited by his son Robert, who later exchanged it for the royal palace of Hatfield. There Robert built, adjacent to the old palace, the present Hatfield house, still occupied by his descendants. Bibliography. Convers Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth (19S5), Lord Biirghlev and Queen Elizabeth (1960); J. E. Neale, Elizabeth I and her Parliaments 1559-15S1 (1953), Elizabeth I and her Parliaments 15S4-1601 (1957); J. Hurstfield, The Queen's Wards (1958). (C. Rd.)

—

BURGKMAIR, HANS

(1473-c. 1531), German painter and wood engraver whose works are among the earliest in German art to show influences of the Italian Renaissance, was born at

Augsburg. He studied under his father, Thoman Burgkmair, and under Martin Schongauer, and was a member of the painters' guild About 700 woodin Strasbourg in 1490 and in Augsburg in 149S. cuts have been ascribed to him. most of them distinguished by that spirit and freedom which were admired in the works of Albrecht Diirer.

His principal work

ing the triumphs of the

some of the

is

the series of 135 prints represent-

emperor Ma.ximilian

His works include

I.

chiaroscuro (q.v.) woodcuts. In his Turnierbuch of 52 illustrations he had the assistance of his son Hans Burgkmair Burgkmair was also an excellent painter in fresco, (c. 1500-59). specimens of which are in the galleries of Munich and Vienna. at common law, is the offense of breaking and first

BURGLARY,

entering the dwelling house of another in the nighttime with intent to

commit

a

The term "dwelling house" has been

felony.

fined to include other buildings located within the

common

Breaking consists not only

enclosure.

de-

curtilage or

in the

breaking

some external portion of the building but also in the opening window. Any entry, however slight, is sufficient, including thrusting the hand or even an instrument into the building. Only an intent to commit a felony, not its actual of

of a closed door or

consummation,

is

required.

Most Anglo-American jurisdictions have expanded the scope of burglary by statute. The nighttime requirement has often been abolished. Structures in addition to the dwelling house and those within the curtilage are usually given the protection of these

A few states in the U.S. have wholly eliminated the breaking requirement and have substituted the element of trespassory entry. Many jurisdictions, following the English common law, have created the distinct offense of housebreaking, consiststatutes.

ing of some, but not

all,

England housebreaking

of the elements of burglary.

defined to include burglary except the nighttime requirement.

from the

common

is

all

Thus

in

the elements of

Precedents drawn law of burglary, however, are commonly ap-

plied in the interpretation of these statutes.

glary tools with intent to

commit burglary

is

a

Possession of burcommon statutory

offense.

See also Criminal

Law: Crimes Against

Property.

(F. A. A.)

BURGLARY INSURANCE: see Casualty Insurance. BURGOS,

the capital formerly of Old Castile, has been since 1833 capital of the Spanish province of Burgos. Pop. (1960 est.)

Burgos occupies a strategic site about 800 m. commanding both the natural route from the Ebro to the plateau of Old Castile by the Pancorbo defile, now followed by the main road and railway from France, and also the road from Pamplona, formerly part of the Pilgrims' Way leading to Santiago, which runs closer to the foothills of the Sierra de la Demanda (40 km., or 25 mi. E.). The town stands on the lower slopes of a castle-crowned hill, overlooking narrows of the Arlanzon river, 241 km. (150 mi.) N. of Madrid by road. The oldest quarter of the town stands on the eastern slope of the Castle hill, the great mass of the cathedral dominating the 89,864 (mun.).

(2,625 ft.) above sea level,

entire town.

The

and paintings,

lies

rest of the old

427 town

southward, its life centred in the arcadcd Plaza Mayor, the Plaza de Santo Domingo de Guzman, a busy market place, and the Plaza de Calvo Sotelo, with the late 15th-century Casa del Cordon. Beyond these, along the road to France, and on the eastern outskirts, are the military headquarters and barracks. The Casa de Miranda, a building representative of the best domestic architecture of 16th-century Spain, and now a museum with archaeological exhibits, carvings across the river.

lies

The most important

bridges, the Puente de Santa Maria, leads to the

of the six

Arco de Santa

Maria, the finest of the four surviving gates, with sculptures

il-

lustrating the history of Burgos.

Burgos

whose province comprises the dioceses of Leon, Santo Domingo and Santander. The cathedral, founded in 1221 by Ferdinand III of Castile and the English bishop Maurice of Burgos, is a fine example of florid Gothic, built is

the see of an archbishop,

of white limestone, not completed until 1567.

Its cruciform dealmost hidden by the 15 chapels added at all angles to by the beautiful 14th-century cloister on the northwest and the archiepiscopal palace on the southwest. Over the three central doorways of the main or western fa(;ade rise two lofty and graceful towers. The bones of the 1 Ith-century hero, the Cid (q.v.). have rested in the cathedral since 1919. The chapel of Corpus Christi contains the chest which the Cid is said to have filled with sand and subsequently pawned for a large sum to the credulous Jews of Burgos. The legend adds that he redeemed his pledge. In the cloister is a famous Gobelin tapestry.

sign

is

the aisles and transepts,

There are also the Cid's wedding contract, a polyglot Bible (Latin, Hebrew and Arabic), vestments worn by the archbishop at the Council of Trent and a collection of ivory, gold and silver objects. In the aisleless Gothic church of Santa Agueda, or Santa Gadea, tradition relates that the Cid compelled Alfonso VI of Leon, before his accession to the throne of Castile in 1072, to swear that he was innocent of the murder of Sancho, his brother and predecessor on the throne. The Gothic churches of San Esteban (1280-1350) and San Nicolas (1505) have fine sculptured doorways. The surviving convents lie chiefly outside the city. At the end of the Paseo de la Isla stands the nunnery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, originally a summer palace (hiielga, "pleasure-ground") of the kings of Castile. In 1187 it was transformed into a Cistercian convent by Alfonso VIII. who invested the abbess with almost royal prerogatives. Alfonso and his wife Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of England, are buried there. The Cartuja de Miraflores, a Carthusian convent, founded by John II Its of Castile (1406-54), lies 3 km. (2 mi.) S.E. of Burgos. church contains a monument of exceptional beauty, carved by GO de Siloe in the 15th century, for the tomb of John and his second wife, Isabella of Portugal. There are also fine carved stalls and the painting "La Asuncion" by Jusepe de Ribera. The rosaries made by the monks from thousands of rose petals keep their perfume for years. The convent of San Pedro de Carderia, 11 km. (7 mi.) S.E. of Burgos, was the original burial place of the Cid, in 1099, and of Jimena, in 1104. About SO km. (50 mi.) from the city is the abbey of Silos, which appears to have been founded under the Msigothic kings as early as the 6th century. It was restored in 919 by Fernan Gonzalez, and in the 11th century became celebrated throughout Europe, under the rule of St. Dominic. It was reoccupied in 1880 by French Benedictine monks. Burgos is on the main railway line from France and Vitoria to Valladolid. It is an agricultural centre, and manufactures woolen and leather goods, chemical manures, chocolate and paper. It has a large tourist industry, one of the first camping grounds to have been established in Spain and an extensive sports centre. After its foundation in 884 as an outpost in the east of the Asturian kingdom, Burgos became the capital of the countship and, later, of the kingdom of Castile, declared independent in 1035. As the recognized "head of Castile," Burgos enjoyed the prestige of a capital city until the reign of Philip II. Like its rivals it sank to poHtical insignificance after 1560, when Madrid was declared the unica corte. There remained to Burgos, however, the commercial supremacy in Castile which resulted from the powers with which its merchant guild was invested by the Catholic sovereigns

—

BURGOYNE— BURGUNDY

42 8

In that year all foreign trade of Castile, particularly 1494. that in fine wool, and the charge of ships sailing from ports of the north coast were put under the jurisdiction of the Burgos guild, whose shipping department became the model for the famous Casa de Contratacion at Seville. With the decline of Castilian trade, Burgos languished until its revival in the 18th century under Charles III. In the Peninsular War the French in 1808 defeated the Spaniards at Burgos. The French in turn were unsuccessfully besieged in the city by General Wellington in 1812; it fell to the British in the following year. In July 1936 conservative Burgos became the official seat of Gen. Francisco Franco's government and was a base for campaigns

in

toward Madrid and the Basque states. Burgos province includes the enclave of Trevino in the province of Alava. Pop. (1960 est.) 415,427; area S,S09 sq.mi. The province extends from the main Cantabrian watershed, beyond the Ebro, in the north, to south of the Douro river. In the east it marches with Logroiio and Soria in the heart of the Demanda and Urbion massifs which separate Old Castile from the middle Ebro. From these massifs it descends westward and southward to the wide stretches of flat ground occupying the centre of the northern part of the central plateau. The Pancorbo gorge, cut across the Monies Obarenes in the northeast, gives a line of communication between the basin of Miranda de Ebro and the rest of the provThe ince, and at the same time between Alava and Old Castile. Ebro runs eastward through the northern half of the province, but is not navigable. The Douro, or Duero, crosses the southern half, running west-northwest it also is unnavigable in its upper valley. The other important streams are the Pisuerga, flowing south toward Palencia and Valladolid, and the Arlanzon, which flows through Burgos for more than 120 km. (75 mi.). Burgos is one of the great forest provinces of Spain, with more than 300,000 ac. of pine, oak, beech and other species under state management, while vast ranges of almost uninhabited upland serve as pasture for the flocks, which in most years exceed 1,000,000 head of sheep. Lambs are exported to Bilbao and Madrid. Goats, horned cattle, horses, mules and swine are numerous. Cereal cultivation with wheat ordinarily occupying about two;

—

fifths of the cultivated area

—

is

the basis of the agriculture of

which the centre and south form part of the The Douro and Arlanza valleys produce good wine and are agriculturally important for their more equable climate, their good communications and their irrigation works, Soft coal (used for briquettes), mica, actual and projected. china-clay and salt are obtained in small quantities, and oil-bearing The lands north of the capital have been under investigation. industries of the province are on a small scale, the ancient woolen, linsn and hemp manufactures surviving in small factories and as cottage industries. Hydroelectric power and light are available throughout the province. The northern railways from Madrid to the French frontier cross the province in the central districts: the Valladolid-Bilbao line in the north; and the ValladolidSaragossa line in the south. The Burgos-Soria-Calatayud railway provides direct communication with the Mediterranean at Sagunto and Valencia. The only important town in the province is Burgos, but modern developments have expanded Miranda de Ebro and Aranda de Duero as overflow towns for Madrid. The country towns and villages are inhabited by a notably intelligent and independent peasantry petty farmers, shepherds and foresters whose physical type is northern rather than Mediterranean; and Burgos stands fourth or fifth in Spain in respect of elementary education, above the richer provinces of Biscay and Barcelona. this province, of

best cereal zone of Spain.

—

BURGOYNE, JOHN dramatist,

is

chiefly

(L. M. Ga.) (1722-1792), English general and

remembered

for his controversial part in the

American Revolution (q.v.). He bought his first commission in 1 740 and made a runaway marriage in 1 743 with a daughter of the nth earl of Derby, whose protege he subsequently became. During the Seven Years' War he took part in two raids on the French

He

then raised a light cavalry regiment, in command of which he went to Portugal, distinguishing himself at the action of Villa Velha in 1762. After the war he was elected coast (1758 and 1759).

to parliament

and became a leader of fashion

in

London

;

and

in

1774 he wrote his first play, "The Maid of the Oaks." On the outbreak of the American Revolution, Burgoyne was posted first to Boston (1775), and then to Canada (1776) as second-in-command to Lord Carleton, whose feeble attempts to invade the New England colonies he strongly criticized. He then drew up and secured the adoption of a plan for an offensive with 12,000 men by the Crown Point-Ticonderoga route to unite with a force under Gen. William Howe sent northward from New York, and another under Col. Barry St. Leger from the west to cut off the New England colonies from the middle and southern colonies. But he was given only 6,000 men for the expedition and though it secured Crown Point and Ticonderoga (1777) after a slow and toilsome march, much harassed by hostile irregulars and Indians, it was brought to a halt by 16,000 troops in position. There was no news of the co-operating forces from the south and west, and Burgoyne after exhausting his stocks of food and ammunition, was compelled to capitulate at Saratoga, in Oct. 1777. His conduct of the campaign was much criticized, but the main causes of its failure were the insuSiciency of his means and the lack of coordination of the concentric offensive, of which his force formed

(See also Saratoga, Battles of.) for a short time (1782-83) commander in chief in life. His wife had died in 1776 and between 1782 and 1788 he had four only one part.

Burgoyne was

Ireland, but he thereafter retired increasingly to private

whom the eldest became Field Marshal Sir John Fox Burgoyne; q.v.) by his mistress, the singer Susan Caulfield. He wrote a series of plays, culminating in The Heiress, the most successful of them, which appeared in 1786. Burgoyne died in London on June 4, 1792. See E. B. Fonblanque, Political and Military Episodes from the Life and Correspondence of Right. Hon. J. Burgoyne (1875); F. J. Hudleston, Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne (1927). (E. W. Sh.) children (of

.

BURGOYNE,

SIR

JOHN FOX,

.

.

Bart. (1782-1871), Eng-

marshal, best remembered for the part he played in the Crimean War, was born on July 24, 1782, an illegitimate son of lish field

Gen. John Burgoyne. Educated at Eton college and the Royal Military academy, Woolwich, he was commissioned in the royal engineers in 1798 and saw service in the Mediterranean until 1807. Subsequently he went to Sweden and Portugal on the staff of Sir John Moore. He served in all the campaigns of the Peninsular War from Corunna to Toulouse, playing a prominent part in the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, San Sebastian and Bayonne. In 1814 he was commanding engineer to Maj. Gen. Sir Edward Pakenham's disastrous expedition to New Orleans, but was not present at Waterloo. In the years of peace after 1815, Burgoyne held various military and civil appointments, serving as chairman of the board of public works, chief famine commissioner in Ireland, and inspector general of fortifications in the United Kingdom. He

was promoted lieutenant general in 1851. During the Crimean War he was chief engineer on Lord Raglan's staff, and it was on his advice that the allies, instead of advancing directly on Sebastopol after their victory at the Alma, marched round to invest the fortress from the south a strategy much criticized at the time and since. He was recalled in Feb. 1855, but was made a baronet in 1856. After the war he became constable of the Tower of London, and was made field marshal in 1868. Tfie last year of his life was saddened by the death of his only son, Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, V.C, who was in command of the experimental H.M.S. "Captain," sunk in 1870 in the Bay of Biscay. Sir John Burgoyne died in London

—

on Oct.

7, 1871. See Lt. Col. Hon. G. Wrottesley, Life and Correspondence of FM. (E. W. Sh.) Sir John Burgoyne (1873).

BURGUNDY

(Fr. Bourgogne), a name limited in modern times to the region of France lying between the Saone, the Loire

and

tjhe

upper Seine, that

is,

to the

former duchy of Burgundy (see

below), but applied also in the middle ages to the last Burgundian kingdom, later called the kingdom of Aries, and to the countship

known as the Franche-Comte. First Burgundian Kingdoms. The original Burgundians were a Scandinavian people who established themselves first on the southern shores of the Baltic (the island of Bornholm was of Burgundy, later

—

BURGUNDY

429

however, when the Merovingian kingdom was partitioned, one of his sons, Guntram, secured This regniim the regnum Burgundiae or kingdom of Burgundy. eventually included not only the former Burgundian lands but also Val d'Aosta east of the Alps of Aries in Provence, the the diocese and even the country of Orleans, Chartres and Sens in north central France. It remained a separate Merovingian kingdom until Charles Martel subjugated it to Austrasia in the second decade

Troyes, Langres (which included Dijon), Chalon and Macon. When Norman invaders were devastating Burgundy (888-898), Boso's brother Richard, called le Justicicr, count of Autun since 880, was invested with a great command against them. Having driven them out, he then subjected the greater part of the territory to his own authority. His son Rudolph (Raoul), who succeeded him in 921, was elected king of France in 923. First Capetian Dukes. On Ruciolph's death in 936 the Carolingian Louis IV d'Outremer and Hugh the Great, duke of the Franks, detached Sens, Troyes and Langres from Burgundy, and Hugh secured the succession to the duchy for his two sons. The younger of these, Henry I Eudes-Henry), who died without children in 1002. had adopted his stepson Otto William, but the king of France. Robert II, who was Henry's nephew, refused to acknowledge Otto William as heir to Burgundy and conquered the duchy (1003-06). Robert made his son Henry duke of Burgundy, to which Dijon (separated from the duchy with Langres) was restored in 1016. though the countships of Nevers and Auxerre were detached from it. In 1032. after Henry's accession to the crown of France, his brother became duke as Robert I (d. 1075). The duchy constituted in 1016. although smaller than its 10thcentury predecessor, was stronger. It remained in the Capetian family until 1361. In their foreign policy the Capetian dukes adhered loyally to their cousins the kings of France. They took part in the crusades and in expeditions against the Muslims in Spain, and a grandson of Duke Robert I became count of Portugal and the ancestor of its first royal house. In internal affairs the dukes built up a considerable domain and enforced obedience from their vassals. They also annexed Chalon (where the counts had been making themselves independent of the duchy) and Burgundy thus came to be recognized as the premier Auxois. peerage of the French kingdom. Hugh III (d. 1192) commanded

of the Sth centuPi'.

the French forces in the

called

Burgundarholm), then

in the valley of the Vistula.

Unable

to defend themselves there against the Gepidae, they migrated westward to the valley of the Main. There they founded a powerTheir king ful kingdom, which by a.d. 406 extended to the Rhine. Gundahar (Gundicar or Gunther), however, who seems to have had his capital at Worms, became involved in hostilities with the Romans and with the Huns, who together destroyed the kingdom (455-437). The massacre of the Burgundian royal family by the

Huns is Romans

reflected in the story of the Nibelungenlied (q.v.).

The

transferred the surviving Burgundians to Savoy in 443. As the influence of the Romans declined in the second half of the 5th century, the Burgundians gradually began to assume control over areas north and west of Savoy, occupying not only Besan(;on and then, west of the Saone, Langres, Dijon and Autun, but also the lower Saone valley, Lyons and the valley of the Rhone down to Vienne and the Viennois. They also tried to e.xpand southward into Provence. Their king Gundobad (d. 516) promulgated Gundotheir first code of laws, later known as the loi Gombette. bad's son Sigismund was converted from Arianism to Roman Catholicism and founded the monastery of Saint Maurice d'Agaune (in the Valais). Attacked by the Franks, Sigismund was killed by Clodomir, son of Clovis, in 524, but Burgundy remained independent under his brother

Gundomar

nexed it. After the death of Clotaire

Kingdom

till

534,

when

the Franks an-

I in 561,

Burgundy, or Provence.

—

The Carolingians Burgundy before Boso. ruler of the Viennois, had himself proclaimed king of all Burgundy from Autun to the Mediterranean in 879. Though the French Carolingians recovered the country west of the Saone and north of Lyons (Autun, Chalon and Macon) from him and the German Carolingians reclaimed Jurane Burgundy (i.e., Transjurane Burgundy, or made

of

several partitions of

the country between the Jura and the Alps, together with Cisjurane so called, namely the Franche-Comte). Boso were able to maintain themselves in the kingdom of Provence (g.v.) or Lower Burgundy sometimes also, till about 933. rather misleadingly, called Cisjurane Burgundy Last Kingdom of Burgundy. In 8SS Rudolf I (d. 911 or

Burgundy properly and

his successors

— —

—

Conrad count of Auxerre, of the family of Welf, was recognized as king of Jurane Burgundy, his territory comprising the Transjurane dioceses of Lausanne, Geneva and Sion and the diocese of Besanijon, to which Basel was subsequently added. His son and successor Rudolf II (d. 937) was able to conclude a treaty in 934 with Hugh of Aries, king of Italy and master of Provence since the death of Boso's son Louis the Blind (the emperor Louis III), whereby Hugh ceded Provence to Rudolf in return for Rudolf's renunciation of his claims to the kingdom of Italy. Rudolf II thus came to rule over the whole regnum Burgundiae except the areas west of the Saone, but his successors Conrad the Peaceful (937-993) and Rudolf III (993-1032) were unable to 912), son of

exercise

their authority

over their vassal lords

—

especially

—

the

counts of Burgundy (see Franche-Comte) and of Savoy or over the bishops and had to rely on the protection of the German kings.

When Rudolf his

kingdom

Arles,

III died without legitimate heirs in 1032, he left

to the

Kingdom

emperor Conrad

II.

For

its later

history see

of.

THE DUCHY OF BURGUNDY The duchy

Burgundy was that part of the regnum Burgundiae west of the Saone which was recovered from Boso by the French Carolingians and remained a part of the kingdom of France. In pre-Roman times this territory had been occupied by Gallic tribes, the Aedui, the Senones and the Lingones. Under the Romans it was divided between the civitates of Autun, Auxerre, Nevers, Sens, of

— (

Holy Land after the return of King first crusade and became involved in disputes with Richard I of England. Eudes III (duke from 1192 to 1218) took part in the Albigensian wars and supported Philip Augustus against John of England. Hugh IV (duke from 1218 to 1272) was prominent in the reign of Saint Louis. Philip II Augustus to France during the

II (duke from 1272 to 1306) and Eudes IV (duke from 1315 to 1349) were the most powerful barons of their time in France, being allied by marriage with the royal house and often (In an attempt to secure for himself his directing royal policy.

Robert

which comprised both Artois and the FrancheComte, Eudes IV compelled Philip VI of France to break with Robert of Artois. who was thus driven to ally himself with England.) Philip of Rouvre. Eudes IV's grandson, was also heir to the Boulonnais and Auvergne through his mother, but on his death in 1361 the inheritance was divided. Charles II of Navarre claimed Burgundy, but the French king. John II, took it for himself. Although in the last decades of the dynasty the country had been devastated by the plague of 1348 and by mercenary armies in the Hundred Years' War, Burgundy had on the whole prospered under the dukes of the first Capetian line. The nobles were subwife's inheritance,

jected to the jurisdiction of grands jours (ducal assizes), held at Beaune. The towns grew: Dijon, around which a wall was built in 1137, became an important market; a fair was held at Chalon-surSaone, where merchants from the south of France met northern traders; and Italian merchants came to Burgundy to buy its wool, which rivaled that of England. Pilgrims flocked to Vezelay and Autun (where in 1146 a magnificent church was built round the tomb of St. Lazare). Finally the Burgundian monasteries were famous: Cluny (founded 910) became the centre of an order extending from England to Spain; Guillaume, abbot of Saint Benigne de Dijon, reformed many houses in Burgundy and Normandy (c. 1000 1; and in 1098 the monastery of Citeaux was founded and it a new religious order, the Cistercian. Valois Dukes. A new period in Burgundian history opens under King John II, who in 1363 decided to grant the duchy to his fourth son, Philip (g.v.) the Bold. Philip had to struggle against the mercenary companies, but in 1369 Charles V of France arranged his marriage to Margaret of Flanders, who brought with her the inheritance of Nevers, Franche-Comte (the ancient count-

with

—

BURGUNDY— BURHANPUR

430 ship of Burgundy), Rethel, Artois

of

Burgundy inherited

all

and Flanders.

these territories.

In 1384, the duke

Thus the duchy was

reunited to Franche-Comte, and the two Burgundies formed the southern part of a state the northern possessions of which extended over the Netherlands, the valley of the Meuse and the Ardennes. In the north expansion was to continue (Hainaut, 1428; Brabant,

1430; Luxembourg, 1443), but the south, from which Nevers was again detached in 1404 (for the benefit of junior branches of the house), became less and less important. Brussels instead of Dijon was eventually made the duke's usual residence. Philip the Bold, however, who lived in Burgundy when he was not in Paris, built the Chartreuse de Champmol at Dijon to house the family vault. It was he also -who bought the Charolais (q.v.) in 1390.

John

(g.v.) the Fearless,

who succeeded

Philip in 1404, devoted

due d'Orleans and with the Armagnac faction which took up the policy of Louis and devastated the border territories of Burgundy to the south and west between 1412 and 1435. After John had been assassinated all

his energies to his struggle with Louis,

(1419), his son Philip (q.v.) the

Good

recognized

Henry VI

of

England as his suzerain and continued the struggle against the Armagnacs. The treaty of Arras (143S), which established peace between Burgundy and Charles VH of France, conceded to Philip the countships of Auxerre and of Macon, the chdtellenie of Barsur-Seine and the elections which reunited the enclaves of royal domain within the frontiers of the duchy. Even so, the mercenary ficorcheurs continued their depredations in Burgundy till 1445. Thereafter Burgundy enjoyed peace till Philip's death (1467). The next duke. Charles (q.v.) the Bold, was constantly in conflict with Louis XI of France. His aim was to acquire those territories which divided his southern from his northern possessions, most particularly Lorraine. In this he was unsuccessful. Louis XI moreover persistently opposed him, conducting several campaigns against him and subjecting Burgundy to economic blockade.

On the death of Charles (1477), Louis XI invaded the duchy under the pretext of defending the rights of the heiress, Mary {q.v.}, but Mary married, not the dauphin Charles, but the archduke Maximilian of Austria. Louis then attempted to annex the two Burgundies as royal domain lands granted in appanage and not able to pass to a woman. The Burgundians revolted but were defeated. By the treaty of Arras (1482 the duchy and the FrancheComte were confirmed to the French king as the dowry of Mary's daughter, Margaret of Austria, who was to marry the dauphin Charles. When Charles instead married Anne of Brittany, the Franche-Comte and the Charolais were restored to the Habsburg heirs of the house of Burgundy. The duchy, however, was re)

duchy. The towns had to be fortified, and mercenaries roamed over the country. As Catholic supporters of the Holy League, the towns did not recognize Henry IV as king until 1595. Then the duchy was again ravaged in the Franco-Spanish wars from 1636 onward (and also during the Fronde, when the great Conde. as governor, drew Burgundy into his faction). Not until the French conquest of the Franche-Comte in 1678 were peace and security restored.

During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries Burgundy constituted a military gouvernement (to which Bresse was attached in 1601). From 1631 to 1789 the princes de Conde were governors. The parlement, whose seat had been fixed by Louis XI at Dijon, as-

sumed

the functions of the ducal council and had jurisdiction over the duchy and over Bresse and its dependencies Bugey, Valromey (

and the Pays de Gex) but Macon, Auxerre and Bar-sur-Seine continued to depend on the parlement of Paris. In the 1 7th century an intendant was appointed at Dijon, but Bresse and its dependencies were the only parts of the generalite of Dijon in which he had full authority. The rest of Burgundy was administered by the estates of Burgundy, whose privileges dated from the 14th century. The estates, under the presidency of the bishop of Autun, met every three years, voted taxes and decided how revenue should be employed in provincial administration. They also defended the privileges of the province, which was less heavily taxed than any other in France. The classes to benefit most from such tax reliefs were the members of the parlement, of the chambre des comptes and of the judiciary, who transformed the towns with new building and bought up the lands of the often bankrupt nobility. But the estates also strove to provide the province with a good communications system and began the network of canals which now links the Loire, the Seine and the Saone. These improvements encouraged the development of the wine trade (Beaune wines had been famous throughout medieval Europe, and Paris also bought much wine from Auxerre), which in the 18th century was expanded to become one of the principal assets of the pro\ince {see further Wine). In the 18th century also literature and science were pursued as well as commerce, intellectual life being particularly vigorous in ;

Dijon.

The province of Burgundy disappeared with the Revolution, when it was divided into the departements of Cote-d'Or, Saone-etLoire and Yonne.

See also references under "Burgundy" in the Index volume. Bibliography. M. Chaume, Origines du duchi de Bourgogne (1927E. Petit, Hhloire des dues de Bourgogne de la race capetienne (1885-1905) J. Richard, Formation du duche de Bourgogne (1954) H. Drouot and J. Calmette, Histoire de Bourgogne (1928) A. Kleinclausz, Histoire de Bourgogne, 2nd ed. (1924) E. Jarry, Formation

—

37)

;

;

;

;

;

tained by France.

The Valois dukes (1363-1477) had brought new institutions the duchy. The cliambre des comptes of Dijon was organized

territoriale de la

to in

1386, a ducal council functioned at Dijon, and the grands jours were transformed by Charles the Bold into a parlement which met alternately at Beaune and at Dole. Flemish artists and the Dutch sculptor Claus Sluter were brought to Dijon to decorate the Chartreuse de Champmol and to carve the tomb of the dukes. The splendours of the Burgundian court were admired throughout Europe, and in 1432 Philip the Good made the Sainte-Chapelle at Dijon the seat of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The Burgundian towns found a new prosperity, and Burgundians made brilliant careers in the service of their dukes.

Later History.— The "reunion" of 1477 brought back insecurity. While the duchy was annexed to the French crown, the Franche-Comte and the northern possessions of the former dukes were organized by the Habsburgs as the Circle of Burgundy (Kreis Burgundj. Moreover the Habsburg princes maintained their pretensions to the duchy. The emperor Charles V, when Francis I of France was his prisoner, in fact compelled him to renounce Burgundy to Austria (treaty of Madrid, 1526), but Francis eluded the obligation. The hostility between France and the Habsburgs compromised the close relations that had been developed between the two Burgundies under the Valois dukes, though a treaty of neutrality signed in 1522 achieved a precarious peace along the Saone as frontier. The French wars of religion devastated the

Bourgogne (1948).

BURGUNDY CANAL

(J. B. R.)

(Canal de Bourgogne), a

canal in

France connecting the Seine and Saone waterways across the watershed in the Langres plateau. From St. Jean-de-Losne on the Saone river it passes by Dijon along the valley of the Ouche to negotiate the crossing into the Armangon basin by a tiinnel two miles long. By the Armangon it connects with the Yonne at Laroche and so with the Seine at Montereau. The canal, built in 1832, was important for a short period for supplying Paris with timber, building stone and wine from the south, but declined once railway connections were provided. It is ditScult to navigate because of its numerous locks and tunnel, the frequent shortage of water at the summit and the capricious regime of the Yonne. Building materials now constitute the main traffic and the only

ji

considerable port along the canal

is Dijon. (\r. E. S.) in the East Nimar district, on the Central railway and the north bank of the Tapti river. 275 mi. N.E. of Bombay. It was founded in A.D. 1400 by a Muslim prince of the Farukhi dynasty of Khandesh. His successors held it for 200 years, until it was anne.xed by

BURHANPUR,

Madhya

a

Pradesh. India,

town

is

j

the Mogul emperor .\kbar in 1599. It formed the chief seat of the government of the Deccan provinces of the Mogul empire till Shah Jahan moved the capital to Aurangabad in 1636. Burhanpur became for 100 years the centre of many conflicts between the Marathas and Moguls. In 1803 it was captured by Maj. Gen. Arthur WeUesley, afterward duke of Wellington, but it was restored

BURIAL— BURKE by treaty to the was

finally

Maratha successor-state

ceded to the British

of Sindhia in 1805.

its

old buildings and tombs,

the decline

almost to the vanishing point of the old industries, has

upward tendency under more modern conditions. There few families who traditionally produce gold and silver thread and brocades, and there is a large group of weavers of silk bordered The establishment of a cotton mill, ginning factories and cloths. presses has restored some of its lost prosperity. A Mogul water supply, which has been modernized, still functions. Burhanpur's population, after many fluctuations, rose to 70,066 show'n an are a

at the 1951 census.

BURIAL,

the depositing of

human remains

in a grave, crypt,

tomb or other similar shelter. See Cemetery; Aspects) Funerary Rites and Customs.

Death (Legal

;

BURIDAN, JEAN

(Joannes Buridanus)

(c.

1295-? after

1366), French philosopher, born probably at Bethune, was rector A moderate of the University of Paris in 1328 and in 1340. nominalist, he contributed to the condemnation of extreme Occamism in 1340; his own works were prohibited from 1474 to 1481.

He opposed

Nicolas of

Autrecourt's atomism and defended the

principle of causality.

—men must

will what presents itself as by the doctrine that the will is free to delay the reason's judgment by suggesting a more thorough inBuridan treated economic values quir>' into the value of motives. as subjective values and allowed no place for a supreme political He paved the way ruler, or praesidens among rulers, of mankind. to modern cinematics by developing suggestions found in Philoponus', Olivi's and Francis of Marchia's works; Aristotle's doctrine that a thing is kept moving by the surrounding air is replaced

His moral determinism

the greater

good

—

is

qualified

by the theory of impetus; the mover imparts to the moved a power, proportional to the speed and mass, which keeps the thing going; resistance of the air progressively reduces the impetus; weight adds to or reduces the speed. In logic Buridan expounds and comments upon doctrines handed down in Aristotle's, Peter of Spain's and Occam's works and supplements them with the more

modern chapters

{Obligatio7ies, tic).

The phrase pons asinorum

(rules for the discovery of syllogistic middle terms) has not been found in his works. The example of a dog, not an ass, dying of hunger between two equal amounts of food occurs in his commentary on Aristotle's De caelo. Exploded legends made him the founder of the "Vienna university and the lover of a queen of France (perhaps Joan of Navarre or Margaret of

Irregular rainfall causes vio-

lent fluctuation in the yield of rice, the

in 1861.

Burhanpur resembles the Mogul The ruined citadel and palace (c. 1400), capitals of the north. the Mosque of the Lady (c. 1585) and the Jamma Masjid or Great mosque (1588) are of the Farukhi period. Like all Mogul cities, it was famous for luxury articles; i.e., brocades, flowered silks and It is now an ancient walled city gold and silver embroideries. which, after many years of decay from its old-time status and In

431

and timber are important products.

It

Burgundy).

major crop.

number of rice mills and sawmills. Major towns are Buriram (pop. [1957 est.]

The province

has a

11,629), the capital,

and Lamplaimat, a commercial centre SO mi. E. of Khorat. Both are on the Khorat-Ubon railroad, the chief communication link (G. W. Sk.) (1729-1797), British statesman, parliamentary orator and political thinker, played a prominent part in all major political issues for about 30 years after 1765, and remains an important figure in the history of political theory. Burke was Irish, born in Dublin probably on Jan. 12, 1729 (new His father, a solicitor, was Protestant, style; Jan. 1, old style). He encountered a third religious his mother Roman Catholic. tradition at his boarding school, run by a Yorkshire Quaker. He Dublin, in 1744, and came to London in college, Trinity entered There follows 1 750 to begin keeping terms at the Middle Temple.

with the rest of Thailand,

BURKE,

EDMUND

an obscure period in which Burke lost interest in his legal studies, was alienated from his father and spent some time wandering about England and France. In 1756, however, he published anonymously and in the style of Viscount Bolingbroke A Vindication of by a Late Noble in a Letter to Lord * * * Natural Society Writer, a satire aimed at both the destructive criticism of revealed A religion and the contemporary vogue of "return to Nature." .

contribution to

.

.

new

,

trends in aesthetic theory,

A

Philosophical

Enquiry Into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, which appeared in 1757, gave him some reputation in England and was noticed abroad by Diderot, Kant and G. E. Lessing, among others. In agreement with the publisher Robert Dodsley, he initiated The Annual Register as a yearly survey of world affairs; the first volume appeared in 1759 under Burke's (unacknowledged) editorship, and he retained his connection with it for about 30 years.

In 1757 Burke married Jane Nugent, the daughter of an Irish From this period also date his numerous literary and artistic friendships, including those with Dr. Johnson, Oliver Catholic doctor.

Goldsmith, Sir Joshua Reynolds and David Garrick.

POLITICAL CAREER After a first unsuccessful venture into politics, Burke was appointed secretary, in 1765, to the marquess of Rockingham, leader of one of the Whig groups in parliament, and entered the house of commons. Burke remained Rockingham's secretary until the latter's death in 1782, exercising great influence on his upright and disinterested, if not very forceful, patron. He worked with some success to inspire with a sense of unity and common principle the group that cohered round Rockingham. Mostly in opposition, it was the vehicle of Burke's parliamentary career. Attack on the Influence of The Crown. Burke soon took an active part in the domestic constitutional controversy of George Ill's reign. The revolution settlement after 1688, while placing

—

northeast Thailand, area 4,159

on the royal prerogative, left many aspects The main problem during the 18th century was the respective control of king and parliament over the executive. George III was seeking to reassert a more active role for the crown, which had lost some influence in the reigns of the first two Georges, without infringing the revolution settlement. Burke's chief comment on this issue is his pamphlet Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770). He argued that George's actions were against not the letter but the Choice of ministers purely on personal spirit of the constitution. grounds was favouritism; they should be chosen on a public ground the approbation of parliament and people. The community and its accredited representatives must be presumed capable of rational choice, provided that the independence of the house of commons was maintained. But changed circumstances of government meant that a restoration of the past, such as a return to triennial parliaments, was no remedy; what was needed was a

which extends from the Mun river in the north to the mountains on the Cambodian border. The population, including many of Cambodian stock, was 570,228 (1960). Natural vegetation is predominantly savanna and dry monsoon forest. Cattle

more active intervention of the electorate in defense of its powers. The pamphlet includes Burke's famous, and new, justification of party, defined as a body of men united on public principle, which could act as a constitutional link between king and parliament,

Most ics,

of Buridan's commentaries on Aristotle's Organon, Phys-

De Anima,

Metaphysics, Economics,

etc. are still

unpublished.

His published works include: Summulae de dialectica (1487 et seq.); Conseqiientiae (1493 et seq.); Quaestiones on Aristotle's Physics (1500 et seq.), De anima and Parva naturalia (1516 et seq.), Metaphysics (1480 et seq.), Ethics and Politics (1489 et

and De caelo (1942). Bibliography. E. Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle .iges (1955) H. Bascour, article in Diclionnaire d'histoire et de

seq.),

—

;

geographic ecclesiasligues (1939) E. Faral, article in Histoire litteraire de la France, vol. xxxviii (1949) H. Siebeck, "Die Willenslehre," Zeilschrift fiir Philosophic M. Zalba, "El Valor economico," (1898) Estudios eclesidsticos (1944); A. Maiei) Die Impetustheorie (1940; re-edited in Zwei Grundprobleme, 1951) C. Michalski, "Les Courants philosophiques," Bulletin de I'Academie Polonaise, 1920, pp. 76-85 (1921) P. Duhem, Etudes sur Leonard de Vinci, vol. ii-iii (1909-13) C. PrantI, Geschichte der Logik, vol. iv, pp. 14-38 (1870). ;

;

;

;

;

;

(L. M.-Po.)

BURIRAM, sq.mi.,

a province of

specific limitations

of constitutional practice undefined.

—

BURKE

432

providing consistency and strength in administration, or principled criticism in opposition.

In 1774 Burke was elected a member of parliament for Bristol, then the second city of the kingdom and an open constituency. He held this seat for six years but failed to retain the confidence of his constituents. For the rest of his parliamentary career he was member for Malton, a pocket borough of Lord Rockingham's. It was at Bristol that he made the well-known statement on the role of the member of parliament. He should be representative, not delegate. The electors are capable of judging his integrity, and he should attend to their interest; but he must address himself to the general good of the whole community, acting according to his own judgment and conscience, unfettered by mandates or prior instructions from those he represents. Burke had only qualified support for the movements for parliamentary reform, his main concern was curtailment of the crown's powers. However, he accepted the possibility of widening political participation, provided that there

was evidence of

rationality, restraint of aggressive partiality

common

dedication to the

and

good; he rejected any doctrine of mere

Apart from general principles, Burke made crown as one of the leaders of the movement for economical reform, which pressed for parliamentary control of royal patronage and expenditure. When the Rockinghams took office in 17S2 bills were passed reducing pensions and emoluments of offices, including his own. Burke was specifically connected with an act regulating the civil rule

numbers.

of

a practical attempt to reduce the influence of the

list.

—

—

Colonial Policy. America. A second great issue which confronted Burke in 1765 was the quarrel with the American colonies. Their prodigious development in the 18th century had produced strains in the system of imperial political and economic regulation which came to a head after the Seven Years' "War. The imposition of a stamp duty by George Grenville in 1765, and other measures, provoked unrest and opposition, which soon swelled into disobediEnglish policy was vacillating; deence, conflict and secession. termination to maintain imperial control ended in coercion, repression and unsuccessful war. The Rockingham group opposed coercion, basing their American policy on their actions in their short administration of 1765 when they repealed the Stamp act, while asserting the imperial right to impose taxation by the Declaratory act.

Burke's best-known statements on this issue are the two parliamentary speeches. On American Taxation (1774) and On Moving His Resolutions for Conciliation With America f 1775), and A Letter British policy, he to the Sheriffs of Bristol (17 77). argued, had been both imprudent and inconsistent, but above all .

.

.

and intransigent in the assertion of imperial rights. Authority must be exercised with respect for the temper of those subject to it, if there was not to be a collision of power and opinion. This truth was being ignored in the imperial quarrel: it was absurd to treat universal disobedience as criminal: the revolt of a whole people argued serious misgovernment. Burke made a wide historical survey of the growth of the colonies, the special traditions and circumstances which had formed their character, the revolutionary changes in the recent past, their economic problems. In place of narrow legalism he called for "legislative reason," an imaginalegalist

tive

reinterpretation

of

the

relation in the light of these

values

new

enshrined in the imperial The claims of circum-

factors.

stance, utility

and moral principle should be considered, as well

as precedent.

And

as a prerequisite of reconciliation, a concilia-

tory temper must be shown by the imperial parliament with readiness to meet American complaints and measures to restore colonial confidence.

His proposal was an extension of the forms of the

British constitution to the imperial relation, so far as circum-

stances allowed

it.

In view of the magnitude of the problem the adequacy of Burke's specific remedies is questionable, but the principles on which he was basing his argument were the same as those underlying the Present Discontents: government should ideally be a co-operative,

mutually restraining relation of rulers and subjects; there must be attachment to tradition and the ways of the past, wherever possible, as familiar and tested, but equally, recognition of the fact

of change and the need for a comprehensive and discriminating response to it, reaffirming the values embodied in tradition in new

circumstances. Ireland. It

was

—Ireland

was a special problem in imperial dependency on England and

in strict political

relations.

internally

subject to the ascendancy of an Anglo-Irish Protestant minority, owning the bulk of the land. Roman Catholics were excluded by a

penal code from political participation and public oflice. To these oppressions were added widespread rural poverty and a backward

economic life aggravated by commercial restrictions resulting from English commercial jealousy. Burke was always concerned to ease the burdens of his native country. He consistently advocated relaxation of the economic and penal regulations, and steps toward legislative independence, at the cost of alienating his Bristol constituents, and of incurring suspicions of Catholicism and charges of partiality. Itidia. The remaining imperial issue, to which he devoted many years, and which he ranked as the most worthy of his labours, was The commercial activities of a chartered trading that of India. concern, the British East India company, had created an extensive empire. Burke in the 1760s and 1770s opposed interference by the English government in the company's affairs as a violation of chartered rights. However, he learned a great deal about the state of the company's government as the most active member of the select committee which was appointed in 1781 to investigate the administration of justice in India, but which soon widened its field Burke concluded that the corrupt to that of a general inquiry. state of Indian government could be remedied only if the vast patronage it was bound to dispose of was in the hands neither of a company nor of the crown. He was the author of Fox's East India bill (1783) which proposed that India should be governed by a board of independent commissioners in London. Two of Burke's best-known speeches were on Indian affairs. On Mr. Fox's East India Bill (1783) and On the Nabob of Arcot's Debts (1785). After the defeat of the bill, Burke's indignation came to centre on Warren Hastings, governor general of India (1773-85). It was at Burke's instigation that Hastings was impeached in 1787 and he challenged Hastings' claim that it was impossible to apply western standards of authority and legality to government in the east. He appealed to the concept of the Law of Nature, the moral principles rooted in the universal order of things, to which all The impeachment conditions and races of men were subject. dragged on for eight years and ended with Hastings' acquittal on all charges. It resulted in an authoritive statement of the prin-

—

ciple of responsible rule in imperial affairs; but it is generally regarded as an act of injustice to Hastings, who had been, despite questionable methods, a disinterested servant of the company and

the British

name

in India.

Burke's Character.

—

The impeachment is the most conspicuous illustration of the failings to which Burke was liable throughout his public life, including his brief periods in office as paymaster general of the forces in 1782 and 1783,

His political positions were sometimes marred by gross distortions and errors of judgment. His Indian speeches fall at times into a violence of emotion and abuse, lacking restraint and proportion. His reliance on the opinions of Philip Francis, an enemy of Hastings, illustrates his liability to form false judgments of personality, both favourable and unfavourable. His parliamentary activities were at times irresponsible or factious. Nor did he escape the charge, in Indian affairs, of personal interest. Throughout his career he was associated financially and politically with his brother Richard and a putative kinsman William Burke, both doubtful characters known to be unsuccessfully speculating in East India stock. The Burkes's joint finances were indeed always in a precarious state and as Edmund \yas ever eager to forward his kinsmen's political fortunes it is understandable that he appeared in some hostile eyes as hardly more than one of a clan of Irish adventurers. Of these failings it can plausibly be argued that they were the defects of Burke's virtues rather than an impurity in those virtues themselves. It has not been shown that Edmund himself was a speculator in company stock; it seems rather that he was rendered blind or oblivious to the nature of his kinsmen's proceedings

BURKE

433

Burke never gave a systematic exposition of mental beliefs but appealed to them always in relation

by family partiality. Nor do his political lapses, even at their worst, appear to spring from self-interest or unworthy motives, but from his failure to control and balance his unusually sensitive and powerful emotional nature. Burke's weaknesses therefore lie close to what is best in his character and career: his capacity to illuminate practical politics by general principles, in a synthesis at once intellectual and emotive, the intensity of his dedication and industry in public affairs, the constancy of his humanitarian struggle against injustice and suffering, the readiness and generosity of his help in need (of which the poet George Crabbe and painter James Barry are the best known recipients), the distinction of his numerous literary and political friendships, and the happiness of his family life and kinship ties. Attitude Toward the French Revolution. The outbreak of the French Revolution in 17S9 was initially greeted in England

politics.

with much enthusiasm. Burke, after a brief suspension of judgment, was both hostile to and alarmed by this favourable English reaction. He was provoked into writing his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) by a sermon of the Protestant dis-

follows that society and state

—

welcoming the Revolution. Burke's deeply antagonism to the new movement propelled him to the plane thought it provoked a host of English replies, of which the best known is Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1791-

senter Richard Price felt

of general political

;

92).

In the first instance Burke discussed the actual course of the Revolution, examining the personalities, motives and policies of More profoundly, he attempted to analyze the fundaits leaders.

mental ideas animating the movement and, fastening on the Revolutionary- concepts of "the rights of man" and popular sovereignty, emphasized the dangers of democracy in the abstract and the mere rule of numbers when unrestrained and unguided by the responsible And, further, he challeadership of an hereditary aristocracy. lenged the whole rationalist and idealist temper of the movement. It was not merely that the old social order was being thrown down. He argued that the moral fervour of the Revolution, and its vast speculative schemes of political reconstruction, were causing a devaluation of tradition and inherited values, and a thoughtless de-

and spiritual resources Against all this, he appealed to the example and the virtues of the English constitution: its concern for continuity and unorganized growth, its respect for traditional wisdom and usage rather than speculative innovation, for prescriptive, rather than abstract, rights, its acceptance of a hierarchy of rank and property, its religious consecration of secular authority and recognition of the radical imperfection of all human contrivances. As an analysis and prediction of the course of the movement, Burke's French writings, though frequently intemperate and unstruction of the painfully acquired material of society.

were in some ways strikingly acute; but his lack of sympathy with its positive ideals concealed from him its more fruitful and permanent potentialities. It is for the criticism and affirmation of fundamental political attitudes that the Reflections and the Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791) retain their freshness, relevance and force. Burke opposed the French Revolution to the end of his life, demanding war against the new state, and gaining a European reputation and influence. But his hostility to the Revolution went beyond that of most of his party, and in particular was challenged by Charles James Fox. Burke's long friendship with Fox came Ultito a dramatic end in a parliamentary debate (May 1791). mately the majority of the party passed with Burke into support of William Pitt's government. In 1794, at the conclusion of Hastings" impeachment, Burke retired from parliament. His last years were clouded by the death of his only son, on whom his political ambitions had come to centre. He continued to write, defending himself from his critics, deploring the condition of Ireland and opposing any recognition of the French government (notably in Letters on a Regicide Peace [1796-97]). Burke died at Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, on July 9, 1797. controlled,

POLITICAL THEORY Burke's writings on France, though the most profound of his works, cannot be read as a complete statement of his views on

his funda-

to specific

His consistency during his political career has therefore been debated, both in his lifetime and since. He himself repudi-

issues.

ated charges of inconsistency, and ings as an integrated whole, in

it is

possible to regard his writ-

terms of constant principles

underlying his practical positions.

Those principles are, in essence, an exploration of the concept Burke conceives the life of feeling and the spiritual

of "Nature."

of man as a harmony within the larger order of the universe. Natural impulse, that is, contains within itself self-restraint and self-criticism; the moral and spiritual life is continuous with it, generated from it and essentially sympathetic to it. Instinct is life

ideally rational in the sense of objective self-interest

but recognizing

its finite

make

and impartial, sustaining

place in larger wholes.

It

possible the full realization

embody a common good and represent a agreement on norms and ends. The political community acts ideally as a unity. Its constitutional organization and activities should be designed to elicit, maintain and expand the inherent rationality of its parts and members. Political participation will naturally differ from one part of society to another, and from period to period, but the constant principle is that it should be arranged to exclude aggressive self-interest and to allow expression of rational conciliatory self-interest compatible with the good of the whole. Burke therefore does not reject the concept of natural right, but he does not give it any simple or direct political imphcation. It refers to the whole potentiality of human nature and comprises an acceptance of both the rightness and wisdom of the life of feeling, the reality of moral obligation and the need for inner or outer restraint on mere appetite. This interpretation of nature and the natural order implies deep respect for the historical process, and the usages and social achievement built up in time. Negatively, this is an insistence on the safety of the tried and enduring; positively, it is a sense of the principle of growth and perfection immanent in a tradition and stable complex of feeling. Therefore it does not entail an Social inflexible or uncritical adherence to the inherited order. change is not merely possible but inevitable and desirable. But the scope and the role of thought operating as a reforming instrument on society as a whole is limited. It should act under the promptings of specific tensions or specific possibilities, in close of

human

potentiality,

tacit or explicit

union with the detailed process of change, rather than in large speculative schemes involving extensive interference with the stable, habitual life of society. Also, it ought not to place excessive emphasis on some ends at the expense of others in particular, it should not give rein to a moral idealism which sets itself in radical opposition to the existing order. Such attempts cut across the natural processes of social development, initiating uncontrollable forces or provoking a dialectical reaction of excluded factors. The natural development is a unitary evolution of social potential;

ities,

a progressive embodiment of

diversity

and common

rationality,

its

immanent values; individual

widening political participation,

extension and refinement of the spiritual and cultural life. This evolution will be conditioned and particularized within different

communities by a multitude of special factors, which must be reThe hope is not a realization of particular ends, such as the "liberty" and "equality" of the French Revolution, but an intensification and reconciliation of the multifarious elements of the good life which community exists to forward. At each level and stage of the human order, the natural harmony is frangible. spected.

Its violation creates a disorder; but such disorder is not the primordial or essential relation of the elements of human experience; it is the disharmony of the parts of an integrated whole. This system is a theodicy. Burke is not a Christian political

thinker in the sense that the tenets of Christi.Tn faith, or unity of Christian worship, are integral elements in his political thought, as

is

the case with Richard Hooker.

But of

all

earlier English

political thinkers, his closest alfiliations, in historical situation, in

tone,

and

in

many

Hooker; and both the tradition of political thought whose Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle.

details of thought, are with

consciously belong to greatest figures are St.

BURKE— BURLESQUE

434

In his own day, Burke's writings on France were an important inspiration to German and French counterrevolutionary thought. His influence in England has been more diffuse, more balanced and more durable. He stands as the original exponent of long-lived constitutional conventions, the idea of party and the role of the member of parliament as free representative, not delegate. More generally, his remains the most persuasive statement of certain inarticulate political and social principles long and widely held in England; the validity of status and hierarchy, the limited role and scope of politics in the life of society, the confinement of political principle within the sanctions of custom, natural feeling

and morality.

As

contemporary relevance and ultimate would seem to reduce to the question how far his particular conception of "nature" can still be found consonant with subsequent social experience and self-analysis. See also references under "Burke, Edmund" in the Index volume. BiBLiocRAPHY.— CoHecJed Works, 8 vol. (1854-89), 12 vol. (186567); T. W. Copeland (ed.). The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, for the

validity of his thought, this

(1958- ), A Checklist of the Correspondence of Edmund Burke (1955); Speeches of Edmund Burke, 4 vol. (1816); Burke's Politics, an anthology ed. by R. J. S. Hoffman and Paul Levack (1949). Biographies: P. Magnus, Edmund Burke (1939); C. B. Cone, Burke and the Nature of Politics, 2 vol. (1957- ). Political Theorv: J. Morlev, Edmund Burke: an Historical Study (1S67); J. MacCunn, The Political Philosophy of Burke (1913); H. J. C. Grierson, "Edmund Burke" in The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. xi (1914) A. Cobban, Edmund Burke and the Revolt Against the Eighteenth Century (1929) C. Parkin, The Moral Basis of Burke's Political Thought (1956) P. J. Stanlis, Edmund Burke and the Natural Laiv (1958) F. P. Canavan, The Political Reason of 10 vol.

;

;

and was rescued by A. B. Howitt's search party in Sept. 1861. Burke died of starvation on June 28, 186 1. A statue to Burke and Wills was erected in Melbourne.

The only found with

first-hand account of the venture

is

in Wills's journal,

body.

(D. Mn.) (1792-1829), a criminal notorious for a series of murders committed in Scotland in association with William Hare, was bom in County Tyrone, Ire., in 1792 and went to Scotland about 1818. In 1827 he was living in a lodginghouse in Edinburgh kept by another Irishman, William Hare. At that time in Scotland the growing need of doctors and students for corpses for dissection could not legally be filled, and body snatching and resurrectionism were rife. So when one of Hare's lodgers died, he and Burke sold the body to Robert Knox, a leading anatomist, for £7 \0s. It was fatally simple. Helped by Mrs. Hare and Helen McDougal, the two men lured travelers into one of their houses, made them drunk and suffocated them. In nine his

BURKE, "VVILLIAM

months they disposed of the bodies of 15 victims at prices ranging from £8 to £14, but the disappearance of the 16th victim was noticed, the police traced the body to Knox's cellar and the four were arrested. Hare turned king's evidence, making Burke's conviction possible. He was hanged in Edinburgh on Jan. 28, 1829. Hare was safe from prosecution, but public hatred drove him from Scotland.

The verb "to burke," meaning to suffocate or kill in order to the body, or, figuratively, to suppress or hush up, came from Burke's career.

sell

;

;

Edmund Burke

(1960).

(C.

BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD

W.

C1814-1892),

P.)

British

genealogist, the second editor of Burke's Peerage, who in 1847 introduced the annual revised editions, was born in London on

1S14, and was educated in

London and France and called Middle Temple in 1839. He was the most voluminous genealogical and heraldic writer of the 19th century, and the most celebrated member of a family of genealogists. His father, John Burke (1787-1848). began Burke's Peerage (1826), Landed Gentry (iS^b). Extinct Peerage (1831 and Extinct BaronJan.

5,

to the bar at the

)

Sir Bernard, early associated with his father's (1838). works, greatly increased their range, and also wrote many other books, among them the General Armory (1S42); The Roll of Battle Abbey (184S): and The Romance of the Aristocracy (1855) Vicissitudes of Families (3 ser.. 1859-63) and The Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Colonial Gentry (1891). Sir Bernard combined this work with a busy professional career. He was Ulster king-of-arms from 1853 until' his death; registrar and knight-attendant on the Order of St. Patrick; keeper of the state papers of Ireland; and a governor and trustee of the National Gallery of Ireland. He was knighted in 1854 and made etcies

;

commander

;

of the Bath in 1868.

ble as heralds or genealogists.

Of his seven sons four were notaBurke died in Dublin on Dec. 12,

1892. His work can easily be criticized, but it may fairly be claimed that there is no aspect of heraldry, genealogy or peerage law in which the inquirer cannot learn from him. (L. G. Pe.)

BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA

(

1820-1861

),

Irish-Australian

was the leader of the first expedition to cross Australia from south to north. This expedition, known as the "Great Northern exploration" or "Burke and Wills" expedition, was promoted by the Royal Society of Victoria. Burke was born at St. Cleram, County Galway. Ire., in 1820. He served in the Ausexplorer,

army

and. later, in the Irish constabulary. In 1853 he emigrated to Australia where he became an inspector of police in trian

Victoria.

He was a brave impetuous man, but no bushman although the its objective, it ended in disaster. Expensively equipped and enthusiastically sponsored, it left Melbourne in Aug, i860 with 18 men and ample transport, including camels from India. Burke, his second in command W. J. Wills, C. Gray and John King reached the Gulf of Carpentaria in Feb. 1861. having left a rear guard at Cooper's Creek in Queensland. The depot was not properly maintained nor was any reliable system of communication agreed on; only King survived the return journey ;

expedition reached

of

See William Roughead (ed.), Burke and Hare, with complete Burke and McDougal, 3rd ed. (1948).

trial

BURLAMAQUI, JEAN JACQUES

(1694-1748), Swiss publicist, was born at Geneva on June 24, 1694, where he was honorary professor of ethics and the law of nature for 15 years. As a member of the council of state, he gained a high reputation for his practical sagacity. His Principes du droit natiirel (1747) and Principes du droit politique (1751) passed through many editions and were extensively used as textbooks. His fundamental principle may be described as rational utilitarianism, and in many ways it resembled that of the English philosopher Richard Cumberland {q.v.; 1631-1718). Burlamaqui died at Geneva on April 3,

1748.

BURLAP, a plain woven jute fabric also sometimes called hesThe name burlap is a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon burmeaning "coarse cloth," and lappen, "to lap" or "wrap." Burlap weights generally range from 5 oz. to 14 oz. a yard; fabric widths usually range from 36 to 100 in. Burlap is the standard sian.

rel,

jute fabric construction; other constructions are jute canvas, a

very fine weave of highest quality "white" fibre, and sacking, a heavier and more coarsely woven fabric. The major use for burlap is as bags for packaging, but it is also widely used as carpet backing, cement curing covers during construction, lining for clothing, upholstery interiors, backing for plastic upholstery fabrics and decorative wall coverings. Centre of the world jute manufacturing industry is Calcutta, India. Burlap is exported in bales of 2,000 yd.; the fabric is converted to end uses by domestic manufacturers.

BURLEIGH, HARRY THACKER

(1866-1949),

'

US.

Negro baritone and composer known for his transcriptions of Negro spirituals, was born at Erie, Pa., Dec. 2, 1866. He studied from 1892 to 1896 at the National Conservatory of Music, New York city, w-here he was encouraged by the mother of composer Edward MacDowell and also by Dvorak. He was a soloist in New York city, at St. George's church (1894-1946) and at the synagogue Temple Emanuel (1900-25). He composed more than 200 songs and became widely known for his arrangements of Negro notabfy "Deep River."

i

(Q. L. H.)

See Jute.

spirituals,

1.

In 1917 he

won

the Spingarn

medal for the highest achievement by an American Negro.

He

died at Stamford. Conn., Sept. 12, 1949. a comic imitation of a serious literary work, in which heroes behave like clowns and gods like the lowest of men. It is closely related to parody (g.v.), in which the language

BURLESQUE,

and style of an author, poem or other work

is

mimicked; burlesque

,

!

BURLEY— BURLINGTON relies

more on an extravagant incongruity between

treatment, and

its

a subject

and

are in general broader and coarser. Batrachomyomachia (The Battle of

its effects

Homer was burlesqued

in

the Frogs and Mice) and the long-winded medieval romance in Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas. The mock-epic Morgante by Luigi Pulci iq.v.) ridicules the Charlemagne story and the whole theme In 15th-century Italy of chivalry in high-sounding ottava rinia. burlesque expressed a commonsensical middle-class attack on a also it proved the and in that form dying aristocratic culture In the France of initial inspiration of Cervantes' Don Quixote. Louis XIV it was used by the "Moderns'' in the "Battle of the Books," the Virgile Travesti of Paul Scarron {q.v.) being the best known of many burlesque or antiheroic epics on classical or even sacred themes. These were somewhat influenced by the Spanish drama of Lope de Vega, in which the clown or gracioso parodies the actions and sentiments of the heroic lover. English burlesque is chiefly dramatic (a notable exception being the burlesque poem Hudibras by Samuel Butler; q.v.). George Villiers' (2nd duke of Buckingham) The Rehearsal (1671), which mocks the Restoration

drama

of

Dryden and Thomas Otway.

Fielding's

Tom Thumb

435

he was graduated from the Detroit branch of the University of Michigan and in 1846 from the Harvard law school. He soon entered Massachusetts politics and in 1853-54 served in the state senate. From 1855 to 1861 he was a member of the national house of representatives, being elected for his first term on the KnowXothing ticket and thereafter for the Republican party, of which he was one of the founders in Massachusetts. Burlingame's speech (June 21, 1856) of sharp reproof to Preston S. Brooks for attacking Sen. Charles Sumner {q.v.) led Brooks to challenge Burlingame to a duel, but the duel never took place. In 1860 Burlingame was defeated for re-election and in 1861 Pres. Abraham Lincoln named him minister to Vienna. The Austrian government found him unacceptable because of his pro-Kossuth speeches and he was then appointed minister to China. Burlingame found China in a critical situation. The T'ai P'ing rebellion had not yet been suppressed; the "unequal treaties"' had infringed China's sovereignty; the central government was weak; antiforeign feeling was strong; and the foreign mercantile community desired vigorous treaty enforcement and more treaty rights. Burlingame quickly became the leader of the diplomatic corps in a policy of co-operation

(17301, Sheridan's The Critic (1779), which takes a side glance at the amateur actor and Henry Carey's "most tragical tragedy" Chrononhotonthologos (1734) are the outstanding survivals from

among

an age when burlesque was cruelly satirical and often defamatory. The heroic Bombardinion's lines in Carey's fragment provide a bridge-passage to the more kindly, punning Victorian burlesque:

for China so impressed the Chinese government that in Nov. 1867, upon his resignation as U.S. minister to China, he was named imperial envoy charged with the conduct of China's international relations. In Feb. 1868, with two Chinese colleagues and a suite of The mission 30, Burlingame began a tour of western capitals.

Go call a coach, and let a coach be called; And let the man who calls it be the caller; And in his calling, let him nothing call, But coach coach coach Oh for a coach, ye gods !

!

!

made

of which Burlingame, a brilliant orator, conveyed an optimistic

— —

pantomime (q.v.). Burlesque in the U.S. Theatre.

(Jo.

—A

M.

C.)

very different kind of to the United States in 1868 by Lydia Thompson's troup of "British Blondes," which included a chorus line of girls in tights. In the U.S., it evolved into a type of show designed for male patronage, compounded of slapstick sketches, earthy jokes, chorus numbers and In the solo dances usually billed as "daring" or "sensational." early 20th century, two national circuits of burlesque shows, as well as resident companies in New York, were thriving. W. C. Fields. Al Jolson, Leon Errol and Fannie Brice were among the comedians who served their apprenticeship in this rugged school. The addition of "strip tease'' dancing to the burlesque repertoire in the early 1920s brought censorship that closed many burlesque theatres. By the early 1960s few burlesque houses remained and these usually provided no more than strip-tease performers, a motion picture and a comic who told his jokes with an air of defeatism to an audience w'aiting for the next display of feminine anatomy.

BURLEY

known

as burlesque,

(Burleigh).

was brought

'WALTER

1275-c. 1345), Engdesignated as doctor planus et perspicuus ("the plain, clear-sighted teacher"), is known to have taught at Oxford, at Paris ' of enduring strength. Addressed to the young, the novel has a quality perennially young. Before the close of 1779 it had run to four editions and it remains a classic.

Though by June 1778 her father had read reviews of Evelina more than the rest of London, who had written the book. Informed by Susan, who confessed that Fan was the

he did not know, any

he could not restrain his tears at the lines to himself of my being!") or suppress his pride. In spite of his daughter's wish for anonymity, he told the secret to his literary friends, among them, Mrs. Thrale (see Piozzi, Hester Lynch), who at once invited Fanny to Streatham. A close friendship developed between the clever and hospitable mistress of Streatham place and the shy wit, who was soon found to be "a girl of prodigious Parts," able, once she had overcome initial shyness, to hold her own with the wits of literary London including Dr. Johnson himself. The great man was very kind to her and between 1779 and 1 783 when, like him, she was a guest of the Thrales for months at a time, often accompanying them to Tunbridge Wells, Brighton and Bath, she had opportunities for observing and recording that Boswell might have envied. New scenes and personages provided fresh matter for journal-letters and the Streatham. Brighton and Bath journals of 1778-82 (vol. i and ii in Austin Dobson's edition) have been prized for their vignettes of contemporary scenes and personages and especially of Dr. Johnson, his kindness and his sense of fun. He in turn loved all the Burneys he knew and some he did not and loved them "for loving each other." Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Arthur Murphy and others who had noted the livxly dialogue of the comic scenes in Evelina now persuaded Miss Bumey to try her hand at comedy. In 1 779 she comculprit,

("0 Author

London life and the social satire as amusing as before. The work won great respect and in the years 1782-85 Fanny was much lionized in London literary assemblies and drawdng rooms, where she often met Sir Joshua Reynolds, Dr. Johnson, Burke, the fashionable Miss Monckton, Richard Owen Cambridge and his son George Owen. Henry Thrale died in 1781, "Daddy Crisp" in 1783 and Dr. in 1 784. These years were also perplexed by the ambiguous attentions of the young clergyman George Owen Cambridge, which came to nothing. In 1785 Fanny was presented to Queen Charlotte and King George III and in the summer of 1 786 she was invited to court as second keeper of the robes with a salary of £200

Johnson

a year.

Fanny was now

Evelina's journal-letters often read like lively

comedy

Fanny was observant with an attentive ear for dialect and the differentiation of London speech, and the presentation of contemporary' scenes make Evelina a lively period piece. The realism of the scenes of low life reminded readers of Fielding. The novel also exposed the heart and mind scenes in a

Cecilia, or Memoirs of an Heiress, five volumes other novel. (1782), written under pressure, lacked the spontaneity of Evelina.

34.

Disappointment

in love, difiiculties with

her stepmother together with her father's delight in having a daughter at court overcame her regret at such a retirement from her family and the world. Her duties were often strenuous, but what she found more difficult to bear was the impingement on her

time and liberty exacted by the first keeper of the robes, the cruel and abusive Mrs. Schwellenberg, who insisted on her company at picquet and at the tea table where the king's equerries were entertained in the evenings. Fanny's loyalty to the royal family and her sympathy and help during the king's illness at Kew (1788-89) won her the affection of the queen and the princesses, proved by about 200 affectionate letters to the ageing Madame d'Arblay (written between 1818^0) from the princesses Elizabeth, Mary

The strain of court service told on her health and in 790 her father was persuaded to request that she be allowed to resign. She was released in July 1791 with a pension of £100 a year. The literary output of the years 1786-91 consisted of the court journals, often dispatched in monthly packets to her sister Susan and Sophia. 1

Mickleham and to the Lockes of Norbury park (vol. iii and iv in Austin Dobson's edition). She dutifully repressed the court gossip of the appalling years of the king's madness, the schemes for the regency, etc., but retailed her own life and events of public interest To beguile the weary year of like the trial of Warren Hastings. at

1790-91 she wrote four blank -verse tragedies; "Edwy and Elgiva," "Hubert De Vere," "The Siege of Pevensey" and the unfinished "Elberta." "Edwy and Elgiva," though acted by Mrs. Siddons, Bensley and Kemble, ran at Drury Lane theatre in 1795 for one night only.

On visits to Norbury park and Mickleham in 1792 Fanny met Alexandre Gabriel Jean-Baptiste Piochard d'Arblay, adjutantgeneral to Lafayette, one of the group of French Constitutionalists {see Feuillants, Club of the) who in Aug. 1792 fled to England, some of them finding refuge at Juniper hall, near Mickleham. Romance developed

rapidly;

the general offered his hand and

though Fanny's father objected to the emigre's circumstances, the marriage took place on July 28, 1793, in Mickleham and never, wrote Fanny later, was "union more blest." The D'Arblays soon moved to a cottage in Great Bookham and on Dec. 18, 1794, a son, Alexander Charles Louis Piochard, was born. In 1793 Madame d'Arblay published a charity sermon. Brief ReIn 1796 she flections Relative to the Emigrant Fretich Clrri;y.

completed a potboiler, the courtesy novel Camilla: or a Picture of Youth (S vol.), which yielded £1.000 with another £1,000 for the copyright and enabled D'Arblay to build a new house, Camilla cottage, in West Humble near Mickleham, Surrey, where they moved in Nov, 1797. The West Humble days were perhaps the

—

BURNHAM

452

happiest of Fanny's life, though one of its sorrows was the failing health of her sister Susan, since 1796 an exile, as she felt, on her husband's estate in County Louth, in Ireland. Her death (Jan. 1800) removed the raison d'etre of the thick packets of journalletters (erroneously called diaries) that Madame d'Arblay all her life had sent to this sister, receiving thousands of confidential journal pages in return; although written as personal letters only, they are of social and historical interest. Later journals describing significant public or private events were usually composed at her husband's request to be handed down to his son. In the West Humble period (1797-1801) Madame d'Arblay wrote three comedies, all unpublished: "Love and Fashion," ac-

cepted for production at Covent Garden, but withdrawn at Susan's death; "The Woman-Hater"; and "A Busy Day," a lively playable piece, reminiscent of the

comic and

satiric parts of

EveVma and

Cecilia.

In 1801 Alexandre d'Arblay returned to France, and Madame d'Arblay arrived in Paris with her son in May 1802 intending a visit of a year, but when war broke out again her stay (or exile, as she sometimes thought it) was extended to ten years. D'Arblay, loyal both to the old regime and to his wife's country, found em-

ployment as a civil servant. Madame d'Arblay managed to return to England in 1812 to see her father, who died in 1814. In London (1813-14) she completed The Wanderer: or Female Difficulties (five volumes), a critique attacking English insularity and inhospitality to foreigners, a great disappointment to readers ex-

pecting satiric pictures of Napoleonic France. She was paid i 1 ,500 for the first edition, which was sold out before it was printed.

No

one since, it is said, has ever read The Wanderer. In 1815, when Napoleon escaped from Elba. General d'Arblay, now marechal de camp and second lieutenant of the king's guard, was with the troops who covered Louis XVIII's retreat to the coast. Madame d'Arblay fled with other royalists to Brussels, where she wrote long letters to her family describing the preparations for war and the aftermath of battle. In July 1815, learning that her husband had been injured at Treves, she crossed France and parts of the Rhineland to join him. When he had recovered they traveled to London and late in 1815 settled in Bath. D'Arblay was decorated and made a lieutenant general but his personal fortunes remained in ruin, his health failed and he died in Bath in

May

1818.

At the desire of her son

—now

a senior wrangler, a fellow of

—

Memoirs of Doctor Burney. of her son (1837) and of her sister Charlotte

in contrast to that of the

The deaths

Broome

(1838) saddened her closing years. She died on Jan. 6, 1840, and was buried with her son and her husband in Wolcot churchyard, Bath. Bibliography. The Early Diary of Frances Burney, 1768-1778, ed. by Annie Raine Ellis, 2 vol. (1889) Diary and Letters of Madame d'.Arblay, ed. by Charlotte Frances Barrett, 7 vol. (1842-46), re-edited though not from mss. by Austin Dobson, 6 vol., (1904-09); R. Brimley Johnson, Fanny Burney and the Burneys (1926) The Queeney Letters, ed. by H. \V. E. P. Fitzmaurice, marquis of Lansdowne (1934) Evelina, ed. by Sir Frank D. Mackinnon (1930) Cecilia, 2 vol., ed. by Annie Raine Ellis (1882); Edwy and Elgiva, ed. by Miriam J. Benkovitz (1957) Burford Papers Letters of Samuel Crisp, ed. by William Holden Hutton (1905) Joyce Hemlow, The History of Fanny Burney (1958), "Dr. Johnson and the Young

—

;

—

;

;

;

.

;

.

.

;

Burneys," a chapter in. New Light on Dr. Johnson, ed. F. W. Hilles (1959) and "Fanny Burney and the Courtesy Books," PML.\, vol. Ixv, no. 5, pp. 732-61 (Sept. 1950) Austin Dobson, Fanny Burney (Madam d'Arblay) (1903) T. B. Macaulay, Essay on Frances Burney (1919); Constance Hill, The House in St. Martin's Street (1907) and Juniper Hall (1904). (Jo. He,) ;

;

BURNHAM, DANIEL HUDSON

(1846-1912), U.S. an early advocate of metropolitan area planning, was born at Henderson, N.Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He was educated at Chicago and at Waltham, Mass. He worked in Chicago, and in 1873 formed a partnership with John W. Root. Their work was of vital importance in the development of steel skeleton construction. They were entrusted with the planning of the World's Columbian exposition at Chicago (1893). On Root's death this work fell wholly upon Burnham. Other large commissions included the Rookery (1886) and the Monadnock building (1S91), which was the world's tallest wallbearing building, in Chicago; the Flatiron building (1902), which, was the world's tallest building, and Wanamaker's store (1903) in New York; Filene's store (1912) in Boston; the Union station (1904) in Washington, D.C.; and Self ridge's store (1909) in London. Burnham was asked to propose plans for improving several cities, including Cleveland, San Francisco, Chicago and Baltimore, and for cities in the Philippines. His "Plan for Chicago" (1909), sometimes called a "city beautiful" proposal, anticipated by 30 years the need for transportation, parks and residential development on a metropolitan area basis. He was chairman of the committee which produced the McMillan plan for Washington, D.C. architect,

and about to be ordained Madame London, taking a house at 11, Bolton street, Piccadilly (1818-28), later moving to 1, Half Moon street, Berkeley square (1828-37). Both houses were near her brother James's lively home at Buckingham gate. In these years her mind was

(1910). He died in Heidelberg, Ger., on June 1, 1912. See C. Moore, Daniel H. Burnham, Architect, Planner of Cities, 2 vol. (1921). (R. R. I.)

much occupied with

(1833-1916), English newspaper proprietor who virtually created London Daily Telegraph, was born in London, Dec. 28, 1833, and was educated at University College school. His father, Joseph Moses Levy (d. 18SS), acquired the Daily Telegraph and Courier in 1855, a few months after it had been founded by Colonel Sleigh, and, aided by his son, soon changed the current of its fortunes, raising it to a leading position and making it the pioneer London penny paper. Edward Levy (he took the added name of Lawson under his uncle's will in 1875) acted as editor of the Daily Telegraph till his father's death and then became its managing proprietor and sole controller till 1903, when he was made a baron and passed over these duties to his son. He had received a baron-

Christ's college, Cambridge,

d'Arblay

moved

to

the career of her brilliant but erratic son. In this later London period (1818-32) she fulfilled her husband's requests by writing up journals of past events such as her adventures at Ilfracombe (1817), her journey to Treves (1817) and her introductions to the duchesse d'Angouleme and Louis

XVIII

(1814). She edited a selection of journals for publication (those re-edited by her niece Charlotte Barrett and published by Colburn. 1842-46, and the papers re-edited by Annie Raine Ellis She also read through her father's as the Early Diary, 1889). "Memoirs" and correspondence, destroying and obliterating parts she thought would give pain, as she had done with other journals. In 1832 she published Memoirs of Doctor Biirney, three volumes, a work much attacked for its inflated style and prejudiced selection of material.

Though

still

remembered

as the

famous

Madame

lived in quiet retirement, visited occasionally

d'Arblay, she

by famous men

like

William Wilberforce and Sir Walter Scott and faithful friends like Lady Keith (Queeney Thrale) and Amelia (Locke) Angerstein. The younger Burneys, paying duty calls, found her invariably kind, incredibly wise and often when her health permitted as entertaining as ever with her store of curious anecdotes related with all her old powers of narration and talents of mimicry. Neither her extraordinary memory nor her imagination failed. The family letters of this period (as of all other times) are filled with affection, charity and kindness and are written in a lively style sharply

BURNHAM, EDWARD LEVY LAWSON,

1st

Baron

the

etcy in 1892.

For many years Edward Lawson was one of the outstanding No one in Great Britain did more than he to brighten and humanize the daily newspaper and transchronicle of the day's events (only form it from a plain, severe mitigated by the occasional ferocity of its political judgments) into a readable apd entertaining presentation of the world's news. The abolition of the last of the paper duties (1861), in which Lawson himself bore an active part, called into being a host of fresh newspaper readers among the middle classes, which welcomed the popular features of the new journalism. His conception of a popular daily paper was that it should be a faithful mirror of the times and make a strong appeal to the feeling of its readers. figures in English journalism.

—

BURNHAM— BURNOUF Under

453

Daily Telegraph raised large funds for national, patriotic and charitable objects, dispatched missions of exploration to Central Africa and elsewhere and started novel features, such as popular correspondences on live topics of the day, which later became the established commonplace of journalism. For many years the Daily Telegraph warmly supported the his direction the

Liberal party, but

it

strongly dissented from Gladstone's antilinal severance came on his Irish policy of was not by nature a strong political partisan;

Turkish policy and the

Home

Rule.

Lawson

what interested him most was the social advancement of the peoand the development of the British empire, to which causes he gave strong support whatever the politics of the government of the day. Edward VII, as prince of Wales and later as king, frequently visited his home. He was president of the Institute of Journalists (1892-93) and the Newspaper Press Fund (190S-16) and in 1909 presided over the first Imperial Press Conference in London. In 1862 he married Harriette Georgiana (d. 1897), daughter of the actor-manager Benjamin Webster. He died in London, Jan. 9, 1916. (J. B. F.) BEECHES, a woodland covering 600 ac. on a plateau of gravelly sand, is west of the road from Slough to Beaconslield. Buckinghamshire, Eng. Once the property of Burnham abbey, it passed into priv'ate hands at the Dissolution. After 1878 the Corporation of the City of London acquired 492 ac. for public recreation. The fantastic shapes of the beech trees are due to the old practice of pollarding, whereby branches were lopped ple

BURNHAM

off

their short trunks, at intervals of several years, for firewood;

fresh shoots arose at a height

beyond the reach of

cattle.

Oak and

birch are also found, together with ferny open spaces.

(H. L. En.) an urban district of Essex, 20 mi. E.S.E. of Chelmsford by road. Pop. (1961) 4,167. Burnham lies 6 mi. from the North sea; below it the Crouch river is joined on the south side by the Roach, which branches into numerous creeks forming Foulness, Wallasea, Potton and other flat islands. The church of St. Mary, mainly 14th century, has one of the 40 bells cast by John Walgrave (1415). There are extensive oyster beds in the Crouch estuary and a shellfish research laboratory was opened in 1953. Burnham-on-Crouch, which possesses four yacht clubs, is one of the best-known yachting centres in the British Isles, and boatbuilding and sailmaking are carried on. The district is mainly agricultural, the only heavy

BURNHAM-ON-CROUCH,

Eng..

is

industry being ironworks.

BURNING BUSH, a common name for the gas plant and for Euonymus

See Gas Plant;

americatiiis.

BURNISHER,

Euonymus.

used principally in the arts, as the name implies, to give a high polish to a decorated surface. The tool differs in size, shape and material, according to the purpose for which it is intended. The burnisher used by the artist is generally about 10 to 12 in, in length. At one end is an agate, flint or blood stone, very smoothly polished, and cut in various shapes, ranging from a point to a round, square or oblong end, curved hook or spear shape, firmly set in a metal ferrule. The burnisher, as a finishing tool, is brought into the process of gilding after the surface has been carefully prepared scraped, cleaned, polished, washed in an acid solution and thoroughly dried. The gold leaf is then applied and the colour brought out by means of rubbing with the burnisher. On very early panel and mural paintings, and on illuminated manuscripts is found a thinly beaten gold leaf or a

tool

—

powdered metallic gold, applied over a smooth priming or foundation, similar to what today is called burnish gold size. This was prepared by the early gilders from a very high grade of rabbit or hide glue, mixed together with natural red bolus, a variety of clay. After the gold size has dried smooth and hard, the gold leaf or powder is carefully applied and then very gently rubbed with the

finely

burnisher until the desired high finish is obtained. It is necessary that the gold to be burnished be laid on a very smooth and hard surface to obtain the most brilliant results. Today, burnish gold leaf, a variety differing only slightly from the ordinary gold leaf about one carat softer is used extensively. Genuine metallic gold

—

powder

is seldom employed because of its high cost. Imitation gold powder, or so-called burnishing bronze, is widely used com-

''-"''

ENDED

POINT

FLINT AND AGATE BURNISHERS USED

IN

BOOKBINDING

Gilders of picture and mirror frames, book edges, greeting and playing card ed^es, illuminated manuscripts and other mercially.

productions are the principal users of these burnishers. Another style of burnisher made of a very high-grade steel is used by the artist etcher and metalworker to remove rough burrs or to obtain a highly polished surface to parts of the copper or zinc plate, or to make corrections. The leather carver also employs a burnisher to give a desired finish to tooled leather. The burnisher used by the ceramic artist to finish gold decorations on china or porcelain is made of spun glass. The gold on the china is quite dull after leaving the firing kiln. It is carefully burnished with the glass burnisher until the required finish is obtained. There is no record of any definite date or period when burnishers were introduced in the arts. From earliest times there is evidence of their use. (F. W. We.) a municipal (1861), county (1888) and parliamentary (1S67) borough of Lancashire, Eng., is situated at the junction of the rivers Brun and Calder, 24 mi. N. of Manchester by road and on the Leeds and Liverpool canal. Pop. (1961) Burnley's growth from a township of 2,000 in 1790 de80.588. pended on the canal, its coal and its position in the weaving areas of Lancashire. By the early 19th century the cotton trade had entirely superseded that of wool and in time Burnley became important not only for its cotton cloth but also for the manufacture of looms. The town suffered severely during the cotton famine consequent upon the American Civil War. Cotton weaving and coal mining are still two of the principal industries, the third being light engineering, including the manufacture of kitchen equipment, electric fires, automobile accessories and gas turbines. The weekly market and annual fair were granted by a charter of 1294. Towneley hall (mainly 17th century but said to date in part from the time of Edward III) is now a municipal museum and art gallery. There are the Municipal college, grammar and technical schools and 477 ac. of parks and recreation grounds. The parish church of St. Peter dates from 1120 and has a Perpendicular tower, but has been much restored. In 1890 Burnley was created a bishopric suffragan of the Manchester diocese but later it was included under the diocese of Blackburn founded in 1926.

BURNLEY,

(C. V. T.)

EUGENE

(1801-1852), French orientalist, by BURNOUF, whose labours a knowledge of the Zend language was first brought to Europe, was born in Paris on Aug. 12^ 1801. He published in 1826 an Essai tian Lassen,

stir le

and

in

., written in collaboration with Christhe following year Observations grammati-

Pali

.

.

cales sur quelques passages de I'essai siir le Pali.

His next great

work was the deciphering of the Zend manuscripts brought to France by Anquetil-Duperron, He caused the Vendidad Sade, part of one of the books bearing the

name

of Zoroaster, to be

lithographed with the utmost care from the Zend manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and published it in folio parts (182943).

From

1833 to 1845 he published his Commentaire sur

le

Yagna, I'un des livres liturgiques des Parses; he also published the Sanskrit text and French translation of the Bhagavata Piirana ou

BURNS

454

Krichna in three folio volumes (1840^7). His last works were Introduction a I'histoire du Boiiddhisme Indien (1S44) and a translation of Le Lotus de la boime Loi (1852). He died at Paris on May 28, 1852. BURNS, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1795-1890), Scottish shipowner and one of the founders of the Cunard line, was born in Glasgow on Dec. 10, 1795. In partnership with a brother, James, he began as a Glasgow general merchant, and in 1824, in conjunction with a Liverpool partner, Hugh Matthie, started a line of small sailing ships which ran between Glasgow and Liverpool. Later, the vessels were also sailed to Belfast, and steamers replaced the sailing ships. In 1830 a partnership was entered into with the Maclvers of Liverpool. In 1839, with Samuel Cunard, Robert Napier and other businessmen, the partners (David MacIver and Burnsi started the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet company, later known as the Cunard line. They secured the British government's contract for the carrying of the mails of North America. Burns retired in 1858 and was made a baronet in 1889. He died on June 2, 1890, at Castle Wemyss, Renfrewshire. John Burns, 1st Baron Inverclyde (1829-1901), his eldest son, as Sir John Burns, became head of the Cunard company in 1880, and was created a peer in 1897. George Arbuthnot Burns, 2nd Baron Inverclyde (18611905) became chairman of the Cunard company in 1902. He took part in the application of turbine engines to ocean liners. BURNS, ELLIOT (1858-1943), British labour leader, was described by Beatrice and Sidney Webb in their History of Trade Unionism (1894) as "in many respects, the most histoire poetiqtie de

JOHN

striking personality in the

he became the

first

man

Labour movement."

When,

in

1906,

of working-class origin to enter the cabinet,

manner and appearance promise a future as distinguished as his past but by career was virtually ended and in 1918 he retired from

his record, his intelligence, his dignity of

seemed

to

1914 his public

life

;

altogether.

Born in London on Oct. 20, 1858, he began work at 10; and at 14 was an engineering apprentice, supplementing his scanty education by attendance at night school and extensive reading. A period as an engineer on the west Nigfer, and contact on his return with V. Delahaye, a French communard, widened his horizons. He early proved an effective speaker at first on temperance and, later, on industrial and political topics; he was arrested in 1877 for an address on Clapham common, and in 1878 for braving a "Jingo" crowd at a demonstration in Hyde park. He joined the Amalgamated Engineering union, and became, with Tom Mann, a leader of the "New Unionism" (see Labour [Trade] Union). His outlook was always political and not merely industrial. In 1883 he joined H. M. Hyndman's Social Democratic federation (S.D.F.) —the one professedly socialist body then available and in 1885 stood, unsuccessfully, for parliament. During the following years of economic slump, he became known as a champion of the unemployed. In 1886 he was, with three other S.D.F. leaders, prosecuted for sedition; on his acquittal, his speech for the defense "The Man With the Red Flag" was printed and widely read. In 1887 he was sentenced to six weeks imprisonment for participating in a riot in Trafalgar square on Nov. 12, a day that came to be known as "Bloody Sunday." In 1889 he was the dominating figure in the great London dock strike, which brought the casual and the unskilled worker into the organized trade unions. In the same year. Burns was elected as a Progressive to London's new county council, and proved a useful and effective member, carrying through a motion imposing trade union rates in London county council contracts and fighting against private monopolies. In 1892 he was elected chairman of the Trades Union congress by an imposing majority. Although he took an active part in the transactions of the Labour Representation committee (L.R.C.), out of which the Labour party arose, he did not share the independent outlook of James Keir Hardie; when he stood for Battersea in 1892, he was not an L.R.C. candidate. Elected member of parliament, as again in 1895, 1900 and 1906, he stood aloof from the young Labour party, and in 1906 joined Sir Henry CampbellBannerman's Liberal cabinet, as president of the local government

—

—

—

board

— then the main authority for the poor laws.

He

opposed the

Webbs and their crusade for fundamental reform of the poor laws, as expressed in the minority report of the royal commission of The portrait of Burns drawn in the Diaries of Beatrice coloured by this conflict, and by the fact that the onetime agitator had become the conciliator, as evidenced by his settlement of the London docks and transport strike of 1911. In 1914 he was 1905-09.

Webb

is

moved

to the board of trade, but on Aug. 4 resigned rather than consent to British participation in a war. Between 1914 and 1918 when, because of Labour opposition, he lost his seat in Battersea, he made no public statement either in or out of parliament. His interest was apparently concentrated in his remarkable library about London he would often be seen on the Thames steamboats, the centre of a lively group of youngsters. But, from his eloquent action of Aug, 4, 1914, untO his death in London on Jan. 24, 1943, he was silent. See William Kent, John Burns: Labour's Lost Leader (1950), ;

(M. A. H,)

BURNS, ROBERT

(1759-1796), the greatest Scottish poet after the middle ages, whose poems and songs have made him the national poet of Scotland, was born at Alloway, Ayrshire, on Jan, 25, 1759. His father had come to Ayrshire from Kincardineshire in an endeavour to improve his fortunes, but though he worked immensely hard first on the farm of Mount Oliphant which he leased in 1766 and then on that of Lochlie which he took in 1777, ill-luck dogged him, and he died in 1784, worn out and bankrupt. It was watching his father being thus beaten down that helped to make Robert both a rebel against the social order of his day and a bitter satirist of all forms of religious and political thought which condoned or perpetuated inhumanity. The elder Burns was ambitious for his children, and Robert received some formal schooling from a teacher, as well as sporadically from other sources; he acquired a superficial reading knowledge of French and a bare smattering of Latin, and he read most of the important 18th-century English writers as well as Shakespeare, Milton and Dryden. Indeed, his formal education was turned entirely toward England; his knowledge of Scottish literature was in his childhood confined to orally transmitted folk songs and folk tales together' with a modernization of the late lSth-centur>- poem Wallace, a work which "poured a Scottish prejudice in my veins which will boil along there till the floodgates of life shut in eternal rest." Burns also studied biblical history, world geography and English grammar; and he learned some physics, astronomy and botany from such books as William Derham's Astro-Theology and John Ray's Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation, which presented scientific facts as arguments for the existence of God as a benevolent designer, Burns's religion throughout his adult life seems to have been a humanitarian deism. Proud, restless and full of a nameless ambition, the young Robert Burns did his share of hard work on the family farm. After his father's death he was head of the household and tenant of the farm of Mossgiel to which the family moved. But he had already started writing poetry, in which the tone of Scottish folk song and that of 18th-century sentimental and meditative poetry were strangely mingled. Early in 1 783 he began to keep a commonplace book in which he entered his first poem (a song, written for a in April, preceded by the comment specific folk tune "There is certainly some connection between Love and Music and Poetry I never had the least thought or inclination of turning Poet till I once got heartily in love, and then rhyme and song were, in a manner, the spontaneous language of my heart." The poem is an unpretentious, lilting piece, written in an English tipped with Scots, but it becomes pure neoclassic English in the final stanza. Shortly afterward he entered in the commonplace book sentimental, melodramatic or melancholy pieces whose thought reflected the family misfortunes of the time and whose vocabulary and manner derived from minor 18th-century English poets. He was cultivating, in a heavily self-conscious way, a gloomy sensibility. But suddenly we come across a lively, swinging piece deriving from the Scottish folk tradition rather than from contemporary English sentimentalists: "My father was a farmer upon the Carrick border 0," This was entered in the commonplace book in 1784, with an )

,

,

,

:

BURNS apologetic note that

was "miserably deficient in versification." Meanwhile his father's death freed him to seek male and female companionship where he would. He took sides against the dominant e.xtreme Calvinist wing of the church in Ayrshire and championed a local gentleman, Gavin Hamilton, who had got into trouble with the Kirk Session for sabbath breaking. He had an affair

with a servant

bore his

it

girl at

the farm, Elizabeth Paton,

who

in

illegitimate child, and on the child's birth he welwith a lively poem. This poem was written in a stanza that had had a long history in Scottish poetry, and had been used by Allan Ramsay and Robert Fergusson. Even more purely in the

comed

it

"The Death and Dying Words of Poor Maillie," entered in the commonplace book in June 1785, this is a "mock testament" put into the mouth of a dying sheep, done with

Scottish literary tradition

is

shrewd ironical humour and considerable technical adroitness. Burns had by now available to him not only the Scottish folk tradition but also some at least of the traditions of Scottish "art" poetry both as they came to him through Fergusson and as he found them for himself in ISth-century collections of older Scottish poetry. Burns developed rapidly throughout 1784 and 1785 as an "occasional" poet who more and more turned to verse to express his emotions of love, friendship or amusement or his ironical contemplation of the social scene. But these were not spontaneous effusions by an almost illiterate peasant. Burns was a very conscious craftsman; his entries in the commonplace book reveal that from the beginning he was interested in the technical problems of versification. If he never learned to distinguish emotional control from emotional self-indulgence in ISth-century English poetry, he did learn to appreciate economy, cogency and variety in the

work of Pope and others, and. most important of all, he learned from older Scots literature to handle Scottish literary forms and stanza patterns, particularly in descriptive and satirical verse, with assurance and cunning. From the oral folk tradition he learned a great deal about song rhythms and the fitting of words to music; and out of his own Ayrshire speech, his knowledge of older Scots and his reading in standard English, he fashioned a flexible ScotsEnglish idiom which, though hardly a literary language in the sense that Robert Henryson's or William Dunbar's language was, proved to be an effective medium for a poetry that was distinctly Scottish without being antiquarian. Though he wrote poetry for his own amusement and that of his friends, Bums remained restless and dissatisfied. He won the reputation of being a dangerous rebel against orthodox religion, and when in 1786 he fell in love with Jean Armour, her father refused to allow her to marry Burns even though a child was on the way and under Scots law mutual consent followed by consummation constituted a legal marriage.

There were also six gloomy and histrionic poems in English, four songs, of which only one, "It Was Upon a Lammas Night," showed promise of his future greatness as a song writer, and, what to contemporary reviewers seemed the stars of the volume, "The Cotter's Saturday Night" and "To a Mountain Daisy."

1785

first

Jean was persuaded by her

father to go back on her promise; Robert, hurt and enraged, took up with another girl, Mary Campbell, who died soon after; on Sept. 3 Jean bore him twins out of wedlock. Meanwhile, the farm was not prospering, and Burns, harassed by insoluble emotional

and economic problems, thought of emigrating to Jamaica. But he first wanted to show his country what he could do. In the midst of with the Armours (Armour threatened to sue him to provide for the upkeep of Jean's twins) he went ahead with his plans for publishing a volume of his poems at the nearby town of his troubles

Kilmarnock. It was entitled Poems, Chiefly iti the Scottish Diaand appeared on July 31, 1786. Its success was immediate and overwhelming. Simple country folk and sophisticated Edinburgh critics alike hailed it, and the upshot was that Burns set out for Edinburgh on Nov. 27, 1786, to be lionized, patronized and showered with well-meant but dangerous advice. The Kilmarnock volume was a remarkable mixture. It included a handful of first-rate Scots poems: "The Twa Dogs," "Scotch Drink," "The Holy Fair," "An Address to the Deil," "The Death and Dying Words of Poor Maillie," "To a Mouse," "To a Louse" and some others, including a number of verse-letters addressed to lect,

various friends. There were also a few Scots poems in which he was unable to sustain his inspiration or which are spoiled by a confused purpose (such as "The Vision"), and one ("Hallowe'en") which is too self-consciously rustic in its dogged descriptions of country customs and rituals and its almost exhibitionist use of

455

archaic rural terms.

Burns selected

his

to impress a genteel

Kilmarnock poems with care: he was anxious Edinburgh audience. In his preface he played

up to contemporary sentimental views about the natural man and the noble peasant, exaggerated his lack of education, pretended which was ridiculous in the light of the careful craftsmanship which his poetry displays and in gen-

to a lack of natural resources

The trouble is that he was only half acting. uncertain enough about the genteel tradition to accept much of it at its face value, and though, to his ultimate glory, he kept returning to what his own instincts told him was the' true path for him to follow, far too many of his poems are marred by a naive and sentimental moralizing. "The Cotter's Saturday Night," eral acted a part.

He was

which has stanzas of quiet beauty and impressive craftsmanship, and others where sharply etched realism and grandiose theatrical generalizations stand oddly side by side: Burns was not certain whether he was also contains passages of intolerable histrionics

projecting a picture of Scottish peasant life from the inside or showing off the Scottish peasant for the edification of connoisseurs of sentimental beauties in Edinburgh. Burns the song writer

was hardly represented in the Kilmarnock volume; most of his songs were still unwritten, but in any case the Edinburgh literati did not consider songs as one of the higher kinds of poetry. Bums the satirist was revealed in some degree: "The Holy Fair." written in the old Scottish tradition of poems describing popular with ironic humour the goings on at one of outdoor "tent preachings" that were held annually connection with the communion ser\-ice. "The Twa Dogs"

festivities, describes

the in

great

achieves some deft thrusts at the Scottish upper classes through an innocent-seeming dialogue between two dogs. "An Address to the Deil," drawing on the devil of folklore rather than of Caltheology, uses a tone of amused familiarity in order to diminish the Devil (the poem is a fine example of Burns's technique of implicitly criticizing theological dogmas by translating them into the daily realities of ordinary experience") But Burns omitted vinist

.

his greatest satires in order not to

shock his genteel audience. omitted "The Ordination," a brilliant satire on Ayrshire church politics in the same stanza (an old Scottish verse form as "The Holy Fair" and done with even greater verve and dexterity; "Address to the Unco Guid," an attack on Puritan hypocrisy; the

He

"I

amusing and

"Death and Doctor Hornbook"; and the "The Twa Herds," an early poem which Burns

skilful

rollicking satire

described as a "burlesque lamentation on a quarrel between two reverend Calvinists." And he omitted "Holy Willie's Prayer," the all his satiric poems and one of the great verse-satires time; it attacks the Calvinist view of predestination by putting a prayer in the mouth of a strict Calvinist convinced of

greatest of of

all

his predestined salvation.

archist cantata

Also omitted was his remarkable an-

"The

Jolly Beggars," in which he assembled a group of social outcasts and put into their mouths roaring songs of conviviality, social defiance and swaggering independence. Bums's anarchism is not a mature or a complex attitude, but it does touch a fundamental human drive, and "The Jolly Beggars" gives brilliant expression to man as outcast and vagabond.

Some notion of the different degrees of skill and integrity displayed by Burns in the Kilmarnock volume can be obtained by setting side by side "To a Louse," "To a Mouse" and "To a Mountain Daisy." The first is easily the best, a bright, lively, humorous poem moving adroitly to a conclusion which is expressed with the gnomic pithiness of a country proverb, as the lady in church on whose bonnet a louse is crawling is restored tii common humanity from which she tried to distinguish herself earlier in the poem. "To a Mouse," one of Burns's most charming and best-known poems, nevertheless lacks the tautness and the skilful manipular tion of irony and humour of "To a Louse," The poet expresses his regret to the "wee, sleekit, cowrin, tim'rous beastie,"

ing her

up

in

on turn-

her nest with the plough, and reflects that he him-

BURNS

456

an even worse situation. The fellow-feeling for the little is spontaneous and engaging, but the emergence of selftheme seems forced, and there is a touch of attitudinizing. This attitudinizing runs right through the sentimental "To a Mountain Daisy," in which he laments the fate of the crushed flower (also turned down with the plough) and compares it to that of a betrayed maiden. Burns was here posturing as a "man of feeling," and in his review of the Kilmarnock edition Henry Mackenzie, the original "Man of Feeling," singled out the poem for praise. This illustrates how pressure from those who dominated literar>- fashions in Edinburgh was continually directed at Burns to turn him f rorn a vigorous and original Scottish poet to a minor imitator of Shenstone or Gray. Edinburgh unsettled Bums, and after a number of amorous and other adventures there, and several trips to other parts of Scotland, he settled in the summer of 1788 at a farhi in EUisland, Dumfriesshire, leased to him by an admirer who was nevertheless a shrewd landlord. At Edinburgh, too, he arranged for a new and enlarged edition (1787) of his poems, but little of significance was added to the Kilmarnock selection. Substantially, it was by the Kilmarnock poems that Burns was known in his lifetime. He found farming at EUisland difficult, though he was helped by Jean Armour, with whom he had been reconciled and whom he finally married in 1788, to the annoyance of the Edinburgh grass widow Mrs. Agnes Maclehose (the "Clarinda" of the poems), with whom he had been carrying on a violent flirtation which produced some indifferent lyrics and, at the final parting, one great song, "Ae

Bums was

self is in

acter in

Fond

Kiss."

In Edinburgh Bums had met James Johnson, a keen collector of Scottish songs who was bringing out a series of volumes of songs with the music, and enlisted Bums's help in finding, editing, improving and rewriting items. Bums was enthusiastic and soon became virtual editor of Johnson's Scots Musical Museum. Later, he became involved with a similar project for George Thomson, but Thomson was a more consciously genteel person than Johnson, and Burns had to fight with him to prevent him from "refining"

words and music and so ruining their character. The five volumes of Johnson's Scots Musical Museum (1787-97) and the four volumes of Thomson's Select Collection of Original Scotish Airs (1793-1805) contain the bulk of Burns's songs. Burns spent the latter part of his life in assiduously collecting and writing songs, to provide words for traditional Scottish airs and to keep Johnson and Thomson going. He regarded his work as service to Scotland and quixotically refused payment. The only poem he wrote after his Edinburgh visit which showed a hitherto unsuspected side of his poetic genius was "Tam o'Shanter.'' a spirited narrative poem in brilliantly handled octosyllabic couplets based on a folk legend associated with

AUoway

Bums

Kirk.

corresponded with and visited on terms of equality a great variety of literary and other people who were considerably "above" him socially. He was an admirable letter writer and a brilliant talker, and he could hold his own in any company. At the same time, he was still a struggling tenant farmer, and the attempt to keep himself going in two different social and intellectual capacities was wearing him down. After trying for a long time, he finally obtained a post in the excise service in 1789 and moved to Dumfries in 1791, where he lived until his death on July 21, 1796, caused by rheumatic heart chsease contracted in his youth as a result of too much physical exertion on an inadequate diet. (The myth that Burns died of drink has long since been exploded.) His life at Dumfries was active. He wrote numerous "occasional" poems on contemporary political and other events, and did an immense amount of work for the two song collections, in addition to carrying out his duties as exciseman. The outbreak of the French Revolution excited him, and some indiscreet outbursts nearly lost him his job at a time when the excesses of the French revolutionaries had provoked the fiercest political reaction in Scotland. But his reputation as a good exciseman and It was his attia politic but humiliating recantation saved him. tude to the French Revolution, too, that estranged him from Mrs. Dunlop, an elderly female admirer who was genuinely fond of Bums and had been a real friend to him.

Meanwhile,

who

a

man

of great intellectual energy

and force of char-

never found an environment After his death the lively literar>' lady Maria Riddel wrote a character sketch of him in The Dumfries Weekly Jourtial in which she said that

creature

pity at the end as the real

in a class-ridden society

which he could

his

fully exercise his personality.

powers of conversation,

new

his

impromptu

ideas, his intolerance of stupidity

for devastating ironic

impressive than his poetry.

But

it

wit, his ability to grasp

and arrogance,

comment were

his capacity

in her opinion

even more

was not only the

class struc-

ture of his society, which led to his being altemately patronized and sentimentalized over, that constricted him. The fact is that Scottish culture in his day could provide no intellectual background that might replace the Calvinism which Bums rejected. The Edinburgh literati of Bums's day were second-raters. But the problem was more than one of personalities. The only substitute for the rejected Calvinism seemed to be a sentimental deism, a facile belief in the good heart as all, and this was not a creed rich or complex enough to nourish great poetry. That Burns in spite of this produced so much fine poetry shows the strength of his unique and remarkable genius, and that he has become the

Scottish national poet, celebrated annually with rites associated with no other man of letters anywhere in the world, is a tribute to his hold on the popular imagination. Bums perhaps exhibited his greatest poetic powers in his satires. There is also a remarkable craftsmanship in his verse-letters, which display a most adroit counterpointing of the colloquial and the formal. But it is by his songs that Bums is best known and it is his songs that have carried his reputation round the world. Bums is without doubt the greatest song writer Britain has produced. He found Scottish song in a confused and fragmentary state. Scottish airs had been popular since the latter part of the songs and song 1 7th century, and many collections of Scottish tunes appeared both in Edinburgh and London in the 18th century. But the great majority of older songs sur\dved only in fragments. Burns's aim was to recover as many airs and sets of words as he could, and where the existing words were fragmentary or impossibly coarse or equally impossibly genteel, to re-create the song in the true spirit of the folk tradition. It was a staggering program, nothing less than the single-handed re-creation of the

whole body of Scottish folk song. Further, Bums undertook to provide words to tunes which now existed only as dance tunes. He was anxious that all Scotland should be represented, and in his journeys scrupulously collected such songs and fragments as he could find to rework them into complete songs. We can trace his journeys in the provenance of the songs: a fisherman's song from Fife, an old Aberdeen folksong, a song about an ale-house keeper by the Moray firth and innumerable love songs connected with particular hills, valleys, streams and woods in various Scottish counties. If Burns had not been uncannily in tune with the folk spirit in Scottish song, he would be execrated today for having spoiled the original fragments by artificial improvements. But in fact he did not spoil them; he saved them from total corruption and disappearance and gave them new life and meaning and popularity.

Bums

wrote

all his

songs to

known

same

tunes, sometimes writing

an endeavour to find the most apt poem for a given melody. Many songs which we know have been substantially written by of evidence must from a variety Burns he never claimed as his. He never claimed "Auld Lang Syne," for example, which he described simply as an old fragment he had discovered, but the song we have is almost certainly his, though the chorus and probably the first stanza are old. (Bums wrote it for a simple and moving old air which is not the tune to which it is now sung, as Thomson set it to another tune.) The full extent of Bums's^work on Scottish song will probably never be known. It is positively miraculous that Bums was able to enter into the spirit of older folk song and re-create, out of an old chorus, such songs as "I'm O'er Young to Marry Yet," "Green Grow the Rashes O," "Sae Fair her Hair'' (to the tune of "Gala Water") and a host of others. It is this uncanny ability to speak with the several sets of

great

words

to the

anonymous voice

air in

of the Scottish people that explains the

:

BURNS

457

which Burns arouses, feelings that manifest them- Doctor Hornbook," "The Ordination" and "Address to the Unco Guid" the 2 -volume edition published in 1793 was the last edition with which selves in the "Burns cult." a phenomenon associated with no other Burns himself was directly concerned. Many of his finest poems were British poet. But his songs are not all in a simple folk idiom, not published in his lifetime. "The Jolly Beggars" was first published though most of them have that air of simplicity (whatever the as a chapbook in 1799 and was included in J. Walker's edition of the subtleties below the surface) so necessary to a sung poem. There Poems (2 vol., 1811). "Holy Willie's Prayer" was first printed anonymously in an 8-page pamphlet in 1789, together with "Quotations from is the sjTnbolic colour and imagery of "Open the Door to Me Oh!" the Presbetyrian Eloquence." which so impressed W. B. Yeats: The most important of 19th-century editions of the poems and of later editions, many with biographical accounts, are: Life and Works The wan moon is setting ayont the white wave, And time is setting with me, oh of Robert Burns, ed. by R. Chambers, 4 vol. (1856-57), and the reA wonderful mixture of tenderness and swagger so characteristic vision of this by W. Wallace in 1896 (known as the "Chambers-Wallace" edition, still the most comprehensive of all works on Burns) The appears in ".A, Red, Red Rose," Burns's reof the male in love Works of Robert Burns, ed. by W. Scott Douglas, 6 vol. (1877-79); writing of an old fragment. In "Yestreen I Had a Pint o' Wine" The Poems and Songs of Robert Burns, ed. by Andrew Lang and W, A. Craigie (1896); The Poetry of Robert Burns, ed. by W. E. Henley is the magnificent abandonment to the moment of experience: special feeling

;

!

—

—

;

kirk and state may gae to .And I'll gae to my .Anna.

The

hell,

and T. F. Henderson, 4 vol. (Centenary edition, and still the standard edition, although in some respects out of date, 1896-97) Poems and Songs, ed. by J. Barke (1955) Poems and Selected Letters (AUoway bicentenary edition, 1959). Songs: Most of Burns's songs first appeared (often anonymously) in James Johnson's Scots Musical Museum, 5 vol. (1787-97) and George Thomson's Select Collection of Original Scotish Airs, 4 vol. ;

;

In

melancholy of the Jacobite songs romantic lost cause a new meaning in terms of

the controlled historical

Burns gives

this

human emotion:

Now

a' is

And

My

done that men can do, done in vain;

(1793-1805). The Songs of Robert Burns, by James C. Dick (1903) an important scholarly edition of both words and music, giving the original airs for which the songs were written, and containing valuable historical and critical notes. Dick's Notes on Scottish Song (1908) and

a' is

Love and Native Land

is

fareweel,

For I maun cross the main, my dear, For I maun cross the main.

Annotations of Scottish Songs, by D. Cook (1922) contain useful information. A complete and accurate modern edition of Burns's songs with the original airs is sti'l a desideratum. Letters: The standard edition of Burns's letters is Letters of Robert a Peck o' Maut," with its rollicking chorus: Burns, ed. by J. De Lancey Ferguson, 2 vol. (1931), but the Selected na fou, We're nae that fou We are Letters (1953) ed. by De Lancey Ferguson has a few letters from But just a drappie in our e'e; ... original texts that had not been recovered at the time of Ferguson's and, again, a brilliant counterpointing of folk feeling and high complete edition. Biography and criticism: R. H. Cromek, Reliques of Robert Burns ceremony, of simple emotion and pageantry, in "Go, Fetch to Me a Lockhart, The Life of Robert Burns (1828), founded a Pint o' Wine," where the whole atmosphere of medieval romance (1808) J. G. tradition of Burns biography but it is full of inaccuracies and misand ballad is concentrated in two stanzas. There is the magical interpretations; .A. .Angellier, Robert Burns: La Vie, Les Oeuvres tenderness of "O Lay Thy Loof in Mine, Lass" though there the (1829) H. Hecht, Robert Burns: Leben und Werken des Schottischen tune is particularly important. There is the lilting love song Volksdichters (1919, Eng. trans, by J. Lymburn, 1936, 2nd ed., 1950) F. B. Snyder, The Life of Robert Burns (1932); De Lancey Ferguson, he composed to one of his wife's favourite airs, "The Posie": Pride and Passion: Robert Burns (1939); Robert T. Fitzhugh, Robert luve will venture in, where it daur na weel be seen, Burns, His Associates and Contemporaries (1943), presents important O luve will venture in, where wisdom ance has been documents for the study of Burns's biography. Burns as Others Saw There is that sprightly piece of ironic self-compliment, "There Him (1959) collects contemporary accounts of the poet; D. Daiches, Was a Lad Was Born in Kyle." There is the moving benedictory Robert Burns (1950) is a critical study of the poems and includes an introductory chapter on the Scottish literary tradition; T. Crawford, cadence, so perfectly wrought together with the music, in "Ca' Burns: a Study of the Poems and Songs (1960). See also Burns the Yowes to the Knowes" Chronicle (annually, since 1892). In contrast there

is

the splendid drinking song, "Willie Brew'd

;

;

;

;

.

.

.

(D. Ds.)

Ghaist nor bogle shalt thou fear; Thou'rt to love and Heaven sae dear,

Nocht

of

My

ill

may come

BURNS.

thee near.

bonnie dearie.

and the protective gentleness of "O, Wert Thou in the Cauld Blast," written as he lay dying, for Jessie Lewars who helped nurse him, to her favourite air, "Lennox, Love to Blantyre," Here the dying man reversed the actual roles of himself and the girl and wrote as the protecting male.

Love

songs,

work

songs, drinking songs

He

liant success in all three varieties.

who

poets

relates sex to paternity

— Burns

sexual passion into a Platonic ideal it

bril-

one of the few love

is

and maternity, who

sexual ecstasy with the prospect of children, relationships but keeps

achieved

links the

who never

isolates

removed from given human

always grounded

in the

known

facts of

And he could sing the songs of either sex. Where English or Scottish literature can we find the happy audacity of "O Wha My Babie-Clouts Will Buy," the song he put into the mouth of Jean Armour when she was about to bear his child and which expresses both the female joy in sexual surrender and the female joy in maternity? Burns does not idealize lust, but he localizes and even domesticates it, something much more difficult to do. He is not a "romantic" poet in the popular sense of that term. He never wa.xes enthusiastic over the mountains or the sea (he never mentions the former and very rarely the latter), but he sees the familiar landscape of the countryside as a context within which the rhythms of human emotions and th'xia or pneumonia. TreStment consists of antibiotics to combat infection and oxygen to support respiration, or humidification of the air to moisten secretions and aspiration to remove secretions. An early tracheotomy may be lifesaving and, if indicated, should be done early.

Bums of the esophagus usually occur in infants as a result of drinking lye. If the child does not die a stricture is likely to

BURNSIDE— BURR Instrumental dilation after two to three weeks

result.

is

es-

sential.

—

Bibliography. H. N. Harkins, Treatment of Burns, extensive bibliography (1942) H. Rosenqvist, "The Primary Treatment of Extensive L. Colebrook, Burns," Acta Chir. Scand., vol. 95, suppl. 124 (1947) A New Approach to the Treatment of Burns and Scalds (1950) National .\cademy of Sciences, National Research Council, Symposium on Burns (1951) C. C. Lund and S. M. Levenson, "Burns," ch. 4, vol. i, in Operative Technic in General Surgery, ed. by Warren H. Cole, 2nd ;

;

;

;

(C. C. Ld.)

ed. (1955).

BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT

(1824-1881), U.S. amiy commander during the American Civil War, was born at Liberty, Ind.. on May 2i, 1824. He was appointed to the U.S. Military academy, West Point, N.Y., and graduated in 1847, when war with Mexico was nearly over. In 1853 he resigned his commission and for the next five years engaged in the manufacture of firearms at Bristol, R.I. In 1856 he invented a breech-loading carbine.

When Rhode first

the Civil

War

broke out Burnside took

Island regiment of militia and

battle of Bull

Run

iq.v.).

commanded

On Aug.

6,

command

of a

a brigade in the

1861, he was commis-

sioned brigadier general of volunteers and placed in charge of the

expeditionary force which sailed in Jan. 1862 for the North Carolina coast. He was promoted to the rank of major general soon afterward and was transferred to the Virginia theatre of war. Part

campaign in Virand Burnside himself was engaged in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam {q.v.). At the latter he was in command of McClellan's left wing, but the want of vigour in his attack was of his forces fought in the last battles of Pope's

ginia,

unfavourably

criticized.

Burnside's patriotic spirit, modesty and amiable manners made him highly popular, and upon McClellan's final removal (Nov. 7) from the army of the Potomac, President Lincoln chose him as successor. The choice was unfortunate. He sustained a crushing defeat at the battle of Fredericksburg

and on Jan.

(q.v.),

26,

was replaced by Gen. Joseph Hooker.

Transferred to Cincinnati in March 1863, he caused the arrest and court-martial of Clement L. Vallandigham iq.v.), lately an opposition member of Later in the year his congress, for an alleged disloyal speech. measures for the suppression of press criticism aroused much opposition. He helped to crush Morgan's Ohio raid in July; then, moving to relieve the loyahsts in east Tennessee, in September entered Knoxville. to which the Confederate general James Longstreet unsuccessfully laid siege. In 1864 Burnside led his old corps under Grant in the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. After bearing his part well in the many bloody battles of that time, he was overtaken once more by disaster. The failure of the "Burn{See side mine" at Petersburg brought about his resignation. American Civil War: Military Operations, 1864-65 ; Petersburg 1863, he

Campaign.)

Rhode Island and served Republican member of the U.S. congress from 1875 until his death at Bristol, R.I., on Sept. 13, 1881. His name became synonymous with the type of side whiskers In 1866 Burnside became governor of

for three terms (1866-69).

(later

known

He was

a

as "sideburns") that he wore.

BURNTISLAND, a royal

and small burgh

in Fifeshire, Scot.,

on the northern shore of the Firth of Forth, 5^ mi. S.W. of Kirkcaldy by road and 5 mi. N. of Edinburgh across the firth. Pop. (1961) 6,038. Its golf links and beach give it a reputation as a summer resort. The chief industries are shipbuilding and aluminum works. Coal is exported. On the rocks forming the western end of the harbour stands Rossend castle w'hich overlooks the harbour and is a house grafted on to a castle dating from 1382 where Mary Queen of Scots once lodged. The church (1592) is modeled on the North church at Amsterdam. The name Burntisland may refer to the time when the site, or part of it, formed an island, as sea sand is the subsoil even of the oldest quarters. Another derivation is from Gaelic words meaning "the island beyond the bend." (1756-1836), U.S. political leader, was born Feb. 6, 1756, at Newark, N.J. His father was the second president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton university) and his mother was the daughter of the eminent Puritan clergyman Jona-

BURR, AARON

459

than Edwards. Shortly after his birth he was taken to Princeton, N.J., where both his father and mother died while he was still an infant. With his sister Sarah he was placed in the Elizabethtown home of an uncle, the Rev. Timothy Edwards, and brought up under the care of a tutor. Tapping Reeve, who later married Sarah. Aaron was a troublesome ward, but he entered the College of New Jersey at the age of thirteen and was graduated with distinction at sixteen. He spent the year after graduation in "busy idleHe was expected to follow in the ness," reading and thinking. steps of his forebears by becoming a torch-bearer of the Calvinistic faith, and, to satisfy his own mind, early in 1774 he undertook the study of theology. The result was that "completely and forever" he rejected the gospel according to Jonathan Edwards. But the times called for action rather than contemplation, and from the beginning of the colonies' dispute with England, young Burr espoused the patriot cause. He began the study of law at Litchfield. Conn., under his brother-in-law Tapping Reeve, but had made only slight progress when the call to arms was sounded. First joining Washington's army at Cambridge, Burr served as captain under Benedict Arnold on the ill-fated expedition against Quebec. Next he served on Washington's staff and then on the staff of Gen. Israel Putnam during the New York campaign, and 1777 was promoted to rank of lieutenant colonel in the ConHe fought at Monmouth, then resigned from the service in March 1779 because of ill-health. As a soldier his record was creditable but not distinguished. In accord with the custom of the times, he bore the title of "colonel" to the end of his life. Soon after leaving the service. Burr resumed the study of law and in 1782 was licensed to practise. During the same year he in

tinental line.

married Theodosia Prevost, widow of a British officer and ten Their only child was also named Theodosia. years his senior. {See Burr. Theodosia.) At the end of hostilities. Burr returned to New York city to practise law and met with marked success. His mansion at Richmond Hill was the scene of brilliant social and carelessness in money matters were already in evidence. In 1784 Burr was elected to the state legislature and in 1789 became attorney general under Gov. George Clinton. Finally, in 1791, at the age of 35, he defeated Gen. Philip Schuyler, father-in-law of Alexander Hamilton, for a seat in the U.S. senate. He failed of re-election in 1797 and spent In 1800 he was the next two years in New York state politics. named vice-presidential candidate on the Republican ticket headed connection. Burr Hall Using his Tammany Thomas Jefferson. by carried his state and thus helped bring about a national victory for his party. Under the procedures then prevailing the electors had cast their votes for both Jefferson and Burr without indicating which should be president and which vice-president. The ensuing deadlock resulted in a sharp contest in the house of representatives where, for 35 ballots, the pro-Burr Federalists, without

gatherings, but extravagance

Burr's aid, succeeded in stalling off the victory of Jefferson. But Alexander Hamilton's determined opposition to Burr finally resulted in Jefferson's election as president, whereupon Burr became vice-president.

In Feb. 1804 Burr's friends in the New York legislature nominated him for the governorship of the state. Again Hamilton and his cohorts brought about Burr's defeat, and shortly thereafter George Clinton replaced him as vice-presidential candidate on the Republican ticket in the 1804 national election. As a result of the charges Hamilton had made against Burr during that campaign. Burr demanded an explanation. He was not

with Hamilton's response and the two men therefore fought a duel on July 11, 1804, at Weehawken, N.J., and Hamilton was killed. With warrants out for his arrest in both New York and New Jersey, Burr fled to Philadelphia, where he held conferences with his friend James Wilkinson. Though a general of the satisfied

U.S. army, Wilkinson was a traitor in the pay nf Spain. As war was expected to break out between the United States and Spain over boundary disputes, he and Burr planned an invasion of Mexico with the object of setting up an independent government there. Furthermore, because they overestimated the unrest of the western states, they hoped to foment a secession movement in that area and, joining it to Mexico, found an empire on the Napoleonic

BURR— BURRUS

460

New Orleans as its capital. But Burr talked too much, Wilkinson became alarmed, and the general betrayed his fellow conspirator to President Jefferson. This resulted in Burr's arrest while he was trying to escape to Spanish territory, and he was sent to Richmond for trial before Chief Justice John Marshall. Though the evidence showed he had planned treason, his plot had been nipped in the bud before he had had time to commit the treasonable overt act; consequently he was acquitted. model with

Shortly afterward he went to Europe and tried to enlist the aid

conquer Florida. Failing in this, he penury for four years. Finally, in response to America in 1812; but the ship bringing Theodosia to meet him in New York was lost at sea. Bereft and lonely, he reopened his law office in New York and for 21 years engaged in his profession. In 1833, at the age of 77. he married the wealthy widow Eliza Jumel, about 20 years his junior. The marriage was not a happy one and the couple were divorced on the day of Burr's death, Sept. 14, 1836. See also references under "Burr, Aaron" in the Index volume. Bibliography. T. P. Abernethy, The Burr Conspiracy (1954) M. L. Davis, Memoirs of Aaron Burr (1837) J. Parton, The Life and Times of N'cipoleon in an effort to

Hved abroad

in

entreaties of his daughter, he returned to

—

;

;

Aaron Burr {1&5S).

of

(T. P. A.)

BURR, THEODOSIA Burr

(g.n.)

was born June

(1783-1813), the only child of Aaron Albany, N.Y. Her father

21, 1783, in

directed her education, especially after her mother's early death

In 1801, after her debut in New York society, she married Joseph Alston, who became governor of South Carolina in 1812. Theodosia frequently returned to her native New York (c.

1794).

She was with him duel with Alexander

and continued her association with her father. Blennerhassett Island, where, after his

at

Hamilton in 1804, he prepared an expedition to lower Louisiana. She comforted and helped him during the treason trial at Richmond, Va., in 1807. After his acquittal she took charge of his affairs when he went on self-exile abroad and facilitated his return in May 1812. Then tragedy overtook her. On June 30 her young son died of fever. She was unable to go to New York to see her father until the end of the year and then was lost at sea. The vessel on which she sailed never made port. (T. P. Ma.) BURRITT, ELIHU (1810-1879), U.S. philanthropist and advocate of peace, born in New Britain, Conn., on Dec. 8, 1810, was known popularly as "the learned blacksmith" because of his early trade and his wide knowledge of languages. On moving to Worcester. Mass., in 1S37 he became interested in the cause of international peace and a leading member of the American Peace society, editing the society's magazine. The Advocate of Peace.

He

supported William Ladd's plan for a congress of nations to formulate international law and a court of nations to interpret

the law, so that controversies might be settled peaceably principles of justice without resort to force.

by the

In 1848 he organ-

which was folMain. London and other cities. After serving as consul in Birmingham, Eng.. he returned to his farm in New Britain in 1870 and began distributing to newspapers in the United States and Europe a succession of single sheets known as Olive Leaves presenting arguments for peace with emphasis upon a code of international law. His published works, some 30 in number, dealt with religious topics, descriptions of English scenery and linguistic studies, justifying the

ized the Brussels Congress of "Friends of Peace,"

lowed by congresses

in Paris,

Frankfurt

am

designation of him as a great humanitarian. See Charles Northend, Elihu Burritt

:

a

.

BURRO,

Memorial Volume (1879).

the

name

of Spanish origin for the domestic donkey.

.\ss.

BURROUGHS, JOHN

(

in his

memory.

—

My

Bibliography. John Burroughs, Boyhood (1922) John Burroughs' Talks, His Reminiscences and Comments as reported by Clifton Johnson (1922) Clara Barrus, The Life and Letters of John Burroughs (1925) The Heart of Burroughs' Journals, ed. by Clara Barrus (1928) John Burroughs' America, ed. by F. .\. Wiley (1951), containing selections from his writings, a long biographical introduction by the editor, and a foreword bv Burroughs' son Julian.

(1837-1921), U.S. writer on nature, was born near Roxbury, in Delaware county, N.Y., April 3, 1837. In his earlier years he engaged in teaching, journalism, farming and fruit raising, and for nine years was a clerk in the treasury department. Washington. D.C. He early recognized the genius of his friend Walt Whitman, publishing in 1867 a volume. Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet and Person (a subject to which he returned in i8q6 with his Whitman: a Study). In 1871 he began with Wake-

;

;

;

;

BURROWS, RONALD MONTAGU classical archaeologist

and

a leading

(1867-1920). British

champion of modern Greek

independence, was born at Rugby, Aug. 16, 1867, and educated While assistant to at Charterhouse and Christ Church. Oxford. Gilbert Murray in the Greek department at the University of Glasgow, 1891-97, he went to Greece and undertook excavations at Pylos and Sphacteria 1895-96) the results were important in (

;

vindicating Thucydides as an accurate historian.

He was

profes-

sor of Greek at University college, Cardiff, from 1898 to 1908, and

Manchester from 1908 to 1913; from 1913 death he was principal of King's college, London, the first layman to hold that post. Back in Greece in 1905 and 1907, he excavated tombs at Mycalessus (Rhitsona) in Boeotia, which helped to systematize the study of Boeotian archaeology. In 1907 he published The Discoveries in Crete, the first general account of at the University of until his

Minoan

civilization.

From 1913 onward he devoted much

time to modern Greek having "discovered" Eleutherios \'enizeIos (q.v.) in 1912 and being invited by Venizelos during World War I (1916) to be the semiofficial diplomatic representative in London of the In 1915 the British cabinet Greek provisional government. adopted his plan for bringing Greece into the war by the offer of Cyprus. Confidant and adviser of Venizelos, he wrote and affairs,

At King's founded the many chairs concerned with European historv and literature and the school of Slavonic studies. He died on (S. S. We.) Ma'v 14, 1920. lectured extensively on near eastern political problems. college he

BURRUS, SEXTUS AFRANIUS prefect 51-62 and with Seneca

(C. G. Fk.)

See

Robin, a series of books on birds, flowers and rural scenes which made him the successor of Thoreau as a popular essayist on the plants and animals environing human life. In 1873 he moved to a farm near Esopus. N.Y., in the Hudson River valley; from various retreats, including his cabin "Slabsides," he wrote for half a century on nature subjects. His later writings showed a more philosophic mood and a greater disposition toward literary or meditative allusion than their predecessors, but the general theme and method remained the same. His chief books, in addition to Wake-Robin, are Birds and Poets (1877), Locusts and Wild Honey (1879). Signs and Seasons (1886) and Ways of Nature 1905 ), all in prose, but he also wrote in verse, his one volume of poems, Bird and Bough, being published in 1906. He traveled extensively, camping out with such friends as the naturalist John Muir and President Theodore Roosevelt, and accompanying the Harriman expedition to Alaska. Winter Sunshine (1875) and Fresh Fields (1SS4) are sketches of travel in England and France. Until his death, March 29. 1931, while returning from California to New York state, he continued to write essays on out-of-door life, some of which were assembled in the following volumes; Time and Change (1912), The Summit of the Years (1913), The Breath of Life (1915), Under the .Apple Trees (1916) anci Field and Study (1919). The John Burroughs Memorial association, a society to encourage writing in the field of natural science, was established

(q.v.)

(d. a.d. 62), praetorian

the chief adviser of the

emperor Nero. A native of Yasio in Gallia Narbonensis (\'aison), he held commissions in the Roman army and posts in the households of Livia, Tiberius and Claudius, and was made prefect of the praetorian guard in a.d. 51. He owed this promotion to the empress Agrippina. whose influence over Claudius had become dominant and who doubtless counted on Burrus' continuing sup-

But after Nero's accession in 54, Burrus, in concert with Seneca, soon subverted her power. It is reasonably supposed that till his death in 62 he and Seneca were mainly responsible for imThe ancient allegations that in perial policy and administration. the end Nero poisoned him cannot be proved or refuted. (P. A. Br.) port.

.

BURSA— BURT BURSA

(formerly Brusa), the capital of an il (province) of the same name in northwestern Turkey, lies at an altitude of 700 ft. along the lower flank of Mysian Olympus { Ulu Dag) (7,500 ft,), with a northward prospect across the Nilufer valley toward the Sea of Marmara, which is hidden by a low line of hills. Pop. city 1960) 153,574; the il has an area of 4,323 sq.mi. and a population of 695,099. Bursa was a stronghold in Roman times of the Bithynian kings and capital of the early Ottoman sultans before the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Set among plane tree, lime and fruit orchards, watered by plentiful streams from the mountain and with many historic buildings, hot sulfur springs and winter sports on Ulu Dag, the place has for long been a popular tourist resort. The much denuded walls of the citadel, crowning a high shoulder of rock, mark the site of the old fortified city. Beneath this the town is ranged on either side of a long boulevard, following the contours of the hill in either direction from the city centre, where municipal buildings and a bazaar (destroyed by fire in 1958) are grouped round the Ulu Cami (Great mosque). Some of the more famous mosques and (

tombs

lie to the east, across a small ravine; the remainder are to by the road which passes thermal establishments, some of them in use for more than 1,000 yr., to the suburb of Cekirce. The Ulu Cami, a vast building with 20 domes, was

the west of the town,

completed early

in the 15th century and is notable for the variety ornament decorating its walls. Of the monuments beyond the eastern ravine (Gok Dere) there are two principal groups associated respectively with the so-called Yesil Cami, built in 1421 by Mehmet I Celebi, and that built by Bayezid I and known as the Yildirim Cami. Both groups include a large medrese or college, a turbe (mausoleum) and other minor buildings. These mosques are prototypes of the early Ottoman architectural convention: two domed compartments on the main axis with smaller pairs beside them on either side and a range of two-story chambers in front, a five-bay portico and much fine ornament in glazed tiles. The medreses conform to the old college plan, used since the earliest days of Islam, with two-story chambers round a courtyard with an open iwan at one end. Beside the Cekirce road on the west side of the town is the so-called Muradiye, a similar complex built by Murad II in the third decade of the ISth century, round which many other tombs and monuments have accumulated. Elsewhere are the tombs of Osman and Orhan, founders of the Ottoman dynasty. Bursa is connected by road and railway with a small seaport, Mudanya, to which a daily service of steamers from Istanbul avoids the long overland journey round the Gulf of Izmit. From the 17th century onward Bursa has been famous for its silk and other textiles which are still manufactured. Local products also include cheese, butter, tobacco and sugar beets as well as peaches and other fruit from the Nilufer valley. Founded by the Bithynian king Prusias I at the end of the 3rd century B.C., Prusias-ad-Olympium became part of the Roman em-

of calligraphic

Mithradates VI (Eupator), king of Pontus. It gained prosperity in Byzantine times after Justinian built a palace there. It first fell to the Seljuks in 1075, but changed hands after the arrival of the first crusade and, when Theodore I Lascaris made his capital at Nicaea (modem Isnik in Bursa il) after the sack of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, it became a centre of Byzantine resistance. It was retaken by the Turks in the early 14th century and remained the capital of the Osmanli sultans until they moved to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1413. In 1920 it was occupied by the Greeks, who were ejected in Sept. 1922 after a determined resistance. See D. Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor (1951) (S. H. Ll.) BURSAR, hterally a keeper of the bursa or "purse" (M. Lat. bursarius). The word is often used to designate an administrative officer on the staff of a college, especially one mainly concerned with finance. The term is also applied to the holder of a bursary; i.e., an award or grant made to help a student to attend a university or take advantage of some other educational opportunity. Scottish education authorities make a wide variety of awards called bursaries at both the school and postschool stage. (from Ger. Bursche, "youth"), a corpire after the defeat of

BURSCHENSCHAFT

poration of students at the

German

universities that

came

into

461

being at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. There had existed earlier student associations in Germany notably the Landsmannschaften, formed since the 14th and 15th centuries from the members of each "nation" (Franks, Saxons, Borussians, etc.) for the purpose of

—

mutual protection. Violent quarrels between the various Landsmannschaften, unruly duelling and other excesses led to the demand, made during the Napoleonic Wars, that all the Landsmannschaften in each university should combine to form a corps. The corps, however, was run on exclusively aristocratic lines. The Burschenschaft on the other hand was egahtarian, admitting all students, without class bias, to full membership. The Burschenschaften moreover deprecated the excesses of the still existing Landsmannschaften particularly at the University of Jena, where the first Burschenschaft was founded on June 12, 1815. The early development of the Burschenschaften was characterized by a vague kind of liberalism coupled with anti-Catholicism and a marked form of nationalism. Students from different German universities who had fought side by side against the French cherished the idea of the poUtical unification of Germany, and this tendency was accentuated by the custom whereby German students used to attend two or more universities before taking their degree. The joint student demonstration at the Wartburg festival celebrating a Lutheran tercentenary (Oct. 18, 1817), the subsequent formation of the AUgemeine Deutsche Burschenschaft and, finally, the assassination of August Kotzebue (g.v.) on March 23, 1819, by the ultranationalistic Burschenschafter Karl Sand alarmed the German governments, and the Carlsbad decrees (q.v.) included measures

—

for the official suppression of the Burschenschaften.

In fact the

Burschenschaften survived, surreptitiously or otherwise, to burst open activity before and during the German revolution of 1848. Later, and especially after the foundation of the German empire in 1871, their liberal idealism came to be submerged by a new and aggressive wave of nationalism which led many of them to subscribe to rabid anti-Semitism and Pan-Germanism. Suppressed under Hitler, the Burschenschaften were resuscitated after World War II. They no longer play a significant part in German into

politics.

The

Burschenschaften included convivial by mysterious rites or, in the gymnastics in the style devised by F. L. Jahn. See the important though somewhat uncritical Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burse henschajt .... ed. by H. Haupt and P. Wentzke, 17 vol. (1910-40) E. Wiskemann, "The German Stusocial activities of the

gatherings, duelling accompanied earlier days,

;

dent Corporations," History Today (Dec. 1954).

BURSERACEAE,

(H. G. Sc.)

the incense-tree family, deciduous shrubs

or trees whose wood contains essential oils and resins. There are about 20 genera and 500-600 species in the tropics of both hemispheres. Large genera are Protiiim, mostly American; Bursera, all American Commiphora, in Africa and Madagascar; and Canwium, in southeast Asia. Boswellia and Commiphora are the producers of the ancient resins frankincense and myrrh (gq.v.). Certain species of Canarium produce important resins, such as Manila elemi (C. luzoniciim and C. ovatiim), while others produce important nuts, such as the Javan canari (C. commune) and the Philippine ;

pili

(C. ovattim).

BURSITIS:

see Arthritis: Nonarticular Rheumatism.

BURT, SIR CYRIL LODOWIC

(1883one of ), most distinguished of British psychologists, was born near Stratford-upon-Avon on March 3, 1883. He was educated at Christ's hospital and, as a classical scholar, at Jesus college, Oxford. He was attracted to study psychology by William Macthe

Dougall. After a period of research at WiJrzburg, Ger., he returned to the University of Oxford as John Locke scholar in mental philosophy. From 1909 to 1913 he was assistant lecturer in experimental psychology at Liverpool university and also assistant in physiology. Then, for a year, he joined the Ftaff of the experimental psychological laboratory at Cambridge, becoming also psychologist to the London County council. He held the latter post until 1932 and was also professor of education at London univer-

In 1931 he succeeded Charles Spearman as professor of psychology at University college, becoming emeritus professor in 1950. He was knighted in 1946. sity.

BURTON

4-62

As a psychologist of outstanding originality and insight, Burt had a profound infltience, especially in the study of juvenile delinquency, in the development of mental tests and in the use of statistics. He published a number of books, of which Mental and Scholastic Tests (ig2i ), The Young Delmquent (1925). The Measurement of Mental Capacities (1927) and Factors of the

Somali country in northeast Africa. He assisted by Capt. J. H. Speke and two other young officers but accomplished the most difficult part of the enterprise alone, when he made the journey to Harrar, the Somali capital. He was unheard of for four months and suffered considerable deprivation. An attempt to repeat the journey was unsuccessful: one of the

Mind (1940)

officers

are universally acknowledged.

BURTON, JOHN HILL

(F. C, Ba.)

fiSoq-iSSn, Scottish writer and

History of Scotland based on accurate research, After qualifying for the 22, iSog. won notice with his Manual of the Law of Scotland (1839 and was one of the editors author of the

was born

at

first

Aberdeen on kng.

Scottish bar and practising as an advocate, he )

The Works of Jeremy Bent ham (1838-43') whose ideas greatly influenced him. For a short time Burton was editor of the Scotsman, and he long contributed to Black-woods' Magazine, publishing his entertaining occasional essays in The Book Hunter (i860) and The Scot Abroad (1864). of

In 1846 Burton achieved a high reputation with his intellectually acute but unimaginative Life and Correspondence of David Hume, based on extensive and previously unused manuscripts, and this was followed by many other works, including Lives of Simon Lord Lovat, and Duncan Forbes, of Culloden (1847), and Narratives

From

Criminal Trials in Scotland (1852). The History of Scotland (1853-70) is readable but lacks fire. It earned him the position of historiographer royal of Scotland. His editing of two volumes of The Registers of the Privy Council of Scotland (1877-78) was of great historical importance.

BURTON,

SIR

RICHARD FRANCIS

(1821-1890), one

of the greatest British travelers of the 19th century, British consul, orientalist and author of more than 50 books and translator of the

"Arabian Nights," was born at Torquay. Eng,, on March 19, 1821. received an unconventional education, spending much time in France and Italy and showing at an early age considerable powers

He

He entered Trinity college, Oxford, in Oct. 1840, but his eccentric behaviour eventually resulted in his rustication and he joined the East India company as a means of studying as a linguist.

and languages. He arrived at Bombay in Oct. 1842 and soon became proficient in five of the Indian vernaculars as well as in Persian and Arabic. During seven years in India he laid the foundations of his detailed knowledge of eastern life and oriental life

customs, especially among the lower classes. As an assistant in the Sind survey he was able to mix with the people and was able to pass himself off as a native in the bazaars. Here he commenced

government reports and contributions to the Asiatic society he wrote four books which were published after his return from India: Scinde or the Unhappy Valley (i&e,i), Sindh and the Races That Inhabit the Valley of the Indus (1851), Goa and the Blue Mountains (1851) and Falconry in the Valley of the Indus (1852 ), Burton achieved fame with the pilgrimage which he made to Mecca in 1853. This he had planned while in India, becoming fully conversant with the required customs and practices. The journey was motivated by a sincere love of adventure, coupled with a desire to further geographical exploration. His aim was to reveal something of the nature of the "empty quarter" of Arabia and his plans were approved by the Royal Geographical society which contributed toward his expenses. Tribal conflicts made it impossible for him to carry out his plans in full and he was not able to penetrate further than Medina and Mecca. To accomplish this he traveled as an Indian Pathan to allow for any peculiarities and defects in his speech. For a European to make the pilgrimage was his great literary output, for besides

not unique, but to do it successfully required a detailed familiarity with Muslim ritual and custom. The remarkable journey was recorded by Burton in an even more remarkable book Pilgrimage to :

Al-Medina and Meccah (1855). Its vivid descriptions, pungent style and intensely personal note distinguish it; its insight into modes of thought and its picture of Arab manners give it the value of a historical document its grim humour, keen observation and reckless expression of opinion, written in peculiarly uncouth but ;

vigorous language,

made

it

a curiosity of literature.

Burton's next journey was more hazardous but attracted less attention. In 1854 the Indian government agreed to his proposal

to explore the interior of

was

was killed and both Burton and Speke were wounded. His work was recognized by the award of a gold medal of the Royal Geographical society and was described in his classic. First Footsteps in East Africa (1856).

He

served in the Dardanelles, but not at the front

in

the

Crimea, and then returned to Africa in 1856, again accompanied by Speke. to search for the sources of the Nile, an expedition instigated by the Royal Geographical society and supported by the British government. They discovered Lake Tanganyika in Feb. 1858 and Speke, while Burton was ill, went on to discover Lake Victoria Nyanza which he rightly surmised to be one of the sources This separate discovery led to a bitter dispute between Burton and Speke but with the discovery of Lake Tanganyika it led the way to the subsequent explorations of Speke and James Grant. Sir Samuel Baker. David Livingstone and Henry Stanley. Burton and Speke's exploration was reported fully in vol. xxxiii of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society and in Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa (i860). Three years after East Africa Burton was exploring in the Gold Coast, Dahomey and Benin and after a flying visit to the U.S. in i860 wrote The City of the Sai?its (1861 about the Mormons in Salt Lake City, Utah. In 1861 Burton entered the foreign service and was successively consul at Fernando Po. Santos in Brazil (1S65 ), Damascus (1869) and Trieste (1871). The last post he held until his death at Trieste on Oct. 20, 1890. These postings and journeys associated with them produced a great spate of books: Wanderings in West Africa (1863 ). Abeokuta and the Cameroons (1863), A Mission to of the Nile.

)

Dahome (1864), Wit and Wisdom From West The Highlands of Brazil (1869), Letters From the Battlefields of Paraguay (1870), Unexplored Syria (1872), Zanzibar (1872), Ultima Thiile (1875), Etruscan Bologna (1876), Sind Revisited (1877). The Land of Midian (1879) and To the Gold Coast for Gold (1883 ). There were other works also, including an Gelele,

King

Africa (1865

of

1.

unfinished history of the sword.

Burton's output of writing was

too great to allow for good style or great imagination which would

have given his works immortality. His most celebrated literary work was his translation of the ".\rabian Nights," The Thousand Nights and a Night (16 vol.. privately printed, 1885-S8). It is a great monument to his Arabic learning and his encyclopaedic knowledge of eastern life, though it may be criticized for sometimes lacking exactness in scholarship. Burton married Isabel Arundell in 1861 and owed

much

to her

She completed a Life of her courage, sympathy and devotion. husband in 1893 and instituted the "Burton Memorial Lecture Fund" which was inaugurated in 192 1 and presents, through the Royal Asiatic society, a triennial medal to a prominent explorer Burton was of the lands with which Burton was associated. awarded the knight commander of St. Michael and St. George in never knighted. though he was actually 1887,

—

BiBi.iocR.\PHY. Besides Lady Burton's Life (iSq^; abridged ed. i8g8) there are: A Sketch of the Career of R. F. B., bv .\. B. Richards, The True Life of Captain Sir A. Wilson and St. C. Baddeley (1886) R. F. B., by his niece, G. M. Stisted (1896) a Life by Thos. Wright of OIney (1906), an industrious and rather critical work which casts doubt on Burton's originality as an Arabic translator and emphasizes his indebtedness to Payne's Arabian Nights (1881); The Real Sir and a brief sketch by S. Lane-Poole R. B., by W. P. Dodge (1907) prefixed to the Pilgrimage (i8g8), from which some sentences are here, by permission, introduced. See also N. M. Penzer's An Annotated Bibliography of Sir R. F. B. (1923) and Selected Papers on Anthropology, Travel, etc. {1924). (R. M. P.) ;

;

;

ROBERT

(1577-1640), English scholar, writer BURTON, and Anglican clergyman whose Anatomy of Melancholy is a masterpiece of style, a mine of curious information, a revelation of its author's sanity, humour and humanity and a valuable index to the philosophical and psychological ideas of the time. Born at Lindley, Leicestershire, on Feb. 8, 1577, Burton was educated at Nuneaton

BURTON— BURTON UPON TRENT his

life, becoming a bachelor Thomas's church, Oxford, in and LeicesI0I6. He also held livings in Lincolnshire (1624-31 His tershire, the latter bestowed by his patron, Lord Berkeley.

with the Romantics, and

in

1599 and lived there for the rest of his

of divinity in 1614

and vicar of

St.

)

he himself describes it, lent his view of mankind an ironic detachment, but it certainly did not make it that of a scholar remote from reality: he is as informative on the pastimes of his time as on the ideas of the ancients, and as keen to recommend a rational diet as to relate man's disorders to his own essentially Christian view of the universe. His portrait, at Brasenose college, Oxford, shows a face scholarly, shrewd, con"silent, sedentary, solitary" life, as

templative and humorous. He died at Christ Church on Jan. 25, 1640, having previously predicted the date with considerable accuracy by a calculation of his nativity. Burton's first work was the Latin comedy Philosophaster (1606), a vivacious exposure of charlatanism which has affinities with Ben Jonson's Alchemist. It was acted at Christ Church in 1618, and for long thought lost, but discovered and edited by W. E. Buckley (1862) with a number of minor academical exercises. His only English poem is the prefatory "The Author's Abstract of Melancholy" to the 1628 edition of the Anatomy. by Democritus Junior appeared The Anatomy of Melancholy in 1621. and five subsequent editions (1624, 1628, 1632. 1638 and .

.

.

1651 incorporated Burton's revisions and alterations. The lengthy preface "Democritus to the Reader'' explains his reasons for writ)

and for assuming the name Democritus Junior. He wished to show his gratitude for having been elected a student of "the most flourishing college in Europe" by writing something worthy of that noble society. He had read much hving in studious seclusion, he had been a critically observant spectator of the The philosopher Democritus was once found world's affairs. studying the causes and cure of "this atra bills or melancholy" and Burton aimed to carry out the design he had planned. He antici-

ing his treatise

:

pates the objections of captious critics, allowing that he has bor-

rowed from innumerable books but claims that "the composition and method is ours only." He apologizes for faults of style on the ground that he had to work single-handed and digest his notes as best he might. If any object to his choice of subject, urging that he would be better employed in writing on divinity, his defense is that too many commentaries and sermons are already in existence. Besides and here is one of the curiously modern keynotes of his work divinity and medicine are closely allied; and melancholy being both a spiritual and bodily infirmity, the divine and the physician must unite to cure it. In the treatise itself. Burton sets himself in the first part to define melancholy, discusses its causes and sets down the symptoms. The second part is devoted to its cure. As it is of great importance that we should live in good air, a chapter deals with "Air Rectified, with a Digression of the Air.'' Burton never traveled, but the study of cosmography had been his delight, and he sends his fancy flying north, east, south and west. Love melan-

—

choly

—

is

the subject of the lively

first

three sections of the third

master of narrative. Burton includes as examples most and shows again a modern approach to psychological problems. The fourth section deals with religious melancholy, and in his pages on the cure of despair he rises to heights of wisdom and of meditation. Burton's style is as individual as his treatment of his matter. It is imaginative and eloquent, but, unlike that of many of his contemporaries, his prose is not poetic. His vocabulary is colloquial, lively and wide-ranging, full of classical allusions and Latin tags which testify to his love of curious and out-of-the-way information as well as to his erudition. He is a master of lists and catalogues, but their sonorous roll is often broken by his humorous part, and, a

of the world's great love stories,

asides.

The Anatomy, widely read in the 17th century, lapsed for a and it was admired by Dr. Johnson Laurence Sterne's borrowings from it are notorious. The devotion of Lamb, who recognized in "the fantastic great old man" a kindred spirit, finding in his odd turns of expression, his whimsical fancies, time into obscurity, but

463

far-fetched conceits, his kindly sarcasm and his deep-lying pathos a reflection of his own genius, helped to bring it into favour

and Sutton Coldlield and entered Brasenose college, Oxford, in 1593. He was elected a student (life fellow) of Christ Church

Bibliography.

its

place in literature seems assured.

— A.

R. Shilleto published a 3-vol. edition of the Anatomy in 1893, based on the inaccurate 7th edition; its errors were pointed out by E. Bensly (A'o(ej and Queries, i8t)7-iqo8). There are reliable editions by Floyd Dell and P. Jordan-Smith, 2 vol. (1Q27) and by Holbrook Jackson in Everyman's Library, 3 vol. (1932). Philosophaster was ed. with trans, by P. Jordan-Smith (1931). See also P. Jordan-Smith, Bibtiographia Biirtoniania (1931); Proc. and Papers of the Oxford Bibliographical .Society, vol. i, pt. 3 (1926) B. Evans, The Psychiatry of Robert Burton (1944); Hardin Craig, The Enchanted Glass: the Elizabethan Mind in Literature (1936). ;

EVANS

(1804-1860). English actor BURTON, WILLIAM and playwright who held a prominent place as an actor, manager and as a man of letters, in New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, was born in London on Sept. 24, 1804. He was the son of William George Burton (1774-1825), a printer, and author of Research Into the Religions oj the Eastern Nations as Illustrative of the Scriptures (1805). Burton first appeared on the London stage in 1831 and played with Edmund Kean in 1832. In 1834 he went America, to where he appeared in Philadelphia as Dr. Ollapod in The Poor Gentleman. The theatre he leased in New York was renamed Burton's theatre. He had much popular success as Captain Cuttle in John Brougham's dramatization of Dombey and Son, and in other low comedy parts in plays from Dickens' novels.

Burton wrote many plays, one of which, Ellen Wareham (1833), was produced simultaneously at five London theatres. In Philadelphia he established the Gentleman's Magazine, of which Edgar Allan Poe was for some time the editor. He edited the Cambridge Quarterly and the Souvenir, and wrote several books, including a Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour (1857). He collected a library of more than 100,000 volumes, especially rich in Shakespeariana, which was dispersed after his death in New York, Feb. 10. i860. TRENT, a municipal (1878) and county borough in the Burton parliamentary division of Staffordshire, Eng., lying mainly on the left bank of the Trent, on the Roman road between Derby (9 mi. N.E.) and Lichfield (13 mi. S.'W.) and on the Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) canal. Pop. (1961)

BURTON UPON

Modwen, an Irish nun, is said to convent on the Isle of Andressey opposite Burton. In 1002 Wulfric, earl of Mercia, founded there a Benedictine abbey and in 1004 granted to it the town and lands in more tlian nine counties. The history of Burton was thereafter bound up with that of this rich and powerful abbey. A gatehouse, part of the walls and a fine doorway remain and on the site of the abbot's house at Seyney park stands a 15th-century half-timbered building. The abbey became a collegiate church after its dissolution, but this was suppressed in 1549 and its lands and privileges were conferred on Sir William Paget, ancestor of the marquess of Anglesey. Of many royal charters granted to Burton that of John gave an annual fair and a weekly market and Henry Ill's gave a second fair; BurIn the 9th century St.

50,766.

have established

a

ton became famous for cattle and horse fairs. The modern market hall was built in 1882 and the fish market in The bridge, dating at least from the 12th century, was a 1925. strategic point at which Edward II defeated the earl of Lancaster in 1321 and which was fought for by both sides during the English Civil

War.

The church

of St.

Mary and

St.

18th century, embodies an older building. gallery

was opened

Modwen, built in The museum and

the art

in 1914.

an ancient industry of the town, originating with modern developments began with the building of the Grand Trunk canal in the 1760s and the openBy navigation in the early 18th century. Trent the for ing of the middle of the century there was considerable trade with the Baltic countries, and by 1801, with a population of 3,679, Burton had nine brewing firms. The use of local well water impregnated Brew-ing

the

monks

is

of Burton abbey, but

with sulfate of lime derived from gypsum deposits in the localization of

Burton, the lence of ies

its ales.

producing

is

one factor

brewing there.

home

of several breweries, is noted for the excelThere are also cooperages, foundries, and factor-

tires,

footwear, chemicals, locomotives and castings.

—

—

BURU

(BoEROE, Bura), the third largest island of the Moluccas (q.v.), Indonesia. It stands on the outer wall of Archaean rocks which enclose the inner volcanic ring to which the Banda Oval in Islands and some of the southwestern islands belong. shape, it is 8S mi. long and 54 mi. wide with an area of 3,668 sq.mi. It has high mountains, especially in the west where Mt. Tomahu (Kau Palatmada) reaches 7,969 ft., while Kaku Siel is almost as The large Lake Waikalo (Rana) lies at 2,067 ft. and its high. In the east the mountains outlet, the Wa Nibe, is to the north. are comparatively low, and a wide, circular, level plain surrounds KajeU bay. Crystalline slate occurs in the north, and Mesozoic sandstone and chalk in the south, deposits which are rare in the archipelago. Most of the island is covered by forest with teak, ebony and kanari, but the north is bare of trees and overgrown with coarse kiissu grass, while in swampy parts sago palms are abundant. The mammals include two very interesting specimens the babirusa or pig deer and the crested baboon. Birds include kingfishers, flycatchers, honeysuckers, orioles and sunbirds, also a rare

—

species the

mound

builder (Eulipoa wallacei).

The population, mostly Alfurs except on the coast, was estimated in 1957 at 29,701. They are mainly Muslims. Agriculture is simple and for local use; a few villages have coconut plantations. The chief industry is the manufacture of cajuput oil, from distilla-

Ambelau (Walua),

off the

Verbs

islands.

coconuts are grown.

O.

M.

B.)

BURUNDI: see Ruanda-Urundi. BURUSHASKI LANGUAGE.

Burushaski is the mother tongue of about 20,000 people inhabiting the central portion of the states of Hunza and Nagar in Gilgit {q.v.) territory, northwest Kashmir, where the Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges meet. A distinct dialect, known as Werchikwar or Wershikwar, is

spoken by the (about 7,000) people of Wershegum, part of the Yasin valley. No affinity has yet been proved between Burushaski and any other language. The principal sounds of Burushaski are the vowels a, A, a, ^ 'pes which are active crawlers, with fully developed legs and antennae but no wings or mouth parts, to maggotlike creatures with no appendages, and only a tuft of hair-scales on the end of the body to show their lepidopterous origin. These latter never leave the cocoon, but are fertilized ,

A

—

within it, and lay their eggs in the pupa shell. All the larvae form portable cases of silk, usually covered with bits of leaves or other vegetable fragments.

The psychids are best represented in the temperate old world, but very few inhabit Great Britain. In the eastern U.S. the most famous is the bagworm Tliyridopteryx ephemeraej onnis It is an advanced type, the male with black body and transparent wings, .

many trees, both evergreen sometimes a serious pest on shade trees, and in parks, reaching its northern limit not much above New York city. Families Related to the Preceding Groups. In other more or less related families mention may be made of the trumpet miners iTischeria, Tischeriidae), and the ribbed-cocoon makers {Bucculatrix, Lyonetiidae) which are leaf miners when young but later skeletonize leaves. The Gracilariidae have a hypermetamorphosis, the young larvae being sap-feeding leaf miners, with thin knifelike mandibles suitable only for slashing open plant cells and sucking the juices; the late larvae more normal in structure, the female maggotlike, and feeds on

and deciduous.

It is

especially in the suburbs of cities

—

although lacking the fourth pair of prolegs. PItyllonorycter are blotch miners of this type, but in about half the species the larva does not feed after its change of structure.

SUPERFAMILY YPONOMEUTOIDEA

Yponomeutidae (Ermine Moths and Others).

—The Ypon-

omeutidae have an obtect pupa (i.e., with the wings soldered to the first four segments of the abdomen, so that only the following segments, if any, are movable, and the pupa unable to progress out of the cocoon). But they still have an unusually large metathorax. and the larva has several series of hooks on the prolegs. The small ermine moths (Yponomeuta) have white wings dotted Plutella with black, and the larvae are gregarious in a web. maculipennis is the widespread diamondback moth, whose larva is injurious to plants of the cabbage family. It is sometimes made a separate family, Plutellidae, marked by straight maxillary palpi.

—

Aegeriidae (Sesiidae) (Clearwing Moths). The Aegeriidae (Sesiidae) comprise the clearwing moths, distinguished by the absence of scales over the greater part of the wings, and the fact that the fore- and hind wings are locked together by a special series of spines (like the

—

fringe. Most are plant feeders leaf rollers, seed eaters, borers but there are some scavengers, especially in the Blastobasidae, and the isolated genus Endrosis is a stored food pest. Many are pests, but the pink bollworm of cotton {Pectinophora gossypiella) and the Angoumois grain moth {Sitotroga cerealella) both Gelechiidae, are perhaps most notorious. The individual families are frequently world-wide, but the Oecophoridae and Xylorictidae are best developed in Australia, the Stenomidae in South America, and the Blastobasidae in America. Possibly related to these families are the case-bearers, Coleophora, whose larvae are at first leaf miners and later live in port,

able cases.

SUPERFAMILY TOETRICOIDEA Soft-scaled moths with venation complete or nearly so; the cell commonly divided by the preservation of the base of media, first anal preserved in at least one pair of wings, head commonly some-

what rough,

labial palpi blunt and maxillaries rudimentary. Larva with setae four and five close together; pupa incomplete and heavily spined This is a varied-looking group, but strongly linked together by the very similar early stages, the great majority of the larvae being borers, and the rest fpart of the Tortricidae leaf rollers or folders. )

The more normal members are "Micros" but the Cossidae are traditional "Bombyces" and include, so far as bulk goes, the largest of moths. The Castniidae are almost identical in larva and pupa, and similar

in venation,

having preserved

first

anal and the lower

fork of the base of media, hke the Tortricidae; but they are butterand clubbed antennae, and were

flylike in their colouring, habits

formerly often rated as butterflies. There is little doubt that they are actually related to the ancestor of the butterflies.

—

Tortricidae (Leaf Roller Moths). The Tortricidae are smallish moths, with thin wings, often very broad at the base,

when the wings are folded. There are a good many injurious species, among them the codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella; see Codling Moth) and oriental fruit moth { Laspeyresia molesta). There are two subfamilies (raised to families by some). The giving them the shape of a bell

Tortricinae, without a fringe of hair along the base of vein cubitus of the hind wing, have leaf-rolling larvae, among them several injurious apple leaf rollers in America and the well-known, bright

green, oak-feeding Tortrix viridana of Europe.

The Eucosminae

possess a fringe, and include all the injurious boring and fruit feeding species, as well as a few leaf rollers, such as the hydrangea

Exartema ferriferanum. Phaloniidae. The Phaloniidae are several hundred rather humped-looking moths, with the first anal vein wholly lost, and cubitus-two arising much nearer the end of the cell. They are obscure and little known, all borers, mostly in herbaceous plants. Cossidae (Carpenter Moths and Others). These are primitive-looking, very heavy leaf roller,

—

—

moths, with the mouth parts and leg spurs much reduced, but venation very complete, with forked base of medial vein in the cell, and a well-marked areole. All the

Hymenoptera).

Many bear a remarkable resemblance to mon flies, and fly like them in the sunshine.

wasps, bees or ichneuTheir larvae are stem or wood borers, but usually do not bore deeply in larger limbs. Several are serious pests, such as the currant borer (Ramosia tipulijormis); the squash borer (Melittia satyriniformis, with its many tropical relatives) and the peach-tree borer (Sanninoidea

larvae are borers, in

hardwood,

many

and

serious pests of forest

;

exitiosa).

trees.

ard

SuPERFAMILY GeLECHIOIDEA

Best

moth

lished at

Moth

known

them

of

several

are

and shade

are the leop-

of Europe,

now

estab-

several places on

the

of normal tineoid type but with smooth head, minute maxillary palpi of folded type. Larva with setae four and five close together; pupa obtect, more or less flattened This is a very large and well characterized group, the two families Gelechiidae and Oecophoridae each containing about 3,000 species. In these two families, and also the Xylorictidae, Steno-

Atlantic coast of the U.S. (Zeiizera pyrina) goat moth of Europe iCossus cossus); carpenter

midae, etc., the wings are ample, the hind wing broad and the venation complete, but in the Cosmopterygidae and Lavernidae the hind wings are reduced to a thread, bearing an enormous

zera coffeae)

;

moths

of the U.S. (Prionoxystus and macmurtrei); red

robiniae

coffee borer of eastern Asia (Zeii-

EuzERA

the

;

and

coffee borer of

West Indies {Xyleutes

sonalis).

per-

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH Castniidae.

—The Castniidae include a small number of bright moths from

coloured, day-flying

tropical America, several

Australia and a couple from Indo-Malaysia.

markably skipperlike both

in looks

The

from

adults are re-

and habits, but the scales are

very loosely attached to their powerful wings, like the Tortricidae, and the larvae are cossidlike borers, although in monocotyledonous plants. One very large species is a pest, boring in the trunks of palms; and other species bore in Helicojiia (bush banana) and orchids. The eggs of the Castniidae and typical Cossidae are upright

and sculptured,

like the butterflies,

and unlike the Zeuzera

group and most Microlepidoptera.

SUPERFAMILY PyRALIDOIDEA Hind wings with veins Sc and R' the point

anal vein

R

where

scaled at base, like

in

monly present, facing forward at ventral base of abdomen. Larva with only two setae on the wart before the first spiracle (like the following moths), with setae four and five close together; pupa obtect This group has a very distinct array of forms, halfway between the "Micros" and the higher types, and usually disowned by specialists in both. There are more than 10,000 species, mostly of the enormous family, with a few hundred representing one-half

—

Pyralididae (Pyralid Moths). These moths are distinguished by always having the characteristic arrangement of subcosta of the hind wing, and two or more radial branches of the forewing strongly stalked (that is, arising as a single vein from the discal cell

C.

MACROLEPIDOPTERA

The remaining families constitute the Macrolepidoptera or "Macros." In them the maxillae are never scaled and the maxilthe wings never have a welldeveloped base of the median vein, nor first anal vein, although there may occasionally be vestiges; and their scales are always firmly attached. The larvae never have but two setae on the lary palpi never well-developed;

tubercle in front of the first spiracle, and the two setae just below the abdominal spiracles are never as closely associated as in many of the preceding types; the pupae are always obtect, with the

wings soldered to the first four segments of the abdomen, and only capable of a squirming motion if any. In this series the trifid or quadrifid condition of the wing veins, and the frequent loss of the frenulum, are important characters, although less than was forrnerly supposed. In the following subdivision more weight is put on larval characters and the auditory organ.

and then separating before reaching the margin) or

The first anal vein is rarely preserved in the forewing (subfamily Schoenobiinae), or lost in the hind wing (Chrysauginae). totally

—

and represent the Phalaena Alucita of Linnaeus. The Pterophoridae have the hind wing almost invariably divided into three feathers and the forewing more or less cleft. They include several hundred species and are world-wide. The Orneodidae are also world-wide, but rather few, and are represented by a single rare species in the U.S. They have each wing cleft into six feathers, and therefore are caUed the 20-plumes, or many-plumes. ilies

beyond few exceptions) ; first

hind wing only ; tongue commonly most of the preceding moths; tympanum com-

dozen other families.

Pterophoridae and Orneodidae (Featherwings or Plume Moths). The plume moths, or featherwings, belong to two fam-

closely parallel or fused

leaves the cell (with

commonly preserved

497

small family, but include the injurious teak leaf roller (Hyblaea puera), widespread in the tropics. Some Hyblaeidae have the smallest heads of any known Lepidoptera.

SUPERFAMILY UrANIOIDEA

united.

The family is divided into a dozen subfamilies, or by some is made a smaller number of separate families, treating The Pyraustinae (or Pyraustidae contain nearly one-half of the kinds, and more than

authors

most of the following groups as families. I

one-half the specimens received from tropical collectors, and include many of the most beautiful of moths, such as the large, pale green Siga

liris

of South America, nearly three inches across

the wings; the widespread tropical bean pest,

Maruca

testulalis;

and the black and white grape leaf folder of the U.S. (Desmia funeralis), with its many tropical relatives. The latter form retreats by folding parts of grape leaves into tunnels (see also Corn Borer).

Among the Pyralididae are the most completely aquatic of catermany of whom form portable cases in which they swim

pillars,

from plant to plant. Caterpillars of several species of Nymphula (Nymphulinae, or considered part of the Pyraustinae) live wholly under water and breathe by tracheal gills. Acentropus niveus (Schoenobiinae), which is common in Europe, is now known from the St. Lawrence area. The meal moth (Pyralis fari?ialis, PyraHdinae), which is widely distributed through commerce, the Mediterranean flour moth and Indian-meal moth (Anagasta or Ephestia kiih?iieUa and Plodia interpunctella, Phycitinae) and Corcyra cephalonica of the Galleriinae represent widespread and important pests of stored foods.

—

Thyrididae. The Thyrididae have always lost both first anal and usually have no veins of the forewing stalked. They are almost limited to the tropics, but have a few primitive types in which subcosta and radius of the hind wing are still widely separated (Thyris and Dysodia) in the temperate zone of both hemispheres. The larvae are stem borers, and often make slender galls. Carposinidae. The Carposinidae are a curious little family, which E. Meyrick thought to represent the ancestor of the pyraloids. The larvae are unique and maggotlike, with the last pair of spiracles very large and turned back like a maggot. They live in juicy fruits and one is injurious to plums in China and Japan. Hyblaeidae. The Hyblaeidae are much like the thyrids, but have enormous maxillary as well as labial palpi, and have pre-

veins,

—

—

served a slender

first

anal vein in the hind wing.

They are a very

Tympanum,

sexually dimorphic ; on second segment of abdomen, facing backward in male, forward in the female. Venation much as in the Saturnioidea, but with all radial branches present and the last one closely associated with first media Uraniidae and Epiplemidae. The Uraniidae are among the most brilliant and butterflylike of moths. Many are brilliant black and green, and tailed like a swallowtail; but others are brown, and there is a large, old-world, white group forming the transition to the Epiplemidae. The Uraniidae lack the frenulum entirely, the white annectent types merely show a base, while the Epiplemidae have a normal frenulum. The latter are inconspicuous types, and not limited to the tropics, although absent from Europe. The odd genus Epicopeia, from eastern Asia, shows striking mimicry

—

of the aristolochia swallowtails of the

same

region.

SUPERFAMILY SATURNIOIDEA

Tympanum absent. Trifidae with at least one radial branch lost, the last one widely separated from the first medial. Hind wing always without fretiulum; with subcostal vein leaving the cell abruptly tiear the base and not again approaching it. Antenna usually unsealed This group of large or very large and beautiful moths is most popular with the amateur, both because of their beauty and the ease with which they are reared. Most of them are tropical, but a fair number are found in temper-

North America and several in warmer part of Europe. The Saturniidae are also of great economic value to man, for they include all the so-called "wild" silkate

the

worms (see Silk; Saturniid Moth). Aside from a few South American fornv they belong to two families, which are well contrasted, but intergrade completely.

Saturniidae (Giant SilkMoths). The Saturnii-

worm

dae are

—

silk spinners;

the

moth

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH

498

has four branches on each segment of the male antenna; the forewing has the first two branches of media grouped together, and the hind -wing has only one anal vein.

—

Citheroniidae (Royal Moths). In the Citheroniidae, which are almost wholly American, there are only two branches on each segment of the male antenna, the second media arises free, and there are two anals in the hind wing. But the group which contains the io, and many other American moths, is intermediate;

they are also marked by the caterpillars being densely covered with branching nettle spines, and processionary in habit when young.

Doubtful Members.

—The

Lacosomidae are an isolated and may have some relation to the saturniids. They are instantly recognized by the very wide space between the third and fourth branches of radius. The caterpillar is unique in habits, forming a portable case with two similar round doors, one of which is blocked by the caterpillar's head when withdrawn, the other by a circular leathery patch on the end of purely American

the

family that

tail.

SUPERFAMILY BOMBYCOIDEA

Tympanum

Moths with more normal radial system, frequently with all branches preserved; subcosta separate from cell at base, then again connected to it, so as to enclose a small humeral Caterpillar densely covered with fine hair, which may be cell. microscopic or conspicuous absent.

Bombycidae (Silkworm Moths).

—The true Bombycidae are

a very small group, mainly

from eastern Asia, and are famous only for including the Chinese silkworm, probably the most important to man of all Lepidoptera. They are Trifidae, with a tendency

to lose the frenulum, and have naked-looking caterwith a horn on the tail much like the sphinxes. (Tent Caterpillar Moths) -The Lasiocampidae are quadrifids with the frenulum totally lost, and include the injurious tent or lackey

pillars

Lasiocampidae

caterpillars

and the lappets.

SUPERFAMILY DREPANOIDEA

Tympanum

abdominal seginetit, pointing backward. Moths with subcosta and radius associated beyond the cell, like the pyralids and sphinxes. Caterpillar with end of body raised and last pair of prolegs somewhat reduced or lost This IS a small group, includmg the Thyatiridae, which are noctuidlike Trifidae (except one '\ubtralasian genus) and the Drepanidae, or hooktips, which on

first

ire

geometerlike Quadrifidae. he oriental genus CycUdia or Liiihera makes the fink. 1

Si PERFAMILY GEOMETROroEA /

mpanum

\

ii\t II

I

on the venter of the abdominal segment, facing

ai d,

as

in

the

Pyralididae.

tidae with perhaps a few exptions; subcosta of hind wing \harply bent at base and connected to base of frenulum by 1

a

1

1

'thort brace vein, then again ppioaching or fusing with cell

Geometridae

Worms

(Measuring and Others). The su-

—

-DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH perfamily practically consists of (ACHERONTIA ATROPOS) A MATING jjjg enormous family GeometriPAIR. SHOWING FACSIMILE OF HU MAN SKULL ON THORAX OF TpP dae, the inchworms or loopers, with more than 10,000 species. MOTH OTH IS COMMON TO AFRICA AND EUROPE The caterpillars are peculiar in FIG.

—

22. TOMATO HORNWORM (PROTOPARCE QUINQUEM ACULATA) LARVA WITH HORN AT POSTERIOR END; (BOTTOM) MOTH

FIG.

:

(TOP)

two pairs of prolegs, so that they must Most important are the cankerworms or winter moths, whose males fly in the frosty weather of late having travel

lost all but the last

by a

autumn

series of loops.

or early spring, while a large proportion of the species

have wingless females, who crawl up the trunks of trees to lay their eggs. Some authors divide the Geometridae into about six families, distinguished

by points

in the venation.

SUPERFAMILY SPHINGOmEA

Tympanum

Very heavy swift-flying moths, with subcosta hindwing closely parallel beyond end of discal cell and connected by a heavy cross vein (really a free bit of R^). First segment of palpus enormous, edges of abdominal segments absent.

atid radius of

with a series of fine spines

—

Sphingidae (Sphinx or Hawk Moths). The caterpillars were the original "sphinxes" because of their way of resting with the front of the body raised high. Most of them are armed with a single strong horn on the tail (eighth segment of abdomen). The moths are called hawk moths from their swift hovering flight, and many of them have very long maxillae, with which they can feed from deep-tubed flowers without alighting. They are believed to be the chief pollenizers of such flowers as petunias and orchids. Although the Sphingoidea consists essentially of Sphingidae, it appears likely that the very small Asiatic and African family Brahmaeidae is related (Jordan). They have the same thorax and venation, but are saturniids in appearance and larval characters. SUPERFAMILY NoCTUOIDEA

Tympanum on down and

the thorax under the base of the hind wing, facing back, often protected by a hood attached to the ab-

domen. Hind wing with subcosta closely parallel to cell or fused with it for more or less of its length, but rarely beyond. Egg. of upright type, with sculpture centring about the top; larva with hooks on prolegs not alternately of two lengths This is a varied but well-defined group, usually divided into a number of families which, however, are thoroughly linked by transitions.

tympanum

The first three families are trifids, and have the facing down; they were often widely separated, but

BUTTERFLY AND MOTH show

Notodontidae

—

499

Arctiidae (Tiger Moths and Others).

Other characters of the Noctuoidea. all

clude the tiger moths.

(Promi-

Their caterpillars are the woolly bears,

last pair of

prolegs of the cater-

similar IvTOantriid caterpillars.

pillar raised

and not used, or even

ornatrix)

in the puss moths, Cerura, Dicranura; others have a gland under the neck from which they can throw a jet of formic acid several inches, such as the red hump {Schizura concinna) in the U.S. and Anurocampa mingens in South America.

as

—

biologically,

only

being slender,

bril-

liantly coloured day-flyers.

of

them enter mimicrj'

—

tympanum. Agaristidae (Forester Moths).—The Agaristidae are hardly distinct from the Noctuidae, but their slightly clubbed antennae cause them to be mistaken often for butterflies. Some of the the

Many

males of

associa-

Thaumetopoeidae.—The

make

loud rattles or squeaks, such as

Agaristidae.

Superfamily Papilionoidea (Butterflies) -PARASITIZED

CATERPIL-

lar of tomato hornworm. the of braconid wasp on the end of the abdomen, the cocoons '-*''^" °^^'-°'' ^i^"'" ^he catwhich plastered over hairs of are ERPILLAR -, , A Madagascar the egg mass. species of the genus Anaphe is a source of wild silk. Lymantriidae (Tussock Moths). The L\Tnantriidae (formerly called Liparidael or tussock moths also have many species with nettle spines and hairy-tufted females, such as the brown-tail, gold-tail and satin moths, but they are quadrifids with an upright tympanum. However, the caterpillars of the g>'psy (see Gypsy Moth) and tussock moths are not poisonous. a large tuft

Antennae clubbed or swollen

at their apices and a frenulum wanting Papilionoidea. or butterflies, can readily be separated from the moths, or remainder of the Lepidoptera. by the above-men-

The

tioned characters and

,

—

Noctuidae (Owlet Moths and Underwings). and as

tuidae contain about 15,000 species,

—The

a family are

define technically, but can usually be recognized

by

Noc-

hard

to

their stout

inconspicuous colouring and well-developed mouth parts and heads. Technically they possess ocelli and have subcosta fused to the cell of the hind wing for a short distance near the base. They are dixided into many subfamilies, of which the trifid ones (with second media of hind wing weak and widely separated from third media and cubitus usually have stout, normallooking caterpillars which pupate in the ground, and often live at or beneath the surface of the ground (the cutworms or surface caterpillars). Others feed in fruits and seed pods, like the bollworm or corn-ear worm, Heliothis zea, while many feed on leaves. In the quadrifid subfamilies all are leaf feeders, most of them well off the ground, and the caterpillars have rather generally lost one bodies,

superfamily can

this

Euchontha in the Dioptidae; Heliocheilus paradoxus, a North American noctuid; Thecophora fovea, a European one; and some

tions.

moth has

moth (Utetheisa

Euchromiidae. The Euchromiidae (Syntomidae, Amatidae) comprise about 2,000 species, mostly brilliantly coloured, dayflying moths, the great majority of them South American. They are distinguished by the loss of Sc of the hind wing as a distinct vein, and the single European genus (Syntomis or Amata) has lost

Thaumetopoeidae or processionary caterpillars of the old world have masses of nettle hairs, and the female

rattlebox

of interest, since the

is

but remain distinct.

tropical differ

The

North and South American races blend like proper races of a single species where they meet in the West Indies, while in the zone from Kansas to Texas they meet

into slender processes,

Dioptidae. The American Dioptidae

relatively

)

or two pairs of prolegs, so that they loop like a geometer when they walk, but less perfectly. Most of these latter spin cocoons. The venatinnal Ti-^in ; n'" in intermediate type.

also

found

in certain

noteworthy that clubbed antennae are moths, but in such cases the frenulum is

it is

present.

Hesperiidae (Skippers)

—

The most primitive family of butare the Hesperiidae. or skippers, which have all the veins in the forewings arising separately from the cell. They derive terflies

name from their erratic more sustained

their popular

darting flight which

—CORN

CORN;

(RIGHT)

EARWORM (HELIOTHIS MOTH

ZEAi

(LEFT) CATERPILLAR EATING

is

dif-

ferent from the

movements

other butterflies. Their aflinities are not wholly clear, but they are probably related to the Castniidae {see above). The two chief subfamiof

of the Hesperiidae form a very large and world-wide series, but the Pyrrhopyginae are tropi-

lies

cal

American the Megathyminae, :

southern North American; the Ismeninae, old world, chiefly tropical;

the primitive Trapezitinae,

The Australian genus Euschemon forms a subfamily of Australian.

a single species,

and

is

the only

—

25.GLASSWING (HAETERA PIERA)

FIG.

BUTTERFLY

butterfly with a frenulum.

In the remainder of the butterflies certain of the veins of the forewings do not arise separately from the cell. Papilionidae (Swallowtail Butterflies). The swallowtails are large insects, mainly tropical; the majority have tails to the hind wings and they are among the most magnificent of all insects. The forelegs are fully developed in both sexes and the hind wings have only a single anal vein. The larvae are smooth or provided with tubercles, and there is a dorsa;! retractile scent organ or osmeterium on the prothorax; the pupae are attached head upward, by means of a girdle of silk and a cremaster. The genus Fjpilio is world-wide and the species P. machaon is the sole Engli-.h member of the family. The apoUo butterflies (Parnassius) are alpine, with translucent wings, and their pupae are exceptional in being enclosed in a loose web among leaves. Pieridae (Whites and Sulphur Butterflies). The Pieridae include the whites, yellows and orange tips; the forelegs are fully developed in both sexes and these insects differ from the Papilionidae in having two anal veins to the hind wings. The cabbage white (Pieris rapae), common in many parts of the world, is one of the few injurious butterflies, its larvae being destructive to

—

—

FIG. 24.

Arctiidae in-

and are densely covered with tufts of stiff, barbed hair; in the American subfamily Phegopterinae some of these tufts are long and pencillike, causing them to be known as tussocks, like the

nents). The Notodontidae, or prominents, frequently have the

modi&ed

—The

BUTTERFLY FISH— BUTTERWORT

500

cabbage and related plants. The larvae have fine velvety hair and the pupae have a single horn to the head and are suspended upright by a girdle of silk and a cremaster. Lycaenidae (Blues, Coppers and Hairstreaks). The Lycaenidae have the forelegs normal in the female but the tarsi are shortened. in the male, with one or both the claws absent; the antennae are nearly always ringed with white and a white rim encircles each eye. They are mostly rather small butterflies, often with metallic colours above and spotted beneath. Their larvae are very short and almost sluglike and the pupae are devoid of spiny

—

processes.

Erycinidae

—The

Erycinidae, or Lemoniidae, are closely reand have the forelegs in the male useless for walking, but they are normally developed in the female. The family is essentially South American only a few species occur in the U.S., while the Duke of Burgundy fritillary {Nemeobins lucina) is the only well-known European representative. Nymphalidae (Brush-Footed Butterflies). The Nymphallated to the Lycaenidae

:

—

idae are the largest family of butterflies, and

number more than

S.OOO species; they have the forelegs in both sexes reduced and useless for walking.

Among

Nymphalinae include the peacocks, tortoise-shells, admirals, fritillaries and emperors; as a rule they have spiny caterpillars and the pupae hang head downward, only supported by a cremaster. The Satyrinae include the the various subfamilies, the

graylings, meadow browns; they are mostly sombrecoloured and their larvae are smooth, feeding usually upon grasses. The Danainae are only numerous in warm countries, but one of the

heaths,

best

known

species

the

is

monarch {Danaus

North

plexippiis) of

and South America. Several of the other subfamilies are found mainly in South America, including the splendid metallic blue Morphinae. See Insect; Entomology; see also Index references under "Butterfly and Moth'' in the Index volume. Bibliography. The standard bibliography is Lepidopterorum Catalogiis (published by Junk), about half completed when interrupted by World War II. Descriptive Works: North America: J. H. and A. B. Comstock, How

—

Know

W. J. Holland, Biitterflv Book, rev. ed. (1931), (1914); A. B. Klots, Field Guide to the Butterflies of North America (1951) W. T. M. Forbes, Lepidoptera of New York and Neighboring States, memoir 68, Cornell University Agricultural E.xperiment Station (1923). Europe: R. South, Butterflies of the British Isles, 3rd ed. (1941), and Moths of the British Isles, 2 vol., 3rd ed. (1939) E. Mevrick, Revised Handbook of British Lepidoptera (1927) J. W. Tutt, British Lepidoptera; E. B. Ford, Butterflies (1957), and Moths (1955); W. F. Kirby, Butterflies and Moths of Europe (1903); A. Spuler, Die Schnietti'rlinge Europas und Raupen (190810). World: A. Seitz et al., Macrolepldoptera of the World (1906-10), was complete for the Palearctic region (Europe and north Asia), also the butterflies of the world, the "Bombyces" were very nearly complete and the "Noctuae" and "Geometrae" well advanced, when the work to

the Butterflies;

Moth Book

.-l

;

;

;

was interrupted. Special: For morphology

see especially H. Zerny and M. Beier in KUkenthal's Handbuch der Zoologie, vol. 4, pt. 2, pp. 1554-1728, with bibliography and the Vienna classification. For biology and habits M. Hering, Biologic der Schmetterlinge (1926). For coloration see especially M. Standfuss, Handbuch der Faldarktischen Gross-schmelterlinge (1896) E. B. Poulton, The Colours of Animals (1890) A. G. Mayer, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv., vol. 29 (1896) B. N. Schwan." Trans. witsch, "Studies Upon the Wing-Pattern of Catagramma Zool. Soc. Land., vol. 21, pt. 2, pp. 107-284 (1930). For migration see C. B. Williams, The Migration of Butterflies (1930) C. B. Williams et al., Trans. R. Ent. Soc. Lond., pp. 101-280 (1942). For geographical distribution, A. Pagenstecher, Die Geographische Verbreitung de Schmetterlinge (1909); K. Holdhaus in Schroeder's Handbuch der Entomologie, vol. ii, pp. 592-1058. Other literature on the order is mentioned in A. D. Imms, General Textbook of Enlo.mologv, 3rd ed. (1934) and Recent Advances in Entomology, 2nd ed. (1937). (A. D. I.; W. T. M. F.) ;

;

;

.

.

;

BUTTERFLY

FISH, the common name of the family Chaetodontidae; these are laterally compressed, brilliantly coloured fishes of tropical seas with, as their Latin name indicates, bristlelike teeth. Young butterfly fish have a collar or sheath, around the head and neck; they lose this collar as they mature. The brilliantly coloured adults are easily seen as they dart among coral reefs. Black spots (ocelli often occur on the tail or fins. Their habit of pointing toward potential danger may help conceal them. Few exceed 8 in. in length and they seldom are used for )

As do many other tropical fishes, butterfly fishes often have and occasionally in the muscles. (C. Hu.) (Asclepias tuberosa), a North American plant of the milkweed famfood.

toxins in the viscera

BUTTERFLY WEED

ily

known

(Asclepiadaceae),

also

and orange milkweed. It is native to dry fields from Maine to On-

as pleurisy-root, orange-root

tario and Minnesota and southward to Florida, Texas, Arizona and Chihuahua. The butterfly weed is a stout, rough-haired

with

perennial,

The

roots.

long

horizontal

usually erect, some-

what branching stem,

ft

i

to

very leafy through-

3 ft. high, is

and about midsummer bear^ numerous clusters of bright orange flowers. Unlike most out,

milkweeds, this plant has a very scanty milky juice. The root once was used in medicine, especially

for

pulmonary

affec-

BUTTERFLY WEED BEROSAl

(ASCLEPIAS TU-

tions.

Butterfly ingly

grown

weed

is

often planted in wild gardens and

is

spar-

as a border plant.

BUTTERMILK,

the liquid residue after removing the butter the churning process. It consists mainly of water,

from cream by some 90%, together with milk

sugar, about S%, and casein, about 3%. In addition it contains small quantities of butterfat and lactic acid. To the latter, which is formed during the ripening of the cream, buttermilk owes its slightly acid taste. In North America until about igoo buttermilk was used chiefly for feeding pigs, especially in the leading dairy districts, but, because of

healthful and nutritious qualities,

its

popular as a beverage. In the United States and Canada

packaged stores,

it

is

it

later

became widely

extensively bottled or

market and sold at dairies, grocery fountains and restaurants. In some

in cartons for the

delicatessens, soda

most of the buttermilk sold commercially is "cultivated." Certain bacteria are added to skimmed milk to produce fermentation. The resulting product is somewhat thicker than natural buttermilk, but is in other respects similar. See Dairy Industry;. sections,

Milk.

BUTTERNUT,

the tree and fruit of the

North American

white or long walnut, Juglans cinerea, a native of rich woods from New Brunswick to North Dakota and south to Georgia and Arkansas, although not abundant below the latitude of Pennsylvania and Iowa. The nut is oblong-cylindrical with jagged, hard shell. The kernel has a pleasing flavour and is popular in confections and baked goods. Butternut wood is used for furniture. This name is also sometimes used for certain nuts of South America, as the Brazilnut and souari nut. See also Walnut. the popular name of a small insectivorous plant, Pinguicula vulgaris, which grows in wet. boggy land. It is an herb with a rosette of fleshy, oblong leaves, one to three inches long, lying flat against the ground, of a pale colour, and with a sticky surface. Small insects settle on the leaves and are caught in the viscid secretion. This, like the secretion of the sundew and other insectivorous plants, contains a digestive enzyme which renders the nitrogenous substances of the body of the insect soluble and capable of absorption by the leaf. In this way the plant obtains nitrogenous food by means of its leaves. The leaves bear two sets of glands, the larger borne on usually unicellular stalks, the smaller almost sessile. When a fly is captured, the viscid secretion becomes strongly acid and the naturally incurved margins of

BUTTERWORT,

the leaf curve insect

and the

still

further inward, rendering contact between the

leaf surface

more complete.

The

plant

is

widely

dis-

tributed in the north temperate zone, extending into the arctic In North .\merica it ranges from the high northern tundras

zone.

southward to Newfoundland, New York, Minnesota, Montana and British Columbia. The butterwort belongs to the bladder-

BUTTERWORTH— BUTTONS wort family (Lentibulariaceae), which comprises various other carnivorous plants. See Utricularia; Carnivorous Plants. See also F. E. Lloyd, The Carnivorous Plants (1942).

BUTTERWORTH,

GEORGE

SAINTON

KAYE

(1885-1916), English composer of the post-Elgarian nationalist revival, was born in London, July 12, 1885. He was educated at Eton and O.xford, and later for a short time at the Royal College of Music, London. He was a close friend of Ralph Vaughan Williams and Cecil Sharp, whom he helped in the collection and arrangement of folk songs and dances. He shared Vaughan William's interest in A. E. Housman's poems, some of which he set in two One of these songs provided the theme for his cycles of songs. best-known work, the orchestral rhapsody A Shropshire Lad (1912). He was killed in the battle of the Somme on Aug. 5, 1916, shortly after gaining the military cross for gallantry. (Co. Ma.) {Cephalanthus occidentalis) a North American shrub or small tree of the madder family (Rubiaceae; q.v.), called button willow and also honeyballs in California. It grows in swamps almost throughout North America and in Mexico and Cuba. In the northern parts of its range it is a shrub 3 to 12 ft. high, but in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas it attains a height of 40 to 50 ft., with a straight trunk a foot in diameter. It bears ovate, entire, pointed leaves and small, fragrant, creamy white flowers in globular stalked heads about an inch in diameter. In the northeastern states the buttonbush is sparingly cultivated as an ornamental plant.

BUTTONBUSH

BUTTONS,

,

formed pieces of

solid material, usually circular,

perforated with sewing holes or furnished with a shank, and used to fasten together two parts of a garment by being sewed or otherwise attached to one part and passed through loops or holes (buttonholes

)

in the other.

The term

is

also applied to a

wide variety

of buttonlike objects.

Ancient Types.

—The

by the pressure

of a

tunic, or chiton, of

brooches, clasps and points, or laces, until the 13th century, when buttons came into a prominence that brought about the passing of sumptuary laws limiting their use. The sporting of buttons by persons of low degree was described as a scandal. Despite moral criticism and legal restrictions, however, buttons gained in favour until, in the 14th century, they were worn, both as ornaments and

from the elbow

to the wrist

and from the neckline

to the waist.

Cost was a continuing check on such luxury materials as gold, silver and ivory, and the wearing of buttons made from them was an indication of rank and wealth. Handsome and expensive buttons were also made of copper and its alloys. Until the 18th century, manufacture of gold, silver and copper buttons was governed by the guilds dealing with the specific metals; the buttons produced were beautiful examples of the metalsmith's art. Such buttons were frequently embellished with insets of ivory, tortoise shell and jewels. More commonly used were buttons of wood and bone. Button forms of these materials were also used as foundations for fabriccovered buttons. Coarse thread-buttons were made by repeatedly drawing the thread over a wire ring. Pewter, Brass and Steel During the 17th and 18th centuries, buttons were molded or stamped from pewter, the familiar metal of the age. During this period, brass buttons also became popular as fastenings for both military and civilian dress. These were cast in molds in which ornamental and distinguishing designs were incorporated. A favoured button of the 18th century was made of calamine brass, produced by heating copper and calamine together. Before the close of the century, multiple molds supplanted single molds, and button output was considerably in-

—

creased.

A sand mold was also developed. This device consisted of a two-part wooden box containing in both sections a firm mixture of sand, water and molasses. Button-shaped holes were made in

501 mold pattern

that consisted of indi-

vidual button forms joined to metal arms and which was placed between the sand surfaces when the box was closed, the sand surfaces being lightly dusted with powdered chalk to prevent their adhering together. After the pattern was removed, molten metal, introduced through an opening in the box, traveled along the channels

made

in the

vidual molds.

The

sand by the pattern arms and entered the indifinished on a lathe and then

The buttons were

friction-polished

by being tumbled together.

bright, costly cut-steel button,

made by

attaching polished

button blank, was introduced by Matthew Boulton, an English manufacturer, about the middle of the 18th century. In France, the facets of the cut-steel button were elabDuring the first quarter orated by delicate openwork designs. of the 19th century, a less costly but highly attractive stamped steel button in an openwork pattern made its appearance. Brass buttons gilded by dipping them in an amalgam of mercury and gold achieved great popularity during the 19th century. Five grains of gold were allowed to a gross of buttons. The button blanks were cut from rolled sheets of brass and finished on a lathe. Shanks were soldered in place. The buttons were marked single, double or triple gilt according to the number of times they were treated with the mercury and gold compound. Frequently these gilt buttons bore die-struck or hand-chased ornamentations. B. Sanders, a Danish nianufacturer who went to England after steel facets to a steel

bombardment of Copenhagen by Lord Nelson in 1801, introduced the two-shell metal button during the first quarter of the century. The shells were thin metal disks with turned edges. Two shells were united by crimping the edges together, with a small piece of cloth or pasteboard enclosed. Another Sanders innovation, originating with the manufacturer's son, was the canvas the

shank.

both the ancient Greeks and the Etruscans was fastened at the shoulders with buttons and loops. The chlamys of the Etruscans, a short semicircular mantle, was also fastened with buttons and loops, although the oblong Greek chlamys was fastened with a brooch. In medieval Europe, garments were chiefly fastened with

as fastenings,

the sand

Other Improvements.

— By the

third decade of the 19th cen-

became possible to produce fabric-covered buttons by mechanical means. Animal horn had been used as button stock tury

it

since the latter part of the 18th century; during the 19th century

animal hoofs were also utilized. Horn and hoof material, plasticized by heat, can be cut, dyed and molded. Buttons were also made of ceramics and glass. Porcelain buttons, charmingly decorated by hand-painting or by the transference of designs in coloured inks from thin tissue papers, became, in the main, a French specialty. Production of coloured glass canes used in button manufacture was largely centered in Czechoslovakia although Paris was the recognized centre of manufacture. The Japanese developed a ceramic button that they hand-painted in traditional motifs of great charm and delicacy. The Chinese also produced a button of unusual interest that consisted of an intricately carved thickness of vermilion lacquer on a wood base. Attractively decorated and lacquered papier-mache buttons enjoyed a wide popularity during the second half of the 19th century. Buttons of "Pearl" and "Ivory." The pearly shells of sea moUusks were early turned to some account in button making. It was with the advent of mechanical methods of production, however, that pearl buttons took an outstanding place in the industry. Button blanks were produced by revolving tubular saws from shell separated into its component layers by treatment with a nitric acid solution. By a second process sewing holes w^ere bored, and an engraved decoration was mechanically applied by a third. At first only sea shell was used, but in the 1890s an American manufacturer, J. F. Boepple, began to avail himself of the ready and abundant supply of fresh-water shells found along the Mississippi river and its tributaries. Although less iridescent than sea shell, fresh-water shell nevertheless represented a useful and profitable source of material. By modern advanced methods of production a single machine can perform all the functions required to produce the completed button from the blank in one operation. Surface irregularities are removed from the finished buttons by tumbling them in rapidly revolving drums. Vegetable ivory buttons, which first appeared about the middle of the 19th century, are made from the meat of corozo nuts, the fruit of a palm indigenous to South America. By manufacturing methods similar to those employed in the production of pearl but-

—

.

BUTTRESS— BUTYL

502 tons, vegetable ivory buttons are

meat that has been cured

and

Plastics

Resins.

in kilns

—

made from and

thick slices of nut

dried.

Plastics, such as cellulose, casein

and

polystyrene, and the polyvinyl resins have been added to the

ma-

from which buttons are manufactured. Molding machines can produce from 50,000 to 250,000 plastic buttons in a 24-hr. peButtons can be molded by compression from plastics introriod. duced in a powdered form. They can also be molded by an injection process in which plastic material, heated to a flowable consistency, is forced into individual molds through small openings. Sewing holes are provided for in the molds. Plastic buttons are often intricate in design and are produced in a wide variety terials

of brilliant colours.

—

Bibliography. William Unite Jones, The Button Industry (1924) Lillian Smith Albert and Louise H. Jarvis, Buttons Are Art (1944) (E. L. Y.) Kathryn Kent, The Complete Button Book ( 1949) in

architecture, the term given to a

masonry projecting from the face of a

mass of

wall, either to strengthen

the wall or to resist the side thrust of an arch, roof or vault.

part of the buttress which receives the thrust

is

called

The

an abut-

ment. Buttressing began, tentatively, with the great state constructions of the later

Roman

empire

—

baths, basilicas

and the

like.

How-

Romans, and the Byzantines who followed them, preferred wherever possible to combine buttresses with crosswalls, and developed no special architectural treatment for them. It was not until the Romanesque period that external buttresses of large size began to appear first as mere pilaster strips, then as engaged columns, and finally as projecting masses of masonry with a steep ever, the

—

slope at the top to shed water.

As naves came gradually

to be roofed with ribbed or groined Gothic period, the tremendous concentration of necessitated an entirely new study of the butthrusts at each bay most spectacutress problem. The result was the flying buttress Technically, the lar, perhaps, of all Gothic structural innovations. flying buttress is an arched strut which transmits the thrust of an arch or vault across an open space, commonly a side aisle or a chapel. The typical Gothic flying buttress consisted of a half arch abutting at its apex, against the nave wall and at the outer end

vaults, in

;

tecture; Arch and Vault; Gothic Architecture.

BUTUNG,

Architectural Engineering;

(An. G.) an island S.E. of Celebes, Indon., one of a group

which includes Butung, Muna, Kabaena and Wowoni. Butung strait, between Butung and Muna (port, on the east coast, Raha), is narrow and difficult to navigate, but beautiful. Butung is 95 mi. long; the area

is

1,759 sq.mi.

It

has an axial chain of limestone

;

;

BUTTRESS,

one over the other, formed the flying buttress. In later Gothic architecture elaborately sculptured buttresses were an outstanding feature but with the revival of Roman building practices during the Renaissance, their importance steadily diminished. In modern architecture, where masonry vaults are seldom found, buttresses have reverted to being mere wall strengtheners, treated in the simplest possible manner. See also Archi-

the

—

against the vertical

mass

of the buttress proper,

which was usually

weighted by a heavy pinnacle. Where the nave wall was of great height, as at Beauvais cathedral, two, or even three, half arches,

hills

(highest point Kepala-Ogena, 3,740

and

ft.)

is

thickly for-

Pop. (1957 est.) 302,347. The coast people are mostly Muslim Buginese, but the interior also has pagan peoples. There are traditionally three classes: descendants of nobles, free inhabitants and slaves. They carry on weaving and copperwork, but are chiefly trading sailors and fishermen, and their well-built prahus traverse all the seas of the archipelago. Houses are built of wood, on piles, and sometimes villages are in shallow water off shore, with approach by a bamboo causeway. Butung formerly had a reputation for piracy, and on the south coast the old pirate haunt of Wasuemba is still to be seen, surrounded by thick walls of coral blocks, not far from the village of Wabula. Butung comes under the jurisdiction of South Sulawesi (Celebes), but there is a local sultan, whose kraton, or fortress, at Wabula is on a steep hill. Teak is found, and is used for boatbuilding; coconuts are grown, and there is some trade in copra and a kind of small dried fish; a few of the inhabitants engage in pearl-dealing. Butung yields much natural asphalt. Its port is Labuantobelo. at the north end of the island. The administrative centre is Baubau in the southested.

west. Japan occupied the island in

BUTYL ACETATES.

World War

II.

(J.

This coUective term

is

O.

M.

B.)

applied to

the acetic acid esters of n-butyl alcohol, isobutyl alcohol and secondary butyl alcohol. The butyl acetates are colourless, neuTheir comtral, mobile liquids having pleasant fruitlike odours. mercial importance depends upon their great solvent power for nitrocellulose and for other film-forming compounds used in the

lacquer and varnish industries.

The

acetic acid ester of tertiary

butyl alcohol is extremely difficult to prepare and has no commercial importance. Normal butyl acetate is the standard medium evaporating sol-

vent of the lacquer industry. The commercial product contains 90%-92% n-butyl acetate and 8%-io% of n-butyl alcohol. Its use in lacquer formulations imparts low viscosity, good flow-out and high resin compatibility characteristics. The butyl acetates of commerce contain go^^f butyl acetates and io% butyl alcohol. Principal users were the manufacturers of lacquers, enamels, patent leathers, linoleum boils at 126.1°

at

C;

and

it is

celluloid products.

Pure «-butyl acetate

lighter than water, since its specific gravity

20°/4° C. is 0.882. Secondary butyl acetate

is not as good a lacquer solvent as «-butyl acetate. Its evaporation rate is approximately 1.8 times It therefore has a greater tendency to as fast as n-butyl acetate. cause blushing of the lacquer films. Its primary use is as a substitute for n-butyl acetate. The boiling point is 111.5° C., specific

gravity at 20°/4° C. is o.86g. Isobutyl acetate imparts slightly lower viscosity characteristics

than does n-butyl acetate to nitrocellulose lacquers. It boils at 117.2° C. and has a specific gravity at 20°/4° C. of 0.875. The commercial product contains go'/f-ioo'^ ester and 0%-$% isobutvl alcohol. Its evaporation rate is approximately 1.5 times that (D. G. Z.; N. C. S.; X.) of «-butyl acetate. a class of organic compounds, of which four members are known: normal butyl alcohol, secondary

BUTYL ALCOHOLS,

BUTTRESSES: (LEFT) ENGAGED COLUMN, GREAT MOSQUE, CORDOBA. SPAIN. 8TH CENTURY; (CENTRE) SLOPING BUTTRESSES. PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. ENG.. 12TH CENTURY; (RIGHT) FLYING BUTTRESSES. CATHEDRAL OF ST. GATIEN. TOURS, FRANCE. 12TH-16TH CENTURIES

butyl alcohol, isobutyl alcohol and tertiary butyl alcohol. They have the formula C4H9OH. All but tertiary butyl alcohol find extensive use as solvents for lacquers. They are also used extensively in the

manufacture of various esters. Tertiary butyl alcohol is in the manufacture of derivatives. These alcohols are

used mostlv

BUTYRIC— BUXTON slightly viscous liquids with penetrating odours.

They

are some-

what poisonous if

if taken internally but can be handled with safety ordinary precautions are taken.

Normal butyl

alcohol (butanol) is made commercially by fermentation of corn or molasses and also from acetylene by a series of reactions involving addition of water, condensation and reduction. Secondary butyl alcohol is ordinarily produced from butylene present in cracking gases from petroleum refineries by solution in sulfuric acid followed by reaction with water. Tertiary butyl alcohol is similarly produced from isobutylene. Isobutyl alcohol is made commercially by causing carbon monoxide and hydrogen to react at high pressure.

BUTYRIC ACID

the

is

first

acid in the fatty acid series

show structural isomerism (g.v.). There are two acids of the formula C3H7.CO2H. Normal butyric acid or fermentation butyric acid is found in butter, as a hexyl ester in the oil of Heracleum gigatiteum, as an octyl ester in parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). and in the oil of Eucalyptus perriniana as w-butyl butyrate; it has also been noticed in meat juice, in perspiration and in excrement. The acid is an oily liquid of unpleasant smell, solidifies at —19° C. and boils at 162.3° C. Isobutyric acid, (CH3)o.CH.C00H, is found in the free state in carobs (Ceratonia siliqita) and in the root of Arnica diilcis, and as an ethyl ester in croton oil. It is a liquid of somewhat unpleasant to

smell, boiling at 155.5° C.

BUXACEAE, the boxwood family, a small group of evergreen plants with 6 genera and 30-60 species, mostly shrubs or small

warmer parts of both hemispheres. Representatives genus Biixus, known as boxwood (q.v.), are highly prized for garden hedges and borders; certain species of Pachysattdra (g.v.) are used as ground covers. DIETRICH (c. 1637-1707). Danish organist and composer of church music. The exact date and place of Buxtehude's birth are not known. His father came from Oldesloe and was organist at Helsingborg from about 1638 to 1641 and at Helsingor (Elsinore) from about 1642 to 1671. Nothing is known of Buxtehude's youth, but it can be assumed that his musical education at least was given him by his father. Buxtehude was organist at St. Mary's, Helsingborg (1657-58), and at St. Mary's, Helsingor, from 1660. In 1668 he went to St. Mary's, Liibeck, Ger., and remained there for the rest of his life. With the duties of organist he combined those of Werkmeister, a post similar to a bursar's. In the same year he married Anna Tunder, the daughter of his predecessor, Franz Tunder. It is not known that Buxtehude journeyed outside Liibeck, though visits by organists to one another were common at this time. In 1703 he was himself visited by Handel, who hoped to succeed him. but marriage with one of Buxtehude's five daughters was a condition; in 1705 Bach also found this condition unacceptable. Buxtehude died at Liibeck on May 9, 1707, and was buried in St. Mary's on May 16. trees, in the

of the

BUXTEHUDE,

The

duties of the St. Mary's organist included, as well as writ-

ing the usual

incidental

service music,

composition for public

and for marriages and funerals of the great merchant Buxtehude left a considerable amount of vocal and instrumental music, much of which was not recovered festivals

families of Liibeck.

20th century; much more certainly remains lost. Buxtehude's instrumental music is simple and pleasing; it is always well constructed but rarely aims at technical virtuosities. The most important and influential part of it is that for organ, which includes toccatas, preludes and fugues, cimconnes, pieces based on chorales, and a passacaglia to which that of J. S. Bach until the

C minor {Bach Werke Verzeicknis, 582) is clearly indebted. The preludes are generally brief and, with one exception, are unlike those of Bach in having no thematic connection with the much longer fugues that follow them. The form of these fugues often consists of several sections contrasting in rhythm and tempo, rather than of a progressive contrapuntal development. Here Buxtehude may have been influenced by the somewhat similar in

form of Jan Sweelinck's keyboard fantasias. A few short fugues in simple counterpoint are, however, also among Buxtehude's work. The pieces based on chorales include a number of simple chorale preludes with the decorated melody placed in a high register and

503

with an independent part on the pedals, and also several long works in which the chorale text is treated with such technical elaboration that the result is a kind of instrumental moThis extended chorale treatment seems to have been confined tet. to northern Germany; Nikolaus Bruhns, a pupil of Tunder and Buxtehude, is among the other organists who have left examples. Little of Buxtehude's harpsichord music remains but much is known to be lost, including a suite illustrating the planets. A in counterpoint

suite of dances, which is extant, is of special interest for Buxtehude's use of the hymn-tune Auf meinen lieben Gott for his theme. Among his secular music are a number of sonatas for various

combinations of two or three stringed instruments with continuo. Fourteen of these were published in two parts at Hamburg in 1696 as the composer's Opus 1 and 2. Most of Buxtehude's vocal music consists of church cantatas, in the history of which he is an important figure, although the influence of his vocal work was less widespread than that of his organ music. Over 100 cantatas are extant, composed in a great variety of forms, of which only the main groups will be mentioned here. All are imbued with a devout simplicity that contrasts strongly with the elaborations of their Bachian successors. It is uncertain whether they were composed for services or for "concert" performance; the latter seems more likely. It is possible that some were written for the famous Abendmusiken, concerts of mixed vocal and instrumental music held in St. Mary's in the late afternoons of the five Sundays before Christmas. A few programs of these, including the 1700 series, are known, but no extant work by Buxtehude is mentioned.

The cantata

texts are rarely liturgical.

The

Bible, the

hymn-

book and sacred verse of the time are their main sources. Latin texts are used for about 30, which include a set of seven based on a poem by St. Bernard on the seven last words from the cross. The settings are of three main kinds: (1) Those for solo voice with continuo and with or without string ritornelH between stanzas. These cantatas have formal affinities with the secular Arien of such composers as Adam Krieger; (2) for choir, either unaccompanied or with organ continuo, and sometimes a group of

known as sinfonia or sonata), instrumental comments and brief interludes during the cantata; (3) for soloists and choir, often with continuo and a group of instruments as in (2). A more extended work, on the Last Judgment, was discovered in 1927 and has been termed an oratorio; strings to provide an overture (also

it is

a succession of arias for soloists or chorus with instrumental

These are for strings instead of the brass, which might have been sometimes expected. ritornelli.

See a collected edition of Buxtehude's works that was begun in 1925, See also W. Stahl, Dietrich Buxtehude ed., vol. vii (1937). (C. P. Co.)

Ugrino

(1937).

BUXTON,

THOMAS FOWELL

(1786-1845), SIR English philanthropist, chiefly remembered for his work for the campaign to abolish slavery, was born at Castle Hedingham, Essex, on April 1, 1786, and was educated at Trinity college, Dublin. In 1807 he married Hannah Gurney, sister of Elizabeth Fry. He entered the brewery of Truman, Hanbury and company in 1808, became a partner in 1811, and soon had the whole concern in his hands. In 1818 he published his able Inquiry i?ito Prison Disciplitie. The same year he was elected M.P. for Weymouth, a borough he represented till 1837. In the house of commons Buxton worked for the abolition of slavery in British colonies, taking over the leadership of the agitation in 1822. He was not entirely satisfied, however, with the abolition act of 1833, which included some clauses to which his better judgment was opposed. Although his health was giving way, he continued his interest in social work, including prison conditions on the continent. He was made a baronet in 1840, and devoted himself to a plan for ameliorating the condition of African Negroes. The failure of the Niger expedition of 1841 was a blow from which he ntver recovered. He died at his home in Norfolk on Feb. 19, 1845. Buxton's Memoirs (1848), with selections from his correspondence, were edited by his third son, Charles Buxton (1823-71), a member of parliament who consistently advocated humane and liberal policies, especially for the colonies. (A. Bri.)

;

BUXTON— BUZAU

504 BUXTON,

a municipal borough, holiday resort and spa in Derbyshire, Eng., 38 mi. N.W. of Derby by road, is situated in the centre of the Peak District (q.v.) National park. Pop. (1961) 19,236. Area 9.9 sq.mi. Standing between 1,000 ft. and 1,100 ft. above sea level, Buxton is the highest market towTi in England.

Situated in a basin protected by to 1,810

ft.

at

Axe Edge,

it

lies

hills of grit

on the river

and limestone

Wye

rising

(a tributary of

the Derwent), which in the Pavilion gardens disappears underground from a waterfall. The mineral waters of Buxton, which are tasteless and odourless, have long enjoyed a great reputation and were knowTi and used by the Romans, who called the place Aquae Arnemetiae and whose roads connected it with Derby, Edale and Manchester. After the departure of the Romans the baths seem to have been long neglected, but were rebuilt and again frequented in the 16th century. Later the church of St. Anne (1625) acquired fame for the cures effected. At the close of the 18th century the duke of Devonshire, lord of the manor, spent large sums of money on improvements in the town. The Crescent was built during 1780-86 in the Doric style by John Carr, and in

Pump room

its

the drinking of the mineral waters

is still

practised,

although the chalybeate spring is no longer used. The thermal mineral water rises from the springs at a temperature of 82° F. and is much used at the municipal physical treatment centre, where it is superheated for the treatment of rheumatic diseases and nonrheumatic complaints affecting muscles, joints and nerves. There are

numerous public and private baths, open

of which have a sustained tonic effect

;

the year round,

treatment

is

some

also given at

the Devonshire Royal hospital.

Buxton has a repertory festivals are held annually.

ological

and natural history

theatre,

The

and drama, music and cricket

public

collections.

museum

A

contains archae-

traditional annual event

the Wells Dressing festival which also takes place in the surrounding villages. Buxton has a few light industries, including the making of brake linings, and limestone is quarried nearby. In the neighbourhood are Poole's cavern, a dripstone cave; Diamond hill, so called from the quartz crystals in its rocks; and Chee tor, a 300-ft, cliff on the bank of the Wye. Arbor Low, 9j mi. S.E., is a "henge," a stone circle of the Bronze Age. (D. B. A.) As commonly used in the business world, a buyer is the authorized purchasing agent for some other individual or for a business firm. On the stock exchange, a buyer or broker is an individual or a firm legally invested with the power to buy stocks and bonds upon orders from purchasers. Large department stores, composed of a great number of departments, have a buyer at the head of each department. These buyers, whether men or women, are employed by the store owner to buy on the market, for the store's account such articles as are required to keep their departments running and meet the anticipated demands of customers. It is the duty of each buyer to select the best quality goods at the lowest possible price, and to undersell corresponding departments in other stores whenever possible. In commercial and manufacturing establishments, an important procurement and buying function is undertaken by the purchasing agent who is responsible for buying the raw materials and supphes needed for the firm's operations. He is sometimes referred to as the "buyer." To perform his duties effectively a buyer or purchasing agent must become familiar with all possible sources of goods and materials as weU as with their characteristics. He endeavours to supply goods of the desired quality when needed, at favourable costs, and to maintain a minimum inventory. (0. R. G.) BUYIDS, a Persian dynasty (94S-10S5 a.d.) whose homeland was Dailam in the Elburz uplands in northern Iran. Their eponym was Abu Shuja' Buya, who had three sons. All, Hasan and Ahmad. All, having been appointed governor of Karaj about 930 by the Dailamite leader Mardawij ibn Ziyar, seized Isfahan while Hasan, and Ahmad took Pars and Kerman during 935-936. In Dec. 945 Ahmad entered Baghdad, the caliph's capital. After obtaining the title of Amir al-Umara and Mu'izz al-Dawla for himself, and those of 'Imad al-Dawla and Rukn al-Dawla for Ali and Hasan respectively, Ahmad deposed the caliph al-Mustakfi in Jan, 946 substiis

BUYER.

tuting al-Muti'.

Henceforth

until 1055 the Buyids controlled the death (in 949 or 950) Rukn al-Dawla Adud al-Dawla ruling Pars, but the family co-operation broke down after Mu'izz al-Dawla's death in 967. By 977 Adud al-Dawla ruled over Pars, Iraq and Kerman. He was the dynasty's most enlightened prince, celebrated for his public works including the amir's dam (Bendameer) still standing near Shiraz. After his death in 982 the ebb of the dynasty's power was expedited by fractious Turk and Dailamite subordinates until only Baghdad remained under their control. The last Buyid ruler, al-Malik abu Mansur, was deposed by Togrul Beg the Seljuk, in 1055, The significance of the Buyids is that they provided, between the Arab invasion and that of Sunnite Turks, a purely Persian and Shi'ite entr'acte in Iran's history. In their time popular and passionate observance of certain Shi'ite festivals, still maintained, was inaugurated, and visits to the Shi'ite holy places, Najaf and Karbala, in Iraq assumed signifi-

Abbasid

caliphs.

became head

On

All's

of the family, his son,

cance.

La Domination des Dailamites (1932) article or Buyids" in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (1960). (P. W. A.)

See V. Minorsky,

"Buwayhids

;

BUYS, PAULUS

(1531-1594), Netherlands patriot, the leading statesman of the province of Holland from 1572 to 1585, was born at Amersfoort in the province of Utrecht. He became pensionary of Leiden in 1561 and advocate of the province of Holland in 1572. In close touch with the exiled prince of Orange, William the Silent, he prepared, together with others, the rising of the greater part of the province in 1572 (see Netherlands) and particularly the adhesion of Leiden to the cause of the rebels. In 1573 he became a member of the council of nine which assisted William, but his efforts to make him count of Holland and Zeeland were cut short by the murder of the prince (1584). After this he resigned his office (1585), partly in protest against the temporarily prevailing policy of seeking help from France, and retired to his native province of Utrecht, Having alw^ays advocated an English alliance, he was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Westminster with Elizabeth I (Aug. 20. 1585), A member of the council of state under the governorship of the earl of Leicester, he soon came into conflict with the earl, mainly because of the latter's favouring the democratic Calvinists and alienating the liberal urban aristocracies. With the connivance of Leicester he was arrested by the Utrecht democrats in July 1586, and held prisoner for six months. He died at IJsselstein on May 4, 1594, See

W. van

Everdingen, Het leven van Mr. Paulus Buys (1895) Buys en Leicester (1948). (A. G. J.)

L, J. Rogier, Paulus

BUYS BALLOT'S LAW,

in meteorology, takes its

name

from Dutch meteorologist C. H. D. Buys Ballot who first stated the law in 1857. The law states that in the northern hemisphere a person standing with his back to the wind has high pressure on his right and low on his left; in the southern hemisphere, the low pressure area would be on the right. Strictly speaking the law states that the angle between the wind and the pressure gradient is a right angle. This is almost exactly true in the free atmosphere though not at the surface, where the angle is usually less than 90°, The law is not apphcable in equatorial regions. (See Wind: General Winds.)

Christoph Hendrik DmERicus Buys Ballot (1817-1890), was born

at Kloetinge, Zeeland, Neth.,

on Oct.

10, 1817.

He was

director of the Royal Netherlands Meteorological institute from

He derived the law empirically, unaware had already been deduced on theoretical grounds some earlier by the U.S. meteorologist William Ferrel, whose priority he later acknowledged. He died on Feb. 3, 1890. (Wr. Br.) BUZAU, a tpwn of Rumania, situated on the Buzau river, 97 km. (60 mi.) N.E. of Bucharest, is the administrative centre of a district of the same name in the Ploe§ti region. Pop. (1956) 47,101. Lying between the Carpathian mountains and the fertile lowlands of southeastern Rumania, it is important as a railroad junction and as a market for petroleum, timber and grain. Industries include woodworking, textile, alcohol and building materials manufactures and wineries. 1854 until his death.

that

it

months

BUZZARD— BYDGOSZCZ Archaeological excavations in the vicinity revealed vestiges of Thracian and Gothic settlements. The first historic mention of the town is a reference to the Buzau fair in a document of 1431. In the town are the ruins of the cathedral, built in the 15th century

and rt-novaled by the Walachian ruler Matei Basarab in 1640. the name applied in England to large hawklike birds of the genus Biiteo and in North America to various new world vultures (family Cathartidae), especially the turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) (see Vulture). In North America Buteo species are called buteos, "buzzard hawks'' or simply hawks.

BUZZARD,

True buzzards, or buteos, occupy a subfamily (Buteoninae) of

When

the family Accipitridae.

can usually be

in flight they

dis-

from other birds of prey by their broad wings and expansive, rounded tails. When tinguished

hunting

they

customarily

soar

gracefully for hours but in direct flight

the wingbeats are slow and

heavy.

The plumage

of

most spe-

dark brown above and white or mottled with brown below. The tail and underside of the wings usually are cies

IfliHHQF^y

k»t-

*^^-

^^B^MiP^M

is

essentially

barred.

However, there

is

much

""l':,^- variability of pigmentation, and a melanistic colour phase com'

".

^aff monly i^w-ih-.,..,

^^

'^

*

^B^&^^-)' force capable of retrieving the situation for the Byzantines. An army

by the Hungarian king was crushed by the Turks

led

at

Varna

(1444). In April 1453 Murad II's successor, Mohammed II. began a Constantine close blockade of Constantinople by land and sea. XI, with the loyal support of the Genoese, defended the city bravely, but it was finally stormed on May 29-30. Shortly after,

Ottomans made themselves masters of the Peloponnese and of Trebizond, and by the end of the 15th century they had set up the

Constantinople, magnificently rebuilt, besame time it remained

their successor-state.

came

the capital of their empire; at the

the centre of Christian

Orthodoxy which survived under Ottoman

U.

—

elected Augusti in their infancy, practically elevated the dynastic idea into a constitutional principle; henceforward it was regarded

born to a reigning sovereign should in his infancy be elected Augustus. After the acceptance of Christianity the electors were regarded as expressing by their as in the regular course that the son

acclamation the will of God. When in the course of the 4th century the position Religion. of Christianity was assured, it followed that the profession of that religion would in future be a necessary qualification for This was formally and constitutionally election to the throne. recognized when the coronation of the emperor by the patriarch The first emperor to be of Constantinople was introduced. crowned in this way was Leo I (457-474), and from the 7th century on it was customary for this ceremony to be performed Originally the patriarch acted as the reprein Hagia Sophia. sentative of the electors, but the ceremony gradually took on The emperor, who was reincreasing ecclesiastical significance. garded as the protector of the church and the guardian of orthodoxy, had to make a profession of faith. Anastasius I is known to have made a statement recognizing his obligations to his electors, and by the 9th century there was in existence a regular coronation oath binding the new sovereign to keep the Christian

—

faith

and

traditions.

A. Imperial

—

Authority of Augustus

had

this constitution

which perfectly satisfied the ideas of its subjects. No attempt was made to alter it to introduce, for instance, a limited monarchy or a republican government; all revolts and conspiracies were aimed at the policies of particular autocrats, not at autocracy

,

j

[

)

would have been constitutionally illegal for Manuel to have made such a promise to any foreign prince; a Byzantine emperor had no right to dispose of the territory of the state. The Palaeologan custom of granting appanages to members of the imperial family were not a concession to western custom but the

bride, but

it

.

j j

j

only

way

of governing widely scattered lands in a period

when

the central authority at Constantinople was weakened and in financial straits.

—

2. Senate. While the senate of Rome generally lost its importance and at last became a mere municipal body, the new senate of Constantinople for a time preserved its position as an organ

For the imperial elections it was able sometimes

it

was constitutionally

to play a decisive part only opportunity for independent when action. The abolition, under Diocletian's system, of the senatorial provinces deprived the senate of the chief administrative function which it exercised under the principate it had no legislative powers, and it lost most of its judicial functions. It was, however, still a

the throne was vacant

prevailed to the end. There is virtually no constitutional history The in the proper sense of the term in the Byzantine empire. monarchical system remained in all its essential points unchanged, long duraand presents a remarkable example of an autocracy of

—

—

Personal Sovereignty. The sovereignty of the emperor was In this respect it always retained the personal, not territorial. character which it had inherited as the offspring of a Roman magistracy. Hence no Roman territory could be granted by the emperor to another power. For instance, the western emperor Conrad III could promise to hand over "Italy" (i.e., certain Italian lands to Manuel Comnenus as the dowry of his promised

indispensable, and

GOVERNMENT

Emperor. With Diocletian the principate become undisguisedly an absolute monarchy, and

tion

which marked their acts, along with the generally good administration of justice, was a safeguard of the monarchy. They were supreme in legislation, as well as in the administrative and judicial spheres; but they were on the whole moderate in wielding legislation as an instrument of policy. There were however recognized constitutional principles which it would have been exceedingly difficult for the emperor to override. Election. The elective principle, inherited from the republic, was never changed. A new emperor had to preserve the formality of election by the senate and acclamation by the people and army. The succession never became automatic. But even Augustus had Theodosius the indirectly introduced the dynastic principle. Great, by causing his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, to be

of the state.

domination.

1.

itself; generally they only represented sectional antagonisms and personal ambitions, though often combined with opposition to tyranny. The emperors inherited a deeply rooted instinct of legality as a tradition from old Rome; and this respect for law

—

its

;

judicial court; it'tried, for instance, political crimes.

In composition it differed from the senate of the principate. senators in the 4th century were chiefly functionaries in the public service, divided into the three ascending ranks of darissimi, The majority of the members of the spectabiles and illustres. senatorial order lived in the provinces, forming a provincial aristocracy, and did not sit in the senate. Then the two lower ranks

The

(

^

BYZANTINE EMPIRE ceased to have a right to sit in the senate, which the illustres and men of higher rank (patricians).

was confined

The

to

senatorial

must therefore be distinguished from the senate in a narrower sense. The latter did on occasion have considerable influence as a consultative assembly, and its political weight was increased by the fact that the inner council of imperial advisefs was practically a committee of the senate. Its power was greatly diminished by the 10th century, but it did play a more important part when the civil party was in power durorder

ing the

nth

century.

692 in the reign of Justinian II numerous rulings were made, from the existing laws and based on ecclesiastical docand Mosaic principles, and these were sanctioned as laws of Certain surviving legal codes may the realm by the emperor. belong to the late 7th or early 8th century, such as the "Farmer's law" (Nomas georgicos) and the "Rhodian sea law" {Nomas Rhodion nauticos). The period of the north Syrian rulers was in

differing trine

by

certainly characterized

—

People. The memory of the power which had once belonged to the populus Romanus lingered in the part which the inhabitants of New Rome, and their representatives, played in acclaiming newly elected emperors, and in such ceremonies as coronations. In the 6th century the factions ("demes") of the circus. Blues and Greens, appeared as political parties, distracted the city by their quarrels and broke out in serious riots. On one occasion they almost shook the throne (the "Nika" revolt, 532). The emperors finally quelled this element of disturbance by reorganizthe factions and assigning ing them a definite quasi-political position in the public ceremonies in the palace and the capital where they were responsible for the "acclamations." 4. Court Ceremonial. The court ceremonial of Constantinople, which forms such a marked contrast to the ostentatiously simple establishments of Augustus and the Antonines, had in its 3.

527

public opinion of Christian society and influenced by ecclesiastical canons. In the Quinisext or Trullan council held at Constantinople

legislative activity.

In 726 the Ecloga was issued in the name of Leo III and Constantine V. Written in Greek, this "Brief Selection of Laws" marks a new era and reflects the changed ideas of the community; In regard it may in fact be described as a Christian law book. to the patria potestas increased facilities were given for emancipation from paternal control when the son came to years of discre-

and the paternal was

it

by parental was considerably modified. The laws of marriage were transformed under the influence of the Christian conception of matrimony; the institution Impediments to marriage on acof concubinage was abolished. count of consanguinity and of spiritual relationship were multiplied. While Justinian had regarded marriage as a contract, and therefore, like any other contract, dissoluble at the pleasure of the parties, Leo III accepted the church view that it was an indissoluble bond. Ecclesiastical, as well as oriental, influence was written large in the criminal law, of which a prominent feature was the substitution of mutilation of various kinds for the capital penalty. Death was retained for some crimes, such as murder and high treason; other offenses were punished by amputation of, instance, for the hand or nose, and the tendency to avoid capital punishment increased. The same spirit, it may be noted, is apparent in the usual, though by no means invariable, practice of Byzantine emperors to render dethroned rivals or members of a deposed dynasty innocuous by depriving them of eyesight or forcing them to take monastic orders, instead of putting them The church, which had its own system of penalties, to death. exercised a great influence on the actual operation of criminal law, especially through the privilege of asylum (recognized by Justinian, but with many reserves and restrictions), which was granted to Christian churches and was admitted without exception

tions

in the Ecloga.

—

origin

certain

a

constitutional significance.

It

was introduced

by Aurelian and Diocletian, probably not from any personal love of display but rather to dissociate the emperor from the army, at a time when the state had been shaken to its foundations by the predominance of the military element and the dependence of the emperor on the soldiers. It was the object of Diocletian to make the emperor independent of all, with no more particular relation to the army than to any other element in the state: the royal court and the inaccessibility of the ruler were calculated to promote this object. The etiquette and ceremonies were greatly elaborated by Justinian and were carefully maintained and developed. The public functions, which included processions through the streets to various sanctuaries of the city on the great feast days of the church, supplied entertainment of which the populace never wearied; and did not escape the notice of the rulers that the splendid funcand solemn etiquette of the court were an effective means of impressing the imagination of foreign visitors with the majesty

and power of the emperor.

—

Co-emperors. The imperial dignity was collegial. There more emperors (imperatores ; Gr. basileis) at the same time; edicts were issued, public acts performed, in their joint names. During the 4th and 5th centuries, when the administration of the eastern half was generally separate from that of the western, the imperial authority was also collegial. But after this period the system of divided authority came to an end and was never renewed. There was frequently more than one emperor, not only in the case of a father and his sons, or of two brothers, but also in the case of a minority, when a regent or commander in chief might get himself elected emperor (as did Romanus I, Nicephorus II or John I Tzimisces). But one colleague always exercised the sole authority, was the real monarch, the "great" or "first" basileus ; the other or others were only junior partners. Until the Palaeologan period the title "autocrator" was 5.

could be two or

reserved for the senior emperor. B. Legislation

The

history of the legislation of the Byzantine empire

tinguished

bv

three epochs associated with the

names

is

dis-

of Justinian;

Leo III Basil I and Leo VI. 1. Justinian I. For Justinian's legislation, see Justinian I. 2. Leo III. Justinian's reign was followed by a period in which juristic studies appear to have been neglected. The 7th century, a time of internal and external crisis, is a period for which little has survived and it is not knowTi how far the law of Justinian, which had been translated into Greek, was studied or understood. Practice at least was modified by principles in accord with the ;

—

—

tion,

to a certain extent replaced

The law

control over minors.

of guardianship

—

3. Basil I and Leo VI. The last period of legislative activity under Basil I and Leo VI represents a reaction, in a certain measure, against the Ecloga. and a return to Justinian. Basil aimed at a revival of legal studies which was to be based on the law books These books were now of Justinian or their Greek versions. treated somewhat as Justinian and his lawyers had treated their own predecessors. A handbook of extracts from the Institutes, Digest and Code was issued in 879 (Procheiros nomas, "law as it is"), to fulfill something of the same function as the Institutes. Then a collection of all the laws of the empire was prepared by means of two commissions, and completed under Leo VI. It was

entitled the Basilica iq.v.).

criminal, law

)

many

In

points (in

civil,

but not in

the principles of the Ecloga were set aside in favour

of the older jurisprudence.

Thus

Justinian's ordinances on the

subject of divorce were revived, and there remained henceforward and the canon law.

a contradiction between the civil

After this there was no legislation on a grand scale; but there was a marked revival of legal study under Constantine IX, who founded a new faculty of law in the reorganized university of Constantinople, and there were many learned specialists who wrote important commentaries, such as John Xiphilinus (11th century), Theodore Balsamon (12th century), Harmenopulus The young Slav principalities in the Balkans (14th century). were influenced by Byzantine legal codes; and modern Greece,

although

in

framing

its

emperors as contained

in

C.

took the Napoleonic for

its model, law on the edicts of the the Hexabiblus of Harmenopulus.

code

it

professes theoretically to base

its

civic

Administration

Three principles underlay the administrative reform of Diocle-

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

528

tian: the separation of civil from military functions; the formation of small provincial units; and the hierarchical structure which depended on the interposition of the \dcar of a diocese and the praetorian prefect between the provincial governor and the

emperor.

This system lasted unchanged for three and a half

The few unimportant alterations that were made were harmony with its spirit, until the reign of Justinian, who introduced certain reforms that pointed in a new direction. He combined some of the small provinces into large units, undermining the hierarchical system by doing away with some of the dioceses and vicars, and placing in some cases military and civil authority These changes, some of which were soon in the same hands. centuries.

in

canceled, would hardly in themselves have led to a radical change; but they prepared the way for an administrative revolution, brought about by stress of external necessities. 1. Themes. In the 7th century all the energies of the empire, surrounded by active enemies, were centred on war and defense;

—

everything had to give way to military exigencies, and a new system was gradually introduced which led ultimately to the disappearance of the old. The change began in Italy and Africa, at the end of the 6th century, where operations against the Lombards

and the Berbers were impeded by the friction between the two co-ordinate military and civil authorities (masters of soldiers and praetorian prefects). The military governors were made supreme with the title of exarchs, and the civil authority was subordinated The change is an index of the dangerous crisis through to them. which these provinces were passing. In the east similar circumThe Muslim danger threatening stances led to similar results. Asia Minor imposed a policy of the same kind. And so by the end of the 7th century the empire had been divided into eight great military provinces or themes: exarchate of Africa; exarchate of Italy; strategia of Thrace; strategia of Hellas; county of Opsikion iobsequium), including Bithynia, Honorias, Paphlagonia, parts of Hellespontus and Phrygia; strategia of the Anatoliki, most of west and central Asia Minor; strategia of the .\rmeniaki, eastern Asia Minor; strategia of the carabisiani (Gr. carabos, "vessel"), the naval theme including the southern coastland of Asia Minor,. and the Aegean {see below. Defense). The lands of the old prefecture of Illyricum were not included in the system, because this part of the empire was then virtually outside ByzanThere military powers tine control owing to the Slav invasions. were committed to the prefect of Illyricum, whose actual sphere extended little beyond Thessalonica, which was surrounded by Slav tribes. The changes in provincial organization in Asia

Minor began under the Heraclians in the 7th century, who also extended this further dewas The system European provinces. the system to veloped by their successors. Leo III, for instance, partitioned the dangerously large Anatolikon theme, and the western part became the Thracesion theme; similarly he divided the Carabisian theme into the two themes of the Cibyrraeots and the Aegean islands. This reorganization was greatly extended during the 9th and 10th centuries. As the frontiers expanded the conquered lands were incorporated into the empire, sometimes initially as military frontier zones (clisurarchies), later to become themes or duchies. In the early 10th century there were in Asia Minor Anatolikon, Armeniakon, Thracesion, Opsikion, Bucellarion, Cappadocia, Charsianon, Colonea, Paphlagonia, Chaldia and Optimaton; in Europe Thrace, Macedonia (both ranking with the Asian themes), Peloponnese, Nicopolis, Hellas, Sicily, Strymon, Cephalonia, Thessalonica, Dyrrachium, Dalraatia, Cherson and Longobardia; and the maritime themes of the Cibyrraeots, the Aegean sea and Samos. The themes of Mesopotamia, Lycandus, Sebastea,

Leontocomis and Cyprus (made into a theme by Basil I but then lost to the Arabs until its reconquest in 965), are mentioned in either the De thematibus of Constantine VH or in the 10th-century Tacticon. Further themes had been added by the mid-Uth century, and even after the empire contracted the number of themes grew owing to a policy of subdivision. The name theme (Gr. thema, "corps") denotes the military Their governors combined military origin of these provinces. and civil powers and they generally had the title of strategos, Seleucia,

though there were exceptions, such as the Opsikion, governed by a comes, or the Optimaton,

by

a domesticiis.

The

old hierarchical

system had disappeared, including the vicars and the praetorian prefect of the east (some of whose functions were merged in the prefect of the city) and no authority interposed between the emperor and the strategoi. But as the armies of the themes declined in importance from the late 10th century on, while the army of the tagmata came to the fore, so the chief civil of&cial (the krites or praetor of the theme) emancipated himself from military control and became directly responsible to the central government at Constantinople. The central government did in fact exercise considerable control over provincial administration, particularly in financial matters, and it was always possible for provincials to appeal to the central courts for legal redress.

Central Administration.

2.

— In

the central administration

the heads of the great administrative departments retained the palatine character which belonged to most of them from the be-

But over a millennium there were many changes in these nomenclature and in the delineation of their funcThe following tendencies may be noted an increase in the

ginning.

offices, in their

tions.

:

number

of ministers directly responsible to the emperor, caused by subordinate offices in the administrative departments being raised to the rank of independent ministries and the creation of new offices, the old ones becoming merely titular; changes in nomenclature; substitution of Greek for Latin titles; changes in the relative importance and rank of the high officials, both civil

'

and military.

The tion

prefect (eparch) of the city controlled the police organiza-

and administration of justice

in the capital

;

he was president

of the imperial court of justice in the emperor's absence, and,

when

was abolished, he inherited judge of appeals from the

the office of prefect of the east

functions of that dignitary as provinces. But the praefectus vigiium, the

guards, ficer,

who was subordinate

commander of the city became an independent ofthe watch, and in the late Uth

I

I

I

I

to him,

entitled the drungar>' of

century superseded him as vicepresident of the imperial court. The eparchy of Constantinople, originally one of the most important of civil offices, described by Michael Psellus in the 11th century as the equal of the emperor except for the purple, gradually declined in power, its functions passing to others, so that by the time of the Palaeologi the name only survived as a court title. Instead of the quaestor of the sacred palace, whose duty was to draft the imperial laws and rescripts, there was in the 9th century a quaestor who possessed certain judicial and police functions and was far lower in the hierarchy of rank. It has been supposed that the later quaestor really inherited the duties of another the quaesitor, who was instituted by Justinian. The office of quaestor survived until the Latin conquest, but by the later middle ages had become only a title of rank. ofiicer,

The master of offices (magister officiorum) who supervised the departments in the palace and was master of court ceremonies, also performed many functions of a minister of foreign affairs, was head of the imperial post (ciirsiis) and of the corps of imThis ministry disappeared, perial couriers {agentes in rebus). probably in the Sth century, but the title was retained as a dignity The most important functions, at least until the end of the 9th. pertaining to foreign affairs, were henceforward performed by the logothete of the drome. In the Uth century this minister was virtually the chancellor of the empire, but after the Latin conquest his office seems to have disappeared and to be simply a title of rank. Under Andronicus II the title of the first minister was that of the .

grand logothete.

The two chief financial ministers of the early Byzantine period were the comes sacrarum largitionum and the comes reriim privatarum, though the annona, the provincial tax, was controlled by the praetorian prefect who had indeed also tended to appropriate from the res privatae and largitiones. When the praetorian prefecture lost its importance, different financial arrangements were made. From the 7th century onward there were new and independent financial departments controlled by logothetes. Other financial officials were named secretici or chartularii, and the chief financial ofificer was the sacellarius, sometimes called the grand

'

I

'

BYZANTINE EMPIRE sacellarius. cretic,

an

The head

of the imperial chancery

office usually filled

by a

was the protoase-

legal official.

of eunuchs as high ministers of state was a feature of the Byzantine empire from the end of the 4th century. was laid down as a principle (a.d. 900) that all offices were It

The emplo\Tnent

open to them, except the prefecture of the city, the quaestorship and the military posts which were held by "domestics." There were also at that time eight high posts which could only be held by eunuchs, of which the chief were the parakoimomenos (grand chamberlain) and protovestarios (master of the wardrobe). The orders of rank (which must be distinguished from titles of were considerably increased in later times. In the 4th and office 7th centuries there were the three great classes of the illiistres, spectabiles and darissimi, and above the illiistres a small, higher In the 9th century a different system is found, class of patricians. the number of classes being largely augmented, and the nomenclature different. Instead of epithets, such as illiistres, the names were titles which had designated offices; "patrician" alone survived. The highest rank was now the magistri; then the patricians in two classes, proconsular patricians and respectable patricians; below these were protospatharii, dishypati (i.e., bis consides), spatharocandidati, spatharii and other lower ranks. Whoever was promoted to one of these ranks received its insignia from the emperor's hand, and had to pay fixed fees to various court officials. 3. Justice. In the provinces ordinary justice was administered by judges who were distinct from the governors of the themes and inherited their functions from the old provincial governors of In Constantinople higher and lower courts Diocletian's system. of justice sat regularly and frequently. The higher tribunals were )

—

those of the city prefect and the quaestor, before whom different Appeals reached the emperor through the bureau of petitions; he might deal with the case immediately, or might refer it to the imperial court of the "divine judges," which was instituted by Justinian. In the 12th century there were four imperial courts of justice in Constantinople, and in 1166 rulings on appeal were laid down by Manuel I. After the Byzantine reconquest of Constantinople Michael VIII set up a single imperial court, and further changes introduced by Andronicus II in 1296 and Andronicus III in 1329 show the growing power of the church. Two of Andronicus Ill's four "chief justices of the Romans" were

kinds of cases came.

There were also the ecclesiastical courts to which certain cases involving the laity were reserved, such as marriage, or cases This close association of in which the defendant was a cleric. church and state continued to the end, and indeed the distinction between ecclesiastical and civil jurisdiction grew increasingly clerics.

blurred.

—

4. Finance. The Byzantine fiscal system, like the administrawas inherited from the late Roman empire. One main source of revenue was the land. The direct taxes levied on this were the land tax proper and the attnoiia, a tax on the products. The land tax (capitatio terrena) was based not on the yearly produce but on the capital of the proprietor, the character and

tion of justice,

In later times this value of the land being taken into account. seems to have become the cap?iicon or hearth tax, a capitation tax first

mentioned

in

measures of Nicephorus

I.

In Diocletian's

time the annona consisted of a combined poll tax and land tax, the capitio-iugatio. An important element in the Byzantine fiscal system w^as the epibole, whereby land which fell out of cultivation

was compulsorily assigned to other landowners in the district who were obliged to pay the tax due from it as an additional charge. This responsibility was transferred to the rural community by the late 7th or early Sth century, as is evident from the "Farmer's law," though

by Basil

Romanus

it

was later reimposed on the powerful landowners form of the allelengyon, but soon repealed by Whether this form of taxation, the epibole, or

II in the III.

extra tax, did survive into the later period

is

a matter of contro-

The city population was also subject to direct taxes, such as the burdensome atiri lustralis collatio, which was abolished by Anastasius I, who also made officials of the prefecture responsible

versy.

Customs and excise duties were an important source of revenue throughout the middle ages and bore heavily on city populations. for collecting city taxes in place of the inefficient curiales.

529

In the countryside there were a number of additional burdens in the shape of labour services for public works, or the provision of military transport and billets, as well as the additional financial contributions exacted by the tax collectors or district

officials.

With the development of the Byzantine civil service, fiscal administration was supervised by departments under the various logothetes, and the local taxes were collected by praetores, and sometimes farmed out. specially from the 11th century onward. Byzantine state expenditure was on a large scale and its diplomacy, defense and internal administration were only made possible by a highly complex monetary system. 5. Landed Property. The history of landed property and agrarian conditions in the eastern empire is a somewhat controversial subject. Individual hereditary proprietorship was normally the rule, whether of the large estate with its cultivators attached to the soil, or the small freeholder depicted in the "Farmer's law." Conditional grants sometimes were made, such as the small farms given in return for hereditary military service (stratiotica ktemata) which may have been part of the reorganization undertaken by the Heraclian and subsequent dynasties. They were evidently a well-established source of recruitment in the middle Byzantine period and they featured prominently in the 10th-century legislation which attempted to prevent their being bought up by the powerful landowning magnates. Such measures failed, and from the 1 1th century on military holdings, if they can be so called, were of a different nature. From Alexius I's day grants were made in pronoia, sometimes in return for military service from the recipient, the pronoiar or "soldier." as he was often called. Originally a grant for life only, this had become hereditary by Michael VIII's reign. When lands were granted, or confirmed, to monasteries or laymen, the number of tenants (paroikoi) permitted on the estate was carefully stated because of the fiscal obligations of such tenants. An estate, whether imperial or private, w'ould have not only its permitted number of paroikoi but also slaves and hired labourers; but existing evidence points to a surveillance over the paroikoi which grew stricter, particularly as both the labour problem and financial difficulties increased in the later mid-

—

dle ages.

D. Defense

The

general principle of the military defense of the empire in the 4th century consisted in large forces stationary on the frontiers, and reserve forces, stationed in the interior provinces, which

could be moved to any point that was in danger. Thus the army was composed of the limitanei, frontier troops (under duces), and reserve forces (under magistri inilititm) of two denominations, In the 6th century the fundamental palatini and comitatenses. principles of the system were the same; but the cavalry had become a much more important branch of the service, and in the

wars of Belisarius the joederati, barbarian mercenaries of various The races, commanded by their own chiefs, played a great role. peasants of lUyria and Thrace and the mountaineers of Armenia and Isauria in Asia Minor still supplied an important part of the army, but the number of barbarians (Vandals, Goths, Slavs, Arabs, etc. was much larger. Solidity and a corresponding lack of mobility characterized at this time both cavalry and infantry; their great merit was straight and rapid shooting: Belisarius )

ascribed his success in Italy to the excellence of the archery. Justinian carried out on the frontiers and in the exposed provinces a carefully devised and expensive system of defensive works.

were connected by intervening some distance behind w-as a second line of more important fortresses more strongly garrisoned which furnished both a second barrier and places of refuge for the inhabitants of the open country. There was an elaborate system of signals by Fortified towns along the limes forts,

and

at

which the garrisons of the frontier stations could announce not only the imminence of a hostile invasion but al-.i the number and character of the enemy. In north Africa there are abundant remains of the forts of the 6th and 7th centuries, displaying the military architecture of the period and the general frontier system. 1. Army. The disasters and losses of the 7th century led to a radical change in the military organization, and the division of

—

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

530 the empire into themes

The preponderant which

at

any rate

is

Themes above). Minor won and retained

(see Administration:

influence which Asia

until the 11th century

reflected in the military establishment,

until the

mid-lOth century mainly depended on

the Asian provinces. The strategos of a large theme commanded a corps of 10,000, and the scheme of the divisions and subordinate commands has a remarkable resemblance to the organization of

some of the armies of modern Europe. The recorded scheme was probably not uniform in all the themes, and varied at different periods. The thema (corps) consisted of two turmai (brigades) under turmarchai; the turma of handa (regiments), each under a drungarios (colonel); the bandon of five pentarcliiai (companies) under a cometes (captain ). pentarchia, containing 200 men. had five subdivisions under pentecontarchai; and there was a smaller unit of 10 men under five

The

the decarckes (corporal). Distinct from the military forces (themata) of the provinces were the forces (tagmata) stationed in or near the capital. The

most important of these were the scholae and the excubitores. The scholarian troops were in early times under the master of schools,

but subsequently their chief officer, the domestic of the became the highest military commander in the empire.

In war,

when

offices,

self,

the emperor did not assume the chief

he might entrust

it

to

command him-

any commander, and he often en-

trusted it to the domestic. In the 11th century, after the conquest of Bulgaria, there were two domestics, one for the east and

one for the west, and under Alexius I Comnenus the domestic of the west received the title "grand domestic." Under the Palaeologi the grand domestic was superior in rank to all other ministers. Besides the scholarians and the excubitores (who had been organized in the Sth century), there were the regiments of the hicanatoi, the arithmos and the numeroi. The numeroi were foot soldiers. The optimatoi, also infantry, properly belonged to the same category, though they were constituted as a theme. The demes or corporations of Constantinople were partly organized as militia and were available for purposes of defense. The great difference between this Byzantine army and that of the earlier empire is that its strength (like that of the feudal armies of the west) lay entirely in cavalry, which the successors of Heraclius and the north Syrian emperors developed to great perfection. The few contingents of foot were subsidiary. The army was maintained in Asia Minor, which was the great recruiting ground, by a system of military holdings of land (an extension of the old Roman system of assigning laijds in the frontier districts to federate barbarians and to veterans). The conditions of the marauding expeditions and guerrilla warfare, continuously carried on against and by the Arabs in the Sth, 9th and 10th centuries, were carefully studied by generals and tacticians, and the theory of the Byzantine methods is set out in various military treatises including the Tactica of Leo VI based on the so-called Strategicon of Maurice. The loss of a great part of Asia Minor to the Seljuks and the disorganization of the provinces which they did not acquire seriously weakened the army, and the emperors had recourse more and more to foreign mercenaries and barbarian auxiliaries. The employment of Russians had begun in the 10th century, and in 988 the Varangian (Russian) guard was formed. Under Michael IV the Norwegian prince Harald III Hardraade fought for the empire in Sicily and in Bulgaria. D-uring the 11th century foreign mercenaries, including Turks, Normans and English, greatly increased in numbers and importance. The keynote of the Byzantine army was efficiency, and nowhere is the immeasurable superiority of the civilization of the eastern empire to the contemporary states of Europe more apparent. The theory of military science was always studied and taught: constant practice, interpreting and correcting theories safeguarded it against pedantry; and a class of magnificent staff officers were trained who in the 10th century were the terror of the army. The particular tactics of the various foes whom they had to face were critically studied. There are extant various military textbooks, from the time of Anastasius I to that of Basil In this army there II, which set out their principles and methods.

was plenty of courage and

distinct professional pride, but no love of fighting for fighting's sake, nor the spirit that in western Europe

developed into chivalry.

The Byzantines despised such ideas as who had physical strength and no good general, as Leo VI shows in his

characteristic of barbarians

The object of a Tactica, was not to win a great battle but to attain success without the risks and losses of a great battle. The same author criticizes the military character of the Franks; paying a tribute to brains.

their fearlessness, he points out their want of discipline, the haphazard nature of their array and order of battle, their eagerness to attack before the word was given, their want of faculty

for strategy or tactical combinations, their incapacity for operations on difficult ground, the ease with which they could be deceived by simple artifices, their carelessness in pitching camps

and

their lack of a proper intelligence department. These criticisms illustrate the contrast between a western host, with its three great "battles," rushing headlong at the foe, and the Byzantine army, with its large number of small units, co-operating in perfect harmony, under a commander who had been trained in military science, had a definite plan in his head, and could rely on all his subordinates for strict and intelligent obedience.

—

2. Navy. Under the early empire, as Rome had no rival in the Mediterranean, it was natural that the navj' and naval theory should be neglected. When Constantine the Great decided to besiege Byzantium by sea, both he and his opponent Licinius had

Even when the Vandals in Africa made transmarine conquests and became a naval power, the Romans did not seriously concern themselves with building an efficient navy. The Vandals harried their coasts; their expeditions against Africa failed. And even when the Vandal power was in to create fleets for the struggle.

decline and Belisarius set forth on his successful expedition of conquest, his fears for the safety of his squadron in case he its

should be attacked at sea suggest that the Vandal fleet was superior to his. The conquest of Africa secured for Justinian I the undisputed command of the Mediterranean, but he did nothing for the naval establishment.

conquer

It

was not

until the Arabs, aspiring to

the Mediterranean coastlands,

became a naval power an efficient fleet. This was begun by the Heraclians. The naval forces, designated as the carabisiani, were placed under the command of an admiral, with title of strategos. They consisted of two geographical divisions, each under a drungarios: the province of the Cibyrraeots (probably named from the smaller Cibyra in Pamphylia) which included the southern coast districts of Asia Minor, and the Aegean province, which consisted of the islands and part of the west coast of Asia Minor. It was a new principle to impose the burden of naval defense on the coast and island districts. Distinct from these fleets, and probably organized on a different principle, was the naval contingent stationed at Constantinople. Leo III changed the naval administration, abolishing the supreme command, and making the Cibyrraeot and Aegean provinces separate independent The themes' under a strategos and a drungarios respectively. charge was due to two motives. There was a danger lest a commander of the whole navy should become overpowerful (indicated by the political role played by the navy before Leo's all

that the empire

was forced

to organize

accession).

In this and the following reigns, the tendency was to neglect the interest of the government was concentrated on the For a time this policy was prosecuted with impunity, since the Omayyad dynasty was growing weak, and then under the Abbasids, who transferred the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the fleet

;

army.

But the neglect of the the seapower of the caliphate declined. fleet was avenged in the 9th century, when Crete and Sicily were wrested from the empire, the loss of south Italy was imminent, and Muslim squadrons sailed in the Adriatic losses and dangers which led to a reorganization of the nav>' under Michael III and Basil I. After this reform the navy consisted of two main contingents: the imperial fleet stationed at Constantinople, and the provincial fleets, three in number, of the Cibyrraeot theme, the

—

Aegean theme and the theme of Samos. Naval service was also exacted from the European coastal themes, as the Peloponnese and Cephalonia. When the fleets acted together, the drungarios

.

'

BYZANTINE EMPIRE supreme command. The warships (Gr. dromones) were mainly biremes, but there were also ships with single banks of oars built for speed called galleys (Gr. Pyrotechnic was an important department in the naval gahiuii). establishment; the manufacture of the terrible explosive known as liquid or sea fire {see Greek Fire) was carefully guarded as a state secret. The navy, active and efficient in the 10th century, is described by Cecaumenus, a military and perhaps therefore unof the imperial fleet usually took

prejudiced officer of the 11th century, as the glory of the empire. By the late 11th century Byzantine naval resources had however declined. Alexius I united the imperial and provincial fleets under the command of a grand admiral (megas dux), but neither his efforts nor those of his successors could create a force capable of holding its own with the Italian maritime cities. On the contrary it was only with \'enetian naval help that Byzantium repulsed Norman attacks and for this Venice exacted extensive commercial privileges which injured Byzantine trade and excited the jealousy In the Palaeologan of other Italian cities, particularly Genoa. period, though emperors, such as Michael VIII, appreciated the

importance of naval power, they lacked resources with which to implement such a program and were virtually pawns in the hands of the maritime rivals Venice and Genoa. E.

In foreign policy diplomacy was a weapon as important in the

by skilful management of frontier peoples. In the Byzantine empire this kind of diplomacy was practised as a fine One people was kept art and had certain underlying principles. in check by means of another, and the imperial government fodefenses, but

mented rivalry and hatred among them. Thus Justinian I kept the Gepidae in check by the Lombards, the Kutriguri by the Utiguri, and the Huns by the Avars. Subsidies were given to the peoples on the frontiers, in return for which they undertook to defend the frontier adjacent to them and to supply fighting men when called upon to do so. The chiefs received honours and Thus the Berber chiefs on the African border redecorations. ceived a staff of silver encrusted with gold, white cloak, embroidered tunic, etc. More important potentates were invested with a costlier dress. In these investitures precedence was carethe empire, official

and

The in

chiefs thus received a definite position in

some cases they were admitted

to posts in the

hierarchy, such as that of patrician or master of the soldiers.

They were extremely fond

of such honours and considered themhalf-Roman. Another mode of winning influence was to marry barbarian princes to Byzantine wives and to bring up their sons in the more civilized environment of the capital. Dissatisfied pretenders and defeated canchdates for kingship were welcomed at Constantinople. Thus there were generally some princes, thoroughly under Byzantine influence, who at a favourable opportunity could be imposed on their compatriots. Methods of this kind had long been employed by the Roman government. Then with the imperial adoption of Christianity and the close connection between church and state, the mission field offered endless opportunities for the extension of Byzantine influence. Newly converted countries were brought into touch with the civilization and court of the empire, and this was maintained both by personal contacts in princely circles and through the ecclesiastical hierarchy, particularly the bishop, who would normally be appointed by the patriarch of Constantinople. Diplomacy of this kind was fostered not only by the central government but by local officials, who thus exercised considerable influence over neighbouring peoples or states (e.g., the catepan of Italy or the strategos of Kherson). One particularly important state in the early middle ages was that of the Khazars, between the Caucasus and the Don, with which the empire had long maintained relations. Heraclius, to win its co-operation against Persia, promised his daughter in marriage to the khan, and later two Khazar princesses became Byzantine empresses, the wives of Justinian II and Constantine V. Their state steered skilfully between the contending influences of Islam selves

survived until the Mongol conquest). In the 10th century it can be observed how the government conducted its foreign policy on carefully thought-out principles. The empire was then exposed to constant danger from Bulgaria, as well

from the Russians. The key to the diplomatic system, designed to meet these dangers, was the cultivation of friendly relations with the Pechenegs, who at that period did not menace the provinces by land or by sea and could be incited to act against Russians or Bulgarians. The system is explained by the emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De administrando

as to attacks

Diplomacy

eyes of the Byzantine government as soldiers or fortifications. Peace on the frontiers was maintained not only by strong military

fully observed.

531

and Christianity, and their rulers avoided suspicion of partiality for either creed by embracing the religion of the Jews (c. 800). Commercial and political relations with the Khazars were maintained through the important outpost of the empire at Kherson in the Crimea, which had been allowed to retain its republican constitution under a president and a municipal board, though this freedom was limited by the appointment of a strategos in 833, a moment when the Khazars were seriously threatened by the Pechenegs (Patzinaks). The danger to be feared from the Khazars was an attack upon Kherson, and it seems probable that this was a leading consideration with Leo III when he married his son Constantine V to a Khazar princess. In the 9th century it was an object of the government to maintain the Khazars (whose army consisted mainly of mercenaries) against the Pechenegs; and hence, if it should become necessary to hold the Khazars in check, the principle was to incite against them not the Pechenegs but other less powerful neighbours, the Alans of the Caucasus and the people of "Black Bulgaria'' on the middle Volga (a state which

imperio.

The

policy had

dangers, and

was severely

by one Concessions encouraged greater demands; the riches of the empire were revealed. It was a system which could not be permanently successful without military power behind it, and was not infallible, but in principle it was well-founded and proved of immeasurable value, particularly during the periods when the empire enjoyed great its

criticized

of Justinian's contemporaries, the historian Procopius.

prestige.

For this systematic diplomacy it was necessary to collect information about the peoples whom it concerned. Ambassadors reported everything of interest they could discover, and sometimes information was provided by missionaries. Priscus left a famous graphic account of the embassy which he accompanied to the court of .^ttila. and there exists an account of an embassy sent to the Turks in central Asia in the second half of the 6th century, derived from an official report. Peter the Patrician, in Justinian I's reign, drew up careful reports of his embassies to the Persian court. When foreign envoys came to Constantinople, information was elicited from them as to the history and domestic politics of their own countries. Some of the accounts of the history and customs of neighbouring peoples in the De administrando imperio, furnishing numerous facts not to be found anywhere else, were derived from ambassadors who visited Constantinople. Diplomatic relations with the west were also important, and frequent embassies went to the rulers who established themselves in what had once been the western half of the Roman empire as well as to the Persian and then the Islamic courts. With the crusades and the influx of Latins and Turks into east Mediterranean politics the Byzantine foreign office and Byzantine gold had full scope for the diplomacy which had been exercised to such good effect in the early middle ages. Byzantine diplomacy, like the civil administration and military organization, showed considerable flexibility and proved capable of being adapted to the changing needs of more than ten centuries. III.

THE CHURCH

—

Position of the Emperor. When Constantine the Great recognized Christianity and indeed accepted it as his own religion he inaugurated a new era in the history of the Roman empire. At first tolerated, then by the end of the 4th century the only permitted religion (though the proscribed paganism lingered on), the Christian church henceforth took its place in public as weU as private life. Its rapid integration with the polity and the importance 1.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

532

accorded it were symbolized by the special position of the Christian emperor. He was regarded as the vicegerent of God on earth, and as such he had the special duty of protecting the church

first.

and of furthering its aims. He had the right of summoning general church councils and of presiding over them; his was the deciding voice in the appointment of the patriarch; he could in-

the emperor. It was in the general councils of the 4th to the 7th centuries that trinitarian and christological doctrine was defined (see Council). In the 8th and 9th centuries the doctrinal prob-

augurate changes

lem was primarily the iconoclast heresy settled at the second Council of Nicaea (787) and at a council held in Constantinople

in the organization of sees or in episcopal status; and, particularly in the earlier middle ages, he tried to impose his will in doctrinal matters. It is especially this last which has given rise to

the charge of caesaropapism.

But

hardly that "the

in fact this is

Even

Justinian I himself clearly laid down God," the sacerdothim and the imperiiim, were two quite distinct spheres. The emperor, permitted as he was to enter justified.

two

gifts of

the sanctuary and to

communicate as

priests

and deacons

did,

never performed the priestly functions. When he tried, often for political ends, to impose his views in matters of faith against the will of the church, he was never permanently successful. Normally the emperor was the protector of the church and the guardian of orthodoxy, and the relation between church and state was one of close interdependence. 2. Ecclesiastical Divisions. In the 4th century there were some Christian communities outside the Roman empire, but the greater part of Christendom lay within imperial bounds and ecclesiastical organization and ecclesiastical conferences were modeled on imperial administration and procedure. Dioceses were under bishops, provinces under metropolitans. Over them were the regional archmetropolitans, or patriarchs as they were called by the 6th century. These were originally the bishops of the three cities specially venerated for their Christian associations, Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, although also great metropolitan centres in the secular sense. During the 4th century Constanti-

—

nople, as

New Rome

and the imperial capital of the eastern

half,

rose to prominence, and although not without bitter opposition,

was accorded second place after Rome (3S1). This was confirmed 28th canon of the ecumenical Council of Chalce-

in the so-called

don (451).

In the 5th century, the bishop of Jerusalem's claim was also recognized. After the Arab conquest of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, the patriarchs of Alexandria, Jerusalem and Antioch naturally played a less important to the title of patriarch

role in Christian affairs

and the lead was taken by

Rome

and

Constantinople.

circumstances also led to different developments in the eastern and western halves of the Roman empire, and this Political

was

between the two patriarchLeo Ill's transference of south Italy and Sicily, the w-estern Balkans and Greece from Roman jurisdiction to the patriarchate of Constantinople, and rivalry in the missionary field, particularly among the Slavs, as well as differences of discipline, ritual and doctrinal emphasis, all helped to foster a situation which from the 11 th century onward was acerbated by Latin political and economic ambitions. The year 1054, when the patriarch Michael Cerularius and his followers were excommunicated by the papal legate Cardinal Humbert, is often taken as marking the beginning of the existing schism between Rome and Constantinople. It was in fact not an excommunication of the Orthodox church as such, and the door was left open for reconciliation. But the Greeks were bitterly antagonized by such events as the Latin capture of Constantinople Henceforth people and church stood together, and imin 1204. perial pleas for reunion, such as were attempted at the Council of Lyons (1274) or the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1439), were scorned by the Byzantines. As their political power dwindled, so their national feeling grew, and one of the most fervent manifestations of this was their refusal to accept any reunion with reflected in ecclesiastical relations

ates.

Rome. 3. Doctrinal

Issues.

the acknowledged

—A

method

general council was by long custom

of dealing with ecclesiastical problems

The

was

by Constantine the and demonstrated the strength of the links between church and state. The emperor summoned the general council and either he or his representative took the chair. Procedure was modeled on that of the senate, and

of doctrine and discipline.

Great at Nicaea (325), and

first

called

this set the pattern

emperor could intervene in debates if he wished. As the senior patriarch, the pope (or his legates) had the right of voting The decisions or canons of the council were confirmed by the

in 843.

After the rift with Rome in the 11th century, the Byzantine church still had its theological problems which were usually dealt with by the patriarch of Constantinople's standing synod, reinforced by metropolitans and autocephalous archbishops, including the eastern patriarchs. There were occasional cases of heretical error arising among educated scholars and churchmen, but the only instance of widespread heresy was Bogomilism, a form of the dualism which troubled Latin as well as eastern Christendom. The Bogomils iq.v.}. who grew to strength in the Slav Balkans,

spread into the Byzantine empire in the Uth and 12 th centuries, and the heresy was never completely eradicated, especially in Bosnia. Byzantine theological discussions of the later middle ages (apart from the question of reunion) tended to centre in hesychasm, which had a long ancestry in Christian Greek spirituality (see Hesych.asm). This problem was debated in councils in the mid-14th century, and though it was in essence a matter for the church it had widespread political repercussions because of the secular affiliations of its supporters and opponents in an age of civil war. It also brought out the differing theological emphasis of the Greek and Latin churches. Generally speaking, the Byzantine people were bitterly antagonistic to the Latin church and to Latin thought, as their attitude to reunion shows, but there were notable exceptions. Some Greek scholars and churchmen availed themselves of the opportunity to read western writers, such as Thomas Aquinas, some of whose works were translated into Greek, and though most preferred Turkish domination to reunion a small minority traveled westward and entered the Roman church. Under Ottoman domination after 1453, the Byzantine church long remained the one bulwark of the Christian population. 4. Patriarch.— The head of the Byzantine church was the patriarch of Constantinople, who through force of circumstances was the dominating figure of eastern orthodoxy. He also exercised authority over the churches of the Slavs in the Balkans and in Russia. As head of the Byzantine church he had the right of crowning the emperor; as chief ecclesiastic he was widely influential. He could excommunicate the emperor, as happened when Leo \T was excommunicated because of his fourth marriage, or refuse coronation, as when John I Tzimisces was forced to agree During a mito patriarchal conditions before he was crowned. nority the patriarch might act as one of the regents, as Nicholas Mysticus did in the early years of Constantine VII's reign. But normally his role in purely political matters was a subordinate one, though emperors obviously preferred a patriarch who would be likely to support their policy and took steps to ensure this. The patriarch was chosen by the emperor from three names submitted to him by the synod, and he could if he wished put forward a different name; if a patriarch once appointed proved intractable or unacceptable there were ways of contriving his resignation.

patriarch was responsible for maintaining orthodoxy and and in both respects he normally had an ally in the emperor, who shared in conciliar activity and could supply the

The

discipline,

The backing sometimes necessary to implement the canons. emperors, particularly before the 10th century, issued their own edicts on points of doctrine, as for instance the Ecthesis of Heraclius on monotheletism (see Monothelites), but such imperial intervention in matters of faith did not permanently alter orthodoxy as interpreted by the tradition of the church. Ecclesiastical administration was also the subject of innumerable imperial rulings, particularly insofar as concerned property, for the church was one of the most important landowners in the empire. 5. Other Clergy. Subordinate to the patriarch was the hierarchy of metropolitans and bishops presiding over provinces and

—

BYZANTINE EMPIRE Autocephalous bishops were not subject to metropolitans and had no bishops under them. Metropolitans were at first chosen by the patriarch from three names put forward by the provincial bishops, then from the 10th century on by the standing synod of Constantinople. Bishops were chosen by the metropolitans from three names put forward by the provincial synod. The metropolitan presided over the provincial synod, which legislated on matters concerning the whole province and acted as a court of dioceses.

appeal against episcopal sentences.

Bishops-elect, if married, had from their wives and normally assumed the monastic habit they were in fact usually chosen from the monastic ranks. They were responsible in their dioceses for pastoral work and administration of church property as well as for the clergy and monks. In legal matters certain cases were reserved to their courts, and they could act whenever a cleric was involved. Bishops were assisted by their diocesan clergy and had their own curias. Cathedral churches were served by special dignitaries; Hagia Sophia in Constantinople originally had five, then nine, to separate ;

The clergy, except for bishops, could they had married before being ordained subSecond marriage was disapproved of and precluded the

great patriarchal officials. retain their wives

deacon.

if

possibility of ordination.

Pastoral work originally centred in the cathedral church in the town, but as Christianity spread other churches were founded in towns and in the countryside. Some (catholicai ecclesiai) were parish churches directly under the bishop who nominated their clergy; others (eukterioi oikoi) were chapels on private estates or even built by villagers. The founders of such chapels appointed

had to get the bishop's consent for this as well as for performance of certain sacraments. There were also the many monasteries which did in fact also minister to the faithful laity, though this was not their primary function. 6. Finance. The revenues of the church were derived largely from the gifts of the faithful which from the time of Justinian I the priest but the

chapels in the

—

were regarded as the property of the particular institution or church. They were administered by the priests responsible for the services under the foundation deed or by a steward (oiconomus) appointed by the bishop. Landed property often was granted out on lease in return for a yearly payment. It was regarded as inalienable, although imperial practice, particularly in the later middle ages, made inroads into ecclesiastical property. A canonicon or ecclesiastical tax from the laity and priests of both parish "catholic" churches and private chapels was assigned to the bishop and from the 11th century was made compulsory. Monasteries also paid this canonicon. Bishops normally would

The

be responsible for the stipends of their cathedral clergy. parish churches were provided

for

by the bishops and

in

the

middle ages from property reserved for this purpose. Foundof private chapels made their own arrangements for the main-

later ers

tenance of their

own

clergy.

Many

priests also

worked

their

land and lived as paroikoi on estates. Priests also received the voluntary offerings of their parishioners, given for instance when

some sacrament was performed. 7. Monasticism. Side by side with the secular clergy were the monks, cenobitic and eremitic, and theirs was one of the greatest single influences in Byzantium, for it was in the contemplative

—

Hfe that Byzantines considered the perfect Christian

life

to be

most nearly realized (see Monasticism). 8. Laity. Within this ecclesiastical framework Byzantine men and women, lay and monastic, were instructed in the Scriptures and the traditions of the church, whether by the sermon of bishop or abbot (of which splendid examples have survived) or by the

—

simple teaching of the parish priest.

Above

all

they drew their

strength from the sacraments, in which everyone shared alike and

which were performed in a liturgical setting as impressive in the simplicity of the small country chapel as in the majestic ceremonial of Hagia Sophia in Constantinpole. See also Orthodox Eastern Church. IV.

BYZANTINE SOCIETY

Byzantium was both a cosmopolitan and an aristocratic society. Its many different races found some kind of unity within the

533

framework of a Christian empire in the main deriving its administrative and cultural traditions from the Greco-Roman world, though not uninfluenced by oriental civilizations. The geographiConstantinople, enabled it to command routes by land and sea between Asia Minor, the Balkans and

cal situation of its capital,

western Europe, or leading to Russia, central Asia and beyond. It was the metropolis of Mediterranean economy certainly up to the end of the 12th century, and its gold coin, the nomisma, was the medium of international exchange until it was supplanted by the Italian cities, notably Venice and Genoa in the period after 1204. Constantinople drew considerable revenue from customs dues and from its own export trade, particularly of its highly prized materials and its works of art, such as ivories. Both industry and trade were under strict state control. In the countryside there were always large estates owned by important families (as the Ducas or the Phocas) and worked by serfs and slaves and other agricultural labourers, as well as tenant farmers. There were also villages recognized as taxable units, with a free peasantry working their own small farms, but this was a precarious life, subject to the depredations of the tax collector and the ravages of nature, and often had to be abandoned for the position of tenant on a large estate with obligations to a landlord in return for his protection. Conditions changed over the long history of Byzantium, but the landed magnate was always a powerful factor in provincial economic life as in the government of the state.

In the capital the civil service formed an essential element of the polity, though the interests of its higher members often clashed

with those of the nobility. In this trained bureaucracy a young without birth or family backing could rise to the influential upper ranks as an administrator or a court official. Byzantine society, certainly the middle and upper reaches, was well educated and aware of its continuity with its Greek past. The wealthier

man

families had tutors for their children

and there were some schools

Teachers were available in the big cities, and Constantinople, to which the ambitious naturally gravitated, had in the provinces.

own university, founded as early as 425, providing higher instruction in a secular curriculum in which law and philosophy took its

The church also had its schools, but the state had depend on these for the provision of educated civil servwas equally assiduously promoted in imperial circles, and in the rare exceptions when this was not so (as in the case of Basil II) the fact was noted with disapproval. This interest grew rather than diminished as Byzantine political fortunes waned; the exiled Nicaean emperors were at pains to build up their libraries in Asia Minor, and, amid the stresses of civil wars and foreign dangers in the 14th century, protagonists such as John VI and Nicephoras Gregoras supported their respective points of view in lively and lengthy literary works. Byzantium left an extensive and varied literature. Most of it is in a language somewhat artificially modeled on Attic Greek; much, especially letters and speeches, is in a highly rhetorical pride of place.

no need

ants.

to

Intellectual activity

In some literary fields the Byzantines excelled. Their contemporary histories and memoirs, their writings on Christian spirituality, their lives, whether of saints or of secular figures, are often outstanding. Secular poetry was usually written in classical metre; the Byzantines did not excel in this field, though there are exceptions, such as the short poems in the Greek Anthology. Some of the finest Byzantine poetry was either liturgical or concerned with Christian spirituality and this was not in classical metre. (See Greek Literature: Byzantine Literature.) Inseparably allied to liturgical poetry was church music, where Byzantine achievements, only deciphered in the 20th century, can hold their own with comparable medieval western masterpieces {see Byzantine Music). Throughout the middle ages Byzantium influenced and conferred benefits upon its neighbours in varying degrees, and in certain respects that influence and indebtedness still continue. For much of the middle ages Greek was not understood in Latin Europe, but Latin translations of a number of Greek works were made, whether of ancient Greek or of Hellenistic authors, or of later Christian writers such as the desert fathers or Pseudostyle.

BYZANTINE LITERATURE— BYZANTINE MUSIC

534

Dionysius. From the 12th century onward this work of translation was greatly accelerated, spreading via Hungary, Italy and Sicily, Spain and the Arabs; more westerners themselves gradually learned to read the Greek originals which by the early modern period were being eagerly studied in western Europe. An obvious debt was owed in respect of the masterpieces of ancient Greece, where texts could hardly have been continually copied and read without the interest of an educated Byzantine public. Another source of influence was art and architecture, both through the smaller objects such as ivory reliquaries, fine textiles and illustrated manuscripts which traveled as gifts to princely courts and as merchandise, and through the craftsmen trained in Byzantine ateliers who went to work in south Italy or Sicily or the Balkans (see Byzantine Art; Byzantine Architecture). The Byzantine state itself with its imperial and administrative traditions impressed contemporaries, not only the travelers from all parts who were continually passing through the capital, but particularly those Slavs who in the course of the middle ages learned how to build up their kingdoms in the Balkans and further afield in Russia. They profited by contact with the living imperial regime, from translations of its legal codes (also widely influential in Latin European countries), from marriage alliances which brought Greeks into their family and court circles, and above all from the church. Greek missionaries and then Greek

music. It is written on a strip of papyrus in the letter notation ascribed to Alypius. Structure of the Melody. The 20th-century deciphering of the notation and transcription of the chants led to the discovery of the principle of Byzantine musical composition. It is now seen

ecclesiastics spread the

Byzantine conception of a Christian polity between church and state. The Byzantine empire in the middle ages performed a further duty. It acted as a bulwark against the Muslim upsurge which threatened Greco-Roman civilization. When Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans, the western European kingdoms were strong enough to resist the advance of Islam in a way which might not have been possible earlier. And although the Balkan kingdoms and the Greek lands of the empire were for several centuries under Ottoman control, both Slav and Hellenic national consciousness was strong enough to survive together with the Orthodox Church. See also references under "Byzantine Empire" in the Index volume.

correspondents.

with

Development of Notation. Like western musical notation Byzantine notation is a system of neumes based in the main on the prosodic signs of the Greek grammarians. Its first phase is the "ekphonetic notation," designed to indicate the correct cantillation (chanting) of the lessons without giving any pitch; it occurs, fully developed, in 8th-century manuscripts and has remained unchanged. The earliest musical manuscripts date from the 9th century. In these the notation is primarily intended to guide the singers in performing correctly chants they have memorized. The signs indicated the rise and fall of the melody but not the exact intervals. They fixed the rhythmic nuances, and showed which signs ought to be accentuated, which prolonged and which shortened. When, in the 11th century, many of the old hymns were replaced by new ones it became necessary to give clearer indications. Some signs were added and others interpreted in a different way in order to mark the intervals. The third stage, beginning about 1200, was the adaptation of the approximate interval values into exact ones. Finally, at the beginning of the 14th century, supplementary signs were added in red ink to indicate the correction execution of groups of notes. Thus the system of Byzantine neumes was from the earliest times more precise than that of the Gregorian chant in indicating the rhythmic nuances of the melodies and, in its later stages, as precise as western staff notation in giving the

its

close relationship

—

Bibliography. G. Ostrogorski, History of the Byzantine State A. A. Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 2nd ed. (1956) Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i-ii (1911-13) and vol. iv (1952) H. Baynes, The Byzantine Empire (1926); S. Runciman, N. (1923); Byzantine Civilisation (1933) J. M. Hussey, The Byzantine World (1957) C. Diehl, Byzantium: Greatness and Decline, with introduction by P. Charanis (1957) Byzantium, ed. by N. H. Baynes and H. St. L. B. Moss (1948) L. Brehier, Le Monde Byzantine, 3 vol. (1947-50) Cambridge Economic History, vol. i-iii (1941-62) ; H. G. Beck, Kirche und theologische Literatur im byzantinischen Reich (1959). See also with full annual the periodicals Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1892) (1897bibliography; Byzantinoslavica (1929); &chos d'orient 1939), continued as Etudes byzantines (1943-46) and Revue des etudes Byzantion (1924- ) Vizantisky Vremennik byzantines (1949- ) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1894-

(J. B. B.;

J.M. Hy.)

Greek Literature.

used to describe the liturgical chant of the Byzantine Church down to the 16th century; it has survived in some monasteries to the present day. It has been preserved in a great number of manuscripts, mainly from is

the 10th to the 19th centuries, though a few have come down from The most interesting are the 9th and even the 8th centuries. Before the those written before the end of the 14th century.

deciphering of the notation and the transcription of the main body of Byzantine liturgical chant in the second quarter of the 20th century, Byzantine music was believed to derive from anThis misapprehension was furthered by the cient Greek music. fact that Byzantine theorists applied the speculations of

Hellenistic mathematicians to their

own

Greek and

chant, though according

c. 1200, in his description of the church of at Constantinople the teaching of singing was independent of Greek theory. In fact Byzantine chant, like western chant, derives in the main

to Nicolas Mesarites,

Holy Apostles

in practice

from that of the Syro-Palestinian

which had inherited the no way connected with example in style of Byzantine

liturgy,

practice of the Jewish synagogue, and classical

music

is

that each

melody

consists of a

are the archetypes

number

of melodic formulas.

from which the musician worked.

They

His creative and in

activity consisted in adapting the formulas to the text

composing connecting passages. The formulas were divided into eight groups, each of which represented a certain mode (Echos). This principle of melodic construction was taken over from the Syrian Church. There it was the custom to sing in cycles of eight weeks a repertory of hymns in all eight modes, each week being assigned to a single mode. This custom derived from Gnostic calendaric speculations and can be traced back to Babylonian cosmology: it caused late Neoplatonic theorists to identify the Byzantine modes with the ancient Greek echoi and to attribute to each of the scales a certain quality of mood. These theorists overlooked the fact that in Greek scales the division into tones and semitones runs downward, whereas in Byzantine scales, as in medieval modes, it runs upward. The Echos theory of the Greek philosophers cannot, therefore, be applied to the Byzantine modes. At the beginning of a melody the mode was indicated by the Greek numerals, one to four, and their plagal

—

'

;

).

BYZANTINE LITERATURE: see BYZANTINE MUSIC. The term

the

—

is

in

Greek music. The earliest the famous Oxyrhynchus hymn

to the Trinity (late 3rd

century) that used to be considered as the last document of Greek

size of the intervals.

The system, however, was a complex one. When, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the art of Byzantine chanting gradually decayed, the signs were no longer understood, and the neo-Hellenic notation introduced by Chrysanthus of Madytus in his Theoretikon mega (1832) is an artificially simplified version for the modem printed hymnbooks. Literal transcriptions can be made only from manuscripts written after 1200, because in these the exact pitch

is

clearly indicated.

obvious from the similarity between the later, more elaborate and the earlier, simpler notation that the shape of the syllabic melodies remained practically unaltered from the 10th to the ISth centuries whereas from the 13th century on the melismatic chants increased their coloraturas so abundantly that the words became incomprehensible and the original shape of the melodies could hardly be recognized. Types of Hymn. The earliest form of Byzantine hymn was

Yet

it

is

|

—

the troparion, a short stanza inserted after each of the last six, or three, verses of a psalm. Composition of troparia independent of a psalm originated in the time of the emperor Leo I (457-474).

Anthimus and Timocles are mentioned as the first h\Tnn writers, soon to be followed by a great number of poet-musicians who were the authors of innumerable troparia. In the 6th century Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem (634-638), wrote two cycles, i

BYZANTIUM one for Christmas, the other for

Good

Friday, each consisting of

12 troparia.

same century a composite form appeared, the kontakion, which in its content, poetical form and dramatic character derived from the three main forms of Syriac poetry, memra, madrasha and sogitha. The greatest master of the kontakion was Romanes, a Syrian by birth who was inspired by In the

a poetical homily,

Romanes the spirit of Syriac poetry but who wrote in Greek. went to Constantinople during the reign of Anastasius I (491-518) and composed several hundred kontakia. Romanes is possibly the poet-composer of the most famous hymn of the Greek Church, the Akathistes hymn for the feast of the Annunciation. The patriarch Germanus, celebrating the victory over the Arabs, who besieged Constantinople in 718, wrote a new proemium (introductory stanza) to the Akathistes, which from then on was also regarded as a hymn of victory. The kontakia are collected in the kontakarion. None of the surviving kontakaria is earlier than the late 13th century, and the melodies they contain are of a richly melismatic type. It is doubtful if they are the original melodies; for the words of the hymns, mostly by Romanes, are so important and of such sublime quality that they were certainly originally chanted in a simple way, as were the lessens. It is possible that there is a historical reason fer the increase in ornamentation. When, after the TruUan council (691-692), preaching became an obligatory part of the service, the kontakion, the sung homily, became superfluous and fell out of use. This is why the later kontakaria contain only the proemium and first stanza, net the whole kontakion. The Akathistes, however, has an exceptional position; all its 25 stanzas are still sung in the office of the feast of the Annunciation, Toward the end of the 7th century a new form, the kanen, came into being. Though poetically inferior to the kontakion it was in its form and content such a perfect expression of Byzantine piety that kanon-singing holds an important place in the liturgy down

The first kanon writers. Andrew of John of Damascus and Cosmas of Jerusalem, came from

to the present day.

Crete,

the monasteries at Jerusalem; a second group,

and 9th centuries, belonged

however, writing

monastery in Constantinople during the worst days of iconoclasm. There was also the nun Kasia (b. c. 810), a gifted poetess, famous for her menostrophic poems. In the 11th century, St. Nilus founded the monastery of Grettaferrata near Rome, and south Italian and in

the 8th

to the Studios

kanon-writing flourished fer another century. heyday of the Byzantine empire the office was so rich hymns that a great orientalist speaks of the "ivy of poetry"

Sicilian

In the in

;'that

overgrew the

Now

liturgy.

that so great a part of Byzantine chant has been tran-

I

it has become clear that it is in no way inferior to western and that it is no less impressive than Byzantine visual art. Secular Byzantine Music. Music also played a great part in Wherever he went he was the ceremonial life of the emperor. .greeted by the "acclamations" of the two factions, the Blues and the Greens. Acclamations were chanted when he appeared at the hippodrome and when he and the patriarch went to church. Portable organs were carried in precessions; they were played during meals and in the hippodrome; but they were never taken into

scribed

1

chant,

—

I

I

i

See Music in Ancient Civilizations. Bibliography. Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae, ed. by C. Hoeg, H. J. W. Tillvard and E. Wellesz: I. Facsimiles, 4 vol. (1935-1956); 11. Transcriptions, 10 vol. (1936III. Subsidia, 3 vol. (1935-53) ) including H. J. W. Tillyard, Handbook of The Middle Byzantine Musi\cal Notation (1935) and C. H0eg, La Notation ekphonetiqne (1935). iSee also P. L. Tardo, L'Antica melurgia bizantina (1938), and L'Otloeco (1955); J. B. Thibaut, Monuments de la notation ekphonetique et 'hagiopolite de I'eglise grecque (1913); E. Wellesz, A History of By-

;the church.

—

;

zantine

Music and Hymnography, 2nd

ed. (1961).

(E. J. Wz.)

535

BYZANTIUM

(mod. Istanbul, in European Turkey), an ancient Greek city on the shore of the Bosporus, occupying the most easterly of the seven hills of the modern city, was founded by Megarians about 657 B.C. It owed its continuing importance to its command of the grain trade from the Black sea and of one of the shortest passages from Europe to Asia. When the Persians advanced into Europe in 514 Byzantium came under Persian control, but remained restive and was liberated by the Greeks under the Spartan king Pausanias in 478. When Pausanias was officially discredited he occupied Byzantium, but was seen expelled by the Athenians (477). Byzantium then became a tribute-paying

member

of the Delian league. It joined Samos in revolt in 440, but was reduced without serious fighting. It revolted again in

412 after the Athenian defeat at Syracuse but was recovered by Lysander captured the town in 405 and inAlcibiades in 408. stalled a Spartan governor, but in 389 Thrasybulus expelled the pro-Spartan party and restored democracy and the Athenian alliance.

Byzantium joined the Athenian confederacy of 377, but revolted in 357 when Mauselus, ruler of Caria, stirred up the islands against Athens. When, however, Philip II of Macedonia advanced against it in 340 an appeal was made to Athens. The Athenians under Chares effected

little against the Macedonians, but in the following year gained a decisive victory under Phocien and com-

The divine intervention of Hecate on this occasion was commemorated by the symbol of crescent and star stamped on Byzantine coins of this period (the device later adopted by the Turks). During the reign of Alexander the Great, Byzantium was compelled to acknowledge Macedonian supremacy; after the decay of Macedonian power it regained its independence, but suffered from the incursions of Gallic tribes. The treasury was drained to buy off the Gauls about 270 B.C. and with the further imposition by the Gauls of an annual tribute of 80 talents, the Byzantines were compelled to exact a toll on all the ships which passed through the Bosporus a measure which the Rhodians avenged by a war in 219 in which the Byzantines were defeated, and forced to restore the freedom of the straits. When Pontus and Bithynia together became a Roman province in Pompey's (Pompeius') settlement of 62 B.C., Byzantium ranked as a free city; under the early empire it was regarded as part of Bithynia but remained free until, having sought arbitration on some of its domestic disputes, it was subjected to the imperial jurisdiction and gradually stripped of its privileges. The emperor Claudius remitted the heavy tribute which had been imposed on it; but the last remnant of its independence was taken away by Vespasian. The city was besieged and taken (a.d. 196) by Septimius Severus in his campaign against Pescennius Niger; he destroyed it, demolished the famous wall and put the principal pelled Philip to raise the siege.

—

inhabitants to the sword.

Severus afterward rebuilt a large por-

town and gave it the name of Augustus Antonina. It had scarcely begun to recover its former position when, through the capricious resentment of Gallienus, it was once more sacked. tion of the

From

this disaster the survivors recovered so far as to be able to check an invasion of the Goths in the reign of Claudius II, and the were strengthened during the civil wars which followed the abdication of Diocletian. Diocletian had resolved to transfer his capital to Nicomedia; but Constantine, aware of the advantages that the situation of Byzantium presented, resolved to build a new city there on the site of the old and transfer the seat Renamed Constantinople {see of government to it (a.d. 330). Istanbul), it was the capital of the East Roman or Byzantine empire (q.v.). See also references under "Byzantium" in the Index.

fortifications

C—CABALA

536

CTHE

third

forms were

Both

alphabet.

/

,

|

gamma.

Greek

From the last derived ^. Corinth and in the Chalcidic

at

and C are found

and the shape of the

letter

has since altered

In

little.

come

entirely of white notes and hence has

simplest and most fundamental of

C

CAAGUAZU,

department

a

stretches southward

east

from the Cordillera de

Amambay

The sound represented by

In the Latin alphabet

g.

it

the capital (pop. S,298),

CAAZAPA, by

c),

and was for some time,

it

k as well as

appears, used for both the voiced

This change

in all probability

is

due to the

Etruscan alphabet from which the Latin alphabet was derived,

phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless stops ap-

for a

An

parently did not exist in the Etruscan language. inscription exists in

which the word

RECEI

C

dative form of rex "king") occurs, the letter

ployed to represent the voiced sound.

early Latin

(probably an early being

K

was used for the voiced sound, and C displaced

still

em-

new symbol

Finally a

G

as the repre-

modem

In

English the letter represents two separate sounds;

(i) the unvoiced velar stop as in the Latin alphabet; and (2) the

unvoiced

The

certain positions.

letter represents the sibilant

by any of the front vowels, "cycle") "call,"

with the sound represented by

sibilant, identical

in all

;

e, i

and y

{e.g., in

in

when followed

"receive," "cider,"

other cases (except before h) the velar

This

"come," "clear," "crumb," "epic").

j

is

(e.g.,

due to the

palatalization of the velar in early medieval times before the front

vowel, the stages of sound change bein^ letter c

k>ki>ts>ts>s.

was applied by French orthographists

to represent the

sound

in

ts

into the simpler sibilant

English,

and

in the

12th century

sound developed

this

Gradually the use of the letter

s.

The

represent the velar before front vowels (for example, in the

c to

Mid-

way to that of k, ambiguity being thus as far The c takes the place of s in words such as

dle English cyng) gave as possible avoided.

"mice," "advice," in which tical

a

.r

would represent

with the sound of z), and in words such as "practice" merely as

means

of grammatical distinction.

Before k the letter etc.).

is

(See also Alphabet.)

often redundant

The combination ch

generally has the sound of k;

C

"thick," "clock,"

(e.g., in

represents an unvoiced palatal af-

fricate (ts), as in "church," except that in it

a voiced sibilant (iden-

e.g., in

words of Greek origin

"chorus."

a savanna

is

is

Coronel Oviedo,

the centre of this agricultural area.

(G.

department of southern Paraguay,

a

Pop. (1960

sq.mi.

square mile in

est.) 91,749.

A

population density of 25 per

supported by an agricultural and pastoral economy

is

which oranges, sugar, petitgrain and leather are the principal

Mate

products.

is

gathered and timber extracted from the

serves the lowlands and a branch line runs from Borja to Abai

on the forest edge.

and

The

capital,

Caazapa, was established in 1607

reached by a road from Villarrica.

is

:

CABAL, intrigues,

Hebrew

scriptures).

\_q.v.'\,

a mystical interpretation

In England the word was jealously

used throughout the 17th century, with the alternative junto or cabinet (q.v.), to describe any secret and extralegal council of king,

The

more

invidious meaning attached to the term was stereotyped by

the coincidence that the initial letters of the ministers, Clifford, Arlington,

names of Charles

dale, spelled cabal.

CABALA

(Kabbalah, Qabb ALA;

literally "tradition") denote^

the developed forms of Jewish mysticism and theosophy from A.D.

1200 and, in a

esoteric doctrine of era.

less technical sense, the entire

and the

of Jewish mysticism

originally the non-Pentateuchal part

oral traditions of it

Judaism.

dates from about 1200.

As

a designation

From Nahmanides

(1194-1270) onward the Cabalists (mequbbalim) refer

what used

it

dentals,

to be called,

from the

the natural scale.

fact that

Thus on

contains no acci-

the pianoforte

it

consists

to them-

knowing grace," the Hebrew word for "grace" (hen) being read as an acrostic for "secret science" (hokhma nistara). Older terms are "mysteries of the Torah" (sitre tora, selves also as "those

"men

of

emuna) "those who understand" (ha-maskilim ;

cj.

Dan.

the keynote of

d

the,

Judaism from the beginning of the Christian

The term Cabala meant

of scripture

range of

same time one which has always occuit is

II's

Buckingham, Ashley and Lauder-

bet, this note being at the

pied a peculiarly distinctive position, in that

thfe

particularly the foreign committee of the privy council'.

faith" (anshe

is

the

1

also to the intrigues themselves (through the

raze tora), "masters of the mystery" (ba'ale ha-sod),

is

J. B.)

a private organization or party engaged in secret

and applied

French cabale, from the Cabala of the

(G.

see Carriage.

of the third note of the musical alpha-

C

forests.'

Paraguay's principal railway, between Asuncion and Encarnacion,

the symbol for carbon.

In music,

where

Area 3,667

lands of the Tebicuary, a tributary of the Paraguay.

name

In chemistry,

J. B.)

lies

the last forested hills of the BraziHan plateau reach the low-

CAB

sentative of the unvoiced stop.

a thinly peopled

the southwestern area

with Asuncion by an arterial road.

It is linked

by the "hard'' came to repre-

sent the unvoiced velar stop (indicated in English

and unvoiced sounds.

wood and mate;

Area 8,345 sq.mi. is

processing these products and petitgrain essence.

the letter in

as a dis-

growing tobacco, oranges and sugar, raising cattle and

district

Semitic and in Greek was the voiced velar stop, represented in English

Northern Caaguazu

est.) 95,276.

forest yielding

in the illustration to the right.

P.)

sected watershed area between the Paraguay and Parana rivers

Pop. (1960

shown

W.

Paraguay,

central

and as an extension of the Brazilian plateau.

cursive forms are

further one of

(J.

of

nuscule letter tended to become pointed;

C" Roman

is

See Musical Notation.

the clefs.

certain medieval forms of writing the mi-

^S-,

be regarded as the

to

keys.

all

the three notes (F and G being the others) which have served for centuries, in conjunction with the appropriate signs, to indicate

in the early Latin alphabet,

The rounded form survived and became

as well as in Etruscan. general,

^

and Greek

A,

,

[

which occurs

>

to

gfmel (which probably derived from an

early sign for "camel"),

the round form C

corresponds

the alphabet,

of

letter

Semitic •^

xii,

Cabala

,

10), etc. is

essentially an oral tradition in the sense that initiation

into its doctrines and practice requires a personal guide,

avoid the dangers inherent in the mystical experience.

if

only to

It is also

—

CABALA understood as a "tradition"

the sense that it claims to represent the esoteric part of the oral Torah revealed by God to Moses or the original revelation to Adam. Jewish mysticism therefore rein

gards itself as circumscribed, at least in theory, by the authority Characteristic in this respect is the role played by of tradition.

by the prophet Elijah, the archetypal figure of the guardian of tradition, in the charismatic experience of Jewish revelations

mystics.

Cabala comprises two aspects, viz., theoretical Cabala (qabbala Hyyunit) and practical Cabala (qabbala ma'asit or shimushit). The latter amounts, to all intents and purposes, to white magic, operating with the holy names of God in contrast to black magic,

which uses demonic powers (witchcraft). Black magic is strictly prohibited in Cabala, but employment even of the holy names is damnable if intended for selfish endsu Warnings against the use of the divine names for the sake of magical power are repeatedly uttered. As early as the 2nd century a.d. the Mishnah condemns it (Abot i, 13 "He that makes use of the crown shall perish" crown being a metaphor for the most holy name of God). This passage It is permitted, however, to employ is quoted by many Cabalists. the holy names for the purpose of contemplation and spiritual ascent. Abraham Abulafia's doctrine of the combination (zeruf) of letters stresses the pursuit of the inward path as distinct from magical power. But it is difficult to draw the line, and magical )

(

:

tendencies often prevail in cabalistic practice.

Hayyim

\"ital

em-

phatically points out the dangers involved in the use of magic formulas {hashba'ot), even for the sake of spiritual meditation. In certain Cabalists the borderline between white and black magic is somewhat blurred, especially in necromancy, exorcism and the writing and use of amulets. Cabala also is linked with many occult sciences, such as astrology, alchemy, physiognomy and chiromancy. Cabala represents the irruption into normative Judaism of deepseated but repressed mythical ways of thinking. Dissatisfied with the plain meaning of the traditional interpretation of Judaism, and repelled, in the 13th century,

by the excessive rationalism of the

new dimension of religious depth in the very heart of Judaism. From the 16th century onward Cabala almost displaced Jewish philosophy until the 18th-century period of Enlightenment. In the popularized form it achieved in Hasidism ISth century) it held sway over large masses of Jews in eastern Europe. philosophers, the Cabalists created a

(

Merkabah Mysticism.

—The oldest form of Jewish mysticism

arose as a kind of rabbinic gnosis within the circles of the teachers

Mishnah

of the

in the 1st

and 2nd centuries of the Christian

era.

In opposition to the radical dualism of heretical Jewish Gnosticism, it was careful to stress the unity of God. Its main conwas the mystical contemplation of the Merkabah throne God) described in Ezek. i. The statement (Tosefta Megilla, iv) "Many have preached about the Merkabah without ever having

however, cern

I

of

had a vision of

it"

indicates that the true mystics experienced

ecstatic visions of the celestial hierarchies

ascent of the visionary

and the throne.

The

is described, in Gnostic fashion, as a perilous journey through the spheres of hostile planet angels with the help of magic seals. From about a.d. 500 the visionaries of the Merkabah are termed ''descenders" to the throne (yorde merkava), indicating most probably the posture (putting the head between the knees that, along with fasting and hymnody, induced the trance. The verse (S. of Sol. vi, 11) "I went down to the nut orchard" was held allegorically to refer to the contemplation of the Merkabah. (The medieval mystic Eleazar of Worms was to elaborate the image of the nut as a symbol of the "depth" of the Merkabah.) A famous passage from the earliest phase of Merkabah mysticism uses the term "garden" (pardes) as a synonym for the contemplation of the Merkabah when speaking of the "Four w'ho entered the garden," Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph being the only one who emerged "in peace" i.e., unharmed from this experience. The Merkabah signifies in rabbinic mysticism what the pleroma or divine fullness means in Gnosticism. The texts describing the soul's descent are [Contained in the Hekhalot books (hekhalot = "palaces"; i.e., the various celestial chambers), dating from the 3rd century. The Hebrew Book of Enoch belongs to the Sth to 6th centuries. The movement arose in Palestine but spread to Babylonia, whence its )

—

I

I

537

documents found

their

way

into Italy and

Germany.

The original Gnosticism is still discernible in the figure of Mctatron. which plays a considerable part in the Hebrew Rook of Enoch and subsequent Cabala. As the highest angel he occupied a seat next to the throne of God. The Babylonian Talmud contains three references to Metatron. Heretical Jewish gnosis refers to him as the "lesser Yaho" (his original name having been Yahoel or Voel), a term that reappears in the Coptic work I'i.stis Sophia (3rd century). Another highly Gnostic and barely Judaized doctrine

"Measure of the Body" (shi'ur qoma), interbody of the beloved in S. of Sol. v as the body of the The gigantic measurements and the splendour of the

that of the

is

preting the

Creator.

description

—perhaps related

Urmensch (primordial man)

to the mythical figure of the Iranian

—

have parallels in Greek and Coptic texts of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. They aroused violent opposition in nonmystical circles but were regarded as symbols of profound mysteries by the Merkabah mystics. From the period between the 3rd and 6th centuries dates the earliest speculative text of Jewish mysticism, the Sefer Yezirah ("Book of Creation"), describing the process of creation in terms of the ten primordial numbers (sefirot) and the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, forming together the "il secret paths of wisdom." The numbers are connected with the "living creatures" (angels) of Ezek. i and may go back to the "hyperessential numbers" of the Xeoplatonist Proclus. The letters are applied to the three parallel worlds of man (nejesh). the planetary spheres ('olam) and the course of the year (shana). The book was at-

Abraham, and numerous commentaries were written on it. It gave a powerful impulse to theurgic Cabala. Merkabah mysticism culminates in the bizarre Sefer Bahir ("Book of Clarity") edited in Provence in the 12th century and foreshadowing the doctrine of the Sefirot (divine potencies) in 13th-century Cabala. It interprets in midrashic fashion scriptural verses, rabbinic homilies and topics of Merkabah and Yezirah mysticism, and shows a marked magical tendency. Mystical intertributed to the patriarch

pretation of the divine

commandments

plays a considerable part

in it. Typically Gnostic terms such as ha-male (pleroma) and nezahim (aeons are introduced. One of its principal sources is the book Raza Rabba ("The Great Mystery"), which was imported from the east to Provence via Germany. The Hasidim of Medieval Germany. In the Hasidim (Devout, Pietists) of 12th- and 13th-century German Jewry in the Rhineland are met for the first time clearly defined individual Jewish mystics. Samuel the Hasid, his son Judah the Hasid (a great legendary figure) and Eleazar of Worms, all of them members of the Kalonymide family that had migrated from Italy to Germany, were steeped in the tradition of Merkabah mysticism and occult sciences. They were also under the spell of Neoplatonic thought as mediated by Abraham ibn Ezra and Abraham bar Hiyya. Above all, they derived inspiration from the conception of God found in the Hebrew paraphrase of Saadia's Book of Beliefs and Convictions {see Sa.wia ben Joseph), the influence of which is reflected in the superb hymns composed in this circle. The mystical presence of God is sought in humility and in the love of God rather than in )

—

Merkabah type. The glory of God Merkabah visions as occupying the throne is

ecstatic visions of the

appears

in the

that dif-

still higher inner glory or holy spirit, while God himself remains unrevealed. Yet there is a strong note of pantheism in the manner in which the immanence of God is expressed. The German Hasidim reflect the spiritual climate of their age and environment, which was saturated with popular mysticism and the cultivation of a personal spiritual life, illustrated, for example, by The excessive peniSt. Francis of Assisi and the Order of Cluny. tentiary practices advocated by the group also may be due to Chris-

ferentiated from a

of the German Hasidim are two versions), a collection of stories, homilies and doctrines; and Eleazar of Worms's numerous tracts. Rise of Cabala in Provence and Spain. Of decisive importance for the development of Cabala were the Jewish mystics in Provence (second half of the 12th century) and Spain, particularly Gerona (c. 1200-60). The leaders of pre-Cabalistic Jewish mysticism in Provence, where the Sefer Bahir was edited, were Abratian influence.

the Sefer

The main documents

Hasidim

(in

—

—

:

CABALA

538 ham ben

Isaac of Narbonne, one of the great rabbinic authorities

Abraham ben David, famous for his glosses on Maimonides' Code of Laws (Mishne Tora); his grandson Isaac the Blind and Jacob ha-Nazir of Lunel, who wrote a commentary on the prayers. Claiming revelations of the prophet Elijah, they initiated new Cabalistic doctrines. According to Shemtob ben Gaon (beginning of the 14th century), Abraham ben Isaac's Compendium of Cabala, though offering only hints to the of the time; his son-in-law

;

initiated, already

contained essential elements of the Sefirot doc-

beyond the stage found in the Sejer Bahir. The Sefirot are the "soul" and "inner life" of the hidden God, the transcendent Cause of Causes. The old Merkabah doctrine is said to refer only to the Creator aspect of God, not to his inner life. Of a more philosophical type are the small pseudepigraphical tracts that emanated from another circle in Provence, named (by G. Scholem) the lyyun circle after the Sejer ha-Iyyun ("Book of Contemplation"). Here Neoplatonic thought intrudes forcefully into a hitherto mainly Gnostic type of mysticism. The concept of emanation (azilut) is applied to the ten Sefirot, which are identified with the "intelligible lights" (the ten "separate intellects") of Islamic and Jewish Neotrine

platonism.

Neoplatonic speculation gains even greater importance in the Gerona (Judah ben Yaqar, Ezra ben Solomon, Azriel, Jacob ben Sheshet and the celebrated Bible commentator and rabbinic scholar Moses ben Nahman or Nahmanides). According to Azriel, the difference between the Cabalists and Neoplatonists may be reduced to one of terminology. In his Comtnentary on the Ten Sefirot he sought to derive the principles of Cabala from Neoplatonic concepts. Ezra's Commentary on Canticles contains mystical interpretations of the "reasons of the divine commandments" (ta'anie ha-mizwot). Nahmanides' exegetical work is shot through with mystical references. In his immediate circle may be sought the origin of the highly influential Sejer Temttna ("Book of the Image"), which describes the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet as the image of God and evolves the theory that in each successive world period (shemitta) another of the seven lower Sefirot predominates. This mystical theory of history had a marked influence on later phases of Cabala and was invoked by the heretical theology of Sabbatianism (see Sabbatai Zebi). Another important figure circle of

was Abraham Abulafia,

the

representative

of

prophetic

(i.e.,

who elaborated a system of contemplative techThough he was repudiated by the religious authorities of and his numerous tracts were repressed by the Cabalists,

Mishnah and

De Leon possessed in his home the ancient original of this book, De Leon died before he could fulfill his promise to show the

but

His widow subsequently denied the existence of text. The question has remained a mystery and given a great deal of discussion among both Jewish and Christian scholars. In the 19th century A. Jellinek concluded from the close analogies between the Zohar and known writings of Moses de Leon that the author of the Zohar was none other than De Leon himself. original to Isaac.

an original rise to

His view was accepted by H. Graetz and subsequently was reconfirmed, after much initial hesitation, by G. Scholem. According to Scholem, Moses de Leon wrote first the Midrash ha-Ne'elam between 1275 and 1280 and completed the bulk of the Zohar between 1280 and 1286. The Raya Mehemna and the Tiqqune Zohar, on the other hand, were composed by some other Cabalists 10 or 20 years later in imitation of the Zohar proper. Between 1286 and 1293 De Leon published a series of minor works designed to propagate the doctrines of the Zohar, the last being the Maskiot Kesej ("Settings of Silver"). Scholem's theory is based mainly on linguistic evidence. Moreover, the Zohar reflects the conditions of Jewish life in Spain around 1280, and it employs theological and psychological doctrines current at that time. Its borrowings from the Geronese school and from Gikatila's Ginat Egoz are striking.

The Zohar the inner

life

is

preoccupied with the theosophical description of

of Divinity as expressed in the ten Sefirot

God's self-revelation defies all understanding. ten Sefirot are (1) Keter Elyon or "Supreme Crown," also and Ayin ("Nothing") (2) Hokhma or "Wisdom," identical with the "Beginning" (reshit) of creation and with Eden or the source of all blessings; (3) Bina or "intelto

The

called God's primordial Will,

ligence," the "supernal

was nevertheless pronounced. Joseph Gikatila wrote Ginat Egos ("Nut Garden") under Abulafia's influence. Of a more Gnostic frame of mind are the two brothers Jacob and Isaac ben Jacob ha-Kohen, Todros Abulafia and Moses ben Simon of Burgos. These Cabalists introduced the doctrine of a separate realm of demonic emanations as a parallel to the holy Sefirot. The Zohar. All these variegated elements merged in the main work of Cabala, the Sejer ha-Zohar ("Book of Splendour"), which made its appearance in the 1280s. The Zoharic corpus of writings

—

contains 1.

first in

Mantua (1S58-60)

volumes, it discourses in homiletic fashion on the PentaInterspersed in the main text are a number of smaller and often disjointed tracts such as the Sijra di-ze7ii'uta ("Book of Concealment"); Idra Rabba ("The Greater Assembly") and Idra in three

teuch.

Zutta ("The Lesser Assembly")

;

the story of Saba

("the Old

dealing with the mysteries of the soul; the story of

Yanuqa

("the Child") on the mysteries of the Torah; Sitre Tora ("Secrets Law"); sections of the Midrash ha-Ne'elam ("Mystical

of the

Midrash"); Raya

Mehemna ("The

Faithful Shepherd") offering

cabalistic interpretations of the divine 2.

Mother" and womb of the

;

totality of

There follow the seven lower Sefirot, represented by the seven days of creation; they contain or "love"; (5) Gevitra or "power," also called Din judgment"; (6) Rahamin or "compassion," also called

all

mystically (4) Hesed

or "stern Tijeret or

"beauty"; (7) A''e2aA or "endurance"; (8) ffod or "majesty"; (9) Feiorf or "foundation"; and (10) Ma/^Ai// or "kingdom," identical with the ShekhitM (lit. "presence" i.e., of God) as a female, purely receptive potency, and with the Keneset Yisrael, the ecclesia of Israel conceived as the celestial archetype of the terrestrial people of Israel.

These Sefirot form the "world of union" (alma di-yihtida) as from the lower world of created beings, which is a "world The Sefirot constitute the mystical Tree or Upper Man and are meant to describe a real process of divine life overflowing into the entire creation. The pantheism inherent in this view presented a major problem to later Cabalists. distinct

The Book Zohar proper; printed

Man")

the destiny

pass the uppermost point of transition from the Ensoj ("Infinite")

individuation.

his

;

human individual; and the meaning of the divine commandThe world of the Merkabah ranks lower than the ten Sefirot, and all interest now shifts to the higher plane. Beyond it human thought is unable to penetrate, and even within its comof the

ments.

niques.

his influence

as

immediately on the appearance of the Zohar. Isaac ben Samuel of Acre visited Spain in 1305 in order to meet Moses de Leon of Guadalajara, who from 1280 onward had circulated copies of the Zohar. He was assured that

ecstatic) Cabala, his time,

Doubts

a legendary figure of Jewish mysticism.

to the authenticity of this claim arose

The book Tiqqune Zohar

commandments.

(editio princeps also in

Mantua,

1558) in 70 chapters, each beginning with a fresh discourse on the first word of the Torah. 3. The Zohar Hadash ("New Zohar") containing sections of (1) and (2) that were missing from the manuscripts of the first edition

and were supplemented from manuscripts found in Safed. All parts of the Zohar are attributed to Simeon ben Yohai (see Simon ben Yohai), the celebrated 2nd-century teacher of the

of separation" (alma de-peruda).

Innovations of far-reaching significance are the introduction of

male and female principles into the Sefirotic world, recalling the old Gnostic doctrine of pairs; and the concept of a holy union (ziwwiiga qadisha) or hieros gamos between the Sefirot, particularly between the first and the last. The harmony of the divine life is described in terms of the union between "the Holy one, blessed be he'' and his Shekhina. The present unredeemed state of the world is explained as due to a rupture of that supernal union, and eschatological hope envisages the restoration of this union when God again will be "one" Zech. xiv, 9). Evil arose by the breaking away of the "left side" of the Sefirotic world from its union with the rest, thus establishing the demonic "other side" (sitra ahra), the domain of Satan and impurity. Redemption means the restoration of all things to their pristine harmony, and can be aided by man's attachment (devequt) to God. From devequt flow pure and (

,i

I

I

i

j

[

CABALETT A—CABARRUS and the "upper roots" of holiness in the worlds above In terms of man's individual destiny, are thereby strengthened. holy actions,

commandments prepares

the pious fultillment of the divine

him the

garment (lialuqa de-rahanan with which to clothe the upper paradise after he has departed from the

celestial

his soul in

for

i

world.

14th-century

Post-Zoharic

Cabala.

—Joseph

Gikatila's

Sha'are Ora ("Gates of Light") develops the Zoliar's doctrine of the Sefirot by systematically linking the names of God and the divine

commandments with

the individual Sefirot.

Gikatila also

commandments in voluminous tracts. Of particular importance are the two pseudepigraphical works Pelia (on the first six chapters of Genesis) and Qana (on the commandments), which engage in vehement criticism of nonelaborates the meaning of the

mystical rabbinic Judaism, following a trend already noticeable in the Raya Mehemna. Other Cabalists, such as Joseph ibn Waqar of Toledo, Nisim ibn Malka of Fez and Samuel ibn Matut of Guadalajara, seek to reconcile philosophy

and Cabala.

16th-century Cabalists of Safed.

—The expulsion of the Jews

from Spain (1492) led to a deepening of mystical yearning. In the circle of Jewish mystics in the little town of Safed in Upper Galilee occurred a great revival of Cabala that fully articulated these tendencies. Moses Cordovero, his teacher and brother-inlaw Solomon Alkabez, Joseph Qaro. Eliezer Azikri and, above all. Isaac Luria and his pupil Hayyim Vital were the chief members of this group. Azikri's Sejer Haredim ("Book of the Godfearing") mirrors the mystical piety of the holy brotherhood Sukkat Shalom (Tabernacle of Peace) founded by the group. Joseph Qaro's mystical diary recording the revelations vouchsafed to him by his maggid or angel testifies to a charismatic experience that was not unique.

Cordovero, the profound theorist of Cabala, was soon eclipsed by Isaac ben Solomon Luria (q.v.), creator of the "new Cabala." His chief doctrines are (1) on zimziim (God's "retraction"); (2) on shevirat ha-kelim (the "breaking of the vessels"); and (3) on tiqqiin ("restoration" of God's unity). The doctrine of zimziim teaches that God's first act of creation consisted in his retraction or withdrawal into himself in order to make room for the world. But a residue ircshimu of the divine light remained in the primordial space created by his withdrawal, and from it and its mixture with the quality of stern judgment inherent in the act of withdrawal the world came into being. The process of creation was set in motion by the emanation of light from the Ensof forming first the primordial man (Adam qadmon) from which, in turn, the Ughts of the Sefirot burst forth in one total emanation. These lights had )

to be channelized in order to create a universe of differentiated beings and therefore were directed into special "bowls" {i.e., the individual Sefirot). But under the impact the seven lower vessels

broke, and from their shattered fragments the

domain of

evil arose.

Now

the lights of the Sefirot were organized in new configurations of "countenances" (parzufim), each revealing God under a different aspect.

Of

special interest to Luria

the six lower Sefirot and

its

is

the "countenance" of

relation to the tenth Sefirah called

Shekhina or Rachel. The fate of the Shekhina was of deep concern to him. and his peregrinations (genisJiim with his disciples in the vicinity of Safed on the eve of the Sabbath were meant as participations in the "exile of the Shekhina." Tiqqitn signifies the restoration of the union of the Sefirot and the complete selfrealization of God, a process in which man is destined to play a sig)

nificant part. I

The spread

and its adoption by large numbers major factors in 17th- and ISthprepared the ground for the Sabbatian

of Lurianic Cabala

I

I

I

I

I

I

\

j

I

of Jews constitutes one of the

century Jewish history. It the subsequent rise of 18th-century Hasidism. See also references under "Cabala" in the Index volume. BiBLiOGR.APHV. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, rev. ed. (1946), Reshit ha-Qabbala ("The Beginnings of Cabala") (1948), Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and Talniudic Tradition (1960), Zur Kabbala und ihrer Symbolik (1960), and article "Kabbalah," in Encvclopacdia Judaica, vol. ix (1932) Leo Baeck, Aus Drei Jahrtausenden, pp. 243-289 (1958). (A. An.)

movement and

—

;

CABALETTA, originally an operatic aria based on a simple animated rhythm, and later the concluding section of an operatic

aria, usually at the

539

end of an

act.

The term

is

derived from the

diminutive of the Italian cobola, "a couplet." An early example In is "Le belle immagini" in Gluck's Paridc cd Elena (1770). igth-century Italian opera it signifies either a short aria in quick tempo with repeats, of which there are examples in the operas of Rossini, or a brilliant conclusion to an aria such as Violetta's "Sempre libera degg'io" jn Verdi's La Traviata. Anne's cabaletta in Igor Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress (1951) has the form of a short aria of a quick, uniform rhythm.

CABALLERO, FERNAN,

pseudonym

of Cecilia

Fran-

ciscA JosEFA DE Arrom (1796-1877), Spanish writer, whose father, Nikolas Bohl von Faber (a German merchant married to an

Andalusian and settled

in

Madrid), had stimulated interest

in

Spain's medieval and classical literature with his Floresta de rimas antiguas castellanas (1821-28) and Teatro espahol anterior a Lope de Vega ( 1832). She is famous for her defense of the traditional Catholic, monarchist, moral and rural virtues of Spain against

—

—

the upsurge of 19th-century liberalism. 25, 1796, she went to Spain when One of the earliest Spanish folklorists, she collected volumes, full of entertaining anecdotes, the language, superstitions and customs of the country people of Sevillian Andalusia. Of these, the most notable are Cuadros de costiimbres, Relaciones and La familia de Alvareda. She claimed that in her novels also she was only a recorder of fact, but this cannot be accepted; research has discovered that in Clemencia (1S52), one of her best novels, the rivalry for a lady's hand of a Frenchman and an Englishman is largely autobiographical. Her best-known novel. La Gaviota (Eng. trans., The Seagull, 1867 ), was first published serially in El Heraldo (Madrid) in 1849. It is acclaimed, incorrectly, as the first realistic novel of Spanish customs. It describes the career of a selfish child of nature with a golden voice, whose life is ruined by success in the big city. Like her other novels, it is marred by its obtrusive morality and slow pace, but these are lightened by lively, sympathetic presentation of country people and their conversation. Fernan Caballero died in Seville, April 7, 1877. She had been She may well be three times married, yet remained childless. remembered primarily as a remarkable woman, whose complex personality and intimate griefs are revealed in a voluminous correspondence, still largely unpublished. (R. F. B.) CABANAS, third smallest department in El Salvador (area Mi sq.mi.i, bordered on three sides by the deep Lcmpa valley, was established in 1873. The population was estimated at 102,103 in 1958. Although mostly rugged terrain. Cabanas ranks second in

Born

in

Morges, Switz., Dec.

she was 17.

into

many

the country in production of rice, third in beans, and is significant in the production of corn, vegetables, livestock and cheese. Manu-

factures include distilled liquors and clay products, especially pottery from excellent clay deposits. Ilobasco (pop. 28,186) is noted for its miniature Salvadoran dolls. Sensuntepeque (altitude 2,471 ft.; pop. 28.791), 49 mi. by highway from San Salvador, is the departmental capital and leading pottery-manufacturing centre of the country.

,

(C. F. J.)

CABANILLES, JUAN BAUTISTA JOSE

(1644-1712), the last notable representative of the I6th- and 17th-century Spanish school of organ composers, was baptized at Algemesi, Valencia, He spent his adult hfe as organist of Valencia Sept. 6. 1644. cathedral. He was appointed on May IS, 166S, following the death of his predecessor and teacher, Jeronimo de la Torre, and. as his He appears to position required, was ordained a priest in 1668. have traveled little, although his reputation spread as far as France, where he is known to have played. He died at Valencia, April 20, 1712. His surviving works include a huge number of pieces for organ and other keyboard instruments: tientos, tocatas, versos, While these contain many interesting feapasacalles, gallardas. tures, for example the brilliant figuration of the tocatas and the dissonances of the tientos de jalsas, Cabanilles was content to extend Renaissance techniques without wholeheartedly accepting the new baroque style. See H. Angles, Musici organici lohannis Cabanilles Opera omnia, only 3 vol.

published (192 7-36).

CABARRUS, FRANCOIS

(Jo. St.)

(Francisco), Conde de (1752-

;

CABBAGE

540

1810), French financier, who gained prominence as a financial adviser of the Spanish king Charles III, was born at Bayonne in 1752, He originally settled in Madrid as a soap manufacturer. As adviser to Charles III, he devoted his considerable financial talents to the organization of a bank, to the formation of a company to trade with the Philippine Islands and to a reformation of the currency and taxation. But these measures were hindered by the death of Charles III in 178S, and Cabarrus spent two years in prison on a

charge of embezzlement. Restored to favour, with the title of count, he was nominated Spanish ambassador to Paris, but the Directory raised objection to his appointment on the grounds of his French birth, Cabarrus took no part in the intrigues by which Charles IV of Spain was compelled to abdicate and his son deprived of the succession in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, but he became minister of finance under Joseph's government and held that post His daughter, until his death at Seville on April 27, 1810, Therese, was the famous

Lambert

Madame

(see Tallien,

Tallien

Jean

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

CABBAGE,

Many

distinct horticultural varieties of these several forms are commercially important. All these forms of "cabbage" have succulent leaves that are free of hairs and covered with a waxy coating; in most of them the

waxy

coat gives the leaf surface a gray-green or blue-green colour. These plants grow best in mild to cool

climates,

tolerate

frost,

and some of them tolerate hard freezing

at

certain

periods

of

growth. Hot weather impairs the growth and the eating quality of all of them. Only those forms grown for their flower parts are annuals; the others are biennials. After an initial period of growth the

biennials

1.— HEAD CABBAGE (BRASSICA period of OLERACEA FORM CAPITATA) FIG.

perature

rest

must undergo a imposed by tem-

below

45°

F.

before

Premature flowering brought about, by untimely temperatures often is a cause of economic loss

flower parts can develop. to growers.

value.

They

The

edible portions of these plants are low in calorie

serve as sources of bulk, vitamins and minerals in the

diet.

Kale {Brassica oleracea form acephala) produces a stronggrowing rosette of long-petioled, elongated leaves with wavy to frilled margins. In a long growing season the main stem reaches

In

United States the plant is usually harvested by cutting off the entire rosette before the stem has elongated, but in Great Britthe

ain

and

Europe the individual

in

lower leaves are usually removed progressively as the main stem elongates. Kale is grown mainly for autumn and winter harvest because cold improves its eating quality and its hardiness permits

harvest of fresh greens after most

become unThousand-headed or

fresh vegetables have available.

Jersey kale is a dift'erent species, a coarse, rapidly growing plant that

),

para la extincion Cabarrus' works include Memoria al Rey al Seiior D. Caspar de la Deuda Nacional (1783). and Cartas Principe de la Paz al (1808; new ed., 1933). de Jovellanos y a biennial vegetable and fodder plant whose various forms are said to have been developed by long cultivation from the wild or sea cabbage (Brassica oleracea) found near the seacoast of various parts of England and continental Europe. The cultivated varieties, however, have departed widely from the original type, and they present marked and striking dissimilarities among themselves. The wild cabbage is a comparatively insignificant plant, growing one to two feet high, in appearance similar to charlock (Brassica kaber) but having smooth leaves. The wild plant has fleshy, shining, waved and lobed leaves (the uppermost being undivided but toothed), large yellow flowers, elongated seed pod and seeds with conduplicate cotyledons. Although the cultivated forms differ in habit so widely, the flower, seed pods and seeds present no appreciable difference. The common horticultural forms of Brassica oleracea may be classified according to the plant parts used for food and the structure or arrangement of those parts: (1) leaves: loose or open foliage (kale and collards") and leaves folded into compact heads (large terminal heads, e.g., common cabbage and savoy cabbage; and small axillary heads. e.g., Brussels sprouts); (2) flowers and thickened flower stalks: flowers little or not modified (sprouting broccoli) and flowers much thickened and modified (cauliflower and heading broccoli) (3) stem much expanded to a bulbous structure (kohlrabi). All these forms intercross as readily as do varieties of a single form.

in part,

a height of two feet or more.

may

reach a height of eight and is grown only for

to ten feet

stock feed.

2.— kohlrabi (brassica oleracea form caulorapa)

fig.

Collards (also Brassica oleracea form acephala) is another hardy, nonheading form of cabbage which is grown extensively as winter greens in the southern United

The leaves are much broader than those of kale, are not and resemble the rosette leaves of head cabbage. The lower leaves are commonly harvested progressively, the main stem reaching a height of two to four feet with a rosette of leaves at the top. The entire young rosette is sometimes harvested. Both collards and kale are primitive forms of cabbage similar to those used in ancient times in the Mediterranean region, where the species is believed to have originated. Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea form gemmijera) produces tiny cabbage heads, about an inch in diameter, that form in the axils of the leaves along the much-elongated main stem. This plant is relatively new among food plants; it was first described in 1587 and apparently was developed in northern Europe about the 15th century or not long before. Because of its exacting climatic requirements, Brussels sprouts is little grown except in cool districts near the sea. Firm "heads" will not develop if the daily mean temperature is much above 55° F. Head cabbage (Brassica oleracea form capitata) is by far the most important form of this species. Hard-headed cabbage, like Brussels sprouts, is a new crop plant that was developed in northem Europe during the middle ages. Soft-headed cabbages such as the savoy type are believed to be of southern European origin of an earlier time. Head cabbage is generally denoted by the simple term "cabbage." and is a major table vegetable in most countries of the temperate zone. The heads of horticultural varieties of cabbage range in shape from pointed through globular to flat; from soft to hard in structure; through various shades of green, gray-green and magenta or "red." and from one or two pounds up to ten pounds and more in States, frilled

weight.

They

also differ in suitability for specific uses.

The

less

hard varieties must be used more or less promptly after harvest for salads, in cookery or for the manufacture of sauerkraut the very hard, late-maturing Danish type is suited to winter storage :

for later general use.

Some varieties, such as Early Jersey Wakefield, will tolerate winter temperatures as low as 0° F. when the plants are small, but most

varieties will not.

The

edible part of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea form botrytis) compact terminal mass of greatly thickened, modi-

consists of a

and partially developed flower structures, together with their subtending fleshy stalks. As desired for food, this terminal cluster forms a firm, whit*, succulent "curd," The broad, much elongated In most varieties the leaves leaves extend far above this curd. of a plant must be tied together well above the curd, or broken over it, several days before harvest to prevent the discoloration of the curd by sunlight. Heading broccoli is. in effect, a slow-growing winter type of In the cauliflower and indistinguishable from it on the market. fied

United States both are marketed as cauliflower.

Cauliflower

is

—

.

CABEIRI— CABEZON

Life (1919), Figures of Earth (1921) and The High Place (1923). Although he persistently avoided the literary convention of "realism" in these and his other books, his

The edible part of this plant is the unopened and their subtending fleshy stems at the terminal of the main axis, from 2 to 4 ft. tall, and of the axillary branches. Large quantities are preserved by freezing in the United States as well as marketed fresh. Kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea form caulorapa), first described in the 16th century, is another "cabbage" of recent European origin. Its most distinctive feature is the greatly enlarged stem It is best harvested for food when this just above the soil. enlargement is 2 to 2^ in. in diameter. At this stage the enlargement is globular to slightly flattened, but if allowed to become old it becomes elongated. The flesh resembles that of turnip but Kohlrabi is little grown for food except in is sweeter and milder. kitchen gardens; in Europe it is grown for stock feed. See also references under "Cabbage" in the Index volume.

phrase, "the

until

about 1925.

flower clusters

—

W. W. Robbins, Botany of Crop Plants, 3rd ed. H. Bailey, "Gentes Herbarum," in Brassicae Cullorum, \'. R. Boswell, Commercial Cabbage Culture, U.S. Department of .\griculture Circular 252 (1945); H. C. Thompson and (V. R. B.) W. C. Kelly, Vegetable Crops (1957) BrBLiOGRAPHY.

(1931)

vol.

ii

;

L.

(1930)

;

CABEIRI,

an important group of deities, perhaps of Phrygian origin, worshiped over a large part of Asia Minor, on the islands nearby, particularly Lemnos and Samothrace, and in Macedonia and northern and central Greece, especially Boeotia. They were powers of fertility, perhaps originally indefinite in number; in classical times there appear to have been two male deities, Axiocersus and his son and attendant Cadmilus or Casmilus, and a These were less important female pair, Axierus and Axiocersa. variously identified by the Greeks with gods of their own pantheon the Dioscuri, etc.). (Hephaestus, Dionysus, Demeter and Kore, The cult included worship of the power of fertility, symbolized by the male organ of generation there were also, as usual in mysteries such as these, rites of purification, which seem ultimately at least to have included insistence on moral purity; also initiation, presumably into the favour and intimacy of the gods. An obscure legend preserved by ecclesiastical writers says that there were three male Cabeiri, of whom two killed and beheaded the third. They are often identified with the great gods of Samothrace (though not on Samothrace itself). There, as early as the Sth century B.C., their mysteries attracted great attention, and initiation was looked upon as a general safeguard against all misfortune, particularly against shipwreck. But it was in the period after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. that their cult reached its height, and initiation was sought not only by large numbers of ordinary pilgrims but also by persons of distinction. The island Excavation of the possessed the right of asylum or sanctuary. sanctuaries and the town proceeded systematically after 1938. In 18S8 interesting details as to the Boeotian cult of the Cabeiri were obtained by excavations of their temple in the neighbourhood of Thebes, conducted by the German Archaeological institute. Two male deities were worshiped: Cabeirus, who is shown on many i.e., in vases reclining, drinking, surrounded by vines and grapes the guise of Dionysus; and a boy called simply pais, "boy." The Romans, who claimed Trojan descent, identified the Cabeiri with ;

I

I

I

!

[

I

the penates publici (see

Penates).

I

See B. Hemberg, Die Kabiren (1950). I

i

'

•

I

'

'

541 Beyond

ven- exacting in its climatic and cultural requirements. Sprouting broccoli (also Brassica oleracea form botrytis) and cauliflower were both cultivated by ancient Mediterranean peoples. Despite the antiquity of sprouting broccoli and its popularity in Italy for centuries, it was not widely known in the United States

CABELL, JAMES BRANCH

(X.; H. W. Pa.) (1879-1958), U.S. novelist by an equally

in the 1920s, followed

and essayist, had a great vogue pronounced eclipse in popularity. Born in Richmond, Va., April 14, 1879. of an old and distinguished family, he began writing fiction shortly after the turn of the century. His great acclaim did not arrive, however, until after the suppression of Jtirgen (1919) on moral grounds. For a decade or more he was extravagantly praised, but in the 1930s his mannered style and his philosophy of life and art lost favour with both critics and public. Of his more than SO books, the best known were the 18 volume Biography of Manuel, which, besides Jurgen, included Cream

of the Jest (1917),

imaginary medieval province of Poictesme never concealed a septic view of human experience; and he remained, in H. L. Mencken's

May

S,

most acidulous of the anti-romantics." Richmond, Va.

Cabell died

1958, at

—

Bibliography. For the early admiring treatment see Vernon L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought, vol. ill, pp. 335-345 (1930) Carl Van Doren, James Branch Cabell (1932) typical of the later, more hostile, critics are Alfred Kazin, On Native Grounds, pp. 230-235 (1942); Oscar Cargill, Intellectual America, pp. 495-503 (1941). For a return to the sympathetic view, see Edmund Wilson, "The James Branch Cabell Case Reopened," The New Yorker, pp. 129154 (.\pril21, 1956). (J. R. Hk.) ;

;

CABER TOSSING,

a Scottish athletic event which consists

barked log from 13 to 18 ft. long, end over end. The caber is held vertically against either shoulder with the small end (4 to 6 in. in diameter) in the hands and the big end (10 to 14 in.) straight up. The toss is made after a 10- to 20-yd. run. According to Highland tradition, tosses are judged as to style and the straightness with which the caber falls in direct line from the contestant. Each meet has its own caber. If no one succeeds in turning it after three tries, a piece is cut from the thick end and in tossing a caber, a straight,

the contest begins again.

In the United States, a lighter caber is thrown for distance and is shorter. There are no ofl&cial standards as to weight, length or system of tossing. (F. S. T.) the run

ETIENNE

(1788-1856), French Socialist and CABET, founder of a settlement at Nauvoo, 111., was born at Dijon, France, Rebelling against the regimentation in 1788, the son of a cooper. of his work as teacher at a local school, he turned to law and pracHe then settled in Paris and became tised in Dijon until 1820. director of the Vente Supreme, the local association of the revolu-

known as the Carbonari. After taking part in the revolution of 1830 in France, he was made procureur general in Corsica but was soon dismissed because of his attacks on the monarchy in his Histoire de la Revolution tionary organization

Elected to the chamber of deputies as a member for Dijon in 1831, he founded, in 1833, a journal, Le Popidaire. Cabet was exiled in 1834 for criticizing the government and spent five years in London, where he was influenced by Sir Thomas More's Utopia and by the ideas of Robert Owen. On the amnesty of 1839

de ISJO.

he returned to France; in 1839^0 his Histoire Popidaire de la Revolution Fran^aise de 17S9 a 1830 was published, and in 1840 a Six years later he published Le Vrai novel. Voyage en Icarie. Christianisme suivant Jesus Christ. Voyage en Icarie contained Cabet's theories on progressive taxation, obligation to work, old-age pensions and the divisions of the products of industry. The Icarian movement gained popularity in France and Cabet sought to put his ideas into practice. He contracted to buy, through agents of the Peters Land company, In March a tract in Texas supposed to comprise 1,000,000 ac. 1848, 69 Icarians landed in New Orleans to pave the way for 1,500 who were to follow. But the purchase proved to be only 100,000 At length the advance guard abandoned the ac. of poor soil. Texas location and returned to New Orleans. Cabet, meanwhile,

France with ahnost 500 followers, undaunted by the news His little force met what was left of the firstcomers at New Orleans in 1849. Some lost heart and returned Cabet then to France, and all refused to go to the Texas site. purchased the old Mormon settlement at Nauvoo, 111., and led 280 settlers there to start Icaria. The Icaria settlement was at best a compromise, for Cabet was never able to put into practice many of his ideas. The population never exceeded 1,800. In 1856 dissensions arose and, with ISO followers, Cabet left to found a new settlement, but died the same year on Nov. 8 at St. (B. Mi.) Louis, Mo.

had

left

of the Texas misfortunes.

^

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR NUNEZ:

see

Nunez

Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar.

CABEZON, ANTONIO DE Spanish composers for the organ.

(lSOO-1566), is supreme among He was born at Castrillo de

CABINDA— CABINET

542

Matajudi'os, near Burgos, on March 30, 1500, and, although blind from childhood, reached the peak of his profession as a keyboard In about 1S21 he was studying in Palencia and in 1526 player.

was appointed organist and clavichordist

empress Isabel,

to the

1548 passing into the service of Philip II. Through the court he met the influential musicians, Tomas de Santa Maria, theorist and composer, and Luis de Narvaez, the vihuelist. and he gained valuable experience on travels with the royal chapel to Italy, Germany and the Netherlands (1548-51), and to England and the Netherlands (1554-early 1556). Traces of his style may be observed in the music of Thomas Preston, organist of Windsor chapel at this time. Cabezon died at Madrid, March 26, 1566. His surviving music consists almost entirely of tientos {i.e., ricercari), plainsong settings (for Mass and Office and variations. A comprehensive collection ("for keyboard, harp, vihuela") was published in 1578 by his son, Hernando. Stylistically, his music is austere, lofty polyphony enlivened by controlled runs and ornaments. in

)

F. Pedrell's Hispaniae scholae muslca sacra (1894-98), vol. 3-4, 7-8, contains modern editions of Cabezon see also S. Kastner, Antonio de Cabezon (1952). (Jo. St.) ;

CABINDA

(Kabind.^), a Portuguese possession (an exclave on the west coast of Africa, lies north of the mouth of the Congo river. It is bounded by the Atlantic on the west, the RepubKc of Congo (formerly French Middle Congo) north and northeast, and Republic of the Congo (the former Belgian Congo), south and southeast. Its coast line is 93 mi. and its greatest width 70 mi. Pop. 1950) 50,506, of whom 734 were white and 659 mixed. Area 2,807 sq.mi. For administrative purposes Cabinda is a district of Angola, from which it is separated by the Congo river and a strip of the Congo territory, and is divided into two concelhos, Cabinda and Cacongo, and one circumscription, Maiombe. The inhabitants are Bantu Negroes, called Cabindas, They are intelligent, energetic and enterprising, and known as daring sailors and active traders. The Maiombe region is rich in forests, though transportation difficulties have hindered exploitation, and its beauty is an attraction to tourists. Cabinda's busy trade has consisted mainly of timber, palm oil and kernels, cocoa and coffee. The area is favourable to the production of rubber, fruit and ivory. Alluvial gold is extracted and deposits of mineral and other phosphates have interested U.S. companies. In 1957 contracts were made for the prospecting and exploitation of petroleum. The district's chief town, Cabinda, is a seaport situated on the right bank of the small river Bele. Population of the town in 1950 was 11,129, including 355 whites, A second town and harbour is Landana to the north. (A. A, G. P.) CABINET, a governmental term denoting a body of advisers to a sovereign or chief executive. It has been an important element in nearly all countries where legislative powers have been vested in a parliament or congress, but it has taken markedly different forms in various countries, the two most striking examples being Great Britain and the United States, of Angola

l

(

GREAT BRITAIN word "cabinet" originally signified a small room. Cabinet counsel came to mean secret counsel or advice and cabinet council the body of persons that gave As

a British constitutional term, the

such counsel. Historical

from the privy

—

Development. The cabinet in England derived council. In Tudor times, in order to facilitate the labour, many standing and temporary ad hoc com-

subdivision of mittees of the council were appointed, and the practice was continued under the Stewarts. One of these committees, usually called the foreign committee, gradually became of outstanding importance. On it sat the king's most intimate advisers and it de-

bated the most serious affairs of state, domestic as well as foreign. Decisions w'ere frequently reached in this committee before the subject of the decision had even been broached before the privy council, the functions of which were thus to a large extent usurped. After the Restoration of 1660, under the auspices of the earl of Clarendon, much use was made of committees, particularly of an informal, secret committee for foreign affairs (which in fact dealt

with any matters requiring secrecy). On Clarendon's fall the precedent was followed by a standing committee of the privy council, called the committee for foreign affairs. This committee, because of the coincidence of the initial letters of the names of some members (Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lau-

of the

derdale), has passed into history as the cabal.

By the reign of Anne the routine of "committee" and "cabinet" had become the accepted, but still unpopular, machinery of executive government: the committee, meeting as often as necessary throughout the week in the office of the senior secretary of state at the Cockpit in Whitehall, deliberated upon all business of government and prepared it for the sovereign, with whom final decisions would be taken, generally at weekly meetings, in her cabinet with the lords of the committee. By this time only formal business was transacted at meetings of the privy council. But George I, who spoke no English, from 1717 onward ceased to attend, and less and less frequently in the succeeding years did the lords of the committee come to the palace to wait upon a king who never appeared. The designation "the committee" was dropped. It was as "the cabinet," since that had been the title of the decisive body, that the executive was henceforth known. Meanwhile, in proportion as the foreign committee and its descendants developed into the recoenized executive of the nation, so did it tend to be composed more and more exclusively of the principal political officials. The numbers swelled from 6 or 7 under Charles II to 10 or 12 under Anne and reached 20 or more under the Georges. Not all of these were effective officials; they included borough magnates and the king's personal favourites. Such unwieldiness led naturally to the development of an inner cabinet, at first informal but after 1739 recognized and regulated. It consisted of the first lord of the treasury, the lord chancellor,

the lord president and the two secretaries of state.

met

It

at

Robert Walpole's house, as he became the king's "first minis-" and the effective master of the house of commons. This dual system, of inner (efficient) and outer (nominal) cabinets persisted until the inner cabinet, by gradual accretion of important office holders, displaced its outer shell. This stage was reached by 1783, when the younger Pitt formed his adSir

ter," the first lord of the treasury

ministration.

Throughout the 18th century the cabinet remained in an indeterminate position. It had a genuinely independent executive power but could neither flout the will of the commons nor forfeit the favour of the king. Thus Walpole resigned in 1 742 when the commons pronounced against him after the election of the previous year. But his resignation did not involve, as it would now, a complete change in the administration. The success of George III in reasserting the crown's right to direct policy and to control ministries effectively checked for a period any tendency toward minisThe strongest prime minister of the 18th terial independence. century, the younger Pitt, enjoyed his position primarily as a result of royal favour.

Thus although there were cepting, against

its

isolated instances of the

crown acGeorge

inclination, the advice of ministers {e.g.,

IV's assent to Catholic emancipation in 1829) it was only the passage of the 1832 Reform bill that made possible the emergence of cabinet government today. Henceforth no cabinet could maintain itself unless it had the support of a majority in the house of commons, or could obtain a majority by dissolving parliament and appealing to the electorate. Obviously for both these purposes it must be united, and the most natural and solid basis for unity was party. Hence party gov^ernment and cabinet government de-

veloped simultaneously. Principles of Cabinet

Government.

— The

cabinet

described as a committee of privy councilors, with seats ment. The mernbers are united by political principle profess unanimity in public under the leadership of the edged head of the party commanding a majority in the commons. It is by this head, with the sovereign's assent,

may

be

in parlia-!

and they acknowlhouse of that they

have been appointed to the control of the principal government departments, to act through him as the sovereign's sole advisers, and to be severally and jointly responsible to the sovereign, the prime minister, parUament and the people, for their individual and collec-

CABINET tive actions, so long as

they are supported by a majority of the house of commons. Membership of the privy council provides, through the privy councilors' oath, the necessary formal basis of loyalty and secrecy. The passage of the Official Secrets act in 1911 imposed legal penalties for the publication of cabinet documents. Obviously cabinet deliberation would be robbed of its frankness and cabinet action of much of its authority if freedom of speech inside the cabinet were not married to silence about its proceedings outside, and the rules of secrecy have in the main been admirably preserved. Of course, at a certain point cabinet proceedings pass into history. We are no longer in much doubt about what passed in 19th-century cabinets: and eminent persons, like Lloyd George and Sir Winston Churchill, seem to have been

granted generous latitude in the publication of cabinet memoranda in their memoirs. But in general the rule of secrecy means that at any given time students and the public are less well informed about the operations of the cabinet than about most parts of the

machinery of government. Cabinet members must have seats in parliament, both in order to defend their political actions, and to enable parliament to hold them to account. The Ministers of the Crown act, 1937. gives legal sanction to the obvious political necessity of distributing ministers in adequate proportions between the commons and the

lords.

that the prime minister should be in the desirable that the finance ministers be there, too.

It is essential

mons and

In ordinary times, bers of the

members

same party.

gests that in fact only

of a cabinet will obviously be

Coalitions

may

com-

mem-

occur, but experience sug-

war or other national emergency provides

an adequate solvent for partisanship; the 1931 coalition soon lost unanimity of purpose and its short-lived experiment in "agreement to differ'' over tariffs demonstrated the continuing validity of Lord Melbourne's principle of unanimity. The doctrine of collective responsibility is the keystone of the cabinet arch. It implies an obligation on every member not to vote or speak against a cabinet decision and to support it in the division lobbies and in public. This in turn implies that important decisions shall normally be taken in full cabinet. Nevertheless, changes of policy may sometimes be announced without prior agreement. In such cases either the cabinet must disavow the spokesman (as Baldwin's cabinet disavowed Sir Samuel Hoare over the Hoare-Laval pact in 1935) and, as a corollary, the aberrant member must resign; or else the cabinet must close ranks behind the new policy and endorse it. In such circumstances the prime minister is in a particularly strong position. As leader of his party he enjoys especial authority in parliament and the country; as head of the cabinet he can require any hostile colleague's resignation. If the prime minister resigns, his cabinet falls with him and the right of advising the sovereign to dissolve parhament is his alone. (For details of the prime minister's powers see Prime Minister.)

Relations With the Sovereign.— Because the full implicaReform act were not immediately grasped. Queen Vic-

tions of the

toria retained

cabinet that constitution.

throughout her reign a degree of control over the logically incompatible with its position in the

was

The

power is now restricted to the initial and inviting him to form a governwhat policies his administration pursues,

sovereign's

act of selecting an individual

ment.

Whom he appoints,

when he

resigns or

when he

— these are matters

asks the sovereign to grant a dissolu-

on which the prime minister, subject to have his own way. Cabinets have grown in size as the responsibilities of government have expanded. Sir Robert Peel in 1S41 had only 13 members in his cabinet but by 1900 the number rose to 20 and it has seldom dropped below this figure in normal times since. The problem has increasingly become how to include all the important departments and yet not make the cabinet too unwieldy. Certain departments are so pivotal that they obviously must be included, such as the foreign office and the treasury. The importance of others may rise and fall with the changing emphases of politics. But room may also have to be found for some ministers who are not heads of departments but whose counsel or debating strength is of value they can either hold tion

the law of the land,

is

entitled to

Composition of the Cabinet

—

;

sinecure

543 offices,

like the lord presidency, or serve

without port-

folio.

In war the needs of administration and execution take priority over those of politics. This has been reflected in the composition of wartime cabinets. Lloyd George in 1916 superseded H. H. Asquith's ordinary cabinet by one of five or six members only, none of whom, except the chancellor of the exchequer, had departmental duties. This inner circle of executives met daily, either

by itself or, more frequently, in the company of whatever departmental head was operationally concerned with the business under discussion. Opportunity was also taken of visits to Britain by dominion prime ministers to invite them to attend cabinet sessions, and in 1917 Gen. J. C. Smuts was made a regular member. At the outset of World War II in 1939 Neville Chamberlain reduced his peacetime cabinet of 2i to one of 9. but, unlike Lloyd George, he included S members with departmental responsibilities, the 3 service ministers, the foreign secretary and the chancellor of the exchequer. It was not until the formation of Winston Churchill's coalition government in 1940 that cabinet numbers shrank to five, but it gradually expanded again and for most of the war stood at eight or nine. As the numbers increased the initial policy of basing the cabinet on nondepartmental ministers was abandoned. Cabinet Committees and Secretariat. The modern cabinet

—

does much of its work through committees on which heads of departments not of cabinet rank frequently ser\-e. The first formal committee to be instituted was the committee of imperial defense established in 1904. The prime minister was chairman and the committee contained, in addition to the ministers directly concerned with military matters, the three chiefs of staff. As the work of the committee expanded subcommittees developed to deal with

manpower, supply, etc. In 1946, at the same time that a minister of defense was created, the committee's name was changed to the defense committee. detailed questions of

The home sider

all

affairs

committee was

first set

up

in

questions of internal policy, but has

June 1918 to con-

become more of a

committee, concerned with the drafting of bills and the planning of parliament's work. It is for each government to decide on the committee structure most convenient for discharging cabinet business. The Labour government of 1945-51 developed an elaborate structure of almost 20 cabinet committees. The cabinet was late in developing any secretariat of its own and for many years the only record of its proceedings was the confidential letter which the prime minister sent to the sovereign at the end of each meeting. The committee of imperial defense had had a modest secretariat ever since its inception and on the outbreak of World War I the obvious solution was adopted of taking over its staff, which became enlarged and was in 1916 placed under Sir Maurice Hankey as the first permanent secretary to the cabinet. Strict secrecy still governs all cabinet records but there legislation

and precision of cabinet action. growth in 1940 of an economic section became a permanent part of the machinery of government in May 1944. Its duty is to measure and analyze economic trends and submit reports on them. There is

a great gain in the continuity

World War

II led to the

of the cabinet secretariat, which

is

also a central statistical office attached to the cabinet (also dating

from 1940) whose job

is to collect statistics from the departments. The cabinet ordinarily meets in Sir Robert Walpole's house, No. 10 Downing street, which he bequeathed to the nation, and which prime ministers occupy to this day. For tables of the cabinets and ministers of English crown see Ministry, Government.

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS The other

countries of the commonwealth maintain cabisystems closely related to those developed in the United Kingdom, though with local variations resulting from differences in political environment. The older countries. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, base their cabinets on the I" K. model. India proceeded on much the same lines after independence. Ceylon is distinctive in having the conventions of the British cabinet system formally incorporated in its constitution. Pakistan, after an unsuccessful attempt to operate a system of parliamentary democracy, instituted what was virtually a system of military rule in net

—

CABINET

544 Oct. 1958, while

Ghana showed marked

signs of substituting the

personal rule of the first premier Kwame Nkrumah for cabinet rule. The non-self-governing states of the commonwealth have

almost all cases an executive council under a governor and proceed in their evolution toward a full cabinet system along much the same path the British cabinet took in the evolution of its relations with the crown and parliament. (H. G. N.) in

EUROPE On

the continent of Europe, as in Great Britain, the cabinet

frequently termed council of ministers

—became an

of parliamentary systems of government.

In

intrinsic part

many European

countries, however, the historical development of cabinet bodies

and their functions within the complex of parliamentary institutions differed appreciably from British experience. Cabinets of a recognizably modern form first appeared in Europe during the 19th century with the gradual spread of constitutional Monarchs had previously made use of members of their court circles for the exercise of various administrative funcThe establishment of tions, but as their own private servants. constitutional rule brought in its train a new status for the king's ministers. This was in large part due to the creation of elected representative parliaments whose approval was needed for budgetary matters and legislative acts. Ministers now came to share with the king responsibility for the processes of government and their signature, for instance, was required on legislative acts The it became their task to defend policy proposals in parliament. choice of such ministers continued, however, to rest with the king and many monarchs who only reluctantly agreed to the adoption

government.

—

of forms of constitutional rule clearly hoped that the change would not seriously interfere with their selection either of individuals or policies.

Germany.

—In some

cases the weakness of parliamentary bodies

did in fact leave a large measure of personal

monarch himself in

either to the

This was the case constitution of 1850, for instance, where minhad the right to appear in either chamber as they pleased did not in practice resign Nor did ministers in that state develop the

or to the person of his choice.

Prussia under the though they

isters

power

—

and speak as often

—

on an adverse vote. cohesion characteristic of a modern cabinet; there was a minister president, but he had no authority over his colleagues and could not compel them to adopt his views. Similarly, in the German empire power continued to reside principally with the emperor who either, as in the case of William II, himself undertook the direction of public affairs, or, as with William I, delegated its exercise to a minister of his choice Bismarck. In neither case did the cabinet assume a decisive role. In Germany the exercise of governmental power did not become dependent on a vote of confidence given by the assembly until the creation of the Weimar republic after World War I, and then the fragmentation of political parties within the Reichstag gave rise to a long series of weak minority cabinets. Actual government devolved more and more upon permanent civil servants and many ministerial posts came to be filled by nonpolitical experts, while political power shifted to the directly elected president to whom the constitution gave control over the army. France. In a number of other countries constitutional regimes gave place earlier to forms of government which gave much greater power to the cabinet, either through a process of formal constitutional change or by the gradual evolution of parliamentary practice. An example of the former was the French third republic (1870-1940) in which effective control of executive power was

—

—

who alone had responsibility governmental acts. In the reaction against the second republic (1848-52) which, through its provision for the direct election of the president, had allowed Louis Napoleon to assume autocratic powers, the role of the president was greatly reduced. Elected by a joint meeting of the two houses of parliament, he was allowed to communicate with them subsequently only by message, though his ministers had the right of appearing in person and speaking. The constitution of the fifth republic, adopted in 195S, strengthened the powers of both president and premier. The president names the premier and cabinet members and in a dispute with the assemconfined to the council of ministers for

bly can dissolve the assembly and call for new elections. (See also France: Administration and Social Conditions ; Ministry, Gov-

ernment: Continental Europe.) Italy

—

In Italy cabinet government evolved without formal

framework established by the Piedmontese statuto of 1848. Although this did not explicitly require ministers to have parliamentary support, the tradition established by Cavour of ministerial responsibility toward a parliamentary majority was continued by his successors, and it was rarely that the king subsequently attempted to nominate members of his own private circle for the position of prime minister, as he had done in 1848-49. Royal interference in certain aspects of policy, particularly foreign affairs, continued through the 19th century but did not assume proportions such as to call in question the right of the council of ministers, sustained by a parliamentary majority, to govern. The repubhcan constitution of 1948, which reintroduced parliamentary forms of government after the Fascist interlude, for the first time gave explicit constitutional sanction to the role of the cabinet, but this was a confirmation of pre-Fascist practice rather than an innovation. {See also Italy: Administration and Social Conditions: Government.) The Netherlands. In the Netherlands the change from a constitutional regime to one in which the majority in parliament exercised a determining influence on the nature and composition of the government was also gradual. The Fundamental law of 1814 left the king still the determining force in government and down to 1840 William I ruled as an autocrat, his ministers being treated as his personal servants. His abdication in that year was occasioned by constitutional reform which introduced a degree of ministerial responsibility, but his successor continued to be the main source of his ministers' strength. It was not until the further reforms of 1848 that the way to full ministerial responsibility to parliament was opened up. when William II was obliged to agree to the conditions laid down by the person he nominated to form a cabinet Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck who first assured himself of a parliamentary majority and a homogeneous cabinet beThe ensuing period up to 1868 witnessed a fore he took office. continuing conflict between kmg and parliament for control over successiv'e ministries that ended in the triumph of the elected assembly. (See also Belgium: Administration and Social Conditions; Netherlands, The: Constitution and Government.) Sweden. Sweden was an example of another country where After the 1840-41 riksdag the the process was also gradual. Swedish kings recognized the need for governments to co-operate with parliament, but for a long time they refused to subject themconstitutional change within the

—

—

—

—

The conflict it when making ministerial appointments. over this issue was often bitter but again it was resolved in favour of parliament, the creation of the Liberal-Social Democrat ministry of 1917 generally being accepted as the final culmination of {See also Sweden Government, Justice and Dethis process. selves to

:

fense.

)

—

Switzerland. In their general form European cabinets resembled that in Britain, though that of the Swiss confederation remained a distinctive exception. Its federal executive is a body whose membership is fixed at seven, these being elected by the two chambers of the legislature in joint session for a period of four

—

the full parliamentary session. The presidency of the con{See federation rotates annually among these seven members.

years also

Switzerland: Government.)

The Common Problem

of Stability.

— Elsewhere

\

cabinets

by the head of state, usuallj^ after consultation with party leaders and other prominent poliExcept in Britain this process in Europe is frequently ticians. extremely laborious and lengthy. The Netherlands, because of the finely balanced political situation after World War II, saw some are formed by a person designated

particularly prolonged attempts.

In 1956

it

took no

less

than

121 days to form a government and this followed on similar, if Several shorter, crises in 1952 (68 days) and 1951 (49 days). postwar Italian cabinets also had lengthy periods of gestation:

Fernando Tambroni was confirmed in office early in 1960 more than two months' intense maneuvering and even then it

that of

after

failed to

command

a true majority in the lower chamber.

I

|

\ I '

;

[

—

CABINET Such difficulties arose because of the absence of parties strong enough by themselves to command stable majorities in parliament a reflection of the much greater political fragmentation found in most continental European countries as compared with Great Britain. In all but a few continental countries coalition cabinets are the rule and tend to be much less stable than single-party

—

ministries.

Both France and Italy have a particularly unhappy and continuWith the exception of the two French empires France had only two long-lived cabinets after 1789 those of the comte de Villele (1822-28) and Francois Guizot (1840During the remaining ten years of the July monarchy 48 j. (1830-40) there were 14 cabinets and the third republic between September 1870 and June 1940 gave rise to no less than 110. The record of the fourth republic (Jan. 1947-May 1958) followed the same pattern^^21 cabinets in office in addition to several others which, once formed, failed to receive parliamentary approval. Similarly, in Italy there were 67 ministries in the 74 years between 1848 and 1922 and 12 in the first 10 years of the republic ing tradition in this respect.

—

(1948-58).

Although frequent changes of cabinet have not always reflected the eight De Gasperi ministries bea basic political instability tween Dec. 1945 and Aug. 1953 being a case in point it remains generally true that cabinets on the European continent have had much shorter lives than those in Great Britain and also much Countries greater difficulty in the execution of their programs. faced by such difficulties have had recourse to various constitutional devices to maintain some form of governmental continuity. Both the Netherlands and Italy from time to time resorted to cabinets whose task was limited to the carrying on of current business "caretaker" ministries whose continuance in power depended on avoiding major political issues. Such was the case of the De Geer cabinet of 1926 in the Netherlands, which deliberately refrained from drawing up a political program; the 1960 Tambroni cabinet in Italy had a similar origin. In France and the postwar Federal Republic of Germany attempts were made to erect formal constitutional barriers against frequent cabinet crises provoked by adverse parliamentary votes. The most severe of these was the

—

—

Presidents

—

provision in the

545 German

republic's Basic law (art. 67) that the

Bundestag can express its lack of confidence in the federal chancellor only by electing a successor by the majority of its members the so-called "constructive vote of no confidence," It is doubtful, however, whether the existence of this provision, by itself, explains the remarkable stability of cabinets in postwar Germany. There the personal political strength of Konrad Adenauer was the decisive factor, just as in other countries individuals of the stature of Alcide de Gasperi (or, earlier in the century, Giovanni GioHtti) succeeded in maintaining apparently impregnable parliamentary positions for long periods. In such circumstances cabinets sometimes became so transparently dependent on the power of a single person that accusations of dictatorship

followed from frustrated members of the opposition. Even such powerful individuals nevertheless remain subject to ultimate parliamentary support. This is not th'e case in presidential-type regimes that some countries resorted to after failing to The maintain stable government with parliamentary regimes.

need for greater governmental stability was one of the powerful motives for the constitutional changes in France brought about by the fifth republic. The result in that case which has been described as "a Hanoverian monarch masquerading as a Republican President" (P. M. Williams and M. Harrison, De Gaulle's Republic, Longmans, Green & Co., Inc, New York, N,Y., 1960.)^ is a variation on a constant theme in European politics: the search for a form of executive power which can overcome the weaknesses so often displayed by cabinets dependent on parhamentary ap-

—

(R. Pr.)

proval.

UNITED STATES In the United States, the president's cabinet is altogether diffrom the British cabinet. It is composed of the heads of the co-ordinate executive departments, but the members do not have seats in congress and their tenure does not depend on favourable votes on administration measures. The existence of the cabinet and its operation are matters of custom rather than law, for ferent

the cabinet as a collective

The

body has no

legal existence or

power.

constitution contains no mention of and no provision for a

546 Presidents

CABINET

CABINET Secretaries of the interior

547

;

CABINET

548 net office, the first being Frances Perkins,

who served

as secretary

of labour under Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Washington's habit of calling regular and frequent cabinet meetings began a tradition that has been followed by every succeeding president. But it is important to remember that the cabinet exists solely to help the president carry out his functions as the nation's

He

chief executive.

The

he wishes. fore

making

virtually free to use

is

president

may

it

or not to use

consult with cabinet

it

as

members bemaking

a particular decision but the responsibility for

that decision

is

nevertheless completely his.

members

to consult with cabinet

there

choose they can do about

If he does not

is little

cabinet meetings and circulating in advance information on the items to be discussed. It also supervised the implementation of decisions reached at the cabinet table. The purpose of these arrangements was twofold; first, to try to cut down on the unplanned and haphazard nature which often characterizes cabinet discussions, and secondly, to try to increase the efficiency with

which presidential decisions made in the cabinet meeting are carried out. The secretariat had some success in accomplishing these ends, mostly because the machinery suited the working habits of President Eisenhower. Other presidents, with different methods of decision-making, however, might not have found the secretariat

A story is told about a disagreement in Abraham Lincoln's cabinet that found the president's viewpoint opposed by all the

as congenial or as helpful.

members of the group. Lincoln called for a vote and announced the results "One aye, seven nays: the ayes have it." The story may not be true, but it illustrates the nature of the relationship

his cabinet.

Ordinarily,

party as he.

Some may be

it.

—

Many

different factors enter into the president's selection of

members are of the same political personal friends who are not well known to the public; others may be political leaders of national reputation. Normally, the group contains representatives from different sections of the nation. The desires of pressure groups may all

between the president, who makes final decisions, and the cabinet, which only advises. Some presidents have relied on their cabinets a great deal and others have done so relatively little. The great variety in usage is accounted for by differences in the kinds of problems under consideration and, most importantly, by the differences in ability, temperament and working habits among indi-

example, will be interested in the appointment of the secretary of agriculture, business groups in the secretary of commerce, labour groups in the secretary of labour. Some men are chosen for their

vidual presidents.

legislative experience; others are selected for their executive ex-

The

cabinet meets regularly, usually once a week, at a time fixed by the president. Attendance at meetings has not, from the time Washington invited his attorney general, been restricted exclusively to those department heads

who

are of cabinet

rank.

Presidents have exercised their discretion in inviting to meetings, either on a regular or an occasional basis, other high government officials. A significant expansion in the number of such officials

occurred under Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman and D. Eisenhower. The vice-president, for example, was more often invited to attend cabinet meetings, as was the U.S. During the Eisenhower representative to the United Nations. administration, for instance, the number of regular and equal participants at cabinet meetings was about 20. The business of cabinet meetings is initiated either by the president or the members. Usually the meeting opens with some comments by the president, either presenting a problem for discussion Depending on the or passing along information to the group. nature of his remarks, a round-table discussion or individual comments will follow. Typical items of business include: presidential

D wight

speeches that relate to the over-all policies of the administration, legislative proposals being prepared for presentation to congress, the state of public opinion on matters of current concern and reports by individuals on departmental activities of general interest to the group. When the president has finished with his business, cabinet members are given their chance to raise questions for consideration by the tradition of proceeding around the table. Usually the order of speaking has followed the order in which the depart-

—

ments were established the secretary of state having the first opportunity and so on to the most recent addition to the group. The importance and success of cabinet sessions have varied greatly over the years. Some have been of help to the president; others have been more nearly a waste of time. The cabinet, with a few early exceptions, does not take votes. The president may, on occasion, summarize a discussion and state what seems to him to be the general sense of the meeting. He may or may not announce his decision at the meeting. Cabinet transactions are. by public custom, kept secret. No formal or detailed records are kept. Information about them (except for occasional "leaks" to the press) comes mostly from the memoirs or remiA notable exception ocniscences of former cabinet members. curred when a newspaperman was given, for use in his book, extensive notes taken in President Eisenhower's cabinet meetings. (Robert J. Donovan, Eisenhower: the Inside Story, 1956.)

made

several changes affecting his cabiHis previous experience in military organizations, where the emphasis was on regularized staff procedures,

President Eisenhower

net machinery in 1954.

made him want

to organize his political advisers in a similar sys-

influence the selection of certain

Farm

groups,

for

perience in government or in business. Still others will be men with special talents, whether lawyers, diplomats or party politicians.

While nominations to the president's "official family" must be confirmed by the senate, confirmation is normally given promptly and without objection. Only six nominees were rejected during the period from 1789 to 1960. Cabinet appointment is for the duration of the administration; however, the president may dismiss any member at pleasure, without approval of the senate. Dismissals are rare, but individual resignations have been fairly common. Department heads may also be removed by impeachment, but such action is extremely rare. In 1876 impeachment proceedings were brought against Secretary of War William W. Belknap but he was not convicted. Under the Presidential Succession act of 1886 the cabinet was given a special role in the event that both the president and vicepresident died, resigned, were removed or were unable to serve. The members of the cabinet were next in line of succession, beThe ginning with the senior member, the secretary of state. Presidential Succession act of 1947 modified this procedure to place the speaker of the house of representatives and the president pro tempore of the senate ahead of the cabinet members. The cabinet is only one of many sources of advice and assistance that the president may use in fulfilling his executive responsibilities. LTnder President Eisenhower, for example, questions of foreign policy were considered by the national security council, and cabinet

business was restricted to domestic affairs. are often

more

interested in their

own

Since cabinet

members

particular departments than

in the president's broad over-all problems, he

must sometimes turn

and groups outside the cabinet. See also references under "Cabinet" in the Index volume. (C. H. P.; R. F. Fe.)

for advice to individuals

—

BiBLiocR.WHY. William Ivor Jennings, Cabinet Government, 3rd (1959); E. R. Turner, The Cabinet Council of England in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 1622-17S4, 2 vol. (1930-.i2) A. B. Keith, The Constitution of England From Queen Victoria to George VI, 2 vol. (1940), The British Cabinet System, 2nd ed. by N. H. Gibbs (1952); Herbert Morrison, Government and Parliament (1954); H. V. Wiseman, The Cabinet in the Commonwealth (1958); A. L. Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (1S96)5 P. M. WilD. W. S. Lidderdale, The Parliament of France (1951) liams, Politics in Post-War France (1954); P. M. Williams and M. Harrison, De Gaulle's Republic (1960); P. Campbell, "The Cabinet and the Constitution in France, 19S6-5S," Parliamentary Afairs, vol, xlii, no. 1 (1959) S. King-Hall and R. K. Ullman, German Parliaments (1954); J. F. Golay, The Founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (1958) M. Mancini and U. Galeotti, Norme ed usi del parlame'nto italiano (1887); D. Mack Smith, Italy (1959); R. Prj'ce, "Parliamentary Government in Italy Today," Parliamentary Affairs', E. van Raalte, The Parliament of the Kingdom of vol. vii, no. 2 (1955) the Netherlands (1959) E. Hastad, The Parliament of Sweden (1957); R. F. Fcnno, Jr., The President's Cabinet (1959). ed.

;

;

;

;

He set up a cabinet secretariat (a secretary to the cabinet and one assistant) with responsibility for planning an agenda for tem.

members.

;

CABINET FURNITURE CABINET FURNITURE

the term used to describe

549

need for seat furniture developed portable cabinet furniture, and even in cultures, such as the Japanese, in which few specialized furniture forms have developed, storage pieces are to be found. Characteristically, a piece of cabinet furniture must have a The simplest storage pieces fixed frame with a movable panel. are boxes and similar containers. A box is formed of six sides, one of which is a lid that opens to allow access; the lid may slide or it may be fastened with hinges, hasps or catches. Boxes have been made from hide, wood, bark, metal, paper products and ceramics, sometimes covered with leather or fabric. Other containers related to the box (barrels, crates, ceramic vessels) have been used for storage; clay vessels were commonly used in most

Chinese furniture is portrayed in very early paintings, and so little change in style has occurred through the centuries that the forms are difiicult to date. Many Chinese boxes are made of hide, stitched at the corners, but Chinese boxes of black lacquer from the 8th century are preserved in the Shoso-in (the imperial museum at Nara, in Japan). Cabinets, chests and desks were made in red and black lacquer. Cabinet pieces also were constructed of a variety of hardwoods, sometimes inlaid, lacquered or carved. Chests and large cupboards, masterpieces of careful joinery, were decorated with brass and bronze pulls, hinges and mounts. An important piece of furniture was the scholar's desk, sometimes a writing table with drawers, on high legs, sometimes a table with compartments and drawers extending down to the floor. Boxes and chests for storing books and writing equipment were used as supplementary desk furniture. Cabinet furniture in Korea was

ancient cultures.

similar to Chinese.

is

varied pieces of furniture whose chief use

migratory peoples who had

A

is

for storage.

all

the

Even

little

great variety of storage furniture evolved

from the box.

A

example, becomes a chest or cabinet. Such improvements as drawers (essentially boxes within a box), interior compartments and fall fronts led to the development of specialized furniture forms such as the chest of draw-ers and the desk. Storage areas sometimes are incorporated into seat furniture, producing dual-purpose pieces. Not all cabinet furniture is movable. From antiquity the practice of making storage space a part of interior architecture has persisted: such pieces often have been constructed in cabinetwork,

box that

is

lifted off the floor

on

legs, for

fitted into the structure of the building.

The

survey of the forms of development of furniture styles see

rest of this article is a historical

cabinet furniture;

for the

FLrRNiTURE Design.

ANCIENT WORLD AND FAR EAST Some

pieces of Egyptian cabinet furniture have survived, other types are known from wall paintings and bas-rehefs.

wooden box was

and

The

dominant form, often painted with representations of rulers, deities and symbolic forms. The most imposing Eg\'ptian boxes were the sarcophagi. Laminated wood often was used in making the tops and ends of these cases, thin riven layers of wood being pegged together, the grain of one layer perthe

pendicularly to the grain of adjoining layers. The resulting product was highly durable. Some sarcophagi were decorated inside

and

out.

Actual pieces of cabinet furniture from the ancient near east have not survived, but such furniture is known from extant art. As in Egypt, the box was the standard form, ranging in size up to the very large containers in which the treasures of kings were stored. The boxes (which probably were made of wood) often were decorated with designs similar to architectural details.

Greek cabinet furniture is known both from surviving examples and from pictorial representations. The box was still the standard form, made of wood and often painted. Cofifins made in the Crimea in the 4th century B.C. testify to the skill of Greek carpenters. The arched or gabled lids of these pieces were made from pegged laminated wood, much in the manner of the Egyptian sarcophagi. Decoration included applied stucco or terra-cotta ornament in relief, brightly painted, and marquetry of rare woods. Pottery boxes with removable lids also were used for storage; some extant examples are decorated with red-figured paintings, like those found on Greek table pottery. Roman furniture is known from surviving pieces as well as from representations in fresco and vase paintings. Boxes varied in size up to large wooden chests for storing money and clothing. Treasure chests, also made of wood, covered with bronze plates or bound with iron, had hinged lids secured by heavy locks. Paintings of chests found at Pompeii show that the Romans were familiar with framed paneling; i.e., panels filling in a rigid structural framework, fastened with dowels or pegs. Previously the size of a chest had been limited by the size of its surface planks; with the framedpaneling technique, however, larger surfaces, of lighter weight, could be assembled. Chests often were supported on lion feet. Wall paintings at Pompeii show cupboards, apparently attached to the walls, with paneled doors and, probably, shelves inside.

Fewer specialized furniture forms were developed in Japan, and those were easily movable. The box, made from basketry, lacquer or wood, was standard, though with many variations. The stationary desk, evolved from the low -table, was an extension from a

bay window^ with

a writing surface

and compartnients

for hold-

ing writing equipment.

EUROPE AND AMERICA Middle Ages.

— As

late as the mid-12th century chests that were up in churches to collect money w'ere often mere tree trunks, hollowed out by chopping, chiseling or burning; lids, if they existed, were made of rough, heavy boards. Five massive and unique chests from the 12th century, preserved in the Valere Castle church in Valais canton, Switz., are constructed of wide timbers secured with broad-headed nails and stand on four heavy legs; they are decorated with elaborate chip carving and open Romanesque arches. Chests of the period sometimes were covered with leather, bound with iron straps or scrollwork, inlaid, carved or decorated with painted plaster reliefs, though more often they were undecorated. Easily transportable and readily procurable, chests were the most widely used pieces of furniture of the middle ages, in contemporary illuminations often seen arranged around walls, and used for both seating and storage. When framed paneling came into general use at the beginning of the 15th century, in the Burgundian Netherlands, cabinet furniture design began to evolve rapidly, culminating in this era in the upright cupboard, usually containing shelves and sometimes doors. The draw^er was an innovation of the ISth century, originating probably in Burgundy or Flanders as a small portable chest inset

stalled inside a larger piece of cabinet furniture.

The armoire,

movable cupboard fitted with doors, shelves and sometimes drawers and most often used for storage of clothing, also probably developed during this period. The desk, a box fitted with a hinged hd and placed upon legs, also began its evolution during the middle ages. Dual-purpose furniture began to develop, chairs and tables sometimes containing compartments or drawers for storage. Renaissance. The Renaissance style in furniture, beginning in Italy, showed a strong architectural influence: the function of a piece often was subordinate to its design. The box persisted in an important form known as the cassone, a marriage coffer used for storing the household linens that formed an essential part of These magnificent coffers, with bold and the bride's dowry. a

—

massive feet shaped like lions, other animals or claws, w-ere raised on low platforms. They were richly adorned with carving, gilding, intarsia or gesso, and commonly were painted inside and out with scenes from the Bible or classical mythology. The family arms often were emblazoned on the front. The desk evolved further; in some instances a slant-top box was put atop a frame, other examples contained drawers below a flat surface. Large storage cupboards, sometimes in plain walnut, sometimes painted and gilded, were widely used; painted cupboard? were commoner in the early Renaissance, carved ones later. Cupboards contained shelves above, sometimes concealed behind small doors; a large open shelf in the middle; and shelves below, also concealed by doors. Very large cupboards were made in two pieces. The style of the Italian Renaissance, of course, soon came to

CABINET FURNITURE

550

France and the Low Countries, though French furniture of the 16th century tended to be more delicate than the Italian. Chests remained an important form, their ornament often showing the influence of the designer Jacques Androuet du Cerceau. Cabinet pieces were inlaid with coloured woods, semiprecious stones, ivory, nacre and marble. Large cupboards were architectural in form. The armoire, which now came into wide use, was a tall, movable cupboard (the ancestor of the wardrobe) made in two sections, the top fitted with many small drawers, the bottom containing shelves, concealed behind one or two large doors, for storing clothing. A cabinet piece common in Spain was the vargueno, a chest of drawers placed on a high wood and iron frame. Its drawers were concealed behind a fall front, strap-hinged with iron or bronze, The drawer which, when dropped, became a writing surface. fronts were often painted and the front sometimes was painted and The vargueno combined Moorish inlaid with woods and ivory. decorative elements with an essentially Renaissance structural affect the design of cabinet furniture in

form.

The

furniture of England did not

come under

Italian Renaissance

influence until about 1S20, and even then the influence

was seen

mainly in superficial italianate decoration on essentially medieval forms. ideas,

Workmen from

the continent brought with

them new

however, and by the middle of the 16th century an indi-

vidual English style was beginning to evolve. Enrichment of flat surfaces by painting, inlaying or carving was characteristic. The chest remained an important cabinet piece, a well-known type

being the Nonesuch chest, the front of which was decorated with a representation of Nonesuch palace in parquetry. Because of their resemblance to German chests inlaid with architectural scenes, it

is

believed that these were

workmen.

They were

in

Germany

or by

German

England.

inlaid furniture in

Toward

made

largely responsible for the popularity of

the end of the 16th century the court cupboard Began

This was a large piece, usually in two sections, each with open shelves, for the display of plate and other imThe earliest examples had heavy, turned portant possessions. baluster supports and often were intricately carved. A chest with evolution toward the end of the century. Desks drawers began its generally were merely portable bo.xes placed on tables or frames. its

evolution.

Baroque.

— The

17th-century baroque ideal,

as

reflected

in

furniture, required that a piece be conceived as a single unit,

aU

its

design elements contributing to a harmonious

The play

of light

total

effect.

and shadow over the surface was an important

design consideration, and broken pediments, heavy moldings and twisted cclumns were borrowed from architecture. The influence of the orient

was strong during

this period.

Lacquer furniture,

screens and boxes began to be imported into Europe from India and the far east, and panels and pieces of oriental lacquer were

incorporated into case pieces made in Europe. By the end of the 17th century lacquer pieces imitating eastern products were being made in Europe. Tropical woods also were imported and used in furniture making. Italian cabinets and cupboards of walnut and ebony had heavy, richly carved framework and panels inlaid with marble and semiprecious stones, the entire piece being supported

numbering four to eight. In Flanders mastwo above and two below, were made from oak, elaborately carved and inlaid. The linen-press, developed at this time in Flanders or Holland and usually made of oak, was a contrivance for pressing napkins, sheets and other

by heavy, turned

legs,

sive cupboards with four doors,

linen articles.

During the late 17th and early 18th century Andre Charles Boulle (g.f.) designed and built cabinet furniture veneered with tortoise shell or exotic woods and inlaid with brass or ivory, and though other craftsmen executed pieces in the same style, Boulle's name is generally associated with this furniture. Boulle's case pieces included the cabinet, cabinet-on-frame, desk, chest of drawers and coffer. The workmanship was of the highest quality, and pieces often were embellished with

heavy

gilt

mounts that pro-

tected the corners.

In England significant changes and developments in furniture design did not occur until after the middle of the 17th century.

The

taste for oriental lacquers became widespread, and a process of imitating these works, called japanning (q.v.), was developed. In 16S8 John Stalker and George Parker wrote A Treatise on

Japaning and Varnishing as

well

as

a

.

description

.

.

,

which included patterns for designs

of

the

process.

Cabinets-on-stands,

japanned or with oriental panels incorporated, generally had two doors concealing numerous small drawers or compartments. The cabinet rested on a carved and sometimes gilded or silvered stand. During the reign of William and Mary the taste of the Low Countries was brought to England by the court and the workmen they imported. The chest-on-frame, often called a highboy, a chest of drawers resting on a frame that held it above the floor, was an important form, commonly made of walnut wood. Drawer fronts were inlaid and surfaced with veneer made from walnut burl; drawer pulls shaped like teardrops, and engraved quatrefoil escutcheons, further ornamented the drawer fronts. The base of the chest had four or six trumpet-shaped, turned legs connected by flat stretchers. The dressing table, sometimes called a lowboy, a cabinet form closely resembling the lower section of the cheston-frame, was made in one piece, and had drawers and trumpetshaped legs and stretchers. Writing furniture was developed in a variety of forms. The chest with a desk enclosed, the latter fitted with pigeonholes and small drawers, was one of the most ingenious types.

At the beginning of the ISth century, during the reign of Queen Anne, another style influenced by the contemporary furniture of Holland came into fashion. Ornamentation was reduced to a minimum, and curved lines began to replace the square lines of the William and Mary period. The cabriole leg, derived from the curve of an animal's leg, adapted from classical styles, and terminating in a pad, trifid or ball-and-claw foot, became the standard furniture support. Stretchers, commonly seen on earlier pieces of cabinet furniture, were discarded. The chest-on-frame and dressing table remained standard forms, differing from their predecessors chiefly in their simplicity and in the use of the cabriole leg

with no stretchers. The double chest of drawers, made in two parts with drawers above and below, was an innovation. In some pieces the drawers extended to the floor; others were elevated on The desk contained an inner compartment short cabriole legs. of pigeonholes and drawers, the front usually falling to form a writing surface; drawers were set in below and the whole rested

on cabriole legs. American colonial furniture

in the 17th century varied from one region to another according to the nationality of the settlers, though English furniture design was predominant. The chest of drawers, chest-on-frame, dressing table and desk made in .America were conceived in the forms of pieces being made in England, but,

since there

was a

lag in the transmission of styles,

America was

always behind the current English taste. Some of the colonial pieces were of high style and as fine as anything made in London; others, made by less skilled craftsmen, had a naive provincial quality.

—

— —

—

Rococo. France. The rococo style one of the leaders in which was Juste Aurele Meissonier {q.v.), designer, architect, goldsmith and sculptor characterized by great delicacy, movement and asymmetry, directly affected French furniture design only from about 1735 to 1765. The central features of the style were With this were comthe use of the C-curve and the S-shape. bined ribbons, trophies, floral and shell motifs. The cabriole leg was refined to great delicacy and hghtness. Chinese themes were popular, and pagodas, waterfalls, birds and Chinese figures are

common

decorative motifs. Charles Cressent {q.v.), a pupil of Boulle, was the leading exponent of the regence style, excelling in the quality of ormolu (brass made to imitate gold) mounts he applied profusely to furniDuring the regence period also marquetries of coloured ture. woods began to replace ebony and ebonized woods. The commode, derived from the late 16th-century Italian chest, was one of the most important furniture forms,' developed in

France between 1705 and 1710 and made in quantity by 1720. three large drawers (the technical joinery problems involved in making large drawers having now been

The commode contained

—

CABINET FURNITURE I

I

j

I

1

[

I

1

'

.

\

overcome) running the width of the piece, with a row of smaller drawers above. The bovibe or swollen shape was introduced at this period, the curvilinear form being incorporated into the body of the piece as well as applied to externals such as legs or tops. The sides and front of a bomhe commode undulated in sinuous curves, and the drawers were generally so well fitted that only a hairline betrayed their existence. This form was adopted and further enriched by rococo cabinetmakers. Chinese lacquer panels or marquetry inlays were incorporated into the front of the bombe commode, the top was marble, and the corners and legs were covered by ormolu or silver mounts, the most celebrated makers of which were Jacques and Philippe Caffieri {see Caffieri). The desk or secretaire, another important form, was characterized by a drop front that, when dropped, served as a writing sur-

when closed, concealed small drawers arranged in rows; below was a door or doors concealing shelves or drawers. The tambour a sort of flexible shutter made of thin strips of wood face and.

—

—

glued to cloth and running in a groove which developed at this time was sometimes incorporated into the secretaire. The movable bookcase, inlaid and mounted with ormolu, evolved during the Louis period. The writing table, which began to appear at the end of the

XV

regence period, usually had three drawers, the whole piece being supported on four cabriole legs. The top was covered with leather or coarse woolen cloth called biire, from which the French word for desk, bureau, was derived. A cartonnier or set of shelves or drawers sometimes formed an integral part of the bureau, but more commonly it was a separate piece set on the bureau top. The cyhnder-top bureau, the original roll-top desk, was a development of rococo cabinet furniture. Incorporated into the front of this type of bureau was a sliding door of tambour construction that could be pulled back to reveal a set of drawers and shelves. Slides could be pulled out and used as writing surfaces. The cabriole legs of the bureau were ornamented with gilt mounts. Cupboards had glass-paneled doors opening upon an interior fitted with shelves. The corner cupboard, originally intended for utilitarian purposes, by the middle of the ISth century had be-

come an elegant piece of drawing room furniture. These cupboards, of the same height as the commode, were essentially triangular in shape, supported on three or four short legs, with marble or wooden tops; they were inlaid or decorated with lacquer and had elaborate metal mounts. England. In England during the early 18th century the influence of the continent could be observed in the furniture designed by the architect William Kent (q.v.). The essential lines of his pieces were classical, in keeping with the architecture of the Palladian houses they were designed to grace; the ornament was intricate, curvilinear and baroque. Kent designed chests of drawers, organ cases and desks as well as tables, chairs and room in-

—

teriors.

Although there was resistance to rococo in England, by 1740 it had begun to appear. The commode remained an important form, varying from a simple chest containing three drawers to a piece that incorporated swell fronts with doors and drawers, the whole supported on elaborate cabriole legs. The chest-on-chest (highboy

and tallboy), generally made in two sections, had drawers above and below. The clothes cupboard, a closely related form, had in its upper part doors, behind which were shelves or drawers, and in its lower part drawers. Both the chest-on-chest and clothes cupboard generally rested on four bracket feet. Library furniture was developed in great profusion. The desk had several forms, the chief being the bureau-bookcase and writing or library table. The bureau-bookcase had a case with two doors (either glass-paned or solid) and interior shelves above; the bottom had a fall front (which formed a writing surface) concealing interior compartments and, below this, drawers. The feet were of the bracket variety, or the w'hole rested on cabriole legs, ornamented in the French (rococo), Gothic or Chinese style. The writing or library table, related to the French bureau, had a flat top utilized as a writing surface, an

empty space

in

the centre

below (which allowed a chair to be drawn up) with drawers on either side; sometimes these were wide enough to be used by two

551

persons, one on either side.

The English bookcase was more

strongly architectural than was the French model, having a pedimented top, a frieze above large doors that protected interior shelves, and doors or drawers below; sometimes a fall-front desk

was incorporated into such a piece. The cabinet-on-stand often was constructed in the Chinese style, in imitation of a Chinese cabinet.

Mahogany was the favoured wood for English furniture of the period, having been first imported about 1720 and quickly replacing walnut. Much provincial furniture, however, was made from oak and yew, executed the day. Colonial.

— France

in a simplified version of the high style of

and England were the two most important

countries in setting taste, and their influence was to be seen in almost all European countries. Colonial furniture showed the

mother country. In America the English rococo was the dominant style, and Boston, Newport, New York, Philadelphia and Charleston produced mahogany furniture that ranked with the best made in London. The furniture of Boston, Philadelphia and Charleston was noted for its profuse decoration indeed, the richness of the carving on Philadelphia case pieces has not been surpassed in American furniture and strict adherence to London models; that of New York and Newport was plainer and more amply proportioned. An important innovation in cabinet furniture was the block front, developed by the cabinetmakers of the Goddard and Townsend families (see Goddard and Townsend) of Newport, R.I. The blocking was formed by the contrast of a raised area against a recessed area. The grain of the mahogany was accentuated and the play of light and shadow over the front produced a dazzling effect. The chest, chest-on-chest, desk and dressing table, when made with a block front, generally had little carving or other influence of the

—

—

wood ornamentation.

—

Neoclassicism.

Early. With the development of the neoin which the architect Robert was one of the most important figures the commode serpentine shape and developed a semicircular front with

classic spirit in furniture design

Adam lost its

—

{q.v.)

veneered, inlaid or painted decoration.

much

the

same shape

—

The bookcase

retained

rococo predecessor, but classical decorative motifs were imposed. The wardrobe, desk, chest-onchest and chest of drawers persisted in the new style. One of the most important new developments was the sideboard, evolved from the side or serving table. Intended for use in the dining room, both for serving and for storing serving utensils, it contained drawers and compartments and had four or six tapered or turned legs. In some examples, at the rear of the wooden top there was a brass railing on which towels and napkins could be hung. Hepplewhite and Sheraton designed knife bo.xes, square or urn-shaped receptacles containing compartments for cutlery, to stand either on the sideboard or on pedestals beside it. A form associated with the sideboard and knife box was the cellaret ("little cellar"), a wooden box with zinc partitions holding ice; wine bottles were placed in it for chilling. The cellaret might be an integral part of the sideboard, concealed inside a drawer or compartment, or a separate box designed to be used near the sideboard. It usually contained a tap through which melt water could be withdrawn. Many specialized case forms associated with personal grooming began to develop: dressing tables, wash stands and shaving stands containing ingeniously designed compartments that pulled out or as

its

folded back.

American furniture was much under English influence, and the books of Hepplewhite and Sheraton {qq.v.) were widely used by colonial craftsmen, who often constructed remarkably exact interpretations of the designs. Salem and Baltimore became important centres of furniture manufacture, the cabinet pieces made by Samuel Mclntire of Salem being among the finest examples of American furniture of the period. Baltimore excelled in the production of painted furniture; on a background of red, black orwhite, colourful floral decoration was executed around panels on which were painted scenes from classical mythology. The New York cabinetmaker Duncan Phyfe produced the most highly indi-

CABINET FURNITURE

ss^

vidual neoclassical furniture, utilizing a unique combination of classical elements.

In France, neoclassicism was beginning to be noticed by the it was not seen in furniture design until the 1760s. At first, classical ornament was sparingly applied

middle of the century, but to essentially rococo

shapes; then the curved shapes began to

became rectilinear. The bombe form commodes and legs became straight, tapered and Marquetry, now of classical inspiration, was popular, as

or japanned panels,

furniture

and

ivory.

sessed.

Elizabethan

—

—

—

—

—Louis

inlaid with mother-of-pearl

—

XIV, XV and XVI were The use of power ma-

chinery in the production of most of this furniture caused it to be coarse and to lose the qualities of individuality the originals pos-

disappeared from fluted.

French revivals

familiar, although not always accurate.

straighten and eventually

were ebony and oriental lacquer panels. Boulle marquetry, which had dropped out of fashion< during the Louis XV period, was revived. French cabinet furniture forms were essentially rococo and less original than the English. The commode, secretaire, bookcase and corner cupboard were important pieces. The influence of the Louis XVI style was felt all over Europe, and excellent furniture in this style was produced in Germany, Denmark, Sweden and Italy. Empire. In the Empire style, which began to evolve at the end of the ISth century, few new cabinet forms were developed. The commode, severely rectilinear, with drawers or doors concealing shelves or compartments, remained a basic form. Commode tops were of marble or wood, and gilt mounts were used along with painted and inlaid decoration. The bureau now developed as a form separate from the secretaire. Both were desks, the former a low piece related to the writing table, the latter a tall cabinet piece with a fall front. Tall chests of drawers, bookcases and corner cupboards were all characterized by heavy application of classical ornament. In the United States the Empire style was widely adopted, New York being the great centre of cabinetmaking. Duncan Phyfe iq.v.) developed from neoclassicism to the severe classicism of the Empire; his case pieces of this period, heavy and ornately carved, lost the individual quality of his earlier products. Craftsmen who came to New York from Paris produced cabinet furniture that closely followed French models of the day. One of these was Charles Honore Lannuier, whose case pieces are characterized by use of French gilt mounts and metal inlays. Regency. An important name associated with severe classicism or the Regency style in England is that of Thomas Hope (q.v.), who in 1807 published Household Fiirtiiture and Interior Decoration. His massive case furniture included bookcases, chests of drawers, commodes and desks. George Smith's Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer's Guide (1826) contained designs for sideboards, wardrobes, commodes, bookcases and secretaires, richly carved with classical ornaments and often touched with gilt. The inclusion in this work of a low desk called a lady's secretaire, distinct from the large bookcase secretaire, heralds the era of greater specialization that was to develop in the 19th century. Biedermeier. Provincial Biedermeier-style furniture, produced in Germany and Austria from about ISIS until the middle of the 19th century, was characterized by use of geometric shapes and by freedom from excessive detail. Typical cabinet pieces, made from fruit woods, mahogany, oak and birch, were chests of drawers, bookcases, commodes, desks and small toilet pieces, exhibiting gracefully curved lines. Romanticism and Revivalism. Gothic revival furniture (which had begun to appear in the late 18th century) was characterized by the use of the pointed arch and of ornaments derived from architecture; hence the feeling of the case pieces was primarily architectural and they were heavy in general appearance even though the ornamentation or tracery might be delicate. Among the important designers of furniture in this style was A. W. N. Pugin (q.v.), better known as an architect. Gothic revival furniture was more popular in England than in France; in the United States it remained in fashion until the middle of the century. Andrew J. Downing included Gothic interiors and furniture in his influential Architecture of Cowitry Houses (18S0), showing monumental sideboards, bookcases, chests of drawers and desks that combined a multitude of details from many sources. A revived interest in the orient began to manifest itself during the first decade of the century; India and China were sources of inspiration for cabinet pieces made from bamboo and lacquer

and Turkey and the near east inspired cabinet

made from dark woods and

—

Other revivals Renaissance, Tudor, Norman, Italian, produced new versions of the cassone, armoire, court cupboard and other pieces that were most unUke their models in the detail that was applied to them.

—

MODERN TRENDS 19th Century.

—Innovations

in cabinet furniture design began around the middle of the 19th century. In New York city, John Henry Belter (generally in Louis XV style) made drawer fronts of laminated wood, which was stronger and allowed more intricate carving than did solid wood. A variety of storage pieces, from small boxes to commodes, was made from papier-mache, sometimes inlaid with mother-of-pearl, painted or gilded. Mechanical furniture appeared, a single piece of which might serve several functions; in 1S64 a portable camp chest that was a storage piece, chair, lounge and table was patented in the United States. By the 1870s aestheticism, drawing its inspiration from the orient, especially Japan, became a dominant English trend, and the furniture it produced was light, delicate and based on straight lines. E. W. Godwin and Christopher Dresser were exponents of this style; Godwin's cabinets, bookcases and sideboards were hght and simple in line. In the latter half of the century, the arts and crafts movement (q.v.) produced cabinet furniture that was free from the fussy detail of revival furniture. Some of the cabinetson-stands designed by William Morris, although based on Gothic predecessors, showed a remarkable simplicity and restraint of line. The Globe-Wernicke sectional bookcases which are considered the forerunners of modern "unit" furniture and which were developed toward the end of the 19th century and continued in use into the 20th had glass doors that could be lifted and slid into the body of the case. Art tiouveau (q.v.) was represented in furniture characterized by severe curvilinear surfaces and a use of as>Tnmetric inlay and carving; leading designers of art nouveau cabinet pieces were Henry van de Velde, Victor Horta, £mile Galle and Hector Guimard. 20th Century. Throughout Europe and America simpler cabinet shapes began to appear. Handicraft traditions were allied to modern designs in many elegant and handsome variations, culminating in the Paris style of the 1925 Exhibition of Decorative Arts. At the turn of the century in the United States the arts and crafts movement was reflected in the Mission style, using predominantly oak wood, straight lines and hea\'y proportions. The early furniture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, a leader in producing cabinet furniture, often built-in, that was harmonious with architecture, was related to that of the arts and crafts. In spite of arts and crafts, however, machine productions became a dominant factor in furniture design in the early part of the century, being advocated by such an influential institution as the Bauhaus Cabinet furniture made under this influence was un(q.v.). decorated, with highly polished wooden surfaces; Marcel Breuer,

to appear

—

—

—

among

others, designed furniture of this type to be used in his

architectural settings. in furniture design.

own

By

the 1940s Scandinavians were leaders Plywood was used in the construction of

cabinet pieces by the Finnish designer Alvar Aalto; machine production introduced panel plastics into furniture construction in America, and molded plastics also were used in manufacture of drawer trays, a notable structural simplification. The trend toward making storage areas part of interior architecture has been c^ominant throughout the century, at the expense Large wardrobes and sideboards in particuof cabinet work. lar have tended to disappear from the selections of available cabinets.

See also Design, 19th-century; Design, 20th-century.

—

Bibliography. J. Downs, American Furniture in the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum (1952) A. Drexler and G. Daniel, Introduction to Twentieth Century Design, From the Collection of the Mu;

—

.

CABLE

553

seum of Modern Art, New York (1959) S. Giedion, Mechanization Takes Command (1948) H, Havard, Diclionnaire de I'ameublement el

prevent the chain from kinking was introduced in 1816. In manufacturing iron chain

;

;

decoration depuis le Xlllme siecle jusgii'd nos jours, 3 vol. de P. Mac(lSqO-94); G. Kates, Chinese Household Furniture (194S) quoid, The Dictionarv of English Furniture From the Middle Ages to the Late Georgian Period, 2nd ed. rev. by R. Edwards, 3 vol. (1954) W. N'uttinc, Furniture Treasury, 3 vol. (1933) W. M. Odom, A History of Italian Furniture from the i4th to the Early 19th Centuries, 2nd ed., G. M. .\ Richter, Ancient Furniture: a History of Greek, 2 vol. (1920) Etruscan, and Roman Furniture (1926); H. Schmitz et al. (comps.), The Encyclopaedia of Furniture (1936); E. Singleton, Dutch and (J. T. Br.) Flemish Furniture (1907). la

;

cables, the bars are cut to the re-

quired length of link, at an angle for forming the welds and, after heating, are bent by machinery and welded, each link being inserted in the previous one before

;

;

;

CABLE, GEORGE W(ASHINGTON)

(1844-1925), U.S. author and reformer, noted for novels and stories dealing with His that city on Oct. was born in 12, 1844. New Orleans, in life first books, Old Creole Days (1879), a collection of stories first published in Scribner's Monthly, and a novel. The Grandissimes (18S01. marked Creole New Orleans as his literary province and were widely praised. These works recaptured in a delicate gallicized prose and with a whimsical play of imagination the picturesque scene and the tone of life in the old French-Spanish city. Yet they employed a realism new to southern fiction. Though Cable was the son of slaveholders and fought in the Confederate cavalry, he came to see slavery as a moral wrong and held the same view of attempts to deny the freedmen full public rights. Thus his early fiction draws strength and urgency from the overtones of moral condemnation in his handling of caste and class and authorHe used ized oppression, whether before or after emancipation. essays and public lectures to urge the cause of Negro rights, in the face of violent abuse in the southern press, and he published two collections of his social essays. The Silent South (18S5) and The Negro Question (1890). He abandoned the effort only after race discrimination in the south had become entrenched. In 1885 he settled in Northampton, Mass. Novels set mainly in the south came from his pen until he was past 70, but though better constructed they lacked the freshness and charm and also the force of moral conviction that characterized his early books. Cable died in St. Petersburg, Fla., on Jan. 31, 1925. Cable: a Biography (1956), which conSee Arlin Turner, George

W

tains

.

(A. Tr.)

an extensive bibliography.

CABLE,

originally a rope,

made

of

hemp

or other material,

was applied Although this arti-

of relatively large diameter; the term subsequently to the

heavy chain used with

ships' anchors.

primarily with chain cable, the old usage whereby the hempen anchor cable was 101 fathoms survives in the British naval measurement of a "cable's length," or one-tenth of a nautical mile. Wire rope, frequently referred to as cable, woven of many small wires, has generally superseded hemp cable in most cle deals

length of a

Wire: Wire Rope; Ropeways and composed of one or more insulated carry electrical signals or power {see

engineering applications (see

Cablew^ays

).

Electric cables,

conductors, are used to Cable. Electric). Chain anchor cables were adopted by the British navy after development in 1806-10 by Sir Samuel Brown, who later established works in south Wales for their manufacture. They are cleaner than hemp cables, are less susceptible to fouling and are less likely to be cut by rocks or damaged by enemy fire. Twisted links were suggested in 1813, and the stud the crosspiece in each link to

—

—

^ J ^ FIG

^

'-^

y

LLJ


' VII to fit out ships under the English flag to conquer, occupy and possess for England any lands they might discover in any part of the world. Sebastian may have ac-

life

—

;

;

Pascoal on the Brazilian coast. After a stay of ten days in Brazil, bay in the present state of Bahia, during which

largely at Cabralia

time some reconnoitring was done and two Masses were celebrated, the fleet sailed on to India. After his return from the orient, Cabral led an uneventful

and

died, probably in

Port.

BiBiiOGRAPHY.

—William

1520.

buried in Santarem,

Brooks Greenlee (trans, and ed.). The to Brazil and India From Contempoworks issued by the Hakluyt Society, David Ley (ed.), Portuguese Voyages, Edgar Prestage, The no. 986 (1947) (M.Ca.)

Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral rary Documents and Narratives, 2nd series, no. 81 (1938) Charles 1498-1663, Ever\-man's Library, Portuguese Pioneers (1933). ;

He was

CABRERA, RAMON

;

(1806-1877), Spanish Carlist general, who. after Tomas de Zumalacarregui. was the most famous commander of the first Carlist War and later became one of the party's most controversial figures, was bom at Tortosa on Dec. 27, 1806. Although he took minor orders, he did not make the church his career but instead became involved in the Carlist risings after Ferdinand VII's death (1833). Fanatical and daring, he soon

CABRILLO— CACERES

558

dominated the leadership of the Carlist bands in Catalonia. He was nicknamed the "Tiger of the Maestrazgo" and inspired terror by his relentless cruelty, which rose to a climax after the liberals had shot his mother (1836). Cabrera, who gained several notable victories, including that of Morella (1838). for which he was created conde de Morella, refused to recognize the convention of Vergara which ended the war in the Basque provinces in 1839 and continued to hold out against forces under Baldomero Espartero in central Spain for nearly a year. In e.xile, first in France and then in England, he objected to Don Carlos' abdication (1845) in favour of his son, the conde de Montemolin, but from 1846 Cabrera again commanded Carlist bands in Catalonia. He retired from activity in 1849, disillusioned by the failure of these risings. Although the legend of his name led the Carlists to seek his advice and support after the September revolution in 1868, he had changed after marrying an English Protestant and settling down in England. He now advocated peaceful propagation of Carlist views and refused to accept offers to

renewed

March

in 1872.

command Carlist forces when the civil war was He earned the execration of the party when, in

1875, he advised

them

to desert the cause

example in recognizing Alfonso 24,1877.

XH. He

died in

to follow his

London on

May

(C. A. H.)

,

CABRILLO, JUAN RODRIGUEZ Cabrilho)

and

(Joao

Rodrigues

1543), Portuguese navigator in the Spanish service, best known for his explorations of the west coast of the United States. Cabrillo arrived in Mexico in 1520, and participated in (d.

Cortes' siege of Mexico City in 1521 and in the conquest of Oaxaca,

Tehuantepec and Guatemala. Leaving Navidad in northwest Mexico on June 27, 1542, he explored the Pacific coast of Lower California and continued northward to latitude 38° 31', discovering San Diego bay, Santa Catalina Island, and San Pedro and Santa Monica bays. He died Jan. 3, 1543, in the vicinity of the Santa Barbara channel. His explorations were continued by his pilot, Bartolome Ferrelo, who in 1543 reached the Oregon coast. (L. N. McA.)

FRANCES XAVIER

CABRINI, SAINT (1850-1917), founder of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart and first United States citizen to be canonized, was born in Sant' Angelo, Lombardy, Italy, on July 15, 1S50, the youngest of 13 children. From the time of her first communion and confirmation at the age of seven, Frances was fired with the desire to become a missionary, and her choice of Xavier as her name in religion was determined by

this zeal.

Frustrated in her early attempts to become a religious, she agreed to take up residence in an orphanage sadly in need of re-

After three years the bishop encouraged her to take religious vows and appointed her superior of the orphanage. It was during the next three trying years that Frances Xavier became known as Mother Cabrini. the name to follow her through life. In 1880 she founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart. At the direction of Pope Leo XIII to "go west, not east," Mother Cabrini with a small group of sisters sailed for the United States in 18S9. Their work in America was to be concentrated among the neglected Italian immigrants. This journey was the first in a series that was to take her through the Americas and into Europe. She became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1909. Although plagued by ill-health most of the time. Mother Cabrini established 67 houses one for each year of her life. She died Dec. 22, 1917, and was canonized July 7, 1946. Her feast is Dec. 22. form.

—

There is no satisfactory biography of St. Frances Xavier Cabrini. popular accounts are T. Maynard, Too Small a World (1945), and L. Borden, Francesco Cabrini (1945). (E. R. V.)

Two

CABRIOLET: see Carriage. CABROL, FERNAND (1855-1937),

French Benedictine noted writer on the history of Christian worship and related subjects, was born at Marseilles, Dec. 11, 1855. He made his monastic profession in 1877 and was ordained priest in 1S82. In 1896 he was sent to Farnborough. Hampshire, Eng., as prior of the monastery which had been founded there in the previous year; seven years later he was elected abbot, an office which he held until his death on June 4, 1937.

monk and

Of Cabrol's numerous works one of the most important, because its wide circulation, was his Livre de la priere antique (1900;

of

Eng.

trans..

liturgica

Liturgical

was the

title

Prayer,

Monumenta

1922).

of an ambitious series inaugurated

ecclesiae

by Cabrol,

of which only three volumes were published.

In 1907 was completed the first volume of another project, launched in 1903, the Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie, of which the last volume appeared in 1953. D. Henri Leclerq and, after his death, H. Marrou were co-editors. Lesser works of Cabrol include the following: Les Origines liturgiques (1906); L'Angleterre chretienne avant les Normands (1909); La Priere des premiers Chretiens (1929; Eng. trans., 1930) Les Livres de la liturgie latine (1930; Eng. trans., 1932); St. BenoU (1933; Eng. trans., 1934); and The Year's Liturgy (published posthumously, 1938-40). ;

See L. Gougaud in Revue d'histoire ecclesiastigue, 33:919-922 (1937) A. des Mazis, Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographie ecclesiasxi, pp. 45 ff. (Am. S.) ;

tiques, vol.

CACCIA

(Ital. meaning "hunt." "chase"), a musical setting of a text realistically describing a hunt or similar event. The musical form originated in France about 1300 under the name chace

later was adopted in Italy. The French chace was a three-part vocal canon; the Italian caccia was a canon for two voices accompanied by an independent instrumental tenor. Polyphonic compositions with similar texts occur in Italy and France up to the late

and

16th century, but these lack the canonic and other formal features of the 14th-century caccia. The English word "catch" (q.'o.), a

type of round,

may

be derived from caccia.

See N. Pirrotta, "L'origine

e la storia della

caccia" in Rivista tnusicale

italiana, vol. 48, no. i (1946).

CACCINI, GIULIO (sometimes called Giulio Romano) (c. 1550-161S), Italian singer and composer, whose songs greatly helped to establish and disseminate the new monodic music introduced in Italy about 1600. Little is known of his early years. He was born in Rome, about 1550, but Florence, where he lived mainly from at least 1579, was the scene of his triumphs. During the last 20 years of the 16th century, while playing and singing in court masques (for some of which he composed music), he perfected, largely in the orbit of the Camerata of Count Giovanni Bardi iq.v.), the new conception of song that he revealed to the world in Le Nuove Musiche (1602). This consists mainly of solo madrigals and arias, preceded by an important explanatory preface (Eng. trans, in O. Strunk, Source Readings in Music History, 1952). The madrigals show his new manner most clearly: an elegant and pliable vocal line, scrupulously following the inflections of the

words and heightened by affective embellishments, stands out against a subdued chordal accompaniment in diatonic harmony improvised from the newly invented basso continuo. During the next 30 years many other Italian composers took up the fashion for monodies, and Caccini himself produced two more collections. He also produced an opera in 1600 (performed Florence, 1602 on the same libretto as Jacopo Peri's Euridice, to which it is markedly inferior. Caccini's was essentially a lyrical, undramatic talent. He died in Florence in Dec. 1618 and was buried there on Dec. 10. See F. Ghisi, Alle jonti della monodia (1940). (N. Fo.) )

CACERES, lies

22

same name, and 300 km. (186 mi.)

capital of the Spanish province of the

km. (14 mi.;

S. of the

Tagus

river

by road W.S.W. of Madrid. Pop. (1960 est.) 52,020 (mun.). Caceres, built on an eminence on a low east-west ridge, conThe old, upper town, with sists of two towns, an old and a new. its medieval palaces, turrets and massive walls, half Roman and half Arab, is dominated by the lofty tower of the Gothic church of San Mateo. The once-famous monastery and college of the Jesuits is

now

lower,

a hospital.

Steep steps lead

modern town containing

down through

the law courts,

four gates to the hall, sqhools

town

and the palace of the bishops of Coria. Caceres is situated on a branch railway. Caceres produces cork and leather goods, pottery and cloth, and exports grain, oil, livestock, wool, sausages and phosphates from the neighbouring mines. The town is of Roman origin and probably occupies the site of Norba Caesarina. Caceres Province, in the region of Extremadura, is the second In the largest province of Spain (1,995 sq.km. [7,701 sq.mi.]).

CACHALOT— CACTUS adjoins Portugal, and the Tagus river forms part of boundaries. Pop. (1960 est.) 587,461. The mountainous areas

northeast its

it

are in the north and south, being

formed by the Montes de Toledo and the Sistema Central. The remainder of the province is a plain with an average height of 1,300 ft. The climate is continental and extreme. The two mountain systems enclose an ample catchment area crossed from east to west by the Tagus, joined by its principal tributaries, the Alagon and Tietar rivers, which flow from the Sierras de Credos and de Gata. Among the dams recently constructed is that of Gabriel y Galan, on the Alagon, with a capacity of 924,000,000 cu.m. used for hydroelectric power and irrigation. It is an agricultural and cattle-raising region. Soil and climate permit only the dry cultivation of cereals. Olive growing is important. Cultivation of cotton, tobacco and pepper has been increased and the new dams are transforming the economy of the province. Another source of wealth lies in the great flocks of sheep which come to the winter pastures of the Tagus from the

of Leon. Pig keeping is also important. The province abounds with forests of evergreen oak and cork trees. Natural regions include La Vera, the richest, and Las Hurdes, one of the poorest and most backward in Spain where, however, conditions are being improved. The Plasencia valley is also fertile. The region enjoyed great prominence during the Roman period. The roads leading to Merida provided good communications with the rest of Spain and the bridge of Alcantara is one of the most notable Roman bridges. Alfonso IX conquered Caceres from the Moors in 1229. and it became part of Leon. Its defense and colonization by the military orders of Santiago and Alcantara gave rise hills

to large latijund'ws (land grants).

This explains the concentration

of population in large, widely separated towns.

—

Bibliography. Juste Corchon, Bibliograjia geogrdfica exiremena Miguel Orti Belmonte, Guia artistica de Cdceres y su provincia Miguel Munoz, Cuadernos de arte: Caceres (1954) Jose R. Catdlogo monumental de Cdceres (1924); Antonio Floriano,

(1955) (1954) Melida, Historia ;

;

;

(M. B.

de Cdceres (1957).

F.)

CACHALOT: see Sperm Whale. CACHAR, a district of Assam, India,

occupying the upper and bounded on three sides by hills. After the partition of India in 1947 the remnant of Sylhet district (most of which went to East Pakistan was added to it, but in 1951 the North Cachar Hills was incorporated in the new district of Mikir and North Cachar Hills. Area 2,6S8 sq.mi. Pop. (1961) 1,381,566. The scenic hills generally rise steeply and are clothed with forests. The Surma is the chief river, and its principal tributaries from the north are the Jiri and Jatinga, and from the south the Sonai and Dhaleswari. Several extensive fens, notably that of Chatla, which become lakes in time of flood, are characteristic of the plain. This is alluvial and bears heavy crops of rice, next to which in importance is tea. The tea industry employs large numbers: about 90,000 self-supporting persons were engaged in the plantations in the 1960s and the annual output is about 42,000,000 lb. Manufacturing industries are otherwise slight. basin of the

Surma

river

)

The Eastern railway town and trade

quarters

serves the district, including the head-

centre of Silchar.

The

district

is

the most thickly

populated in Assam (415 per square mile). It takes its name from the former rulers of the Kachari tribe, who settled there early in the ISth century. Later the Burmese threatened to expel the Kachari raja and annex his territory; the British, however, intervened to prevent this and, on the death of the last raja w'ithout heir in 1830, obtained the territor\ under treaty. (S. Gl.)

CACOMISTLE

(Caco-

Mi\L), or ring-tailed "cat," Bassanscus, two species of carnivores RINGTAIL

(BAssARiscus ASTUTus)

related to

the

raccoons

(q.v.),

559

not cats. Their total length is about two feet, half of which is a black-and-white-ringed bu.shy tail. They have grayish-brown body fur, pointed snouts, long ears and white patches over the eyes. B. astittus, known as the ringtail, is found from the southwestern U.S. into Central America; B. sumichrasti, the true cacomistle, ranges in Central America to Peru. They are arboreal and noc-

and feed on fruits, mice, birds, lizards and grasshoppers. is an explosive bark. The litter consists normally of (L. H. M.) CACTUS. This word, applied by the ancient Greeks to a prickly plant, was adopted by Linnaeus for curious succulent or fleshy-stemmed plants, most of them spiny and leafless. As applied by Linnaeus, the name cactus included all the family Cacturnal,

The

voice

four.

taceae.

Many

species of small cacti are suitable for

They may be planted

home

cultivation.

mixture containing a third of each of the following: one-third garden loam, one-third leaf mold (well decomposed) and one-third sand (not from beaches). Sometimes poultry charcoal and crushed old mortar are added. It is important to have a porous and quickly drained soil, for few cacti can withstand retention of water around the roots. Contrary to common belief, most cacti need water, and outdoors in dry climates should be watered about twice a week in the growing season. Many species grow well in warm weather and full sun (provided the pots are large enough to maintain soil moisture), but others require some shade. Cacti grown indoors or in greenhouses may require less frequent watering and smaller pots which do not retain soil moisture, for under these conditions overwatering is a real danger. This is particularly true in areas of high humidity. The stems have a woody skeleton overlain with thick masses of succulent tissue. They are various in character and form, being globose, cylindrical, columnar or of flattened joints. The surface may be ribbed, or developed into nipplelike protuberances, variously angular, or smooth. In nearly all species there are tufts of stiff, sharp spines, some of which may be horny and robust. These tufts are in special clearly defined areoles, each developed from a lateral bud. The aeroles are special spine-bearing areas on the stems, being universal to the family (at least in juvenile states); they occur in no other plant family. The leaves, if present, are reduced, except in Pereskia. The flowers are frequently large and highly coloured. In one group, Cereus and related genera, there is an elongated floral tube on the outer surface of which, toward the base where the tube covers the inferior ovary, are small, inconspicuous scales, which gradually increase in size upward, and at length become crowded, numerous and sepaloid. The sepaloid perianth parts shade into petaloid ones. The beauty of the flower is much enhanced by the multitude of conspicuous stamens and stigmas. In another group, represented by OpJintia, the flowers are more nearly rotate, the long tube being replaced by a short one. The ovary develops into a fleshy (often edible) fruit, that produced by the opuntias being known as the prickly pear or Indian fig. The Cactaceae are characteristic of not only the arid and semiarid areas but also of the wet tropical areas of North and South America, The only representative native to the old world is a in a

Madagascar and However, species of Opimtia and other genera were intro-

species of Rhipsalis occurring in eastern Africa,

Ceylon.

duced into the Mediterranean region shortly after the discovery of especially species of Opuntia, soon India, the Malayan region, Hawaii and Australia. The species of dry regions withstand aridity in consequence of the thickness of their cuticle and the small number of stomata. The thick fleshy stems and branches contain reserve water. The succulent fruits of some cacti are edible, and for fevers are used as a cooling drink. In many parts of Latin America the opuntias and other cacti are planted around houses, to serve as

and some of them, became widely naturalized in .•\merica,

almost impenetrable fences. Numbers of genera and species are debatable. Probably 20 or more genera and 800 or more species are worthy of recognition. Som.e of the better-known genera are described below.

Cactus (Melocactus).— This

is

also

called

melon

thistle

or

CACUS—CAD ALSO

56o

Turk's-cap cactus. It is distributed in the West Indies, Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia. The typical species. Cactus melocactus, of Jamaica, is ovoid in form, one to two feet high, and with furrows and ribs. Each spine cluster includes about five larger spines,

Australia with disastrous effects,

accompanied by smaller ones. The top of the plant is surmounted by a cylindrical crown (cephaHiim) three to five inches high, composed of reddish-brown, needlelike bristles, closely packed with cottony wool. At the summit of this crown the small rosy-pink flowers are produced, half protruding from the mass of wool, and these are succeeded by small red or pink elongated berries. The

and cactus diseases from America to destroy Opuntias are fleshy the plants.

acid fruit

is

eaten in the

Echinocactus.

— Also

West

it

is

—

—

The saguaro (Cereus giganteus), largest of all cacti United States, is a native of desert regions of southeastern California, Arizona and Sonora. The stems reach a height of SO ft. and have a diameter of more than

or elongated.

—

1. TOP OF BRANCH OF (CEREUS GIGANTEUS) LARGEST CACTUS IN THE U.S.

FIG.

SAGUARO

2 ft. At first they are unbranched, but later branches grow out at right angles from the main stem, then curve upward and continue their growth parallel to it. The stems have from 12 to 20 ribs. The white flowers open at night but persist through the next day.- The fruits, which are green oval bodies from 2 to 3 in. long, contain a crimson pulp from which the Indians prepare an excellent preserve, also using the ripe fruit as food. The nightblooming Cerei and others bear ,

large flowers.

Mamillaria antha.

—Also

and

Coryph-

called fishhook

and

pincushion cacti, these are low growing, clump forming or single stemmed. The stems have tubercles but no ribs. The flower of Maminillaria is produced between tubercles, that of Corypliantha on the upper side of the tubercle in a special area connected by an isthmus to the spine-bearing areole. Epiphyllum (Leaf Cactus). The genus occurs in the tropics and subtropics of Latin America. It differs from all the forms described above in being epiphytic and in having the branches compressed and dilated, resembling thick fleshy leaves, with a strong median axis and a woody base. The margins of these leaflike branches are crenately lobed. The large flowers are produced

—

from the of

the

showy. white.

These are among the most ornamental plants being of easy culture, free blooming and colour of the flowers ranges from rose-pink to creamy

sinuses.

family,

The

—

Opuntia (Prickly Pears and ChoUas). This is a large group occurring in North America, the West Indies and in South America as far south as Chile. Some have been introduced into

by

introduction

the

of

insects

certain

shrubs with flattened (in prickly pears

)

or cylindroidal (in chollas)

stems and branches, composed of separate joints. The leaves are fleshy and soon

succulent

native to

up to 10 or sometimes no in. high. The clear distinguishing feature from Cereus (see below) and all other cacti is bursting of the flower bud through the epidermis of the stem rib above a mature spine-bearing areole. The genus occurs from southern California to the Great Plains and Mexico. Cereus. Cereus (torch cactus) comprises numerous speMany cies, largely Mexican, South American and West Indian. supposed genera have been segregated. The stems are columnar

This situation was rem-

country.

edied

Indies.

called the barrel cactus,

southwestern United States and to Mexico. The plants have extremely fleshy stems, these being either globose, oblong or cylindrical, ribbed as in Melocactus. and armed with stiff sharp spines. The flowers, produced near the top of the plant, are large and showy, yellow and rose being the prevailing colours. Each flower grows in a special area at the upper edge of the spine-bearing areole. The flowers are succeeded by scaly fruits, unlike those of Melocactus. which are smooth. E. in^ens has 40 to "jo stem ribs, the aggregate number of the spines having been computed at 50.000 on one plant. Supposed genera have been segregated. Echinocereus (Hedgehog Cactus). The plants form clumps

in the

since they overran large tracts of

In each leaf there an areole bearing barbed or

deciduous. IS

hooked bristles (glochids) usuilly accompanied by spines. The flowers are mostly yellow or red-

The

dish.

fruits are

pear-shaped

or egg-shaped and either dry or '"

FIG.

2.

^to'W

— CHOLLA

(OPUNTIA

usually

soft

sweet,

juicy

They

ble.

from Mexico southward and the Canaries and northern Africa.

The

The

fleshy.

fruits

of

several

species of prickly pears are edi-

GELOVII) their

and

fruit

cochineal (q.v.) insect

is

in

are

cultivated

southern

for

Europe,

nurtured on the allied Nopalea

coccinelUfera and sometimes also on species of Opuntia, Plantations, called nopaleries, are established for rearing this insect,

Coccus cacti, and these often contain as many as 50,000 plants, Pereskia. This genus differs from Opuntia in having less succulent stems and in the broad, only slightly fleshy, leaves resemOne species, the Barbadoes bling those of other dicotyledons. gooseberry, climbs like the blackberry (Rubus) by recurved

—

thorns; the others are spiny shrubs.

The

flowers are subpaniculate

and white or yellowish. They are used frequently as a stock on which to graft other cacti. There are several species, mainly Mexican. See also references under "Cactus" in the Index volume.

—

BiBLiOGR.iPHY, For a conservative treatment of the genera see F. Vaupel. Cactaceae, in A. Engler an(J K. Prantl, Die natiirlichen Pftanzenfainilien, ed. 2, 21:594-651, fig. 271-288 (1925); and for a more radical (but general) consideration of the entire family, N. L. Britten and J. N'. Rose, The Cactaceae. 4 vol., Carnegie Institution Publication 248 (1919-25). For most of the species native in the United States, (L. Bn.) see L. Benson, The Cacti of .Arizona (1940).

CACUS AND

CACA, brother and sister, were originally fire Roman settlement on the Palatine hill, where "Cacus' stairs" were later situated, Virgil describes Cacus as the son of the flame god Vulcan and as a monstrous fire-breathing brigand who terrorized the surrounding countryside. Cacus stole some of the giant Geryon's cattle from Hercules (q.v.). dragging them tailfirst to his lair on the Aventine hill. But a lowing cow betrayed him and Hercules, bursting in, overpowered and killed him. There are v-arious later versions of this story, which is traditionally connected with the establishment of Hercules' oldest Roman place of worship, the Ara Maxima, in the "cattle market," deities of the early

whose name was believed

to

commemorate

these events.

W. W.)

(D. E.

CAD ALSO Y VAZQUEZ, JOSE DE

741-1782), Spanish writer notable for his "Moroccan Letters," was born in Cadiz on Oct. 8, 1741, joined the army out of patriotism, although opposed to war on principle, and was killed on Feb. 27, 1782, at the siege of Gibraltar. He is studied mainly for his Cartas marruecas (pub. in Correo de Madrid. 17S9; as a book, 1793), in which a

Moorish traveler

in

Spain makes acute observations,

prisingly relevant, about the country, satirical

Los Eruditos

(i

its

a la violeta (1772), a digest of

for the use of the pseudo-learned,

still

sur-

His knowledge

history and people.

was so successful that

its title

-'_' once became an epithet. Other works reflect the conflicting theories and tastes of the time: his rhymed tragedy, Don Sancho Garcia, conde de Costilla

at

(1771), rigidly applies neo-classical precepts, while his autobiographical prose-work, Noches liigubres (pub. in Correo de Madrid, 1789-90; as a book, 1798), foreshadows the subjective

CACTUS

Plate

strawberry

A

bS'^y.-

hedgehog cactus

spec.•|^^ nf

Cffu-. tint

(Echinocereus engelmannii)

bhioni'. at

nirjht

:»:^^^.

tct^^Ji^v;-.'^!^

CACTI

Pattern

of bio

it

IN

of a barrel

BLOOM

cactus

i

Echmocactus)

I

Plate

II

CACTUS

REPRESENTATIVE CACTI

CA DA MOSTO—CADDO attitude and disillusionment of the romantics.

His poetry. Ocios de mi juventud ("Diversions of my youth"; 1773), combines the national poetic tradition of the i6th with the new foreign sensibility of the mid-i8th century. See J. A. Tamayo, Cartas marruecas (1935) Edith F. Helman, Noches htguhres (iq^i). (Eu. F. H.) ;

CA DA MOSTO

(Cadamosto),

ALVISE

(1432-1488),

Venetian explorer and trader, who wrote one of the earliest accounts of western Africa. In 1454 he obtained permission from Prince Henry the Navigator to make a voyage to the south on a profit-sharing basis. Setting sail on March 22, 1455, he visited the Madeira group and the Canary Islands, and coasting the west Sahara arrived at the Senegal, whose lower course had already been explored by the Portuguese 60 mi. up. The Negro lands and tribes south of the Senegal, and especially the country and people of Budomel, a friendly chief reigning about 50 mi. beyond the river, are next dealt with in his narrative. Da Mosto thence proceeded toward the Gambia which he ascended some distance, but finding the natives extremely hostile he returned direct to Portugal. His account includes an interesting description of the commerce between Morocco and the western Sudan, and particularly the "silent trade" in gold. He claims to have drawn a chart of his voyage and to have observed the Southern Cross at the mouth of the Gambia. In 1456 he went out again. Doubling Cape Blanco he was driven out to sea by contrary winds and thus discovered the Cape \"erde Islands. Having explored Boa Vista and Sao Tiago and found them uninhabited, he returned to the African mainland and pushed on to the Gambia, Rio Grande and Geba. Da Mosto returned to Venice in 1463, where he subsequently held important official appointments. His narrative, first printed in the Paesi nuovamente ritrovati (1507 J, has frequently been reprinted. It is translated in "The Voyages of Cadamosto," Hakluyt Soc, 2nd ser., vol. 80 (1937). BiBLioGR-APHV. R. H. Major, The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal (1868), where da Mosto's discovery of the Cape Verde Islands is rejected; C. R. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator (1895); A. da Mosto, "II navigatore .^Ivise da Mosto," Archive Veneto, 2 (1927).

Oct. 24, 1922.

—

BiBUOGRAPHY. A. G. Gardiner, Geerge Cadbury (1923) I. A. Williams, The Firm of Cadbury (1931) Industrial Record (1944) The Bournville Village Trust: 1900-1955 (1956). (Wm. E. C.)

CADDIS FLY,

the common name for an order of aquatic Adult caddis flies, some of which superresemble moths, range from l.S to 40 mm. in length, and have a pair of long to very long antennae. Mouthparts are reduced except for long palps or feelers. In repose the two pairs of membranous wings are held rooflike over the body and have a moderate number of longitudinal veins but few crossveins. Males of a few species have scales on the head and wings; in all other caddis flies the body and appendages are hairy but not scaled. The young larvae, or caddis worms, with the exception of a few species found in ocean water or in damp moss, live in fresh They have distinct hard heads, water. ficially

three pairs of thoracic legs and a pair of hooks at the end of the abdomen. The mature larvae transform to pupae, which are very much like mummified adults. The adults feed only on water and nectar. Generally the mated female crawls into the water and lays her eggs on or under a submerged object. The larvae are omnivorous, feeding chiefly on microorganisms; in a few genera they are predators on other insects. Larvae of one group construct a fixed retreat and a net of some sort, eating the food strained from the water or caught on the net. Larvae of the family Rhyacophilidae are free-living, predaceous on other insects in

(G. R. Ce.)

Cadbury taught

in a

his experience there

Birmingham adult school for many years convinced him that bad housing lay at the

root of much social evil. In his private capacity he acquired land adjoining the factory and in 1895 he began to build working-class dwellings which were unusual for their amenities, in particular their

ample gardens.

He

out reserving them for his

sold, leased or rented these

experiment on an economic class community. Bournville, as an ban development, set the pattern for housing and town-planning schemes. to put his

his financial interest in

houses with-

own employees, intending from

the

first

and to build up a multiexample of controlled subursubsequent state and private In 1900 Cadbury renounced the estate and founded the Bournville Vilbasis

as

by 1960, owned 1,000 ac. at Bournville, as well agricultural land, and engaged in research and other activities

in

furtherance of

lage trust which,

its

;

insects, the Trichoptera.

CADBURY, GEORGE

and

;

;

—

(1839-1922). British businessman and social reformer, who, with his elder brother Richard, was a founder of the modern Cadbury cocoa and chocolate manufacturing business, is chiefly remembered for his innovations in promoting the welfare of working men and in particular for improving the conditions in which they were employed and housed. He was born at Birmingham on Sept. 19. 1839, of long Quaker ancestry. The brothers took over their father's decaying business in April 1861 and, gaining a reputation for quality, built up a huge concern with interests in Great Britain and overseas. In 1879 their factory was moved from the heart of industrial Birmingham to a rural site outside the city which they called Bournville. On Richard's death in 1899 the business became a private company with George Cadbury as chairman. Working conditions and social security measures were introduced which were much in advance of their times.

561

he became chief proprietor of the London Daily News (afterward the News Chronicle) in 1901, and his family later acquired other newspapers, including the Star (1909), later incorporated in other newspapers. Cadbury died at Birmingham on press,

the water.

^ChT

•wliIX'^

All others construct a portable

'^^^ °^ mucous secretion, sand grains, bits °f leaves or sticks, etc., with only the larval

Ji!i

ff!!;!^''/ "^liw

head and thoracic legs protruding from the case. Mature case-making larvae attach the case to a solid object, then pupate within it. Other larvae construct a cocoon

.Tl

for pupation.

When fully mature the pupa cuts its way out of the case or cocoon by using its strong, sawlike mandibles. It wriggles out of its house, then swims to the surface of the water and transforms to the adult

ADULT CADDIS FLY Many northern species have only (RHYACOPHILA FENES stage. TRA) (ABOUT FIVE TIMES 3 single generation per year; others may NATURAL SIZE) have more. Caddis flies had already evolved about 200,000,000 years ago, as shown by fossil representatives in Triassic strata. About 5,000 living species have been described and classified in about 25 families; they are found on all the continents. Caddis flies are extremely abundant in practically all non-polluted fresh water and constitute an important segment of such aquatic communities. The primitive forms of all major groups live in cold streams (in which the order originally evolved), but over the aeons various lines have colonized warmer water and evolved into specialized genera and families, many of which now abound in tropical fresh-water habitats. Bibliography. G. Ulmer, "Trichoptera" in Kocherfiiegen von den Sunda-Inseln (1951); C. Betten, Caddis Flies, or Trichoptera of New York State (1934) H. H. Ross, Caddis Flies, or Trichoptera, of Illinois (1944), The Evolution and Classification of the Mountain Caddisfiies (1956). (H. H. R.) a North American Indian linguistic stock, applied also to specific tribes and to archaeological remains. Caddoanspeaking peoples occupying most of the eastern Great Plains area

—

;

founder's aims.

George Cadbury also did a great deal for the evangelical side of the work of the Society of Friends (Quakers) he was especially interested in bringing about the unity of the Christian churches and was one of the founders of the National Free Church council. In order that Liberal views should be expressed in the ;

CADDO,

were the Arikara and Pawnee (qq.v.) of the Dakotas and Ne-

CADE—CADIZ

b 62

braska; the Wichita and Kitsai of Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas; and the Caddo proper consisting of three loose confederacies: Kadohadacho (Petit Caddo, Upper Nasoni and Nanatsoho), Hasinai (Nacogdoche, Anadarko, Lower Nasoni and others), and Natchitoches (Doustioni and Ouachita). Scattered farmsteads and hamlets of domed grass lodges and clay-walled huts with associated ceremonial centres of temple mounds were distributed along the Neches and Angelina rivers in Texas and the main course of the Red river from west central Louisiana into eastern Oklahoma and southwestern Arkansas. This is the area also of the Caddoan archaeological complex which has produced so many striking examples of American Indian workmanship. Throughout the whole area archaeological research shows the Caddoan tenancy to be ancient.

The Caddo proper may first have been seen by De Soto's party The first adequate descriptions come from the survivors of La Salle's last voyage. The Caddo played an important role in in 1542.

early French and Spanish colonial ventures, and observers were

impressed with the complexity of their culture. Advanced horticulture by the women was supplemented by the hunting of the men. There was a stable social stratification. A hereditary upper group marked by head deformation and other status symbols was concerned with directing political and religious activities. The religion involved regulation of daily life and prognostication through astronomical observations. There are scattered reports of ceremonial human sacrifice and cannibalism. These and other traits relate the peoples to the centres of high culture in

Yucatan.

The

total cultural fabric

is

Mexico and

reminiscent of the settled

and adjacent southeastern regions. There were influences from the plains but these were Early epidemics and continuing late and of minor importance. population decline reduced their numbers from many thousands to about 1 .000 settled on a reservation in east central Oklahoma. See also Plains Indians; Indian, North American. tribes of the lower Mississippi river

have about the same value as commas or semicolons in prose half closes as colons or full stops; full closes as paragraph endings. The word cadence means "fall" (Latin, cadere) and its use in this connection derives from the fall of a tone in the tenor part that defined a formal cadence in medieval music. In later music a cadence is defined mainly by the harmony, of which the momentum is more or less momentarily checked. Important cadences generally need to be acknowledged by a corresponding slackening of the tempo. See also Cadenza. (R. Do.) ;

CADENZA,

the Italian

word

for cadence,

is

an unaccompanied bravura passage introduced

to

close of a

movement

the

name

given

at or near the

as a brilliant climax, particularly in solo

concertos of a virtuoso character where the element of display is prominent. Until well into the 19th century these interpolated passages were often improvised by the performer, at suitable openings left for the purpose by the composer. They were displays not only of executive powers but also of more or less spontaneous imagination and invention. Modern performers use written-out cadenzas even for classical concertos, and modern concertos, if they include cadenzas, have them ready-made by the composer. See also Improvisation. (R. Do.) IDRIS (C.adair Idris). "the chair of Idris," one of the highest mountains in north Wales, ranking next to Snowdon in popular favour. It stands south of Dolgellau and the Mawddach estuary in Merioneth, in an area which contains a superb

CADER

collection of glacial features

and shows

ver>' clearly the interaction

of structure and process in landscape building.

the mountain

formed by

The main

core of

about S mi. long, culminating in a small monadnock knowTi as Pen-y-Gadair (2,927 ft.) and sharply defined by steep rock walls, nearly 1,000 ft. in height, The grassy slopes descending southward to the to the north. Dysynni valley are abrupt, whUe there is the sheer drop from the ridge to the dark tarn of Llyn-y-Cau, one of the most remarkable is

a beveled ridge

1450), was leader of the English rebellion end of May 1450, and was provoked by

(cwms) in Britain. Beyond the narrow wall. 1,000-1,200 is the opposing cwm, equally impressive, in which Llyn-y-Gadair. The views from the summit are impressive and varied on the north side; to the southwest the wide sweep of Cardigan bay is embraced. Mention of Cader Idris and its legends (E. G. Bow.) is frequent in Welsh literature, old and modern.

and subsequent murder off Dover duke of Suffolk. The rebellion was also a protest against the tyranny and corruption of Henry VI's ministers, particularly the lord treasurer James Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele. The rebels, led by Cade, calling himself "John Mortimer, captain of Kent," marched from Ashford to Blackheath (June 10), but retreated a week later when the king advanced with his troops. Overtaken at Sevenoaks, they defeated part of the royal army (June 18), returned and entered London (July 3) after Henry VI had retired to Kenilworth castle. Lord Saye and his son-in-law, William Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, were executed, but the Londoners were soon alienated by Cade's lawlessness and his supporters were driven from the city into Southwark (July 5-6). The rebels dispersed when the government offered a pardon, but Cade continued resistance and was killed by Alexander Iden, the new sheriff of Kent, on July 12, 1450.

CADET, a younger son, or head of a junior branch of a famAs a military term, cadet commonly denotes a young man ily. undergoing training to become an armed forces ofiicer. The latter use arose in France, where it was applied to younger sons of the nobility who gained commissioned rank after being attached for a time without pay to active army units. The term "cadet,'' or "gentleman cadet," is applied in most nations to candidates for commission who are students in national military schools. In the United States, for example, cadet is the official title of students at the Military academy at West Point, N.Y., and at the Air Force academy in Colorado; students at the Naval academy at Annapolis, Md., however, are known as midshipmen, their official navy rank, though they were known as cadets in the 19th century. The word "caddie," a messenger boy or one who carries clubs at golf, is derived from "cadet" through the Scots form "cadee," as is the slang word "cad," a vulgar, ill-bred person. (T. N. D.)

See John R. Swanton, Source Material on the History and Ethnology Caddo Indians, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 132 (P. Ho.) (1942).

of the

CADE, JACK which began

(d.

Kent

in

at the

fear of reprisals for the capture

(May

2) of William de la Pole,

Cade's real identity remains a mystery. The proclamation ordering his arrest describes him as an Irishman, resident in Sussex

he fled to France after murdering a woman. There is a legend that he was John Aylemere, a physician. Possibly the rising did not have the same captain throughout; according to Gregory's Chronicle, although Cade led the rebels back to London after the battle of Sevenoaks, he was not the original leader. Cade did not, as Tudor chroniclers maintained, claim kinship with Richard, duke of York, although he called himself Mortimer, the family name of the earls of March, from whom the duke was descended. until

—

BIBLI0GR.4PHY. C. L. Kinpsford, English Historical Literature in the Fifteenth Century (1913) discusses the sources; Gregory's Chronicle is printed in J. (iairdner (ed.), Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Century (1876). See also the same editor's introduction in his edition of The Fasten Letters (1904) G. Kriehn, The English Rising of 1450 (1892). (T. B. P.) ;

CADENCE

music is the name given to the approach to a phrase ending, sometimes now also called a close. Passing cadences in

cirques ft.

in height,

lies

CADIZ,

a city of southern Spain, capital and principal seaport

of the province of the

same name, is situated on Cadiz bay, an 153 km. (95 mi.) S.S.W. of Seville by

inlet of the Atlantic ocean,

road. The population, commonly referred to as Gaditanos, was estimated to be 113,749 in 1960. Cadiz is built on the low, rocky extremity of a narrow sandy spit projecting about 5 mi. into the sea in a northwesterly direction from the Isla de Leon, which is separated from the mainland by a broad channel known as the Rio Santi Petri. The isthmus k and headlands on, the mainland to the north nearly enclose the | splendid bay, to which Cadiz owes its commercial importance. I The outer bay, affording extensive anchorage in from six to ten I fathoms of water, stretches from the promontor)' of Rota to the '1 mouth of the Rio de San Pedro, formerly a distributary of the Guadalete, which enters the bay opposite Cadiz. The inner bay, guarded at its narrow entrance by the forts of Puntales and n Cortadura on the isthmus and Trocadero on the opposite side, no |l

cAdiz longer provides good anchorage.

On

its

south shore

is

the impor-

San Fernando. The entrance to the bays is somewhat obstructed by the low shelving rocks of Los Cochinos and Las Puercas and by shifting mudbanks deposited by the rivers, but the channel is well marked by illuminated buoys. Because of tant naval arsenal of

its almost insular position Cadiz enjoys a mild climate, with temperatures never falling below 32° F. in winter or rising above 85° in summer.

The

mi. in circumference,

city, 6 to 7

is

hemmed

in

by the sea

and surrounded by a wall, now mainly demolished, and has only one land exit. The houses, three-storied or more high, have flat roofs and watchtowers in the Moorish style. The Alameda is the finest of the marine promenades which fringe the city. The general air of cleanliness is due partly to the houses being whitewashed every year. In 1947 the city suffered great damage from the explosion of a naval arms store. The old cathedral was originally erected by Alfonso X of Castile (1252-84) and rebuilt after 1596. The new cathedral, begun in 1722 and completed in 1838, is a notable example of Andalusian baroque architecture. Its famous covered crypt, built on a bold, vaulted plan, contains the remains of the Gaditanian contemporary composer, Manuel de Falla. The cathedral possesses a magnificent collection of art treasures, including the silver coach for the Corpus Christi festival. Among important works of art, the church of the Hospital de Mujeres (women's hospital has the "Ecstasy of St. Francis" by El Greco and the Santa Cueva chapel three outstanding paintings by Goya. The church of the Capuchin friars, now secularized, contains an unfinished picture of the "Marriage of St. Catherine," by Murillo, who died after falling off the scaffold on which he was painting it (April 3, 1682). In the centre of the city there is a signal tower, Cadiz the Torre de Vigia (100 ft.), a well-known landmark. possesses three theatres and a bull ring accommodating 14,000 )

and several charitable institutions, schools and museums. An old fort as well as a lighthouse stands on the rock of San Sebastian to the west of the city. By the 1960s an entirely new quarter had grown up along the isthmus. The loss of the Spanish colonies in the Americas dealt a blow to Its decline the trade of Cadiz from which it never recovered. was later accelerated by the disasters of the Spanish-American War of 1898, by the decreasing demand for sherry and above all by its antiquated harbour works. After 1900 considerable improvements were made, until the harbour had more than two miles of quayside and recovery proceeded steadily. A free depot estabHshed in 1823, but lapsing after 1832, was successfully revived on modern lines. Industrial development is rather small, but important naval and mercantile shipbuilding yards and various factories spectators,

on the mainland and there are tunny fisheries off the coast. is primarily a commercial port, e.xporting much wine, from Jerez, salt, olives, figs, corks and salted fish, and importing coal, iron and machinery, timber, cereals, coffee and other foodstuffs. Several shipping lines call there and passenger trafiic is important. The development of Cadiz, however, must always be limited by the restrictions of its site. The railway connects the town with Jerez and Seville. There is a military airfield at Jerez, 50 km. (31 mi.) N.E., and a SpanishU.S. naval and air base at Rota. History. Cadiz, founded as Gadir, according to tradition, by Phoenician merchants from Tyre as early as 1100 B.C., was occupied by the Carthaginians about 501 B.C. At the close of the Second Punic War the city willingly surrendered to Rome and from this time as Gades its prosperity steadily increased. The wealth and importance of Gades became so great that under Augustus it was the residence of no fewer than 500 equites {q.v.), and was made a municipium with the name of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana, with citizenship ranking next to that of Rome. Throughout the Roman world its cuisine and its dancing girls were famous. In the 5th century it was destroyed by the Visigoths. A few fragments of masonry, submerged under the sea, are almost all that remains of the original city. Moorish rule over the port, which was renamed Jezirat-Kadis, lasted from 711 until 1262, when Cadiz was captured, rebuilt and repeopled by Alfonso X of Castile. Its renewed prosperity dated from the discovery of America in exist

The

city

principally sherry

—

563

As the headquarters of the Spanish treasure fleets, it soon became the wealthiest port of western Europe. During the 16th century it repelled a series of raids by the Barbary corsairs; in 1587 all the shipping in its harbour was burned by an English 1492.

squadron under Sir Francis Drake; in 1596 the fleet of the earl of Essex and Lord Charles Howard sacked the city and destroyed But Cadiz quickly 40 merchant galleons and 13 men-of-war. recovered, and its new fortifications enabled it to repel successfully attacks by British fleets under the duke of Buckingham in 1626, Admiral Blake in 1656 and Sir George Rooke and the duke During the 18th century the wealth of of Ormonde in 1702. Cadiz became greater than ever; indeed at this time it is said to have been wealthier than London. With the closmg years of the century, however, it entered upon a period of misfortune. From Feb. 1797 to April 1798 it was blockaded by the British fleet, and In 1808 the citizens captured a in 1800 Nelson bombarded it. French squadron imprisoned by the British fleet in the inner bay. From Feb. 1810 to Aug. 1812 it was besieged by French forces, during which time it served as the capital of all Spain not under the control of Napoleon. There, too, the Cortes met and promulgated the famous liberal constitution of March 1812 which led to the 1820 revolution. Ferdinand VII was imprisoned there until released in 1823 by a French army. In the Spanish civil war of 1936-39 Cadiz fell to the Nationalists almost at once, and served as an important port of entry for reinforcements from Spanish

Morocco. Cadiz PROvaNCE.

In the historic region of Andalusia (q.v.) the

province was formed in 1833 of districts taken from Seville. It is bounded on the north by Seville, east by Malaga, southeast by the Mediterranean sea, south by the Strait of Gibraltar and west by the Pop. (1960 est.) 810,724; area 2,851 sq.mi.; Atlantic ocean. exclusive, in each case, of Ceuta (q.v.), on the Moroccan coast, which, for administrative purposes belongs to Cadiz. The main features of the Atlantic coast line of Cadiz are the broad Guadalquivir estuary, which marks the frontier with Seville, the double bay of Cadiz, outlet for the Guadalete, chief river of the north Farther south, the Barbate river, districts, and Cape Trafalgar. draining the broad, marshy Laguna de la Janda, flows into the Strait of Gibraltar; and Punta Tarifa (Point Marroqui), on the the southernmost promontory of the European mainland. the east coast the rock and fortress of Gibraltar overlook Algeciras bay; and the Guadiaro river, which drains the eastern highlands, enters the Mediterranean close to the frontier of Malaga. In the interior there is a striking contrast between the comparatively level western half of the province and the picturesque well-wooded mountain ranges of the east with splendid extensive views over the Strait of Gibraltar and the African coast. These mountains, which form the west end of the Boetic Cordilstrait, is

On

lera, attain their greatest altitudes

within the province in the Sierra

del Pinar (5,426 ft.).

The climate is mild and equable, and with naturally fertile soil makes fruit, vine and olive growing one of the chief sources of wealth in the province, though severe droughts often cause great distress. Jerez de la Frontera (q.v.) is famous for the manufacture and export of sherry. Much cork is obtained from the mountain forests, and quantities of fish are caught off the coast and are salted for export. A considerable amount of salt is obtained by evaporation of sea water in pans near Cadiz bay. Railway communication is limited in the west to a line from Seville to Cadiz, with branch hnes to Sanlucar from Jerez and El Puerto de Santa Maria, and from Sanlucar a few miles north to Bonanza; and in Apart from the the east to a line from Seville to Algeciras. provincial capital, the main centres of population (1950 census) Sanlucar Barrameda de (35,517), the are: La Linea (54,720), naval station of San Fernando (38.174), Algeciras (52,392), EI Puerto de Santa Maria (28,368) (qq.v.), Tarifa (17,765) and PuertoReal (13,283) on the coast; Jerez de la Frontera (105,467), Vejer de la Frontera (12.763), Medina-Sidonia (15,069) and Chila Frontera (18,386) inland; SanRoque (14,973), Ubrique (9,172). Jimena de la Frontera and Grazalema are lesser towms trading in farm produce, wine and leather; Rota (15,482) is located on the northern shore of the Bay of Cadiz.

clana de

CADMAN—CADMIUM

5^4 Bibliography.

— P.

de Madrazo, Sevilla y Cidh, sus montimentos y artes, sii naturaleza e historia, an illustrated volume in the series "Esparia" (1884); J. M. Leon y Dominguez, Recuerdos Gaditanos, a history of local affairs (1S97); J. de Urrutia, Descripciou historkoartistica de la catedral de Cddh (1843) G. \V. Edwards, Spain (1926) Fr. Pedro de Abreu, Historia del saqueo de Cadiz por los ingleses en 1596 (1S66); Theophile Gautier, Vova%e en Espagne (1845); Cesar Peman, El Arte en Cadiz (1930). (C. P. Y P.) ;

become

fl881-1946). one interested in the

music and folklore of the U.S. Indian, was born at Johnstown. Pa., on Dec. 24, 1881. His songs "At Dawning" (1906) and "The Land of the Sky Blue Water" (1908) became American classics. Among his operas are Slianewis (The Robin Woman ). produced at the Metropolitan Opera house on March 2i, 1918. and repeated in 1919, the first American opera to be carried over into a second season: The Garden of Mystery, produced in New York. March 18, 192S; The Sunset Trail, Denver, 1925; A Witch of Salem, Chicago Civic Opera company, Dec. 8. 1926. Other compositions include a cantata. The Vision of Sir Launfal; American Suite for strings; Thunderbird Suite for piano; Huckleberry Finn Overture; and The Willow Tree (1931). the first U.S. opera written for radio. Cadman was one of the founders of the Hollywood Bowl. He died in Los Angeles on Dec. 30, 1946. a metallic element, showing a close relationship It was discovered to zinc, with which it is frequently associated. in iSi; by Friedrich Strohmeyer in a sample of zinc carbonate yielding a yellow zinc oxide, although quite free from iron. Simultaneously K. S. L. Hermann discovered the new metal in a specimen of zinc oxide thought to contain arsenic, since it gave a yellow sulfide in acid solution on the addition of hydrogen sulfide.

CADMIUM,

Cadmium (Cd dition,

)

commercially exploited zinc ores {see Zinc).

USES

;

CADMAN, CHARLES WAKEFIELD of the first U.S. musical composers to

tions in price; occurrences of commercial significance are those of

does not occur naturally in the uncombined conis known which contains it in any

and only one mineral

Electroplating. is

—About

used in the plating of

two-thirds of

steel, iron,

them from corrosion. from an alkaline cyanide

to protect

trolytically

cadmium produced

all

copper, brass and other alloys The metal is deposited elecbath, a typical solution hav-

ing the composition: 25 g. per litre of cadmium o.xide and 100 g, per litre of sodium cyanide. The cadmium oxide is dissolved in

Cd(CN)42~ and

the cyanide solution with the formation of

two hydroxides, which render the solution

liberation of

Cadmium anodes

are used to replenish the metal as

it

is

deposited

room temperadepending on the de14 gree of stirring. Certain organic compounds are sometimes added during the electrodeposition. as their presence increases the brighton the cathode, and the process ture, with a voltage of from i

is

carried out at

to

v..

ness of the surface. Cadmium plating provides excellent resistance to outdoor corrosion and in this respect is at least the equal

and superior

of zinc

by

alkali.

to

tin;

it

is

especially resistant to attack

used on electrical parts because of the ease of and because of its relatively low electrical con-

It is

soldering to

it

ductivity.

Other Uses.

—About

cadmium metal

one-fifth of the

or purified

is redissolved and converted to pigments: the and sulfoselenides provide the best yellow and red coloramany finishes, including enamels and lacquers for auto-

metallic sponge sulfides

tions in

mobiles.

Storage batteries using cadmium as one element have much longer lives than those using lead elements, and they have other advantages with respect to weight and ability to be stored in a

They

discharged condition.

are particularly attractive for use in

appreciable quantity, namely, greenockite or cadmium sulfide, found at Greenock and at Bishopton in Scotland, and in Bohemia and Pennsylvania. It is. however, nearly always found associated

aircraft

with zinc blende (sphalerite) and with calamine (smithsonite and hemimorphite), although only in small quantities, rarely exceed-

high neutron-absorption qualities (called cross section). therefore used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors.

3%The metal was

and special applications where first cost is not a dominant factor. (See also Compounds, below.) One of the most interesting uses of cadmium results from its

ing

dust

)

first

furnace during the cycle.

Repeated

cadmium

first

three or four hours of the distillation

redistillations of this blue

powder enriched the

It is

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

obtained from the blue powder (impure zinc

collected in the condensers, or prolongs, of a zinc retort

the

alkaline.

Cadmium polish

;

a silver-white metal and

is

limation in

is

capable of taking a high

shows a distinct fibrous fracture. By suba current of hydrogen it can be crystallized in the

on breaking,

it

powder. The latter was dissolved in and a high-grade cadmium sponge

form of regular octahedra: it is slightly harder than tin but is softer than zinc and, like tin. emits a crackling sound when bent.

was precipitated by the addition of metallic zinc dust. Metallic cadmium was then produced by retort distillation of the sponge at a temperature of about 8oo° C. Most cadmium is recovered from the fumes eliminated during the sintering of zinc concentrates, from the dust collected from the gases leaving lead blast furnaces and from various purification cakes produced during the electrolytic recovery of zinc. Smaller quantities are recovered during the refining of zinc and the production and refining of lithopone and zinc oxide. The raw fume or cake usually contains from 5% to 20% Cd, and it is commonly dissolved in sulfuric acid. The resulting solution or slurry is clarified and purified to remove many of the impurities. A cadmium sponge containing from 75 ' history, and all he heard he reproduced in poetry. was on sacred themes, and its unvarying aim was to turn men

from

opinion, approached

Bede's account of

)

ished than Terence.

BiBLioGRAPHV.

— Fragments

O. Ribbeck

(ed.), Scenicae

Roman-

Although many Englishmen after him in

Bede's

Caedmon. Caedmon's deathbed has often been quoted,

and is of singular beauty. It is often stated that he died in the same year as Hild, but for this there is no authority. Later evidence seems to point to his having died before her. All that is

known

certainly

(658-679)

in

The hymn the is

is

that his

The

Moore manuscript in

dream took place during the period

which Hild was abbess of Streanf-halch. said to have been

17 manuscripts.

it

in

sin to righteousness.

essayed to compose religious poetry, none of them,

composed in his dream is extant is added in a blank space

oldest version

in

of Bede's History, in an 8th-century hand;

the Northumbrian dialect, and three other Latin

scripts, including the

in

manu-

8th-century Leningrad manuscript, have

it

.

CAELIUS

568 this dialect, in

in

the margin or text of Bede's account of the

Eight Latin manuscripts have the

hymn

transHterated into West Saxon. In the Old English translation of Bede's History, which survives in five manuscripts, a West Saxon text of the hymn replaces Bede's Latin paraphrase. Probably the Latin manu-

dream.

by the translator contained this addition. Several analogues have been brought forward to the story of a poet who composed in a dream; e.g., Hesiod, Aeschylus, the anonymous author of the Old Saxon Heliand (though in his case script used

work is probable), the Icelandic skald Hallbut these need not discredit Bede's account. Nor is the lack of poetic merit a strong argument against the authenticity of the poem, which was Caedmon's first essay in influence from Bede's

bjorn Hali,

etc.,

verse.

The hymn

by E. van K. Dobbie, The Manuscripts of and Bede's Death Song (1937). See also C. Plummer, opera historica II, pp. 251-258 (i8g6) A. H. Smith Three Northumbrian Poems (1933) L. Pound, "Caedmon's

CiBdmon's

is

best edited

Hymn

V enerabilis Baedae (ed.),

;

It differs from other extant poetry condensation of style and its bold use of imagery, and it has much unique vocabulary. It cannot be by the same poet as any of the other poems in the manuscript. Daniel is not a great poem, but the narration is lucid and interesting. The author has borrowed some 70 lines from a poetical rendering of the Prayer of Azarias and the Song of the Three Children, of which there is a copy in the Exeter Book. The borrowed portion ends with verse three of the canticle, the remainder of which follows in a version for the most part independent. Elsewhere the paraphrast draws only from the canonical book of Daniel. The poem is obviously the work of a scholar. The three other poems, designated "Book 11" in the Junius manuscript, are characterized by considerable imaginative power and vigour of expression, but show an absence of culture and are somewhat rambling. They abound in passages of fervid religious

led his people out of Egypt. in its

exhortation.

;

Studies in English Philology: a Miscellany in Honour G. Shepherd, "The Prophetic Csedmon," of Frederick Klaeher (1929) Review of English Studies, new series, v (1954)

Of poems not included

Dream Song,"

;

The "Caedmon Poems."

— Although

this

poor fragment

is

all

that can be confidently affirmed to remain of the voluminous works of the

man whom Bede

the

so highly admired, a considerable

body

name and for convenience the use of name has been retained. The so-called Caedmon poems are

of verse was

known by

his

in a manuscript written about a.d. iooo, which was given 1651 by Archbishop Ussher to the famous scholar Franciscus Junius, and is now in the Bodleian library, Oxford. They consist of paraphrases of parts of Genesis, Exodus and Daniel, and three

contained

in

separate poems, the

first

on the lamentations of the fallen angels,

the second on the "harrowing of bell" and the third (a fragment)

on the temptation. The subjects correspond so well with those of Caedmon's poetry as described by Bede that Junius unhesitatingly attributed the poems to him. The ascription was rejected in 1684 by G. Hickes, whose chief argument, based on the dialect, is known to be fallacious, as much "West Saxon" poetry is certainly of Northumbrian origin. Since, however, Bede says that Caedmon had many imitators, it is unsafe to assume that a collection of poems in a late 10th-century manuscript contains any of his work. Research has shown that the "Caedmon manuscript" cannot be all by one author; some portions of it are plainly the work of a Latin scholar. Some of the rest may be genuine; but the internal evidence can afford no certainty, although the unlikeness of any particular passage to the nine lines of the Hymn is no reason for denying Caedmon's authorship. Genesis contains a long passage (11. 235-851), which differs markedly in style and metre from the rest. This passage is one of the finest in all Old English poetry. In 1877 E. Sievers argued, on linguistic grounds, that it was mainly a translation from a lost poem in Old Saxon, probably by the author of the Heliand, a conclusion brilliantly confirmed in 1894 by the discovery in the Vatican library of a manuscript containing 62 lines of the Heliand and the original of 28 lines of the interpolated passage of the Old English Genesis, The Old Saxon biblical poetry belongs to the mid-gth century; the translation is consequently later. Similarities between passages in Paradise Lost and parts of the translation from Old Saxon have caused it to be suggested that some scholar may have talked to Milton about the poetry published by Junius, and that the poet may thus have gained some hints. The parallels, however, though interesting, are not conclusive. As Getiesis begins with a line identical in meaning with the opening of Caedmon's Hymn, it may perhaps be inferred that the writer knew Caedmon's genuine poems; but when, after treating of the revolt of Lucifer, the paraphrast comes to the biblical part of the story, he follows the sacred text with servile fidelity. The ages of the antediluvian patriarchs, for instance, are accurately rendered into verse. In all probability Genesis is of Northumbrian

The names assigned to the w-ives of Noah and his three sons (Phercoba, OUa, Olliua, Olliuani) have been traced to an Irish source, and this seems to point to the influence of the Irish origin.

missionaries in Northumbria.

Exodus

is

a fine epic

poem,

full

of martial spirit, on

how Moses

the

Rood

(see

in the

Cvnewulf)

is

Junius manuscript, the Dream of the only one that has with any

Caedmon. It was aflirmed by G. Stephens that the Ruthwell cross, on which a portion of the poem inscribed in runes, bore on its top-stone the name "Cadmon"; but the traces of runes that are still visible exclude all possibility of this reading. The poem is certainly Northumbrian and earlier than Cynewulf. It would be impossible to prove that Caedmon was not the author, though his authorship of such a work would rank among the miracles of genius. plausibility been ascribed to

is

The name Caedmon

(in the

manuscripts of the Old English

version of Bede written

Cedmon, Ceadtnann) has no simple philological explanation. The statement that it means "boatman" is founded on the corrupt gloss Ubnrnam, ced, where ced is an error for ceol. It is most probably the British Cadman, intermediate between the Old Celtic Catumanus and the modern Welsh Cadfan. Possibly the poet was of British descent.

The oldest edition of the Caedmon poems is that of F. Junius (1655). is a facsimile edited by Sir I. Gollancz (1927), and this work and the edition by G. P. Krapp, The Junius Manuscript {1931) contain bibliographies and full discussion of the various problems. The poems are translated by C. W. Kennedy, The Ccedmon Poems (1916). See also C. W. Kennedy, The Earliest English Poetry, pp. 158-197 (1943) C. L. Wrenn, "The Poetry of Caedmon," Proceedings of the British Academy, xxxii (1946) J. W. Lever, "Paradise Lost and the AngloSaxon Tradition," Review of English Studies, xxiii (1947) E. B. Irving (ed.), The Old English "Exodus" (1953). (H. Br.; D. Wk.) There

;

;

;

CAELIUS,

full Marcus Caelius Rufus (82-48 B.C.), and protege of Cicero iq.v.'). was the son of a knight. Educated under the guidance of M. Licinius Crassus and Cicero, he was constantly with Cicero during Cicero's praetorship (66) and subsequently. In 63 he became friendly w-ith Catiline, but according to Cicero was not involved in the conspiracy. In 61 he went to Africa as comes (attendant) to the proconsul Q. Pompeius Rufus, and on his return in 59 successfully prosecuted Gaius Antonius, who had been consul with Cicero,

Roman Roman

in

politician

savage speech. probably the Rufus

in a brilliantly

Caelius

is

of stealing his mistress Clodia

whom

from him.

the poet Catullus accused

In 56 he was prosecuted

for violence {vis) at the instance of Clodia,

Caelius spoke in his

whom

he had deserted.

own defense and Crassus and

Cicero, whose

speech survives, also spoke for him. He was acquitted. In 52 he was tribune and opposed Pompey's measures for bringing T. Annius Milo to trial for the murder of P. Clodius. He was induced by Pompey, against his own judgment, not to veto the law of the ten tribunes, allowing Julius Caesar to stand for the consulship in absence.

In 51 Cicero went to Cilicia as proconsul, and Caelius by arrangement kept him supplied with news from Rome. His letters are preserved in the collection of Cicero's correspondence.

In

50 he was aedile iq.v.), and his letters to Cicero contain many requests for panthers for his games. In Aug. 50 he foresaw ci\'il war and seemed uncertain which side he should support. In 49 he decided, and later fought for Caesar in northwestern Italy and Spain. In 48 he was praetor peregrinus (see Praetor), but he quarreled violently with the urban praetor Gaius Trebonius, and

—

CAELIUS—CAEN STONE introduced measures amounting to a general cancellation of debts. The senate deprived him of his office, and he left Rome to join Milo and to start an insurrection, but he was soon killed at Thurii in Lucania. Brilliant and cynical, he was capable of impetuous acts of kindness or savagery. He lives more vividly than

most of the men of

his age, in his letters to Cicero.

See Cicero, Pro M. Caelio oralio, ed. by R. G. Austin, 3rd ed. (1960), Ephtolae, ed. by R. Y. Tyrrell and L. C. Purser (1904-18). (H. H. Sd.)

CAELIUS AURELIANUS, a physician of Sicca in Numidia, who probably place

flourished in the 5th century a.d.. although

him two or even three centuries

earlier.

A

some by

translation

Aurelianus of two works of Soranus of Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the "methodist" school of medicine, on chronic and acute maladies Tardae, or Chronicae Passiones, in five, and is extant, as are Celeres, or Aciitae Passiones, in three books also considerable fragments of his Medicinales Responsiones, also adapted from Soranus, a general treatise dealing with rules of

—

health (salutaria praecepta) and the pathology of internal diseases

Anecdota Graeca

(ed. Rose,

CAEN,

et Latina,

1S70).

ii,

a city of northwestern France, capital of the departe-

ment of Calvados

W.N.W.

(q.v.), 1^ mi.

from the English channel and 149

main railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1954) 62,887; (1959 est.) 85,000. The city covers an area of approximately 6,000 ac, mostly on the left bank of the Orne river. The surrounding countr>'side is undulating, well-watered and ferTo the southeast the extensive Plaine de Caen produces tile. cereals; elsewhere, dairy farming and stock breeding are the chief mi.

of Paris on the

agricultural activities.

Town Plan and

Buildings.

—Caen

following the .Allied armies' invasion of thirds of the buildings, including

many

suffered great destruction

Normandy in 1944; twoancient monuments, were

destroyed or damaged. Rebuilding of the devastated area was completed by 1959. The central area of Caen is now an excellent example of modern town planning, with wide boulevards and spaced-out apartment buildings constructed of local freestone (as were many of the ancient buildings). The Avenue du Six Juin, the principal new thoroughfare, runs northward from the Orne to The west side join the old Rue St. Pierre at its eastern end. of the rebuilt area faces the open "Prairie," a green plain on which a race course

is

laid out.

The church of St. fitienne, or L'Abbaye-aux-Hommes, and the church of La Trinite, or L'.'\bbaye-aux-Dames, escaped damage in both date from the 1060s and both are fine specimens St. Etienne, in the west of the city, The west its simplicity and purity of line. front, nave and two frontal towers rising to a height of 295 ft. are Romanesque; the spires were added in the early 13th century. The choir, one of the earliest examples of Norman Gothic, dates from the same period. The fine carved choir stalls date from the 17th century. A marble slab in front of the high altar marks the site of William the Conqueror's tomb. La Trinite, in the east, has a plain Romanesque front flanked by two square towers; the spires were destroyed during the Hundred Years' War. The tomb of Queen Matilda, wife of William, stands in the 12th-century choir; beneath it is a fine 11th-century crypt. Halfway between the two abbey churches stands the highly decorated, beautiful church of St. Pierre; restoration of the wartime damage is complete. Its architecture is mainly Gothic, but the choir and the apsidal chapels are magnificent examples of French Renaissance. The Hotel d'Escoville, on the Place St. Pierre, is a Renaissance mansion (1538) that has been faithfully restored. 1944;

Norman Romanesque.

of

characterized by

is

which there are considerable remains, was built by William the Conqueror and was one of the largest of medieval times. Near St. Etienne is the secularized church of St. Nicholas, a fine unaltered example of Benedictine Romanesque (c. 1090). The house where Francois de Malherbe was born (1555) stands in

The

the

castle, of

Rue

Caen

St. Pierre. is

academy for the whole of Normandy. founded in 1432 by Henry VI of England, was

the seat of an

Its university,

completely destroyed in 1944. A fine, spacious university, erected on the northern slopes of the city and havdng faculties of law,

letters

569

and science, was opened

There are two teachers' and music and a preparatory

in 1957.

training colleges, a school of art school of medicine and pharmacy. Public buildings include the prefecture of the departement of Calvados, which also contains the archives; a law court; a chamber of commerce; theatre; and branches of most leading French banks. Economy. Caen is a centre of road and rail communications. From the main railway station, on the right bank of the Orne, express trains connect with Paris, Cherbourg, Rouen, Le Mans and Tours. Coach services link Caen with the chief towns of Calvados and neighbouring departcments and with the Le Havre-Southamp-

—

ton-London cross-channel route, Carpiquet airport, 4 mi, W. of Caen, has a customs and is open permanently to private aircraft. Weekly passenger and freight service is operated to the Channel Islands (Jersey), and air taxis can be hired. The industrial development of Caen owes much to the iron-ore mines in the Orne valley to the south, which are the second in importance in France. The chief industries are iron and steel, heavy trucks and machinery. Manufactures include cement, tiles and ceramics, furniture and chemicals. The port of Caen, in the east of the city, through which more than 2,000,000 tons pass annually, is connected with the sea by a canal 9 mi. long, which enters the Channel at Ouistreham. Principal imports are coal, timber, phosphates; exports are chiefly iron ore, cement, machinery, wheat and dairy products. Caen serves as the main distributive centre for all

—

lower Normandy.

History. Caen first became an important place in the 10th and 11th centuries, under the dukes of Normandy, and was the capital of lower Normandy in the time of William the Conqueror. In 1346 Caen was besieged and taken by Edward III of England. It was again taken by the English in 1417 and held by them until 1450. During the Wars of Religion, Caen embraced the reform; in the succeeding century its prosperity was shattered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). In 1793 the city was the focus of the Girondist movement against the Convention, In June 1944 the

German army made Caen

British advance, in

and

it

was

the hinge of resistance to the

finally liberated

by the Canadians (L. E. 0.)

July 1944.

CAENEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Elatus, a Lapith. At the marriage of Pirithous. king of the Lapithae, the centaurs, who were guests, became drunk and attacked the bride and other women, Caeneus joined in the battle that resulted and, because he was endowed with an invulnerable body, killed five centaurs without trouble. In desperation, the other centaurs combined against him, piling huge pine trees upon him until the accumulated weight forced him, still standing, underground, never to appear again (Ovid, Metamorphoses, xii, 459 ff,). The centaurs' attack on Caeneus provided a favourite theme for Greek art, as in the A friezes of the Theseum and the temple of Apollo at Bassae, later story explained that Caeneus was originally a girl, Caenis, who yielded to Poseidon and received as reward the male sex and invulnerability (Metam. xii, 189 ff.). Ovid invents the metamorphosis of the buried Caeneus into a golden bird, perhaps a curlew. CAENOLESTID, supial

)

a small shrewlike,

of the family Caenolestidae,

pouched

known

(Wm. S. mammal

A.)

(mar-

also as the selva or

Three genera occur in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and on Chiloe Island, off southern Chile. They are of special interest since they have characteristics intermediate between two groups of marsupials, having the lower first incisor teeth greatly enlarged, and all toes of the hind feet separate; opossum-rat.

they possess only small, rudimentary pouches. Caenolestids inhabit the ground beneath thick underbrush, are nocturnal in habit, and feed on insects, on small birds and their eggs and on other small animals. Their fossil history dates back to the Eocene (about 40,000,000 years ago) of South America. (R. H. Ma.) STONE, a soft cream-coloured Jurassic limestone found near Caen, France. It is closely identified with the Bath oolite stone found in England. The quarries are of great antiquity, and partly because they are easily accessible to sea transportation, considerable quantities of

CAEN

CAERE—CAERLEON

570

the stone were imported into England at an early date, probably from soon after the Norman conquest down to the middle of the 15th century. It was used extensively in building churches and cathedrals, in such well-known structures as Westminster abbey, Canterbury cathedral, Buckingham palace and the old Cathedral of St. Paul's in London. More than 400 tons were imported in 1443 to be used in building Eton college. an ancient city of Etruria (mod. Cerveteri; i.e., Caere vetus), about 5 mi. from the coast and about 20 mi. N.W.

CAERE,

of

Rome. According

to ancient writers its original Pelasgian

name

was Agylla; the Etruscans took

it and called it Caere but the former name lasted on into later times. It was one of the 12 cities of Etruria and had much trade through its port Pyrgi. After the invasion of the Gauls in 390 B.C., the vestal virgins and the sacred objects in their custody were conveyed to Caere for safety. A treaty was made between Rome and Caere in the same year. In 353, however, Caere took up arms against Rome out of friendship for Tarquinii (mod. Tarquinia), but was defeated and partially incorporated in the Roman state without voting rights for its members. The status is known as the ius Caeritum, and Caere was the first of a class of such municipalities. Under the Roman emperors Augustus and Tiberius its prosperity was to a certain extent restored, and inscriptions speak of its municipal officials (the chief of them called dictator) and its town council, which had the title of senatus. In the middle ages, however, it sank in importance, and early in the 13th century a part of the inhabitants founded Caere Novum (mod. Ceri 3 mi. to the east. The town lay on a hill of tufa, extending from northeast to southwest, isolated except on the northeast, and about 300 ft. above sea level. The modern town, at the western extremity, probably occupies the site of the acropolis. There seem to have been eight gates in the circuit of the city walls which was about 4 mi. in length. In the theatre many inscriptions and statues of Roman emperors were found. The necropolis on the hill to the )

—

Excavations. The systematic exploration of the site was begun by the National Museum of Wales in association with the Caerleon Excavation committee in 1926. Finds are exhibited in the Legionary museum at Caerleon, consisting of a notable series of inscribed and sculptured stones, small bronzes, much pottery and many coins. The best of the structural remains thus disclosed, the amphitheatre and the Prysg field barracks, are conserved by the ministry of works.

The Defenses.

—The

defenses of the fortress consisted orig-

V-shaped ditch 25

ft. wide and 8 ft. deep and a ramwide revetted with timber, enclosing About a.d. 100 the timber stockade was replaced by a stone wall 5 ft. thick and still standing in places to a height of 12 ft. The wall was built on a cobble foundation, offset on a sandstone plinth, and consisted of a rubble core faced externally with squared sandstone blocks set in yellow or pinkish mortar; the internal face was left rough as it abutted on the clay bank. The wall was probably 20 ft. high with a crenelated parapet protecting the wall walk, access to which was by small internal turrets at intervals of 50 yd. It was pierced by four symmetrically placed gateways, imposing structures with double-arched doorways with guardrooms in the flanking towers. The space behind the rampart, the intervallum, was used for cookhouses, a latrine and other buildings after the completion of the fortress; debris from the cookhouses was deposited in the turrets which were disused

inally of a

part of clay

more than 20

ft.

a rectangle of about 50 ac.

in the

mid-2nd century.

The terior

Interior.

the

of

The main

—

The

1.

fortress

street system.

conformed

to

The planning

of the in-

the normal military type.

road, the via principalis, crossed between the two lateral

northwest,

gateways and its line can be followed approximately in the Broadway and Backhall street. It was joined midway at right angles by the via praetoria leading in from the river crossing, a bridge over the Usk. Parts of two other lateral streets are indicated on the plan, lost beneath the medieval and modern streets. Excavation uncovered much of the rampart roadway, the via sagtilaris,

It

that

known as the Banditaccia, is far more imposing. has the aspect of a city of the dead, the tombs being in rows divided by paved streets. Other tombs are on the hills

and Monte Abetone in the place called the Sorbo. tomb chambers are hewn in the rock and covered by mounds. Several of them are interesting from their architectural and decorative details. The most important tomb of all, the Regolini-Galassi tomb (taking its name from its discoverers in called Vignali

The

larger

1836), which

southwest of the ancient city, is a narrow rockhewn chamber about 60 ft. long, lined with masonry, the sides converging to form the roof. The objects found in it a chariot, a bed, silver goblets with reliefs, rich gold ornaments, etc.) are in the Etruscan museum in the Vatican; they are attributed to the 7th century B.C. and are important evidence for the orientalizing style. Bibliography. D. Randall-Maclver, Villanovans and Early Etruslies

(

—

cans, pp. 195 ff. (1924) Studi Etruschi, i, pp. 145 ff. (1927), ix, pp. 83 ff. M. Pallottino, The (1935), .X, pp. 67 ff. (1936), xi, pp. 77 ff. (1937) Necropolis of Cerveteri (1950) L. Pareti, La tomba Regolini-Galassi, with bibliography (1947). For the constitution, see G. de Sanctis, Studi in onore di B. Nogara, pp. 147 ff. (1937). ;

;

;

CAERLEON,

a village in the

Monmouthshire

Monmouth

parliamentar>' divi-

on the Usk, 3 mi. N.E. of Newport. important as the site of the Roman legionary fortress of Isca (not Isca Silurum), founded and garrisoned by the 2nd legion (Legio II Augusta) after the campaign against the Silures. This legion had formed the right wing of the expeditionary force of 50.000 men landed in Britain by the emperor Claudius in a.d. 43. According to Tacitus (.Annals xii, 32) it first entered south Wales in a.d. 50, and from then on was engaged in the reduction of the Silures from its base at Kingsholm, Gloucester. Under Sextus Julius Frontinus, governor in Britain A.D. 74 to 77-78, this task was successfully concluded and the legion moved to new quarters at Caerleon c. a.d. 75. The site, close to the tidal Usk. was chosen for its accessibility and for its strategic command of the approaches to the south Wales coastal plain. Together with Chester (Deva) it was the seat of the main Roman military power in western Britain for 200 years. The modern name is said to be a corruption of Castra Legionis (the sion of

Pop. (1961) 4,184.

legion's fort;

(q.v.^,

It

Welsh Caer

is

=

fort).

2.

made a circuit The principal

of the defenses.

buildings.

In a legionary fortress these con-

sisted of the headquarters building (principia), the commander's house (praetorium), the hospital (valetiidinarium), the training schools (scholae), the workshops (fabricae), the granaries {horrea). the armoury and stores. Not all of these have been identified at Caerleon.

The headquarters

building

was known

to

occupy

its

customary

position facing the central road junction, so the greater part was

Immediately covered by St. Cadoc's church and churchyard. behind it, a large building covering more than an acre was tentatively identified as the quaestorium, used for the disposal of hostages and booty.

To

the northeast of this, in Jenkins'

field,

was the fabrica where the remains of smithies and workshops were found, and to the southeast beneath the primary school was a large residential building, probably the commander's house. The soldiers lived in barracks placed on the 3. The barracks. perimeter of the fortress, of which at least 24 were located by excavation. These buildings, which were of uniform construction, Each lay in pairs istrigae) facing inward into a narrow court. barrack was a single-storied building holding a company of 100 men (a century) and measuring 250 ft. long by 40 ft. wide. Twothirds of it was fronted by a paved veranda and divided into 12 cubicles, in each of which 9 men slept and kept their accoutrements; the other third was wider and contained a more spacious

and his aswere substantially constructed of stone throughout, with roofs of red tile; windows were glazed and the floors paved or cemented. The Environs. The parade ground was identified outside the There also was the south gate, the porta principalis sinistra. amphitheatre for the staging of beast fights, gladiatorial shows or other entertainment. It was an oval structure 267 ft. long by 222 ft. broad, with an area entered by two imposing main gates on the long axis. There was seating for about 6.000 persons on wooden seats raised in tiers in the auditorium, an earthen bank buttressed and faced externally and internally by walls which gave set of

rooms

sistants

for the centurion, the ofiicer in charge,

{principales).

—

The

buildings

CAERNARVON—CAERNARVONSHIRE the building the appearance of a stone structure.

Access to the

seats was by stairs entered through six vaulted passages. The amphitheatre was built in the late 1st century, reconstructed after partial collapse c. a.d. 125 and again rebuilt in the early 3rd century; it fell into final disuse at the end of that century. The buildings that made up the civil settlement (Cannabae), which were being systematically explored at mid-20th century, lay nearer the river, separated by a precinct wall from the military installations. A street, shops and houses were uncovered. The sites of three or four bath buildings are also known to the south Inscriptions to Jupiter Dolichenus, and east of the fortress. Diana and Mithras are evidence of temples dedicated to these deities in the environs.

History. ologically

—The foundation of the

to

c.

a.d.

75.

At

first

fortress can be dated archae-

buildings and defenses were

constructed in timber, but in the last years of the 1st century they were rebuilt in stone. An inscription found in 192S records the construction of the principia under the emperor Trajan in the

but the whole task was not completed for a decade. occupation of the new stone buildings was of short duration for c. A.D. 120 the garrison was radically reduced to release men for the northern frontier, including work on Hadrian's wall. The first quarter of the 3rd century saw a renewal of military activity, following 50 years' neglect, at Caerleon, as in Wales generally, due to the initiative of the Severan dynasty. An inscription records the repair of the headquarters building (?) by Septimius Severus and his sons ( 1 98-2 11), and some barracks and the amphitheatre were found to have been also reconditioned during the period a.d. 212-222. A later rebuilding of barracks alone is recorded in the joint reign of Valerian and Gallienus. year

a.d. 100,

The

full

In the later empire Caerleon declined rapidly in importance in consequence of the military reorganization of the province. Some troops were probably moved to Cardiff to garrison the new type of coastal fort erected there against the Irish pirate menace, but the Notitia Dignitatum, a document recording the 4th-5th-century disposition of troops and officials, shows that the 2nd legion was stationed at Richborough (Rutupiae), Kent, a fort for the defense of the Saxon shore. Excavation, however, has shown that certain barracks and buildings were occupied or reoccupied at Caerleon until c. a.d. 350 or 375-380, but that such occupation was partial

and sporadic.

—

Post-Roman. No remains have been found to show that Caerwas occupied in the dark ages, between the end of Roman rule and the Norman conquest of-Gwent (c. a.d. 1070); but the Urbs legionis recorded by Gildas (De Excidio Brit., ch. 10) as the place of martyrdom of two Romano-British saints, Aaron and Julius, is almost certainly Caerleon, and land presumably belonging to a church dedicated to these martyrs was the subject of dispute in the leon

9th century.

That King Arthur held court at Caerleon on Usk or was crowned is highly improbable, though the green circle of the amphitheatre was long known locally as his "Round Table" and Lord Tennyson stayed at the Hanbury Arms, Caerleon, while writing the Idylls of the Kmg. There is a tradition of a bishopric said to have been transferred to St. David's by St. David himself. To Giraldus Cambrensis ic. 1146-1220) Caerleon was recognizable as an ancient Roman city with many vestiges of its ancient splendour (Itinerarium, i, 5). The remains of a motte castle of the early medieval period stand outside the northeast angle of the Roman fortress; it was mostly in Welsh ownership and was burned

down

in 1235. Bibliography. W. Levinson, Antiquity, xv, p. 340 (1941) J. A. Bradney, .4 History of Monmouthshire, vol. iii, 2, p. 186 (1907 et seq.) V. E. Nash-Williams, The Roman Legionary Fortress at Caerleon, Monmouthshire (1940), Catalogue of Inscribed and Sculptured Stones (19J5), all published by the National Museum of Wales (Cardiff) The Roman Frontier in Wales (1954) R. E. M. and T. V. Wheeler, The Roman .Amphitheatre at Caerleon (1938) 'V. E. Nash-WiUiams, W. F. Grimes and A. Fox in excavation reports on Caerleon, .irchaeologia Cambrensis (1930-33, 1933, 1941) Journal of Roman Studies, 45, p. 121 (1955) (A. Fx.) J. E. Lee, Isca Silurum (1862).

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

CAERNARVON of

midway along

(Caernarfon), municipal borough and

town of Caernarvonshire, north Wales^ 9 mi. S.W. Bangor by road near the west end of the Menai strait and

S7^

Arton sea plain which stretches to the foothills of Snowdonia. Pop. (1961) 8,998. The castle and town walls, built by Edward I following the final conquest of Wales in 1282-83, occupy a rocky peninsula between the estuary of the Saint (Seiont) river and the Cadnant stream (the latter now covered over) where they flow into the strait. The castle (c. 1283-1322), finely preserved, stands in the southern part of this peninsula and is the dominating feature of the town. Of the medieval borough (charter granted 1284), the walls and wall towers (built 1283-85; largely repaired, 1295, after Welsh attack in 1294), the original street plan and the Chapel of St. Mary remain. Within the walls, which are nearly \ mi. in circumference, are the county hall (1863) and county offices, the main building of which was formerly the county jail. The guildhall n874) is on the site of the east gate, the town's former principal gateway. The present main thoroughfare and shopping streets, Bangor and Pool streets, are outside the walls to the east and debouch into Castle square, an open space east of the castle. Statues of David Lloyd George, M.P. for Caernarvon borough (erected 1921) and Sir Hugh Owen, an education pioneer (1888) stand in the square. Residential areas have spread at different periods over the immediate hinterland of the town. Caernarvon is served by a branch line (1852) of the main London-Holyhead railway, which runs from Bangor to Afon Wen, w'here it joins the London-PwUheli line. There is also a branch line from Caernarvon to Llanberis (1869). The road from Bangor to Pwllheli and Portmadoc passes through the town and those from Llanberis and Beddgelert also converge upon it. There is a small harbour which flourished in the

the 19th century with the export of slate, but the decline of the slate

industry and other changes have greatly reduced its use. serves mainly as a distribution centre for petroleum

The port and

Caernarvon is the county and assize town and is chiefly an administrative and shopping centre. In summer it is a tourist oil.

centre.

The Roman fort of Segontium, to which the name Caernarvon refers, (Welsh, Caernarfon, Caer yn Arfon, i.e., the fort in the land over against Mona) was established c. a.d. 75 on a low hill, southeast of the present tow^n. After Roman withdrawal (c. 380-390) the fort was occupied by local chieftains. Llanbeblig (after Peblig or Publicus), founded nearby probably in the 5th century, the church of the parish within which the later borough was established. The area around the Roman fort eventually became one of the "manors" of the princes of Gwynedd. Edward I by contrast built his castle on the strait, for easy access to the sea, on the site of a motte originally built by Earl Hugh of Avranches about 1090 during a brief period of Norman occupation. Edward fixed the capital of the principality of north Wales at Caernarvon. His fourth son, later

Edward

II,

created prince of Wales in 1301,

(W. O. W.) (Caernarfon), a county of north The county, long Area 569 sq.mi. Wales. Pop. (1961) 121,194. in shape, is bounded chiefly by the sea, and stretches from the tip of the Llyn (or Lleyn = lake) peninsula in the southwest Penrhyn bay near Llandudno in the northeast, a distance of appro.ximately 55 mi.; its greatest width is approximately 23 mi. and the coast The Llyn peninsula, long and narrow, line is about 127 mi. long. projects into the Irish sea between Caernarvon and Cardigan bays. On the northwest, the Menai strait iq.v.) divides the county from Anglesey. East and southeast, the landward boundary is also largely formed by natural features, the county being separated from Denbighshire (east) by the Conway river for most of its course and from Merioneth (southeast) by high land and the lower course of the Glaslyn. Included within the county, though east of the Conway, are the Creuddyn peninsula (northeast of the Conway estuary and the parish of Maenan. Physiography. The county is dominated by the great mass of the Snowdon mountains, rising on the east from the Conway valley and on the south from the Vale of Ffestiniog. This mass, called Snowdonia (Welsh, Eryri) is divided by valleys and passes into five tracts. The northernmost and largest is bounded by the Conway valley on the east and Nant Ffrancon and the Llugwy valley on the southwest. In the second tract are the Penrhyn and was born within the

there

the county

roughly

castle precincts in 1284.

CAERNARVONSHIRE

)

—

CAERNARVONSHIRE

572

these appear to have been the Conway valley.

worked

out, excepting

some

lodes in

Prevailing winds are from the southwest across the sea and with the mountain barrier also hindering the passage of warm air, the county has mainly the mild, moist climate characteristic of the western coastal regions of Britain. Rainfall is relatively

heavy

Snowdonia but considerably less in the coastal areas and Llyn peninsula. The soils of the upland region are chiefly podsolic; those of the lowlands vary in texture and character but mainly between light and fairly heavy loam. Almost half the land area of the county consists of grasslands. Remains of natural woodlands (oak and alder) exist on some of the lower slopes of valleys but afforestation w'ith conifers has taken place and is being extended over an ever wider area. The lowlands are largely enclosed and cultivated but are of relatively low fertility. The variation in contours and gradations between the Snowdonian summits and the coastlands produces a considerable variety in plant life, ranging from the rare mountain spiderwort of the alpine zone to the limestone flora of the Great Orme. In Snowdonia foxes are numerous, and there are occasional herds of wild goats and mountain ponies. The pine marten and polecat are also to be found. Otters are fairly common in the larger rivers and badgers relatively so in woodlands. The chough, peregrine falcon and ring ouzel are among the many birds to be seen in the mountains, while large colonies of sea birds nest on the Great Orme and along the coasts of Llyn. About 44% of the county lies within the Snowdonia National park. (See also Snowdon.) History. Evidence (chambered tombs, pottery and axes on in

in the

LLYN PADARN. WITH SNOWDON PEAKS PASS,

IN

THE BACKGROUND. LLANBERIS

CAERNARVONSHIRE

slate quarries, among the greatest of their kind in the world. The third tract, divided from the second by the pass of Llanberis, contains Snowdon (Welsh, Wyddfa), the highest

Dinorwic

Y

England and Wales (3,561 ft.). The fourth, southwesternmost, tract is detached from that of Snowdon by the valleys of the Gw>'rfai and Colwyn. The deeply eroded valleys between these four tracts trend from southeast to northwest, but the fifth tract, lying to the south and southeast, is separated by a gentler line of valleys stretching from Betws-y-Coed in the east to Traeth Mawr in the southwest. To the southwest of the main Snowdon mass is a line of conical hills stretching down to the tip of the Liyn peninsula. Despite the dominance of the Snowdon mass, the highland region (above 1,400 ft.) occupies only 99 sq.mi. of the county. Lowland areas (below 600 ft.) occupy 308 sq.mi. and uplands (600-1,400 ft.) 162 sq.mi. The lowlands stretch mainly along the northern coastal plain, opening out into the Arfon sea plain where most of the main urban areas are situated. Beyond the line of the Llyn hills there are also large stretches of comparapeak

in

tively flat country reaching

down

to the southern coast of the

peninsula.

There are more than 60 lakes in the county, varying in elevation from less than 176 ft. (Llyn Dinas) to more than 2,094 ft. (Melynllyn), with maximum depth from 10 ft. (Llyn Ogwen) to 222 ft. (Llyn Cowlyd), and in size from small pools to lakes such as Llyn Padarn (more than 2 mi. in length). Some supply water to towns and villages; others are potential sources of hydroelectric power. Rivers radiate from the central mountain mass and are mostly short and swift. The longest is the Conway, navigable by small craft for about 12 mi. from its mouth.

The Snowdon range

originated in the mountain-building periods

of the Pre-Cambrian Age.

Volcanic activity and successive movements during the Paleozoic era were followed chiefly by longcontinued denudation until the general shaping of the present mountains, with their northeast to southwest alignment, emerged in the later Cenozoic era. Quaternary glaciation gave to the county its chief surface features, its steep-sided valleys, narrow ridges,

cwms

(dingles)

and

glacial

lakes.

More than

half the

by rocks of Ordovician Age, consisting of a highly folded complex of grits, shales and slates with interbedded volcanic rocks in the form of lavas, tuffs and ashes. Igneous county

is

floored

intrusions occur on a large scale, especially in the Llyn peninsula

and in the northeast around Penmaenmawr. Pre-Cambrian, Cambrian and Silurian rocks underlie some areas; an outcrop of Cambrian strata extends southwestward from near Aber toward Clynnog. Carboniferous limestone appears in the Great Orme's head and also in a narrow coastal strip fringing the Menai strait. Fault fissures in the Ordovician and Cambrian strata contain certain metalliferous minerals, mainly lead, zinc and copper, but

—

Penmaenmawr)

indicates that the earliest

human

settlements in

Caernarv'onshire, chiefly in the Llyn peninsula and on the hill slopes of the immediate hinterland, were Neolithic (c. 2000 B.C.).

The

region was penetrated by the Beaker folk about 1500 B.C. and finds suggest that in the Bronze Age it was crossed by important trade routes linking the Mediterranean, Ireland and northern Europe. Climatic changes, causing undergrowth to choke the valleys, and other disturbances in the later Bronze Age may have driven the inhabitants back to the higher reaches of the hills, and stone hut circles found at 800-1,000 ft. may belong to this period. Penetration by Celtic traders and settlers appears to have taken place about 500-300 b.c, a Celtic tribe, the Ordovices, occupying the region at the time of the Roman invasion (c. a.d. 61). Complete Roman conquest of the area was achieved in a.d.

71-78, forts subsidiary to Deva (Chester) being established at Kanovium (Caerhun) near Conway and Segontium (Caernarvon),

abandoned till c. 380-390. Christian tombstones from the 6th century were found at Penmachno and the latter not being finally

many

ecclesiastical sites bearing the

names

of their saint-founders

date from this period. In the early middle ages the region was divided into three cantreds or districts containing 100 townships (Arllechwedd, Arfon

and Llyn) and subdivided into cymwds or commots. These areas were at one time ruled by chieftains descended from the dynasty of Cunedda, who, coming from north Britain, appears to have taken possession of the region in the dark ages. The cymwds of Eifionydd and Creuddyn (joined in 1284 to the three cantreds to form Caernarvonshire) lay in cantreds Dunoding and Rhos respectively. The cantreds eventually became part of the principality of Gwynedd, ruled by the prince of Aberffraw and lord of Snowdon whose domain was protected from the west by the natural barrier of the

Snowdon

j

'

range.

Following his conquest of Wales in 1282-83, Edward I annexed to the English crown the principality of Llewelyn the Last (whose territories by 1282 had been much reduced by conflicts with

England) and divided it into three counties, of which Caernarvon was one, by the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284). He built castles, founded English boroughs at Caernarvon and Conway and conferred borough status on the native settlement near the old Welsh Charters were granted to two other Welsh castle of Criccieth. The revolt settlements, Pwllheli and Nefyn (Nevin), in 1355. of Owen Glendower (1400-1 5 ) seriously affected the area. Fundathe culminated toward economy in the county's mental changes close of the 15th century in the rise of landowning families, mostly

r

j

;

j

—

CAERPHILLY—CAESAR Welsh, who were to dominate the life of Caernarvonshire until mid- 19th century. Tudor legislation (1536 and 1542) changed the administration introducing quarter sessions as the main organ of local

government

in the place of the offices of the

Edwardian

principality.

The

late

18th and 19th centuries were the period of religious

and of the Industrial Revolution. Slate and granite quarwere developed by their owners, quarrying villages (centres of Radicalism and Nonconformity) sprang up and ports flourished. At the same time, and especially after the railway to Bangor from Chester was built in 1848, the county became a popular tourist Seaside resorts developed on the northern coasts, notably area. at Llandudno (q.v.), and inland resorts at Betws-y-Coed, BeddgelThroughout the centuries the county ert and Llanberis (gq.v.). has remained mainly Welsh in speech and character, especially in areas away from the main lines of communication and the holiday resorts. At mid-20th century the bulk of the population was bilingual but English influences, already dominant in the Llandudno area, were affecting the inhabitants more strongly than ever revival ries

before.

Administration.

—There are

von, the county town,

4 municipal boroughs (Caernar-

Conway, Pwllheli and Bangor

[gg.i'.]),

urban and 4 rural districts, 52 civil parishes and 2 parliamentary constituencies (Caernarvon division comprising the southern half and Conway division the northern half). The county is the diocese of Bangor except for a few northern parishes which are in that of St. Asaph. 7

The Economy.

—The

basic industries are agriculture (products,

milk and meat), slate and stone quarrying and the tourist Other industries included chemicals, metal manufacturing, trade. chiefly

engineering, shipbuilding, building and contracting, transport, the

There are small hydroelectric distributive trades and forestry. power stations at Cwmdyli and Dolgarrog, where there is an aluminum works. The main London-Holyhead railway runs along the coast between Llandudno junction and Bangor, crossing the Conway river and the Menai strait by tubular bridges. From Llandudno junction there is a branch to Llandudno and another up the Denbighshire side of the Conway. A branch connects Bethesda with Bangor (closed to passengers). A line runs from Menai Bridge station through Caernarvon and Penygroes to Afon Wen, linking north and south. The coast railway from Barmouth enters the county at Portmadoc and runs through Afon Wen to its terminus Trunk roads into the county are: the one following at Pwllheli. the coastal route from Chester; the road entering at Betws-y-Coed, passing through Nant Ffrancon to Bangor and crossing the Menai suspension bridge into Anglesey; the road from Merioneth, entering across the Portmadoc embankment. Main roads within the county run chiefly along the coastal plains and through the mountain passes. The ports of Bangor, Caernarvon, Conway, Port Dinorwic, Portmadoc and Pwllheli are little used.

—

Bibliography. Transactions, Caernarvonshire Historical Society (19J9); F. J. North, B. Campbell and R. Scott, Snowdonia (1949); E. H. Hall, A Description of Caernarvonshire (1809-11) (19S2) A. H. Dodd, The Industrial Revolution in North Wales, 2nd ed. (1951) E. J. Howell, Land Utilisation Survev, North Wales (1946) Snowdonia, NaUonal Park Guide no. 2 (H.M.S.O., 1958). (W. O. W.) ;

;

573

a wide plain between the

two

Prince Llewelyn ap Gruffydd laid siege to and destroyed it in 1270. The present castle, begun in 1271, became the earliest and most complete example in Britain of a concentric plan known as "Edwardian" and is the largest castle in England and Wales, excepting Windsor. The great hall is a fine example of Decorated architecture. This and other additions are attributed to Hugh le Despenser (1318-26). It was taken by Owen Glendower in 1403. Before the middle of the 15th century it had ceased to be a fortified residence and was used as a trict, in

rivers.

passed to the Bute family (via the earls of in the 1930s after which the 4th marquess of Bute gave it to the crown. The town grew up around the castle but never received a charter. Its markets during the 19th century were chiefly noted for Caerphilly cheese which is still widely sold in England. The district was one of the chief centres of the Methodist revival of the ISth century, the first synod of the Calvinistic Methodists being held in 1743 at Watford farm. With the development of the south Wales coal field the prosperity of Caerphilly increased. This industrial progress was helped by the opening in 1858 of a railway from Rhymney to Caerphilly, which was subsequently extended. It eventually

prison.

Pembroke) and underwent restoration

Trade depression in the 1930s had especially marked effects in Coal remained this locality and unemployment was widespread. the main industry in the early 1960s. Roman general CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (100-44 b.c), and statesman, whose dictatorship and whose eventual assassination precipitated the civil wars that ended republican government in Rome, and whose history of his Gallic conquests is a primary source of our knowledge of Gaul. The origin of the word Caesar, the third name (cognomen) of a branch of the patrician family of the Julii prominent in public life from the time of the Punic Wars, was debated in antiquity, and was most commonly believed to have originated from a birth by caesarean section. This is stated as a fact by Pliny the elder, and is plausible on the analogy of Vopiscus and Proculus, words describing circumstances of birth, both of which are found as names in the Julian family. The Julii (by c. 100 B.C.) claimed descent through Julus, son of Aeneas, from Venus. "We Julii are descended from Venus," Julius Caesar is reported to have said in a speech at his aunt's funeral in 69 B.C. There were two branches of the Julii Caesares in the late republic, both deriving from Sextus Julius Caesar, praetor in 208. The branch to which Caesar the later dictator belonged was the less distinguished, his uncle Sextus Julius Caesar being 91 B.C.).

Early Career Until (not, as

Mommsen

60.

its first

— Caesar was born on July

held, in 102

consul (in

12,

100

B.C.

).

His father, Gaius Julius Caesar, praetor probably in 92 and proconsul of Asia a year later, died in His mother, Aurelia, who 85.

was long remembered for the care which she took over her son's His fawas wife of Gaius Marius {q.v.)\ and at the

education, lived until 54. ther's

sister

Julia

;

CAERPHILLY

(Caerffili), a market town and urban district in the Caerphilly parliamentary division of Glamorgan, Wales, 7 mi. N. of Cardiff, 11 mi. W. of Newport by road, and near the Monmouthshire border. Pop. (1961 36,008. It was formerly in the ancient parish of Eglwysilan, which joined with Bedwas, Monmouthshire to form an ecclesiastical parish in 1850. The parishes of Eglwysilan and Llanfabon were in 1893 constituted into an urban district. The ancient commot (early Welsh territorial and administrative unit) of Senghenydd, corresponding to the modem hundred of Caerphilly, comprised the mountainous district from the Cefn On ridge on the south to Brecknockshire on the north, being bounded by the Taff and Rhymney rivers on the west and east. Its inhabitants, though nominally subject to the lords of Glamorgan since Robert Fitzhamon's conquest, often raided the lowlands. To check this Gilbert de Clare, during the closing years of the reign of Henry III, built a castle on the southern edge of this dis)

'

age of 16 Caesar himself married Cornelia, the daughter of L. Cornelius Cinna. From the start he

was a popidaris, brought up

in

the political entourage of Marius,

who had used popular support a

as

weapon

ness

of

against the exclusivethe senatorial class or

optimates. Sulla having spared his life

with the warning that "Caesar

had many Mariuses in him" Caesar went east in 81 or 80, to join the staff of M. Minucius »aples ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ naiion.le Thermus, governor of Asia, by ^J^^RBLrBUs'r of julius- caesar, whom he was sent on an embassy op jhe ist century, a.d. in the to King Nicomedes of Bithynia. museo nazionale. naples. italy

CAESAR

574

When Sulla died in 78 b.c, he returned to Rome, decided not to support the foolhardy venture of Lepidus (see Lepidus Marcus Aemiliiis Lepidus) and in 77 won praise from his prosecution, unsuccessful though it was, of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, lately governor of Asia. Leaving Rome again to study rhetoric in Rhodes, he was captured by pirates in winter 75-74 and, as he :

had promised them while awaiting the

arrival of his ransom, he secured their subsequent crucifixion. Back in Rome in 73, he spoke in 70 for the lex Plautia, by which Roman citizenship was restored to the surviving followers of Lepidus.

Of his career in the 60s certain bare facts are beyond dispute. Elected quaestor for 69, he officiated in 69-68 in Further Spain; he was aedile in 65 and praetor in 62, both times with the optimate M. Bibulus, son-in-law of M. Porcius Cato, as a colleague; being already a pontifex iq.v.), he was elected pontifex maximus in 63; early in 61 he divorced his wife Pompeia, whom he had married in 67 after Cornelia's death, once it was clear that she was implicated, however innocently, in the trial of P. Clodius (g.v.) for violating the mysteries of the Bona Dea; he governed Further Spain as proconsul in 61 and, on his return in 60. when he was refused permission to stand in absence for the consulship of 59, he entered the city and offered himself as a candidate, thereby forfeiting the right to a triumph for which he had hoped in recognition He was elected, again with Bibulus of his conquests in Spain. for colleague.

For the

rest,

much

that the ancient historians re-

corded of him in the way of policy in these years was mistakenly backdated from his later career, and much that was discreditable (implication, for instance, in Catiline's alleged schemes of 65 and his great conspiracy of 63) was falsely imputed to him later, by Bibulus in 50 and by antagonistic historians. Certain features of his personal outlook in the 60s are clear. To restore the discredited reputation of his uncle Marius. he replaced the trophies of Marius on the Capitol during his aedileship in 65. He opposed Q. Lutatius Catulus, the most distinguished of Sulla's surviving supporters, by speaking in favour of Pompey's extraordinary commands in 67 and 66 (see Pompeius). His election to be pontifex maximus against the stronger claims of Catulus and of P. Servilius Isauricus was achieved by heavy bribery. As praetor in 62 he sought to discredit Catulus in connection with his rebuilding the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. He was behaving as an orthodox papillaris when he opposed the legality of summary punishment after the passing of the senatus consultum ultimum the last decree supporting T. Labienus in 63 in his prosecution of Gaius Rabirius in connection with events of 100 B.C. which culminated in the death of Saturninus (q.v.) and on Dec. S he opposed M. Porcius Cato (q.v.) in the senate, making a wise and humane speech against the execution of the Catilinarian prisoners, and favouring their life imprisonment outside Rome. M. Licinius Crassus (q.v.) who lent him considerable sums of money was quick to appreciate his promise; but Caesar certainly acted independently of Crassus when he supported the grant of extraordinary powers to Pompey and, as praetor in 62, when he joined the tribune Q. Metellus Nepos in urging that Pompey should be recalled from the east to restore order; on which occasion he was temporarily suspended from office. Association With Pompey and Crassus and Consulate of 59. He achieved a triumph of political diplomacy in 60 when he reconciled Pompey and Crassus. With the limited objects of promoting measures in which both had been frustrated by optimate opposition (proceeding in the main from Cato) and securing a large military command for Caesar, the three agreed to combine political forces in the so-called "first triumvirate," Cicero was even sounded to see if he would like to make a fourth. Pompey (

)

,

;

—

wanted belated

ratification of his eastern settlement and land allotments for his veterans; Crassus wanted concessions for the com-

pany of publicani which farmed the taxes of Asia. There were two land bills, the first passed in all probability

in

(watching the heavens to discover whether the signs were auspicious for the transaction of public business), he endeavoured to bring the business of the state to a standstill. Disregarding Bibulus, Caesar continued to legislate. The measures in which

Pompey and Crassus had an

were passed. In return for (Auletes) was recognized as May, by a law of the tribune P. Vatinius, Caesar was appointed proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul and lUyricum for five years. The senate added a third province. Transalpine Gaul. In this year Pompey married Caesar's daughter

XH

(who died in 54), and Caesar married Calpurnia, daughter of who became consul for 58. Caesar in Gaul and Britain 58-51. Each summer from March 58 to 51 B.C. (inclusive) Caesar campaigned north of the

Julia

L. Piso,

—

Alps, returning for the winter to deal with civil administration in Cisalpine Gaul and lUyricum, He kept in touch with Roman politics

through visiting politicians and through agents

ticularly the Spaniard Cornelius Balbus, 58,

was engaged from 58

in

Rome,

par-

P, Clodius, tribune in

to 56 to ensure that

Caesar was not

re-

and that Pompey, who had been frightened by Caesar's use of force in 59, did not desert his political alliance with Caesar in favour of the optimates. However great the personal called prematurely

sympathy that Caesar ment by Clodius (by vicinity of

Rome

There was

in

felt for

Cicero, he

knew

a bill passed while

March

58

)

suited his

that Cicero's banish-

Caesar was

own

still

in the

interest.

good case for the creation of a strong military command in the north, where danger comparable with that which had followed the emigration of the Cimbri and Teuton! in 113 could a

reasonably be apprehended. To the northeast the first consolidation of Dacia as a kingdom under King Burebista was under way, with repercussions which were felt on the borders of Illyricura. Farther westward a series of migrations on the part of people living east of the Rhine had started or was imminent. The Boii had moved into Noricum and besieged Noreia. The Suebic chief Ariovistus (q.v.) had crossed the Rhine, helped the Sequani to inflict a crushing defeat at Admagetobriga (or Magetobriga) in 61 on Rome's old allies, the Aedui, and had since remained, an embarrassing guest, in the territory of the Sequani, attracting a constant stream of German immigrants from across the Rhine, Already in 61 the Roman senate had sent special instructions to the governor of Transalpine Gaul to protect the Aedui and after Admagetobriga had even anticipated an invasion of Roman territory early in 60; the recognition of Ariovistus as "a friend of the Roman people" in Caesar's consulship was, presumably, an act The Celtic Helvetii were on the point of deliberate deception. of starting an emigration, planned in 61 b,c., to the country of the Santones on the coast of Gaul, and it was the news that this emigration was imminent that took Caesar at once to Transalpine Gaul,

where he campaigned for the following eight years. The four legions which he took over in his provinces (three in Cisalpine, one in Transalpine Gaul) were numbered 7th to 10th. He raised two new legions (Uth and 12th) in 58, and two more 13th and 14th) in 57, .After making good losses suffered in winter 54, raising fresh legions and borrowing one from Pompey, his army at the end of 53 consisted of ten legions (between 40,000 and 45,000 troops), together with cavalry (about 400 to a legion) and auxiliaries (about one-tenth the strength of the legionaries). He sent 2 legions to Italy at the senate's request in 50, but by the end of 50, through further recruiting, had an army of 11 legions, including the famous Alaudae legion. The Helvetii 368,000 of them, if Caesar is to be trusted were on the move, across the Jura mountains and three-quarters of them across the Arar (Saone) river when Caesar (by his own account) or T. Labienus, his second-in-command (by Plutarch's), caught and defeated their rear guard, the Tigurini, at the crossing. The remainder of the tribe were defeated near Bibracte (q.v.). Then in the plain of Alsace Caesar attacked and defeated the indignant (

—

—

late Jan. 59, the second, sanctioning distribution of the public land

Ariovistus,

Campania, at the beginning of May. When Bibulus tried to impede the passing of the first law, he was thrown from the platform and his fasces were broken. He retired to his house and, by announcing that until further notice he was engaged in spectio

his escape.

in

interest

6,000 talents payment Ptolemy king of Egypt and, probably in

With

who escaped after the battle, but did not long survive Caesar now planned to subjugate the whole of Gaul.

his victory over the Nervii, the

tribes, in a battle

on

tion of the Atuatuci

a site near the

most powerful of the Belgic

Sambre

and the submission

river in 57, the capitula-

to his lieutenant P. Cras-

—

—

CAESAR sus of the western coastal tribes, Caesar

was optimistic enough to think that the back of the conquest was broken, and a supplicatio or period of thanksgiving, of unexampled length, 1 5 days, was voted at Rome. He now looked further afield, over the English channel ("Oceanus") and across the Rhine and, to ensure that he was not recalled for L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, candidate for the consulship of SS, had announced his intention of securing Caesar's recall he met Crassus and Pompey at Luca (mod. Lucca) in April i56 and agreed that they should both become consuls for S5, displacing Domitius, receive each a five-year military command and

—

—

secure the extension of his own command for a further live years. The revolt of the Veneti and other coastal tribes in S6 was a surprise to him. Decimus Brutus, admiral of a makeshift Roman

defeated them by cutting the rigging of their great barges. In 55 the Usipetes and Tencteri. who had crossed from the east bank of the Rhine, were destroyed in circumstances which Caesar fleet,

himself described in disingenuous terms {De bello Gallico, iv, 4-15), and which prompted Cato to suggest in the senate that Caesar should be handed over as a prisoner to the Germans. Then, after building the famous bridge, Caesar crossed for 18 days to the east bank of the Rhine and later made a short reconnaissance of Britain, landing near VValmer in Kent. At Rome a second supplicatio, of 20 days, was voted. He made a second and longer expedition to Britain in 54 with five legions and an invasion fleet of 800 vessels; he crossed the Thames and received the submission of Cassivellaunus {q.v.). Attacks on his winter quarters in Gaul that winter were the first indication of coming trouble and one and one-half legions were destroyed. The Treveri rose in 53 and were defeated by Labienus, and Caesar made his second crossing of the Rhine. In 52 the storm broke. The whole of Gaul, even including in the end the Aedui, revolted. The Gauls had at last found, in the Arvernian chief V'ercingetorix, a leader of genius, capable of uniting the tribes and intelligent enough to plan a scorched-earth policy which, if it had been followed wholeheartedly, might have driven the Romans from Gaul. Caesar won an early success when he succeeded in crossing the mountain range of the Cevennes in thick snow to join his legions. He was forced to lift his siege of Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni (about 4 mi. S. of ClermontFerrand), but later defeated V'ercingetorix near Dijon and besieged him in Alesia {q.v.). After enduring terrible hardships and after the defeat of the relieving army under Vercassivellaunus and others, Vercingetorix capitulated. The year 51 was spent in mopping-up operations, including the capture of Uxellodunum (mod. Issoudun). Gaul was now organized as a Roman province; its annual tribute was 40.000,000 sesterces and, after its conquest, Caesar was an immensely wealthy man. Negotiations in Rome for a Second Consulship. Caesar

—

575

tention which only skilful negotiation could have resolved; but when from the optimate side it was suggested that Caesar might be

allowed to stand in absence if he first surrendered command of his army, Caesar stood firm in his insistence that in that case Pompey, on whose military support the opposition to Caesar depended, and

who remained

in Italy after receiving leave to administer his Spanish provinces through deputies, should resign his military command as well. That a compromise was desired by a majority of senators was shown when Curio's proposal that both should resign their military commands was carried by 370 votes to 22 on Dec. 1. But on the following day the hysterica! consul Gaius Marcellus placed a sword in Pompey's hands, bidding him defend the state. Antony succeeded Curio on Dec. 10. On Jan. 7, 49, he and his fellow-tribune Q. Cassius were warned that to sustain their veto might prove dangerous to them. The "last decree" was passed, and they fled to Caesar. A day or two later the senate appointed Domitius Ahenobarbus to succeed Caesar in Gaul. Civil War. Caesar crossed the Rubicon iq.v.) and invaded Italy with one legion on Jan. 11. He claimed that his dignitas had been insulted, and that the insult was one which in honour he could not overlook. He still hoped for peace by negotiation, but Pompey refused to meet him, and the core of unyielding opposition to Caesar hardened. His opponents were oversanguine, largely through the mistaken belief of Labienus, who had left Caesar and joined them, that Caesar would be faced by serious mutiny among his troops. They were disappointed by the speed of Caesar's movements and by the warmth of the reception which he received from the country towns of Italy through which he passed. When Domitius Ahenobarbus' army capitulated at Corfinium (Corfinio in the modern province of Aquila), Caesar set Domitius free, and even restored to him the 6.000,000 sesterces found in his war chest. Moving down the east coast, he was too late to cut

—

Pompey off from Brindisi, from which Pompey embarked his army the two legions given up by Caesar at the senate's request (

for service in the east in 50, and such soldiers as had since been levied in Italy) and crossed the Adriatic on

March

17.

The con-

and a large proportion of the senate had crossed earlier. UnPompey, Caesar moved rapidly through Rome to Massilia (Marseilles), which withstood him, and to Spain where, after brilliant maneuvering near Ilerda {q.v.), he defeated Pompey's two lieutenants L. Afranius and M. Petreius. Massilia capitulated. After a few days in Rome, when after being made dictator to preside over the elections, he was elected consul suls

able, without a fleet, to follow

for 48 with P. Servilius Isauricus the younger, he crossed to Epirus,

and Antony followed with the greater part of his army. Caesar's attempt to blockade Pompey in Dyrrhachium (mod. Durres in western Albania) was unsuccessful and, if Pompey had shown greater initiative, Caesar might have suffered a serious defeat. He moved eastward, and so did Pompey. Bot^ received reinforcements, and Pompey's army was the larger. But Caesar won a de-

second consulship, after the necessary legal interval of ten years, in 48 B.C. but he anticipated that his political enemies would try to prevent this by indicting him whether for his conduct in 59, for misgovernment of his provinces or for bribery after his entry to Rome for the election (in July 49) or in the interval between his election and his assumption of office on Jan. 1, 48. Therefore, in order not to enter Rome before the end of 49, he secured leave, through a law proposed by the whole college of ten tribunes in 52, to stand in absence at the elections in 49; and he expected to retain his Gallic command to the end of 49 since, by a clause in the lex Pompeia Licinia, the law by which his command had been extended for a further five years in 55, no consul of a year earlier than 49 could be appointed his successor, and any other measure to succeed him could be vetoed at Rome by a friendly tribune. Pompey 's lex de provinciis, passed in 52, since it increased the scope of tribunitian veto on provincial appointments, caused him no anxiety; but the consul M. Marcellus made it clear by the summer of 51 that the optimate bloc in the senate did not propose to honour the law of the ten tribunes. Caesar retorted by bringing all provincial appointments to a deadlock, through the veto of Gaius Curio, tribune in 50, who sold his allegiance to Caesar for a large sum of money. M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who had been Caesar's quaestor in Gaul, and who suc-

in Thessaly on Aug. 9, 48. He cisive victory at Pharsalus {q.v. pursued Pompey to Egypt, but arrived after his murder. The winter in Alexandria was spent in hard fighting against Ptolemy XIII and the Alexandrians, at the end of which he confirmed Cleopatra as queen, with her young brother Ptolemy XIV PhilopaAfter a short inspection of tor as consort (see Cleopatra). Egypt from the Nile he moved northward into Asia Minor and defeated Pharnaces II, son of Mithradates, who had invaded Pontus, (The famous Veni, vidi, vici "I came. I saw, I at Zela in June. conquered" recording this lightning victory was not the text of Caesar's dispatch to Rome, but a caption recording his victory He was back in Rome in October, but left at his triumph in 46. at the end of November for Africa, where the republican army, 14 legions strong, was reorganized under Juba, king of Mauretania and Q. Metellus Scipio (consul in 52). When Caesar's legions, led by his favourite, the 10th, mutinied in Campania, he addressed them as civilians Quirites and discipline was restored by the insult of this single word. The republicans were defeated at Thapsus on April 6, 46 (really Feb. 6, for by this time the disordered Roman calendar, later corrected by Caesar, was about

ceeded Curio as tribune for 49, was to discharge the same function. Between Caesar and the optimate bloc there was a conflict of in-

suicide rather than sue for pardon.

had planned

to hold a

;

—

)

—

—

)

—

two months wrong) and at Utica

Cato committed Those who escaped made for

in north Africa

—

CAESAR

576

Spain, where the two sons of Pompey were trying to build up another army. Caesar was in Rome from the end of July until November, and in August on four successive days, he celebrated four tremendous triumphs, over Gaul (Vercingetorix, kept six years for the ceremony, was now executed), Egypt, Pharnaces and

Juba.

He

left for

Spain in late

of the republicans at

Munda

November and defeated the last on March 17, 45. Gnaeus

(g.v.)

Pompeius was killed soon after, but Sextus Pompeius remained at Caesar entered Rome again in the autumn of 45 and celebrated a triumph which gave offense as being, unlike those of 46, a triumph over Romans. The following five months, the longest continuous period which Caesar spent in Rome since 59, were largely devoted by him to planning a vast military campaign in the east. An army was assembling in lUyricum with which, taking his great-nephew Octavius (later the emperor Augustus), he intended to march, first to the Danube, then to the east, to engage the Parthians and avenge the defeat of Crassus and his troops at Carrhaein53. He planned to leave Rome on March 17. Two days earlier, on the ides, he was murdered at the foot of Pompey's statue at a meeting of the senate held in Pompey's theatre. Constitutional Position of Caesar. From 49 to 44 the relarge.

—

publican constitution was virtually suspended. Caesar's first dictatorship, in early Dec. 49 (to which, in an unconstitutional way, he was nominated by M. Aemilius Lepidus, a praetor), lasted only 11 days; its sole

purpose was to enable him to preside over the

election of consuls for 48, a function which Lepidus himself, being

was not entitled to discharge. As a result of this election Caesar was consul in 48. Later in that year, when the news of Pharsalus reached Rome, he was nominated dictator (probably by his fellow-consul Servilius) for no specific period, with Antony as master of the horse. He was consul for the third time in 46, with Lepidus for his colleague, and on the news of Thapsus he was nominated dictator for ten years, and Lepidus now became his master of the horse. He was consul for the fourth time, for the first nine months of the year without a colleague, in 45, and for the fifth time, with Antony as colleague, in 44. Early in 44 he was created perpetual dictator, Lepidus continuing to be his master of the horse. He was granted tribunitian power for life in 48, and in 46 received extensive censorial powers for three years, under the title praejectus moribus. In the prolonged period of his absence from Rome great power was exercised by his representatives, in particular by Antony and by Lepidus successively as masters of the horse, and by such men as Aulus Hirtius, Cornelius Balbus and the knight Gaius Oppius, whose influence as agents of Caesar in Rome was greatly resented in optimate circles. Beyond passing measures which were known to have Caesar's backing, the senate, whose number was increased by Caesar to 900, did little but vote sycophantic honours to him, as victory succeeded victory in the civil war, introducing to Rome titles and honours, many of which conflicted offensively with deep-rooted Roman tradition. A statue was voted to him in 46 with the inscription, "He is a demi-god," which Caesar ordered to be erased. In May 45 his statue was erected in the temple of Quirinus in Rome and in winter 45-44 he was voted a priest (though Antony, allegedly designated for the position, was never inaugurated). The name of the seventh month of the year was changed from Quintilis to Julius. A new panel of Luperci, the Luperci Julii, was created, and at the Lupercalia (q.v.) in Feb. 44 an unsuccessful attempt was made by Antony and two of the later assassins, Cassius and Casca apparently without Caesar's foreknowledge or approval, to crown him. Already in Jan. 44, when Caesar returned from the Latin games, there had been cries of "Rex," to which he retorted, "Non rex sum, sed Caesar." Reasons for the Conspiracy The conspiracy to kill him praetor,

—

owed

success to the respect in which M. Junius Brutus (g.v.) was evidently held. Of the 60 conspirators (of whom Cicero was not one; we know the names of 20. Plans were first formed, its

probably, when Brutus divorced his wife and married Cato's daughter Porcia, widow of Bibulus, in summer 45. The murder was the easier for the fact that only a

month before

his death

Caesar had

discharged his Spanish guard, and dispensed with any kind of military protection in Rome.

Caesar scorned the punctilio of convenand that there were occasions in the last months of his life when he was brusque, difficult of access, discourteous to the senate and culpably lacking in tact (as when, unconstitutionally, he made Caninius Rebilus consul for a single day, the last day of 45, and when he expelled two tribunes from the senate a month later). For the rest, the evidence is capable of conflicting interpretations. To some historians it seems clear that Caesar was corrupted by success, that he welcomed even the most extravagant of the honours voted to him, and that he planned to remain an autocrat, replacing constitutional republicanism by monarchy of the Hellenistic type. If so, the conspiracy is easy to understand. But It is quite certain that

tional politics,

is understandable, too, if Caesar's offense in the conspirators' eyes simply lay in the fact that after Munda he did not restore republican government at once. In that case it may be held and the ancient evidence warrants the view that Caesar neither con-

it

—

—

sidered himself to be. nor wished to be thought, a king or a god; that he did not interrupt the authoritarian type of government

winter 45-44 because it had worked efficiently during the civil wars and he wished it to continue during what might be a protracted absence in the east. If this view is correct, it is impossible to say what type of constitutional settlement he might have made on his return. Administrative Achievements of Caesar Apart from the startling brilliance of his military career and the fact that, when he conquered Gaul and established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman empire he shaped the future of Europe, his administrative achievements were outstanding in range, imagination and importance. The lex Julia repetundaruni of 59 gave great protection to provincials against rapacious administration; and though the pubin

lication of the senate's proceedings {acta senatiis), instituted in

that year,

was discontinued by Augustus, the publication of official daily gazette, which he inaugurated in

acta diurna, an

the 59,

continued usefully long into the empire. In his dictatorship he increased not only the number but also the representative charstories of trousered Gauls and of senators who acter of the senate could not speak Latin were evident exaggerations and he made extensive grants of citizenship, completing the unification of Italy by authorizing the bestowal of full citizenship on the inhabitants

—

—

of Cisalpine Gaul north of the Po in 49. He created a large number of colonies in the provinces including Corduba, Hispalis and Tarraco in Spain, Narbo in Gaul and Carthage (colonia Julia Carthago) in .\frica; his colony Genetiva Julia at Urso (mod.

—

Osuna in Spain was established after his death. His intention of producing a uniform system of municipal government in Italy, on which work had started in early 45, was a good one, although it was never completed. If free elections were effectively curbed, the corruption and bribery of elections, which no legislation of the republic had managed to restrain, were curbed too. The immediate debt crisis of 49 was not unjustly solved by the stipulation that, while interest was in eft'ect excused, debts must be repaid )

in full.

The number

of recipients of the free

monthly corn

ration

reduced from 320,000 to 150,000. The greater part is indebted to him for the act of reorganization by which in 46 he gave it what is, with very small adjustment, in the middle ages, its present calendar. Relations With Cicero and Others. Though he failed in his last years to appreciate the psychology of politicians in the mass, he had a penetrating understanding of individual character, as is nicely instanced by the adroit flattery of his political approach to Cicero in 60 (which can be studied in Cicero's correspondence, Ad Atticum ii, 3, 3) and by his judgments on Brutus, Quicquid vult, valde vult ("Whatever he wants, he sets his heart on it") and on Cicero (Ad Atticum xiv, 1). And, although Curio assured Cicero in early 49 that Caesar's dementia was not genuine, but merely politic, nothing ih Caesar's career is more remarkable than the generosity with which, if given the chance, he pardoned his defeated opponents in the civil war. It was the expression of such generosity, already experienced in his own case, in the case of M. Marcellus, consul of 51, which induced Cicero to "break silence" at

Rome was

of the

modern world

—

with his rapturous speech Pro Marcello in 46. There is a sharp contrast here with the blood bath which followed the victories of

;

CAESAREAN—CAESAREA PALESTINAE Marius and Sulla before Caesar and that which followed the formation of the triumvirate in 43. Caesar's Heir Julia, his daughter by Cornelia, was Caesar's only certain child. Though Servilia was his mistress, probably between 61 and 59, the story that Brutus, born long before this, was his son was no more than a canard. Cleopatra, who was cer-

—

tainly his mistress in Alexandria in the winter of 48-47, lived in

Rome

with her royal consort, Ptolemy XIV, from 46 until after Cleopatra and Antony claimed later that her son Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar), who was murdered on Octavian's instruction after Actium, was Caesar's son. The boy was almost certainly born not in 47 but after Caesar's death, and there is no convincing evidence at all that Caesar was his father. His heir, adopted by his will (made in autumn 45) was his great-nephew Caesar's death.

XV

Gaius Octavius, son of Atia, who was daughter of Caesar's sister By his will Caesar left 300 sesterces to every member of the Roman populace. His body was burned in the forum, like that of Clodius earlier, after Antony had delivered a violent funeral speech, probably on March 20 (see Antonius). The unpredicted appearance of a comet at the games in honour of Caesar's victory celebrated by Octavius (now, after acceptance of his adoption, Caesar Octavianus) between July 20 and 30, 44, was accepted by the credulous populace of Rome as visible evidence of Caesar's godhead, and after the formation of the triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus, on Jan. 1, 42, by vote of the senate and people Caesar was made a god. Julius Caesar no longer, he was now Divus Julius, and Octavian was marked out from the rest of the contemporary world by having a god for his father; he was "Divi Julia.

Juli tilius."

—

Writings. Caesar's two books De analogia, written during his proconsulship of Gaul, have perished; so has the Anticato which he published, probably in 45, in response to the hagiologies of Cato

by Cicero, Brutus and

His surviving works are the Commentarii on the Gallic war in seven books and on the civil war in three. The De bello Gallico describes, with one book devoted The to each year's fighting, his campaigns in Gaul from 58 to 52. campaigns were probably written up each winter and the whole work published in 51 as a naturally not unbiased record of his achievement in Gaul for the reading public at Rome, with an eye on his prospective candidature for the consulship of 48. The first two books of the De hello civili describe events of 49, and the third book those of 48, breaking off in Alexandria at the end of the campaigning season. Possibly the first two books were published in winter 49-48 and the third book a year later, to keep the Roman public informed of the course of the war from Caesar's standpoint. On the other hand it is not impossible that he wrote this for publication in the winter of 45^4 and that, had he not been killed, he would have carried his account of the war down to the battle of others.

Book 8 of the De bello Gallico was written after Caesar's death by Hirtius, who had probably been Caesar's secretary during the latter part of his time in Gaul, to bridge the gap between the end of Caesar's De bello Gallico and the start of his De bello civili. The surviving Bellum Alexandrinum may be by Hirtius the authorship of the Bellum Ajricum and the Bellum Hispatiiense is Munda.

;

Pro Ligario (written

uncritical of the reports of his subordinate officers.

free

He

concluded

had Caesar lived he would have produced a revised edition, from blemishes. It is a long and a wrong step from such

—

—

intelligent criticism to the unrestrained denunciation of Caesar's

veracity in which

modern scholarship has occasionally indulged.

See also references under "Caesar, Gaius Julius" in the Index volume. Bibliography. text,

see

see

—In

Cicero,

Cicero,

addition to contemporary works cited in the Letters (for editions of Cicero's correspondence Bibliography) ; speeches, especially

Marcus Tullius:

577 and

ii

(44)

;

Catullus, Poems,

54, 93 (addressed to Caesar), 29, 57 (abusing him); Sallust, CatUinarian Conspiracy. Ancient historians of the late republic: VelPaterculus, Appian, Die Cassius; Plutarch, Suetonius, Lives of Caesar; Lucan, Pharsalia. Modern works include T. Mommsen, History of Rome, Eng. trans. (1911) T. Rice Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 2nd ed. (1911), The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire (1923); P. Groebe and A. Klotz in Pauly-Wissowa, RealEncyclopddie, x, pp. 186-275 (1919) E. Meyer, Caesars Monarchie und das Principal des Pompeius, 3rd ed. (1922) M. Cary, C. Hignett, F. E. Adcock in Cambridge .Ancient History, vol. ix, ch. 11-13 and 15-17, with bibliography (1932) G. Bloch and J. Carcopino, Histoire romaine, ii (1935); R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939; subsequent impressions 1951, 1960) M. Gelzer, Caesar der Politiker und Staatsmann (1940) L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), Greece and Rome, iv, 1 (1957). On the question at issue between Caesar and the senate over the end of the Gallic command, see G. R. Elton, Journal of Roman Studies, 36, pp. 18-42 (1946) P. J. Cuff, Historia, 7, pp. 445-471 (1958) for the question whether or not Caesar contemplated monarchy of a Hellenistic type, see L. R. Taylor, "The Divinity of the Roman Emperor," American Philological Association (1931) J. Carcopino, Points de vue sur I'imperialisme romain, pp. 89-155 (1934) J. H. ColUns, Historia, 4, pp. 445^63 (1955); M. A. Levi, Annali dell' islituto superiore di magistero del Piemonte, 7, pp. 1-10 (1934) and on the date of J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Historia, 7, pp. 80-94 (1958) leius

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

XV

Ptolemy

Caesar, Classical Revue, 74 (new series 10), on Caesar's municipal legislation, A. N. Sherwinpp. 68-71 (1960) White, The Roman Citizenship (1939); on Caesar and the senate, R. Syme, "Caesar, the Senate and Italy," Papers of the British School at Rome, 14, pp. 1-31 (1938) on portraits of Caesar, F. J. Scott, Portraitures of Julius Caesar (1903) on Caesar's writings, F. E. Adcock, Caesar as Man of Letters (1956). Texts of Caesar's writings: De bello Gallico, ed. T. Rice Holmes (1914) De bello civili, ed. F. Kraner, F. Hofman, H. Meusel, 12th ed. (1959). Texts of Gallic War, Civil War and the other wars (Bellum Alexandrinum, Africum, Hispaniense) in Oxford Classical Texts; with Eng. trans., in Loeb Classical Library. (J. P. V. D. B.) in obstetrics, is the operation for birth

of

;

;

;

;

CAESAREAN SECTION,

removal of a fetus from the uterus by an abdominal

incision.

(For

the association of the name of Julius Caesar's family with the It has been practised operation, see Caesar, Gaius Julius.) on the dead mother since very early times; it was prescribed by

Roman law that every woman dying in advanced pregnancy should be so treated; and in 1608 the senate of Venice enacted that any practitioner who failed to perform this operation on a pregnant woman supposed to be dead laid himself open to very heavy penalties.

recorded instance of its being performed on a living occurred about 1500, when a Swiss pig gelder operated on It was tried in many ways and under many condihis own wife. tions, but almost invariably resulted in death of the mother from sepsis or hemorrhage. Even in the first half of the 19th century the

The

first

woman

—

recorded mortality was more than 50%. Fetal craniotomy in which the life of the child is sacrificed to save that of the mother was almost invariably preferred. The introduction of asepsis and use of improved methods of suturing the incised uterine wall have so reduced the mortality that the operation is frequently performed. Where possible, however, it is better to avoid the operation except under favourable conditions and in skilled hands. It still carries a definite hazard.

—

CAESAREA PALESTINAE,

Commentarii were intended as material for history books, not as finished works of history; but Cicero, writing in Caesar's lifetime in 46, reasonably stated of the De bello Gallico that it had the elegance and perfection of a finished work of history. After Caesar's death Asinius Pollio was more critical, stating that sometimes deliberately, sometimes from forgetfulness, Caesar wrote much that was not true; that, in particular, he was sometimes too

i

no.

uncertain.

that

in 46), Philippics,

coast of Palestine, the site of the S.

of Haifa, in northern Israel.

an ancient seaport on the

modem

village of Qisarya, 22 mi.

The town was

originally built (25-

of Judaea, as port for his capital Sebaste on an ancient Phoenician fortified site known as Strato's temple, theatre, amphipalaces, Tower. Josephus describes the 13 B.C.)

by Herod the Great, king

hippodrome, aqueducts and other monumental structures The harbour was constructed by rein9, 6). forcing two reefs with vast stone blocks so that the mouth faced north away from the rough seas whipped up by the prevailing southerly winds. Caesarea played a prominent role in the lives of the early Christians. Peter first preached to Gentiles there at the Philip the Evaninvitation of the Roman centurion. Cornelius. gelist lived there (Acts xxi, 8 and entertained Paul and his friends. On the death of Herod Agrippa I (a.d. 44) Caesarea had become the seat of the Roman procurator of Judaea. Paul was tried by Felix and imprisoned in Caesarea for two years (a.d. 57-59) he appeared there before Festus, Felix' successor, and Herod Agrippa theatre,

(Antiquitates, xv,

)

;

CAESAREA PHILIPPI—CAFFIERI

578

from there to Italy for his final appeal to the emperor. Caesarea saw the first incidents in the Jewish revolt against the Romans (a.d. 66), and Vespasian, who made the town his headquarters, was proclaimed emperor there in 69. In the reign of Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235) it became the metropolis of Its bishop, therefore, became metropolitan of Syria, an Syria. ofl&ce which the historian Eusebius held from c. 314 to 318. Caesarea was also the home of the historian Procopius and the abode of Origen, the theologian. By a.d. 640 when the Muslims occupied the town its sea power had faded, and it rapidly shrank in size and importance. Under the crusaders the city revived, for they rebuilt and walled about one-tenth of the Roman city adjacent to the harbour to serv'e as a citadel. It was successively captured: in 1101 by Baldwin I. on which occasion the "Holy Grail" was discovered; by Saladin in 11S7; and by Richard I in 1191. Louis IX strengthened its fortifications (1251), and it was finally demolished by the Mameluke sultan Baybars I in 1265. Stones from the ruin were transported to Acre and Jaffa (Joppa for building purposes II and sailed

)

during the 19th century. In modern Israel an agricultural settlement adjoins the ancient

(J.S.I.)

site.

CAESAREA PHILIPPI, in the

Damascus mohajazet

of the

Hermon

an ancient city

(modem Baxivas.

of Syria), lying at the southern end range where the main source of the Jordan river Baal w-orship may have been practised there in Old Testament times, and the site may be Baal-gad of Josh. xi. 17 ff., or Baal-hermon of I Chron. v, 23. Worship of Baal later gave way to that of the Greek god Pan, and the name Paneas was applied to the city and the district. It was the site of the battle (c. 198 B.C.) in which the Seleucid king Antiochus III wrested Palestine from the Egyptian Ptolemy V Polybius xvi. 18). Caesar Augustus presented the region to Herod the Great (king of Judaea from 37 to 4 B.C.) and Herod erected a temple to the emperor and installed his image in it.

flows from a cave.

(

Philip the Tetrarch (d. a.d. 34

), Herod's son, enlarged the town, Caesarea after Augustus and adding "Philippi" to distinguish it from Caesarea Palestinae (g.v.). Jesus visited the region and gave the famous charge to Peter there (Mark viii, 27 ff.), Vespasian rested his army there for three weeks before advancing into Galilee to crush the Jewish revolt in a.d. 67. The city was the scene of fighting during the second crusade. Some broken columns and carved stones, parts of the old wall and citadel, traces of an aqueduct and some niches in the rock beside the spring are now the only visible remains of the ancient city. (J, S. I.j

naming

it

CAESARIUS, SAINT,

of Arles (c. 470-542), a monk of celebrated preacher and opponent of Semipelagianism, was born in the environs of Chalon-sur-Saone about the year 470. At the age of 20, against his family's wishes, he entered the Lerins,

monastery

and later held there the post of cellarer. Either because of poor health, with which he was constantly at Lerins,

plagued, or because of differences with his colleagues, he left Lerins and, ha\ang been ordained priest, became abbot of a monastic

community on an

islet in

the

Rhone near

Aries.

He

suc-

ceeded his kinsman, .-Xeonius, as archbishop of Aries, the see of which Pope Symmachus made primatial for Gaul and Spain. In his capacity as primate. Caesarius held various regional synods of importance. Among these, the second Council of Orange (529) is a landmark in the histor>' of dogma because it decisively rejects the grace theories of Cassian and Faustus of Riez (Semipelagianism) in favour of a moderate Augustinianism. The Orange decrees have become the Roman Catholic norm for doctrines on grace, predestination and free will. Caesarius was no great theologian, but he was a great preacher whose many sermons were preserved and frequently used after his death. He wrote a rule, Regiila ad virgines, for the women's monaster>' of which his sister, St. Caesaria, was abbess, and also a directory for monks. He died in 342 and his liturgical feast is Aug. 27. Caesarius' works were published in J. P, Migne, Patrologia Latina, vol. 67, pp. 997-1166. The complete critical edition is Germain Morin, Opera omnia S. Caesarii, 2 vol. (1937-42). The Morin edition of the sermons appears as vol. 103 and 104 in Corpus Christiatiorum (1933). An English translation of the sermons by

Sister Mary Magdeleine Mueller appears in vol. 31 of of the Church (1956). See Carl Franklin Arnold, Caesarius von Arelale (1894).

CAESARIUS

OF Heisterbach

{c.

The Fathers (G. Wl.)

1170-c. 1240),

German

preacher and writer of ecclesiastical histories and ascetical works, was born at Cologne. He joined the Cistercian order in 1199 and became prior of the Heisterbach house in 1228. Caesarius was one of the most popular authors of 13th-century Germany and for that reason is of interest to cultural historians. His Dialogue on Miracles (c. 1223; Eng. trans., 2 vol.. 1929), consisting of edifying narratives dealing with Cistercian life, was most widely read work. He also composed eight books on miracles (edited by Meister, 1901), a life of St. Engelbert (edited by Gelenius, 1663; Ger. trans., 1955), a life of St. Elizabeth of Hungary- (edited by Hyskens. 1908) and a biographical list of the archbishops of Cologne from 94 to 1238 (in Mofiiimenta his

Gcrmaniae Historica, vol. xxiv). practical sermons and opposition scholastic philosophy.

Caesarius was noted for his

tendency of (\Vm. J. B.)

to the rationalistic

CAETANI

(Gaetaxi), the name of a Roman princely house, which according to family tradition is descended from the 10thcentury dukes of Gaeta and which documentary record carries back at least to the 12th century, when Caetani appear in Naples, Rome, Anagni and Pisa, Of these the Caetani of Anagni were raised to sudden prominence on the election of Benedetto Caetani as Pope Boniface Mil in 12Q4. It was at once the ambition and the policy of Boniface to increase the territorial power of his family and to diminish that of the Colonna iq.v.). the dominant feudal family of Rome. As a result the Caetani themselves became in the 14th century the dominant feudal family with lands and lordships throughout the Campagna, Marittima and Terra di Lavoro, which included Anagni itself. Sermoneta, Fondi and Piedimonte. The possession of domains in two different states, that of Naples and that of the church, induced the Caetani about 1420 to divide their patrimony. From this partition derive the two modern lines of the family, the Caetani of Rome, princes of Teano and dukes of Sermoneta. and the Caetani of Naples (dell' Aquila d'Aragona), princes of Piedimonte and dukes of Laurenzana. The Roman Caetani were created dukes of Sermoneta by Sixtus V in 1586 and received the principality of Teano in 1750 by exchange for Caserta, which they had acquired in 1659 as the result of a marriage. The Neapolitan Caetani were granted the surname d'Aragona by royal privilege from the Aragonese king of Naples in 1466. The duchy of Laurenzana came to them by marriage in 1606, and the lordship of Piedimonte was raised to a principality in 1715.

See F. Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, G. Caetani, Domus Caietana (1927).

Eng. trans. (1900-09)

;

(P. J. J.)

CAFFEINE,

vegetable-base stimulant present in coffee beans, tea leaves, cocoa beans and kola nuts, with the formula CgHjoN402. See Purines; see also references under "Caffeine" in the

a

Index volume,

CAFFIERI,

the name of a large family of French sculptors and bronzeworkers, of Italian descent, founded by Filippo CafFIERI (1634-1716). Filippo. after serving Pope Alexander ^^I, was taken to France in 1660 by Cardinal Mazarin and later appointed sculptor to Louis XIV; he worked in wood, stucco and

bronze.

celebrated member of the family was Jacques CapIn 1715 Jacques designed a pall, his recorded work, for a guild of which he had recently been elected a member. From 1736 until his death, payments appear regularly (though frequently in arrears) in the royal accounts for work he carried out at Versailles and other royal residences. Little of this is, now identifiable, but among his most important sur\-iving works are the signed mounts for the chest of drawers delivered by R. A. Gaudreau for Louis XV's bedchamber at Versailles in 1739 (Wallace collection, London), and the mounts executed in 1747 for the chimney piece in the dauphin's bedchamber, which are still in position at Versailles. He was a master of the rococo style which he redeemed from triviality by his vigorous and spontaneous handling and which he was still using in the 1750s when

The most

FiERi, sixth son of Filippo. first

3

:

CAFFRE—CAGLIOSTRO was already becoming retardatory. The most important of these late works are the two monumental chandeliers in the Wallace collection (both signed and one dated 1751), probably presents from Louis X\' to his daughter Louise Elisabeth, duchess of Parma, and the case of the astronomical clock designed by Claude Simon Passemant. completed in 1753 for the Cabinet Ovale at Versailles where it still stands. About the same period he probably made for Mme. de Pompadour the two rococo chandeliers later acquired by the Bibliotheque Mazarine, Jacques Caffieri also executed portrait busts, notably of the baron de Bezeneval and his son both signed and dated 1737 and 1735 Tespectively). Jacques seems always to have used the signature "Caffieri" even when (as on the Passemant clock case) he was collaborating with his elder son Philipe Caffieri (1714-74). At Jacques's death the latter succeeded to his father's royal appointments. His most important works were the new altar furniture executed in 1759 for Notre Dame, Paris, which disappeared during the Revolution, and the surviving cross and candlesticks commissioned for Bayeux cathedral in 1771. He seems to have signed his own works "P. Caffieri," sometimes adding I'aine, to distinguish himself from his younger brother Jean Jacques Caffieri (1725-92). Jean Jacques became sculptor to Louis XV and also provided ornamental designs for metalwork, notably for the staircase at the Palais it

(

1

I

I

:

.

I

I

j

fish in abundance, was originally an open bay. The upper retains in part its fortifications, including the two great Pisan towers at the two extremities, called the Torre dell' Elefante (1307), and the Torre di San Pancrazio (1305); near the former is the university (founded 1806) and near the latter the archaeological museum. On the edge of the cliffs on the east is the

produces

town

cathedral of Sta. Cecilia, built 1257-1312 (rebuilt 1676), which retains two of the original transept doors. North of the town is the Roman amphitheatre, dug out of the rock. At the south ex-

tremity of the hill a large terrace, the Passeggiata Umberto Primo. was constructed. Below it are covered promenades, and steps descend to the lower town, the oldest part of which (the Marina slopes toward the sea. The quarter of Stampace lies to the west, and beyond it again the suburb of Sant' Avendrace, East of the Marina is the quarter of Villanova, which contains the 8th-century domed church of S. Saturnino. The harbour is good and was expanded in 1938. The chief exports are lead, Agriculture is the main zinc and other minerals and salt. occupation. A rail and road network connects with other parts of )

Sardinia.

The province

Royal. I

I

I

,

j

I

I

:

'

See Lady Dilke, French Furniture and Decoration of the 18th Century ClQOl) F. J. B. Watson, Catalogue of the Furniture in the Walkce Collection (1954). (F. J. B. W.) ;

CAFFRE CAT

(Kaffir Cat)

of the wildcat of Africa, southern

(Felis lyhica cafra), a variety

Europe and

Asia.

It is larger

than the domestic cat, with which it occasionally hybridizes. It is nocturnal in habits and lives principally on mice, birds and (R. T. 0.)

lizards.

CAGAYAN,

the northeasternmost province on Luzon, Re-

sq.mi.

PhysiographicaUy

eastern portion

is

it

is

composed of

the rugged, isolated Sierra

by Negritos. and associated valleys of the Cordillera Cenmain mountain mass of northern Luzon. The central portion and the heart of the province is the lower Cagayan valley, composed of sedimentary rocks and recent alluvial deposits. Climatically there are two seasons, wet from June until November, dry from December until May. It is an agricultural province with rice, corn, tobacco and coconuts the principal products. Slashforested area peopled in part

!

consists of foothills tral,

I

.

I

I

I

I

I

'

I

!

;

I

I

I

I

i

;

;

'

I

[

I

j

I

[

Land area 3,470 three regions. The Madre mountains, a The western section

Pop. (1960) 445,289.

public of the Philippines.

the

and-burn agriculture is practised in the Sierra Madres. Grazing is a secondary industry and Aparri (q.v.) is a fishing port. The Christian Filipinos are principally Ibanags and Ilocanos. Tuguegarao (pop. [1960] 43,074) is the capital and regional centre of the Cagayan valley. (An. C.) CAGE, in mining, a frame with one or more platforms used for hoisting men, supplies, equipment and mine cars in a mine shaft. See Elevator Mine Hoists. BIRD, any bird that, because of its cheery call or song, attractive colouring, bizarre appearance, curious habits or ability to mimic human speech, is kept caged by man as a pet. Although perhaps many different kinds of birds can be trained to endure a rather sedentary captivity, those most popular have been species chosen from three large groups of perching birds (Passeriformes) :

CAGE

Psittacidae,

the parrot

(q.v.)

family, including lories, macaws,

budgerigars and lovebirds; Sturnidae, the starling family, including

mynas (q.v.) and Fringillidae, the finch family, including canaries (see Canary). On a more ambitious scale, especially in estates, parks and zoological gardens, many more kinds of birds are kept in enclosures ;

which the birds are Aviary and Avicul-

called aviaries, essentially very large cages in less restricted

ture).

and

live

more naturally

(see

See also Bird.

CAGLIARI,

the capital of Sardinia and the chief town of Cagliari province, is by sea 434 km. (270 mi.) W.S.W. of Naples and 604 km. (375 mi.) S. of Genoa. Pop. (1961) 187,448. It lies at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Cagliari, in the centre of the south coast of the island, and is exposed to winds in winter.

of Cagliari (area 3,590 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 733,-

most southerly of the three into which Sardinia is divided. It covers about one-third of the island and extends much farther northward on the west of the island than on the east. Other towns include Iglesias, Guspini, Oristano and Carloforte

489)

is

the

(q.v.).

—

The Ancient City. Known to the Greeks as Caralis and to Romans as Carales. the ancient city was the most important

the

of Sardinia.

It is

attributed to the Phoenicians, and Punic tombs

numbers near the present cemetery on the more on the rocky plateau to the northwest of the appears in Roman history in the Second Punic War,

exist in considerable

I

!

579

while in summer the climate is hot and dry. The medieval town occupies a long narrow hill running north and south. On each side of the town are lagoons. That of Santa Cilia on the west, which

east,

town.

and

still

It first

and probably obtained full Roman civic rights from Julius Caesar. In imperial times it was the most important town in the island, and in the 4th and 5th centuries it was probably the seat of the governor (praeses Sardiniae). It is mentioned as an important harbour in the Gothic and Gildonic wars. It was also the chief point of the road system of Sardinia. The site of the medieval town with its Pisan fortifications must have been the Carthaginian acropolis; such a site could not have been neglected. The Romans probably made use of it, though the lower quarters were mainly occupied in imperial times. The nucleus of the Roman miinicipis probably represented by the present quarter of the Marina, in which the streets intersect at right angles and Roman remains are often found. The western quarter seems to have been far more important and a large Roman house (or group of houses) is still Beyond this quarter begins an extensive Roman necropovisible.

ium

lis.

It is probable that the acropolis of Carales was occupied even but more abundant traces of prehistoric settlements have been found on the Capo Sant' Elia to the southeast of the modern town. The museum contains objects collected from

in prehistoric times;

many

of the local sites.

See also Sardinia.

CAGLIOSTRO, ALESSANDRO, Balsamo

)

( 1

743-1795

)

,

Sicilian charlatan

Conte di (Giuseppe and adventurer reputed

have magical powers, was born in Palermo. He later claimed have spent some of his youth in Alexandria learning alchemy. In Rome he married the beautiful Lorenza Feliciani, called Serafina. In 1776 they appeared as Count and Countess Cagliostro in London, where Cagliostro was initiated into Freemasonry. After traveling in eastern Europe practising hypnotism, Cagliostro appeared in Strasbourg, France, in 1780 and made the acquaintance of the disgraced cardinal Louis de Rohan, who invited him to Paris, There his seances became the rage of fashionable society. A contemporary witness thus describes one of them: "I only stole a look at him, and I still do not know what to make of him: that face, that headdress, the whole appearance of the man, impressed to

to

me

in spite of myself,

I

waited for him to speak.

He

talked

some

CAGNIARD—CAHOKIA

58o

were descendants of persons who took sanctuary

gibberish, a mixture of Italian

and French, and gabbled quotations something which passed for Arabic, but which he did not trouble to translate." Like the comte de Saint-Germain, he claimed to be The Affair of the Diamond Necklace (g.v.), 2,000 years old. Although innocent in 178S, ruined Cagliostro's career in France.

gests that they

in

in a leper colony, preferring the risk of disease to the

he had previously promised the infatuated cardinal de Rohan to reconcile the queen, Marie Antoinette, to him. To the cardinal's delight he went through a performance of producing an apparition of her in a carafe of water visible, however, not to the cardinal himself, but only to a child, who was supposed to have the "purity of an angel." This performance aroused great enthusiasm among Cagliostro's admirers, but the subsequent scandal over the necklace affair caused Louis XVI to banish him from

la

in that swindle,

—

France (1786). In 1789 Cagliostro and his wife took refuge in Rome, but there she denounced him to the holy inquisition as a heretic, magician, conjuror of demons and Freemason. Condemned to life imprisonment, he died in the fortress of San Leo, in the Apennines, in 179S. (An. Ca.)

CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR, CHARLES,

Baron (1777-

1859), French engineer and physicist, is best known for his invention in 1819 of a siren, known by his name, which he used to determine the number of vibrations corresponding to a sound of any particular pitch. He was born in Paris on March 31, 1777,

and attended the ficole Polytechnique. He was made a baron in 1818, and died in Paris on July 5, 1859. He was the author of numerous inventions, including the cagniardelle, a blowing machine, which consists essentially of an Archimedean screw set obliquely in a tank of water in such a way that its lower end is completely, and its upper end partially, immersed, and operated by being rotated in the opposite direction to that required for raising water. In course of an investigation, in 1822-23, on the effects of heat and pressure on certain liquids, he found that for each there was a certain temperature above which it refused to remain liquid, but passed into the gaseous state, no matter what the amount of pressure to which this critical

it

was subjected.

In the case of water he determined F., a remarkably accurate

temperature to be 683.3°

figure for his day.

Cagniard de

la

Tour

also

made experiments on

the

mechanism

of voice production.

CAGOT

(Span. Agotes), people belonging to communities of outcasts in the Basque country, southwestern France and Brittany. A common phenomenon in the later middle ages and after, they were known as Capots, Gafets, Gahets, Gafos, Cacous, Caqueux and Caquins. The community which preserved its character until most recently was at Bozate de Arizcun in the valley of the Baztan (Navarre). Regarded as unclean and credited with physical char-

degeneracy or leprosy, they were originally subject to severe restrictions such as inferior legal status, exclusion from political life, the professions and physical contact with others, and were even buried apart. They were forbidden to carry arms or to walk barefoot, and were obliged to wear a mark in the shape of a duck's foot or a piece of red cloth. In church they had a place reserved for them, sometimes with a separate door and a separate stoup, and the sacrament was administered to them on the

acteristics denoting

end of a

stick.

They made

their livelihood as woodcutters, carpen-

barrelmakers, masons, quarrymen, saddlers, fishermen and weavers, and in certain cases were noted as musicians, a role in which they were admitted to popular festivals. Various explanations of their origin have been offered on ethnic, religious and physiological grounds, suggestions being that they were descendants of Romans or Goths or Moors, that they were ters,

descended from excommunicated Albigenses or that they were afAttempts were first made to flicted with cretinism or leprosy. liberate them in the 17th century and it has long been recognized that they are in no way abnormal. Pilar Hors, who studied them in 1952 in Bozate de Arizcun, found that their physical characteristics and blood groups resembled the population of southern France and were significantly different from the surrounding Spanish Basques, a circumstance exaggerated by the ban on mixed marriages which had continued into the 20th century. She sug-

and in support of her argument she refers French word cagot to mean "hypocrite." side,

dangers out-

to the use of the

—

Bibliography. Francisque Michel, Histoire des races maudites de France et de I'Espagne (1847) V. de Rochas, Les parias de France d'Espagne Cagots et Bohhniens (1876); D. Hack Tuke, "The Cagots," /. R. Anlhrop. Inst., vol. ix (1880) Pilar Hors, Principe de ;

et

;

Viana, aiio

xi,

no. 39.

(J.

CAGUAS,

A. P.-R.)

an important industrial city situated on an extensive and fertile plain in the east central part of Puerto Rico. A four-lane divided highway, 25 mi. long, connects Caguas with San Juan, the capital and principal port of the island. Pop. (1960) mun., 65,098; town, 32,015. Sugar cane, tobacco, some fruits and vegetables are the main products of the Caguas rural district. Cigars, leather goods, glassware, foam rubber and electronic products are manufactured. In the centre of the town is a beautiful plaza surrounded by attractive stores and public buildings. Founded in 1775, Caguas derived its name from the Indian chief Caguax, who lived in the surroundings and who was one of the first Indian chiefs to embrace (T. G. Ms.) market town of County Tipperary, Republic of Ireland, lies in a good agricultural district at the foot of the eastern end of the Galty mountains, on the river Suir, midway between Clonmel and Tipperary. Pop. (1956) 1,731. An ancient fortress on an island in the river, called Dhuin Iascaigh ("abounding in fish"), was destroyed in the 3rd century. The present castle was built in 1142 (restored 1840) by Conor O'Brien, prince of Thomond, and is the largest of its type in Ireland. It was besieged by the earls of Essex (1599) and Inchiguin (1647) and by Cromwell in 1650. There is very good salmon and trout fishing in the Suir and the Aherlow; the latter river joins the Suir above the Christian faith.

CAHIR (Cathair Dhuin Iascaigh)

,

a

the town,

CAHITA, a group of North American Indian tribes who inhabited the northwest coast of Mexico along the lower courses of the Sinaloa, Fuerte, Mayo and Yaqui rivers. They numbered about 100,000 when first encountered by the Spaniards in 1533 and were the most numerous of any single language group in northern Mexico. They spoke closely related dialects of the TaracahiUto-Aztecan stock and were thus similar in language to the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs in central Mexico and the Shoshonean-speaking Hopis of northern Arizona. They were agriculturalists and demonstrated a capacity for effective military tian family of the

organization.

Despite

initial

resistance to the Spanish conquest, they were

rapidly gathered around missions by the Jesuit missionaries and during the 17th century were all converted to Christianity. They

developed a complex fusion of native and Christian religion and became noted for their distinctive Easter ceremonies. The chief surviving tribes are the Mayos and Yaquis. The latter played an important role in Mexican history, maintaining virtual

autonomy of their church-centred communities until the 1890s when the Mexican government inaugurated a program of deportaThousands of Yaquis and Mayos were sent to Yucatan betion. tween 1905 and 1910. Others fled their homeland and scattered widely through northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. The last Yaqui rebelUon took place in 1927._ The Yaqui deer dancer occupies a central place in the official deer seal of the state of Sonora, and the vigorous music of the dance was utilized by the Mexican composer Carlos Chavez as a

symphonic theme. Bibliography.— Ralph

L. Heals, "The Aboriginal Culture of the Cahita Indians," Ibero-Americana, 19 (1943), "The Contemporary Bulletin Culture of the C4hita Indians," Bureau of American Ethnology 142 (1945) Alfonso Fabila, Las Tribus Yaquis de Sonora, su ctdtura y a Potam: Spicer, H. Edward anhelada aulodeterminacidn (1940); Yaqui Village in Sonora, Memoirs of the American Anthropological ;

Association, no. 77' (1954).

(E. H. Sp.)

CAHOKIA MOUND, the largest prehistoric American earthof Mexico, one of a group formeriy numbering 45 con(not including a great number of smaller ones), standing in Illinois, 6 mi. E. of St. Louis, Mo. The great mound ft. in height, is a quadrangular pyramid 998 ft. by 721 ft. by 99

work north siderable

mounds

CAHORS— CAILLAUX with a terrace, 30 ft. high, extending outward about 200 ft. from one side and with a width of 500 ft. The area of the base is more than 16 ac. The mound is named for the Cahokia, a tribe of the Illinois confederacy, who occupied the neighbourhood in historic times and who were gathered into a mission settlement near the site of the present town of Cahokia, 111., around 1698 by the Jesuit Pierre Pinet.

Various Indian artifacts and are preserved in a

museum

at

See also Mound Builders; Archaeology.

relics,

including pipes, shells,

etc.,

Cahokia Mounds State park.

North America:

Prehistory and (H. B. Cs.; X.) CAHORS, a city of southern France, capital of Lot departement and formerly capital of Quercy, is situated on a rocky peninsula surrounded by the Lot river. 111 km. (69 mi.) N. of Toulouse. Pop. (1954) 12,760. The city is divided by the Boulevard Gambetta, which runs north and south, and continues national route 20; to the east is the old town, dominated by the cathedral of St. fitienne.

Built in 1119, and rebuilt in part between

1285 and 1500, it was the first cathedral in France to have cupolas; the two cupolas form the roof of the aisleless nave. Another remarkable feature is the finely sculptured north portal {c. 1190). Adjoining the cathedral are the remains of a cloister (1494-1509). The church of St. Urcisse is nearby on the river bank. It dates from the 12th and 13th centuries and preserves Romanesque capitals recarved in the 14th century. Of the palace of Pope

John XXII, the great Avignon pope who was born

at Cahors, only a square tower stands, the rest being in ruins or unfinished. of the seneschals of Quercy, the Chateau du Roi, is near the river, upstream from the church of St. Urcisse. To the west of the Boulevard Gambetta is the newer quarter, with wide streets and spacious squares. There,

The residence (mainly 14th-century)

too, is the

Porte de Diane, probably the entrance to the

Roman

baths.

Four bridges span the Lot: the Pont Valentre (13th and 14th centuries), the finest medieval fortified bridge in France, with three towers, to the west; the railway bridge and Pont Louis Philippe, built in the reign of the king

whose name

it

bears,

which

main road to Toulouse and the south; and to the east the Pont Neuf, an iron bridge built in 1906, which replaced the carries the

resign.

Finance minister again of the income tax

tions with the

Mont

and February.

The Divona of the Romans, Cahors was the capital of the Cadurci, the sacred Fons Divona (Divonne spring) now providing the city with water. It was famous for its linen cloth under the

Romans and had

It was later a bishop from the 3rd century. occupied by the Visigoths and the Saracens. Until after the Albigensian crusade it was a fief of the counts of Toulouse and in the 13th century became well known as a financial centre. From 1316 to the Revolution the administration was in the hands of royal officers, coseigneurs with the bishops. Pope John XXII founded a university at Cahors which survived until 1751 when it combined with that at Toulouse. In addition to Pope John XXII, other famous natives of Cahors

include the statesman

Leon Gambetta and the poet Clement Marot. (E. D. DE G.)

CAILLAUX, JOSEPH MARIE AUGUSTE

(18631944 j, French statesman, an outstanding finance minister and an who is remembered also for the charges brought against his conduct in World War I, was born on March 30, 1863, at Le Mans. His father, Eugene Caillaux, was twice minister in conservative governments (1874-75 and 1877). In 1882, after a brilliant academic career, Joseph Caillaux entered the civil service as inspector of finance. In 1898 he was elected deputy for Mamers and soon joined the Radical-Socialist group in the chamber. Fiable diplomat

A

Dec. 1913, Caillaux secured the passing virulent press campaign was started

"plotted against the security of the state abroad." After a long debate it was felt that nothing definite could be proved against

him.

to the southeast is

in

head of the government, that Caillaux was brought before the senate, sitting as high court of justice, and indicted as having

the city on the northern side.

can be obtained. Cahors is on the main railway from Paris and Orleans to Toulouse and Spain. Electrical equipment, door handles and sandals are manufactured and printing is carried on. An important market of geese and truffles is held between November

bill.

him in Le Figaro and letters which had passed between himself and his wife before their marriage were published. Madame Caillaux, considering her honour assailed, shot the editor, Gaston Calmette. She was tried and was acquitted, but her husband had been forced to resign. On the outbreak of World War I Caillaux was for a short time sent on an economic mission to South America. He came back to take his seat in the chamber but was systematically left out of the successive war governments. Thinking that the indefinite prolongation of hostilities was highly detrimental to Europe as a whole, he was indiscreet both in his talk and in the choice of his associates. When, in Nov. 1917, Clemenceau came to power fully determined to carry on the war till complete victory, Caillaux was accused of seeking a premature peace and of preparing a coup d'etat. On Dec. 11, 1917, Clemenceau moved the suspension of Caillaux's parliamentary immunity. This was voted by the chamber and, on Jan. 4, 1918, Caillaux was imprisoned. It was not, however, until Feb. 1920, when Clemenceau was no longer against

humpbacked 13th-century stone bridge, by which Henry of Navarre took the town in 1580. A medieval rampart protected Just outside the loop of the river St. Cyr, from which a fine view of the city

S'

nance minister in Rene Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet (1899-1902), he showed great ability. Georges Clemenceau gave him the same post in his cabinet of 1906-09. During this second term Caillaux was responsible for a bill introducing income tax, which brought upon him the enmity of the conservatives. When Ernest Monis resigned in June 1911, Caillaux succeeded him as prime minister. He immediately had to deal with the Agadir crisis, which for a short time seemed likely to provoke war between France and Germany. A pacifist and a "European" at heart, Caillaux personally conducted the difficult negotiations over the head of his foreign minister, Justin de Selves. By ceding a small part of the French Congo, he successfully won Germany's acquiescence to the establishment of a French protectorate over Morocco. Nevertheless his many adversaries in France bitterly attacked him, and the hostility of the inquiry committee of the senate, led by Raymond Poincare and Clemenceau, obliged him to

Nevertheless the court found him guilty of "communicaenemy, but without premeditation." He was sen-

tenced to three years' imprisonment and to five years' compulsory

As he had already spent three years in was released next morning. Retiring to Mamers, he wrote two books: Mes Prisons (1921) and Ou va la France? Ou val'Europe? (1922; Eng. trans. 1923). The amnesty of 1924 restored to Caillaux his political rights. When Paul Painleve formed a government in April 1925 he invited Caillaux to join it as the one man capable of putting the shaky French finances in order. Caillaux accepted and started by tackling the problem of inter-Allied debts. He began negotiations in Washington and in London, but in the French parliament the right was against him on general principles while the left disapproved of his financial orthodoxy. On Oct. 28, 1925, Painleve formed a new ministry without him. Meanwhile Caillaux had been elected senator for the Sarthe departement. In June 1926 he was again finance minister in Aristide Briand's cabinet. The chamber, however, refused to grant him the almost dictatorial powers that he requested in order to restore the financial situation, and he had to resign after only three weeks in office. Caillaux was finance minister for the last time in Fernand Bouisson's short-lived cabinet (June 1-4, 1935). As chairman of the finance committee of the senate he was instrumental in bringing about the fall of Leon Blum's ministry in June 1937. Caillaux died at Mamers on Nov. 21, 1944. Although for some time he led the Radical Socialist party, Caillaux was always primarily a grand bourgeois. He was an excellent debater and a man of far-reaching vision, but in political circles his great qualities were somewhat impaired by his ostentatious selfresidence outside Paris.

prison, he

!

CAILLETET—CAIRN

582 esteem and his rather supercilious manner.

(J. C.

de C.)

1

CAILLETET, LOUIS PAUL

(1832-1913), French physiand ironmaster, is noted for his work on the liquefaction of Born at Chatillon-sur-Seine on Sept. 21, 1832, he worked in his father's ironworks and later was in charge of the works. He was also active in scientific research. On Dec. 2, 1877, Cailletet liquefied o.xygen at a pressure of 300 atm. and at —27° C. The oxygen was obtained in the form of a cloud, but later he recist

gases.

peated

his

experiments at the £cole Normale at Paris, when he

hydrogen, nitrogen and air. This work was carried on independently of the work of R. P. Pictet on liquefaction and there was considerable discussion as to which of the two had liquefied

succeeded

CAILLIE,

RENE AUGUSTE

(i

799-1 838),

;

:

;

CAIN, according to Gen. iv, 1, the first-born son of Adam and Eve (g.v.). Gen. iv, 2-16, interrupting the genealogy, relates how Cain, a farmer, enraged because the Lord accepted the offering of his shepherd brother Abel in preference to his own, murdered Abel. For this crime he is cursed and banished from the settled country. Before he departs to the land of Nod (wandering), feeling that in his exile he will be the victim of any man who encounters him, he obtains from the Lord a sign of protection, and a promise that if he is slain despite it he shall be avenged sevenfold. The story is probably intended to explain how a certain tribe, bearing the name of Cain, came to have a certain tattoo mark, and to be noted for the plenteous vengeance it took upon any other tribe by whose hands one of its members was killed. from the point of view of came to live a nomad life.

explains, too,

the settled peoples,

has been argued that the tribe in question is the Kenites. In the parallel genealogy in Gen. v, the Kenan who appears fourth in the list is probably to be identified with Cain. The representation of Cain as a citybuilder accords ill with the picture of Cain the nomad. Irenaeus and other early writers mention a Gnostic sect of the 2nd century called the Cainites, who believed that Cain derived this tribe

It

from the superior, Abel from the inferior power, and was the first of a line which included Esau, Korah and the Sodomites. They are said to have had a Gospel of Judas. See also Abel; Genesis. (W. L. W.; X.) his existence

that Cain

CAINE, SIR (THOMAS

HENRY) HALL

(1853-1931),

English writer whose novels achieved great popularity, was born at Runcorn, Cheshire. May 14, 1853. After working in a builder's office,

(1913) and The

and as a journalist and

lecturer, he attracted

D, G. Rossetti's

Woman

Man, where he

settled in the Isle of

He of Knockaloe (1923). sat in the House of Keys,

1901-08, and died there, Aug. 31, 1931. In 1918 he received a knighthood of the British empire for his work as an Allied propagandist in the United States and in 1922 was

made companion

of

honour.

5 A IRA,

French explorer and the first European to visit Tombouctou (Timbuktu) and to return ahve, was born at Mauze, near La Rochelle, France, on Nov. 19, 1799. Before he was 20 he had made two voyages to Senegal and had traveled in the country. In 1824 he returned and prepared for an attempt to reach Tombouctou by learning Arabic and being educated as a convert to Islam. Pretending to be an Arab returning to Egypt he left the coast in April 1827, proceeded inland, crossed the upper Niger at Karoussa and after five months delay due to illness reached Tombouctou on April 20, 1828. He remained there a fortnight and then crossed the Sahara to reach Fes (Fez) in August. For his achievement he received a prize of 10,000 fr. from the Geographical Society of Paris. His Journal d'lin voyage a Tomboctou et a Jenne dans I'Ajrique centrale (ed. by E. F. Jomard) was published in three volumes in 1830; an English version was published in the same year entitled Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo .... Caillie died at La Badere, Champagne, probably on April 17, 1838. See A. Lamande and J. Nanteuil, La Vie de Rene Caillie (1Q28) G. Welch, The Unveilling of Timbuctoo The Astounding Adventures A. Demongeot, Rene Caille (1948). (R. M. P.) of Caillie (1938)

It

Me

Gavest

first.

Cailletet was the author of a number of papers in Comptes Rendus and other French scientific periodicals on the liquefaction of gases and the production of low temperatures, on the passage of gases through metals, on manometers for measuring high pressures, on critical points and on the state of matter at low temperatures. He was interested in aeronautics and devised an apparatus for measuring the altitude of an airplane. He was a member of the Paris Academy. He died in his native town on Jan. 5, 1913.

how

by sending him a copy of a lecture in his defense, and in 881 became his secretary. When Rossetti died Caine earned a living by journalism, and in 18S5 published The Shadow of a Crime, the first of many novels which combined strong characterization, sentiment, moral fervour and skill in conveying local atmosphere. Among the best known were The Deemster (1887), The Manxman (1894), The Eternal City (1901), The Woman Thou interest

See R. de Fleurieu, Joseph Caillaux (1951).

a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:

Ah

!

ga

ira, (;a ira,

Les aristocrates a

qa ira

lanterne.

la

The words,

written by one Ladre, a street singer, were put to an older tune, called "Le Carillon National," and the song rivaled the

"Carmagnole"

{q.v.) during the Terror.

It

was forbidden by

the Directory.

EDWARD

CAIRD, (1835-1908), British philosopher, one was bom at Greenock, Scot., on March 2i, 1835, a younger brother of the theologian John Caird. Educated at Glasgow university (1850-56), at St. Andrews (185657) and at Balliol college, Oxford (1860-63), Caird was tutor of Merton college, Oxford, from 1864 to 1866, professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow from 1866 to 1893 and master of Balliol from 1893 to 1907, when a paralysis obliged him to retire. He died at Oxford on Nov. 1, 1908. Caird was one of the most influential British exponents of German idealism {see Neo-Hegelianism). While his friend Thomas Hill Green {q.v.) did more to develop the system positively, particularly in the field of ethics, Caird was chiefly disof the leaders of the Neo-Hegelians,

tinguished for applying

its

principles

to

the interpretation of

philosophy and theology both ancient and modern. His works include: A Critical Account of the Philosophy of Kant (1877); Hegel (1883); The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte (1885) The Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, two volumes (1889); Essays on Literature and Philosophy, two volumes (1892); The Evolution of Religion, two volumes (1893; the Gifford lectures for 1890-91 and 1891-92); and The Evolution of ;

Theology in the Greek Philosophers, two volumes (1904; Gifford 1900-01 and 1901-02). See Sir Henry Jones and J. H. Muirhead, The Life and Philosophy

lectures,

of

Edward Caird

CAIRD,

(1921).

JOHN

(1820-1898), British theologian and preacher, an exponent of theism in Hegelian terms, was born at Greenock, Scot., on Dec. 15. 1820, the son of an engineer. Ordained as a Presbyterian minister on graduating from Glasgow university (1845 ). he made a nation-wide reputation with his learned

and eloquent sermons and was appointed professor of theology at Glasgow in 1862 and principal of the university in 1873. He died at Greenock on July 30, 1898. In .4n Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (1880) and in The Fundamental Ideas of Christianity, 2 vol. (1899; the Gifford lectures for 1 89 2-93 and 1894-96), both of which foUow Hegelian teaching closely, Caird argues that universal thought is the reality of all things and that the existence of this Infinite Thought, namely

God, is demonstrated by the limitations of finite thought. His Spinoza (1888) is also Hegelian in its approach. His sermon "Religion in Common Life" (1855) was many times reprinted and translated into Gaelic, German, Czech and Hungarian. There are collected editions of his Sermons (1858), University Sermons, 1873-1898 (1898) and University Addresses (1898). See Charles L. Warr, Principal Caird (1926). CAIRN, a term used to denote a pile of stones. This can be of various shapes, depending upon the purpose for which it has been constructed. Cairns are used as boundary and track marks, and for burials, and are often erected on high ground. Burial cairns, also called barrows, show a great variety in shape and size, from the conical form covering a single grave to a more elaborate structure comprising several chambers.

CAIRNES— CAIRNS In the British Isles there are a cairns of the Neolithic and Early horned, double horned, lobster claw where the horns curve round the shaped, and higher at one end than land), long cists or gallery graves,

number

of different types of

Bronze Ages. They may be (as in Donegal or Siigo. Ire., forecourt), long

(often pear

the other), ring (as in Scot-

wedge shaped

(also called Paris

found usually in the north of France and Cornwall), heel shaped and chambered. In Britain the burial chamber is seldom excavated in the soil under the cairn, but is enclosed within the structure itself. In the Mediterranean region a subterranean vault is often to be found. Both long and round cairns were originally delimited by a curb built of dry stone masonn.-; these were probably covered, like the main structure, by a blanket of earth and stones. As monuments they were carefully built to conform to certain ceremonial requirements, and appear to have been reused as family vaults for more than one generation. Cairns are still used in various parts of the world as burial places, particularly where the soil is difficult to excavate or where wild animals might disturb the body, (M, V, S.-W.J CAIRNES, ELLIOTT ( 1823-1875). Irish economist, often described as "the last of the classical economists," was bom at Castle Bellingham. Ire., on Dec. 26. 1823. He was educated at Trinity college. Dublin, where he became professor of political economy (1856). subsequently holding chairs at Queen's college. Galway, and University college. London (1866-72). He died at Blackheath. London, on July 8, 1S75. His first book was The Character and Logical Method of Political Economy (1857; new ed., 1888 ), one of the main classical works on the methodology of the subject. He emphasized the abstract deductive nature of classical political economy and advocated its cists,

JOHN

scientific

neutrality

as

between

different

and political maxim. His Essays in Political

policies

principles, in particular in respect of the laissez faire

"Essays on the Gold Question'' (published in dealt with the effects of the discoveries of gold

Economy, 1873)

and California, analyzing how different prices would be differently affected in time and degree, and are among the most important works of the 19th century on monetary theory. His book The Slave Power (1862 and 1863) expounded the inherent disadvantages of slave labour and considerably influenced British opinion in favour of the North in the U.S. Civil War. Cairnes's last and largest work was Some Leading Principles of in .Australia

Economy Newly Expounded

Most

of the

more

characteristically "classical'' doctrines are all restated here.

For

Political

(1874).

example, he expounds a cost-of-production theory of competitive values; he is about the last to defend a reformulated version of the wage-fund doctrine; he insists on what he calls "the great

Malthusian difficulty" in bettering the condition of the mass of the people; and he repeatedly proclaims the identity of aggregate

demand and aggregate

His analysis of "noncompeting" may be said to have foreshadowed the more systematic treatment of imperfectly competitive and monopolistic conditions. (T. \V. H.) a yellow or brown variety of quartz, named from Cairngorm or Cairngorum, one of the peaks of the Grampian mountains in Banffshire. Scot., is a favourite ornamental stone in Scotland and is used in brooches worn with Highland costume. Also known as smoky quartz, the mineral occurs in crystals lining cavities in highly inclined veins of a fine-grained granite running through the coarser granite of the main mass. Shallow pits were formerly dug in the decomposed granite for the sake of the cairngorm, and the mineral was also found as pebbles in the bed of supply.

groups, in particular in the labour market,

CAIRNGORM,

the river .Avon.

CAIRNS,

HUGH McCALMONT

CAIRNS,

1st

Earl

(1819-1885), Irish statesman, lord chancellor of Great Britain, of great parliamentary influence in ecclesiastical and legal issues, was bom at Cultra, County Down, Ire,, on Dec, 27, 1819, and was educated at Belfast academy and Trinity college, Dublin, graduating in classics in 1838, In 1844 he was called to the bar by the Middle Temple, to which he had migrated from Lincoln's Inn. During his first years at the chancery bar. Cairns showed little promise of the eloquence which afterward distinguished him. In

583

1852 he entered parliament as member for Belfast, and his Inn. on his becoming a queen's counsel in 1856, made him a bencher. In 1858 Cairns was appointed solicitor general and was knighted. In 1866, w'hen Lord Derby returned to office, he was made attorney general and in the same year, after a breakdown in health, he became a lord justice of appeal. In 1867 he became Baron Cairns of Garmoyle. As soon as Benjamin Disraeli took office in 1868 he offered the lord chancellorship to Cairns in place of Lord Chelmsford. Less than a year later his party lost office and Cairns became leader of the opposition in the house of lords. In the commons he had distinguished himself by his resistance to the Roman Catholics' Relief bill in 1865, and in the lords his efforts on behalf of the Irish church were equally strenuous. When privately offered concessions if he withdrew his opposition to W, E. Gladstone's Suspensory bill, he had no time to consult his party, and accepted. In consequence he resigned his leadership, but was soon induced to resume it. and in 1870 he took a strong part in opposing the Irish Land bill. In 1874 the Conservatives returned to power and Cairns wis lord chancellor again until his party's defeat in 1880. He had become \"iscount Garmoyle and Earl Cairns in 1S78. He died at Bournemouth on April 2, 1885. Cairns combined strength with clarity and cogency, despite what was usually a somewhat reserved manner. His judgments were in the main expositions of principle, with a few decisions cited at the end as illustrations. In the legislation of the day, particularly on questions involving the church or legal reform, his influence was great, and the harmony with which he could work with his great friend and opponent. Lord Selborne, led to this influence being felt while he was in opposition as well as when he was in office. Among the statutes with which he was concerned were the Judicature acts, 1873-75, the Conveyancing acts, 1881-82, the Settled Land act, 1882, and the Married Women's Property act, 1882. Bibliography, Earl Russell, Recollections and Suggestions (1875) Sir T. Martin, The Life of the Prince Consort, 5 vol. (1875-80) Lord Malmesbury, Memoirs of an Ex-Minister (1884) E. Manson, Builders of Our Law, 2nd ed. (1904) J. B. Atlay, Victorian Chancellors, vol. u (1906-08). (R. E. My.) CAIRNS, a city and seaport of northeastern Queensland, Austr., lies on Trinity bay on the narrow lowland strip between the Atherton plateau and the sea, 860 mi. N.W. of Brisbane by rail. Pop. (1961) 23.358. Area 14.2 sq.mi. The chmate is tropical (average maximum temperature 84.6° F.; average minimum 68.3° F.; average annual rainfall 87.6 in., falling mainly from December to April), Cairns is well laid out, w-ith wide tree-lined streets and attractive parks. In Abbott street are the city council chambers (1930), built of reinforced concrete in bungalow style and surrounded by gardens, while other public buildings include a Roman Catholic cathedral and the School of Arts librar>'. Railways connect Cairns with Brisbane and with the hinterland; there are air services to Brisbane. Sydney. Melbourne and New Guinea; and during the winter tourist coaches travel to and from the south. The port is well equipped with slipways, warehouses and concrete wharves. Cairns is the outlet for an important agricultural and mining area. Dairying and the growing of sugar, maize, tobacco and peanuts are carried on, while timber is extracted from the forests on the seaward portions of the Atherton plateau. The plateau is highly mineralized; tin is dredged near Mount Garnet (96 mi. S.W.) and there are numerous deposits of wolfram, fluorspar and scheelite. In the district there are sugar mills, sawmills, a brewery, a fertilizer works; while other local industries include a meat freezing plant and butter, bacon and tobacco factories. Exports include sugar, timber, plywood, maize, meat, tobacco and metals. Fertilizers, petroleum products, galvanized iron and general cargo are imported. Thousands of tourists visit Cairns annually, attracted by the mild winter climate and by the scenery of the highlands and the gorge and falls of the Barron ri\ t-r. Cairns was founded in 1876 and named after the then governor of Queensland. Sir William Wellington Cairns. Its prosperity was assured when sugar growing started in 1882. It became a munici(C. de G. W.) pality in 18S5 and a city in 1923. '

—

;

;

;

;

CAIRO

584 CAIRO

(Al Qahirah), the

capital city of Egypt,

is

also a gov-

emorate (muhafaza). It lies on the east bank of the Nile about 12 mi. S. of the apex of the delta, with extensive suburbs on the west bank. Immediately east of Cairo are the desert hills of Al Mokattam (Jabal al Muqattam) from which a splendid view stretches across the great city, the Nile and the fields beyond, to the Libyan desert and the pyramids at Giza. It is by far the largest city in Africa and the middle east. The population of Cairo was 2,090,654 in the census of 1947; it increased rapidly and in 1960 was 3,346,000. The climate is dry and reasonably stable throughout most of the year, average day temperatures ranging from o5° F. in January to 96° in July and August. Between December and March strong, cold winds from the desert may lower the temperature to the freezing point at night, and in April and May the sand-laden hot

may raise it to 100° or more. The temperature is around 108°. Agreeable sunny days are the rule and rain falls only three or four times a year, always in winter. The City. The road from the civil airport, to the northeast, leads through the big modern suburb of Heliopolis and branches into Sharia Rameses (formerly Nahdet Misr) and Sharia al Geish (formerly Faruk). Sharia Rameses opens into a large square facing the railway station, Rameses square (formerly Bab al Hadid), southerly wind, or khamsin,

maximum summer

—

dominated by a colossal ancient statue of Rameses II moved in 1955 from the site of Memphis. From there Sharia al Gumhuria, one of several main streets, leads to Opera square. The Opera house was opened in 1869 as part of the celebrations for the inauguration of the Suez canal. In the centre of Opera square is a fine equestrian statue of Ibrahim (d. 1848), son of Mohammed Ali Pasha.

Opposite

is

the Continental-Savoy hotel and located nearby

are restaurants and a public garden, Al Ezbekia.

Through

this

garden runs a long street, Sharia July 26 (formerly Fuad al Awal), which leads over the river to Gezira Island, and to the north of which lies a poor quarter, Bulak, part of which has been cleared and rebuilt. From this street Sharia Suliman Pasha leads southward into Suliman Pasha square and from there runs, in an easterly direction, Sharia Kasr al Nil, in which stands the National Bank of Egypt (founded 1898). Off Sharia Suliman Pasha are some of the chief newspaper offices, from where magazines and newspapers circulate throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Close by is Mohammed Ali club, the leading club for men. In Suliman Pasha square stands a statue of the soldier of that name (d. 1860), and in Mustafa Kamil square (formerly Emad al Din), along Sharia Kasr al Nil, is a statue of Mustafa Kamil, an Egyptian nationalist (d. 1908 ). This square contains the Cairo women's club. Between Suliman Pasha square and the Nile is Liberation (Tahrir) square (formerly Ismailia), a large space, divided by grass plots and flower beds, where ten streets meet. On its southern side is a modern block of government offices and opposite stands the great Egyptian museum (built 1902) where the Tutankhamen treasures are housed with many other unique and priceless works of ancient Egyptian art. Nearby also is the Museum of Modern Art (founded in 1928) in a fine Arab-style house. On the western side of Liberation square stood the Ksar al Nil barracks, demolished in 1 955-56. The site was taken by the Nile-Hilton hotel south of the

19th century. Across this square from the main citadel entrance is the mosque of Sultan Hasan, built about 1361. Its the

magnificent proportions are considered by many experts to be unsurpassed in Islamic architecture. Opposite it is the modern

mosque of Al Rifa'i, finished in 1912, where Fuad and members of his family.

A

lie

the remains of King

vast network of streets surrounds this point and

is,

especially

northward, a delight and interest to the tourist, the artist and the scholar alike, for its medieval aspect and its bazaars of local produce and handicraft, as well as for its historical and archi-

Near the centre of this area is the famous Al Azhar founded by the north African

tectural treasures.

university

mosque

of

Fatimite invaders in 970. Students of the Koran, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic in all its branches, philosophy and history gather there from as far afield as China, Indonesia, MoStudents and professors wear the tradirocco and Somaliland. The tional robes and turban worn by Azharites for centuries. influence that emanates from this edifice to the whole Islamic world is out of all proportion to the signs visible by the passing visitor. A wide street, Sharia al Azhar, cuts through the mesh of medieval lanes from Al Azhar to rtiodern Cairo near Opera square.

The Muski and

the

the north of Sharia

al

Khan

Khalil, well

known

to tourists, lie to

Azhar and beyond these bazaars are several

13th-century mausoleum of Sultan Kalaun. At the north of the old city is an imposing 11th-century gateway, the Bab al Futuh. This, with the Bab al Nasr close by and the Bab al Zuweila southwest of Al Azhar, form part of the defenses built by Badr al Gamali in the 11th century during the Fatimite regime. They contain features of military architecture which antedate similar developments in medieval European fortresses. Beyond the Bab al Nasr is a vast burial ground on the edge of the desert, sometimes misleadingly called the Tombs of the Caliphs. No caliph is entombed therein, but it is embellished with splendid mausoleums dating from the end of the 14th century to the beginning of the 16th and with all manner of subsequent fine old buildings, including the

tombs and funereal

edifices including a dignified

Egyptian soldiers who

lost their lives in the

war memorial

1948 fighting

to

in Pales-

;

Kasr

al

Nil bridge, facing the river, are the Semiramis and the

new Shepheard's hotels (the old Shepheard's hotel in Sharia al Gumhuria was burned down during the riots of Jan. 26, 1952). Between modern Cairo and Al Mokattam hills lies much of the Arab

city built between the 11th and 16th centuries. In this area gathered a greater quantity of Arab architectural riches than is to be found in any other city of the world. The scheduled historical monuments alone number nearly 400. The scene is dominated by the Ottoman-style mosque built by Mohammed Ali, where he was buried in 1849. It stands in the citadel originally built by Saladin in the 12th century and refortified and occupied by invading or nationalist armies ever since. There the British army handed over authority to the Egyptian army in 1946. Below the citadel is the great Salah al Din (Saladin) square in which polo matches, parades and executions were held from the 12th to is

ABLUTION FOUNTAIN CAIRO;

c.

1361

IN

COURTYARD OF THE MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASAN,

CAIRO An

tine.

palace and gardens of Prince Mohammed Ali and many blocks of flats. On the southern tip of Roda is the Nilometer, first con-

army barracks of Abbassia beyond which is the suburb of Kuba where King Faruk had one of his

structed in A.D. 716, where the annual rise of the Nile was measured and proclaimed to the country for more than 1,000 years. Suburbs. On the mainland west of Gezira and Roda are various villages and suburbs, among them, to the north, Embaba, where Napoleon defeated the Mamelukes in 1798 and which now contains one of several new housing estates for workmen. The upper Egypt

from the Bab

the bones of the great scholar and traveler

J.

al

the north are the residential

palaces.

The most notable mosque

in the

southern part of the old city

that of Ahmad ibn Tulun, called after the sultan who built it 876-879. It is designed on the oldest mosque plan, of an open courtyard flanked by arcades. The patterns cut in plaster in the soffits of the arches are remarkably beautiful, resembling early Islamic decoration in Samarra, near Baghdad, from where Ahmad ibn Tulun originally came. To the southeast of this mosque lies the great southern cemetery, sometimes called the Tombs of the Mamelukes or Al Karafa. There are tombs and mausoleums of many centuries including the 20th. In this vicinity is the fine is

in

domed mausoleum

(built 1211) of the

imam

al Shafi'i (d.

820), a

founder of one of the four great rites of orthodo.x Islam to which belong the large majority of Egyptian Muslims. On Al Mokattam heights above this cemetery stand a fort of the Turkish era and the beautiful small mosque-tomb of Al Giyushi (1085). These relics now keep company with a newly built casino (for tourists only) and with the beginnings of a housing estate. A fine road has been made to the top of the cliff where before but a rough track existed, and many trees have been planted in an erstwhile barren zone nearby. An interesting monastery of the Bektashi dervishes is there, on the side of the hill. Some way southwest of the Tombs of the Mamelukes is the desolate area of Al Fustat where stood the earliest Arab settlement formed at the time of the Arab conquest in 641. Between Al Fustat and the Nile is the quarter known as Old Cairo (Misr al Atika where, since the early days of Christianity, an Egyptian Christian (Coptic) community has lived. There are some old Coptic churches and a charming museum of Coptic art founded in 1910. Close to it is a Roman Byzantine gateway. From Old Cairo several roads lead to modern Cairo. One of these. Sharia Kasr al Aini, passes the Cairo university medical school and the antirabic hospital, which is one of the very few in the world. Between Sharia Kasr al Aini and the Nile are the residential quarters of Kasr al Dubara, where are some of the embassies, and Garden City, and to the other side of the road are several of the ministries and also the parliament houses (built 1923). Nearby are the tomb of Saad Zaghlul. the well-known nationalist (d. 1927), the Geological museum (1923) and the American university. In the large Gumhuria square, to the east, is the Presidency, I

official

residence of the republic's president, which was the Abdin

palace of King Faruk and his immediate forebears.

It is a fine

building, with a spacious garden, standing in a comparatively

poor

district.

'

,

I

Giza, farther south, has a poor and populous old town but also contains villas, embassies and the fine zoological gardens. There too is Cairo university, an imposing domed building surrounded by

gardens, founded in 1908, though it did not function as a full university till 1924. A new bridge was built in 1958 across the Nile opposite the university, and an ornamental fountain lit by

coloured lights plays in the river nearby. The main road to the pyramids and sphinx runs from Giza to the base of the Great Pyramid and the Mena House hotel. This road was originally built for the empress Eugenie to visit the pyramids in comfort when she came to open the Suez canal in 1869. Three motor roads branch south from this road and all lead past the ancient Egyptian site of Seqqarah, about 1 1 mi. S. of the Great Pyramid. A few miles south of Cairo, on the east bank, is the garden suburb of Al Ma'adi and south of that again, past the prisons and stone quarries of Tura, is Hulwan, on the edge of the desert, well

known

for its sulfur springs. This area is partly industrialized. 15 mi. N.W. of Cairo is the delta barrage across the NOe, an irrigation work of great interest, standing as it does at the control point for the whole delta. There are beautiful surrounding gardens and an irrigation museum close by. Cultural and Social Institutions. Cairo has a great variety of cultural and social institutions, among which are a co-operative training centre, popular cultural institutes, the Academy of Arabic, the Academy of Arabic Music, a society of arts, a productivity and vocational training centre, an audio-visual aid centre (in Heliopolis). There are also numbers of voluntarily run centres, schools, homes, clinics, etc., for helping the underprivileged. These are in addition to government establishments administered by the ministry of social affairs. Besides the old Al Azhar, there are two other national universities Cairo university at Giza, with more than 27,000 students, including 3,000-4,000 women students, and Ain Shams (founded 1950), with more than 18,000 students. The American university (founded 1919) has over 700 students. All the chief churches of the Christian faith have their places of worship in Cairo and there are several synagogues. The Anglican cathedral, which occupies a fine site on the Nile, was consecrated

About

—

—

ern mainland.

mi.

In the centre of the island

is

the Gezira Sporting

club with racecourse, golf links, polo grounds, squash courts,

!

railway bridge crosses the Nile north of Embaba while to the south Dokki, a residential area with tree-lined roads and some nursery gardens, where stands the remarkable Museum of Agriculture. is

in 1938.

—

I

—

Behind the palace is Ahmed Maher square (formerly Bab al Khalk) where are the Museum of Islamic Art, an outstanding coland the Egyptian library, founded by the khedive Ismail in 1869, which contains magnificent collections of middle eastern illuminated manuscripts and coins. The Islands. In the Nile opposite Cairo are two islands, Gezira (Jazirat al Zamalik) and Roda (Jazirat ar Rawdah), which almost form part of the town itself as they are linked to both banks by several large bridges. Gezira is 3| mi. long and just under 1 mi. at its widest. The northern end is mostly residential with large blocks of flats, villas and gardens. There are also various educational establishments. Sharia July 26, with its eastern end in Cairo, runs over a bridge, across Gezira and past the Egyptian army officers' club, and over another bridge to the westlection,

I

5«5

Nasr, covers L. Burckhardt. To

insignificant tomb, not far

swim-

—

Communications. Cairo is linked to the rest of Egypt by main-line trains (steam and diesel) and by a network of minor lines. The first railway in Africa was built in Egypt by George Stephenson's son Robert. It linked Alexandria with Cairo in 1855. The main roads out of Cairo run to Alexandria through the delta; to Port Said via Ismailia and to Suez; up the Nile valley to the south;

to Alexandria.

Along this desert up between

Cairo and Alexandria.

Another desert road links Cairo to Al There is also a road from Al Ma'adi through the desert to Sokhna on the Red sea. One of the most imposing features is the Corniche road which runs along the Nile front for the whole length of the city and continues southward for a further 12

Fayyum.

Cairo airport

ming bath, etc., and tennis courts where zone matches for the Davis cup are played. A public garden, running along the east bank, is much frequented on holidays and at the southern end of

Heliopolis.

the island are a large exhibition ground, a horticultural experi-

sels

mental garden of the ministry of agriculture, sports clubs, public gardens and a hospital. Roda Island, a mile or so upstream, is rather smaller than Gezira. It contains the big government hospital of Kasr al Aini, the former

and via the desert

road, 20 telephone and first-aid posts have been set

It is

16 mi. N.E. of Cairo, in the desert beyond served by most international airlines and internal

is

airways.

The Nile

is a means of transport for merchandise. Sailing vescarry produce such as onions, chopped straw, melons and upper Egypt pottery. Their wharves are south of Old Cairo. Steam launches and barges carry such freight as baled cotton northward,

agricultural

Cairo

is

machinery and vehicles southward. by a network of bus and trolley bus routes.

intersected

,

CAIRO—CAIROLI

586

which also serve the suburbs. Outlying districts are connected to Cairo by buses of a rougher type, but Alexandria and Port Said are linked to the capital through desert or delta by fast, comfortable buses.

—

Industries and Occupations. In the Hulwan area several heavy industries were started during the 1950s as part of Egypt's five-year industrialization plan. They include steel, iron, cement and rolling-stock plants. The people of Cairo and its vicinity are variously employed: in government administration, educational, medical, legal and other professions; in the processing of tobacco, leather, basic chemicals, cement, etc. in food processing and petroleum products; in building construction; in business and trade of many sorts and in the film industry. The first Egyptian film was produced in 1926 and from the suburb of Al Jizah have ;

come

,

virtually all Arabic-language films.

—

History. The ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis was on the west bank of the Nile south of Gezira. There is very little left of this once great city. The next forerunner of Cairo was the Roman-Byzantine town of Babylon where Old Cairo now stands. The Arab conqueror of Egypt, Amr ibn-al As, entered its great bastioned gateway in a.d. 641 and built Al Fustat, on the site of his camp immediately east of Babylon. In the 9th century, when Egypt was controlled by Arab governors from Baghdad, one of them, Ahmad ibn Tulun (who subsequently made himself the first independent Muslim ruler of Egypt), founded Al Katai to the northeast, where his famous mosque still stands. When the Fatimites invaded Egypt in the 10th century their general, Jauhar (Gohar) al Rumi, built a new capital northward of Al Katai, calling it Al Kahira ("the victorious") from which the name Cairo is derived. Part of the encircling wall and three great gateways still survive. The Ayyubites next ruled Egypt (1169-1250), the most famous and first of the dynasty being Saladin, the great opponent of Richard Coeur de Lion. Saladin extended the walls round the citadel, which he built on a spur of the Mokattam hills. A small portion of his original wall can still be seen in the southeastern corner. From 1250 to 1517 Egypt was governed by two dynasties of Mameluke sovereigns who, though ruthless and unscrupulous, embellished Cairo with architectural and other works of art in great quantity and of high quality, many of which can be enjoyed today. A few outstanding buildings still preserved are the mosques and mausoleums of Sultan Hasan (1351), Al Mu'ayyad (1422), Barkuk (13S6), Al Ghuri (1508), Al Mardani (1340) and Qa'itbay (1475). They are scattered over the whole present area of medieval Cairo. At its height the Mameluke empire incorporated Egypt and Syria, the present Lebanon, Israel and Jordan. Cairo and Damascus were joint capitals and were in frequent communication despite the 500 mi. between them. Baybars, a great Mameluke sultan, was proud of the fact that he could play polo in Cairo and in Damascus in the same week; and a carrier pigeon post was maintained between the two cities. In 1517 Cairo fell to the invading forces of Ottoman Turks who hanged the body of the last Mameluke sultan from the gateway of Zuweila. The Turkish domination of Egypt had a deadening efMosques built during fect on the flowering of the arts in Cairo. the next 300 years were mostly to a stereotyped pattern often recognizable today by the "pencil point" minarets. Some of them have charm, notably the small mosque known as Sidi Sarai in the The citadel, the first to be built after the Ottoman conquest. tomb-mosque of Mohammed Dahab (1774) near Al Azhar is imMohammed Dahab was one of the Mamelukes who repressive. mained in Egypt after the Ottoman conquest and who often carried greater weight in governing Cairo than did the Turkish pasha sent from Constantinople for the purpose. A few fine houses of the Turkish era can still be seen and numerous small buildings called Their function sebil kutiib, endowed by pious men of the time. was to provide free drinking water on the street level and a small free school on the floor above, for learning the Koran. In 1798 Cairo was captured by the French who were driven out in 1801 by Turkish and British forces, and the city was handed over to the Turks. The people of Egypt chose Mohammed All as their governor in 1805. He finally made himself master of the country by massacring, in 1811, the remaining Mamelukes who were still

an obstacle to his ambition. The Mamelukes were killed as they were leaving the citadel by the Bab al Azab after attending a ceremony to which he had invited them. Cairo thus became once more the capital of a virtually independent kingdom, and from that In 1882 Cairo was octime the city's western part expanded. cupied by the British and its history was merged in that of Egypt. headquarters of the British middle east command in It was the

World War II; the British forces left the city in 1946. Much modern development of Egypt is evident in Cairo from its

functional and administrative buildings of all sorts and in all its hospitals, schools, embassies, ministries, flats,

quarters, such as factories

and telephone exchanges.

Considerable development of

telegraph and telephone networks has been made, including modern carrier systems linking Cairo and Damascus. See Egypt History. See also references under "Cairo" in the :

Index volume.

—

Bibliography. M. Clerget, Le Caire (1934) S. Lane-Poole, The Story of Cairo, 2nd ed. (1906) E. W. Lane, Cairo Fifty Years Ago (1896); A. J. Butler, Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt (1884); H. Devonshire, Rambles in Cairo, 2nd ed. (1931), Some Cairo Mosques (1922) C. Issawi, Egypt at Mid-Century (1954) M. Rowlatt, A Family in Egypt (1956) J. and S. Lacouture, Egypt in Transition (1958); (M. Ro.) T. Little, Egypt (1958). ;

;

;

;

;

CAIRO,

the southernmost city of Illinois, U.S., at the con-

fluence of the Ohio

and Mississippi

rivers,

150 mi. S.E. of

St.

upon a low-lying formed by a prehistoric Ohio river that emptied into the nearby gulf, Cairo was so named because its site was thought to resemble that of its Egyptian counterpart, and southern Illinois has become known as "Little Egypt." Cairo and the Bank of Cairo were chartered in 1818 when there was no settlement and there were no depositors. A second and successful try at establishing a town was made in 1836-37 by the Cairo City and Canal company; the company, which sold its bonds in England, came to a disastrous end in 1840. Finally in 1846, 10,000 ac. were purchased by the trustees of the Cairo City property, a group of Louis,

Mo.

;

the seat of Alexander county.

Built

delta

eastern investors,

who with one

;

:|

exception never resided in the

town but were closely identified with the Illinois Central Railroad company and were interested in making the town the prosperous terminus of the projected railroad. City government was not established in Cairo until 1855. During the American Civil War Cairo was Ulysses S. Grant's headquarters during the western campaigns, and as a military camp frequently housed 30,000 soldiers. Nothing about the town, strategical or otherwise, impressed either of two English visitors, Charles Dickens in 1842 and Anthony Trollop in 1862, and they said as much in print. The city is a shipping centre for the entire Ohio and Mississippi river valleys as well as for southern Illinois.

Industries include

lumber and woodworking and the manufacture of cottonseed and soybean products. Cairo is protected by levees; in 1937, when the Ohio river rose to 59.6 ft., it was the only city in the entire Ohio river valley that was not flooded. For comparative population figures see table in Illinois Popu:

(N. M. Be.)

lation.

CAIRO CONFERENCE:

see

World War

II

Confer-

ences, Allied.

CAIROLI,

BENEDETTO

(1825-1889), Italian statesman

whose policy of neutrality and peace was ill-suited to the nationalism and imperialism of his time, was born in Pavia on Jan. 28, 1825. From 1848 until the completion of Italian unity in 1870, his whole activity was devoted to the Risorgimento, as Garibaldian ofiicer, political refugee, anti-Austrian conspirator and deputy to parliament. One of his brothers was killed and another wounded during Garibaldi's rebellion and attempt to march on Rome in 1867. When in 1876 the left came into power, Cairoli became important in politics and, after the. fall of Agostino Depretis, formed his first -cabinet in March 1878 with a Francophile and Italian nationalists were affronted by his and irredentist policy. Luigi Corti's policy of "clean hands" at the Berlin congress (1878), where Italy obtained nothing while Austria-Hungary secured a European mandate to occupy Bosnia and Hercegovina. The attempt of G. Passanante to assassinate King Humbert at Naples (Nov. 17, 1878) caused Cairoli's downfall on Dec. 19, in

*

CAISSON—CAITHNESS was wounded. He returned to power, however, on July 14, 1879, and on Nov. 29 formed with Depretis his third coalition ministry, in which he retained the premiership and the foreign ministry. Confidence in French assurances and belief that Great Britain would never permit the extension of French influence in north Africa prevented him from foreseeing the French occupation of Tunis (May 11, 1881). In spite of the fact that he himself

view of nationalist indignation he resigned three days later. He Capodimonte near Naples on Aug. 8, 1889. See M. Rosi, / Cairoli, 2nd ed,, 2 vol. (1929). CAISSON has a variety of distinctly different meanings. When employed in military parlance, it denotes an ammunition wagon or chest: in architecture, a sunken panel; and in civil engineering, a bo.xlike structure that is used to install structures that extend below water level. In this latter sense there are three types box caissons, open caissons and pneumatic caissons. Box Caissons. These are open at the top and closed at the bottom. They are usually constructed on land, then launched, died at

—

The

and sunk onto

sides of the caisson,

when

a previously

it is

sunk

in

prepared foundation. position, emerge above

the water level.

This structure serves as a shell for a bridge pier, sea wall, breakwater, jetty or similar work. The box-caisson method of construction is suited for the installation of structures in open water where foundation conditions are such that the caisson need not be sunk below the bottom of the water bed.

Open Caissons.—These

are open at the

The open bottom, which

the top.

bottom

as well as at

provided with a cutting edge, permits removal of soil beneath the caisson by dredging through shafts from the top of the caisson. As excavating proceeds, the is

caisson sinks and, as it sinks, additional sections are added to the top so that the caisson sides always extend above water. This process is continued until the caisson has been sunk to the required

The surface

which the caisson has been sunk is then by divers, and concrete is deposited under water to provide a bottom seal. The dredging wells can then be unwatered and filled to complete the structure. An open caisson may be of single- or multiple-dredging well type, circular or rectangular in plan and of double- or single-wall construction. Pneumatic Caissons. These are similar to open caissons except that they are provided with an airtight bulkhead installed about six to eight feet above the cutting edge. The space between the bulkhead and the cutting edge, which is called the working chamber, is pressurized to the extent necessary to control the inflow of soil and water; thus the excavating can be performed by workmen operating in the working chamber at the bottom of the caisson. Pressure in the working chamber is maintained by means of an air lock. Provision can be made to convert an open caisson to a pneumatic caisson when, during sinking operations, conditions develop that require it. This conversion is made by the addition of the necessary airtight bulkhead and air lock. The word caisson is sometimes used to designate any cast-inplace type pier. Strictly speaking, however, it refers only to the shell that is used in the installation of the pier and that becomes an integral part of it. See also Concrete: Applications : Harbour depth.

sion.

phere

to

carefully cleaned, usually

—

Facilities.

—

Bibliography. Clarence W. Dunham, Foundations of Structures (1950) Ralph B. Peck, Walter E. Hanson and Thomas H. Thornburn, Foundation Engineering (1953); F. D. C. Henry and R. H. Evans, The Design and Construction oj Engineering Foundations (1956). (R. E. Fm.) ;

CAISSON DISEASE,

or decompression sickness, a group

symptoms brought on by sudden reduction of the atmospheric pressure, i.e., too rapid for the body to accommodate to the of

change. It occurs in men who work in deep caissons or tunnels where very high atmospheric pressure must be maintained in order to exclude water. Symptoms do not appear while the air pressure is being increased nor so long as it is maintained but appear only after it has been reduced too quickly. The condition may also occur in deep sea divers or men escaping from sunken submarines

who come to the surface too rapidly. It may also occur in aviators inadequately protected against sudden decompression.

The symptoms

include pains in the muscles and joints (the

A

decompression rate of at least 20 minutes for each atmos(about IS lb. per square inch) of pressure has been

recommended.

Younger men seem

to be less susceptible to caisson

disease than older men.

See

—

floated to position

587

bends), fainting, vomiting, deafness, paralysis (divers' palsy) and even sudden death. The symptoms are produced by effervescence of gas, principally nitrogen, that has been dissolved in the blood and other body fluids. When the atmospheric pressure is suddenly reduced, the dissolved gas comes out of solution as tiny bubbles that occlude capillaries and other small blood vessels. If the atmospheric pressure is diminished gradually, dissolved nitrogen comes out of solution slowly enough to be removed by the lungs without the formation of bubbles. Caisson disease can, therefore, be prevented by slow decompres-

Bring Apparatus:

Effects oj Air Pressure on the Diver.

(C. P. M.) a county occupying the extreme northeast of bounded on the west by Sutherland, on the north by

CAITHNESS, Scotland,

is

the Pentland firth and on the east and southeast sea. Its land area is 686 sq.mi.

by the North

—

Physical Features. Caithness is a plateau sloping mostly northward and northeastward and truncated on the north and east by an almost continuous line of sea cliffs. This plateau is mainly cut across Old Red Sandstone, with Highland schists in the high ground of the south and west, which, at 1,000 ft., is one of the

Above this Morven Red Sandstone

largest flat surfaces at such an altitude in Britain.

southern plateau a series of massive

hills rise

abruptly.

and Maiden Pap (1,587 ft.) are in Old conglomerate. Scaraben (2,054 ft.) is in schist and Knockfin heights swell more gently in the west. Sandstone conglomerates include the famous gray (2.313

ft.

)

the granites of

The Old Red flagstones, rich

fish, of many a field boundary' in Caithness. In the southeast the Berriedale, Dunbeath and Latheronwheel bums (streams) cut through the plateau in deep, sheltered glens. To the north, the plateau sinks to where the Wick and Thurso rivers flow slowly over alluvial haughs (plains) just above sea level. There,

in

fossil

small lochs are numerous, the largest being Loch Calder, the county's main source of water, and Loch Watten. Several of the lochs were left by the flow of glaciers from the northwest High-

These glaciers deposited great spreads of blue shelly boulder clay whose lime content is important for agriculture, but the western two-thirds of the county are still under peat. The cliffs, which are varied by deep eroded inlets known as goes or geos and some spectacular offshore stacks, reach 400 ft. in height near the southern border but fall to frame long, sandy beaches at Sinclair's bay, Freswick, John o'Groat's house (q.v.), Dunnet Head. Thurso and Reay. Caithness is separated from the Orkney Islands by the Pentland firth, through which tides race at up to 10 knots. Sunken rocks called the Boars of Duncansby create breakers, and eddies from St. John's point break on the Men of Mey, while off Stroma island is the Swelkie whirlpool. Despite its northern latitude Caithness has a fairly moderate climate, though it is subject to strong winds. Spring comes later and winter earlier than in the south of the British Isles, but mean summer and winter temperatures (S4.S° F. in July and 37.8° F. in Februar>') are similar to those in the Lothians. By the 19th century Caithness was practically treeless, except for a few stunted birches and hazels in the straths. Small private plantations succeeded and after 1944 the Forestry commission planted at Humster and Dunnet. Moor burning and deer threaten the alpine plants and in the east agricultural drainage has radically altered the flora, but the flowering plants near the coast are of great interest, including Saiissurea alpitia in its most northerly habitat. Foxes and an occasional wildcat are found and the pine marten has been trapped near the north coast, while the sea cliffs form natural lands.

sanctuaries for

History.

many

rare birds, including the great skua.

—Caithness

Neolithic times onward.

is

rich in prehistoric remains dating

Cairns, standing stones,

hill

from

forts, etc.,

abound and there are more brochs (ancient dry stone buildings) than in any other county. There are traces of early Christian chapels in every parish, a very early example being St. Mary's, Forse, Thurso. The ruins of old St. Peter's church, Thurso, and

CAIUS— CAJETAN

588

the parish churches of Dunnet, Canisbay and Reay are all preReformation. The coast castles of Dunbeath and ruined Auld Wick, Girnigoe, etc., date from medieval times, while later in date are inland castles such as Mey, of George VI, and Braal.

owned by Queen

Elizabeth, consort

A Pictish province named Cait or Cat at the dawn of history, Caithness was early invaded by the Norsemen and place names testify to their domination. Caithness was for a time integrated firmly into the kingdom by William the Lion and divided into parishes by Bishop St. Gilbert. Till 1231 the earldom of Caithness was held by the Norse earls of Orkney. Then it passed to several Scottish noble families until in 1455 William Sinclair, third Sinclair earl of Orkney, was invested with the Caithness earldom by James At the Reformation the earls II of Scotland (see Sinclair). gained both land and power which they held until debts forced the sixth Sinclair earl to sell his title and estates to Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, later earl of Breadalbane and Holland. As the Sinclairs rejected his claim, Glenorchy invaded Caithness and defeated the Sinclairs at the battle of Altimarlach (1680), the last clan battle in Scotland. Later a Sinclair regained the earldom, but Glenorchy sold the estates to various Caithness Thereafter interest centres mainly on the agricultural families. improvements encouraged by such of them as the Traills of Castletown in the 18th century, the development of town life with the great herring fisheries of the 19th century and the then great export industry in Caithness flagstones. Population and Administration. In 1961 the population of Caithness was 27,345. Wick (g.v.), the county town (7,397), and Thurso (g.v.) are small burghs. The county joins with Sutherland to send a member to parliament and it forms a sheriffdom with Sutherland, Orkney and Shetland, a sheriff substitute sitting

—

Wick. Industries and Communications. Farming and fisheries are the two main industries, although after 1955 the construction and working of the Atomic Energy authority's breeder-reactor at Dounreay provided employment for many people. Formerly a stock-raising county, after 1938 Caithness began to change over to The main dairy cattle, which by 1954 had increased by 62%. breed is the Shorthorn. Sheep are also very important, the breeds being Border Leicester and especially North Country Cheviot, introduced in the 18th century by Sir John Sinclair of Ulbster and now bred chiefly in Caithness. In the early 1960s about two-thirds of the land was rough grazing and more than 70,000 ac. (16% of the total) was arable land, the chief crops being oats, turnips and swedes. Small holdings predominate, more than half being of IS at

—

ac. or less.

and salmon fishing both flourish, but the herring come to an end. There is a shellfish processing factory at Thurso, while at Wick are a distillery and knitwear, ice and glass factories. In the early 1960s tourism became a signifi-

White

fishing

fishery has almost

cant industry.

There are bus services throughout the county, which has good roads; and railway services connect Wick and Thurso with Inverness. The mail steamer for the Orkneys calls at Scrabster and air services from Wick airport connect with Inverness, Aberdeen and the south, and the Orkneys.

—

Bibliography. J. Home (ed.), The County of Caithness (1907); A. O. Curie, Inventory of the Monuments in the County of Caithness (1911) C. B. Crampt'on and R. G. Carruthers, The Geology of Caithness (1914) J. Mowat, A New Bibliography of the County of Caithness (1940); S. W. E. Vince, "Caithness," The Land of Britain, pt. 15 (F. W. Rn.) (1944). ;

;

CAIUS

(Kees, Keys, Kay, Kaye,

etc.),

JOHN

(1510-1573),

English physician and second founder of the modern Gonville and Caius college,- Cambridge, was born at Norwich, Oct. 6, 1510. He was admitted a student at what was then Gonville hall, Cambridge, where he seems to have studied divinity. In 1533 he visited Italy, studying under Montanus and Andreas Vesalius at Padua. After an extended tour in Europe he practised medicine in London, where he was for several years president of the College of Physicians. In 1557 he enlarged the foundation of his old college, named it Gonville and Caius college and endowed it generously. In Jan. 1559 he accepted the mastership of the college. His large

body of literary work, together with a Memoir by John Venn, was edited by E. S. Roberts (191 2). His medical writings are of particular interest his name is associated especially with the sweating sickness (q.v.), of which his account is classical. As a Catholic in a period of strong anti-Catholic feeling, Caius suffered ;

numerous of

indignities, retaining always,

members

of his

own

profession.

He

however, the high regard London on July 29,

died in

1573.

CAJAMARCA,

a northern sierra department of Peru (pop., 1958 est., 785,233; area 13,675 sq.mi.) bounded north by Ecuador, west by Piura and Lambayeque, east by Amazonas and south by La Libertad. The department is watered by the Maraiion river, which forms nearly the whole of its eastern boundary, and by tributaries entering the river from the west. The cultivated valleys produce alfalfa, cereals, coffee, sugar, fruits and vegetables. The breeding of cattle and a hardy type of sheep is carried on where conditions are favourable. Mineral resources worked in the department include gold, silver, coal and copper. The population is chiefly Indian and mestizo. Cajamarca city, the historic capital, Cajabamba and Cutervo are its most important centres. (J. L. Tr.) (Caxamarca), a city of northern Peru (pop., 1958 est., 23,175), capital of the department and of the province of the same name. It lies at 9,440 ft. above sea level on the bank of the Camarca river, a tributary of the Maraiion. The mean temperature is 52° F. It was an ancient Inca city and historically it is notable as the scene of the capture in 1533 of the Inca ruler Atahualpa by Francisco Pizarro. It is one of the principal commercial and industrial centres of the inter-Andean district, manufacturing textiles, hats, leather and metal goods. The city and neighbouring area are the focus of the northernmost clusters of predominantly Indian population in highland Peru. In the valleys of the surrounding region, alfalfa, cereals, coffee and sugar are cultivated and cattle and sheep raised. Mineral resources worked in the re-

CAJAMARCA

gion include gold, silver, coal and copper. The city is notable for its Inca ruins, the thermal springs known as the Baths of the Incas being an important tourist attraction. Cajamarca preserves colonial character to a remarkable degree as exemplified

by the

cathedral, the church of San Francisco, the architecture, building

materials and the city plan. The city stands on the old northern overland route to Iquitos via Chachapoyas and Yurimaguas. It is

188 mi. from Trujillo by road and

Chilete station on the

Pacasmayo

CAJETAN, SAINT,

of

lies

16 mi. by road from the

railway.

Thiene

(J. L.

Tr.)

(Gaetano da Tiene)

co-founder of the Theatines and an important figure was born of a noble family at Vicenza in Oct. 1480. He won his doctorate in both civil and canon law at Padua on July 17, 1504, and by March 1508 was a prothonotary in the Roman curia. Associated with the local Oratory of Divine Love, established in Rome about 15 13, he was ordained a priest on Sept. 30, 1516, and continued the charitable works characteristic of the association. Leaving Rome for Vicenza in 1518, he revitalized oratories there and at Verona (1519). At Venice, during Lent 1522, Cajetan founded a hospital for the incurably ill and a local branch of the oratory. Subsequent to his return to Rome late in 1523, he met Archbishop Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, the future Pope Paul IV. Together they established and entered, Sept. 14, 1524, the Congregation of Clerics Regular (Theatines) to further among diocesan priests the ideals of the Oratory of Divine Love. After the sack of Rome, Caraffa and Cajetan succeeded in reaching Venice on June 17, 1527. Following his dispatch in Aug. 1533 as Theatine superior to Naples, Cajetan created at the church of St. Paul Major (May 1538) a centre of Catholic reform. There, except for 154043, when he was at Venice, he remained until his death on Aug. 7, on April 12, 1547. Cajetan was canonized by Pope Clement 1671. His feast -is celebrated on Aug. 7. Bibliography. R. de Maulde la Claviere, Saint Cajetan (Eng. trans., 1902) Piero Chiminelli, San Gaetano Thiene, cuore delta riforma cattolica (1948) Francesco Andreu, Le leltere di s. Gaetano da Thiene (1954); H. Thurston and D. Attwater (eds.), Butler's Lives of the

(1480-1547

),

of the Catholic Reformation,

X

—

;

;

Saints, vol.

iii,

pp. 272-274 (1956).

CAJETAN (1468P-1534), a

(H. G.

J. B.)

Gaetano; Tommaso de Vio) major Cathohc theologian of the Thomist school,

(Cajetanus

or

CAJORI—CAKMAK bom

kingdom of Naples, probably on Feb. 20, 1468 (some say 1469). Entering the Dominican order in 1484, he studied at Bologna and then at Padua, where he became professor of metaphysics (1494) and came into contact with the theology was

of

at

Gaeta

in the

Duns Scotus and with

the Averroism of Pietro Pomponazzi; of

Scotism in particular Cajetan became, and remained, a relentless critic. In 1494, as a result of his brilliance in a public disputation with Pico della Mirandola at Ferrara, he was made a master in theology. From 1501 to 1508 he taught theolog>' at Rome, during which time he began his great commentary on the Summa the-

(more commonly, theologica) of St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1508 he was elected Dominican master general, remaining in this 1518. As general, Cajetan felt obliged to check certain manifestations of the cult of Savonarola which threatened to divide the order; but he was himself an ardent upholder of the Dominican ideal, especially with regard to poverty and the study of theology. Between 1511 and 1 5 1 7 he was occupied with defending papal authority against the schismatical council of Pisa (1511) and with work in connection with the fifth council of the Lateran (1512-17), at which he urged the reform of the church. In 1517 ologiae

office until

Leo

X made him

a cardinal.

589

Cajori died at Berkeley on Aug. 14, 1930. the language spoken by about 350,000 Indians of highland Guatemala. Most Cakchiquel .speakers are in issued in 19S0.

CAKCHIQUEL,

departments of Solola, Chimaltenango, Sacatepequez and The language is part of the Quichean family of the Mayan stock and very similar to Quiche and Zutuhil. Language is not the basis of forming social units nor does it correlate with cultural distinctiveness in this region of Guatemala. Cakchiquelspeaking Indians, like other Mayan peoples of the highlands, are organized on the basis of a municipio with its own variations from the broad pattern of Indian culture in the area. A Cakchiquelspeaking community differs from other Cakchiquel communities to about the same degree and in the same ways as it varies from neighbouring Quiche or Zutuhil-speaking communities. (See the

Escuintla.

Quiche; Zutuhil).

Each community has

its own political and costume (at least for the women), a local patron saint, and an economic specialty. The general culture of the area is a fusion of Spanish and Indian elements in the con-

religious hierarchy, a distinct

text of a peasantry stabilized in the region centuries ago.

Prior to the Spanish conquest (1524) the Cakchiquels were a principality which contested with other Indian principalities, espe-

In 1518 Cajetan came into personal contact with Martin Luther. As the papal legate in Germany, he was authorized to examine Luther on points of doctrine, and they met at Augsburg in October a year after the reformer had published his theses at Wittenberg. On Luther's own admission, Cajetan dealt kindly with him, but the two men could not agree doctrinally. The meeting however helped to convince Cajetan of the need for meeting the reformers on their own ground, and he devoted the later years of his life to an attempt to provide a literal interpretation of the Bible, based

Quiche, for political domination. The archaeological Iximche, was the fortified capital city of the principality, covering about three miles. The ruins suggest class distinctions between nobles and commoners, as well as the warfare concerns of the people just prior to Spanish conquest. Their history is preserved in a manuscript written in Cakchiquel but using the Spanish alphabet. The Cakchiquel peoples received the Spanish peacefully and did not offer resistance until Spanish demands for

on a fresh translation from the original tongues. His commentary on the Psalms (1527) was followed by others on the New Testament and on most of the books of the Old Testament. Meanwhile, recalled to Rome in 1519 and made bishop of Gaeta in the same year, he helped to draft the bull Exsurge Donmie, condemning Luther (1520). In 1522 he was influential in the election of the reforming pope Adrian VI, to whom he dedicated his commentary on the third part of the Summa. In 1523-24 he was papal legate in Hungary, Poland and Bohemia. Recalled by Clement VII, he retired to Gaeta in 1527. He died in Rome probably on Aug. 10, 1534. Cajetan's fame rests chiefly on his difficult but profound commentary on the Summa. Much of this work is, in form, a reply to the criticisms of Scotus and others; but in effect it is something far more valuable, a rigorously analytical examination of the basic principles of natural and Christian theology. Without some acquaintance, indeed, with Cajetan's commentary one can have no adequate idea of the resources of Thomism. It may be read in the critical editio Leo?una, begun under Pope Leo XIII (1882 onward), of St. Thomas, vol. iii-xii. Cajetan also wrote commentaries on Aristotle and many opuscula.

quest.

—

Bibliography. Dictionnaire de theologie cathoUque, vol. ii, col. 1313-29 (1905) Revue Ihomiste, vol. xvii (1934-35) Angelkum, vol. xi(1934). (K. F. F.) ;

;

FLORIAN

CAJORI, (1859-1930), U.S. educator and mathematician, who was noted as a historian of science, was born at St. Aignan, Switz., on Feb. 28, 1859, and emigrated to the U.S. in 1875. Ha was graduated from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1883, and received a Ph.D. degree from Tulane university,

New

Orleans, La., in 1894.

He was

a

member

of the

faculty of Tulane (1885-88) and of Colorado college, Colorado

Springs (1889-1918), where he was dean of the department of engineering from 1903. In 1918 he became professor of the history of mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley.

His major works included A History of Mathematics, 2nd ed. A History of Mathematical Notations, two volumes (1928-29); he also wrote A History of Physics (1899) and the biographies William Oitghtred, a Great Seventeenth-Century Teacher of Mathematics (1916) and The Chequered Career of Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler ( 1929). His revised translation of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia was published posthumously in 1 934 and his A History of Elementary Mathematics, 2nd ed. (1917), was re(1919), and

cially the site,

and forced labour occasioned a revolt a year after con-

tribute

The

distribution of Cakchiquel-speaking Indians reflects their

but is largely derived from the Spanish admingrouping Indians in manageable units for politiSee also Central America: Ethnology; Maya Indians; for the early Cakchiquel calendar and chronology, see Calendar: Middle American Calendars, and preconquest

sites

istrative policy of cal control

and

religious conversion.

Chronology: Pre-Colitm,bian Am.erica. See F. W. McBride, Cultural and Historical Geography Guatemala (1947).

CAKES:

of

Southwest

(M. Na.)

Food Preparation. CAKEWALK, a dance of American Negro see

origin.

The

couples form a square with the men on the inside and, stepping high to a lively tune, walk in this square formation. There are several judges who consider the precision with which the corners are turned, the elegant bearing and carriage of the men and the grace and ease of their partners as they are swung about. The couples are eliminated one by one, the last being presented with This is the original cakea highly decorated cake as a reward. walk, as

it

was danced

From it many modifying of which are called cakewalks. (1876-1950), Turkish marshal and

in slavery days.

steps have been evolved,

QAKMAK, FEVZI

all

statesman who played a leading role in the creation of modem Turkey, was bom at Istanbul on Jan. 12, 1876, the son of an He was educated at the Kulili military college artillery colonel.

and the general staff academy at Harbie, in Istanbul. A lieutenant in 1895, he was made lieutenant colonel and appointed chief of He fought in the Balkan Wars of staff of an army corps in 1910. 1912-13 as commander of a division and in World War I as commander of an army corps and (in 1917-18) of an army. War minister in 1920, he resigned the commission and office granted him by the sultan and joined Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk's "rebellion" in Ankara. There he was made prime minister and minister of defense. Promoted to the rank of full general during the Greek invasion of Anatolia, he resigned his premiership in 1922 and became deputy to Ismet Inonii, then chief of staff. After the victorious conclusion of the War of Liberation, he was promoted as the new republic's first marshal and appointed chief of staff, holdIn the 1946 elections he stood as an Independent and was elected to the grand national assembly with a great majority. In 1948 he accepted the honorary leadering that position for 20 years.

ship of the conservative Millet (Nation's) party.

CAKSTE— CALABRIA

590 (Jakmak died

at Istanbul

on April

The

10, 1950.

CAKSTE, JANIS pendence and

first

(1859-1927), promoter of Latvian indepresident of the Republic of Latvia, was born

Courland on Sept. 14, 1859. He was educated the Jelgava (Mitau) gymnasium, studied law at the University of Moscow and was for some years in the public Leaving the prosecutor's office of the Courland government. at Lielsesava in at

public service in 1888, he practised law in Jelgava and edited a Latvian newspaper Tevija (Fatherland). He served on a committee appointed by the local administration to inquire into agricultural conditions in Courland (1902) and was frequently employed on Russian imperial government committees. In 1906 he was elected member of the first Russian duma. After the first duma was dissolved by the imperial government, Cakste was one of those who signed the Viborg protest. The German invasion of Courland (July 1915) obliged him to leave Jelgava. He moved to Petrograd (Leningrad), where he was one of the founders of a In 1916 he went to central relief committee for war refugees. Stockholm to promote the cause of Latvia's independence and there published his book Die Letten tmd Hire Latvija. Cakste was elected chairman of the Latvian people's council in 1918 and was later head of the delegation sent to Paris and London to secure the recognition of the Latvian republic. He was president of the Latvian national council and, in 1920, of the Latvian constituent assembly. He also became professor of international law at the Elected president of Latvia by the first University of Riga. Latvian saeima (parliament) on Nov. 14, 1922, he was re-elected on Nov. 6, 1925, for a further period of three years, but died on

March

14,

(A. Sp.)

1927.

CALABAR

BEAN, the seed of a leguminous plant, Physostigma venenosum, a native of tropical Africa. The plant is a climber and attains a height of about 50 ft. The seed pods, which contain two or three seeds or beans, are six or seven inches in length and the beans are about the size of an ordinary horse bean but much thicker, with a deep chocolate-brown colour. Although highly poisonous, the bean has nothing in external aspect, taste or smell to distinguish it from any harmless leguminous seed, and disastrous effects have resulted from its being left in the way of ;

children.

The bean

1% of alkaloids, of which most important being physostigsmall white crystals, turned red by

usually contains less than

several have been isolated, the

mine or

eserine.

It occurs in

exposure to Ught or air, slightly soluble in water, soluble in ether, Medicinally, chloroform and alcohol, and with a bitter taste. physostigmine is employed as the salicylate. The pharmacological activity of physostigmine is due to its action in inhibiting the destruction of acetylcholine, permitting the latter to exert its characteristic effects in an intensified manner. According to the chemical theory of nerve transmission, acetylcholine is liberated at the nerve endings of all parasympathetic nerves and certain cholinergic sympathetic nerves, such as those supplying the sweat glands in human beings, at the ganglia of all autonomic nerves and also at the end plates of motor nerves to The effects of physostigmine at cholinergic skeletal muscles. nerve endings are antagonistic to those of atropine (see Atropine). Thus, the secretions of the salivary, mucous and sweat glands tend to be increased, the heart may be slowed and the blood pressure tends to fall; the pupil is constricted; the tone

and motility of the gastrointestinal tract are increased and the Because of its action at sympathetic bronchi are constricted. ganglia, certain contradictory effects may be obtained such as increase in heart rate and blood pressure. The effect of physostigmine on skeletal muscle is observed with larger doses and is manifested by fibrillary twitchings. In ophthalmology physostigmine is used in glaucoma to reduce the intraocular pressure and alternately with atropine to break up adhesions between the iris and the lens. It may be used to increase the motility of the gut or reduce abdominal distention. Physostigmine and, more especially, a synthetic substitute, neostigmine, have been used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis because they facilitate transmission of impulses at the myoneural junction by delaying the destruction of acetylcholine.

calabar bean was formerly used by native tribes for "trial Gastrointestinal symptoms appear first and consist

by ordeal."

of violent peristalsis, nausea, vomiting, coUc and diarrhea; there

and weakness with fibrillary twitchings of all voluntary muscles. The pupils are pinpoint, and salivation, sweating and lacrimation may be marked. There may be difficulty in breathing because of bronchiolar constriction. Death is due to respiratory paralysis. The administration of atropine will counteract all symptoms with the exception of the muscular twitchings.

is restlessness

(F. L. A.)

CALABASH,

the shell of a gourd or

vessel for holding liquids

;

also a vessel of

pumpkin made into a similar shape made of

It is also the name of a tree, Crescentia cujete Bignoniaceae) of tropical America, and its gourdlike so hard that vessels made of the rind can be used over a

other materials.

(family fruit is fire

many

times.

Tobacco pipes are made from the necks.

bottle gourd, Lagenaria vulgaris,

is

also called the calabash.

The Picto-

graphic records were kept on dried calabashes by the Indians of the Matto Grosso. According to Sir James Frazer in The Golden

Bough, sorcerers in primitive cultures in Hawaii were thought to be able to imprison souls of living persons in calabashes. See also

Gourd.

CALABOZO, founded in 1695, capital of Guarico state of Venezuela until 1934, is located in the llanos cattle region on the Guarico river, 120 mi. S.W. of Caracas. Pop. (1959 est.) 5,665. The town gained prominence in the 1950s as the headquarters for the Guarico river project south of the city, which cost about $145,000,000 and is concerned with the cattle industry, irrigation and flood control. A nine-mile-long earth dam across the river forms a lake of 94 sq.mi. which irrigates 272,000 ac. of land including about 550 farms of approximately 494 ac. each. Calabozo is a town of considerable commercial importance, highways focus(L. We.) ing on it from all directions. CALABRIA, a region of southern Italy comprising the provinces of Catanzaro, Cosenza and Reggio di Calabria (qq.v.). Pop. Someri961) 2,045,215. Area 15,080 sq.km. (5,822 sq.mi.). times referred to as "the toe of the Italian boot," Calabria is a peninsula of irregular shape, jutting out in a northeast-southwest direction from the main body of Italy, and separating the Tyrrhenian and Ionian seas. Most of the region is mountainous or hilly, the only extensive lowlands being those of the lower Crati valley near Sibari (which derived its name from ancient Sybaris), of the Marchesato near Crotone, of Sant'

Eufemia and of Gioia

In the north Calabria is linked to the Lucanian Apennines (Appennino Lucano) by the massif of Monte Pollino (2,248 m. or 7,375 ft.) the Pollino is continued southward along the west coast by the coast range, which in turn is separated by the Crati river from the extensive La Sila massif (highest point: Botte Donato, 1,928 m., or 6,325 ft.). A narrow isthmus between the Gulf of

Tauro.

;

Sant' Eufemia in the west and the Gulf of Squillace in the east separates the northern from the southern part of the region; the uplands continue as the Calabrian Apennines (Appennino Calabrese) and culminate in the southernmost part as the massif of

Aspromonte (Mont-Alto 1,956 m., or 6,417 ft.). The mainstay of Calabria's economy is farming, once

the

charac-

by large landed estates and tiny peasant holdings. Under the Italian land reform the majority of the former latifundia were broken up after 1951 and new, small peasant holdings created, with Formerly the rural service centres, new houses and new roads. terized

agriculture of Calabria concentrated almost entirely on cereals and the raising of sheep and goats, with occasional work in the

New commercial crops, citrus fruit forests of the Sila uplands. (mostly on the west coast), figs and chestnuts, were introduced. Hydroelectric power was developed during the 1920s and 1930s in La Sila and is an important feature of the Calabrian economy, supplying electric railways and the industrial centre of Crotone on There are two the Ionian coast, which has chemical industries. trunk railways; the Rome-Naples-Reggio di Calabria line on the west coast (the direct line between Rome and Sicily), and the Ionian or Taranto-Reggio di Calabria line on the east coast. The two lines are connected from Paola to Sibari (connection for Cosenza), and from Sant' Eufemia to Marina di Catanzaro; there

.

CALABRIA—CALAMIAN The highways

are well developed, with extensive bus services. A railway and car ferry links the ports of Reggio di Calabria and Villa San Giovanni with Messina in Sicily. Calabria is one of the few areas of south Italy with a non-Italian minority: the Albanians who settled in the region during the ISth are also local lines.

and 16th centuries under Turkish pressure, and who have retained their speech, the Greek Catholic rite in their churches and, on festival occasions, their colourful national costumes.

In classical times the region was a centre of Greek colonization; Crotona, Sybaris (qq.v.), Reggio (now Reggio di Calabria) were

Greek cities of wide fame. After the Roman conquest the splendour of the Greek cities slowly gave way to a remote provincial existence, and eventually Ager BnUthis as it was then called passed to the Byzantines who applied the name Calabria (which was also the

Roman name

for the southeast extremity of the Italian penin-

Calabria [Ancient]). The Lombards controlled the from Benevento and, later, from Salerno. After another

sula, see

region

period of Byzantine rule Calabria shared with the rest of southern Italy its Hohenstaufen, Angevin and Aragonian rulers; it became a stronghold of Italian republicanism until the Risorgimento (the movement for political unity) and part of Italy after Garibaldi's expedition in 1860. In World War II Reggio di Calabria, chief supply centre for Sicily, was heavily bombed by the Allies. ,

(G. Kh.) (ANCIENT), the name applied from the 3rd century B.C. to a district of ancient Italy in the southeastern extremity of the peninsula between the Adriatic and the Gulf of Tarentum ending in the lapygian promontory (Salentina) the vil-

CALABRIA

;

lage

on

from

promontory was called Leuca (Gr. leitkos "white") white cliffs (mod. Santa Maria di Leuca). Calabria oc-

this

its

cupied the southern part of modern Apulia (Ital. Puglia), consisting of the provinces of Lecce, Brindisi and Taranto, though the extends farther westward than the ancient district (modem Calabria comprises the ancient territory of the Bruttii, the southlatter

I

j

1

;

western extremity of Italy) The land forms a low terrace of limestone, the highest parts of which seldom reach 1,500 ft.; the cliffs, though not high, are steep, and it has no important rivers, but despite lack of water it was remarkably fertile. Strabo mentioned its pastures and trees, and reference was frequently made to its olives, wines and fruit trees. The wool of the ports of Tarentum (Taranto) and

Brundisium (Brindisi) was famous and the former had considerTraces of a prehistoric population are to be found over Calabria, especially near Lecce, Gallipoli and Muro Lec-

able dyeworks. all 1

cese.

I

Roman

Between 272 and 266

I

I

•

I

;

I

I

.

\

'

,

B.C. six triumphs were recorded in the fasti (calendar) over the Tarentini, Sallentini and Meswhile the name Calabria does not occur; but after the foundation of a colony at Brundisium about 246 and the final subjection

sapii,

of

Tarentum

in 209, Calabria

became the general name

for the

According to Strabo (1st century a.d.) earlier Calabria had been extremely prosperous and had had 13 cities, but all except Tarentum and Brundisium had dwindled to villages. The Appian way, extended to Brundisium probably by 244 B.C., passed through Tarentum; the shorter route by Canusium (Canosa di Puglia), Barium (Bari) and Egnatia (near Fasano) was only made a main route by the emperor Trajan. When the emperor Augustus divided Italy into regiones he joined Calabria to Apulia and the territory of the Hirpini to form the second region. From the end of the 2nd century Calabria was associated for juridical purposes either with Apulia or with Lucania and the district of the Bruttii, peninsula.

while the emperor Diocletian placed it under one corrector (governor) with Apulia. When the Lombards seized Calabria about A.D. 668 its name became transferred to the southwestern peninSee

J.

Whatmough, The Foundations

Palumbo, Rivista

of

Roman

Italy

(1937)

;

G.

di Scienze Preisloriche, vol. x (1955).

CALAHORRA, I

\

;

I

Logroiio,

is

a town of northern Spain, province of situated on the left bank of the Cidacos river near its

confluence with the Ebro, and Logrorio by road. Pop. (1950)

The

posedly contains the bodies of the martyrs Emeterius and Celedonius. Calahorra is on the main railway from Bilbao to Saragossa and Barcelona. The town was famous for its four years' resistance to Pompey, 76-72 B.C. Augustus gave it Roman citizenship, and it later was called Calagurris Nassica to distinguish it from Calagurris Fibularensis nearby. (M. B. F.) CALAIS, a seaport on the Strait of Dover and industrial town of northern France in the dipartement of Pas-de-Calais, is 274 km. (170 mi.) by road from Paris. Pop. (1954 census) 60,160. Area 2,937 sq.km. (IIJ sq.mi.). The old town with the citadel of 1560 was virtually destroyed in World War II and is now a new quarter. It stands on an island bordered by the canal and harbour basins which separate it from the larger quarter of St. -Pierre to the south, which, also badly damaged, is still the industrial area. The principal thoroughfares are the Place d'Armes, Place Crevecoeur, Place Albert I, the Rue Royale, and Jacquard, Pasteur, Gambetta and La Fayette boulevards. The 13th-century Tour du Guet (watchtower) still stands in the old town; and the modern hotel de ville

(town hall) in St.-Pierre was built (1910-22) in Flemish Renaissance style. Calais is the second most important passenger port in France, and the first for passenger traffic with England. It is linked by railway with Boulogne, Paris, Lille and Dunkirk, and by sea with Dover (the shortest crossing from England 21 mi.) and Folke-

For passengers and automobiles there are several daily cross-channel sea services, and air services from Calais-Marck airport. There is a river transport link with Saint-Omer. The stone.

is lacemaking, including point lace and pillow and tulles and embroideries are exported all over the world. Other exports are pit coal and sand. Imports include timber, cellulose pulp, iron ore and pyrites. Other manufactures include papier-mache, Calais yams, chemical products, biscuits and submarine cable. Originally a fishing village, Calais was improved by Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders, in 997, and fortified in 1224 by Philip Hurepel Count of Boulogne. After the battle of Crecy it was besieged (1346) for nearly a year by Edward III of England, and reduced by famine. The famous episode of the six burghers of

principal industry lace,

who surrendered themselves to save their town, is related and is commemorated by Auguste Rodin's monument. Calais remained English until 1558, when it was taken by Frangois de Lorraine. 2nd duke of Guise. From this time the Calaisis, or territory of Calais, was known as the Pays Reconquis. It was ocCalais,

to this siege

cupied by Spain from 1596 to 1598, but returned to France by the treaty of Vervins. In 1805, 6,000 men of Napoleon's "army of England" were encamped there. It was often a German objective in World War I and in World War II was one of the main objectives of the German drive to the sea in May 1940, from which time it remained in German hands until its recapture by the Allies in Sept. 1944. It had then been, for about three months, a base for the robot bombs directed against England. CALAIS ZETES, in Greek mythology, the winged twin sons of Boreas and Oreithyia. On their arrival with the Argonauts at Salmydessus in Thrace, they hberated their sister Cleopatra, who had been thrown into prison with her two sons by her husband, Phineus, the king of the country. According to another story, they delivered Phineus from the Harpies. They were slain by Heracles near the island of Tenos, in consequence

AND

of a quarrel with Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, or because

they refused to wait during the search for Hylas. Legend attributed the foundation of Cales in Campania to Calais.

CALAMIAN ISLANDS,

sula of Italy.

49 km. (30 mi.) E.S.E. of 13,183 (mun.). from the Sth century, was re-

is

cathedral, dating probably

591

stored in 1485, with a fagade dated 1680-1704 and much subsequent alteration. The Gothic church of San Andres is also notable. The Casa Santa, visited by thousands of pilgrims on Aug. 31, sup-

an island group lying between

Mindoro and Palawan, Republic of the Philippines. Politically a part of Palawan province, this group consists of Busuanga (344 Coron (27 sq.mi.) and many lesser Manganese was mined on Busuanga prior to Japa-

sq.mi.), Culion (ISO sq.mi.), isles

and

islets.

nese occupation of the Philippines and again in the immediate postwar years. Culion is best known as the site of a leper colony. All the larger islands

have some agriculture, principally subsist-

.

CALAMINE—CALCHAQUI

592

ence cropping, and fishing is a significant activity. The principal settlement is Coron (pop. [1960] 10,222) on Busuanga opposite the island of Coron. See also Palawan; Culion Island. (An. C.) the mineral name applied to hydrous zinc silicate {see Hemimorphite), an important ore of zinc, by U.S. mineralogists and to zinc carbonate {see Smithsonite) by British mineralogists. The word calamine is a corruption of cadmia, the old name for zinc ores in general; even today many miners include both the hydrous silicate and the carbonate under this same term, probably because of their similar appearance. In 1832, however, F. S. Beudant restricted the name calamine to the hydrous silicate and proposed the name smithsonite for the carbonate. Although U.S. mineralogists adopted this usage, English mineralogists (follow-

CALAMINE,

ing

Henry

tions.

Brooke and William Miller, 1852) reverse these designa(F. D. B.)

CALAMIS

Athenian sculptor, made statues of Apollo the averter of ill, Hermes the rambearer, Aphrodite and other deities, as well as part of a chariot group for Hiero, king of Syracuse. His works were praised by ancient critics for Copies of the Aphrodite or delicacy, simplicity and orderliness. Sosandra have been identified, but evidence for his other works is (fl.

470-450

B.C.),

inconclusive. See Gisela pp. 203-207

A. Richter, The Sculpture and Sculptors of the Greeks, (C. C. V.) 1950)

M. (

CALAMY, EDMUND

(1600-1666), English Presbyterian minister, a leader among the Presbyterians in England in the midnth century, was born in London in Feb. 1600 and educated at Merchant Taylors' school, London, and Pembroke hall, Cambridge. After holding positions in the eastern counties, he became rector of St. Mary Aldermanbury, London, in 1639. In 1641 he was one

nom de plume of Smectymnuus, made a noted attack on episcopacy and liturgy conceived as of divine in 1643 he was a member of the Westand right and inalterable; minster Assembly of Divines. When in 1646 parliament ordered of five writers who, over the

Presbyterianism to be established in England, Calamy was one served as moderator of the provincial assembly set up in London, and he contributed to various publications which it issued. He was prepared for discussion with Independents; and at the Restoration he accepted a chaplaincy to Charles II. He declined a bishopric, but was appointed to nominate those other than

who

bishops to the Savoy conference of 1661. But a policy of comprehension proved impossible, and in Aug. 1662, under the Act of Uniformity, Calamy was ejected from his living, and in December first Nonconformist to suffer imprisonment for disobeying the act. He died on Oct. 29, 1666. His son, grandson and great grandson were all Nonconformist ministers of the same name and his grandson was the biographer of the ejected ministers.

became the

(G.F.N.) town of Rumania, is situated 104 km. (65 mi.) Bucharest on the left bank of the Borcea arm of the

CALARASI, a E.S.E. of

Danube, forming the Danube delta. It is the administrative centre Pop. of a district of the same name in the Buchare§ti region. (1956) 25,269, Calara?! is a river port and trading centre. Its chief industry

and

is

flour milling.

food manufacturing, particularly

The

first

fish

processing

documentary mention of the town

oc-

during the reign of Michael the Brave, (1698-1762), the Huguenot cloth merchant GALAS, of Toulouse whose judicial murder in 1762 became a cause celebre in the history of toleration and first aroused Voltaire's passion curred

in 1593,

JEAN

for the reform of the French criminal code, was born in the village of Lacabarede, near Castres in Languedoc, on March 19, 1698.

Oct. 13, 1761, Calas' eldest son. Marc Antoine, was found by Local prejudice against his family hanged in his father's shop. the Huguenots, led by a panic psychology, accused the Calas

On

family of having murdered Marc Antoine to prevent or punish rumoured conversion to Roman Catholicism, Calas first attributed the crime to an unknown intruder, but later insisted that He was tried by the capitouls his son had committed suicide. (local magistrates) and finally condemned to death by the parle-

his

ment of Toulouse, sitting as an appellate court, on March 9, 1762. Throughout his trial and subsequent torture Calas maintained his

On March 10, 1762, he was publicly broken on the wheel, strangled and then burned to ashes. His son was buried as a martyr to the Roman Catholic faith. Influential friends of the family in Geneva interested Voltaire in the case, and it was largely through his efforts that European opinion was mobilized and that Calas' innocence was vindicated in 1765. The family was indemnified and the sentence of the parlement was stricken from innocence.

Though the local magistrates had scrupulously observed most of the established procedure, much of the evidence that they admitted had been mere hearsay. The Calas case powerfully strengthened the argument for criminal law reform in France, the record.

this did not come about till 1788. Bibliography. F. H. Maugham, The Case oj Jean Calas (1928); Chassaigne, L'Affaire Calas (1929; Eng. trans. 1930); A. Coutet, Jean Calas roue vij et innocent (1933) D. D. Bien, The Calas Affair: Persecution, Toleration and Heresy in 18th-century Toulouse (1961) (A. On.) P. Gay, Voltaire's Politics: the Poet as Realist (1959). a city chartered in 1948 in the province and island of Samar, Republic of the Philippines, on the west coast at the mouth of the Calbayog river, about 30 mi. N.W. of Catbalogan, Its area includes much rural farmland, the provincial capital.

though

—

M.

;

;

CALBAYOG,

comprising three municipalities with three administrative centres, and a total of 83 barrios (local districts). The 1948 population of 79,503 decreased to a 1960 population of 77,821. The coastal plain is narrow, and rice production is insufiicient for local needs, but

Calbayog

is

a regular port of call for interisland ships since

it is

less

subject to storms than ports of the north coast. It is the leading exporter of Samar Island abaca (Manila hemp), an important ex-

porter of copra, and the chief importer of rice and manufactures for northern Samar, (J. E. Sr.)

VON

(Kalkar, Kalcker), JAN STEPHAN {c. German painter, whose artistic personality is obscure, was from c. 1536/37 in Venice, where he studied under Vasari praises his Titian, and in 1545 in Naples, where he died. portraits; both these and his drawings, according to Karel Van Mander, are virtually indistinguishable from Titian's. A male portrait of 1540 (Louvre, Paris), attributed to him in a French royal inventory of 1683, forms the basis of all modern attributions

CALCAR

1499-c. 1546),

of paintings to Calcar.

His only certain works are the designs for three anatomical plates published for Andreas Vesalius {q.v.; 1538); the superb illustrations of the latter's De humani corporis fabrica (1543) are

(D. Kg.) a genus of shrubs and herbs belonging to containing about 500 (Scrophulariaceae; q.v.), the figwort family species, chiefly natives of the South American Andes of Peru and

also generally ascribed to him.

CALCEOLARIA,

and sometimes called slipperworts. The calceolaria of the has been developed into a decorative herbaceous plant with large numbers of mostly red and yellow spotted, pouchlike inflated flowers. It is generally raised annually from the seed, which is sown about the end of June in a mixture of loam, leaf mold and sand. The shrubby calceolarias, sometimes used for bedding, are propagated from cuttings planted in autumn in the cool greenhouse, CALCHAQUI, a generic term for a subgroup of DiaguitaChile,

florists

speaking peoples who occupied a large territory in northwestern Argentina in the region of the Santa Maria valley. Knowledge of these Indians comes from Spanish chronicles and archaeological Their language affiliation remains uncertain. surveys. The Calchaqui were described as warlike, and their stone fortifications located at strategic places in their territory attest to this Most Calchaqui lived in unfortified settlements, retreating to hilltop redoubts when under attack; but there were

observation. also

some

fortified villages.

Settlements were autonomous except

wartime, when they united under the military alliance of influential chiefs. The Calchaqui adopted horses early in the colonial era and became effective cavalrj-men who carried the attack to Spanish towns arfd destroyed houses and fields. Archaeological remains and chronicle reports indicate that the Calchaqui lived in small, sedentary agricultural villages where they farmed terraced fields, sometimes built irrigation canals, and also kept herds of llama. Their technological skill also extended to loom weaving llama-wool textiles, which were dyed; basketmaking; and a rather elaborate ceramic industry, as evidenced by

in

CALCHAS—CALCITE

593

pottery molded into anthropo- and zoomorphic shapes, and otherMetallurgy was also known, work wise decorated and painted. being done in silver, gold, copper and a copper-tin alloy called

regions which has been enriched

CaCOs by the evaporation of ground water. Oolites are formed in the Sea of Azov and in the shallow waters of the Bahaman platform at places where upwelling waters lose COv through warming, agitation and photosynlhetic uptake by algae. Although often in

"Calchaqui bronze." Religious beliefs involved shamanistic practices for the cure by witchcraft. Shamans also appear

of illness felt to be caused

have held public fertility rites connected with agriculture, durwhich animal and sometimes human (enemyj sacrilice was made to the sun. Funeral ceremonies were elaborate and protracted, involving ceremonial wailing, flexed-burial of the deceased in a pit or special chamber and, in the case of infants, urn burial, to

ing

apparently in special cemeteries. See J. H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Bureau of .\merican Ethnology Bulletin 143, vol. ii, pp. 637-654, with bibliography (1947); also, J. H. Steward and L. C. Faron, Native Peoples of South America (19S9). (L. C. Fa.)

CALCHAS, among

son of Thestor, the most

demanded the

subsequently invert to

He

important mineral constituent of limestones and marbles, which are of great commercial importance in the building, steel, chemi-

,

foretold

sacrifice of Iphigeneia

and the return of Chr>'seis; he suggested that Neoptolemus and Philoctetes should be fetched to Troy, and advised the construction of the wooden horse. It had been predicted that he should die when he met his superior in divination; and the prophecy was fulfilled in the person of Mopsus, whom Calchas met after the war, at Clarus, or at Siris in Italy.

Beaten in a trial of soothsaying, Calchas died of chagrin or committed suicide. CALCIMINE: see Distemper, Whitewash and Calcimine. CALCINATION. Solids, when heated to a high temperature for the purpose of removing volatile substances, for the purpose

them friable, are sometimes conexample is the manu-

of oxidizing a portion of the mass, or to render said

to

be calcined.

Calcination, therefore,

sidered a process of purification.

facture of lime from limestone.

A

typical

is

In this process the limestone,

admixed with coke or other fuel to maintain the high temperature but sometimes treated in rotary kilns heated by gas or powdered fuel, is brought to a temperature high enough to expel usually

the carbon dioxide, producing the lime of friable or easily

may

an inert gas

may

CALCITE, sisting of

commerce

in a highly

powdered condition.

be carried on

in

Calcination in special cases furnaces designed to exclude air, for which

be substituted.

a widely distributed rhombohedral mineral con-

calcium carbonate and noted for the beautiful develop-

ment and great variety of

The name

calcite

is

its

crystals.

of comparatively recent origin, being first

used in its present sense by W. K. Haidinger in 1845. However, the mineral had long been known by the name calcareous spar, and the transparent variety called Iceland spar had been much studied. The strong double refraction and perfect cleavage of Iceland spar

were described in detail by Erasmus Bartholin in i66g in his book crystalli islandici disdiadastici ; a study of the same mineral led Christiaan Huygens to discover in 1678 the laws of double refraction. From an investigation of the cleavage and crystal forms of calcite, R. J. Haiiy in 1781-1801 developed a theory of crystal structure which played an important part in the development of modern structural crystallography. In 1808 E. L. Malus discovered the polarization of light by Iceland spar. Modes of Occurrence.—The modes of occurrence of calcite, CaC03, are exceedingly varied. It occurs as one of the most common sedimentary rocks, limestone, and as the metamorphic equivalent, marble. It is a common constituent of the shells of invertebrates. It frequently occurs as crystals in association with zeolites, lining the cavities of basaltic rocks, and is a common product of hydrothermal solutions, forming the gangue material in many ore deposits. CaCOs is appreciably soluble in ground Water containing organic acids and dissolved carbon dioxide, obtained in passing through soils, and is redeposited when the CO2 escapes. This solution mechanism is responsible for the frequency of limestone caverns and the wide distribution of stalactites and stalagmites in caves, massive banded deposits of travertine around springs, and spongy calcareous tufa in ordinary streams and springs. Caliche is a soil or porous rock zone in arid

Experimenta

i

;

I

I

'

calcite.

Commercial Importance and Uses.— Calcite is the most

famous soothsayer

the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war.

the duration of the siege,

precipitated as aragonite, oolites

and other industries

cal,

glass

{see

Limestone Marble ;

land spar, which was

duced as early as the

1

)

Ice-

.

first

pro-

7th century

from masses and enormous

crys-

tals in a large cavity in basalt Fig.

1.

—CALCITE CRYSTALS

(A)

r

(B) (C) (D)

ett,"rhombohedr„n

is

primitive

(cleavage)

rhom-

in polarizing

is

Nicol and Ahrens prisms.

Is acute rhombohedron combination of prism (m) with

/

rhombohedron (e)

on

used prisms such as the

the east coast of Iceland,

These

are used in polarizing microscopes to study the behaviour of crystalj

iu . ^^^^ SubstanceS, m polariSCOpeS such as the saccharimeter used ""' in the sugar industry, and in °/ \'"j S'"1™''1,1''' wITh with '"„t-!™ ^ prism (m) and rhomboheOther Optical instruments. These dron (e) prisms reflect one component of the hght to the side, leaving a single, completely polarized ray. Other methods of producing polarized light, either by reflection or absorption, do not give such complete polarization. Although the double refraction (see Physical and Chemical Properties, below)

(E)

•

1

-'

of

•

combination of scalenohedron (v) with rhombohedron (r)

some other minerals

is

much

'

greater than that of Iceland spar

(0.1723, while for cinnabar it is 0.347 and for calomel 0.683), the former materials cannot be obtained in large thick transparent pieces. (See also Light: Polarization and Electromagnetic Theory: Methods of Producing Polarization; Polarimetry.) Crystal Forms. Crystals of calcite show a greater variety of forms than any other mineral. In his Atlas der Kristatlformen (1912-23), V. Goidschmidt showed more than 2,500 drawings of calcite crystals. By the second half of the 20th century, 328 forms had been definitely established, with an additional 296 regarded In spite of this variety, there are four most freas uncertain. quently encountered types, namely: (i) prismatic, with various terminations; (2) scalenohedral, many times very complex, and when occurring in acute forms called dogtooth spar; (3) rhombohedral, varying from flat to very acute; and (4) tabular, with the basal face prominent, and sometimes occurring in almost paperthin crystals. Clusters of parallel crystals are common. These may be nearly identical, or rhombohedral crystals may be perched on a scalenohedron (nailhead spar). Sometimes an earlier formed crystal will be completely enclosed by a later growth, gi\'ing a phantom crystal. Subparallel growths of platy crystals form an undulatory lamellar variety with a pearly lustre, called argentine. Calcite is also remarkable for the variety and perfection of its twinned crystals. {See Crystallography.) In addition to its perfect rhombohedral cleavage, calcite is characterized by a specific gravity of 2.71 and a hardness of 3 on Mohs' scale. It effervesces briskly with cold dilute acids, and is transparent and colourless when pure. Various colours may be imparted by other elements replacing the calcium, such as pink by manganese. Colour may also be due to admixed impurities such as red or brown from disseminated hematite or cuprite, and green from malachite or chlorite. Clear transparent crystals of calcite containing bright metallic flakes of copper are found in northern Michigan. A remarkable case of enclosed impurities is that of sand-calcite crystals. These consist of calcite with up to

—

CALCIUM

594 64%

of quartz sand, and are found at Fontainebleau near Paris and in the Bad Lands of South Dakota.

—

Physical and Chemical Properties. Calcite is made up of calcium ions and carbonate ions in alternate planes perpendicular to the crystallographic c-axis to yield a structure which

distorted equivalent of that of NaCl. a

is

a

This arrangement results in

marked anisotropism of chemical and physical properties

includ-

ing dielectric constant, thermal expansion, hardness, rate of solu-

compressibility and refractive index.

Thus, calcite is less resistant to scratching on a basal face than on a prism, and on the rhombohedral cleavage it is distinctly softer when scratched toward the apex than away from it. Optically, calcite is uniaxial negative, the index of refraction for the ordinary ray being 1,6585 and for the extraordinary ray 1.4S62 (sodium light). The difference, 0,1723, between these two indexes is a measure of the strong birefringence or double refraction, which is sufficient so that an object viewed through a cleavage rhombohedron is seen double, W, L, Bragg was able in 1924 to calculate the refractive indexes of calcite from the atomic arrangement, one of the first such calculations to be made. Calcite is polymorphous with aragonite, which is orthorhombic, with vaterite, which is hexagonal, and with several forms which apparently exist only under rather extreme experimental conditions, Calcite is the stable form at all temperatures and pressures encountered at or near the earth's surface. The radius of the Ca^"*" ion is markedly greater than those of bihty

in acid, linear

Mn- + Fe2+ and Mg- + ,

,

the cations in the three

of the carbonates having the

same

most common

crystal structure as calcite;

i.e.,

as apatite. Many minerals, notably feldspars and zeocontain calcium silicates. Asbestos is composed of calcium

phosphate lites,

)

magnesium

silicate,

CaMg3(Si03)4,

Calcium phosphate

principal inorganic constituent of bones;

it

is

the

also occurs as the min-

Ca3(P04)o. Calcium carbonate (calcite) occurs marble, dolomite, eggshells, pearls, coral, stastalagmites and the shells of many marine creatures.

eral phosphorite,

in limestone, chalk, lactites,

—

Production. In 1808 Davy showed that lime was an oxide of which he named calcium. Robert Bunsen electrolyzed calcium chloride, and A, Matthiessen obtained the metal by the electrolysis of a mixture of fused calcium and sodium chlorides. While calcium was formerly produced by electrolysis of anhydrous calcium chloride, practically all commercial production is by the reduction of lime by aluminum in heated retorts under low pressures. Calcium distills out of the reaction mass and is collected the metal

in a cool section of the retort or in a condenser.

— Calcium

is employed as an alloying agent for aluminum, magnesium and other base metals (see also Alloys; Bearing Metals). It is an important deoxidizer for chromium-

Uses.

copper, lead,

nickel, chromium-nickel-iron

and related resistance high-tempera-

ture alloys, and for nickel, steel and tin bronzes.

It is a getter or

evacuating agent for high vacuums as in thermionic tubes, radio and television components. It has been employed as a reducing agent in the preparation of chromium, thorium, uranium, zirconium and other metals from their oxides; as a dehydrating agent for organic liquids; a desulfurizer for petroleum fractions; and a decomposing agent for thiophenes and mercaptans. Calcium as a 0.04'^ calcium lead is employed on telephone cables and in storage batteries (see Battery; Stationary Batteries). Various compounds of calcium have numerous important uses (See also separate articles on calcium(see Compounds, below). bearing minerals, as Calcite: Fluorite; Zeolite; etc.) Chemical Properties. Calcium is one of the Physical and It is a alkaline-earth metals of Group II of the periodic table. silvery-white metal when freshly prepared, but it reacts readily with oxygen and nitrogen and tarnishes when exposed to the air to produce a gray and slightly yellow surface. There are six stable isotopes of the element; these, arranged in the order of abundance, have mass numbers of 40, 44, 42, 48, 43 and 46, Several artificial radioactive isotopes have also been prepared. The properties of

—

Fig.

2.

— FOUR

SPECIMENS OF TWINNED CRYSTALS OF CALCITE

(A) Twinned prismatic crystal. (B) twinned scaienohedron, (C) cleavage rhombolnedron with twin-lamellae. (D) heart-shaped twin

rhodochrosite, siderite and magnesite. Solid solutions between calcite and these minerals are therefore incomplete. Small amounts of zinc, lead, barium and strontium have also been found in calcite.

calcium are given

in the

accompanying

table.

The arrangement of electrons in the levels and sublevels atom of calcium is: Is-, 2s-, 2p^, Ss^, 3p'', 45^, The chemical properties of calcium are similar to those of tium and barium.

of the stron-

In their compounds, these three elements have

Calcites from marbles contain up to 7^ mole per cent MgCOj; when these materials exist in equilibrium with dolomite in the rock, the amount of MgCOa in solid solution may be used as a

number of + 2. They are also active reducing agents and their compounds have structures and properties commonly posCalcium is sessed by compounds of active metallic elements. somewhat less readily oxidized to form ions than strontium and

geologic thermometer,

barium and

Manganese-rich ore bodies such as those of Franklin, N.J., and Langban. Swed., contain calcites with up to 40 mole per cent MnCOs in solid solution. The calcites making up

some invertebrates contain as much as i8% The content of both magnesium and strontium in such

the hard parts of

MgCOs.

skeletal calcite varies with the kind of

organism and with water

temperature.

The

relative

amounts of the 0^* and 0^^ isotopes

in shells con-

sisting of calcium carbonate may be used to calculate the temperature of the water in which the organisms lived. The C^^ isotope content of CaCOs less than about 40,000 years old may often be used to measure the age of the material, if the source of CO.j incorporated in the carbonate can be inferred. See also references under "Calcite" in the Index volume,

(D. L, G,)

CALCIUM,

a metallic element,

Humphry Davy

because of

symbol Ca, was

so

named by

occurrence in chalk (g.i'.t. but compounds of the element are widely distributed. In the earth's crust calcium is the fifth most abundant element; it constitutes 3.63% of the igneous rocks and 3.22'^ of the entire crust of the earth. It is Sir

Calcium does not occur

found

The

as the sulfate in

its

in the free state,

gypsum and

related minerals.

fluoride of calcium occurs as fluorite

and (with calcium

a valence

is,

therefore, a slightly less active metal.

Under ordinary conditions of temperature calcium reacts slowly with the oxygen and nitrogen of the air to form a yellow layer composed of the oxide, hydroxide and nitride. This layer proThe element burns briltects the metal from rapid oxidation. liantly when in air or in pure oxygen to form the monoxide, CaO. It reacts rapidly with warm water and more slowly with cold water to produce a stream of bubbles of hydrogen. Calcium reacts directly with most nonmetallic elements. At high temperatures, it reacts with nitrogen to form the nitride, CasXo. and with carbon to form the acetylide CaCo. often but incorrectly called calcium carbide. Upon reaction with water CaC2 gives acetylene C2H2, The true carbide CaoC, which upon reaction with water would give hydrocarbonic acid H4C (Methane CH4), It reacts is not stable at high temperatures and does not form. with the nitrogen of air in the electric furnace to form calcium temlower cyanamide (see C'vaxamide, Calcium). .A.t somewhat peratures, it reacts with sulfur to form the sulfide, CaS, and with phosphorus to form the phosphide, Ca3P2. Compounds. In general, the compounds of calcium resemble' those of strontium and barium but are, with a few exceptions,

—

somewhat more soluble in water. Calcium hydride, CaH2, sometimes

called hydrolith,

is

obtained

:

CALCIUM by heating the metal in a current of hydrogen. This compound is easily transported and on treatment with water yields hydrogen, which can be used in filling dirigibles. Calcium forms the monoxide, CaO. the peroxide, CaOn. and possibly a tetroxide, CaO^. The monoxide is commonly called lime (q.v.) or quicklime and the corresponding hydroxide, Ca(0H)2, is sometimes called slaked lime.

The hydroxide

an inexpensive alkaline substance. It is not very soluble in water, and is generally used in the form of a susAmong its pension of the solid in water called milk of lime. most important uses is the production of mortar or plaster which contains, in addition to calcium hydroxide, sand and water. These materials set as they dry and as the hydro.xide is slowly converted into calcium carbonate by the action of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The peroxide is obtained by the addition of hydrogen peroxide to limewater; the resulting hydrate, CaOo.SHoO, loses water on being heated to 130° C. and forms the peroxide as a pale buffcoloured powder. It is used sometimes for bleaching and antiseptic is

purposes. Physical Properties of Calcium

.... ....

Atomic number Atomic volume (c.c./gram atom) Atomic weight Boiling point

40.08 1,440° C. (2,625° F.)

Colour

White, approximating silver

_

.

Compressibility 30° C. (86° F.) o atm. pressure 11,600 atm. pressure 20° C. (68° F.) 99-493 atm. pressure

sodium

Compressibility

S.7

.

A

= —

X X

vol.

(atm.)

=

Density

(g./cc.) 20° C. (68° F.) 4So° C. (842° F.) a phase in eitruded wire 480° C. (896° F.) phase Elastic limit (p.s.i.) Electrical resistivity at 21° C. (70° F.) (microhm-cm.)

i-SS (0.056 lb./cu.in.)

.

.......

aled 2)

mg. /coulomb

0.20762 4.81640

coulomb/mg Electrolytic solution potential v. Electron configuration Erichsen value on i/32-in. sheet

hydrogen

(v.)

-2.76

Brinell (500-kg. load) Rockwell ds-kg, load, t/r6-in. ball) of combustion (cal./g.) Isotopes (stable) Latent heat of vapourization at boiling point

.... .

42 as roiled 151.9 40, 42, 43, 44. 46, 48

freezing mixtures. Concentrated solutions find some use in laying dust on roads and elsewhere. Bleaching powder (q.v.) is now regarded as a mixture of the basic chloride, CaCl2.Ca(OH)2(H20), and the basic hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2-2Ca(OH)2. It is made by exposing thin layers of slaked lime to chlorine at 30°-40° C. (See

Alkali Manufacture; Bleachlng.) Calcium carbonate, or calcite, CaCOs, occurs in all limestones and in other minerals (see above) and as bicarbonate, Ca(HC03)2, in some naturally hard waters. The loss of carbon dioxide by the evaporating or heating of such waters results in the deposition of CaC03 and, hence, the hardness of water resulting from the presence in solution of calcium bicarbonate is called temporary. Precipitated chalk is prepared by mixing solutions of calcium chloride and a soluble carbonate. Calcium nitride, Ca3N2, is produced by heating calcium in nitrogen; it is a grayish-yellow powder, which is readily decomposed by w-ater with formation of ammonia. Calcium nitrate, Ca(N03)2, is a highly deliquescent salt; it is sometimes called lime saltpetre. The hydrate, Ca(N03)2.4H20, has been produced in the flaming arc process for fixing atmospheric

.

Melting point

....

interatomic distance (kX)

-:S5°-2o° C. (-3oi°-68°F.) 0°-IOO°C. (32°-2I2°F.) Temperature coefficient of electrical .

per ° C, at 20° C. (68° F.) Tensile properties; Yield strength (p.s.i.)

.

.

,

rolled

annealed Reduction

artificial

ammonium

manure

either directly or

nitrate.

.

.

The

sulfides of calcium are used as a depilatory in

the manufacture of leather; in medicine; and in luminous paints. Calcium sulfate, CaS04, occurs as gypsum, alabaster, anhydrite,

resistivity .

satin spar

and

selenite,

and

in

water, in which

it

is

one of the

permanent hardness; i.e., hardness not removed by The dihydrate, CaS04.2H20, is converted into a semihydrate, CaS04.iH20, on being heated to 120°-180° C; this salts causing

aled

.... ....

Ultimate strength rolled

used as an

is

of sulfur. .

rolled

annealed Elongation

It is

;

cal./gram atom

of elasticity (p.s.i.) Specific gravity (g./cc.) Specific heat (cal./g.)

natural

is a standard superphosphate fertilizer produced by treating mineral phosphates with sulfuric acid (see also Fertilizers and Manures). Calcium phosphate is used in medicine; as a source of phosphorus; as polishing powder in tooth pastes (as calcium metaphosphate) in ceramics and porcelain manufacture; and in enameling. Calcium sulfide, CaS, is produced by heating the sulfate with charcoal or by heating lime in a current of hydrogen sulfide. The hydrosulfide, Ca(SH)2.6HnO, is produced by saturating a cold suspension of lime with hydrogen sulfide. The di- and pentasulfides, CaS2 and CaSj, are formed when milk of lime is boiled with flowers

Hardness number, cast slab

Modulus

many

manufacturing

C. in a current of hydrogen chloride. It melts at 772° C. It is The hexahydrate is used to produce used as a drying agent.

which

annealed

susceptibility (eg.)

in several

may

and, with calcium sulfate,

rolled

Heat

chloride, CaCl2, occurs in

crystals

;

rolled

Electrochemical equivalent (valence

The

produced as a by-product

Calcium phosphide, Ca3P2, is obtained by passing phosphorus vapour over strongly heated lime. It produces spontaneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide on reacting with water, and, therefore, is used in marine signal lights. Normal calcium phosphate, Ca3(P04)2, is the principal inorganic constituent of bones and of bone ash (see Phosphorus) it occurs as phosphorite, Ca3(P04)2, in Florida, Tennessee and certain western states of the U.S. and in northern Africa. It also occurs as apatite, Ca5F(P04)3, or Ca5Cl(P04)3, in Canada and elsewhere. The acid salt, CaH4(P04)2, is obtained by evaporating a solution of the normal salt in hydrochloric or nitric acid; it is very soluble

(ci

A pressure

Face centred cubic, a

Crystal structure

is

The

contain two, four or six molecules of water for each gram molecular weight of the chloride. The pure anhydrous chloride is obtained by heating the crystals above 200°

processes.

after conversion into 10 10

-

vol. (cu.cm.)

Minimum

fluoride.

waters and

nitrogen. 5.8

.

100-500 megabars/sq.cm.

Mass magnetic

595

in

in

(p.s.i.)

J in.

boiling.

(%)

hydrate

rolled

annealed

Thermal conductivity

S8

Same order

.

and

Thermal expansion, per ° C. linear, o°- joo° C. (.i2°-57o° F.) cubic, o°- 21° C. (j2°- 70° F.)

as that of

sodium

alkali metals

fide

calcium

only slightly soluble in water. Calcium fluoride, CaFo, occurs as fluorite and can be prepared as a white precipitate by mixing solutions of calcium chloride and is

compounds impart an orange-red

—

two characteristic lines Ca a, orange, X 6,163; and Ca /3, 4,229. Calcium ion is not precipitated by hydrogen suleither in acid or in ammoniacal solution, but is precipitated

X

by ammonium carbonate

bromide and iodide are deliquescent,

soluble substances, the fluoride

— Most

exhibits

green,

nductivity referred to standard copper (%)

chloride,

called plaster of paris.

colour to the flame of the Bunsen burner, more especially if they are moistened with hydrochloric acid. Spectroscopically, calcium

.

Transformation temperature (cooling)

Whereas calcium

is

Analysis.

(%)

area

in the

presence of

ammonium

ion.

It is

quantitatively precipitated as calcium oxalate, a white solid, insoluble in acetic acid, either by ammonium oxalate or sodium oxalate. Calcium is usually separated in this form and subsequently dried and converted either to the oxide by heat or to the

by sulfuric acid and weighed as such. Calcium salts are not toxic; deficiency of calcium

sulfate

in the diet

CALCULATING— CALCULUS

596 body

from the lack of material bone formation. See also references under "Calcium" in the Index volume. Bibliography.— C. L. Mantell and Charles Hardy, Calcium, Metallurgy and Technology (1945) C. A. Hampel (ed.), Rare Metals Handbook (1954); G. L. Clark (ed.-in-chief), Encyclopedia of Chemistry (1957). (C. L. Ml.) leads to diseases of the

resulting

for

;

CALCULATING MACHINES:

Computing

see

Ma-

CHiXES. Electro.mc; Office Machines and Appliances: Computing and Accoiititing Machines.

CALCULUS (IN MEDICINE) is an abnormal concretion, composed ordinarily of mineral salts, occurring in any hollow organ of the body in which there is stagnation of the fluid contents together with an e.xcess of some particular substance in solution. Calculi may also occur from the same cause in the ducts leading from glands. The chief places where calculi (or stones) occur are the urinary system and the gall bladder. Urinary Calculus Disease. Urinary calculi have been known

—

Descriptions have been found in ancient Suin the early writings of Egypt, while disthan 5.000 years old have revealed objects that doubtless were kidney calculi. Later, in the age of the Greeks. Hippocrates described the symptoms of kidney stones since ancient times.

merian literature and sections of

mummies more

with remarkable accuracy. By a.d. goo the Arabians had already devised an operation for the surgical removal of bladder stones, an operation similar to one sometimes still used. In modern times, urinary calculus disease can be found in all lands, although its prevalence varies widely in the different

regions.

The

disease

is

especially

common

in

certain

sections of India and China.

Areas of high incidence in the western hemisphere are found in southern United States and the western coast of South i^merica. In Europe several stone areas may be delimited, among them the Scandinavian countries and the region along the Dalmatian coast, where stones in children are particularly common. The cause for this striking variation in geographic incidence is obscure, though differences in diet and climate are frequently mentioned as possible factors. Essentially, urinary stones are aggregates of crystals laid

down

upon layer in an organic matrix or framework. The crystalline component ordinarily comprises calcium and magnesium salts of phosphate or oxalate. More rarely the stone is composed of uric acid or the amino acid cystine. All these relatively insoluble materials are excreted in the urine. Under certain circumstances they tend to crystallize out of solution and produce stones. However, a calculus is not simply a mere jumble of crystals, layer

Bladder calculi are much commoner in males than in females because the female urethra, or bladder outlet, allows easy passage of incipient stones before they have time to reach significant size.

The structure of

the male urethra is such that a rudimentary stone, once formed, has a greater chance of remaining in the bladder, where it continues to grow until there is no possibility for spontaneous passage during urination. Partly for this reason stones in the bladder are particularly common as a complication of prostate enlargement. Bladder stones often assume enormous size, sometimes ten centimetres or more in diameter. They are usually round or ovoid, but many bizarre forms occur. A bladder

may

stone

calibre

edly

falls against the bladder neck, obstructing the outlet of urine. Severe spasms of pain usually accompany such episodes of ob-

Despite much investigation, the cause of stone disease defies complete understanding. In a few instances it is associated with a chemical disturbance of the body such as gout (which explains the occurrence of some uric acid stones) or overactivity of the parathyroid glands (explaining some calcium-type stones). In such conditions an increased amount of the stone-forming minerals appears in the urine, producing a state of excessive urinary saturation. However, the majority of stone sufferers manifest no such general metabolic disease. Many other contributing factors have been advanced as partial explanations for the formation of stones, among which may be mentioned vitamin deficiency, dietary imbalance and reduced water intake. Often the fundamental cause of stone disease seems to be in an antecedent abnormality of the structure of the urinary tract itself abnormalities leading to imperfect drainage, stagnation and

—

infection.

Many

stones ultimately pass from the urinary tract spontaneStones lodged in the ureter may sometimes be extracted by instruments introduced through the lower urinary passages, while even large stones in the bladder may be crushed with special instruments and the fragments extracted. Other stones, wherever found, may be removed surgically by open operation. So-called stone solvents and stone-preventing medications have been inert'ective. though a host of such treatments has been advocated over the ously.

centuries.

have

process.

complex internal and external structure. The source is uncertain; it may be a product of irrita-

tion

and inflammation of the membranes that

line

the urinary

passages.

Urinary calcuh may develop in any part of the urinary tract, but the commonest sites are the kidney and bladder. Kidney stones tend to mold themselves into the shape of the kidney cavity within which they. develop. Occasionally a stone forms a complete cast of the interior of the kidney, being then called staghorn calculus, since the central body of the stone has extensions up into all the

branches of the kidney cavity, somewhat resembling the branches of the horns of a stag. Smaller stones (or fragments of larger ones tend to pass down from the kidney into the ureter, the tube that leads to the bladder. They often become lodged in the ureter and block the flow of urine, causing dilatation and swelling )

—

Biliary Calculi or Gallstones. These, like urinary stones, composed of crystalline substances imbedded in a small amount of protein material, the stone matrix. The chief crystalline components are cholesterol, bile pigments and insoluble calcium salts, are

bile.

a highly

is difficult. The urinary stream becomes small in and subject to frequent interruptions as the stone repeat-

struction.

for the crystals are laid down in a highly organized pattern in conjunction with a matrix framework of noncrystalline organic material. Because the matrix provides a skeleton, stones often of the matrix material

act like a ball valve at the outlet of the bladder, so

that urination

substances that may be present in high concentration in the Inflammation, stasis and stagnation predispose to precipitation of these stone-forming materials, thus initiating the stone all

The commonest site of gallstone formation is usually the gall bladder itself, though occasionally they may form in the bile ducts within the Hver or in the common bile duct, which delivers the bile into the intestines. A large number of stones may be present simultaneously, but more frequently a single large stone develops in the gall bladder. The stones are hard bodies, with a smooth surface of varying colour, white, yellow, green or even black, dependent

Gallstone formation chemical composition. in women than in men.

Many

gallstones give rise to

no

clinical

is

upon the

much commoner

symptoms,

especially

when

located within the gall bladder. Sometimes they set up an inflammatory process in the gall bladder, producing acute cholecystitis with severe toxic symptoms and pain in the gall bladder

of the ureter above the block.

region.

this

When a stone' becomes lodged in the bile ducts, obstruction leads to increased pressures above the site of blockage, result-

.\ sudden complete obstruction of type provokes extremely severe pain, called kidney colic, in

the flank.

An incomplete block is very often asymptomatic, though gradual destruction of kidney substance may be in progress. Blood in the urine occurs in all instances where a stone is present, since the stone continually produces minute abrasions of the urinary membranes.

known as biliary colic. When the outflow of bile has been impeded for several days, jaundice supervenes because of the inability of the body to rid itself of the bile piging in the severe pain

ments. Gallstones sometimes pass into the intestines spontaneously, and

,

j

—

CALCULUS the acute attack of pain

stone

may

is

More

thereby relieved.

rarely, a large

while

if

h

597 is

negative, the quotient

ulcerate through the wall of the bile passages, provoking

which

may

/(O

be fatal

if untreated. In most inmust be removed by surgical operation. Usually the gall bladder is removed at the same time in order to prevent further stone production. There is no known method for dissolving gallstones by means of oral medications. Calculi in Other Organs. Apart from the urinary and biliary

bile peritonitis,

+ k)-

—

systems, significant stone disease occasionally develops in All

the these stones are

composed principally of calcium phosphate. They occur within the gland ducts and may result in blockage of outflow of the normal gland secretions. Infection of the gland tissue then follows, often necessitating surgical intervention.

Stonelike bodies, called fecaliths, sometimes form in the intestinal canal. They are usually of minor importance since they are too small to produce obstruction, but an exception

is

the

W.

(C.

CALCULUS, ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTLAi:

see

V.)

—

CALCULUS, BARYCENTRIC:

see

Vec-

Barycentric Cal-

culus.

CALCULUS, DIFFERENTLAX AND INTEGRAL. is generally defined as that branch of mathematics which based on the concept of the limit {q.v.). This concept is used in other branches of mathematics. For example, it occurs in plane geometry in the calculation of the area of a circle when the area is considered to be the limit of the areas of regular inscribed polygons of 4« sides, as n increases without bound. In elementary algebra the concept is used when repeating decimals are introduced. The limit concept, however, plays a central role in the subject called calculus, while its use in plane geometry and elementary algebra is only incidental.

Calculus

is

Two

particular limits, the derivative

and the

definite integral,

elementary calculus (to which this article is restricted). The area of study based on the former is called differential calculus while the latter forms the basis of the topic called integral calculus. These two subjects are very are the

most fundamental ones

in

shown subsequently.

closely related, as will be

is

°

JA— '

well

fix ) i--5i

is

merely the ratio

known from

ratio is the slope of the line passing through the two points P and Q; that is, it is the trigo-

QM/PM

analytic geometry, this

—

nometric tangent of the angle

made by this line and X-axis. Now, let L be the

the line

tangent to the graph of /(x) at the point P. It is intuitively 3 clear that, as h approaches zero, ^ the point Q moves along the graph of /(x) toward the point ^,^ ..-geometrical interpretaP and the angle d^ approaches tion of derivative concept the angle Q made by the line L and the x-axis. Consequently, the trigonometric tangent of Ok approaches the trigonometric tangent of 6. The latter is the slope of the line L. On the other hand, by the definition of the derivative, this slope must also be the derivative of /(x) at Xj.

We

see, therefore, that the derivative of /(x) at Xq

of that line

point

is

the slope

tangent to the graph of /(x) which passes through the

[.r„,/(x„)].

This geometrical interpretation and the argument justifying it extend equally well to other functions, provided that their graphs are sufficiently smooth, i.e., smooth enough to guarantee the existence of a unique tangent line passing through the point in question.

Conversely, if the graph of /(x) fails to satisfy this condition For example, it has already been shown that the function f{x) = \x\ fails to have a derivative at Xj = 0. This is reflected geometrically by the fact that the graph of /(x) has a "corner" at the point [X|„/(X|,)] = at a point, then the derivative fails to exist.

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

—

The Derivative. If /(x) is a real-valued function of a real variable and x, a real number, consider the difference quotient

+ h)- f(,x,)

/(^„

But, as

-\-

fix

•'^

di,

tor AND Tensor Analysis.

— (x„)

Geometrical interpretation. Perhaps the quickest way to obtain some insight into the concept of the derivative is to learn its geometrical interpretation. As an example, suppose that /(x) = x'/l and Xq = 1, and examine the graph of this function near the point P = [x„,/(X(i)] = (1, 5). It is then easy to check that the

{see fig. 1).

negligible clinical significance.

_ .

ax

pendicitis.

examination the majority of older people are found have rounded opaque bodies in the pelvic region. These stony objects, called phleboliths, are located in veins that have previously become obstructed for one reason or another. They are of

by

/'(x,) or

difference quotient

On X-ray

h

Thus/(x) cannot have a derivative at x„ = because, arbitrarily close to 0, the difference quotient assumes the values 1 and —1, and this fact clearly excludes the possibility that this difference quotient approaches a single number as h approaches zero. The derivative of /(x) at x^ (if it exists) is usually denoted by

development of fecaliths in the vermiform appendix. Since the calibre of the appendix is relatively small, an appendicial fecalith may obstruct the appendix and precipitate an attack of acute ap-

to

-h-0

^

h

stances, however, a blocking stone

pancreatic, salivary and prostate glands.

/(O)

is

(1)

(0, 0) (see fig. 2).

Instantaneous Velocity.

— An important physical interpretation from the concept of instantaneous velocof the derivative arises

where h is any real number except zero. If this difference quotient approaches a number as h approaches zero, this number is called the derivative of the function f{x) at the poifit «„. For example, if /(x) = .r^ and x„ = 1, the difference quotient is f{l

+ h)-f (l) ^

(1

-f-

h It

is

hr

-

1'

2hJ-_h' h

It

=

2

+

a moving particle at a given time, /, leads to exactly the same that occurred in the definition of the deriva-

limiting process

clear that as h approaches zero the difference quotient ap-

is

/(O

+

h)

-

m

^

kh

=

1,

In fact, to arrive at a pre-

cise definition of the velocity of

h

proaches the number 2. Thus, the function has derivative 2 at the point 1. On the other hand, there exist "well-behaved" functions that fail to have a derivative at some given point. A simple example is the following: Let f{x) = x ii x is positive or zero an'd f(x) = — X if X is negative (that is, /(a;) = |a;|, the absolute value of x), and choose x„ to be 0. Then, if h is positive, the difference quotient

ity.

now be shown. Suppose, for simplicity, that a particle is moving along a tive, as will

graph of FIX) = |x| SHOW ING that FIX) HAS NO DERIVATIVE FIG. 2.

AT Xn

=

straight line tion.

and

in a fixed direc-

Its position as a function

way. Choose a point on the line of motion of the particle. Then the particle's position at time / is completely determined by the distance, /((), between the particle and the chosen point, and no other dimension is needed to locate the particle. Using this notation, the average velocity of the particle during of time can then be represented in the following

CALCULUS

598 an interval of time of length be the ratio f{t,

h,

beginning at time

+ h)

(o,

is

defined to

-m

(2)

that is, the distance traveled during this interval of time divided by the length of this interval of time. On the other hand, a little reflection will show that, whatever meaning is attached to the concept of the instantaneous velocity of the particle at time h, it should, first of all, be a number, and, second, the average velocities of the particle during small intervals of time starting at time /o should approximate this number. Comparison of the ratio (2) with the difference quotient (1) shows that these considerations make it obligatory to define this instan-

taneous velocity to be the derivative /'((o)An important example of this situation is given by a freely falling body. It is an experimentally established law that if a body is allowed to fall from rest it will traverse, in time /, a distance that is proportional to f^ (provided the air does not offer resistance). This law can also be expressed by asserting that the distance traveled by the body is a function of time having the form units used in f(l) = cfi (where the constant c depends on the measuring distance and time). Thus the average velocity of the body during an interval of time of length h, beginning at time (o,

Consider a simple, but illuminating, example. Suppose that 100 ft. of fence is available in order to enclose a rectangular pasture. What dimensions should the pasture have in order to contain the maximum possible area? If x denotes one length of the rectangle, then 50 — « must be the other length. Thus, the area of the pasture is (50 — x)x = 50a: — x'^. The problem, then, reduces to finding the largest value (hence, a maximum) of the ^ * g 50. Now function f{x) = 50a; - a:^, f{x

+ h) - fix)

_

50h

- 2xh-¥ = 50-2X-

therefore f'(x)

equation f'{x)

suming the intuitively obvious is

+ h)

-f(h)

c{k

+

hy

-

"

h

h

2cloh

ctl

h

+ c¥ = cClh + k)

approaches has been shown that the instantaneous velocity of the freely falling body at time ia is 2do, and also that

It

is

clear that the limiting value of this ratio, as h

zero,

is

Ict^.

/'(/„)

=

2do.

Thus,

it

Maxima and Minima.—It

is

now

possible to discuss one of

the more important applications of elementary differential calculus: the location of the maxima and minima of a function. Given a f unction /(.f), a real number x is said to be a relative maximum of the function if /(x) is at least as large as_all the values /(*), where x ranges throughout an interval about x. If, on the other

functions.

constants.

The most

a

The

has just been shown that, if x is either a maximum or a mini0. Simple examples show that the converse of this statement is not always true. The value of the positive result just obtained, however, lies in the fact that if it is desired to locate a maximum or a minimum it is only necessary to look at those numbers x for which /'(«) = 0. In general, this It

mum of /(.r), then/'(.v) =

greatly simplifies the task.

the rectan-

(3)

basic of these formulas are (sin x)'

=

(cos x)'

= — sin

cos X

(4)

»

(tan x)'

=

sec'

(cot x)'

=

—esc-

+ bgix)]' =

af'ix)

[}(x)g{x)]' =fix)g'{x)

(5)

x

(6)

(7)

a;

+

(8)

bg'ix)

- n-'Mx) - f{x)g'{x)

lg(x)J

Igix)]'

^

g'{x) exist,

+f'(x)g{x) (Leibniz's rule)

r/M']' [Ml'

provided g(x)

minimum.

when

= «*"-

Then, whenever /'(*) and

["fix)

+

/;.

is

is,

In addition to such specific formulas, several general rules for differentiation are easily derived from the definition of the derivative. The four most basic of these rules will now be stated. Suppose that /(«) and g(,x) are two functions and a and b two

seen that if h is positive and sufficiently small, the difference h) if .t„ -tquotient (1) cannot be positive [because /(x„) ^/(x„ negative, but of small abfor /; is near enough to «„]; similarly, solute value, the difference quotient (1) cannot be negative (because in this case neither the

—

25; that

as-

is at-

In fact, by means of an appropriate limiting process, it can be shown that, for each real number n, the expression x", for positive X, has a natural definition as a real number (for example, « = i gives the familiar square root function: «* = \/x). Formula (3) extends to include all functions of the form f(x) = a;". Many other well-known functions have simple expressions for their derivatives. For example, the trigonometric functions have derivatives that are expressible in terms of other trigonometric

it is

MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF A FIG. 3. be positive. The only number FUNCTION having this property, however, Thus, /'(.r„) = 0. Obvious changes in this argument is zero. will show that the result is equally valid for the case where «„

maximal area

Differentiation Formulas; Computation of Derivatives. has already been shown that if /(.r) = x^ then /'(.r) = 2x. This is just a special case of one of several formulas for differentiation that are obtained in elementary calculus. That is, it follows readily from the definition of the derivative that if « = 1, 2, 3, ... is any positive integer and/(x) = *", then/'(*) = n*""'; or, written more compactly,

and

numerator nor the denominator are positive). Thus, the number f'(,x„) must be arbitrarily close to numbers that cannot be negative and to numbers that cannot

satisfy the

Hence,

— It

hand,/(i) does not exceed the values/(a:) when x ranges throughout an interval about x, the number Sis called a relative minimum of the function. In fig. 3 Xi and xz represent minima while X2 Xi represent maxima. Suppose, now, that/(;x;) has a derivative /'(a;) for all values of X satisfying a < x < b. Then, it is intuitively clear that^ when the tangent to the graph oi J(x) passes through a point [x,f{x)] corresponding to either a maximum or a minimum, and x is interior to the interval (a, b), this tangent must be horizontal; that The rigorous is, the slope of the tangent must be zero {see fig. 3). proof of this fact is not difiicult. For, assuming .r„ is a maximum,

=

is largest when « a square of side 25 ft.

(x")'

fjto

fact that a

tained, the area gle

h

= 50 — 2x. Thus, a maximum must = 50 — 2x = 0; therefore, x = 25.

(10)

0.

fourth basic rule, the chain rule,

lowing way. Suppose that, for each is defined,' the number g{x) is such composite function h{x) = f[g(x)] chain rule asserts that, if both g'(x) exists and satisfies the equation

= f'lg{x)]

h'ix)

real

may

be stated

number x

for

in

the

which

fol-

g{x)

defined.

The The

then

h'ix)

that f[g(x)] is can then be formed. a.nd J'[g(x)] exist,

(11)

g'{x)

(7), perThese four rules, together with formulas (3) mit the computation of the derivatives of a large class of func-

through

be tions. For example, the reader can check that (3) and (8) can used to obtain the derivative of the most general polynomial, 2aiX -f ai^K In fact, p'{x) = ai aix+ pix) = ao

+

.

.

.

+

+

A-kavx^"^.

If, in

I

(9)

addition, rule (10)

is

used, a formula for the derivative

,

.

CALCULUS of the most general rational function (i.e., the quotient of two polynomials) can be obtained. Use of all four of the above rules reveals that functions having fairly

complicated expressions have explicit formulas for their The reader can check, for example, that if

derivatives.

=

/(.)

-'"^^

+ ^! + +x

^\then

1

/'(*)

=

(1

+ x){2x + 3)cos(a^ +

+ 2) - sm(a^ + + xp

3:0

is

for

(4)

a relative minimum led to many interesting discoveries and many new questions. After Karl Weierstrass's famous example of a continuous function which does not possess a derivative at any point (thereby showing that a function having a continuous first derivative

the initial velocity of the bead and g is the acceleration of gravity. The function f{x, y, p) otcurring in (2) has the respective forms

need not have a continuous second derivative), the question was raised as to why a minimizing arc, or more generally any arc for which the first variation is zero for every rj, should possess a continuous second derivative, as required in

is

raised

friction

if

is

neglected; here

a

where

=

+

yi

v\/2g

Vi is

vTTT' 2-ryVVTf VI

-f

,

,

f/Vci -

(5)

y

the derivation of Euler's equation. By the end of the 19th century, the problem of the existence of a minimizing arc had

SIMPLE PROBLEM OF ARC in these examples, p being the third variable in/. The integrals arising from Hamilton's principle are of the type in (2), where

LENGTH

* is replaced by the time / (this usually does not appear function /in such applications) and the single variables y are replaced by several variables yi,- •, and p\,pn, standing for the derivatives dyi/dt. Euler's Equation. Euler's differential equation for the

been raised and the existence proved by D. Hilbert under L. Tonelli developed the so-called "direct certain hypotheses.

•

,

—

in the

and p

methods" of the calculus of variations in order to simplify and amplify the results of Hilbert concerning the existence

deter-

of

mination of a minimizing arc is derived as follows: Suppose that = y {x) i% z. minimizing arc which passes through the two points, and assume that the second derivative y" and the second partial derivatives of /are all continuous. If 17(0:) is any differentiable function such that

=

„(l2)

=

(6)

then for any X the arc y

=

y{,x)

+ \v(x)

minimizing arcs. These results were applied to very general situations by the "metric geometry" methods of K. Menger and H. Busemann. Most of the remaining important problems involving arcs were solved between 1910 and 1940 by such mathematicians as 0. Bolza, G. A. Bliss, E. J. McShane and others. The fact that not every minimum problem has a solution is seen by studying the following example:

(7)

7

another arc joining the two given points. Forming the integral (2) for this new arc gives a function

is

s-l

I

.

of X

which

is

= PV[*,yW + JXi

differentiable

\v(x)y(x)

+

W{x)]dx

and must have a minimum

(8)

for X

=

0.

•

•

•

,

=

JJ j

. Transition (a narrow elevational range, 2,000-5,000 ft.), Canadian, Hudsonian and Arctic-Alpine (above 5,000 ft.). The range of plant life e.xtends from the creosote bush, greasewood, mesquite, yucca and giant cacti of the Sonoran zones, through the pines and cedars, and the enormous sequoia and redwood of the Transition zone, the fir, pine and aspen of the Canadian zone and the hemlock and heather of the Hudsonian zone, to the dwarf willow and stunted mountain plants of the ArcticAlpine zone. About 400 species of mammals have been identified in the state. The best-known desert mammals of the Lower Sonoran zone are the Fresno pocket gopher, the California ground squirrel, the black-tailed jack rabbit, the California badger, several mice and the coyote. Among larger animals are the Yuma cougar, the desert wildcat and rarely the desert bighorn or mountain sheep. The Upper Sonoran zone, which once boasted herds of antelope and is

is the habitat of the raccoon, fox and In higher zones bear, deer and occasional mountain lions Among the 600 species of birds identified within the state are the valley quail, mourning dove, burrowing owl and the curious road runner (a species of cuckoo) of the Lower Sonoran zone; the tiny Anna's hummingbird, towhee and phainopeplas of the L'pper Sonoran; the sage hen, band-tailed pigeon and robin of the Transition; and the grouse, hawks and eagles of the upper

California elk (wapiti),

coyote.

are found.

zones.

California birds are generally grayer and paler, and of

slighter build, than eastern ones.

There are fewer species of snakes but more of lizards than in fish. Porpoises are encountered in coastal waters, and the harbour or hair seal and the sea lion frequent the rocky coast isles. Gulls, terns, cormorants, pelicans and sea ducks abound. other states, and few native fresh-water

Parks and Monuments.

— Many of California's scenic

attrac-

Lassen Volcanic, Yosemite, Kings Canyon and Sequoia national parks (gg.v.) which draw thousands of visitions are featured in

tors annually.

There are eight national monuments (established 1925),

in the state.

Lava Beds

Muir Woods (1908),

Cabrillo (1913), PinChannel Islands (1938),

nacles

(190S), Joshua Tree (1936), Devils Postpile (1911), and Death Valley (1933) (g.v.). California also has more than ISO state parks and monuments and contains 18 national forests and several small state forest reserves.

HISTORY "Gold made California!" modern Californian history is

The most important feature of way in which the territory came

the

be a part of the United States, with gold as the underlying dramatic element. In the 18th century fear lest England or Rusto

sia

might obtain California, and thus threaten Mexico, caused

633

Spain at length to occupy it. The Spanish occupation merely kept others out, to the ultimate advantage of the American union, which would not have been strong enough to take over California much prior to the time when it actually did so. If the Spanish settlers had discovered California's gold, the destiny of the province would have been different from what it proved to be; in that event it might have become a Spanish-American republic, or England might have acquired it. Gold was not discovered there, however, until the Americans were already pouring into the province. Thereafter the rush of American settlers put the stamp of certainty on the connection with the United States.

—

Exploration and Early Settlement. The name California was taken from Garci Ordoiiez de Montalvo's story, Las Sergas de Esplandidn (1510), of black Amazons ruling an island of this "at the right hand of the Indies very close to that part of the Terrestrial Paradise." The name was given to the southern part of Lower California probably in 1533-34, but at any rate before 1542. By extension it was applied in the plural to the entire Pacific coast north from Cape San Lucas. Necessarily the name had for a long time no definite geographic meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1540 by a Spanish expe-

name

dition under

.

.

.

Hernando de Alarcon, which saw but did not pene-

1542-43 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and his sucBartolome Ferrelo, explored probably the entire coast to a point just north of the state boundary; in 1579 Sir Francis Drake (g.v.) repaired his ships in Trinidad or Bodega bay (north of San Francisco and named the land Xuevo Albion; Spanish galleons en route from the Philippines to Acapulco usually sighted the coast, and certainly did so in the voyages of 1584 and 1595; and in the famous voyage of 1602-03 Sebastian Vizcaino carefully explored the coast, and discovered the bay of Monterey. There was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for ISO years. Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an island or a group of islands. trate California; in cessor,

)

Jesuit missionaries entered

Lower

and maintained themselves there

California as early as 1697, 1767 by order

until expelled in

of Charles III of Spain; not until Russian explorations in Alaska

from 1745 to 1765 did the Spanish government take definite action occupy Upper California. Because of the fear of foreign danger, and the longfelt need of a refitting point on the California coast for the galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and Monterey in 1770. San Francisco bay was discovered in 1 769. Meanwhile the Jesuit property in the peninsula had been turned over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the Dominicans took over the missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly withdrew to join their brethren who had gone with the expeditions of 1 769 to Upper California. There they were to thrive remarkably for about 50 years. (See Califorxm, Lower.) The Mission Period. In all, 21 missions were established in California between 1769 and 1823, extending from San Diego in the south to Sonoma in the north. Economically the missions were the blood and life of the province. The hides and tallow yielded by the great herds of cattle at the missions were the support of foreign trade, and did much toward paying the expenses of the government. As for the intellectual development of the Indians the mission system accomplished to

—

nothing; save the care of their souls they received little instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal dependence, so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once The missions, howinto native customs (see Missions, below). ever, were only one phase of Spanish institutions in California.

of the province was in the hands of a military Monterey. There were also several other miliestablishments tary and civilian towns in the province, as well as a few private ranches.

The government

officer stationed at

The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 made little stir in this far-off province. When revolution broke In out in Mexico (1810), California remained loyal to Spain. 1S20 when the liberal Spanish constitution of 1S12 was again proclaimed it was duly sworn to in California. In 1822 allegiance was given to newly independent Mexico. The Mexican Period. Under the Mexican federal constitu-

—

CALIFORNIA

63+

As early

tion of 1S24 Upper California, first alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. The following years before American occupation may be divided into two periods. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a preparation for the future the missions fall, republicanism grows, the sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among provincial chiefs, and an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign immigration and of

republic.

foreign influence.

U.S. settlement seemed likely to gain the province. In 1842 Commodore T. A. C. Jones (1790-1858) of the U.S. navy, believing that war had broken out between his country and

—

The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Agustin de Iturbide's empire and the creation of the republic. After 1821 secularization of the missions was the burning political question. Active and thorough secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was consummated at 16 missions out of 21, and by 1840 at all. In 1831 the mission question led to a rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Gov. Manuel X'ictoria. He was driven out of the province. This was the first of the opera bouffe wars. The causes underlying them were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished nothing tangible, although its plans were as excellent as could be asked had there been peace and means to realize them. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between northern towns and southern towns, northern families and southern families. In 1831 Governor Victoria was deposed; in 1836 Gov. Mariano Chico was frightened out of the province; in 1836 Gov. Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-45 Gov. Manuel Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading native Californians headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, but sectional and personal jealousies could not be overcome. Pastoral California had few schools, no newspapers,

worthy of the name; yet from this colourful names, land titles, trails which became highways and the traditions of Mexican law which became

hospitals or cities

feudalistic era derive place

the heritage of the later state.

Foreign Influence.

—

Foreign commerce, which was contrary to Spanish laws, was active by the beginning of the 19th century. was greatly stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions in South America, for, as the Californian authorities practically ignored the law, smuggling was unnecessary. In the early 1840s about three-fourths of the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have paid no duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Trade with the United States was by far the most important. The trade supplied almost all the clothing, merchandise and manufactures used in the province; hides and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade was not to be received, still less were foreign travelers, under the Spanish laws. However, Russians came in 1805 and founded in 1812 at Fort Ross a post they held until 1841, whence they traded and hunted (even in San Francisco bay) for furs. In 1826 U.S. hunters first crossed to the coast; in 1830 the Hudson's Bay company began operations in northern California. The true overland immigration from the United States began only about 1840. As a class, foreigners were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion to their numbers. Many were naturalized, held generous grants of land and had married into California families, not excluding the most select and influential. The most prominent foreigner in the interior was John A. Sutter (1803-80), who held a grant of about 50,000 ac. encompassing the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a fort. Though Sutter himself was Swiss, his establishment became a centre of U.S. influence. His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his fortified post on the border, made him of great importance in the years preceding and immeIt

diately following U.S. occupation.

—Americans were hospitably received and very

by the government and the people. There was, howsome jealousy of the ease with which they secured land

well treated ever,

grants, and an entirely just dislike of

of the later comers

wanted

to

James Monroe's negoam-

even in this faraway province. Spain's fears passed on to Mexico, the Russians being feared only less than the Americans. An offer made by Pres. Andrew Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, including San Francisco bay, was refused. From 1836 on. foreign interference was much talked about. Americans supposed that Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed ambitions; and all parties saw that, even without overt act by the United States, the progress of bitions,

Mexico, and that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American flag over Monterey (Oct. 19), but finding that he had acted on misinformation, he lowered the flag the next day with due ceremony and warm apology. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among all Afnerican residents (then not 700 in number) regarding the future of the country. The U.S. consul at Monterey, Thomas 0. Larkin (1802-58), was instructed in 1845 to work for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the United States, but with their good will and sympathy. He very soon gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. At the same time U.S. naval officers were instructed to occupy the ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the good will of the local population.

Capt. J. C. Fremont (q.v.), while engaged in a government surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions of the Californian authorities

by suspicious and, very

possibly,

intentionally pro-

vocative movements, and there was a show of military force In violation of international amities, and by both parties. practically in disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican cavalry mounts to be seized and prompted some American settlers to occupy Sonoma, near San Francisco, (June 14,

This episode is known as the Bear Flag war, inasmuch as was short-lived talk of making California an independent state, and a flag with a bear as an emblem flew for a few days at Sonoma. Fortunately for the dignity of history, and for Fremont, it was quickly merged in a larger question, when Commodore John Drake Sl'oat (1781-1867) on July 7 raised the flag of 1846).

there

all

U.S. Interests.

as 1805 (at the time of

tiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain's fear of U.S.

make

"bad" Americans.

Many

California an independent

the United States over Monterey, proclaiming California a part

of the United States.

The opening

hostilities of the

The aftermath

the Rio Grande.

Mexican War had occurred on of Fremont's filibustering acts,

followed as they were by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then and later in the attitude of Americans toward the inhabitants, was a growing misunderstanding and estrangement, regrettable in California history.

Admission to the Union.

— By the

treaty of Guadalupe Hi-

Mexico ceded California

to the United States. on the American river in 1848 (for details see Mineral Products, below), and the new terriDiscussion as to what tory took on great national importance. should be done with California began in congress in 1846, inime-

dalgo, in

1848,

Gold was discovered

at Sutter's mill

diately involving the question of slavery.

veloped, so that

made

furious conflict desuccessive

March

1849, the only progtoward creating a government for the territory was that

sessions; even at the end of a third, in ress

A

nothing was accomplished in two

the national revenue laws had been extended over

it,

and San Fran-

Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabitants. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the motley Californian people of 1848^9; yet they had none when, with peace, military rule and Mexican law cisco

had been made

a port of entry.

technically ended
,2S2) is the capital and an economic centre; Santa Rosalia (6,950 in 1950), hub of a mining district. In 1931 Lower California was subdivided politically into two federal territories, with the boundary giving each approximately half the area. Each was provided with an appointed governor and appropriate governing apparatus. Their respective populations then were: northern territory, 48,327; southern territory, 47,089. By 1950 the northern territory registered a total of 226,965; it had become the fastest growing entity in Mexico and surpassed the minimum of 80,000 persons which the Mexican constitution set

The legislatures of the other Mexican states and Mexican congress acted favourably on a presidential request Lower California north be admitted as a free and sovereign state into the Mexican union. In Jan. 1952 it became the 29th Mexican state. Lower California south, with a 1950 population of 60,864, retained its territorial status. However, by 1960 Lower for statehood.

the

that

California south, with a population of 83,433, exceeded the minipopulation requirements for statehood. Lower California north is a progressive agricultural and indus-

mum

trial area, closely tied to U.S. markets and sources of power. The Mexicali area is a noted cotton producer. In the ten years 194050 its acreage increased from 115.000 to 400,000 and the harvests from 60.000 pacas or bales to 265.000. In addition this area grows wheat, alfalfa, grapes, tomatoes, melons, linsen! and maize. The United States furnishes a ready market for its winter vegetables. Connected with mounting commercial agriculture has been industrial activity, especially food processing and cotton-seed manufacturing. Public revenues grew from 5.300.000 pesos in 1930 to

A

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF—^CALIFORNIUM

642

more than 36,000,000 in 1950, with corresponding growth of eduEarlier in its history cation, communication and public services. the northern area was a notable mining area, as gold was mined after its discovery near Real del Castillo (1872).

The southern territory remained a mining, grazing and subsistence agricultural region. Near Mulege is a mountain of iron, and gold was found nearby in 1884. The French company founded in that year to mine and process copper from the Boleo mines continued to extract that metal and silver for shipment to the United States in their own vessels; this operation came to dominata Santa Rosalia and since mid-20th century was the largest mining enterprise on the peninsula, though tungsten comes from the Fenomeno mine near Ensenada. La Paz is a leatherworking and dairy centre for nearby grazing activities; its modern shoe factories obtain only a third of the needed hides from local sources; cheese and

See Pasamitted at the graduate level) in Pasadena, Calif. dena. LILAC (Ceanothus thyrsiftorus), a name given to a handsome North American evergreen shrub or tree of the buckthorn family Rhamnaceae; q.v.}, also called blue blossom and blue myrtle. It grows on canyon sides from Monterey north-

CALIFORNIA

(

ward

to

Oregon and

is

redwood

especially abundant in the

belt.

Usually a shrub 3 ft. to S ft. high, it sometimes becomes a small tree 25 ft. in height with straight ascending branches. The showy blue or occasionally white flowers, borne in dense clusters about three inches long, make this plant prized as an ornamental. See

Ceanothus;

New

Jersey Tea; Oregon Tea Tree.

CALIFORNIA PITCHER PLANT: see Darlingtonia CALIFORNIA POPPY (Escliscliottzia

calijornica),

a

In earlier days La Paz was a The main agricultural zone of the south is pearl-fishing centre. peninsula. the cape seglion at the tip of the

popular annual herb of the poppy family (Papaveraceae), abundant

History. nia. It was

Pacific coast of the

wine making are also

significant.

in the valleys

— The Spanish discovered and explored Lower Califorfirst

sighted by one of Cortes' pilots in Dec. 1533, and

the conquistador wasted

—

BiBLiOGR.APHY. Gerhard and Gulick, Lower California Guidebook (1958); Sionet Discovery Trips in Mexico (1955); John Steinbeck E. F. Ritketts, Sea of Cortez (1941). (He. C; J. A. Cw.)

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF,

state

a

university,

with campuses at Berkeley, Davis, La JoUa, Los Angeles, Mount Hamilton, Riverside, San Francisco and Santa Barbara. See California: Education.

CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, a

private

college

and research

institute

for

men (women

ad-

United States.

has erect or diffusely spreading

finely dissected leaves and large, pale-yellow to deep golden-orange or red flowers, four inches or

face of hostile Indians.

and

foothills of the

stems one foot to two feet high,

much

substance trying to settle the place After these and other expeditions, terminating with that of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (1542-43), proved futile, the peninsula was neglected for many years. After initial failures Jesuit missionaries, under the leadership of Juan Maria Salvatierra, successfully landed and established the first permanent settlement at Loreto in 1697. The first Jesuits found the aborigines of Lower California animallike, without knowledge of agriculture, houses or clothing. In the string of missions, finally amounting to 20 stretching into upper California, the Jesuits congregated these charges and instructed them under a feudal arrangement. When in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish realms, their native charges passed into the hands of the Franciscan order, but the latter shortly evacuated the peninsula (1772) and left it to ministrations of the Dominicans. They founded some new missions, but their influence was lessened because of widespread deaths among the Indians, and by secularization of the church establishments in 1833. During the war between Mexico and the United States (1847-48), Lower California was occupied by U.S. troops. Numerous filibustering campaigns, as well as offers by the United States to purchase all or part of the area, kept Lower California in international affairs. From 1903 to 1910 the U.S. fleet used Magdalena bay for drills and target practice and from 1866 to 1925 maintained a coaling station near La Paz. Ensenada and La Paz were military headquarters for the important defense zone that included Lower California during World War II and the Mexican navy used Magdalena bay as a base. In the second half of the 20th century Lower California's popularity as a tourist centre increased. Several airlines linked the chief towns with the United States and Mexico. Paved highways were extended in the northern Tijuana-Mexicali section, and in the extreme south around La Paz. In addition to the mild winter climate, the peninsula offers hunting, deep-sea fishing and swimming. La Paz, Ensenada and several other towns have good hotels. Tijuana is a favourite place for sailors out of San Diego. Its bullfights and horse races draw large crowds from the U.S. Around La Paz nearly 300,000 ac. were under irrigation in the early 1960s, planted in banana and other fruit trees, citrus, sugar cane, melons, grapes and winter vegetables. There are also numerous coconut and date palms, papaya, mango, avocado and walnut trees. In 1958 Lower California had the highest number of automobiles per capita of any Mexican state, and its total output per capita was surpassed only by that of the Mexico City area. in

It

and

more

across, the petals glowing

with a brilliant sheen. It is one of the most handsome and best-known representatives

of the California flora,

CALIFORNIA POPPY CALIFORNICA)

where.

A

{

ESC HSC HOLTZ

widely

is

cultivated as an ornamental and I

has become extensively naturalized in India, Australia and elseSee also red-flowered variety is known as geisha.

Poppy.

CALIFORNIUM.

The

synthetic element californium has

the chemical symbol Cf and the atomic

number

98.

It

occupies a

position in the periodic system of the elements as the ninth

mem-

ber of a rare-earth-like transition series, the actinide series, which includes the heaviest known elements in which an inner electronic

being

shell (the 5f shell) is

ery, see

As

filled.

For a discussion of

its

discov-

Transuranium Elements.

in the case of a

number

of the other actinide elements, there

no unambiguous designation of an atomic weight. In those instances where there is a formal requirement for this quantity, the use of the mass number of the longest-lived isotope might be conThe long-lived isotopes are produced from Bk-^-' (see sidered. Berkelium as follows. The isotope Cf-^'' results from the beta decay of Bk-'" while the heavier isotopes are produced by intense neutron irradiation of either Bk-""'' or Cf-^^. In the case of Bk-^' the capture of a neutron results in the production of Bk-''''" which is

)

decays with negative beta particle emission to yield Cf-^". The bombardment of Cf-^" with neutrons produces successively Cf'-'"', Cf-"" and finally Cf^sa.

Californium (as a mixture of these four isotopes) was first amounts by S. G. Thompson and B. B.

isolated in weighable

Isotopes of Californium

CALIGUIA— CALIPHATE Cunningham

The

material was obtained from the same irradiation that resulted in the first isolation of berkelium in weighable amounts. in 1958.

Tracer chemical studies indicated that the III oxidation state the most stable in aqueous solution, as might be expected from

is

its

position as the

Much

homologue of dy.sprosium.

of the in-

vestigation of the chemical properties of californium

was concerned with its ion exchange properties in elution experiments with columns packed with ion exchange resins, and these methods are used to separate it from the other tripositive actinide elements. It can be separated from the rare-earth elements by the use of eluting agents such as concentrated hydrochloric acid, which forms complex ions with the actinide elements that are much more stable than the corresponding ones with the rare-earth elements. Solubility properties of californium III appear to be just those expected and seem to be entirely analogous to those of all the tripositive actinide and lanthanide elements. Thus such com-

pounds as the fluoride and oxalate appear

to be insoluble in acid

solution while the nitrate, halide, sulfate, perchlorate

appear

and

sulfide

be soluble. Bibliography. G. T. Seaborg and J. J. Katz (eds.), The Actinide Elements in the "National Nuclear Energy Scries," div. iv, vol, 14B (1954) J. J. Katz and G. T. Seaborg, The Chemistry of the Actinide Elements (1957); G. T. Seaborg, The Transuranium Elements (1958). all

to

—

;

CALIGULA from

A.D.

(G. T. So.)

(Gaius Caesar)

(a.d.

Roman emperor He was handsome,

12-41),

37 to 41 in succession to Tiberius.

and well-educated, and when, with no administrative became emperor, he was immensely popular. In under four years he squandered Tiberius' accumulated savings and lost all his popularity. The accounts of his reign by ancient historians are so biased that the truth is almost impossible to disintelligent

experience, he

entangle.

Named

Gaius Caesar, his nickname "Caligula" (little boot) was given him in childhood by the soldiers of the Rhine army which his father Germanicus {q.v.) commanded from a.d, 12 to 16. The death of his father in a.d. 19, of his mother Agrippina in i2> and his two elder brothers, Nero Caesar in 31 and Drusus Caesar in 23, were popularly ascribed to the malevolence of Tiberius. Gaius and his three sisters Agrippina, Drusilla and Livilla survived. Adopting his father's distinguished name, he became Gaius Caesar Germanicus. He was severely ill seven months after his accession; after this he restored treason trials, showed great cruelty and indulged in wild despotic caprice, e.g., he bridged the Bay of Naples with boats from Baiae to Puteoli in summer 39. In 38 he executed Naevius Sertorius Macro, prefect of the praetorian guard, to whose support he owed his accession, and Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius, whom he had supplanted in the succession. He made pretensions to divinity, and showed extravagant affection for his sisters, especially Drusilla who, on her death in 38, was consecrated as Diva Drusilla. the first woman in Rome to be so honoured. This relationship has prompted the suggestion that he aimed at establishing a Hellenistic type of monarchy, on the example of the brother-sister marriages of the Ptolemies. Others have thought that after his illness he was mad; but much so-called evidence of his madness e.g., that he made his horse consul is untrue. Appearing unexpectedly on the upper Rhine in Oct. 39. he suppressed an incipient revolt, executing Drusilla's widower M. Aemilius Lepidus and Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus, the commander of the upper Rhine armies, and restored discipline by stiff maneuvers, travestied in the accounts of ancient historians. In 40 he was in Gaul, and probably raised two new legions and planned to invade Britain in spring 40. Possibly the troops refused to go on board; on this occasion, instead of ordering them to embark, Gaius allegedly commanded them to pick up shells. A pogrom in .Alexandria in Aug. 38 and trouble in Palestine in winter 39 led Gaius to order the governor of Syria to erect his statue in the temple at Jerusalem in summer 40. Under the suave persuasion of Herod Agrippa at Rome Gaius countermanded the order. A conspiracy was formed (a.d, 40-41) and Gaius was murdered by Cassius Chaerea, a tribune of the guard, at the Palatine games on

—

Jan. 24, a.d. 41.

—

6+3

Bibliography,— Suetonius, Life of Gaius Caligula; Die Cassius, Roman History, book 59; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book 19; Philo, Against Flaccus and The Embassy to Gaius; J. P. V. D, Balsdon, The Emperor Gains (Caligula) (1934). (J. P. V, D. B.)

CALINESCU,

ARMAND

(1893-1939), Rumanian stateswho was prime minister for a few months in 1939, was born at Pite?ti on May 22, 1893, the son of an army ofificer and landholder. After graduating in law at the University of Bucharest and obtaining a doctorate in political science at Paris, he established a legal practice in Pitejti, later entering politics as a prefect of his county and as an organizer for the National Peasant party, formed in 1926. An expert in agricultural economics, he was appointed secretary-general of the ministry of agriculture and later was undersecretary for the interior in the National Peasant administration which lasted from 1928 to 1931. In Dec. 1937 he became minister of the interior in the National Christian cabinet of Octavian Goga, and he retained this portfolio in the two cabinets headed by the patriarch Miron Cristea after the establishment of King Carol H's dictator-

man,

a representative of peasant interests

ship in Feb. 1938.

When Cristea's health failed, Calinescu was appointed vicepremier, and on Cristea's death he became premier (March 7, 1939). A bitter enemy of the "All for Fatherland" party (Iron Guard), he was assassinated on Sept. 21, 1939, by Iron Guardists while driving to his house at Cotroceni, near Bucharest. (B. Br.)

CALIPH, a title of the head of the Muslim community {see Caliphate; Islam), When Mohammed died on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr (q.v.) succeeded to his political functions by the choice of the Muslims of Medina, with the title of khalifat rasid-Allak ("deputy or successor of the Messenger of God"), i.e., caliph. The office

has been

Cairo

in 1926.

in

abeyance since the Caliphate congress held

in

CALIPHATE,

a term restricted, in general historical usage, and rule of the successors of the prophet Mohammed in the government of the Muslim community and of the territories occupied or subjugated by the Arabs, These comprise: the first four caliphs, the immediate successors of Mohammed (1 at Medina; (2) the Omayyad caliphs of Damascus; (3) the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. To these three groups the present article is confined. For the western caliphs see Abd-al-Rahman; Almohads; and Spain: History. For the Egyptian caliphs see Egypt; History; and Fatimids. The history of Arabia proper will be found under Arabia. to the history

)

THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS Mohammed

died at

Medina on June

8,

632, without leaving any

government of the Muslim community. In the confusion that followed several parties began to form, notably among the Medinian tribes, and a meeting of the Khazraj tribe was convened to choose a leader. Several of the Meccan companions, including Abu Bakr and Omar, joined in the meetinstructions for the future

After lengthy argument, it was agreed to recognize Abu Bakr as leader of the community, and the choice was ratified on following day by the people as a whole, except for Mohammed's son-in-law Ali. who made submission only sdme months later. Abu Bakr adopted the title of khalijat rasul-Allah ("successor of the Messenger of God"), whence the term "caliph." Abu Bakr (632-634). Abu Bakr was confronted immediately by the revolt of several tribes in Hejaz and Nejd against the government of Medina. In face of his uncompromising attitude the Hejaz tribes submitted without fighting, but the Nejd tribes, excited by the appearance of "false prophets," had to be subjugated by military forces under the command of Khalid ibn alAfter a desperate struggle against Musailima in Al Walid. Yamamah (Al Kharj, eastern Nejd) in May 633, minor expediing.

the

—

tions secured the submission of the rest of the

Meanwhile Khalid, with support from the

Arabian peninsula.

tribe of Bakr, raided

the borderlands of Iraq and captured Hira (q.v.). year, the tribesmen were tions into Palestine

and other leaders.

summoned by Abu Bakr

In the same

to join in expedi-

and Transjordan, under Amr ibn al-As {q.v.) In face of the Byzantine counteroffensive,

CALIPHATE

644 Khalid made

a hazardous march across the Syrian desert, rejoined the combined Arab forces in southern Palestine and defeated the Greeks at Ajnadain (July 30, 634).

Omar

(634-644).

—

The first steps toward a regular conquest thus been taken before the death of Abu Bakr (Aug. 2i. 634) and the immediate and uncontested succession of

of Syria had

Omar, under whom the conquests were extended to Iraq, Mesopotamia and Egypt, On his accession Omar took the title of amir al-mu'minin ("commander of the faithful''; i.e., of the believers), which became the formal title of all later caliphs. For the history of the Arab conquests scarcely any contemporary annals have survived, and their progress has to be largely reconstructed from the traditions preserved by the Arabic chroniclers about two centuries later. Though confused in part by the growth of tribal sagas and heroic legends, the core of these traditions proves to be remarkably accurate and consistent in its presentation of the main events. Many details still remain obscure, particularly in regard to the conquest of Egypt and to the strategy and tactics of the opposing forces. The Greek chronicles which describe the campaigns are, unfortunately, no earlier than the Arabic and contain only curt mentions of battles and sieges. The armies of the Arabs were formed entirely of tribesmen mounted on camels and horses, whose traditional method of fighting was to charge in a long line, cast a shower of javelins on the opposing force, wheel back to a prearranged base line, repeat the tactics until the enemy line showed signs of breaking and then engage in hand-to-hand combat. In arms (lance, bow and sword) they were little inferior to their enemies, whose tactics were familiar to the frontier tribes from centuries of warfare as allies or as opponents of Roman and Persian armies. But, having no siege equipment, they were unable to besiege cities and fortresses, which they could capture only by storm, treachery or blockade. Their greatest advantage (besides their mobility) was that, as the aggressors, they were able to choose their ground and to fight their chief battles on the edge of the desert, where they were safe from attack in the rear and their communications were fully protected. The forces engaged on both sides are often greatly exaggerated, but it is probable that in numbers of fighting men the Arabs were seldom inferior to their opponents in pitched battles. Khalid, following up the retreating Greek army, defeated it again at Fihl (Pella"), near Beisan (Jan, 23, 635), surrounded Damascus, which surrendered on Sept, 4, and pushed northward. Early in 636 he withdrew south of the Yarmuk river before a powerful Greek force which advanced simultaneously from the north and from the coast of Palestine. But the Greek armies were composed mainly of Arab, Armenian and other auxiliaries, who felt little loyalty to the empire; the treasury and the provinces were exhausted by the long Persian wars and the Persian invasions; and the populations were apathetic, if not actively hostile. When a rebellion broke out in the Greek camp, Khalid. reinforced from Medina and possibly from the Syrian Arab tribes, attacked and destroyed the Greek forces in the precipices of the Yarmuk valley (Aug. 20, 636). Damascus was regained in the same year; and three Arab armies occupied, against little resistance, the northern cities. Palestine and the coastal region. Jerusalem held out until the caliph Omar received its surrender in person in 638; and Caesarea and Gaza fell in 640. The last Greek strongholds, Ascalon and Tripoli, capitulated only in 644 and 64S. The Arab troops were established in military cantonments (called jwid) in Damascus. Jabiya, Homs (ancient Emesa) and Kinnasrin; and in 640 the Omayyad Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan was appointed governor of all

Syria,

After Khalid's withdrawal, the tribesmen of Bakr, defeated by the Persians, withdrew to Hira, but on the arrival of Yemenite reinforcements drove back a Persian counterattack at Buwaib (Oct, 635), Only after the victory of the Yarmuk did Omar feel free to organize a full-scale invasion, under the command of Sa'd Wakkas; the main Persian army, commanded by Rustum, was broken at Kadisiya (June 637), the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon (al Mada'in) fell in the following month, and the remaining Persian forces were again defeated at Jalula (near Hulwan) in December, Two new garrison cities (misr) were founded for the

ibn Abi

Arab troops

at Kufa and Basra, from which annual expeditions were organized, each tribe being allotted its own quarter in the city, Syrian troops had already begun to occupy Mesopotamia from the west in 638-639; in 640 Iraqi troops conquered Mosul and Kurdistan and pushed into Azerbaijan, while the Syrians raided

Armenia

for several years in succession.

The conquests made by

the Arabs hitherto

had been

in the rela-

and familiar area of the fertile crescent. But their possession of Iraq remained insecure so long as the Persians were at

tively flat

Undeby the difficulties of the terrain and of adapting their methods of fighting to mountain warfare, the Arab generals in Iraq set out to effect the systematic conquest of Persia. While the troops of Basra were engaged in the task of reducing Khuzistan (638-644) and Pars (644-650), those of Kufa began to penetrate liberty to reorganize their forces in the Iranian plateau.

terred

the highlands through the

Hulwan

gap. After a fresh Persian hard-fought battle at Nehavand (641), the western edges of the Persian plateau were conquered piecemeal, but the Arabs continued to encounter obstinate resistance both in Rayy and in the province of Pars. It was only on the final subjugation of Pars in 650 that the troops of Basra were able to sweep across the plateau to occupy Kerman and Khurasan. The last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III, fleeing before them, perished miserably near Merv in 651; and in the following year the campaigns were rounded off with the occupation of Merv, Balkh and Herat. In 639, Amr ibn al-As, on his own initiative, led his 4,000 Yemenite troops down into Egypt on an extensive raid. Reinforced from Medina in 640, he concentrated his forces on the edge of the delta at 'Ayn Shams (Heliopolis), The Greek forces advancing from the fortress of Babylon to engage him were severely defeated in July, and during the following siege of the fortress Amr negotiated the submission of the Coptic population. On the surrender of Babylon (.-^pril 641), he advanced on Alexandria, which surrendered after a truce of 11 months. In 642 a new garrison in the city was founded at .\1 Fustat (modern Misr al Qadimah) same year expeditions were sent into Nubia and westward into Cyrenaica; and Tripoli was captured after a siege in 643. A last attempt at reconquest was made by the Greeks in 645 with a sudden naval attack on Alexandria, but Amr regained the city by assault. (See also Egypt: History: Medieval Period.) The part played by the caliph in these conquests was a far from passive one. Though the details of strategy were necessarily left to the discretion of the commanders, Omar maintained a remarkable measure of general control over their objectives and policy. Their government of the provinces was closely supervised and any delinquency sharply reprimanded or punished. The most difficult problem that confronted the Arab rulers was the administration of the newly conquered territories. The method generally adopted was to leave the land in the possession of its existing owners and taxation in the hands of existing officials, in return for fixed annual

army had been defeated

in

a

;

in money and kind. The conquests constituted a perendowment for the upkeep of the .Arab garrison troops, who

payments petual

received four-fifths of the provincial revenues and of war booty; the other fifth, together with crown lands and sequestrated estates,

was

at the caliph's disposal for distribution at

Othman

(644-656).

by a Kufan workman

Mecca and Medina,

—On the death of Omar, who was stabbed

mosque at Medina (Nov, 3, 644), a conclave of Meccan nobles at Medina elected the already aged Othman as caliph. For six years or more the conquests proceeded in the

steadily and Syrian armies began to probe Asia Minor,

new development was

A

notable

the organization of Syrian and Egyptian which occupied Cyprus and in 655 defeated the Greek fleet near Phoenix in Lycia, But with the removal of external dangers the tribesmen began to resent the control exercised by the caliph and his governors, the economic e.xploitation of the conquests by the commercial aristocracy of Mecca and the favours shown to Encouraged his kinsmen of the Omayyad family by Othman, by the caliph's weakness and by preachers who denounced his errors and innovations (notably his issue of an official text of the Koran and order to destroy all others), the troops in Kufa and Al Fustat rebelled, A party from Egypt, headed by the son of Abu fleets,

CALIPHATE Bakr, marched to Medina, besieged Othman in his house and killed him (June 17, 556). Ali (656-661). The mutineers and Medinians then recognized

—

Mohammed's

Ali iq.i'.K

son-in-law, as caliph.

Two Meccan

no-

Talha and Al-Zubayr, joined by Mohammed's widow Aisha, escaped to Iraq and gained the support of the garrison at Basra. bles,

The

rival garrison at

ponents

Kufa now joined

in the "battle of the

who defeated his opcamel" (ridden by Aisha), and estabAli,

lished himself in Kufa.

When Mu'awiya, governor of Syria, calling for vengeance for the blood of his kinsman Othman. refused to recognize Ali, the Kufans invaded Syria; the armies met at Sififin and, after long and

by the

645 During

his firm but just government Iraq remained quiet, but after his death in 673 the old tensions began to revive in the garrison cities and were further complicated by the gradual combination of groups of tribes into tribal and

caliph as his brother.

political factions.

—

Yazid I (680-683). The opposition in Kufa flared into action on Mu'awiya's death, when the faction favourable to the house of Ali (the Slii'a or Shi'ites) invited All's second son Husain from Mecca to Kufa, to claim the caliphate. Yazid, informed of the threatening behaviour of the Shi'ites at Kufa, sent Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad, and governor of Basra, to restore order. Using the

same

tactics as his father before him, Obaidallah

made them

summoned

indecisive negotiations and skirmishes, agreed to submit the case

the chiefs of the tribes and

to arbitration (Aug. 657).

In the surviving accounts of the meetis more legend than history, but it seems to have turned out unfavourably for Ali. A group of fanatical dissidents at Kufa moved out to Nahravan (hence their name khawarij, sing, khariji, "outgoers," whence Kharijites) and openly rebelled; although Ali severely defeated them (July 65S). similar, if smaller, risings broke out in various quarters, while Khurasan was lost through a Persian revolt, and Egypt regained for Mu'awiya by Amr ibn al-As. The Syrian raids on All's territories in Iraq and Arabia grew bolder and more effective; Mu'awiya could count on the obedience of loyal and disciplined troops, while Ali. having risen to power on a wave of revolution, was rendered powerless by the insubordination, on the

of their men.

ing of the arbitrators there

Meanwhile Husain had set out with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm at Kufa. Though warned on reaching Iraq of the change that had taken place, he persisted in his journey and at Karbala was confronted with a Kufan force commanded by Omar, a son of Sa'd ibn Abi Wakkas, He gave battle and fell, with most of his family and followers, on Oct. 10, 680. No other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But the tragic death of the prophet's grandson, with so many of his house, caused a strong revulsion of feeling, not only among the Shi'ite partisans at Kufa. who were the principal authors of the disaster, but among devout Muslims everywhere; and the facts soon acquired a wholly romantic colouring. This event, rather than the misfortunes of Ali. became the emotional root of Shi'ism; Omar ibn Sa'd and his officers, Obaidallah and Yazid himself, came to be regarded as murderers and their names to be held accursed by all Shi'ites, w-ho have ever since observed the tenth day of Muharram, the day of 'Ashura, as a day of public mourning {see Has.an and Husain). Among the Sunnis also it cast a cloud over the Omayyads and gave a handle to all their enemies. Another of these enemies saw his own claim to the caliphate facihtated by the removal of Husain. Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr. the son of All's rival al-Zubayr, obtained the allegiance of Medina and Mecca. After prolonged negotiations Yazid sent a Syrian army

one hand of the zealots who held him guilty for agreeing to arbitraon the other of the ordinary tribesmen of Iraq who refused to engage the Syrians again, while he had lost the sympathies of Medina by transferring the capital to Kufa. The zealots attempted to assassinate both Mu'awiya and Ali, but succeeded only in killing Ali (Jan. 661). His son Hasan, in face of an invasion by Mu'awiya and discord among his troops, abdicated a few months later and retired to Medina, where he tion,

died in 669.

THE OMAYYAD CALIPHS Mu'awiya

—

On his entry into Kufa, Mu'awiya, who had been proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem in July 660, received the submission of all Iraq, contested only by the khawarij, whose local His first revolts continued to disturb the peace for many years. care was to re-establish Arab rule in Khurasan, and several years later

new

(660-680).

garrison cities were founded at

Merv and

in

Seistan,

from which expeditions were directed into central Asia and northwestern India, The Egyptian armies under Okba ibn Nafi' began the invasion of northwest Africa and founded another garrison city at Kairouan. His expeditions culminated in a triumphal march to the shores of the Atlantic (681), followed by a Byzantine and Berber rising which drove the Arabs back to Cyrenaica. But the main Arab offensive was directed against the Byzantine empire. With the support of the fleet, Constantinople was attacked in 669, but in the following winter the Arab army was destroyed at Amorium. A fresh campaign was mounted in 673, and for four years Constantinople suffered an annual siege of several months. The invaders were repeatedly driven off by Greek fire, and their heavy losses compelled them to withdraw in 678. Mu'awiya was a typical Arab sayyid ("gentleman"). He governed not by force but by superior intelligence, self-control, mildness and magnanimity. But behind him stood the disciplined army of Syria, with the most powerful tribe in which, the Kalb, he had allied himself by marriage. Well aware that the allegiance of this army was now the sole guarantee of the unity of the Arab empire and that the old Arab method of election to the caliphate was no longer practicable, he secured during his lifetime a general oath of allegiance to his son Yazid as his successor. The introduction of the hereditary principle was. however, an offense to Muslim ideas and especially disliked in Iraq, already restive over the transference of the capital to Damascus and the predominance of the Syrian army. Mu'awiya had had the good fortune to find an excellent governor for Iraq in Ziyad, a former partisan of Ali, said to be a bastard of Mu'awiya's father and publicly acknowledged

against

Medina; the forces of the

responsible for the conduct

citizens

were easily overcome

and, according to tradition, the city was given up to plunder for three days. The Syrians then marched on Mecca in Sept. 683 and

found Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr ready to defend it. The siege had Ka'ba was damaged by bombardment) when the news came of the death of Yazid (Nov. 10, 683),

lasted 64 days (during which the

whereupon the army returned

—

H

to Syria.

Mu'awiya (683) Yazid's young and sickly son succeeded him. but died within two or three months. Abdullah ibn Zubayr was recognized throughout Arabia, Iraq and Egypt; but Marwan ibn Hakam of another branch of the Omayyads, proclaimed caliph at Damascus by the Kalb or Yemen faction in June 684, defeated the Kais (Qays) or northern Arab (Mudar) faction, who had declared for Abdullah, at Marj Rahit in the vicinity. Marwan I (684—685). Marwan immediately reconquered Egypt (Dec. 684 and installed as governor his second son Abdul-Aziz. Shortly after his return to Damascus he died (April 685) and was succeeded by his eldest son Abd-al-Malik. Abd-al-Malik (685-705). Meanwhile, in the provinces nominally subject to Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr also, the tribal factions were in open or latent hostility to one another, especially in the east, where the recently conquered populations revolted and drove the Arabs back upon Khurasan. In eastern Arabia, the province of Basra and Khuzistan. the Kharijites maintained a reign of terror and isolated Abdullah in the Hejaz. In Kufa the Shi'ites, defeated in their first engagement with Obaidallah. found a leader in Mukhtar, who organized the mau-ali ("clients"; i.e., freed slaves and non-Arab freemen) and with the aid of the Yemenite Shi'ites crushed the Arab opposition and defeated and killed Obaidallah in Mesopotamia (Aug. 686). Abdullah's brother Mus'ab Zubayr, governor of Basra, sent the troops of Basra under the Yemenite general Muhallab to regain control of Kufa, and the Shi'ites, after a desperate resistance, were put down with great slaughter. For several years Abd-al-Malik was wholly occupied in Syria,

—

)

—

CALIPHATE

646

against the Mardaite tribes in Lebanon, who had received Byzantine support, and then against the Kais tribes in the north. His major task was to reunite the factions in a reformed Syrian army; when this was accomplished in 692 he had little difficulty in defeating Mus'ab's forces and reoccupying Iraq, wearied by the

first

Kharijite ravages.

In the same year a force of 2,000 Syrians, commanded by alHajjaj ibn Yusuf, after investing Mecca for six months, killed Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, sword in hand, in the final assault. The Kharijite bands still held out; those in Arabia were broken up in 694 by Muhallab, but the troops of Basra and Kufa showed little enthusiasm for a further campaign in Khuzistan. At length, in 696, Abd-al-Malik committed the government of Iraq to al-Hajjaj. Within three days of his arrival the tribesmen of Kufa, overawed by his personality and biting eloquence, were on the march, and those of Basra soon followed. After dispersing the Kharijites Muhallab was appointed in 697 He restored to the government of Khurasan under al-Hajjaj. Arab control over the Oxus frontier, but the large contingent of

Yemenite fellow tribesmen who accompanied him introduced new and powerful force, which was subsequently to play an important role in its

his

into the factional tensions of the province a

The governor of Seistan likewise attempted to reimpose Arab control over Afghanistan (then called Zabulistan), but was caught at a disadvantage in the difficult passes by the king of Kabul and held to ransom. Al-Hajjaj dispatched the troops of Kufa and Basra in 699 to exact retribution, under a Yemenite chief, Ibn alAsh'ath, but after their arrival in Seistan, resenting the peremptory commands of al-Hajjaj, they revolted and marched back on Iraq, The governor's weak forces were brushed aside and the rebels occupied first Basra and then Kufa, Al-Hajjaj, reinforced by Syrian troops, held his ground at Dair al Jamajim, outside Kufa, until the Kufan army broke, when he re-entered the city, but the rebellion was put down only after a violent battle at Maskin, on history.

Iraqians fled to Seistan, pursued by the Syrians, and eventually surrendered to Muhallab's son at refuge with the king of Kabul and on al-Ash'ath took Herat. Ibn the demand of al-Hajjaj for his surrender either was killed or comthe Dujail (701),

The defeated

mitted suicide. Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebellion was primarily a bid by the tribesmen The proud tribal of Iraq to throw off the government of Syria. chiefs smarted under the iron control of the plebeian al-Hajjaj and his demand for instant obedience; the troops resented the higher rates of pay enjoyed by the Syrian troops and the transfer to Syria of the surplus revenue from the province; the cultivators, who had streamed into the cities during the disturbed years of the civil war and had become Muslims, were embittered by their forcible resettlement on the land and by al-Hajjaj's insistence on their payment of the full land tax and the growing body of religious leaders, called "Koran reciters" (kurra), took offense both at the administrative measures of the governor and at his imposition of 0th;

man's

official

recension of the

Koran

to the exclusion of their

own

The failure of the rebellion marked an epoch in The Syrian hegemony was reimposed and maintained by the foundation in 702 of a new city on the Tigris for the Syrian troops, then permanently garrisoned in Iraq; lying halfway between Kufa and Basra, it was called Wasit

provincial text.

the evolution of the Arab empire.

(middle). The Iraqi forces were never again called out on campaign en masse, and Kufa and Basra gradually became rival centres of sedentary pursuits. After the reoccupation of Iraq Abd-al-Malik resumed the war with the Byzantine empire on the northern frontiers and in Africa, In Asia Minor annual raids gave the Syrian army continual military exercise, but no conquests were made; in Africa, on the other hand, the Egyptian troops, with the support of a fleet, recaptured

Kairouan and, after defeating the Greek fleet, expelled the Greeks from Carthage, A new naval base was established in Tunis, Pantelleria was captured, and naval raiding was extended to Sicily and Sardinia,

Abd-al-Malik also reorganized the administration of the empire in several directions.

More

effective centralization

was attained

by a regular post service from Damascus to the provincial capitals for government dispatches and the appointment of postmasters to keep the caliph informed of events and economic conditions in their areas. The financial administration, which had hitherto remained in the hands of the former cadres of Greek and Persian officials, was partially reformed and ordered to be conducted in Arabic.

A new

Islamic coinage, with gold dinars and silver dirhems, was Greek and Sasanian type

instituted in 693 to replace the former

coinage.

Al-Walid

I

(705-715).

—Thanks

and order

to the organization

established by Abd-al-Malik, the reign of his son al-Walid was, next only to that of Omar I, the most brilliant in the history of caliphate. The Syrian army, commanded by the caliph's brother Maslama, captured Tyana in 70S and ranged with impunity over Asia Minor and Armenia, while the Byzantine empire From its new headwas distracted by military revolutions. quarters at Kairouan the African army under Musa ibn Nusair (himself under the orders of the caliph's uncle Abdul-Aziz, still

the

viceroy of Egypt) swept to the far west in 708, and his freedman Tarik was set up as governor in Tangier. Three years later, after a trial raid on the Spanish coast, Tarik, in command of an army of 7,000 Berbers, and freedmen, crossed still bears his name GibraltarJabal Tarik) and, reinforced by 5,000 Arabs, defeated the Gothic king Roderic on the Rio Barbate and overran the greater part of In 712 Musa himself took command and subdued the Spain, remaining fortresses, until from the coast of Galicia he was re-

the strait to the mountain which

called to

(

Damascus,

In the east also the Arab armies, under the general control of

The Khurasanian garcommanded by Qutaiba ibn Muslim, conquered Bukhara, Samarkand, Khwarizm (modern Khiva) and Fergana and Tash-

al-Hajjaj, gained spectacular successes. risons,

kent beyond the Jaxartes (Syr-darya) from their Sogdian and Meanwhile an army from Basra under MoTurkish princes. hammed ibn al-Kasim, a cousin of al-Hajjaj, invaded Makran and Sind, took the port of Daibul, defeated the Indian king Dahar and after a prolonged siege captured Multan, with immense booty. But it was not only in warfare that al-Walid's reign stands out. It was a time of intensive agricultural development, especially in Iraq under the direction of al-Hajjaj new canals were constructed, marshes drained, uncultivated lands brought under the plough. Roads were cared for, wells dug for the convenience of travelers and pilgrims. The Omayyad mosque in Damascus, converted by the caliph from the Church of St. John Baptist, and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (begun by Abd-al-Malik and completed by al-VValid) are among the architectural glories of Islam; and al-Walid also enlarged and beautified the Aksa mosque in Jerusalem and the Prophet's mosque in Medina. Suleiman (715-717). Al-Walid was succeeded by his selfindulgent brother Suleiman, under whom the rhythm of conquest slackened in the east, except for the capture of Jurjan. Suleiman was an implacable enemy of al-Hajjaj (who had died in 714) and of his adherents. Qutaiba had attempted to revolt but was killed by the hostile Arab factions; Mohammed ibn al-Kasim was recalled and put to death. Abdul-Aziz, the son and successor of Musa in Spain, was murdered, and the Christians of the Asturias rose in ;

—

revolt against the Arabs.

Meanwhile the Byzantine war was energetically pressed. The Syrian reserves were called up, a fleet of 2,000 vessels manned and Constantinople was blockaded by land and sea (717), Leo III, the Isaurian, who had in fact been proclaimed emperor by Maslama, conducted a briUiant defense of the city; and the besiegers, after suft'ering from a severe winter, were compelled to make a disastrous retreat through Anatolia, while the fleet was destroyed by storm. This shattering disaster was the climax and turning point of the Apart from the loss of prestige, the destruction of the Syrian army removed the main prop and stay of the Omayyad dynasty. At this critical moment, however, a precious respite was gained by Suleiman's fortunate and unexpected nomination

Arab conquests.

,

CALIPHATE as his successor of a cousin,

Omar, the son of Abdul-Aziz, whose

647 beyond most remarkable achievement was

zation of frontier defenses; the internal problems were

simple and universally respected piety brought a brief relaxation

his

of tensions.

to lay the foundations of the bureaucratic

Omar

—

(717-720). The main object of Omar's administration was to reform the system of taxation and finance. In addition to the grievances of the troops of Iraq at the privileges enjoyed by the Syrians, the Muslim converts in every province resented the continuance of Omar I's regulation by which the Arab troops alone (with few exceptions) received stipends from the public revenue, besides paying preferential rates of taxation on their estates. Omar II's principle was that all Muslims should be placed on the same footing, without respect of nationality. Although the existence of established rights and the necessity of maintaining cultivation prevented the thoroughgoing application of this principle, he reversed the policies enforced by al-Hajjaj, allowed the immigration into the cities of converted mawali (who thereby became in principle eligible for stipends) and strictly forbade the imposition of poll tax upon converts, and other illegal imposts. These and other measures made serious inroads on the public revenue; but Omar went on uncompromisingly to dismiss non-Muslim employees from the public services and to issue severe regulations (known as the "ordinance of Omar") for the conduct and II

dress of Christians and Jews.

The effect was to throw the financial administration into disorder in several provinces, especially in Egypt, but also to encourage mass conversions to Islam; to the remonstrances of his governors the caliph replied, "God sent Mohammed to call men to the Faith, not to collect taxes."

Although

Omar

discouraged frontier raiding carried on at both extremities of the empire. He had at one time thought of ordering the Arab armies to evacuate Spain, but sent a new governor, Samh, with instructions to distribute certain reserved lands among the troops, in 719; and both Samh and his predecessor Hurr made expeditions across the Pyrenees into southern Gaul. Omar died in Feb. 720, leaving a reputation for piety and sanctity such as no other caliph of the Omayyad or Abbasid houses attained or even approached. Yazid II (720-724). His successor, by the nomination of in principle, again,

for the sake of booty, warfare

was

still

—

Suleiman, was a son of Abd-al-Mahk and a daughter of Yazid I, thus united temporarily the two branches of the Omayyad

who

family.

He was

at

once faced with serious

difficulties.

The

state

measures w'hich, as they inevitably reversed some of Omar's relaxations, caused discontent and some outbreaks of violence. But the most dangerous rising had no connection with this. The caliph was a partisan of al-Hajjaj, whose niece he had married; his namesake, Yazid ibn Muhallab, who had been prominent in the hunt against al-Hajjaj's associates, fled to Basra and stirred up a general revolt of the Yemenite faction in Iraq and southern Persia. Defeated by Maslama with a reformed Syrian army near Babylon, the leaders of the rebellion fell in battle or were pursued into India and there of the public finances called for urgent stopgap

killed.

This violent outburst of the Yemenite faction set in train among the Arabs a sequence of factional struggles which grew in intensity and finally pulled down the Omayyad dynasty. For the moment Yazid had no alternative but to confide the government of Iraq to Kaisite ofiicers, who revenged themselves upon the Yemenites; in Syria, on the other hand, he showed equal favour to both the Kais and the Kalb (Yemenite) tribes, and the latter even took a prominent part in suppressing the Iraqi rising. In the chronicles he is represented, perhaps unjustly, as a frivolous and pleasureseeking prince.

Hisham

(724-743).

—Yazid II nominated

as his successor his

brother Hisham, the fourth of Abd-al-Malik's sons to mount the throne, with his own son Walid as second heir. Whatever Yazid may have been, Hisham was severe in morals and manners, earnest though with little imagination, just but heavy-handed. The Arab

empire had now for a century been organized for expansion; Hisham was confronted with the problems of stabilization that arise when such an organism reaches or overreaches the hmits of expansion. The military problem was met in part by the organi-

powers to

But

solve.

his

system which (after the turmoil of the civil war and destruction of his house) was taken over and developed under the Abbasid caliphs. During the early years of his reign the Syrians resumed, with some success, the attack on Asia Minor, and the Spanish Arab forces penetrated into central France.

But on the central Asian

front the Arabs were already on the defensive against the attacks of Turkish forces from the steppes, aided

the subject population of Sogdiana.

by discontent among

In 730 or 731 they were dis-

Samarkand and simultaneously the Khazar Turks from the southern steppes of Russia destroyed the Arab astrously defeated near

;

armies in Azerbaijan. In northern India also a revolt drove the Arabs back on Sind, where they founded the two strong garrison cities of al Mahfuza and al Mansurah. In 732 Charles Martel put an end to the advance into France at the battle of Poitiers (Tours), and in 740 Leo III destroyed the main Arab forces in Asia Minor at Akroinos (Afion Karahisar). The two latter defeats were decisive, but the more serious Turkish threats in the east and north were energetically countered. The Khazars were driven back beyond Derbent and forced to pay tribute; the central Asian Turks, defeated near Balkh in 737, evacuated Sogdiana, which was reoccupied by the Arabs under Nasr ibn Sajiyar and pacified by a just redistribution of taxation. But both victories were gained by the Syrian troops, and the frontiers were guarded by Syrian garrisons at Derbent and Balkh. Shortly afterward, when the African army was destroyed by a Berber revolt in Morocco (741), a large force of Syrians was sent to restore order; these too were cut to pieces on the river Sebou (742), and Kairouan was saved only by the dispatch of a The Arab empire had thus fresh army from Egypt and Syria. ended by becoming a Syrian empire, maintained by Syrian troops dispersed in garrisons from central Asia to Kairouan; and the strain which this involved was too great to be borne indefinitely, even after cutting the losses in Asia Minor. For 14 years Hisham maintained the Yemenites in power in Iraq. The Kais chafed under the rule of his governor Khalid alKasri, but had their revenge when the Kaisite Yusuf replaced him in 738. For the moment, however, the factional spirit was kept within bounds; when Zaid, a grandson of Husain ibn Ali, headed a Shi'ite revolt at Kufa in 740 he found little support; Yusuf 's Syrian troops easily suppressed the movement; and Zaid's son Yahya fled to Balkh, where he was killed several years later. For about two centuries, nevertheless, the Zaidis remained the most active of the Shi'ite parties, and the sect still predominates in the highlands of Yemen. Al-Walid (743-744).— Hisham had intended to nominate his son Mu'awiya to succeed him, setting aside the nomination of his nephew al-Walid, but Mu'awiya was killed in a hunting accident. Al-Walid's dominating passion became a hatred for Hisham and all that Hisham stood for; and after his accession he withdrew to his desert castle in Transjordan, neglecting the duties of his office. In order to pay for his new castle of Mshatta he sold KhaUd al-Kasri to Yusuf, the governor of Iraq, whose cruel murder of his opponent roused Yemenite anger to fever pitch in every province. When the caliph proclaimed his two young slave-born sons as his heirs, the sons of al-Walid I revolted in Syria with Yemenite support, and one of them, Yazid, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus. A Yemenite force was sent to deal with al-Walid and killed him with little opposition. Yazid III (744). By this action, the moral authority of the Omayyad caliphate, already undermined by the frivolous character of al-Walid II, was all but destroyed. Dying less than six months after his proclamation, Yazid nominated his brother Sul-

U

—

to succeed. But Hisham's cousin, Marwan ibn Mohammed, powerful army of had, as governor of Azerbaijan, built up Mesopotamian Kaisites, marched into Syria in the name of Walid's

eiman

who

..

Yemenites and, since the young princes had in meantime been put to death, was proclaimed caliph. II (744-750). Marwan's first task was to pacify

sons, defeated the

the

Marwan

—

CALIPHATE

648 Syria, but

when he

transferred his capital to Harran in

Mesopo-

tamia the Syrians rebelled (745). Scarcely had he put down this revolt and assembled an army to march into Iraq when a fresh revolt broke out, led by Suleiman ibn Hisham. This time Marwan took decisive measures, demolished the walls of Homs. Damascus and other towns, and left Syria utterly crushed and defenseless (746), thus destroying the bulwark of Omayyad power. While this struggle was in progress the other provinces of the empire were left to themselves. A Shi'ite rising in Kufa, led by a distant relative of Ali named Ibn Mu'awiya, had after a brief success been put down by the Omayyad governor, a son of Omar II (744). Ibn Mu'awiya retired to Isfahan and within a short time had become master of all southern Persia. Immediately afterward the Kharijites rose near Mosul; Ibn Omar and the rival governor appointed by Marwan, making common cause against them, were defeated, and the whole of Iraq joined in the revolt. Only in 747 was Marwan able to break their hold on the province. The remains of their army joined Ibn Mu'awiya in Fars, but in 748 both were dispersed by the new governor of Iraq, Yazid ibn Hubaira. In the same year another Kharijite band, which had occupied the holy cities in Arabia, was destroyed, and Marwan might well have felt satisfied that his authority was securely established in the central and most important provinces of the empire.

But the decisive challenge to Omayyad rule was to come from another quarter. In Khurasan, during the struggle in Syria, the governor Nasr ibn Sayyar had persuaded the Arab chiefs to accept him as amir until a caliph should be universally acknowledged. It was not long, however, before the Yemenites, naturally opposed to a Kaisite governor and inflamed by the murder of Khalid and by the general hostility of their faction toward Marwan, rose against Nasr. The Kais faction, split by internal divisions, gave him inadequate support; and, abandoning Merv to the Yemenites, he retired to Nishapur (746). In the next year, the Kais split having been healed, he marched again on Merv, after sending vain appeals to Marwan for reinforcements, but the struggle between the factions ended in a stalemate, which opened the way to the intervention of a third party. About 40 years earlier a great-grandson of

Mohammed's

uncle

Abbas had acquired control of a secret missionary organization, operated by and among the non-Arab mawali of Kufa, on behalf of a Shi'ite party known as the Hashimiya. This had grown out of the revolutionary party led by Mukhtar in the time of Abd-alMalik. which recognized as its imam a son of Ali known by the name of Mohammed ibn al-Hanafiya. Under this Mohammed's son Abu Hashim the propaganda organization was strengthened, and on his death the majority of the Hashimiya acknowledged the Abbasid Mohammed ibn Ali as their imam. The tenets of its adherents varied from an ultra-Shi'ite gnosticism to a simple nondoctrinal hatred of the Omayyads, and the task of the missionaries was to preach the infidelity and injustice of the Omayyads and the coming of a saviour from the house of the Prophet, the mahdi iq.v.) who would "fill the earth with justice, as it is now filled with violence and iniquity." Mohammed ibn Ali, realizing that no revolutionary hopes could be placed on Kufa, sent out missionaries to Khurasan, still populated thinly by Arabs but with a virile and warlike Iranian population. Though directed mainly to the non-Arabs, the propaganda gained over also the Arab Shi'ite in Khurasan, who came mostly

from among the Yemenite Ibrahim, who succeeded

tribes.

his father

Mohammed

as

imam

in 743,

Khurasan a freedman from Kufa named Abu Muslim. In the general confusion of the times Abu Muslim gained a wide success, especially among the Iranian landowners, converting, among others, Khalid ibn Barmak, the son of the hereditary high priest of an influential Buddhist sanctuary near Balkh (see Barmecides). There were some difficulties with the leaders of the Arab Shi'ite, but they were eventually overcome, and by general agreement Abu Muslim unfurled in 747 the black banner which, in popular belief, was the symbol of the precursor of the mahdi. His Iranian partisans gathered round him at Sikadanj, near Merv, and Shi'ite risings broke out at Herat and other cities. For several months sent as his personal representative to

more happened on either side, but when Nasr appeared to be on the point of reconciliation with the Yemenites Abu Muslim appealed to the Yemenite Shi'ite, who broke the truce and gave little

Abu Muslim The union

the opportunity to enter Merv (748). of the Abbasid partisans with the Yemenites of Merv compelled Nasr to flee again to Nishapur. This was a crucial error, for it split the anti-Abbasid forces in Khurasan, and left the burden of opposition to the Syrian garrison at Balkh, to overcome which the Abbasid party had to wage a severe campaign. On the orders of the imam Ibrahim, the command of the Abbasid army was entrusted to the Yemenite general Kahtaba;

the struggle against

Nasr and the belated reinforcements from Iraq thus took on the character of a conflict between Yemen and Kais, and Kahtaba's success roused an empire-wide revolt of the Yemenites. The Yemenite governor of Kufa revolted and, with the support moreover of the Syrian garrison, opened its gates to the Abbasid forces in Sept. 749. There, after some hesitations probably resulting from the fact that, since the Abbasid leadership of the revolt had been kept secret, the Kufans saw in it a Shi'ite revolt on behalf of the house of Ali the Khurasanian leaders, instructed by Abu Muslim, forced the issue. Ibrahim had recently died in prison at

—

—

Harran. but his brother Abu'l-Abbas, with other members of the family, had arrived in Kufa; and on Nov. 28, 749, Abu'l-Abbas, declaring himself to be al-Saffah, the precursor of the mahdi, was proclaimed caliph. Marwan had still to be reckoned with, but at this point a wave of enthusiasm, nourished by popular predictions and aspirations The Khurasanian for the reign of the mahdi, turned the scale. army had at last furnished the instrument of power which could

match the hitherto invincible Marwanid army; the moment of destiny was come, and from all sides volunteers flocked to join the Khurasanians. The final defeat of Marwan's depleted forces on the Great Zab (Jan. 750) was due largely to the conviction that the Shi'ite movement (as it was still believed to be) owed its success to divine agency and that there was no longer any hope of stemming the tide. Marwan retreated to Harran, thence to Syria, pursued by the Khurasanian forces. When the citizens of Damascus opened their gates he fled to Egypt and was killed at Busir in Aug. 750. The members of the Omayyad house were hunted down and put to death; only a few escaped, among them a grandson of Hisham, Abd-al-Rahman, who fled to Africa and thence to Spain, where he founded a few years later the Omayyad dynasty of Cordoba (see Spain: History).

THE ABBASID CALIPHS from the Omayyad to the Abbasid house meant at first no more than the transference of the capital to Iraq and the substitution of a standing army based on Khurasan for one based on Mesopotamia. The Syrian hegemony had already been broken by Marwan, and the general lines of administration laid down by Hisham. The Khurasanian army was still predominantly Arab in composition; the armies of Egypt and Africa were still composed of tribal units, and those of Syria and Mesopotamia were soon reconstituted for frontier warfare against the Byzantines. In the latter provinces the tribal feuds which had destroyed the Omayyad caliphate still flared up from time to time; in the more professional Khurasanian forces, on the other hand, they were rapidly extinguished. The fact, however, that the power of the dynasty rested upon the two provinces, Iraq and Khurasan, in which the mingling of Arab and Persian had gone furthest and continued with increasing momentum, favoured the development of a common Muslim civilization in which the Arab no longer predominated. While the Arab religion and Arab language maintained themselves and spread over the whole empire (the revival of Persian as a cultural language began only in the' 10th century), in the court and the administration, on the other hand, the traditions of the Persian Sassanian empire set the tone. In keeping with this tendency, the Abbasid caliphs devoted much attention to strengthening and emphasizing

The

transfer of the caliphate

the religious basis of their rule, insisting, particularly against the Shi'ite opposition, upon the claim of the house of Abbas to be the

CALIPHATE legitimate heirs of

Mohammed. Their patronage

of religion, while

a demand for conformism and persecution of heresy, created also favourable conditions for the expansion of religious learning, out of which the new Muslim Arabic literary culture

marked by

developed.'

At the same time, the growth of luxury and the cessation of wars of conquest gave an impulse to industry and commerce, both within the empire and overseas. In these conditions the Abbasid capital at Baghdad rapidly became the centre of a brilliant intellectual and material civilization which spread over the entire Muslim world and reached its height in the 10th century, when the Abbasid caliphate itself was already far in decline.

Abu'l- Abbas (750-754). caliphate in a

united

all

wave

— Since

the Abbasids had seized the

of revolutionary enthusiasm that temporarily

the enemies of the

Omayyads.

their first task

was

to

convert a local and precarious act of usurpation into a valid, beThe revolutionary unrest cause universally recognized, claim. continued for many years and found expression in risings and rebellions on behalf of rival parties and groups, not only in Syria and Mesopotamia. Libya and Oman, but also among the Arabs in Khurasan. The reign of Abu'l-Abbas was filled largely with campaigns against a succession of rebels; and the governorships

of

suc-

his

largely Syro-Mesopotamian army, al-Mansur was forced to call The continued influence of Abu in the assistance of Abu Muslim. Muslim over the Khurasanian troops (combined, perhaps, with the discontent of the Arabs in Khurasan with Abu Muslim's government and Abu Muslim's own sense of importance) held such dangerous possibilities that al-Mansur summoned him to the court before he returned to Khurasan and had him murdered. The result was a violent reaction of the original Iranian converts of Abu Muslim in Khurasan against the Abbasids; under the name of Muslimiya, venerating Abu Muslim as the true imam, they in a succession of revolts.

these were put

—

secure the succession for his

own son Mohammed al-Mahdi, gained

the army's interest on his behalf and persuaded Isa to renounce

which, after some inconclusive raiding during the reign of alMansur, had taken an unfavourable turn when the Greek general

—On the death Abu'l-Abbas the —who took the "mahdist" uncle al-Mansur ("the divinely aided") — was challenged by

cession of his brother .'\bu Ja'far

Though

Under the general control of the wazir (vizier), an office introduced by him, a number of diwans (divans) or ministries were up for the chancery, finance, army, posts, etc., staffed largely by Khurasanians. Persians and other mawali (although this term was now beginning to fall out of use). The most notable of his ministers was Khalid ibn Barmak, for a time minister of finance. Al-Mahdi (775-785). Isa ibn Musa had been nominated by Abu'l-Abbas as successor of al-Mansur and had taken the leading part in suppressing the Alid revolt. But al-Mansur, determined to set

In order to defeat Abdullah's

Abu Muslim. Al-Mansur (754-775).

broke out

tion of the administration.

title

uncles and brothers, except for Khurasan, which remained under

Abdullah, the governor of Syria.

al

immediate right of succession; and on al-Mansur's death a dispute was averted by the prompt action of the vizier in installing and obtaining the oath of allegiance to al-Mahdi. The year after his accession was marked by a revolt of the Muslimiya in Transoxiana under al-Mukanna' (the veiled prophet). From his stronghold at Sanam, near Kish, he attacked the Arab governments at Bukhara and Samarkand; and during the eight years which elapsed before the rebellion was crushed there were several risings of the Iranians in other parts of Khurasan. The caliph devoted his interest largely to the war with Byzantium

of the provinces were given almost exclusively to the cahph's

of

649 renamed Medinat

Salam, "City of Peace"), close to the former Persian capital at Ctesiphon, which served as Built in the first place as a fortified garrison city, it a quarry. rapidly grew into the great metropolis which, in spite of riot, flood and siege, remained the centre of Islam until the end of the Abbasid caliphate. At the same time he took in hand the reorganiza(q.v.; officially

down without

great difficulty

local troops, the existence of this discontent

among

by the

the Iranians

was too much for the loyalty even of some of the Arab governors, and Khurasan was only restored to order when al-Mansur's eldest son, significantly entitled al-Mahdi, was appointed to its government in 759. In 761, a considerable body of Arab Khurasanian levies was transferred to Kairouan, in order to restore Abbasid authority in Africa, shaken by Berber and Kharijite revolts; but in Spain all al-Mansur's efforts to dislodge the Omayyads by supporting local rivals came to nothing. In contrast to the Muslimiya, the ultra-Shi'ite Hashimiya of Kufa still remained loyal to the Abbasids, but their importunities and payment to him of divine honours became so embarrassing that al-Mansur took the opportunity of a demonstration in 758 to root them out and thus give public proof of the orthodoxy of the .Abbasid house. This was the more urgently necessary since the true Shi'ites, hitherto quiescent for lack of an active leader,

had now found one in Mohammed, a grandson of Hasan. AlMansur, well aware of the danger of a widespread Shi'ite rising, took stringent measures against the Hasanids in the holy cities, but Mohammed eluded him and in 762 seized Medina and Mecca. A Khurasanian force, commanded by the heir presumptive Isa ibn Musa. easily defeated and killed Mohammed, but in the meantime his brother Ibrahim had occupied Basra, Khuzistan and Fars. Al-Mansur himself, with a small force, held his ground at Kufa until the Khurasanians returned from Arabia and in a severe engagement at Bakhamra, 48 mi. from Kufa, killed Ibrahim. Thanks to the disunity of its opponents and the fighting qualities of the Khurasanians, the Abbasid dynasty was now established. Al-Mansur signalized the event by founding a new capital, completed in 766, on the Tigris at the old market town of Baghdad

his

Michael captured Mar'ash.

In 779 al-Mahdi led a powerful army Mesopotamians into Cilicia; and an his second son Harun, under

of Khurasanians, Syrians and

expedition

commanded nominally by

Yahya ibn Khalid, captured the fortress of Semalouos in the interior (780). In the following year the Arabs fell back before a fresh Greek offensive. Harun was again dispatched with orders to march on Constantinople and. after defeating the Greek commander at Nicomedia, forced the empress Irene to conclude a truce for three years, on payment of an annual tribute of 70,000 or 90,000 dinars (782). This success gained for Harun the nomination as second heir after his elder brother Musa al-Hadi and the title of al-Rashid. Three years later al-Mahdi set out for Khurasan, on Musa's refusal to obey his order to return to Baghdad, but died suddenly on the way at the age of 43. During his reign the zeal of the Abbasids for religious orthodo.xy was signalized by a vigorous persecution of freethinkers and crypto-Manichaeans (zindiks). The administrative services were expanded and improved, and the taxation in Iraq was reformed. the guardianship of his tutor, the Barmecide

With increasing prosperity there was intellectual

and cultural pursuits, which

a

marked development of

laid the

foundations of the

brilliant Islamic civilization of the next century.

Al-Hadi (785-786).

—

Shortly after al-Hadi's succession a fresh Alid revolt broke out in Medina. Though it was put down with

two Alids, brothers of the earlier rebel Mohammed, escaped; one, Yahya, made his way to Dailam, in the Elburz range in northern Persia, the other. Idris. to Morocco, and both founded independent kingdoms in due course. Al-Hadi also intensified the persecution of zindiks. By his efforts to set aside Harun's nomination as his successor he alienated his mother Khaizuran and the Barmecide Yahya, but before he could take definite action he fell sick and died, in circumstances which created some suspicion. Al-Rashid (786-809).— Harun succeeded his brother without opposition and appointed his former tutor Yahya ibn Khalid as vizier with full powers. Under the prudent government of Yahya and his son Fadl, the Abbasid empire reached its highest degree of power and prosperity: the armies and frontiers were well manned and controlled, the public treasury, in spite of the magnificence of the court, carefully safeguarded. Yet even at its height there was seldom peace throughout the empire. An Omayyad revolt and tribal indiscipline in Egypt, a protracted outbreak of the Arab little difficulty,

factions in Syria, a succession of Kharijite insurrections in

Meso-

CALIPHATE

650

potamia, and the Dailamite following of the Alid Yahya, all gave evidence of the strains and stresses which accompanied the readjustment of populations and gradual regrouping of social and

economic forces among the widely diverse peoples and diversified terrains of the vast empire, and which no administration, however skilful, could do much to alleviate. A further cause of weakness was the growth of rivalries and jealousies at court. The power of the Barmecide Yahya and of his sons Fadl and Ja'far, the caliph's boon companion, raised up a host of enemies, among whom the chamberlain Fadl ibn Rabi' was the most active. Through his influence the important government of Khurasan was given in 796 to a certain Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan, whose violence and extortions created general discontent and a widespread revolt of the Iranian schismatics in the northern provinces. Externally, however, the power of the dynasty was vindicated against the Greeks in a series of campaigns. Harun, who had transferred his residence to Rakka, on the Euphrates, led an army in person to Ephesus and Ancyra in 767 and reimposed terms of truce on Irene; and when her successor Nicephorus broke the treaty in 803 he again marched to Heraclea. On a later campaign in 805 he occupied Heraclea and Tyana and increased the tribute by a personal impost on the imperial house. Cyprus was overrun in 807. An interchange of embassies with Charlemagne, motivated probably by common enmity to the Omayyads of Spain and the Greeks, resulted in increased facilities for Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. In 799, on the other hand, the Khazars from the Volga broke through into Armenia, causing severe losses; and at the end of Harun 's reign the tide of war had begun to turn in AnatoHa. In 803 the rivals of the Barmecides succeeded in winning the caliph's favour. Without warning Ja'far was seized and beheaded, Yahya and Fadl imprisoned and their property confiscated. Whatever the reasons for their overthrow may have been, the suddenness of this action could only intensify the internal strains; and when, two years later, the caliph confirmed Ali ibn Isa in his government of Khurasan, a serious revolt broke out in Transoxiana under Rafi' ibn Laith, a grandson of Nasr ibn Sayyar (806). In spite of the efforts of the Khurasanian guard the rebels held out, and in 808 Harun himself marched from Baghdad with the remainder of the Abbasid troops, but died on the way at Tus, in

March

809. In 802, during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Harun had formally divided the territories of the empire between his heirs and assigned the government of Khurasan outright to his second heir,

Abdullah, surnamed al-Ma'mun. On his last journey to the east, moreover, he willed that the whole of the Khurasanian guard should fall to the lot of al-Ma'mun and took an oath from the troops to that effect.

—

Al-Amin (809-813). On Harun's death, however, the troops returned to Baghdad, either of their own accord or at the instigation of Fadl ibn Rabi'. Relations between the new caliph al-Amin and his brother al-Ma'mun were thus strained from the beginning and causes of dispute rapidly multiplied. When al-Ma'mun gained a strong following in Khurasan and enrolled a new Khurasanian army under the Iranian general Tahir, open war followed (811). Al-Amin's old Khurasanian guard was repeatedly worsted, and he was finally besieged in Baghdad. For nearly two years the city put up a desperate resistance, but at length the caliph's troops gave way, and he himself was captured and killed while attempting to escape, leaving a reputation of frivolity and incompetence as a ruler.

—

Al-Ma'mun (813-833). For several years al-Ma'mun continued to reside at Merv, under the influence of his Persian vizier Fadl ibn Sahl, whose brother Hasan was appointed governor of Iraq, while the western provinces of the empire were assigned to But the civil war had weakened the authority of the caland most of Syria and Egypt remained for more than a decade beyond its control. In Iraq a Shi'ite movement, beginning in Kufa, gained the support of the Bedouins and for a year (814815 held all southern Iraq and the holy cities in Arabia. Scarcely had the Khurasanian garrison of Baghdad put down this rising than it in turn rebelled against the Persian government of Hasan. Tahir.

iphate,

)

To add to these dissatisfactions there came in 817 orders from the caliph designating as his successor the Alid imam Ali al-Rida. Al-Ma'mun's reasons for this step are not clear: the common assumption that it was intended to give satisfaction to the supposed Shi'ite sympathies of the Persians has no substantial foundation; and it is indeed more probable that it was the Shi'ites of Iraq whom he had in view. But the population of Baghdad, always hostile to Shi'ism, rose almost to a man under the leadership of the Abbasid family and, joined by the Khurasanian garrison, proclaimed

Ibrahim, a son of al-Mahdi, caliph. Ibrahim, however, proved incapable of maintaining order either in the city or in the provinces, and his supporters rapidly dwindled. On receiving news of the revolt al-Ma'mun at last realized the facts of the situation and set out himself for Baghdad. The journey occupied a year and a half; during its course Fadl ibn Sahl was murdered and Ali al-Rida died his shrine now stands at Meshed. His Khurasanians reoccuBaghdad against little opposition in 819, and a few months al-Ma'mun proclaimed a general amnesty and made his cere-

where pied later

monial entry into the city. During the remainder of his reign al-Ma'mun showed himself to be possessed of a strong practical sense and independence of judgment. He gave his patronage to science and literature, founding at Baghdad a kind of academy where Greek works on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy were translated; and he extended official patronage to the rationalizing Mu'tazilite school of theology. At the same time the restoration of order and imperial control in the outer provinces was vigorously pursued. Syria was easily regained; but the suppression of the disorders in Egypt required several expeditions, the last (832) led by the caliph in person after a particularly dangerous rising of both Arabs and Copts. In Media a local Arab dynasty came to terms with the caliph only in 829. The most serious military problem was the revolt of the Persian schismatics ikhurramis) under Babak in Azerbaijan, which was not put down until after al-Ma'mun's death. The repercussions of this revolt on Khurasan compelled the caliph unwillingly to confide the government of Khurasan in 821 to his general Tahir, combining his governorship with the office of military commander at Baghdad. In the following year Tahir dropped al-Ma'mun's name from the public prayers and died immediately after. But al-Ma'mun, aware that the power of the Abbasid caliphate now rested on a close alliance with Khurasan, could not afford to risk a breach with the Tahirids. Tahir's son Talha was appointed to his father's posts both in Baghdad and Khurasan and was succeeded on his death in 828 by another son, Abdullah. The Tahirids thus became to all intents independent, though tributary, in Khurasan, and their alliance with the caliphate continued until the extinction of the dynasty toward the end of the century. In the last years of his reign al-Ma'mun reopened hostilities with Byzantium. Expeditions in 830, 831 and 832 under his own command achieved such successes that the emperor Theophilus sued for peace, which the caliph haughtily refused to grant. In June 833, a further expedition commanded by his son al-Abbas occupied Tyana. but shortly afterward al-Ma'mun caught a fever, of which he died in August. He was buried in Tarsus. Al-Mu'tasim (833-842). Although al-Abbas was proclaimed caliph by the troops, he quickly yielded to the claim of alMa'mun's brother Abu Ishak, surnamed al-Mu'tasim. The first task was to deal with the rebel Babak, who was now co-operating with the Greeks. A formidable force, commanded by the Sogdian general .\fshin, took the field in 835 and finally broke the revolt in 837. In the same year Theophilus attacked the Muslim frontier and laid waste the town of Zibatra, with a ferocity which roused a wave of indignation. Assembling the most powerful army ever conducted by a caliph, al-Mu'tasim penetrated into Asia Minor, defeated Theophilus and captured and destroyed the two strong fortresses of Anc^fra and Amorium (Aug. 838). To al-Mu'tasim, who had a passion for the army, was due the introduction of a new element in the MusUm forces. Al-Ma'mun's Khurasanian guard already differed from its predecessor in composition by the enrollment of troops from the inner districts of Transoxiana and the Turkish frontier regions. To these al-Mu'tasim added large numbers of Turkish slaves, acquired by

—

i

,

I

I

r

;

CALIPHATE capture or purchase, from central Asia, who were formed in regiments of light horse, equipped with sword, lance and bow. The officers of the new Turkish guard rapidly distinguished them-

war and rose to influential positions. Since the excesses of these troops created a dangerous state of tension in selves in

Baghdad, al-Mu'tasim in 835 moved his residence to a new garN. of Baghdad. This policy, however, by putting the caliph almost wholly at the mercy of his guards, was to have serious consequences for his successors. rison city at Samarra, about 70 mi.

Al-Wathik (842-847).— Under his son Harun, entitled alWathik. the increa.sing power of the Turks was shown by the appointment of two generals, Ashinas and Itakh respectively, to the but lucrative government of the eastern and western provHe intensified state support of the Mu'tazilite doctrine to the point of persecution of the orthodox, thereby arousing violent discontent in Baghdad. But the only event of importance in his titular

inces.

reign was a combined rising of Arab tribes in Nejd and Hejaz, which was put down by the imperial guard under the Turkish general Bogha only with much difficulty, after a campaign lasting three years (844-847). This revolt marks the definitive alienation of the Arab tribes from the caliphate and paved the way for the Shi'ite and Bedouin risings in the next generation.

Al-Mutawakkii (847-861).—Harun was succeeded by

his

brother Ja'far, entitled al-JMutawakkil, whose whole reign was occupied by the effort to regain control over the Turks. In order to conciliate the orthodox Muslims, he abjured the Mu'tazilite doctrine, persecuted not only the Mu'tazilites but also the

and imposed severe restrictions on Jews and Christians, compelling them to wear distinctive dress. In 858 he attempted to remove the capital to Damascus, but immediately returned to Samarra and there built a new residence farther to the north. The financial stability of the Abbasid state, already burdened by the upkeep of the vast military establishments of Samarra and threatened by revolts in Azerbaijan, in Armenia (Bogha had to penetrate to Tiflis before the rebels were subdued), in Syria and in the east, was undermined by this new extravagance. The fact that the imperial treasury was in difficulties probably contributed largely to the disorders of the next two decades. The Byzantine war, which had ceased for a time under alWathik, was renewed in 851 by the frontier troops. A Greek fleet burned Damietta in 853. but in 856 the Muslim armies were reinforced by the immigration of the heterodox Paulicians, following on a violent persecution of the sect by the orthodox authorities. The annual raids by both sides were attended with alternate successes, the chief events being the restoration of Ancyra by the Greeks in 859 and the surrender of Lu'lu'a to the Muslims in 860, followed by a truce and exchange of prisoners. Early in his reign al-Mutawakkil had divided the empire between his three sons, nominating them as his successors in order Shi'ites

The eldest, Mohammed, called al-Muntasir, gradubecame estranged from his father and finally conspired with commanders of the Turkish guard to murder him in Dec. Sol. Al-Muntasir, al-Musta'in, al-Mu'tazz and al-Muhtadi. The murder of the caliph played straight into the hands of the Turkish generals, who became the real rulers and already began to form dynasties, handing on their power to their sons and sonsin-law. The disorder in the central government was extreme. When al-Muntasir died six months after his father's assassinaof seniority. ally

the

—

who took the His attempt to check the Turks with the aid of the citizens and Tahirid forces in Baghdad led to a siege of the city (865) and his forced abdication and murder. Al-Mu'tazz (866-869), the brother of al-Muntasir, unable to find tion, the generals selected as his

title

successor a cousin,

of al-Musta'in (862-866).

the money to pay for the troops, was seized and starved to death. AI-Muhtadi (869-870), a son of al-Wathik, and a man of firm and upright character, was chosen to succeed, but became entangled in the rivalries which had broken out between the Turkish generals and their troops, and was similarly put to death. Such conditions of anarchy in the capital made it impossible to maintain ordered government in the provinces. Although the caliphs continued to be recognized from Tunisia to Turkistan, local

651

and Turkish generals had gained the substance of independence over most of their nominal dominions. In the east a popular movement in Seistan led by the Saffar brothers broke the power of the Tahirids in Khurasan {see Saffarids) coupled with a similar movement in the northern provinces of Persia under an Alid leader, Hasan ibn Zaid. In Transoxiana the Samanids (q.v.), the lieutenants of the Tahirids, assumed the responsibility of government and concentrated all political authority in their own hands. In Mesopotamia a powerful revolt of the Khawarij broke out, and in Arabia the tribesmen were ready to support any Shi'ite rising. In Egypt, the deputy governor Ahmad ibn Tulun, appointed in 868, set his hand to the task of restoring the prosperity of the ruined countryside and of creating a powerful Egyptian principality {see Egypt: History: Medieval Period). On the Greek frontier, after a bold raid on Amisus (Samsun) in 863, the Muslim garrisons were severely defeated and forced on the defensive. Finally, in 870, a rising of the Negro slaves in southern Iraq, under an Alid leader, had begun to assume serious dimensions. Al-Mu'tamid (870-892).—This desperate situation was slowly chiefs

retriev-ed during the reign of al-Mutawakkil's son Ahmad, entitled al-Mu'tamid. The real ruler was, however, his brother Abu Ahmad, known as al-Muwaffak, who had already distinguished himself as a soldier and who, aided by the exhaustion of the rival Turkish families, regained control over the guard. With immense effort he restored order and discipline in Iraq, defeated a Saffarid attempt to march on Baghdad (876) and finally, after many

reverses,

ended

overcame the Negro rebels

marshes above Basra Samarra was 883, by removing the seat of government back to Bagh-

The dangerous

(883). in

in the

isolation of the caliphs at

dad.

In the outer provinces, al-Muwaffak had to rely on diplomacy. Against Ibn Tulun he was practically powerless; Ibn Tulun's son and successor Khumaruya not only added Syria and Mesopo-

tamia to his dominions, but forced a formal investiture from the caliph. In Persia, the system of private wars and seizure of provinces had to be tolerated, and in Arabia the Shi'ites firmly established themselves in Yemen. Al-Mu'tadid (892-902) The fruits of al-Muwaffak's labours

—

were, however, reaped by his son Ahmad, entitled al-Mu'tadid, who began by forcing al-Mu'tamid to disinherit his son. By a wise choice of officers he secured unexampled harmony in the administration, which was reorganized and the financial system reformed. The Tulunids were conciliated by the caliph's marriage

with Khumaruya's daughter; the Saffarids were left in peace until they challenged the Samanids and were utterly defeated (900) the Mesopotamian Arabs and Kurds were subdued. But the last years of his reign were darkened by a sinister shadow. During the long period of disorders, the missionaries of the extreme Shi'ites or Ismailis had gained a ready following among the oppressed cultivators of lower Iraq and the Bedouin tribes of the Euphrates and northeastern Arabia. In 899 the long-prepared revolt broke out. The leader of the Karmatians {q.v.) or Karmatis. as they were called, Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, defeated the imperial troops, and w^ithdrew to al-Hasa,

where he founded

a

Karmatian

state.

Al-Muktafl (902-908).— Shortly 'tadid's son

Ali,

after the accession of al-Mu-

entitled al-Muktafi, the

Bedouin

tribes

on the

Syrian border rose under Karmatian leaders and, though defeated on Damascus, swept over all northern Syria. An imperial army defeated them in 904 and, taking advantage of the weakening of the Tulunid house, reoccupied Egypt in 905. The Bedouins of Mesopotamia were kept in order by the chiefs of the Hamdanid family who. though Shi'ite in sympathies, now laid the foundations of their future fortunes by alliance with the caliin their assault

phate. A second Karmatian rising on the Syrian border, followed by the massacre of a pilgrim caravan in lower Iraq, led to fresh

military operations against them, but the headquarters of the sect in northeastern Arabia remained inviolate. In the last year of al-Muktafi's reign the

Arab princes

of Tunisia

were driven out by Berber forces organized by Ismaili missionaries in the name of the rival caliphate of the Fatimids (q.v.).

Al-Muktadir (908-932).— The

restoration

of imperial con-

CALIPHATE

652

Buyid power weakened through internal disputes and the general disorganization, the growing re\'ulsion of feeling against Shi'ism invested them with a symbolic significance. Al-Kadir was

over the western provinces under the three previous caliphs which had imposed an immense strain on the The forces of disruption had only been temporarily checked by a succession of resolute and vigorous The accession of al-Muktafi's younger brother Ja'far, a rulers. boy of 13. who was saluted with the ironical title of al-Muktadir

as the

(the powerful through

God J. allowed the resumption of the inand seizures of authority which preluded the rapid and fatal decline of the Abbasid house. Al-Muktadir himself was twice deposed and reinstated, and met his death, sword in hand, in combat outside Baghdad. The mainstay of the caliphate for most of his reign was the general Mu'nis, who defeated the first Fatimid attempts to seize Egypt (915 and 921) and rectified the deteriorating situation on the Byzantine frontier. But against the Karmatians of Arabia the imperial arms were unavailing. After sacking Basra in 923 they created turmoil and dismay in Iraq for many years: Kufa suffered the same fate in 925 and Baghdad was itself threatened. In 929 a band of Karmatians raided Mecca and carried off the sacred Black Stone to their capital, where it remained for about 20 years. Al-Kahir, al-Radi, al-Muttaki and al-Mustakfi. The short

in Afghanistan,

ternal rivalries

the Buyid dominions from the east.

trol

was

a tour de force,

resources of the caliphate.

—

of al-Muktadir's depraved brother Mohammed al-Kahir (932-934) was notable only for the execution of the loyal Mu'nis.

reign

On

his deposition the troops elected al-Muktadir's son

Ahmad

al-

able to utilize this in order to reassert in some degree the prerogatives of the caliphate, the more so that his reign coincided with the career of the great Turkish conqueror Mahmud (q.v.) of Ghazni

who acknowledged

Al-Ka'im (1031-75).

his authority

and threatened

— In

the reign of his son Abdullah, entitled al-Ka'im. the Sunnis revival came to a head and the caliphate

was liberated from Shi'ite control. The agents of this revolution were the Seljuk Turks (see Seljuks). whose chief, Togrul Beg, defeated Mahmud's successor in 1040 and established himself in Khurasan. With the aid of the Sunnis Persian bureaucracy Togrul Beg built up a powerful administration which enabled him to control the nomadic forces under his command and make an orderly advance to the west. Summoned by the caliph to put an end to the anarchy of the later Buyid regime. Togrul Beg marched on Iraq, entered Baghdad in Dec. 1055 and was formally invested with In 1058. however, during a revolt of the Seljuk officer occupied Baghdad in the name of the Fatimid caliph of Eg>'pt and forced al-Ka'im to swear allegiance to his rival, who was quickly driven out again by Togrul Beg, under whose son Alp Arslan (1063-72) and the vizier Nizam-al-Mulk the

title

tribes, a

of sultan.

Dailamite

Radi (934-940), and al-Kahir was blinded. A pious and weUmeaning man, al-Radi lacked the force of character needed for the He was succeeded on his death by his brother Ibrahim times. al-Muttaki (940-944). whose attempt to use the Hamdanid princes of Mosul against the Turks led to his deposition and blinding in

the administration was reformed and order restored.

turn, with the complicity of his cousin Abdullah, son of al-Muktafi,

Abdullah,

who succeeded him with During

this

the

title

troubled period

of al-Mustakfi (944-946). the

authority of

scarcely extended outside Baghdad, and sists of little

more than

its

the

caliphate

external histor>' con-

the successive attempts of powerful gen-

In 936 al-Radi conferred on the victor of the moment, Ibn Ra'ik, the title of amir al-umara or generalissimo (see Amir), and henceforth the administraEgypt and tion was in his hands and those of his successors. Damascus were held by an independent Turkish governor, the Ikhshid; northern Syria and Mesopotamia by the Arab Hamdanids; Armenia and Azerbaijan by the Transoxanian Sajids. Meanwhile the mountaineers of Dailam. unified under the banner of Shi'ism, had begun from about 920 to expand over western Persia. Led by three brothers of the house of Buya or Buwayh. they constituted between 933 and 937 a powerful group of allied principalities from the Caspian sea to the Persian gulf (see Persian History). It could only be a matter of time before they crushed the petty rival amirates of Iraq; and after some preliminary probing the Buyid Ahmad marched on Baghdad and entered it without The caliph al-Mustakfi conferred on him a blow in Jan. 946. the title of Mu'izz al-Dawla. but was immediately seized and blinded. For a moment the Shi'ite conqueror thought of abohshing the Abbasid caliphate altogether, but for reasons of state reversed his decision and appointed another of al-Muktadir's sons, al-Fadl. to the vacant office, with the title of al-Muti'. Al-Muti', al-Ta'i' and al-Kadir. During the century of Buyid rule Baghdad was a provincial capital: and after an attempt by .\hmad's son Bakhtiyar to make himself independent there (977 it was generally held by the ruling prince of Fars. The administration which the Buyids inherited was already politically and financially bankrupt and few of them showed any administrative ability; rivalries between the younger princes and feuds between their Dailamite infantr\' and Turkish cavalr>' troops aggravated the general disorder. In all this the caliphs had little part or say. and their long and generally uneventful tenures tell their own tale. They no longer had viziers, but merely secretaries, and received a modest pension for their household needs. AlMuti" (946-974 was compelled to abdicate by reason of paralysis in favour of his son Abd-al-Karirn al-Ta'i' (974-991), who was in turn deposed by a Buyid amir wishing to loot his palace and But they replaced by his cousin .\hmad al-Kadir (991-1031). still exerted a certain inlluence upon the Sunnis bureaucracy, and erals to take possession of the city.

—

)

)

of the restoration of his authority the caliph vizier again, but his sphere of activity ligious matters.

Al-Muktadi (1075-94).

As a s\Tnbol

now had

his

own

remained confined to

re-

—

The reign of al-Ka'im's grandson entitled al-Muktadi, coincided with that of Alp son Malik Shah (1072-92). under whom the Seljuk empire reached its zenith. The Abbasid caliphate was now again acknowledged throughout Muslim Asia, although the caliph had In spite of in reality little more power than his predecessors. al-Muktadi's marriage with a daughter of the sultan, the first rifts began to disturb the harmony of their relations, but Malik Shah died before an open breach ensued. His last years were shadowed by the menace of a new Ismaili organization, the Assassins (q.v.),

Arslan's

who had

established themselves in

Dailam and had begun

to create

a reign of terror in northern Persia.

—

Al-Muktadi's son Ahmad, entitled al-Mustazhir, succeeded during a conflict between Malik Shah's sons, in which he was a passive onlooker. When order was restored under the strong hand of Sultan Mohammed (1105-18)

Al-Mustazhir (1094-1118).

and appeals for help against the crusaders came from the Muslims He left, however, a of Syria, the caliph showed little concern. great reputation for uprightness and fair-dealing. Al-Mustarshid (1118-35) and al-Rashid (1135-36).— After Sultan Mohammed's death the Seljuk power in Iraq began to be challenged with increasing boldness by provincial governors and Since the task of defending Baghdad the Arabs of lower Iraq. against their attacks often fell to the caliph, he was enabled to form again an army of his own. to intervene in the conflicts between Allocal rivals and even, on occasion, to take the offensive. Mustazhir's son al-Fadl, who succeeded his father as alMustarshid, after several military exploits of this kind, ended by organizing a coalition against Sultan Mas'ud (1133-52) and marched out against him. only to be deserted by his troops, captured and subsequently killed by assassins. His allies recognized his son Mansur as his successor, with the title of al-Rashid, but deserted him on the sultan's approach to Baghdad. After a brief resistance. al-Rashid fled to Azerbaijan and was formally deposed. Al-Muktafl (1136-60).— Al-Mustarshid's brother Mohammed installed in his place, with the title of al-Muktafi. It was this caliph who. after the death of Sultan Mas'ud, succeeded at last in

was

The Seljuk army regaining the independence of the caliphate. was defeated by the caliph's forces in 1155. and the sultan's attempt to capture Baghdad two years later failed ignominiously. By the end of his reign, the temporal power of the caliph extended over most of Iraq to the borders of Mosul. Al-Mustanjid (1160-70) and al-Mustadi (1170-80).— AlMuktafi's son Yusuf al-Mustanjid and grandson al-Hasan al-

CALISTHENICS—CALIXTUS Mustadi successfully maintained their control of Iraq against the Seljuks and the Arabs, but their government suffered from internal rivalries, in the course of which the former was assassinated. Although the suppression of the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt by Saladin (g.v.) in 1171 and the substitution of the Abbasid allegiance seemed to restore the position of the Abbasid caliphs as the only recognized caliphs in Islam outside northwest Africa and Spain, their reassertion of temporal power in Iraq had rather the contrary effect of depressing them to the status of rulers of one among many petty kingdoms. Al-Nasir (1180-1225). Al-Mustadi's son Ahmad, who on suc-

—

ceeding his father took the

title

of al-Nasir,

made

his constant

it

Muslim

653

who

should be descended from the prophet's tribe of Quraish (Koreish) had, in fact, long been discarded, though independent princes, moved by antique piety or uneasy consciences, might still from time to time apply to the caliphs for a diploma of investiture or title of honour. Later jurists, particularly after the Mongol conquests, held that the true caliphate had come to an end with the four original caliphs of Medina and that subsequent holders of temporal power, by whatever name they might be called, derived their authority directly from God. In the diplomatic styles of most princes, from the 13th century onward, the terms "sultanate," "imamate" and "caliphate" became interchangeable in their ruler,

local application.

This, or a parallel theory, underlay the usage of sultans also and was continued by them after

emerge from this equivocal position and to revive the universal empire of the early caliphs. Through an

the early

Khwarizm (then the rulers of eastern Persia) the Seljuk sultanate was finally destroyed, and the caliph was able to add part of its Persian territories to his dominions

them was always sultan, not khalifa. But in course of time the vast dominions and long rule of the Ottoman sultans endowed their line with something of the prestige which had formerly been associated with the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad; and in the 19th century Turkish diplomatists found it convenient in their relations with Christian powers to make use of the false analogy current in Europe between the caliph and the pope and to claim for the sultan spiritual authority over all Muslims,

aim and ambition

to

alliance with the shahs of

But the result was only to bring him into conflict with former allies, and these local interests distracted him from whom he was, in any case, jealous in the desperate struggle of the third crusade. The breach went so far that in 1215 the shah of Khwarizm had al-Nasir declared deposed, and in 1217 sent a force against Baghdad, which was turned back, however, by snowstorms and Kurdish attacks in the mountains. The caliph, on his part, incited the shah's eastern neighbours and rivals against him; but there is little evidence for the story that he invoked the help of Genghis Khan (g.v.), whose Mongol armies invaded Transoxiar.a and Khurasan in 1220, leaving a trail of burned cities and depopulated countryside. Al-Zahir (1225-26), al-Mustansir (1226-42) and alMusta'sim (1242-58). Under al-Nasir's son Mohammed and (1190).

his

giving effective support to Saladin (of )

—

grandson al-Mansur the presence of the Mongols in Persia prevented further attempts at expansion, except within the boundaries of Iraq. Al-Mustansir's son Abdullah, entitled al-Musta'sim, by refusing to ally himself with the Mongols against the Assassins, provided a pretext for the final attack. Hulagu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, had crossed the Oxus at the head of fresh Mongol forces and, after destroying the Assassin strongholds, summoned the caliph to appear before him and to dismantle Baghdad. On his refusal the city in 1258 was invested, surrendered and sacked, and al-Musta'sim put to death.

Later Abbasids. its

—The

Abbasid caliphate had played, for

pretensions, so small a part in the real political

Muslim world sensational as its political

of the

for so it

was,

many centuries made no change

Egypt: History).

of Baghdad,

in the general structure of

The defense of Islam against the menace Mameluke sultans of Egypt (see After the defeat of the first Mongol invasion of to the

Syria, Sultan Baybars, with the

refugee

fall

all

of the

institutions.

Mongols passed

political

that the

life

and the

Ahmad,

religious

aim of securing

for

Egypt both the

leadership of Islam, proclaimed the

a brother of al-Mustansir, caliph, with the

same

1261. His pretensions proved irritating, and Baybars, havaccompanied him as far as Damascus on an expedition to recover Baghdad, allowed him to proceed by himself with what forces he could collect and he was defeated and killed at Hit (1262). In the next year a new Abbasid caliph from a cadet title, in

ing

;

branch was installed, but with diminished and purely formal powers; and this shadow caliphate continued in his line until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. Except for a brief moment, in 1412, when a caliph occupied the sultanate, they had little influence and less power and only exceptionally enjoyed the recognition of a foreign prince. The last of the line, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken to Constantinople by Sultan Selim I, but returned to Cairo, where he died in 1538. The supposed transfer of his prerogatives to the Ottoman sultan is not confirmed by any contemporary Arabic or Turkish sources.

OTTOMAN CLAIMS The old Sunnis orthodox, or classical, theory of the caliishate which, based upon the history of its first two centuries, assumed that

all

Muslims would always

live

under the government of one

Ottoman

the conquest of Egypt; in the public prayers, the

even

if

title

applied to

these were not actually his subjects.

Abdul-Hamid

II (1876-1909) especially emphasized this claim, and from the outset of his reign endeavoured to obtain recognition of himself as caliph by sending emissaries to Egypt, Tunis, India, Afghanistan, Indonesia and China. This was the basis of the "panIslamic" policy, w-hich was continued even after his deposition in favour of his successors. The attempt to implement this policy when Turkey entered World War I in 1914 by the proclamation of a jihad, or "holy war," summoning all Muslims to fight in defense of the caliphate, showed up the unreality of the Ottoman claim, although many Muslims, especially in India, were distressed at the fact of hostilities between Turkey and the governments to which they gave their loyalty. The abolition of the caliphate by the Turkish grand national assembly in March 1924 caused even greater perturbation among Muslims. An attempt by King Husain of the Hejaz (see Husain ibn Ali) to fill the vacuum met with little support outside Arabia and Syria, and an international

Caliphate congress held at Cairo in 1926 decided in effect that until the Islamic peoples could join in establishing a new caliphate the office remained in abej'ance. See also references under "Caliphate" in the Index volume. (H. A. R. G.; X.) all

—

Bibliography. C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Islamischen Volker rind Staaten (1939), Eng. trans, by J. Carmichael and M. Perlmann, History of the Islamic Peoples (1949); Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in History (1950) H. A. R. Gibb, "An Interpretation of Islamic History" in Journal of World History, vol. i (1953) Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline and Fall, rev. ed. (1924) C. Diehl and G. Mar(;ais, Histoire du moyen age, vol. iii (1936) B. Spuler, Geschichte der islamischen Lander: 1. Die C halif enzeit 2. Die Mongolenzeil (1952), Eng. trans, by F. R. C. Bagley, The Muslim World (1960) J. WeUhausen. Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz (1902), Eng. trans, by M. Weir, The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall (1927) L. Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, 10 vol. (1905-26) to a.d. 660 and Chronographica Islamica, 5 vol. (1912) to A.D. 750; F. Gabriel!, // Califfato di Hisham (1935) A. Mez, Die Renaissance des Islams (1922), Eng. trans, by S. Khuda Bakhsh and D. S. Margoliouth, The Renaissance of Islam (1937) W. Barthold, Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion (1928). See also the critical bibliography in J. Sauvaget, Introduction a I'histoire de I'orient musulman, pp. 115-161 (1943). (H. A. R. G.; W. M. Wt.) ;

;

;

;

,

.

.

.

;

;

;

;

CALISTHENICS, bodily exercises done without the use of apparatus or with light hand apparatus, used to develop grace and co-ordination or to "loosen up" muscles before participating in other strenuous activities, particularly body contact sports such as football or boxing. For competitive calisthenics see Gymnastics. (Callistus), the name of three popes and one

CALIXTUS

antipope.

Calixtus

I (d. 222),

pope from 217 or 21S

to 222,

was

little

known before the discovery of the book of the Philosophumena. From this work which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a slave. Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile to Sardinia. On his re-

CALIXTUS— CALLANDER

654

turn from exile he was pensioned by Pope Victor. Later he was associated with Pope Zephyrinus in the government of the Roman Church. After the death of Zephyrinus (217 he was elected in I

and occupied the papal chair for about five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus (q.v.), the author of the Philosophmnena, accused him of having favoured the modalist or Patripassian doctrines (see Monarchi.'^nism both before and after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most prominent champion of modalism. Hippolytus accused him also his place

)

of certain relaxations of discipline.

It

appears that Calixtus re-

duced the penitential severities applied against fornication and adultery, which the church had previously regarded as irremissible except by God Himself. Under Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. In the time of Constantine the Roman Church reckoned him officially (L. D. X.) among the martyr popes. Calixtus II (Guy of Burgundy) (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to Appointed the 1 1 24, was a son of William I, count of Burgundy. archbishop of Vienne in 1088, he rose to fame as the fearless spokesman of the reform party and critic of imperial policy. ;

When

Gelasius II died at Cluny, the cardinals there elected Guy He made his way to Reims, to succeed him, on Feb. 2, rug. where he held a synod in which lay investiture was again con-

demned and

Henry

V

and the antipope Gregory VIII were again excommunicated. In 11 20 Calixtus was able to enter Rome in triumph. The German princes now forced the emperor to come to terms with the pope, and the concordat of Worms was the emperor

negotiated (1122) to For the conclusion of This, the first 9th). ratified the concordat

of Lutherans, Calvinists

Roman

and

1586.

14,

After studying philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstedt, Jena, Giessen, Tiibingen and Heidelberg he traveled through Holland. France

and England, where he became acquainted with the In 1614 he was appointed professor of theology at Helmstedt. and he held this post for 40 years, making Helmstedt a centre of reasonableness in an age of bitter theologileading reformers.

cal controversy.

Calixtus constantly pressed for a milder treatment of confesand thought that a basis for the reunion of all

sional differences,

the churches could be found in the study of the Christian fathers. His ideas were those later advocated (also fruitlessly) by Leibniz. In 1613 he published a book. Disputationes de praecipuis religionis christianae capitibus, which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he published his Epitome theologiae, and several years later his Theologia Moralis (1634) and De Arte Nova Nihmii. Statius Buscher charged the author with a secret

Romanism. Calixtus refuted the accusation of Buscher, but after the conference of Thorn 1645 a charge of a secret attachment to Calvinism was preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius. The disputes on the possi-

leaning to

1

(

bilities

by Calixtus

of the reconciliation desired

—

—known

in the

church as the syncretistic controversy lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran Church, until a new controversy arose with P. J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died on March 16, 1656. See E. L. T. Henke, Georg Calixtus und seine Zeit, 2 vol. (1853-

terminate the contest over the investiture.

60).

CALLA, a genus of plants of the arum family (Araceae, q.v.), comprising only one species (C. palustris). known as arum lily, water arum or wild calla, found widely in wet places in cool north temperate and subarctic regions. It is a handsome plant, with heart-shaped leaves, showy white flowering spathes and a fruit

I

in

would permit reunion

Catholics, was born at Medelbye, Schleswig. on Dec.

peace, Calixtus called a general council (the

Lateran council, met on March 18, 1125, and published important reforming canons. On Dec. 13 or 14, 1124, Calixtus "died in the peace of the Church which he, by God's help, had established." His bull Etsi Jiidaeis afforded a considerable measure of protection to the Jewish ( 1 1 20

community

that

Rome.

The

cluster of brilliant red berries.

juice of C. palustris

is

vio-

lently poisonous.

The well-known

See U. Robert, Histoire du pape Calixte II (i8qi) A. Fliche, La Reforme gree,orienne et la reconquHe chrelienne (1946) C. J. Hefele, Histoire des conciles, trans, by H. Leclercq, vol. v, pt. i (1912).

or calla lily, of the gardeners comprises several species of Zantedeschia, the chief of which is Z. aethiopica of South .\frica. a stout herb with

CALIXTT.TS III (John of Struma), antipope from 1168 to 11 78, was elected as Paschal Ill's successor in opposition to Alexander in. He was the protege of the emperor Frederick I Barbarossa until the treaty of Anagni (1176). This ended the schism in Alexander's favour, with the proviso that Calixtus should have an abbacy to compensate him for his deposition. Calixtus nevertheless ignored the treaty and remained obstinate even after the conclusion of the peace of Venice (1177) between Frederick and the Lombards. In Aug. 1 1 78, however, he submitted to Alexander, who

a brilliantly white corolla and arrowhead-shaped leaves, widely grown for the florist trade. The

;

;

calla,

golden or yellow- calla

is

Z.

the pink or red calla lily, rehmannii. Z. aethiopica is grown outdoors in mild climates, as

is

Z.

but

him generously. Calixtus III (Alfonso de Borja. or Borgia) (1378-1458'). pope from 1455 to 145S, was born near Xativa. in \'alencia, Spain, on Dec. 31. 1378. As professor of law at Lerida. he won a great reputreated

in

all calla lilies

the

grown

are best

greenhouse

where

they

need a rich soil, plenty of water and a temperature of about 60°.

Dormant

for juristic learning and austerity of life. He attached himself to Alphonso \'. king of .\ragon and Sicily, and his services

are

master with the pope gained him the bishopric of \'alencia in 1429 and the cardinalate in 1444. After a struggle in the conclave between the Colonna and Orsini, he was chosen pope on April 8. 1455. as a compromise candidate w'ho was unlikely to last long in view of his advanced age. The master idea of his pontificate was the organization of a crusade to recover Constantinople from the Turks. In this he failed, despite heroic efforts, but he raised a pontifical fleet which did good work in relieving many of the Aegean islands. The repulse of the Turks from Belgrade on .Aug. 6. 1456, marked the turn of the tide, and Calixtus commemorated it by instituting the feast of the Transfiguration (1457) and ordering that it be observed on that day. His personal life was blameless, but he followed the fashion of his time in showering favours on his nephew, Rodrigo Borgia, whom he made cardinal and generalissimo of the papal forces. He died on Aug. 6. 1458. (C. H. Le.) CALIXTUS (Calixt), (1586-1656), German Protestant theologian who tried to develop a theological system

sand,

tation

leaf

HORTICULTURAL VARIETIES CALLA LILY ZANTEDESCH lA (

parts

2 2

7-in.

pots

cow manure.

parts loam and

mold.

When

through

filled 1

2

part parts

flow'er-

ing the pots should be plunged

OF

outdoors for the summer. (N. Tr.)

I

CALLANDER,

fleshy roots or tubers

planted in

with

in reconciling his

GEORG

lily

South Africa,

elliottiana, also of

a small burgh of Perthshire, Scot..

16 mi. 1961 1.654. It is mainly on the north side of the Teith. there crossed by a three-arched bridge. It owes much of its prosperity to its position on the road from Edinburgh to Oban and Fort 'William and to its proximity to the Trossachs. Loch Katrine {qq.v.), and Lochs Achray and Vennachar. This rortiantic and scenic region was described in Sir

N.W.

of Stirling

by road.

Pop.

(

)

Walter Scott's The Lady of the Lake. Ben Ledi (2.873 ft.) is W.N.W., and 1^ mi. N.E. are the Bracklinn falls. Northwestward road and raihvay enter the Pass of Leny, 4 mi. beyond which is Loch Lubnaig ("the crooked lake"). 4;| mi. long and divided into two reaches by a picturesque rock. Little Leny, ancestral burial ground of the Buchanans, is nearby. 4 mi.

CALLAO— CALLES CALLAO,

655

the principal seaport and warehouse centre of Peru, on the central coast of the republic at 12° 05' S., and 77°

As the port of Callao serves the mining and agricultural areas of the Central Sierra and Lima,

08' W. Although it is the seaport for the capital city of Lima, about 8 mi. inland. Callao is a constitutional province (Proviticia Coustitiicional del Callao). Pop. (1958 est.) of the province of the city 1 29.365. Occupying an area of 28 sq.mi., with 1 75.332 an inner harbour of 655 ac. the province includes the port of Callao: its suburbs. La Punta. Bellavista and Chucuito; and several islands, notably San Lorenzo. Fronton and Las Palominas. In addition to its maritime role. Callao. in conjunction with Lima,

about 60'; of the country's exports and imports pass through the it handles a significant volume of coastal traffic as well. In terms of tonnage, the leading exports are minerals, refined metals and general cargo such as wool, cotton, hides and fish meal; the chief imports include such items as wheat, machinery, lumber, newsprint and automobiles. The industrial establishment of the city of Callao comprises metallurgical industries, lumber mills, flour mills, soap and candle factories, sugar refineries, breweries and meat-packing plants. Agricultural products grown in the province, chiefly for the local market, include vegetables, fruits, maize and sugar cane. The suburb of La Punta. site of the naval academy, is a popular

lies

;

is

part of Peru's chief industrial and commercial district.

It is

connected with the capital city by three major highways, a railroad and an electric interurban line. The average annual temperature is about 66° F., and there is little seasonal variation. The annual rainfall seldom exceeds 2 in., but overcast, misty days are common. The north-flowing current of cold water, called the

duce sea and

air

temperatures

Humboldt

many

current, helps to pro-

degrees colder than

is

usual

for this latitude.

In selecting the Lima-Callao site for his capital in 1535 (actually founded in 1537) Francisco Pizarro recognized that the area afforded two advantages: it was suitable for irrigation with an

abundant supply of water from the Rio Rimac and it had a tine anchorage protected by a large offshore island and a long promontory of land pointing toward the island from the mainland. The harbour was given further protection from the sea, in modern times, by breakwaters: its entrance and channels have a depth of 37 ft. \ modern maritime terminal was opened in 1935 and the shipping facilities were improved by the construction of a 570-ft. drydock in 1938; a naval arsenal was completed the same year. :

As the leading shipping point for the gold and silver taken by the Spanish conquerors from the Inca empire, the port was frequently assaulted by pirates and the European rivals of Spain. It was pillaged by Sir Francis Drake in 1578. A tidal wave, following an earthquake, inundated Callao in 1746. and the city w-as rebuilt about three-quarters of a mile from the original site. The extensive fortification called Castillo del Real Felipe was built after the disaster. It withstood a number of sieges by Spanish forces during the wars of independence. Simon Bolivar landed at Callao in Sept. 1823 and three years later it was the scene of the final surrender of Spain. The city was bombarded by a Spanish fleet in 1866 in a vain effort by that country to regain its lost colonies. In 1881, during the War of the Pacific {q.v.) it was occupied by Chilean forces. Chile restored the port to Peru in 1883 by the treaty of xAncon. Further rebuilding of the city and port was necessary after a severe earthquake in 1940. In 1958 the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development made a loan of $6,575,000 for the improvement and expansion of the port of Callao. It was expected that Peru's competitive position in world markets would be improved and that the nation's foreign trade earnings would be increased with the completion of the development program. The loan was made to the Port of Callao Authority, an autonomous agency which operates the port. The authority was established in 1952 after the bank had made a loan of $2,500,000 to the Peruvian government for the purchase of cargo-handling equipment. The planned expansion consisted of the construction of a new two-berth pier for the handling of petroleum products, a new berth with mechanical equipment for the loading of minerals, two new general cargo berths, three new storage sheds, improved accom-

modations for passengers, the purchase of two diesel tugs and a cutter section dredge, new maintenance shops and a gear store. petroleum pier was designed to permit tankers discharging inflammable loads to berth away from other ships and thus greatly

A new

reduce the risks of explosion and fire involved when general cargo ships use the same pier as the tankers. The new installations for handling bulk minerals were to have a capacity up to 14.000 tons

compared with the former loading rate of between 500 and The addition of two new general cargo berths, together with those released when the petroleum and mineral berths are daily

800 tons.

commissioned, were to give Callao a total of 12 general cargo it to cope with the long-term growth of general

berths and enable

cargo and refined metals

traffic.

port;

seaside resort.

CALLENDAR, HUGH LONGBOURNE

(J. L.

Tr

;

(1863-1930), British phj-sicist best known for his work in heat and thermodynamics, was born at Hatherop in Gloucestershire. Educated at Marlborough and at Cambridge, he was professor of physics at McGill university, Montreal (1893-98); at University college, London (1S98-1902) and at the Imperial College of Science. Callendar was successful in devising and carrying out accurate methods of heat measurement and in designing new apparatus. The electrical resistance thermometer, with the Callendar-Griffiths bridge and various recording devices used with it. was the subject of papers published in 1886-87. This was followed by his work on the electrical continuous flow calorimeter, giving a new method of measuring specific heats of liquids, which eliminated the water equivalent of the apparatus and simplified the radiation correction; the full description was given in 1902. In addition. Callendar was responsible for a compensated air thermometer (i8gi) and a radio-balance (1910).

His researches on steam {q.v.) led to the formulation of the Callendar steam equation and the publication of Callendar Steam Tables (1Q15); Properties of Steam and Thermodynamic Theory (1921); Abridged Callendar Steam Tables C. and F. Units (1922

and 1927). and Callendar Steam Diagram C. and F. Units (1922). In 1925 he presented a report to the Electrical Research association on the continuous flow method of measuring the total heat of steam at high pressures. Callendar was the author of a number of papers on various subjects such as internal combustion engines, thermometric scales, radiation, vapour pressure, osmotic pressure of solutions, absolute expansion of mercury and the boiling point of sulfur. He was also responsible for Air Ministry reports and memoranda on work carried out by himself and colleagues on Dopes and Detonation (1926 and on the effect of antiknock compounds on engine knock (1927). He died in London on Jan. 21. 1930. Callendar was a member and officer of many societies; he was awarded the Rumlord Medal of the Royal Society in 1906 and the first Duddell Memorial Medal of the Physical Society in 1924; he received the C.B.E. in 1920. (D. Hy. )

)

CALLES, PLUTARCO ELIAS

1

1877-1945). president of

Mexico, was born at Guaymas, Sonora. Sept. 25. 1877. Of humble was a schoolteacher before entering politics as a member of the revolutionary movement. He served the cause of conorigin, he

stitutionalism in the successive struggles against Victoriano Huerta

and Pancho Villa. In 1917 he became governor of Sonora and sponsored notable labour and agrarian legislation. In 1919 Calles was appointed secretary of commerce, labour and industry under Pres. Venustiano Carranza, but resigned to support Alvaro Obregon's candidacy. A member of the Sonora triumvirate that overthrew Carranza in 1920. Calles served in the provisional government of De la Huerta and as secretary of interior under C)breg6n. His own term as president. 1924-28. was marked by a continuation, if somewhat modified, of the agrarian, labour and educational program of the

Mexican revolution. Programs of irrigation, agricultural credit and road building were initiated. The stability of the regime was threatened by controversy with the United States over the passage of alien land and petroleum laws and by a Catholic rebellion precipitated by application of

—

CALLIAS—CALLIGRAPHY

656 the

religious

The

and

educational

provisions

vacuum

of

the

Obregon

assassination of President-elect

political

that only Calles could

fill.

constitution.

1928 created a For the next six

in

years he remained the power behind the president. Cynicism prevailed as the agrarian program was slowed and labour's power curbed. In 1936 Lazaro Cardenas, although elected with the support of Calles, successfully asserted his independence. Forced into exile, Calles lived in California until 1941, when he returned

Mexico City. He died there on Oct.

See also Mexico. (S. R. R.) CALLIAS HIPPONICUS, names borne alternately by the heads of a noble and wealthy Athenian family in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. The office of dadiichus (torchbearer) at the Eleusinian mysteries, which was hereditary in the clan Ceryces, to

19, 1945.

AND

was held by all those listed below. Callias (5th century B.C.), second of the name, an influential figure who won three victories at Olympia and married Elpinice, sister of Cimon. He distinguished himself at Marathon (490), but his best-known activities came at the end of his life, his embassy to Susa and the negotiation of peace between Athens and Persia in 449 (this last has been doubted, but on insufficient grounds), and his part in the Thirty Years' peace between Athens and Sparta in 446.

—

BiBLiocRAPHY. Herodotus, vii, 151; Diodorus, xii, 4, 7; Plutarch, Cimon, 13 Demosthenes, On the Embassy, 273 H. T. VVade-Gery, EsE. M. Walker, Cambridge ;

;

says in Greek History, pp. 201-232 (1958) Ancient History, v, pp. 469^71 (1927).

HiPPONicus (5th century

;

B.C.), son of the

above, with Nicias

and Eurymedon commanded the Athenian forces which won a minor victory near Tanagra in 426, and was killed at the battle of Delium in 424 (see Peloponnesian War). He was the first husband of the wife of Pericles.

—

BrELioGRAPHY. Thucydldes, iii, 91 speech wrongly attributed to Andocides, Against Akibiades, 13; Plutarch, Pericles, 24; Isocrates, On the Team of Horses, 31. ;

Callias (5th^th century b.c), son of the above-mentioned Hipponicus, was ridiculed by the comic poets for his extravagance in youth; he also quarreled with Andocides who attacked him violently in his speech On the Mysteries. But he was friendly with the philosophers, and his house is the scene of Xenophon's Symposium and Plato's Protagoras. In 390 during the Corinthian War he commanded the Athenian hoplite force at Corinth, on the occasion when Iphicrates' lighter-armed troops destroyed a Spartan regiment. In 371 he headed the embassy which made peace with Sparta shortly before the Spartans were defeated by the Thebans at Leuctra; in the speech which Xenophon attributes to him on this occasion, caricaturing his vanity, he asserts that he had led two such embassies successfully before.

—

BiBLioGR.\PHY. Aristophanes, Frogs, 429, Birds, 283 Andocides, On the Mysteries, 110-131; Xenophon, Symposium, 1; Plato, Protagoras, 311a; Xenophon, Hellenica, iv, 5, 13-15; vi, 3, 2-6. (A. .\s,.) ;

CALLIERES, FRANCOIS DE

(1645-1717), French diplomat, famous for his exposition of the principles of diplomacy, was born at Torigny in Normandy. Having been sent on diplomatic missions to Poland (three times), to Savoy (twice), to Holland and to Bavaria in the period 1670-93, he went as French plenipotentiary to Holland in 1695 and 1696 for the preliminaries of the peace of Ryswick (1697). His success there was rewarded by Louis XIV with the post of cabinet secretary (1698). After a mission to Lorraine (1700), he spent the rest of his life at Versailles or in Paris, where he died on March 5, 1717. Callieres had been elected to the Academic Frangaise in 1689 for a panegyric of Louis XIV (1688). This and most of his other writings (guides to courtly behaviour and polite conversation) are now rarely remembered but his treatise De la maniere de negocier avec les souverains (1716; modern Eng. trans.. The Practice of Diplomacy, London, 1919) remains a model introduction to its subject, covering the qualifications, duties, conduct and methods of the ideal negotiator and showing sound psychological insight in its assessment of the proper use of flattery and bribery and in its condemnation of trickery as prejudicial to the confidence that an envoy must inspire. (J. G. R.-S.) ;

CALLIGRAPHY means

is

the art of fine writing.

Writing

is

a

communication by agreed signs; if these signs or symbols are painted or engraved on wood or stone the result is an extension and application of writing known as lettering, i.e., a large script generally formed with mechanical aids such as the rule, compass and square. But it is the essence of handwriting that it be free from such, though not from all, government; and of of

beautiful handwriting that it possess style. When the agreed forms passing through a mind sensitive to symmetry are expressed upon'

vellum, paper or other suitable material by an instructed hand with an appropriate tool, the result may be a handwriting possessing style. Calligraphy may be defined as freehand in which the freedom is so nicely reconciled with order that the understanding eye is pleased in contemplating it. Hence the reader immediately recognizes the beauty resulting from proper proportion of the components to the whole of a letter, and between the parts to the

whole of a word.

Many

scripts of the

remote or recent

past, such as the Rustic Capitals, Uncial, Half-Uncial, the Caroline Minuscule and the later Gothics, demonstrate that handwrit-

though an elementary craft, is capable of infinite variations. Changes of fashion so affect the form, the cutting of the tool and the manner of holding it that a collection of the hands employed in pre-Renaissance Europe exhibits a series of almost ing,

bewildering variations. The necessity for speed is the first great cause of variation; a second equally potent occasion lies in the use of special hands for certain purposes. In the medieval period, outside the monastic scriptoria where the most formal upright and deliberate text hands were written, there were several recognized classes occupied with writing, such as clerks, public scriveners and public notaries, as well as certain others who were precursors of the later professional writing masters. Finally, there

were writers of the special hands used in documents issued from the papal and other chanceries. Most of these classes, in the hope of preventing forgery, wrote hands of deliberate complexity. Renaissance Developments. The Renaissance, by its reaction from the complicated late Gothic and reversion to the simpler Caroline hands, changed the writing tradition of all Europe, but not all the cisalpine countries adopted the new hands simultaneously the tenacity, in fact, of Gothic is still not completely broken in its chief stronghold, Germany. Though the humanists deliberately reverted to the Caroline hand, theirs was not a barren

—

—

facsimile of the 9th-century letter for, since they laboured for a

return to classical traditions,

many

scribes broke completely with

the Caroline exemplars in the matter of majuscules, so that adap-

formed Roman inscription

tions of the old geometrically

letters

appear upon the vellum pages of humanistic codices equally with majuscules based upon the fine Tours forms. The Renaissance did more than merely revert to the art styles of antiquity. In its early phase it was a movement in which a limitless curiosity of the mind the mark of the true humanist predominated and had not yet aroused the jealousy of the church. Indeed, in the early 15th century, ecclesiastics vied with secular scholars in the task of renewing art and science. Acknowledgment is due the secular humanistic scribes for the fine round book letter that is the foundation of roman printing, and to the scriveners of the papal chancery for the running hand. In an age in which science, religion and art were the chief interests, with commerce subordinate, these novel scripts were introduced and propagated by artists and ecclesiastics, while merchants, bankers and lawyers kept accounts and indited conveyances in a tortuous Gothic. The development of handwriting owes nothing to commerce until the

—

following century.

In medieval society the development of handwriting depended

upon the

Hands were

and and judicial requirements. Like other courts, the Roman Curia maintained (and maintains) a group of canon lawyers and scriveners known as the Apostolic Chancery from which were issued papal bulls, and later a more modest class of document. A small, easily formed hand was reserved by order of Pope Eugenius IV (143147) for the engrossing of these minor documents that were written swiftly {brevi manu) and known as "briefs." The script itself officials of

books written

church and

state.

inv-ented

in ^accordance with liturgical, administrative

!

CALLIGRAPHY

Plate

bESJEf^ORE.

la^.™.ii y^-tckd-oe WUief -art

^m.

ti«fefUi7uiiA' Ifit".

% T^

^.WiW

qat Y. &.£ -gio

^ittifk

^^iZxoi'

>i!uw'"it€-'"rurAil-q3.

It,

ITloiw ui[:;a.fct.

ca^. ^iM- fq.!!! " jwocic im .'7,i. trwUni ^.Vi T.R.t. u futtf-ti. cxr.l\tr!xi\^2" •fc*'^»««^7ini.vi.|it-

!

.;

AIm'^'"' V).

Iti'imo ftt>TC.li.af."'un ultt-7

itnuef

a«Wici'.i.car"Aiica, Cambrica, a veteribtts scripta; 1602). and some of In 1607 he was his commonplace collections (Remaines ; 1605). commissioned to write an official account in Latin of the gunpowder plot. In the same year he began his Annates rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum regnante Elizabetha, a history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. suggested by Burghley. who had sent him many official documents.

The

was published

first

volume, which took the story down to 158S, The second, completed in 1617, was not

in 1615.

published until two years after Camden's death. Camden's work has been the basis of most later accounts of the reign. Some criticism has been leveled at his treatment of the Mary Queen of Scots episode, and it was alleged that he altered his account to please

James

I.

tion.

The

The work first

is

based on manuscripts

English editions of the

first

in the Cotton collecand second parts ap-

peared in 1625 and 1629 respectively. The best edition is T. Hearne's (1717 ). Camden suftered from poor health, and in 1618 he retired to Chislehurst. Kent. He died there on Nov. 9, 1623. Before his death he founded a chair of history at Oxford university. Camden was acquainted with many leading scholars, English and continental, and with most of the prominent figures at court. He sought no high office and refused both the post of master of requests and a knighthood. The Camden society, founded in 1838, published many useful historical documents and was merged with the Royal Historical society in 1897.

Camden has a special place among English antiquarians. He was the leading historical writer for a generation influenced by the Renaissance and eager to learn of its Roman past, and for a public which included statesmen and ecclesiastics who, saw historical precedent as a guide to present

for the first time,

action.

Whereas

was a solitary eccentric whose work known, Camden was an active member of the Society of Antiquaries, founded about 1585, that brought historical scholars together for the first time, and so laid the foundations for the great school of 17th-century historians. Camden was the first to realize his only precursor. Leland,

was

little

the importance of ancient languages in the study of place names,

and to make known the existence of Romano-British coins. His work was a model for later writers and his dispute with the herald, Brooke, was to prove the first of a long line of historical controversies.

Bibliography.

— Camden's correspondence was published by T. Smith

Maunde Thompson in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (igo6) P. Styles and S. Piggott, English Historical Scholarship in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, ed. by L. Fox (ig56) J. Evans, History of the Society of Antiquaries (1956) D. C. Douglas, English Scholars, 1660— lyjo, 2nd ed. (1951). (Rd. C. G.) See also E.

(i6gi).

;

by M. Maclagan,

articles

;

;

CAMDEN,

one of the 32 London boroughs that came into 1, 1965, under the provisions of the London

existence on April

Government Act 1963, which reorganized

local

government

in the

metropolis and the area around it. These i2 boroughs constitute Greater London {see London). Camden, one of the 12 inner London boroughs, is composed of the former metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead, Holborn, and St. Pancras. See Hampstead;

HoLBORN Saint Pancras. ;

CAMDEN,

an industrial city

100 mi. S.W. of Little Rock.

in

south central Arkansas, U.S.,

Camden began

as a trading post in

With steamboat traffic up the Ouachita river in 1822, followed by the coming of three railroads. Camden developed as An earlier settlement was called 6core a a distribution centre. Fabre (''Fabre's bluff"), named after the first permanent white settler. In 1844, when it was incorporated, the name was changed by Gen. Thomas Woodward for his home at Camden, Ala. Evidence of the American Ci\'il War is found at Poison Springs battle1783.

ground. Ft. Lookout, Unknown Confederate Soldiers cemetery and well-kept ante-bellum homes. Camden's fastest growth began in the 1920s with completion of a year-round navigation system on the river, discovery of the Smackover oil fields and the location of a paper mill in the city. Other Camden industries using the area's timber and mineral resources manufacture bags, bag machines, books, air conditioners, mobile homes, furniture, brick, pottery, soft drink sirups and roofing. For comparative population figures see table in Arkansas: Population. (W. E. S.)

CAMDEN,

a city in New Jersey, U.S., and seat of Camden on the Delaware river opposite Philadelphia, Pa., with connected by a suspension bridge that was opened to The site was originally known as Cooper's Ferry. traffic in 1926. In 1681, the year Philadelphia was founded, William Cooper built a home near the mouth of the Cooper river and named the tract Pyne Point. In 1689 he assumed control over the ferry to Philadelphia. Two other prominent settlers were John Kaighn and Archibald Mickle, for whom streets have been named. Settlement, which was largely by Quakers, was slow, however, and for decades it was claimed that Camden existed out of the necessity for crossing the Delaware in order to reach Philadelphia. In 1773 interest in real estate grew when Jacob Cooper, a descendant of William, laid out 40 ac. as a townsite. He named the

county,

which

is

it is

Camden, whose outmade him popular with the .American colonists. The development of the new village was impeded by the American Revolution, as Camden was often held by the British when they occupied Philadelphia. In the 19th century improvements in transportation brought new growth. While ferry services increased, the advent of the location

Camden

for Charles Pratt, 1st earl of

spoken opposition

to British taxation policies

In 1834 the cross-state railroad provided the greater impetus. Camden and Amboy railroad was built and for six years Camden enjoyed better railroad facilities than Philadelphia in reaching By this time, too, the town had the New York city market. achieved its political independence. In 1828 it was set apart from Newton township and incorporated as a city; in 1844 it was selected as a seat of the newly formed Camden county. E.xpansion occurred in the years following the American Civil War, a period marked by the inauguration and growth of the

CAMDEN— CAMEL CORPS

697

town's important industries. The oldest steel pen company in the U.S., established in 1858, developed in these years, as did a canning plant which opened in 1867 and started marketing condensed soups in 1897. The Victor company, founded in 1894, developed the talking machine. A shipbuilding company was established in 1S99 on the south Camden waterfront. Other industries include furniture, chemical products, paper industries machinery, bookbinding, leather, plastics, automobile accessories, plumbing' fixtures

and

Among

Although it travels at a slower rate (two to three miles per hour) than the Arabian camel, the Bactrian can maintain this pace for a longer time in caravan, usually

averaging 30 mi. per day while carrying a 400-lb. load. The height of the Bactrian

electrical appliances.

seven

the points of interest are the

where the poet spent the

last eight

Walt Whitman house,

years of his

life;

the

Pop. (1960) 117,159. For comparative population figures see New Jersey: Population. (H. F. Wi.)

CAMDEN,

a city of South Carolina, U.S., 32 mi. N.E. of Columbia; seat of Kershaw county. The first settlers in the area established farms along the nearby Wateree river about 1733. In 1758 Joseph Kershaw established a country store and the

community came

to be

known

as Pine

Tree

Ten years later and the name was

Hill.

the colonial assembly established a court there

to Camden, honouring the Englishman Charles Pratt, 1st Camden, a colonial hero by virtue of his fight against the Stamp act. Camden was a major British garrison during the American Revolution and the scene of two of the greatest Ameri-

changed earl of

can defeats.

On

Aug. 16, 1780, Gen. Horatio Gates, with forces

vastly outnumbering those of Cornwallis, lost over 2,000 men,

including Gen. Johann Kalb (q.v.), in a vain effort to seize the town. On April 25, 1781, a second colonial army under Gen.

Nathanael Greene, camping on Hobkirk's hill just outside the town, was caught by surprise and routed by a smaller British force. Andrew Jackson, then 14 years old and a prisoner of the British, watched the battle from the stockade jail. The following month the British, harassed by guerrilla raids, burned and evacuated the town.

Camden prospered as a plantation centre and resort area after American Revolution. During the American Civil War it was an important Confederate railroad terminus, supply base and hospital. On Feb. 24, 1865, Gen. William T. Sherman entered the town and again much of it was burned. From the American Revolution until well after the Civil War Camden was famous for its duels and provided a school for young men seeking instruction in the code of honour; in the late 19th century dueling was prohibited by law. Camden's fame as a resort area had grown and in the 20th century it was noted for polo, steeplechases, hunts and the fashionable crowds they attracted. After World War II, the coming of a synthetic fibre plant began to transform it from a city of the old south to one of the new. Industries include textiles, man-made fibres, pulpwood, veneer, lumber and cottonseed oil. For comparative population figures see table in South Carolina: Population. (G. H. Ct.) two species of the genus Camelus belonging to the suborder Tylopoda (q.v.) in the order Artiodactyla {q.v.). The Arabian camel, C. dromedarius, has only one hump, but the Bactrian camel, C. bactrianus, has two. The limbs are long and the feet have no traces of the second and fifth toes; the wide-spreading soft feet are adapted for walking upon sand or snow. Horny pads on the chest and knees support the weight when kneeling. Although camels ruminate (chew the cud) they are not classified in the suborder Ruminantia because, among other anatomical differences, the stomach differs from that of ruminants. Its third chamber is vestigial and its first, the rumen, has smooth (not papillose walls, with diverticula, wrongly called "water cells," communicating with it. Camels are known only as domestic animals and are not found in a truly wild state. The Bactrian camel occurs throughout the highlands of central Asia from Turkistan to Mongolia and although some "wild" herds inhabit various remote districts they are probably descended from animals escaped from domestication. All through that region it is an important beast of burden. the

CAMEL,

)

the

top

is

about of

the

acteristic of India, the near east

BACTRIAN TRIANUS)

CAMEL

(CAMELUS

BAC-

and north Africa,

is

likewise pri-

marily important as a beast of burden, though like the other spe-

state university.

table in

at

humps. The Arabian camel, char-

Camden

County Historical Society museum in the Joseph Cooper, Jr., house, built in 1726; and the Camden divisions of Rutgers, the

feet

and meat. It is longer-legged, and shorter-coated than the Bactrian camel. The Arabian camel stands about seven feet tall at the shoulder and when cies

it

also provides wool, milk, hides

lighter-built

being used for riding can maintain a speed of eight to ten miles per hour for 18 hours. When camels run they pace; that is, they

move

the two legs on a side forward at the same time. The Arabian camel has been imported into many parts of the world. Camels can flourish on the coarsest of sparse vegetation and feed on thorny plants, the leaves and twigs of shrubs, and dried grasses that other animals would refuse, though camels are not averse to more attractive food if it is available. When the feeding is good they accumulate in their humps stores of fat, which they are able to draw upon when conditions are adverse not only for sustenance but also for the manufacture of water by the oxidation of the fat, but they do not store water in the miscalled water cells. They are thus able to fast and go without drinking for several days; they have been known to go without water for 17 days and survive. Camels can carry a load of 500 lb. 25 mi. a day for three days without drinking. They lose their body water slowly and can lose up to 2S% of their weight by dehydration without ill effects a much higher percentage loss than man and other mammals can tolerate. They can then regain their lost weight in ten minutes by drinking as much as 25 gal. of water. Other adaptations that enable them to survive in deserts and other unfavourable environments include double rows of heavy

—

protective eyelashes, haired ear openings, the ability to close their nostrils and keen senses of sight and smell.

In the winter camels, especially the Bactrian species, grow thick shaggy coats, which they shed in the spring so that they

new coat starts growing. The female produces one young at a birth after a gestation of 11 months and suckles it for a year; maturity is reached at the age of 10 to 12 years and the life span is 30 to 40 years. Camels are docile and patient when properly trained and handled but are liable to sudden fits of rage, especially in the rutting season. Breeding has been so specialized that the riding camel forms a type quite distinct from the common baggage camel. Camels originated in North America about 40,000.000 years ago and by 1,000,000 years ago had spread to South America and Asia. They later vanished from the continent of origin and were not seen there again except in zoos until introduced from Asia by the U.S. army in the lS50s as beasts of burden for frontier garrisons in the southwest. The experiment was abandoned, however, and the animals were turned loose. The last wild ones were seen about 1900. are almost naked until the

(L. H. M.) a military unit mounted on camels for The first Egyptian camel corps was formed Gordon reUef expedition, the personnel being

See also references under "Camel" in the Index.

CAMEL CORPS, service in the desert. in

1884 for the

drawn from

British units;

it

was disbanded

at the conclusion of

the campaign.

Later a new camel corps was recruited from Sudanese and Egyptian sources

and became a permanent part of the Egyptian army;

fought with credit in the campaigns against the khahfa between 1896 and 1898.

it

The Bikaner camel corps, an imperial service unit, was raised and maintained by the maharaja of Bikaner^ one of the native princes of India. It saw much active service, taking part, without

—

CAMELLIA—CAMERA

698

its camels, in the China expedition of 1900 and in the operations in Somaliland in 1903-04. When World War I broke out it again volunteered to go overseas and served in Egypt. An imperial camel corps brigade, a composite British, Australian and New Zealand formation, served in Palestine from 1917

to June 1918, when it was reorganized as cavalry. It played a creditable part in the battles of Romani and Gaza and shared in the attack on Beersheba and the subsequent advance to Jerusalem as well as in the Amman and Salt raids.

In the United States a proposal was made after the Mexican War (1846-48) to use camels for crossing the newly acquired arid regions of the southwest. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis favoured their use and in 1S5S congress appropriated $30,000 to purchase camels. They were used briefly on mail and express routes but the project was soon abandoned. a genus of more than 80 species of broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs belonging to the tea family and native to Asia. Most garden varieties belong to C. japonica but a considerable number belong to C. sasanq'ua and C. reticulata. They are esteemed for their dark green foliage and handsome flowers

room") was the first to be introduced and it has been one form or another for many centuries. Essentially it chamber having in one wall a small aperture or a lens, by means of which an image of external bright objects is formed on a screen at the opposite end of the darkened chamber (fig. i). Artists having difficulty with perspective drawing have used the device from early times to project outdoor scenes or profiles of persons onto a sheet of paper so that they could trace the for "dark

known

in

consists of a darkened

correct outline before proceeding to paint the scene or the portrait.

Astronomers have used the device for projecting images of the

CAMELLIA,

—

many forms single, semiincomplete double and complete double and colours in

double, white,

—

rose,

red

or

Different flower forms have been

eclipsed sun, the

produced by the conversion of stamens into petal-like parts. The blooms open in autumn and winter, and those of C. sasanqiia are

profitable use of

sweet scented. Two other species are sources of

commercial

HORTICULTURAL LIAEFLORA

(C. JAPONICA), VARIETY HAGNO-

products.

The

grown Ceylon and India, furnish tea (9. y.). A domestic oil used in China and Japan is pressed from seeds of C. oleifera and several other species. Camellias are propagated from leaves

mostly

COMMON CAMELLIA

of

C.

sinensis,

in China,

secure new varieties and to furnish stocks for grafting. seeds

CAMELOT,

CAMEO,

moon and it,

brighter stars.

Showmen have made

erecting a room-size camera obscura at a vaca-

The popularity of the camwane after photography was introduced in 1839 by Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot, in whose hands the camera obscura became the familiar photographic "camera." The camera lucida (Latin for "light room"), invented in 1807 tion resort before an attractive view.

era obscura began to

{see below), essentially consists of a small prism of special condaylight.

mounted in By means

placed

front of the prism

struction in

front of the observer's eye and used in full of this device an image of chosen objects is

made

to appear to be lying on the

paper, enabling an artist, naturalist or microscopist to trace the outhne of his subject in correct proportions.

THE CAMERA OBSCXJRA Early History.

to

Largely they are grown from cuttings, best made when the summer growth has matured, and to a lesser extent by grafting, shortly before growth starts in spring. They are favourite plants in gardens wherever soil and climate are congenial and in greenhouses. Good drainage is essential and a mulch of peat, leaves or other coarse vegetable matter three to four inches thick is desirable. Water-spraying the leaves and supplying an even amount of soil moisture are valuable aids in securing good growth and flowering. A soil mixture of good loam, sand, peat and well-rotted manure is suitable. During winter it is best to maintain greenhouse or indoor temperatures of 45° to 55° F. during daylight and 5° to 10° lower at night. (H. H. Hu.) the legendary seat of King Arthur's court (see Arthuman Legend), variously identified with Caerleon-uponUsk in Monmouthshire (see Caerleon), with Queen's Camel in Somerset, with the little town of Camelford in Cornwall and with Winchester. a term commonly applied to engraved work executed in relief on hard or precious stones, as well as to imitations of such stones in glass, called "pastes," and on the shells of molluscous animals. The cameo is therefore the converse of the intaglio, which consists of an incised or sunk engraving in the

same

—

T DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING A SOLAR ECLIPSE THROUGH A SIMPLE CAMERA OBSCURA (AFTER RAINER GEMMA-FRISIUS. 1545) Fig.

variegated.

in

—The invention of the

original camera obscura, which a small hole was used to project an image of external

objects on a screen in a darkened

room

(fig. i ), is lost in

antiquity.

Certainly Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is known to have been familiar with the fact that an image of the sun could be projected onto a screen through a small aperture in a wall, and that the image would be circular no matter what shape the aperture might have. (The correct explanation of this phenomenon was given by Maurolycus Alhazen (965?-i038), Vitello (d. c. 1290), Roger Bacon in 1521.) (c. 1220-C. 1292) and several other writers of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries demonstrated familiarity with the principles of the simple camera obscura and many of its applications. Bacon suggested the addition of an inclined plane mirror outside the aperture so that persons passing below the window could be imaged on the screen.

John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury (1279), commented on the possible use of a camera obscura for observing solar eclipses. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made accurate drawings of the camera obscura, and seems to have thoroughly understood its

action.

Introduction of the Lens.

—The substitution of a

lens for the

class of materials.

See also references under "Cameo" in the Index volume.

CAMERA, PHOTOGRAPHIC:

see

Photography: Ap-

paratus.

CAMERA LUCIDA AND CAMERA OBSCURA,

two

simple optical devices used by artists, scientists and others to aid them in drawing, viewing or demonstrating an object by projecting an image of it onto a suitable screen. The camera obscura (Latin

Fig. 2.

—THE USE of a concave LENS

THE IMAGE

MAGNIFIED IMAGE IN A

CAMERA OBSCURA TO MAGNIFY

CAMERA

699

small aperture in the camera obscura, thus converting it into a practical instrument, was apparently first suggested by Girolamo

in existence at

resorts as

Cardano (Jerome Cardan; 1501-76) in his book De subtilitate (1551), then by Daniello Barbaro in La Pratica della perspettiva (Venice, 1568), and also by Giovanni Battista Benedetti in 1585. Barbaro further showed that the image must be focused by placing the screen at the proper distance from the lens, and explained how the definition could be improved by stopping the lens down to a

In 181

1535-1615), who in 1558 wrote a very popular four-volume book on natural science called Magia Natiiralis in which he described, among other things, the camera obscura with a small aperture. In the 20-volume second edition of this book (1589), he added as a "great secret which he had intended to keep," a note on the advantages which result from the use of a lens in place of a simple hole. The image in a camera obscura is, of course, inverted. If a translucent screen is used to catch the image, the observer being on the far side of the screen, then the image will be right-handed and inverted. However, if an opaque screen is used, the observer must either be inside the camera himself or looking into it through a hole at one side, in which case the image he sees will be both inverted and left-handed. It was early recognized that if a plane mirror is used in front of or behind the lens, the left-handedness of the image on an opaque screen will be reversed, giving a correct

the image quality in the outer parts of the field of this device could be improved by using a meniscus-shaped lens in place of the usual biconvex lens, with a diaphragm or stop on the

concave side of the lens to force the oblique

rays

to

pass

more

normally through it. In this way he developed the flat-field landscape lens, miUions of which are manufactured every year for use in box cameras (fig. 3). The early inventors of photography naturally made use of the box-type camera obscura, since

(c.

—

DIAGRAM SHOWING woL- their aim was to "fix" or render FIG. 3. LASTONs APPLICATION OF A MENis- permanent the beautiful and incus LENS TO THE CAMERA OBSCURA teresting vicws they saw on the translucent screen. Fox Talbot merely laid a sheet of lightsensitive (photogenic) paper on a piece of glass in the plane of the image, and allowed the light to be recorded by a blackening of the paper.

Since Daguerre used a plain camera without an internal mirror, were left-handed, and various inventors proposed that a reflecting prism or plane mirror should be mounted in front of the lens to rectify this defect. For the further de-

his positive daguerreotypes

image.

—

Modifications and Improvements. Johann Kepler (15711630) well understood the action of the camera obscura, and in In 1600 he began to use it was he who introduced the name. the instrument for solar observations, and greatly improved it for this purpose by introducing a negative lens at a suitable distance behind the positive lens to enlarge the projected image (fig. 2). This is the principle of the modern telephoto lens. He is reported to have observed the transit of the planet Mercury across the sun's disk in 1607 by this means. Even though the telescope was introduced in 1609, astronomers continued to use a camera obscura for solar observations because of the danger to their eyes when looking directly at the sun. In 1611 Johannes Fabricius used a camera obscura without a lens to observe sunspots for the first time. Robert Boyle (1627-91) seems to have been the first to conIt struct a small portable box-type camera obscura about 1665. could be extended or shortened like a telescope to focus the image on a sheet of paper stretched across the back of the box opposite the lens. A similar device with an internal mirror to reflect the image onto a screen at the top of the box was described by fact

Johann Zahn in 1685. A somewhat larger portable camera obscura in the form of a tent was used by Kepler about 1620, and during the following two centuries this form was employed extensively by artists as an aid to perspective drawing. It was made from a pyramidal framework of rods covered with cloth, with the lens at the top surmounted by a plane mirror to reflect a scene onto a horizontal sheet of drawing paper laid on a table inside the tent. The artist would then draw round the objects in the scene and thus determine accurately their relative shapes and sizes. The perspective in many of the paintings made during the past 300 to 400 years is so accurate that some form of camera obscura was most probably used. It is interesting to note that if the mirror is set so as to look over the artist's head at a scene situated behind his back, then the scene will appear erect and right-handed when projected on the drawing paper. A somewhat larger form of camera obscura was built in the

which a lens was mounted in a hole in the above it at 45° to reflect distant scenes the image of distant objects being projected

form of a small cabin

in

roof, with a plane mirror

down

amusement devices. W. H. WoUaston real-

that

ized

small aperture. Nevertheless, credit for the introduction of a lens in the camera obscura is generally given to the Neapolitan Giovanni Battista della Porta

2

popular vacation

into the lens,

on a white table inside the cabin. Several people could see the image by standing around the table, and to change the scene it was merely necessary to rotate the mirror holder about the vertical axis of the device. A few camera obscuras of this type are still

velopment of the photographic camera, see Photography. BiBUOGRAPHY. J. Waterhouse, "Notes on the Early History of the Camera Obscura," Photographic Journal, 25:270-290 (May 1901); J. M. Eder, History of Photography, Eng. trans, by E. Epstean, pp. 36-45 (1945) H. and A. Gernsheim^ The History of Photography, pp.

—

;

1-19 (1955).

THE CAMERA LUCIDA This is a small instrument invented in 1807 by William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828). It consists of a small four-sided prism mounted on a simple stand at a convenient height above a sheet of paper. By placing the eye close to the upper edge of the prism so that half of the eye pupil is over the prism, the observer is able to see a reflected image of objects situated in front of the prism, apparently lying on the paper (fig. 4); he can then trace the image with a pencil and thus record its appearance accurately. The optical distinction between the camera obscura and the camera lucida is that in the former a real image of external objects is actually projected on the paper by the lens, whereas in the latter a virtual image of the distant object is made to appear to lie on the paper.

The actual use of this instrument is, unfortunately, not as simple as the above brief outline might indicate. For example, if the observer's eye moves as little as -j^^ in. from its correct position, the light beam reflected by the prism may miss the pupil of his eye entirely. Furthermore, if the distance of the object happens to be different from that of the paper, it will be impossible for the observer to focus both the object and the paper equally sharply at the same time; also, to move his head if he were slightly, there would be a small relative

movement between

pp^n^ the object '

image and

To

his drawing.

avoid these

lection of

weak

difficulties, a se-

spectacle lenses

usually provided with the camera lucida which may be inserted is

lens to bring Object AND paper NTO Same APPAREN- =i^NE I

between the prism and the paper, as shown in fig. 4, to make the ^,5 4._d,agram showing the paper appear at the same dis- principle of the wollaston camlucida era the reflected tance from the eye as

CAMERARIUS— CAMERON

700 image of the object.

It will

be readily understood that the camera

lucida can be used to copy a drawing at

original size, or en-

its

larged or reduced, without distortion, the degree of enlargement

being given by the ratio of the distances of the paper and the original drawing from the eye. In order to give the eye a greater freedom of movement, several modifications of the original Wollaston system were proposed during the 19th century, mainly for use as an aid in drawing the magIn these devices, a small nified images seen in a microscope.

transparent plane mirror

is

mounted

in

front of the eye at an

angle of 45° to the direction of the light, so that a reflected image of the subject is seen superposed upon a direct view of the drawing paper, allowing a greater freedom of movement of the ob-

Unfortunately, when a single mirror is used the inverted and left-handed, but the use of a second mirror In the original Wollaston in the reflected beam will rectify this. form of the camera lucida (fig. 4), the two reflections are combined external mirrors are necessary. that no within a single prism so server's eye.

image

is

In the Abbe form (fig. S), which was introduced about 1S80, particularly for use with a ver-

diagonal transparent Mirror

work, contains his observations on the sexuality of plants. {See also Biology: History.) A German translation of the Epistola and an account of Camerarius' life and works are given in Camerarius-Mobius, Vber das Geschlecht der Pjlanzen (1899), See J. von Sachs, Hislorv of Botany, pp. 385-390 (1906).

(J.W. Tt.)

CAMERON, ANDREW CARR

(1834-1890), U.S. labour leader and editor, was born on Sept. 28, 1834, in Berwick-upon'

Tweed, Eng. After his family moved to the United States he went to work for a Chicago newspaper and became an active member of the typographical union. In 1864 he became editor of a new labour weekly, the Workingmen's Advocate. Two years later he helped found the National Labor union, which grew to a membership of over 600,000. The Advocate became its official organ, and through it Cameron campaigned for the eight-hour day, the use of arbitration rather than the strike, the amalgamation of farm and industrial workers, co-operatives and currency reforms. In 1869 he represented the United States at an international labour congress in Basel, Switz. Attempts to form a labour party resulted in the weakening of both the union, which was ultimately

microscope, the diagonal transparent mirror is cemented into a small glass cube and

absorbed into the Greenback Labor party in 1880, and the paper, which was discontinued. Cameron was editor of the Inland Prijiter and later bought the Artist Printer, editing it until he died. May 28,

mounted

1890.

tical

close to the microscope

CAMERON, JOHN

eyepiece, the second mirror being

supported over the paper by a projecting arm. No equalizing 5. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING lenses are required because a FIG. touch on the fine-adjustment THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ABBE CAMERA LUCIDA. screw of the microscope will serve to bring the microscope image to the same apparent dis-

—

tance as the paper. See also Optics. Bibliography.

—W.

H. Wollaston, "Description of the Camera Lu(June 1807) W. B. Carpenter and and Its Revelations, pp. 277-288

cida," Nicholson's Journal, vol. 17 Dallinger, The Microscope

W. H.

;

(R. Ke.)

(1901).

CAMERARIUS, JOACHIM

(1500-1574), German classical scholar and Lutheran theologian who mediated between Protestants and Catholics at the Reformation, was born at Bamberg on April 12, 1500. He joined the humanist circle of Melius Eobanus Hessus at Erfurt in 1518 and later became the pupil and He was friend of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg (1521). In 1541 Duke professor of classics at Tiibingen in 1535. Ulrich of Wijrttemberg summoned him to reorganize the University of Leipzig. His classical publications include editions with commentaries of Sophocles, Herodotus, Homer, Plautus and

made

Xenophon, as well as Latin translations of Greek authors.

He

also wrote a catechism about the classics in Latin verse (Praecepta

hones talis at que decoris puerilis, 1528) and Latin biographies of Hessus (1553) and Melanchthon (1566). He was present with Melanchthon at the reading of the Conjutatio pontificia at Augsburg in 1530, and also at a diet there in 1555. In the same year he was the mediator in the dispute over Osiander at Niirnberg. Maximilian II summoned him to Vienna in 1568 to give advice and to order Austrian church affairs. He died at Leipzig on April 17, 1574. His posthumously published Epistolanim familiaruni libri vi (1583) and Epistolanim jamHiarum libri v posteriores (1595) are valuable sources for the period.

—

Bibliography. F. Stahlin, Humanismus und Reformation int biirgerRaiim Schriften des Vereins fir Rejormatiansgeschichte, vol. liii, part 1 (1936) H. Wendorf, Joachim Camerarius, Beitrdge sur Kirchengeschichte Deulschlands, vol. ii, pp. 34-87 (1957); H. Helbig, Die Rejormation der Vniversitdt Leipzig (1953). (C. L. A. R. H.)

lichen

;

CAMERARIUS, RUDOLF JAKOB man

botanist and physician

who was

the

(1665-1721), Gerto demonstrate

first

experimentally that in the absence of anthers (pollen-bearing organs no seeds are produced by the flower, was born at TiibinHe became gen, Feb. 12, 1665, and died there, Sept. 11, 1721. professor of medicine and director of the botanic garden at Tiibin)

gen in 1668.

De Sexu Plantarum

Epistola (1694), Camerarius' best-known

(c. 1579-1625), Scottish theologian, born at Glasgow about 1579. received his early education in his native city. He taught Greek in the university there, lectured at Bordeaux and Sedan and then traveled in Germany and Switzerland. He became a minister of the Protestant Church in 1608 and in 1618 was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, the principal seminary of the French Protestants. The civil troubles in France drove him to England in 1620, and two years later King James I (VI) appointed him principal of the University of Glasgow. Cameron was prepared to accept episcopacy and was cordially disliked for his support of the king's views on the royal prerogatives. He resigned his office in less than a year and rcr turned to France, becoming professor of divinity at Montauban in 1624. There he made many enemies by his doctrine of passive obedience. He was stabbed in the street in 1625 and died as a result of the attack. His collected works were published (in Latin) at Geneva in 1642, with a memoir by Cappel. Cameron has a distinct place in the development of Calvinistic theology. He and his followers maintained that the will of man is determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses into them; and that God does not move the will physically but only morally, by virtue of its dependence on the judgment of the mind. This peculiar doctrine of grace and free will was adopted by a number of the more learned among the Reformed ministers who dissented from Calvin. (1648-1680), Scottish Covenanter, founder of a religious sect called Cameronians (q.v.) and one of the first to insist on separation from those Covenanters who accepted the indulgence of 1672, was born at Falkland, Fife, and was schoolmaster of his native village until he became chaplain and tutor to Sir William Scott of Harden. In 1673 he began to preach in the open air, under the influence of the Covenanter John Welch, and refused to recognize the rule of an "uncovenanted" king or to accept Charles II's indulgence, which suspended the laws against nonconformists. The number of his followers was severely reduced by their defeat at Bothwell bridge (1679), though many joined him in exile in Holland. Cameron returned at the end of the year and on June 22, 1680, he and his friends, including Donald Cargill (q.v.), Thomas Douglas and David Hackston,, issued the Sanquhar Declaration, calling for war on Charles II and the exclusion of James, duke of York With only a small group of men, he was easily taken and killed by royal troops at Airds Moss in Ayrshire on July 22. The prayer he had made before the brief fighting became one of the cove"Lord, spare the green and take the ripe." nanters' songs See J. Herkless, Richard Cameron (1896).

CAMERON, RICHARD

—

CAMERON—CAMERON OF LOCHIEL CAMERON, SIMON

(1799-1889), U.S. businessman and Lancaster county, Pa., on March 8, 1799.

was born in Orphaned at the age of nine, Cameron received little schooling and soon began earning his own livelihood. By the age of 25 he had risen from printer's devil to newspaper owner and editor and to a position of influence in the state Democratic party. Varied business interests iron manufacturing, banking, insurance and politician,

railroads

— — received

1845 when through

his chief attention until

own shrewd manipulations and with

his

the support of

Whigs and

Democrats he was elected to the United States senate. Thereafter his chief business was politics and he became one of the most powerful political bosses the United States has ever high-tariff

known. In 1857, as the candidate of the new Republican party, but with Democratic votes which, according to rumour, had been secured by questionable means, Cameron was again elected to the In 1860 he was Pennsylvania's favourite son candidate senate. for president in the Republican national convention and threw his support to Lincoln in e.xchange for a cabinet post. He was appointed secretary of war but served only 10 months. Despite his the aid of

demonstrated business acumen and organizing ability he proved unequal to his new responsibility. He administered the war department with such favouritism that in Jan. 1862 President Lin-

him Cameron returned

coln transferred

to the post of minister to Russia.

to the

United States

seat in the senate

in

1863 and unsuccesslater he won a He served until

Four years

fully sought election to the senate.

and was re-elected

in 1873.

1877 when he resigned to make way for his son, James Donald Cameron (1833-1918), who had just completed a brief term as "Don" Cameron not only secretary of war in Grant's cabinet.

701

See Robert Brown, The Story oj Africa, vol. ii, pp. 266-79 (1893), a summary of Cameron's own account of his journey. (R. M. P.)

CAMERONIANS,

those of the Scottish Covenanters (q.v.) followed Richard Cameron (q.v.) in adhering to the perpetual obligation of the two Scottish covenants of 1538 and 1643 as set out in the Queensferry Paper (1680). On Cameron's death they began in 1681 to organize themselves in local societies all over the south of Scotland, in 1687 they published The Informatory

who

and by

Vindication,

Though

their

1690

they

numbered

three ministers then entered

several

the

thousands.

church of the

Revolution Settlement, they themselves for the most part reoutside. In 1706 they again obtained a minister, John Macmillan, through whose active itinerant ministry the name Macmillanite came to supersede Cameronian. In 1 743 under his leadership they set up a presbytery at Braehead, calling it the Reformed Presbytery; and as Reformed Presbyterians they not only grew in Scotland but also had a considerable effect on Scot-

mained

communities overseas, still refusing to take any part in the an "uncovenanted" nation. In 1863 they decided to refrain from taking disciplinary action on those who intended to exercise the franchise. A minority, however, stuck to the strict interpretation of their principles and still do so. Within Scotland the majority united with the Free Church in 1876 and thus became incorporated in 1929 in the reunited Church of Scotland. {See also Scotland, Free Church of.) In the British army the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) are a direct descendant of the "Cameronian guard," which was first used to restore order in the Highlands after the battle of Killietish

civil affairs of

crankie (1689). See J. K. Hewison, The Covenanters (1913) M. Hutchison, The Re(H. Wa.) formed Preshvterian Church in Scotland (1893). (1629-1719), LOCHIEL, SIR supporter of the Stuart chieftain and a strong Scottish Highland cause in Scotland, was the eldest son of John Cameron and the grandson of Alan Cameron, the head of the clan Cameron, which was able to trace its ancestry from the times of King Robert I and King David. Having lost his father in infancy he passed part of He left his his youth with the marquess of Argyll at Inveraray. guardian about 1647 to take up his duties as chief of the clan Cameron, succeeding his grandfather. In 1653 he was engaged in the earl of Glencairn's rising on behalf In this campaign he won great distinction parof Charles II ticularly in his defense of the Pass of Tulloch, at Braemar, against English forces. For his valour he received a special letter of the thanks from the king. After the failure of the campaign Lochiel aided the royalist cause by harassing Gen. George Monck's forces. He came to terms with Monck in 1658, accompanied him to London and was there when Charles II entered the city. He was knighted by Charles in 1681. In July 1689 he was with Viscount Dundee at the battle of Killiecrankie against the forces of William III (a Scots victory, although the rising was soon suppressed). He was too old to join the Jacobite rising in 1715, but his sympathies were with the Stuarts, and his son led the Camerons in ;

took over his father's senate seat but also assumed control of the state Republican machine a position and a control that he retained for 20 years. Upon his withdrawal from the senate, Simon Cameron retired

—

farm

to his

June

at

Donegal Springs,

Pa.,

where he lived

until his death,

26, 1889.

—

Lee F. Crippen, Simon Cameron: Ante-Bellum (1942); A. H. Meneely, The War Department, 1861 (1928); Allan Nevins, The J. Hendrick, Lincoln's War Cabinet (1946) (B. Dy.) for the Union, vol. i (1959).

Bibliography. Years

Burton

War

;

CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT explorer in central Africa, the

first

(1844-1894). English

European

to cross equatorial

Weymouth, on Africa from sea to sea, was bom July I, 1844. He entered the navy in 1857, taking part in the Abyssinian campaign of 1868 and in the suppression of the east African slave trade. He was selected in 1872 to command an expedition at Radipole, near

sent

by the Royal Geographical society to attempt to make conand assist Livingstone and to make independent exBut soon after leaving Zanzibar the expedition met

tact with

plorations.

Cameron continued to on Lake Tanganyika and recovered some of Livingstone's papers. He then explored the southern part of the lake and established its outlet by way of the Lukuga river. From there he went

Livingstone's servants bearing his body. Ujiji

EWEN

CAMERON OF

He died in Feb, 1719. Lochiel was of enormous strength and

west to

Nyangwe on the Lualaba, rightly believing this to be the main stream of the Congo system, but he was unable to procure

battle.

canoes to continue its exploration. Turning southwest he traced the Congo-Zambezi watershed for hundreds of miles, discovered the sources of the latter river and finally reached the west coast near Benguela, Angola, on Nov. 7, 1875. His book Across Africa (1877) made suggestions for open-

were told of

ing

up the continent, and he later claimed to have originated the "Cape to Cairo" railway. Cameron was promoted commander, made a companion of the Bath and awarded gold medals During the rest of the Royal and Paris Geographical societies. of his life he was associated with the development of commercial projects in Africa. He was in the middle east in 1878-79 to determine the value of an overland route to India, and advocated With Sir the building of a railway from Tripoli to Karachi. Richard Burton (g.v.) he visited West Africa and was joint author of To the Gold Coast jor Gold (1883). He was killed near Leighton Buzzard, Eng., on March 27, 1894, by a fall from his

ing his strength and ferocity in single combat, in which he slew

idea of a

his foe

horse.

died in 1748.

his e.xploits.

Macaulay

size,

called

and many

stories

him the "Ulysses

of

the Highlands." It was said, falsely, that he killed, with his bare One who met him hands, the last wolf ever seen in Scotland. when he was 87 reported that "he wrung some blood from the point of my fingers with a grasp of his hand." An incident show-

by biting into his neck, was used by Sir Walter Scott as a model for his description of the fight between Roderick Dhu and Fitzjames in The Lady of the Lake (canto v). His son and successor, John, attainted for sharing in the rebellion of 1715, died in Flanders in 1748. John's son Donald (c. 1695-1748), sometimes called "gentle Lochiel." succeeded his grandfather as head of the clan in 1719. He 'ought for Charles Edward, the young pretender, and captured Edinburgh in Sept, 1745. He was severely wounded at the battle of Culloden on April 16, 1746, but escaped with the prince to France, where he

CAMEROONS

702

See Bannatyne Club, Memoirs of Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel (1842) A. MacKenzie, History of the Camerons (1884). ;

CAMEROONS,

bounded west by the Atlantic, northwest by Nigeria, east by Chad and the Central African Republic, south by the Republic of Congo and Gabon and for a short distance southwest by Rio Muni. Area 200,876 sq.mi. The coast, with a length of about 220 mi., curves around a region of

west Africa,

the Bight of Biafra before turning south.

named by

its

is

Its chief indentation,

Portuguese discoverers Rio dos Camaroes (river of

prawns), has given the name Cameroon (Fr. Cameroun, Ger. Kamertm) to the region. From 18S4 to 1919 the region was formally a German protectorate. By the treaty of Versailles Germany relinquished sovereignty, the country being administered by France and Britain initially under a League of Nations mandate and after 1946 under the United Nations trusteeship agreement. French Cameroun became an autonomous republic in 1959 and was proclaimed independent in 1960; British Cameroons, after a period of internal self-government within the Federation of Nigeria, was in 1961 divided, the northern districts uniting with Nigeria and the Southern Cameroons with the Republic of Cameroon. Physical Features. The greater part of the south and centre of the region' is a plateau with a general altitude of 2,000 ft. In the northwest the country is mountainous with three exceptions: immediately north of Cameroon mountain, in the narrow trench of the Benue (Benoue) valley and immediately south of Lake Chad. The Mandara mountains north of the Benue rise to nearly 5,000 Summit altitudes increase southward, being more than 6,000 ft. ft. in the Vogel and Mambila massifs and over 8,000 ft. in the Bamenda highlands. The northern highlands are largely of PreCambrian Basement rocks, but the Bamenda highlands have younger volcanics superimposed upon a Pre-Cambrian foundation, and cones and crater lakes are numerous. A second line of high-

—

lands branches east, in a northward-curving arc, from the Bamenda highlands past N'Gaoundere to the Yade massif on the eastern frontier.

This highland belt also has peaks exceeding 6,000

ft.

At the seaward end of the mountain ranges, but isolated from them, is Cameroon mountain, the only active volcano in west Africa (eruptions in 1909, 1922, 1954 and 1959). It rises directly from the sea to 13,350 ft., and its western side is one of the rainiest regions of the world. It lies on a line of structural weakness

marked by the volcanic rocks of the Bamenda highlands to the northeast and by volcanic islands to the southwest, of which Fernando Po is the nearest. The Cameroons estuary lies southeast of the mountain, with a maximum width of more than 20 mi. In the area between the two highland belts lie the headwater streams of the Benue and some tributaries of the Logone. The Logone, flowing north to Lake Chad, forms part of the northeast frontier. A tributary of the Benue, the Mayo-Kebbi river, draws off an increasing amount of water from marshes in the middle Logone valley; it might ultimately succeed in diverting to the sea most of the Logone waters, a process which might have grave consequences in the Lake Chad region. South of the main watershed the drainage is mainly to the sea, the chief rivers being the Nyong and the Sanaga, but the southern part of the Yade massif is drained by the Sanga system to the Congo. There are thus four distinct drainage systems within the region.

Climate.

—The

climate

atures in the highlands

by

is

tropical,

but with the lower temper-

much

of the region could have been settled Europeans, unlike most of west Africa. The mean annual tem-

perature varies from 75°-80° F. in the south to 90° in the extreme north, with mean temperatures below 70° over some areas of the southern grasslands. The daily variation is small on the

markedly on the plateau. A dry, cool, dustladen wind (the harmattan) blows from the northeast between November and April in the north and for a decreasing period in coast, but increases

the south; for the rest of the year the southwest winds bring moist from the Atlantic, with rainfall totals varying from 163 in.

air

yearly at Victoria to about 15 in. near Lake Chad. Even Dehundscha, on the west side of Cameroon mountain, with an average annual total of nearly 400 in., receives only 9 in. in January, indicating the tendency to a dry season at the beginning of the year. Vegetation.

—Lowlands

as far north as 4° to 6°

(J. C. Ph.) N. latitude are

covered by rain forest containing trees up to 200 ft. high, including mahoganies and numerous species of the Leguminosae. Smaller trees include ebonies and wild kola nuts; epiphytic orchids and ferns abound. Oil palms, kapok trees, umbrella trees and scrambling shrubs are often abundant in farmed areas. Forest on swampy ground has raffia palms and tangles of rattans. Coastal mangrove swamps resemble those of southeastern United States. At altitudes of 4.000 to 8,000 ft. the evergreen forest differs from that of the lowlands; the trees are smaller, of different species, and are festooned with mosses, lichens and other epiphytes; tree ferns sometimes abound in forest enveloped by cloud. The upper limit of evergreen forest is abrupt but varies in altitude depending on the topography. Above it is drier woodland, tall grassland or patches of mountain bamboo. Above about 7.S00 ft. in the hinterland and about 10.000 ft. on Cameroon mountain there is short grassland with numerous plants of European affinity. North of the rain forest is savanna woodland with trees 10-60 ft. high which tolerate the annual burning of the tall grass. The species of the savannas are mostly different from those of the rain forest.

Strips of dense forest occur along the streams.

Thorn woodland, with abundant acacia

species, occurs in the far

(R.

north.

W.

J.

K.)

Life.

—^The region has a wide variety of fauna to match

the vegetation.

In the dense rain forests there are gorilla, chim-

Animal

panzee and the very local mandrill, as well as the strange aquatic insectivore known as the potamogale, or otter shrew, and the Calabar potto. About ten species of monkey are also found in DISPERSION OF THE CAMEROON REGION AFTER THE PLEBISCITES OF FEB 1961

the forests and the typical antelopes there are the duikers, or dwarf antelopes. A few elephants survive in the high forest, as well as in the grass woodlands, where baboons and several types

CAMEROONS most common animals.

A

703

dangerously venomous species, and numerous lizards and frogs,

Requests made by the Duala chiefs in 1882 for annexation by Great Britain were refused or neglected, with the result that when Germany started to acquire unappropriated parts of the African coast it was enabled to secure the Cameroons. A treaty with the king of Bell was negotiated by Gustav Nachtigal on July IS, 1884. Five days later the British consul arrived with a mission to annex the country. On July 26 a French gunboat also entered the estuary on a belated annexation mission. Too late to secure the Bell

of which the most notable are the hairy frog and the giant frog.

territory, the British

carrying both sleeping sickness and cattle disease, are found throughout the forest and also in parts of the grass woodlands, and in these areas it is impossible to keep either cattle or horses. Farther north there is a cattle industry, most cows being of the zebu tj^je, and horses, donkeys and camels are used as beasts of burden. Bees are valuable for honey production only in the open grass woodlands. (G. S. Ce.)

which the Germans named Kamerun. Subsequent agreements with Great Britain and France gave the German colony an extension inland to Lake Chad, including parts of the Fulani states of Adamawa and Bornu (qq.v.). The Baptist settlement at Victoria passed to Germany in March 1887, when the Baptists were

of antelope are the

and black rhinoceroses

may

very few

giraffes

be seen

in the far north, and also kinds of rodents, bats and small carnivores, and numerous birds, from tiny sunbirds to the

the rare

giant

Cameroons

hawk

eagles

still

Many

giant eland.

and

hornbills, are

found

in

both forest and open

country.

Found

Tsetse

in various localities are

many

snakes, including

some

flies,

The People.

—The region

is

probably the most fragmented part

Though

of Africa regarding ethnic and linguistic composition.

no undisputed ethnic classification has been formulated, the inhabitants may be divided into three main linguistic groups which for the most part tally with the available ethnic evidence ( 1 ) the bulk of the population is Bantu-speaking (about 70 languages and dialects) and inhabits the southern tropical forest; (2) to the north and in the centre live those who speak non-Bantu languages (i.e., Sudanic (3) between (1) and (2) and especially to the west are found the speakers of countless Bantoid languages which are reminiscent of both major language groups. The better-known Bantu-speaking tribes are the Duala (q.v.), :

I

;

Kpe, Banen, Basa, Yaunde. Bulu and Fang (q.v.). The latter invaded the region at the beginning of the 19th century. The nonBantu tribes are numerous and very diverse. They include the Fulani, Hausa (gq.v.). Kanuri and Shuwa Arabs to the north, and in the centre the Kreish, Wute, Laka, Mbum and Mambila, The Fulani are now a peaceful, nomadic, to mention only a few. pastoral people, but in the 18th and 19th centuries they subjugated considerable areas of northern and central Cameroons and set up The Hausa and Kanuri large Muslim states such as Adamawa. form the merchant class and abound in most commercial centres. small units, often a single vilGroup (3) is largely composed of lage. Notable exceptions to this, however, are the Bamileke (q.v.). They may be considered the main tribe of the northwest part of Some of the the region and number approximately 500,000. better-known (q.v.), Bali,

The

Bantoid-speaking tribes

are

the

Tikar,

Bamum

Banyang and Keaka.

oldest inhabitants of the region are pygmies,

known

as

They live in scattered hunting groups in the See also the section West Central Africa in Africa: (I. Rn.) Ethnography {Anthropology). History to 1922. ^The Cameroon estuary and the neighbouring end the 15th century by the coast were discovered toward the of Portuguese navigator Femao do P6. Not until the 17th century were European trading stations, called factories, established. The Duala and other coast tribes, who would not allow strangers inland, took goods on trust from the white merchants and bartered them with the forest tribes for ivory, rubber and slaves. This trust system worked well and continued until the German occupation of the country. The Duala prospered and the "kings" of Akwa and Bell, the chief trading stations, became wealthy merchant princes. By 1800 the coast region was politically under British influence and in 1837 the king of Bimbia ceded part of the country around the estuary to Great Britain. In 1845, at a time Bagielli

and Babinga.

forests.

—

when there was still a flourishing trade in slaves between the Cameroons and America, Alfred Saker (1814-80) of the Baptist Missionary society obtained from the Akwa family the site of a mission station. He established another mission station at Bimbia in 1848. When in 1858 the Baptists were expelled from Fernando Po, a colony of freed Negroes from the island was founded In 1868 in Ambas bay, Saker naming the settlement Victoria. Woermann of Hamburg established the first German factory in the estuary. Saker reduced the Duala language to writing and before he left the Cameroons in 1876 witnessed the final suppression of the overseas slave trade.

government decided to recognize the German claim not only to Bell town but to the whole Cameroons region,

replaced by the Basel mission.

—

The extension of German authority inland was slow Lake Chad was reached only in 1902 and was not effected without

—

In the northern regions under Fulani domination, the African rulers were permitted to retain a good deal of authority. A system of direct administration was gradually extended inland from the coastal districts. Exploitation of the colony did not prove easy. The early attraction was trade and, despite the development of plantations, trade with the inhabitants remained by far the most important opposition.

European economic

The

activity throughout the

German

occupation.

European commodities were rubber and palm oil and kernels, collected from the forest, and ivory, the supply of which was soon exhausted. River transport proved impracticable; although 195 mi. of railway were built inland from the coast during 1909-13, traders continued to rely principally on human porterage. European planting was concentrated on the slopes of Cameroon mountain, the principal crops being cocoa, palm products and rubber. By 1912, 54,000 ac. were under cultivation, but only about one-fifth of the colony's exports came from plantations and about half was accounted for by rubber collected from forest trees. The colony received considerable grants-in-aid from Germany. chief products obtained locally in return for

In return for recognizing France's protectorate over Morocco Cameroons received additions of 107,000 sq.mi. of French Equatorial Africa, bringing German territory to the Congo and Ubangi rivers. This territory was returned to France

in 1911, the

by the treaty of Versailles in 1919. During World War I British and French troops conquered the Cameroons, and in 1916, after the German forces were defeated, the victors agreed upon a temporary partition, which gave France about nine-tenths of the territory, and the section adjoining Nigeria came under British control. In July 1919 the Cameroons was formally divided by the London declaration signed by Great Britain and France. Following the treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations in 1922 conferred mandates upon France and Britain for the administration of the two spheres upon which they had previously agreed, subject to the supervision of the League's Permanent Mandates commission. After World War II French and British administration was confirmed by trusteeship agreements approved by the United Nations on Dec. 13, 1946. (F. R. C; H. A. Wf.; J. D. F.) British Cameroons. The British trust territory consisted of two narrow strips, nowhere more than 100 mi. wide, extending along Nigeria's eastern border and separated at the Benue river by a 45-mi. gap. Pop. (1952-53 census) 1.440.509; area 34,081 sq.mi. In the south, the Cameroons province (9,649 sq.mi.) and Bamenda province (6,932 sq.mi.), with a combined population of 753.658, together formed the Southern Cameroons, with the capital at Buea, (pop. 3,009). The other chief towns in the Southern Cameroons were Bali (pop. 18,272), Kumba (7,778) and the ports of Victoria (3.575) and Tiko (5,337). The northern districts were (from south to north): the Tigon-Ndoro-Kentu area (1,236 sq.mi.), the southern and northern Adamawa districts (10,965 sq.mi.), separated by the Benue gap, and the Dikwa disThe chief towns in the northern districts trict (5,149 sq.mi.).

—

CAMEROONS

704

were Dikwa (pop. 3,010), Mubi and Gashaka. The economy of the British trust territory depended upon

agri-

palm products, peanuts and cocoa as the principal exports. Bananas, rubber and palm produce were predominantly plantation crops and the remaining exports came chiefly from peasant producers. The main estates, culture, with bananas, rubber, hides,

which in 1924 were resold to their former German owners, were in 1939 taken into custody; after World War II they were purchased by the Nigerian government and vested in the Cameroons Development corporation. This had the duty of running the estates on commercial lines while applying profits for the benefit of the inhabitants. By the late 19S0s the corporation employed about 25,000 Africans and cultivated about 62,000 ac. of bananas, rubber and oil palms. Bananas accounted for more than half the value of the exports and cocoa for about 30%. Steamship services were maintained between Tiko and the United Kingdom and there were regular air services between Tiko and Lagos and Port Harcourt in Nigeria. Road transport was less developed in the north than in the south and there was no direct link between the two. In the south, the road system joins with those of Nigeria and the Cameroon republic. Education in the Southern Cameroons was likewise more advanced than in the northern districts, with about 400 primary schools, 3 secondary schools, 12 teacher-training schools and 2 vocational and training schools. Under British trusteeship, the Southern Cameroons was integrated administratively with Nigeria, under a commissioner directly responsible to the governor general of Nigeria for trusteeship affairs in the whole territory including the northern districts. The British system of indirect rule was applied and local government was conducted by native authorities with the advice Following the introduction of federal Nigeria in 1954, the Southern Cameroons became a self-governing region of the federation with its own executive council and legislature, but the north remained administratively part of Nigeria's Northern Region. With the independence of Nigeria imminent, a plebiscite was held in Nov. 1959 under United Nations auspices in the Cameroons northern districts and resulted of administrative ofiicers.

government

in

vote to defer decision on their future status. Further similar plebiscites, held separately in the northern districts and in the Southern Cameroons in Feb. 1961, resulted in a vote by the northern districts to join the Federation of Nigeria; the Southern Cameroons voted for union with the Republic of Cameroon. Northern Cameroons became an integral part of Nigeria on June 1, 1961, and Southern Cameroons merged with the Republic of Cameroon on Oct. 1, 1961. (W.H.I.) in a

rorism still continued in the western part of the republic, notably Dschang district. Good relations were maintained with France, with whom co-operation agreements were signed. Future progress appeared to depend on the economic advantages that in the

would result from the projected extension of the railway northward from Yaounde, and more generally on the consolidation of the northern districts and their feudal cattle-raising Muslim chiefs with the more modernized southern part. Administration. The constitution, modeled on that of the French fifth republic, was approved by popular referendum in Feb. 1960. It provides for a president as head of state, elected by a national assembly for a five-year term, and a premier and cabinet both appointed by the president. The national assembly of 100 members is elected by universal suffrage for five years. Yaounde

—

is

the seat of government. In the early 1960s about

54% of the school-age group, or 300,000 pupils, attended schools which included about 650 state schools, more than 1,800 private primary schools and 20 secondary schools, 1 lycee and 60 vocational centres; about 900 scholars from Cameroon pursued higher studies in France. The forest region was widely converted to Christianity but the east and centre remain chiefly pagan; in the north the population is pagan in the mountains and Muslim in the plains. According to a treaty of co-operation (in trade, diplomacy, defense and culture) signed with France in Nov. 1960, education would continue under the French pattern and the oSicial language would remain French. Economy. The economy is essentially agricultural, with stock

—

and millet cultivation in the north. The eastern districts are largely forest and the economically important zone lies within 200 mi. of Douala (Duala) in the southwest, where the chief towns are situated and the major export products conrearing

( 1

,200,000 cattle

)

centrated; coffee and bananas (largely from plantations) on the western plateaus, and cocoa, coffee, timber and palm products in the southern forest. Cotton growing showed promise in the district southwest of N'Gaoundere, where bauxite deposits were discovered. Metre-gauge railways built during the German period link Bonaberi (a suburb of Douala with N'Kongsamba to the north and Douala with Eseka to the east. The Eseka line was extended by the French to Yaounde and in 1955 the two lines were joined by a bridge of 1,830 m. (6,004 ft.) across the Wouri river. Roads link Cameroon with the Federation of Nigeria and )

—

French Cameroun. The French territory of Cameroun, which had a population (1957) of 3,187,621 and an area of 166,795 sq.mi., was administered from Douala or Duala (pop. 125,000), the chief seaport and commercial centre, until 1921 when the seat of administration was moved to Yaounde (pop. 58,099) on the central plateau. Other towns of importance as mission stations, markets or subordinate administrative centres were N'Kongsamba (pop. 32,000), Edea (12,000), N'Gaoundere, Garoua (15,000) on the Benue river, Maroua in the north, and the hill resort of Dschang near the western border. Kribi (pop. 7,000) was the second port. French administration of the mandate was accompanied by political and financial autonomy under a French commissioner (later high commissioner). In World War II the territory joined the Free French movement in Aug. 1940 and Douala was for a time the headquarters of Gen. Charles de Gaulle. Under United Nations trusteeship, Cameroun had from 1946 the status of an "associated territory" of the French union. Administratively it was divided into 18 regions and its elected territorial assembly exercised wide powers. In March 1959 the United Nations adopted the French proposal to end the trusteeship status on Jan. 1, 1960, when the territory became the independent Republic of Cameroon. Republic of Cameroon. For five years prior to independence the country was troubled by disturbances inspired by the left-wing Union des Populations du Cameroun. Despite the success of the ruHng party, the Union Camerounaise, at the 1960 election, ter-

—

BABUTE TRIBESMAN PLAYING GUITARLIKE INSTRUMENT; NANGA EBOK LAGE. REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON

VIL-

CAMILLO— CAMISARDS CAMILLUS

and

705 CAMILLA,

with the states of former French Equatorial Africa that in 1960 achieved independence as the Central African Republic and the Gabon Republic. The port of Douala has wharfage affording a depth of 23-33 ft. and of a length suflicient to work seven ships together, with a maximum capacity of 1,000,000 metric tons annually. Air services connect Douala with Paris, Marseilles,

terms of uncertain derivation used in ancient Rome, origin;illy for freeborn boys and girls, later for the attendants on certain priests and |)riestesses, especially the flame?! Dialis, the major priest of Jupiter. Such attendants had to be freeborn, under the age of puberty and have both parents They could be children of the priests or priestesses they alive.

Madrid and other centres. The Sanaga river dam at Edea was inaugurated in 1954 to provide electricity for Douala, for the railway and for the aluminum industry.

served.

See also references under "Cameroons"

Index volume. (Hu. De.: X.)

in the

—

Bibliography. H. Meyer, Das deutsche Kolonialrekh (1909-10); K. Ritler, Neitkamerun (1912) E. M. Saker, Alfred Saker, the Pioneer of the Cameroons, 2nd ed. (1929) F. J. Moberley, Military Operations, Togoland and the Cameroons, 1914-16 (1931); R. Susset, La veriti sur le Cameroun el I'Afrique Equatorial Frant^aise (1934) H. Labouret, Le Cameroun (1937); R. Schober, Kamerun (1937); H. R. Rudin, Germans in the Cameroons, 1S84-1914 (1938) see also .\nnual Reports of the Cameroons Development Corporation and the periodic Reports on the .\dministration of the (British) Cameroons (H.M.S.O.). Current history and statistics are summarized annually in the Britan;

;

;

;

Book of the Year. CAMILLO, SAINT, de Lellis (Camillus of Lellis) (1550-1614), founder of the Ministers of the Sick, was born at Bucchianico in the Abruzzi, Italy, son of an impoverished nobleman, on May 25, 1550. He became a soldier of fortune and was an inveterate gambler. In 1575 he was converted and became a servant and later an assistant at St. James's hospital for incurables in Rome, where he had himself been a patient with the ulcerated leg and the rupture which impeded him all his life. As in all hospitals of the period, conditions were appalling; dirt, neglect and even cruelty on the part of the paid attendants. Camillo was ordained in 15S4, and in 15S6 he obtained approval for the congregation of priests he had founded, devoted to hospital service. At first there were 12 members, without vows, working in the hospital of the Holy Spirit, but in 1591 they became a congreganica

vowed

tion of

religious clerks regular, called Ministers of the Sick

(Ministri degli infermi), wearing a red cross on their cassocks.

Camillo was general of the order until 1607. He insisted on the utmost care for both soul and body of his patients. Though his own health grew worse, he spent himself in superhuman efforts. When he died in Rome on July 14, 1614, there were nearly 300 in his order. He was canonized in 1746, and his feast day is July 18. Members of St. Camillo's order were nursing on the battlefield of Solferino (1859) when J. H. Dunant conceived the idea of the

Red

St.

Camillus (1946).

CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS

(d.

(E.

365 b.c),

I.

W.)

Roman

and statesman who held a triumph four times, was five times dictator and w^as honoured as the second founder of Rome. His greatest victory was as dictator in 396 B.C. when he conquered the Etruscan city of Veii (q.v.): he dedicated to Apollo in the treasury of the Massiliotes at Delphi a golden bowl which survived into later times. In 394 he reduced Falerii (mod. Civita Castellana). contemptuously rejecting the proffered treachery of a soldier

E.xiled for misappropriating

some booty,

have withdrawn to Ardea until he was appointed He is said dictator when the Gauls had captured Rome (390). and even recovered to have raised an army and defeated them the gold with which the Romans had bought them off), but his victory was probably invented to counterbalance Rome's defeat by the Gauls at the Allia river in 390. He is said also to have opposed a proposal that the Romans should migrate to Veii. Thereafter he fought successfully (possibly as a result of some reforms in the army) against the Aequi, Volsci, Etruscans and Gauls. Camillus

is

said to

(

Though

(he had, in the interest of the patricians, defeated the rising of M. Manlius, q.v.), he was not a diehard; he introduced pay for the army at the siege of Veii, and realizing the need to make concessions to the plebeians, he accepted the Liciniana patrician

Although Roman Sextian laws in 367 (see Roman History). may have exaggerated his achievements, Camillus clearly played a predominant role in Rome's recovery in the decades writers

after the

Galhc sack of the

See Plutarch, Lives.

De verborum

Roman

significatu,

93,

2

and

3;

Dionysius of

.Antiquities, 11, 22.

DA

(Caminesi), an Italian feudal family of the C AMINO, middle ages who ruled for a time in Treviso and adjacent towns. They were probably related to the Collalto. counts of Treviso, and possessed many fiefs imperial, episcopal and others in the mark of Treviso, notably in the districts of Belluno. Cadore and Ceneda, of which they became counts. By 1200 they had submitted formally to the commune of Treviso and been accepted as citizens, but since they retained and even increased their feudal patrimony they soon claimed a prominent place among the ruling families of the city, assuming leadership of the Guelf faction. Had it not been for the rival presence of the Ghibelline Da Romano family, the Caminesi might have come to dominate straightway. As it was they first seized power in 1283, after a street fight which ended in defeat for the Ghibellines. With the support of the Collalto and the Avogari (hereditary advocates of the bishop of Treviso), Gherardo da Camino, count of Ceneda and from 1265 captain general of Feltre and Belluno. was then elected captain general of Treviso as well. Gherardo's government was later condemned as tyrannical, especially because of heavy taxation, but that of his son Rizzardo II, who succeeded him on his death in 1306. provoked revolt. In 1311 Rizzardo purchased the office of vicar of Treviso from the German king ( later emperor Henry VII, after which he dropped the popular title of "captain'' and began to favour the Ghibellines. This offended the Guelf families and was His brother partly responsible for his murder in April 1312. Guecellone \'II. count of Ceneda, who took his place, proved no instigation the expelled in Dec. 1312 at more acceptable and was In 1313 he also lost Feltre and of the Collalto and the bishop. Belluno. By the 15th century the family had died out in all its

—

—

)

principal branches.

—

Bibliography. G. B. Verci, Storia delta Marca Trevigiana, 20 vol. (1786-91) G. B. Picotti, / Caminesi e la loro signoria in Treviso dal 12S3 al 1312 (1905) F. Ercole, Dal comune at principato (1929). (P.J.J.) ;

;

CAMISARDS,

Cross.

See C. C. Martindale, Life of

Faliscan schoolmaster.

See Festus, Halicarnassus,

city.

(H. H. Sd.)

the name given to the French Protestant peasantry of the Cevennes and of Bas-Languedoc who from 1702 to 1705 and for several years afterward carried on an organized military resistance to the government's revocation of the Edict of

Nantes. The Camisards (from Languedocian caviisa, "shirt"; Fr. chemise) v/ere so called either because they wore a white shirt over their ordinary clothes for recognition purposes in night fighting, or because, out of concern to symbolize purity, they made a point of changing their linen whenever they halted at a village. They were also called Barbels ("water dogs," a term also applied to the Waldenses), Assemblants, Fanatiques and Houssards or Ozards (as the Hungarian rebels of the same period, led by Ferencz Rakoczy II, were sometimes called "hussars'' ). They belonged to that Romance-speaking people who made the south of France the most fertile nursing ground of heresy in the middle ages {see

Cathari). In 1686 the pastor Pierre Jurieu had published in Rotterdam his w'ork L' Accomplissement des prophet ies and his Lettres pastorales, a series of brief tracts which were secretly circulated in France.

Speaking of the Apocalypse, Jurieu predicted the end of the persecution of the Huguenots and the fall of Babylon, by which he meant Roman Catholicism, for 1689. The revolution in England seemed a striking corroboration of his prophecies, and apocalyptic enthusiasm took a strong hold on people's minds. In Dauphine (1688) and in Vivarais (1689) children took to prophesying and whole crowds fell into convulsions and paroxysms of sobbing. Twelve years later this strange illuminism reappeared in the In spite of ruthless repressive measures valley of the Ardeche. it

spread with extraordinary rapidity

among

the Protestants of

CAMMAERTS— CAMOES

706

Bas-Languedoc and of the Cevennes, whom the intendant Nicolas Lamoignon de Basville was treating with increasing severity. From appeals to repentance the enthusiasts proceeded to swearing revenge, and the "awakening'' gave way to revolt. On the night of July 24, 1702, about 40 Cevenols released some young Protestants from the prison at Pont-de-Montvert and assassinated the abbe du Chayla (Fran(;ois Anglade), whom they considered as an odious torturer. They then went through the Cevennes, setting fire to churches and massacring "wicked priests." Their first leader. Esprit Seguier, was caught and burned alive (July 28), Seguier was succeeded by Gedeon Laporte, an old soldier who, as his troop increased, assumed the title of "colonel of the children of God" and named his camp "the camp of the Eternal," He would lead his followers to battle singing Clement Marot's version of the 68th psalm, "Que Dieu se montre seulement," to the music of Claude Goudimel. The movement was essentially a popular one, its leaders including the goatherd Andre Castanet, the wool carders Abraham Mazel and Jacques Couderc and the soldiers Catinat (Abdias Maurel, who assumed the name of the great marshal Catinat), Nicolas Jouany and Laurent Ravenel. A sheep gelder, Pierre Laporte, Gedeon's nephew, born at Mas-Soubeyran, proved a determined and astute commander in chief in the BassesCevennes, his continual changes of position earning him the nickname of "Pierre Roulante" (rolling stone), abbreviated to Roland or Rolland. Jean Cavalier (q.v.), a baker's boy, operated mainly in the lower country a born strategist, he pinned down successively the armies of Victor Maurice de Broglie and the marshal de Montrevel (N. A. de La Baume). Regular ta.xes were raised, arsenals were formed in the great limestone caves of the district, the Catholic churches were burned and sometimes the clergy were driven away. Occasionally routed in regular engagements, the Camisards, through their desperate valour, clever tactics and rapid movements, were constantly successful in skirmishes, night attacks and ambuscades. The rising was far from being general and never extended to more than 4,000 or 5,000 men, but was made dangerous by the support of the people, whether secret or, as it sometimes was, open. Their knowledge of the mountainous country, covered with forests and without roads, gave the insurgents an enormous advantage. Montrevel adopted a policy of extermination. Women and children perished in the flames at Moulin de I'Agau near Nimes (April 1 703 and 466 villages were burned in the Hautes-Cevennes alone, the population being for the most part put to the sword Oct.-Dec. 1703). Recruited mainly at St. Florent (whence the term Flor;

)

,

(

entins), the Catholic militiamen,

emblem,

who took

a white cross as their

and the pillaging. Appointed Languedoc on March 27, 1704, the marshal de Villars took advantage of the feelings of horror with which the quiet Protestants of Nimes and other towns regarded the war. The Huguenot baron d'Aigaliers (Jean Jacob de Rossel), undertook to intensified the massacres

commandant

in

Cavalier, who made his submission at Nimes (May 16, 1704), demanded a large measure of toleration, but Louis XIV granted only an amnesty, giving the rebels the choice of entering the king's forces or of leaving the country. Most of the Camisards, negotiate.

insisting that the Edict of

Nantes should be restored, continued the

Then Roland was betrayed and killed (Aug. 1704), Jouany surrendered and Ravenel was executed in the sanguinary crushing war.

of the so-called Conspiracy of the Children of God in April 1705. Mazel, having escaped into Switzerland, returned to Vivarais in July 1 709 where he made a vain effort to rekindle the revolt. After his death (Oct. 1710) the last of the Camisards were either captured or dispersed. Shaken by violent convulsions, the prophets of the Cevennes would fall into ecstasies and utter words which they believed to be inspired by the Holy Ghost, The supernatural was part of their life: lights in the sky guided them to places of safety and voices sang encouragement to them. Yet the Camisards were not all visionaries or fanatics, and the prophetic influence, often exaggerated, diminished greatly during the course of the war.

—

Bibliography. For 18th-century accounts see Memoires inedits d'Abraham Mazel et d'Elie Marion, 1701-OS, ed. by C. Bost (1931) A. Court, HisF. M. Misson, Le Theatre sacre des Cevennes (1707) ;

;

toire des troubles des Cevennes (1760) J. B. Louvreleuil, Le Fanatisnte (1701-06; new ed., 4 vol., 1868), and D. A. de Brueys, Histoire du fanatisme (1737) are hostile. See further C. Bost, Les Predicants protestants, vol. ii (1912) M. Pin, Un chef Camisard: Nicolas Jouany (1930), Jean Cavalier (1936), Chez les Camisards (no date) and Autour des Camisards (1943); A. Ducasse, La Guerre des Camisards (1946); L. Mazoyer, "Origines du prophetisme cevenol," Revue Hislorique (1947) H. Dubled, "Une chronique peu connue," Bulletin de la societe de I'histoire du protestantisme jrani;ais (1947) A. de La Gorce, Camisards et dragons du rot (1950) H. Bosc, Rolland (1957). (L. Ma.) , .

renouvele

;

;

;

;

CAMMAERTS, EMILE

(1878-1953), Belgian poet and interpreted Belgium to the British public, was born in Brussels on March 16, 1878. When he was 30 he settled in England and his writings on English and Belgian themes included translations of John Ruskin and G. K. Chesterton into French, Discoveries in England (1930), The Laughing Prophet: the Seven Virtues and G. K. Chesterton (1937) and Albert of Belgium, Defender of Right (1935 ). During World War I he became known for his poems among which were Chants patriotiques et autres poemes (trans, as Belgian Poems, 1915) and Poemes i?itimes (1922). In 1947 he was made professor emeritus of Belgian studies and institutions at London university. His enthusiasms also embraced nonsense verse, art and religion, on which he wrote The Poetry of Nonsense (1925), Rubens, Painter and Diplomat (1931), Flemish Painting (1945), The Cloud and the Silver Lining (1952), etc. He died at Radlett, Hertfordshire, on Nov, 2, 1953. writer

who

as

CAMOES

a vigorous

royalist

(Eng. Camo'ens),

LUIS

VAZ DE

(1524-1580),

the greatest of Portuguese poets, was born in Lisbon, according to the expression natural deste cidade ("native of this city") used in 161 3 by Pedro de Mariz, his

first,

but ill-informed, biographer.

Domingo Fernandes, the bookseller, had dedicated his edition of the poet's Rimas to the University of Coimbra, stating that Camoes was born in Coimbra. Successive biographers of various nationalities have enshrouded the little that is known In 1607, however,

life in a bewildering complexity of fantasy and theory unsupported by concrete evidence. A noteworthy exception is the date generally accepted as that of the poet's birth, 1524, which was deduced from the records of the Casa da India brought to light in the 17th century by Camoes' over-zealous commentator, Manuel de Faria e Sousa. The most important document extant, however, is the Carta de perdao a Luis de Camoes, granted in Lisbon on March 7, 1553. This states that the poet was mancebo ("a young man"), a gentleman of the king's household and the son of Simao Vaz; that he was then living in Lisbon but was very poor and was going that year to serve in India. He had been arrested for inflicting a sword wound on Gongalo Borges, one of the king's servants, on the Feast of Corpus Christi, and the Carta

of his

announced his pardon. Of Simao Vaz, the poet's father, little is known. He was long confused with his cousin and namesake, whose life is fully documented, and who was the son of Joao Vaz of Vila Franca, whereas Camoes' father, according to Pedro de Mariz, was the son of Antao Vaz de Camoes and D. Guiomar Vaz da Gama, of the wellknown Algarvian Gamas. The same biographer described Camoes' mother as a gentlewoman of Santarem, Ana de Macedo, but other documents give her name as Ana de Sa. The earliest record of a Camoes yet discovered relates to Vasco Pires de Camoes, a Galician gentleman who settled in Portugal during the reign of King Ferdinand and fought for the latter's unpopular widow during the conIf the genealogy is flicts preceding the accession of King John I, he was the poet's great-great-grandfather. Camoes studied in Coimbra has persisted unchallenged and the sonnet "Doces e claras aguas do Mondego," reliable,

The

tradition that

and. even more, the can(do, "Vao as serenas aguas/do Mondego descendo," bear adequate testimony to his having lived there. He did not, however, study under Bento de Camoes, another son of Joao Vaz, as was at one time thought, for it has now been proved that the Bento who was the first chancellor of the university and the first prior of the famous Augustinian College of Santa Cruz and who died in 1547 was Bento de Almeida or de Abrantes and that

Bento de Camoes did not become an Augustinian monk until 1545. seems unlikely, therefore, that he could have had any influence

It

CAMOES on the poet's development, even

if

the latter were

still in

Coimbra

in 1545-

After finishing his studies Camoes went to Lisbon and entered court circles under the patronage of the Conde de Linhares, D. Francisco de Noronha, whose son, Antonio, was his friend and perhaps his pupil. Sometime later, having chosen a military career, he set out for North Africa where he lost an eye. Because of his reference to the jiiria rara de Marte in his well-known can(do, "V'inde ca, that he lost

meu

tao certo secretario,"

From

during a battle.

it

has been concluded

the elegy,

".\quela que has been deduced that he spent part of this period at Ceuta. His fiiga ("flight") from Lisbon inspired his earliest biographers to create the hypothesis of a Camoes exiled from the court by love. Commentators who allow their imagination to outrun their critical sense will always be able to it

d'amor descomedido,"

it

it because in the poems of this period Camoes frequently uses the word desterro (''banishment") and describes with poignant sincerity the sufferings caused by love.

subscribe to

He returned to Lisbon bnt in 1553 he was again overseas, this time in India. A letter written after the premature death of D. Antonio de Noronha at Ceuta on April 17, 1553, proves that he went there shortly after receiving the Carta de Perdao. In this letter, Camoes alludes to the 3.000 days of venomous tongues, worse deeds and biting calumnies, all bom in pure envy, that he had spent in Lisbon, and congratulates himself on having known how to escape from the many snares that circumstances laid for him. He adds that in India he finds himself more honoured than the bulls of Merceana and in a quieter atmosphere than that of a preaching friar's cell. His first impression of India was that it was an indulgent mother to the unworthy and a cruel stepmother to the worthy. With time, the impression must have deepened. He had arrived in Goa after what he describes as si.x months of very unpleasant life at sea and had to embark again almost immediately with the viceroy to make war on the Rei da Pime?ita in Malabar. Reference is made to this event in his elegy, "O Poeta Simonides falando.'' He also took part in one of the expeditions sent to the Straits of Mecca (Bab el Mandeb) according to his most famous can-do, "Junto de um seco, fero e esteril monte." Later he was appointed provedor-mor dos dejuntos e ausentes (official responsible for the property of dead and absent Portuguese) in China, but was almost forcibly deprived of this position by the captain of a boat who had previously held it and who tried to take him back to Goa under arrest. Camoes escaped this fate as a result of the shipwreck at the

which he refers

in

mouth

of the

Mekong

river to

Os Lusiadas. the Injusto mando ("unjust com-

Canto X. stanza 12S of

his epic.

In the same stanza he alludes to mand") which has baffled all his commentators. In 1570, Camoes was on his way home to Portugal, having served

under no less than eight viceroys or governors while he was in India, and just as poor as when he had left Lisbon. He lived for some time in Mozambique where he was visited by the chronicler, Diogo do Couto, who described him as so poor that his friends had to give him food. To enable him to embark for home they had to gather together the clothing he needed and, probably, to pay some debts. He took back with him the manuscript of Os Lusiadas which he had only with great difficulty saved from the shipwreck. In Lisbon there were still vestiges of the plague which had ravaged the city during the previous year but this did This he not deter Camoes who had Os Lusiadas to publish. achieved

in

1372, afterward receiving a pension of 15,000

reis,

which was not as paltry as has been suggested by some of his biographers, and was transferred to his mother after his death on June 10, 1580. in Lisbon. According to Pedro de Mariz, he was buried in the church of Santa Ana. Camoes' poetical works may conveniently be discussed under three headings: lyric, epic and dramatic. (There was also a manuscript entitled Parnasso de Luis de Camoes on which the poet had worked during the winter of 1568-69 in Mozambique. It was described by Diogo do Couto, who later tried in vain to trace it, as a book of much learning.) The first edition of Camoes' Rimas was published in 1595. 15 years after his death. The editor, Fernao Rodrigues Lobo Soropita,

707

had exercised scrupulous care in collecting the poems from manuscript songbooks, but even so he could not avoid the inclusion of some apocryphal poems. The increasing fame of Camoes' epic during the political crisis of 1580 to 1640 also swept the lyrics into fame and in the 17th century many efforts, not all of them praiseworthy, were made to unearth more poems. Prominent in this enterprise, but in a manner condemned by modern criticism, was Manuel de Faria e Sousa. Even in the 19th century, the Visconde de Juromenha added to the already excessive collection of lyrics, introducing into his edition of 1860-69 many poems from the songbooks, which were still comparatively unstudied. As a result the sonnets increased from 65 in the first edition to 352 in the Juromenha edition; the cimfoes from 10 to 21; the sextets from i to 5; the odes from 5 to 14; the octets from 3 to 9; the eclogues from 8 to 16; the elegies from 3 to 29; the redondillias, motos, esparsas and glosas from 74 to 147. From 170 in the first edition, the number of poems had risen to 593 by i860. With Wilhelm Storck, and more especially with Carolina Michaelis, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries there began a critical reaction which led to the elimination of many apocryphal poems. Although a complete restoration of Camoes' lyrics appears impossible,

scholars continue the

work

of purifying the texts.

nately there are sufficient authentic

poems

Fortu-

to confirm his position

as Portugal's finest lyric poet. If he had remained at court, he would not have reached this high pinnacle despite his consummate artistry. But he exchanged the vanity of court life for the hardships of a soldier's life in Africa and India and this immeasurably enriched his poetry. For he no longer needed to conform to the

standards of brevity required in court circles, and, more important so profound was the anguish he experienced because of his

still,

from home and the trials he underwent, that it became an him to give to saudade-soledade ("yearning fraught with loneliness") a new and convincing undertone unique in Portuguese literature. His best poems vibrate with the unmistakable note of genuine suffering and deep sincerity of feeling. It is this which places him far above the other poets of exile

integral part of his being, enabling

his era.

Although the cangoes and

elegies give the poet's true measure,

In the production of He rejuvenated the ancient art of glossing by the apparent spontaneity and simplicity, the delicate irony and the piquant phraseology of his verses, and so raised courtly grace in poetry to its highest level. These poems show a Camoes who could be happy and carefree. In their efforts to discover who inspired most of Camoes' poems, critics have made, on very slender grounds, many contradictory suggestions, e.g. Isabel Tavares, D. Catarina de Ataide. D. Franthe redondillias must not be underestimated. these elegant

trifles

Camoes was

inimitable.

D. Maria and a young Chinese girl have been shipwrecked with him, but the real muse, if the poet had one, remains an enigma. Nor should it be forgotten in trying to resolve the doubt that he himself said in one of his sonnets, "em varias flamas variamente ardia" ("I burnt myself at cisca de Aragao, the Infanta

said to

many

flames").

Camoes' Lisbon

in

epic,

Os Lusiadas ("The Portuguese"), published

in

1572, extols the glorious deeds of the Portuguese and

enemies of Christianity: victories not only over man. but also over the forces of nature motivated by inimical gods. From the 17th century onward, critics have censured Camoes for using pagan mythology in a poem exalting the deeds of Christians. Some have claimed that it has an allegorical significance, while Voltaire, in the i8th century, set the tone for neoclassical criticism. Camoes was undoubtedly thinking of the Aeneid when he conceived the idea for his poem, but in Os Lusiadas Bacchus intervenes because he fears that immortality itself is in peril, while Venus, helping the Portuguese, seeks to prolong it by causing their victories over the

to land on her island and marry her nymphs. The new Argonauts and their progeny will supersede the ancient gods who are only men whom Fama immortahzed by blazing abroad their noble deeds (Canto IX, 91-92). The courage and enterprise of Portuguese explorers had inspired the idea of a national epic during the 15th century but it was left to Camoes in the i6th centurj' to put it into execution. It is im-

them

CAMOMILE— CAMOUFLAGE

7o8

possible to say for certain when he decided to do so or when he actually began his epic. He wrote the dedication to Sebastian, however, during the prince's minority which ended on Jan. 20, 1568, and, according to Diogo do Couto, was revising his poem during the winter of 1569-70 in Mozambique. The royal licence permitting printing and granting copyright is dated Sept. 24, 1571.

The poem describes the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama. After being saved from Mombasa's treachery, the voyagers spend several days in Melinde on the east coast of Africa, and, at the king's request, Vasco da Gama relates the entire history of Portugal from its origins to the inception of their great voyage (Cantos III, IV and V). These cantos contain some of the most beautiful passages in the

poem:

the death of Ines de Castro, the

battle of Aljubarrota, the vision of

King Manuel I, the Velho do lire and the waterspout, and

Restelo, the description of St. Elmo's

the story of Adamastor, a supremely beautiful poetical conception.

When they re-embark the poet takes advantage of leisure hours on board to narrate the story of the Doze de Inglaterra (Canto VI, 43-69). In the meantime, Bacchus, ever ready to impede the progress of the Portuguese in the east, convokes a council of the sea gods and incites them to arrange the shipwreck of the Portuguese fleet. This is prevented by Venus (Canto VI, 85-91 and \'asco da Gama is able to reach CaHcut, the end of his voyage. There his brother, Paulo da Gama, receives the king's representative, the Catiial, on board and explains the significance of the characters depicted on the banners that adorn the captain's ship (Cantos VII and VIII). On their homeward voyage the mariners chance upon the island which Venus has created for them and the nymphs reward them for )

One

nymphs sings IX and X and the

of the future deeds of the entertainment ends with a given by Thetis and Vasco da Gama, after which the sailors embark once more and the nymphs accompany them on their homeward journey. In Os Lusiadas Camoes achieved an exquisite harmony between classical learning and practical experience, delicate perception and superb artistic skill, expressing through them the gravity of thought and the finest human emotions. It was his eulogy of the vida pcrigosa "dangerous life" and a stern warning to the Christian princes, who, idling their time away in petty struggles, were forgetting Mohammed, the common enemy, who was advancing against Europe (Cantos VI, 95 and VII). In critical periods of their history the Portuguese have found in Camoes an inspiring example of strength and endurance. In his dramatic works Camoes tried to combine national and classical tendencies. In Enjatrioes he accentuated the comic aspect of the myth of Amphitryon; in El-Rei Seletico he reduced the situation found in Plutarch to pure farce; in Filodento he developed the aiilo, a kind of morality play, which Gil Vicente had earlier made popular. But for Camoes, comedy was unimportant, a mere curiosity and a recreation to which he could give only transitory attention. Nevertheless, by imposing classical restraint on the Vicentian auto; increasing the importance of the plot; transferring the comic element from the characters to the action; their labours.

Portuguese (Cantos

of the

)

description of the universe (Ptolemaic system

(

)

Camoes comedy

and by

refining the farce. rejuvenating 16th-century

tists,

)

means of

indicated a possible in

Portugal, but later drama-

unfortunately, were incapable of following the lead he had This, however,

given.

poetry.

It

was

is

the least important aspect of Camoes'

his lyrics, among which are some of made him one of the greatest poets Europe and have given him a lasting claim to fame.

his epic

—

Bibliography. Editions: Os Lusiadas, ed. by E. da Silva Dias (1916-18), national edition (1928) Rimas, text established by A. J. da Costa Pimpao (1953) Poesias Casicllanas y Autos, ed. by M. Braga (1929). There are English translations of the Lusiadas by W. C. Atkinson (1952) and by R. Fanshawe (1940). For bibliographies of the extensive works on Camoes, see T. Braga, Bibliografia camoneana (1880) J. do Canto, Colleccao Camoneana (1895) F. de Figueiredo, in A Critica Litteraria como Sciencia, pp. 185-195 (1920) Aubrey F. G. Bell, Luis de Camoes (1923) G. le Gentil, Camoens (1954) J. F, Valverde, Camoens (1958). (A. J. da C. P.) (Camomile Flowers), a drug consisting of ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

CAMOMILE

the

dried flower heads of certain species of Compositae, once

home remedy in German camomile (matrkaria)

widely used as a or

States.

It

has a

warm

aromatic odour and a bitter taste.

the form of a tea. is

Hungarian

derived from wild plants of

Its

constituents include bitter principles and a strongly aromatic volatile oil that is sometimes used medicinally.

Roman, English or Russian camomile (atithemis) is derived from Anthemis nobilis, a perennial herb indigenous to southern and western Europe and cultivated for medicinal use in Saxony, France, Belgium and England. It contains bitter principles and a volatile oil similar to that of inatricaria. Spanish camomile is derived from wild plants of this species. It is richer in active principles but more likely to produce nausea. The camomiles are said to act as stimulants, allayers of nervous excitement and carminatives. The name wild camomile is applied to cotula (mayweed), the dried plant of A?ttliemis cotula, which is native to Europe but naturaUzed as a common weed in many parts of North America. It is the most acrid of the camomiles; the juice of the fresh leaves will blister the skin.

CAMORRA,

(V. E.)

'When

southern Italy. publicly known.

Naples in it was Neapolitan jails, its first purpose Former inmates then continued

a secret society of the province of

It

it

began

originated in

being protection of prisoners.

is

uncertain, but by 1830

jails, notably in the city of Naples. The rapidly in influence and power; its operations included criminal activities of various kinds, such as smuggling, blackmail and ordinary road robberies. The general disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized, that mer-

the society outside the

Camorra grew

chants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loadBecause the society was ing and unloading of merchandise. nonpolitical, the government did not interfere with it; indeed its

members were taken

into the police service,

and occasionally they

solved crimes that baflled the authorities. During the decade of reaction which followed the Neapolitan revolution of 1848, many camorristi became interested in politics

and supported the national and hberal cause. They organized demonstrations against the despotic regime of King Ferdinand II. After the elimination of the Bourbon dynasty and the incorporation of its realm into the United Kingdom of Italy, the political power of the Camorra became truly formidable. It proceeded to abuse In 1862 severe this power, and widespread disorder ensued. repressive measures were inaugurated against the society and continued for several decades. The Camorra struck back by means The authorities of political intrigues and acts of brigandage. countered in their turn with an intensive series of manhunts that started in 1882. Thereafter the Camorra steadily lost ground; its decline was climaxed by. the defeat of all its candidates in the Neapolitan elections of igoi. Although greatly weakened, the society was not yet extinct, however. In 1911, popular attention was drawn to the fact of its survival by a famous case, the Cuocolo murder, in which some 20 persons were brought to trial. They were all accused of being affiliated to the Camorra, among them the man reputed to be its The case, chief, who was extradited from the United States. which lasted over a year, was transferred from Naples to Viterbo to insure an impartial verdict, and the severe sentences which were passed dealt a shattering blow to the organization. See also Mafia.

and

the loveliest ever written, that of 16th-century

Matricaria chamomilla, an annual herb indigenous to Europe and western Asia and naturalized in parts of Australia and the United

(S.

CAMOUFLAGE, tion.

It is

the

means

W. Hn.)

the military art of concealment and decepenemy observation by concealing

of defeating

or disguising installations, activities or equipment.

(The protec-

found among animals is dealt with The fundamental principles of camouin Animal Coloration.) flage have not changed since the Chinese military writer Sun Tzu stated in his' book The Art of War in 500 B.C.: tive coloration, or camouflage,

Hence when able to attack, we All warfare is based on deception. must seem unable when using our forces, we must seem inactive when we are near, we must make the enemy believe that we are away when Hold out baits to far away, we must make him believe we are near. entice the enemy. Feign disorder, and crush him. ;

;

;

In the conventional use of the term, camouflage is restricted The surface camouflager, for exam-

to passive defense measures.

CAMOUFLAGE

709

does not try to prevent aerial surveillance by jamming the

importance of choice of position, camouflage discipline and camou-

enemy's radar. He is more likely to invite aerial surveillance, especially by photography, so that he will have an opportunity to deceive the enemy. Thus the conflict is mental rather than physical,' with one side seeking information through surveillance while the other side not only attempts to deny it but proffers misleading visual information. The camoullager requires a knowledge of the enemy's operating methods and military doctrine in order to predict how he will respond to specific deceptive visual

He learned to conceal himself by blending background and to avoid silhouetting himself against the skyline. He was taught how to camouflage his helmet, to guard against shiny equipment, to camouflage the spoil from his entrenchment and to hide the glow from his cigarette at night. He

information.

In Great Britain entire airfields and large manufacturing plants were camouflaged to protect them against aerial attack. At the close of the war the British air ministry reported that:

pie,

Both concealment and deception adversely intelligence effort.

The withholding

affect the

to increase his collection effort, especially surveillance, to div'ert

The

from combat

a greater

enemy's

of information compels

number

of

men and

him

and thus machines.

receipt of incorrect reports along with correct information

may

confuse the enemy and force him to devote more time to analyzing the data. Camouflage may thus contribute to indecision

on the part of the enemy commander, cost him critical time and resources and may even lead him to make wrong decisions. Camouflage as a means of deceiving the enemy is different from countermeasures. Camouflage does not give itself away by obviously impairing the ability of the sensing device to "see" for that

would merely forewarn the observer.

its target,

False information

must be given

to the enemj^ without arousing his suspicions. Countermeasures, on the other hand, do impair the ability of the sensing device to "see" and are not concerned with whether the enemy is aware of this action as long as the ability to detect is destroyed. For example, the dropping of chaff from aircraft in flight and the launching of diversionary guided missiles are designed to confuse, divert and saturate air defense systems; they are normally considered countermeasures rather than camouflage. History. Camouflage, from the French word camoufler (to disguise), came into English usage during World War I when air warfare was introduced. Development of military aircraft exposed enemy dispositions to the air observer and the aerial camera. Each major army therefore organized a camouflage service of specially trained troops to practise the art of deception. Conceal-

—

ment ra,nge,

was generally limited to positions within artillery for aircraft were used to spot targets for the artillery. By

effort

World War II the increased capabilities of aircraft for long-range bombing threatened warring countries in their entirety, not just the front lines. At the same time, camouflage concepts were broadened to include active deception of the enemy as well as passive concealment against observation and photography. World War II gave marked impetus to both camouflage and surveillance competitive roles. Practically everything of was camouflaged to some degree. Almost all camouflage nets and were painted in dull colours. All militar>' personnel received training in camouflage fundamentals during basic training. The soldier was taught the in their traditional

military significance

tactical vehicles carried

construction.

flage

into his

became familiar with camouflage materials such chicken-wire netting, cloth garnishing and the

as twine nets, u.se

of

natural

foliage.

A network of SOO dummy cities, airfields, shipyards and other targets so realistic they blazed at night under enemy attack caused thousands of tons of German bombs to drop harmlessly in open fields during the Battle of Britain. Mock airfields drew even more raids than the real ones 443 compared with 434 on actual installations.

—

The

fields appeared so genuine that Allied pilots care to avoid trying to land on them.

In evaluating States Strategic

had

to exercise great

German camouflage in World War Bombing survey reported that;

II, the

United

Protective concealment was practiced with greater variety of materials probably with greater ingenuity, and certainly with greater expenditures of manpower, than had been used by any warring nation previously. One of these ambitious camouflage projects was undertaken in Hamburg where the inner basin of the Alster, measuring roughly 500 by 450 yards, surrounded by the main business district, was covered to make it appear like terrain.

Dummies,

displays and decoys were widely used during

World

War

II to accomplish varied objectives. The extent of dummy displays ranged from crude improvisation of coconut logs for guns in Burma and on Pacific islands to an elaborate simulation of an

army in England. Prior to the Normandy invasion German reconnaissance aircraft many times reported "loaded fleets in British ports and large size mechanized units in the field." This display in reality consisted of pneumatic decoys made to resemble entire

weapons and pieces of equipment arranged to represent large convoys and concentrations of landing craft, tanks, trucks and artillery. fleets of landing craft appeared and disappeared overnight in invasion harbours. assault boats drew some of the defensive fire during the assault on the Normandy different types of

Dummy

Dummy

beaches. British Field Marshal Bernard L. Montgomery surprised Erwin Rommel, the German commander, at El Alamein through the use dummies combined with a feint. His intention to force a gap through the German defensive system in the north was masked by a long-term cover plan designed to make the Germans think that

of

the prospective attack was to take place in the southern sector. By skilful use of dummy material, the armour and other equipment required for the northern attack was shifted to the north without

any

visible decrease of strength in the south. Simultaneously, active measures designed to suggest a southern attack took place. pipelines and supply dumps were built and a radio decep-

Dummy tion

program was operated by

a

bogus divisional headquarters.

The deception was maintained through the first three days of the battle, during which time the XIII corps gave the appearance of attempting to make a breakthrough in the south. This kept Rommel guessing and prevented him from repositioning his 21st panzer division.

The protective concealment provided by smoke was also effecWorld War II. Land and sea movements, both large and small, were blanketed by smoke. Huge smoke screens covered fleets at anchor when air-raid alerts sounded. Preparations for river crossings were similarly hidden. The 60-mile smoke screen along the Rhine that covered the reorganization of the 21st army group and its subsequent crossing of the river in March 194S was probably the greatest smoke cover ever produced. The Korean war (1950-53) brought little change in camouflage techniques. It was mostly a post-graduate course to World War II tive during

training with emphasis upon seasonal and geographic factors. During the years that followed, concepts as to the importance of

warfare varied widely among the military service. By the 1960s it was generally recognized that greater emphasis should be placed on de-

camouflage

INFLATED DECOY OF SHERMAN TANK USED BY THE BRITISH ARMY DURING

WORLD WAR

11

services

in future

and even within each

CAMOUFLAGE

7IO

its background, while shape is the outward or visible form of an object or person. Shape refers to outline or form and is distinguished from surface characteristics and colour. At a distance the form or outline of objects can be recognized before the observer can make out details in their appearance, such as colour

or texture.

For

this reason,

camouflage has

much

to do with conBut shape alone will

cealing the shape of an object or person.

sometimes not be enough for for example, could

show

identification.

lots.

photograph,

several different objects with rectangular

shapes; they might be buildings, ing

A vertical

To determine

swimming

pools, trucks or park-

their true identity, other factors

must

be studied, particularly shadow.

Shadow may be more in

revealing than the object

photographs taken from the

air.

itself,

especially

Objects such as factory chim-

neys, utility poles, vehicles and tents have distinctive shadows.

Conversely, shadows sometimes may assist in concealment, for an object in the shadow of another object is more likely to be over-

ARMY SMOKE GENERATOR PRODUCING PART OF THE SMOKE SCREEN THAT PROTECTED THE ALLIED CROSSING OF THE RHINE: GERMANY. MARCH 1945 U.S.

Concealment and deception, it was felt, should become commonplace everyday activities of the small units that were visualized as the basic combat units of the future. Through such tactics, it was argued, the enemy's stockpile of atomic weapons might be wasted on fictitious targets while his means of delivery would be more easily located. As the result of a relatively greater development effort, a variety of new detection devices appeared. Some were supersonic aircraft and drones equipped with television, radar, infrared scanning devices, acoustic detection and high-speed photographic equipment with multiple filters. Ground battle area surveillance equipment included television, radar and aids to night vision. Other developments were earth satellites carrying radar, television and photographic equipment. Camouflage research and development meanwhile provided new techniques, materials and equipment for countering such surveillance devices. Methods and materials for effective concealment and deception throughout the electromagnetic spectrums from the ultraviolet through the visual infrared and radar region were developed. Improved pneumatic devices were produced to simulate items of military equipment such as trucks, armoured vehicles, artillery and guided missiles. These devices could be used in combat deception schemes where military forces were simulated. They provided effective visual, infraOther materials were developed to red and radar simulation. ception operations in atomic warfare.

—

simulate bridges, convoys, bivouac areas, airstrips, marshaling yards, post activities and supply dumps. Some diversionary equip-

ment could be used to represent a paratroop drop and gunfire. Basic Principles.— The basic principles of camouflage remain constant in that they are governed by natural phenomena such as light, heat and colour. Recognition is the fundamental issue in the contest between surveillance and camouflage. The objective of camouflage concealment

is to prevent recognition; the objective is to induce false recognition. This imcamouflage is not always designed to be a "cloak of invisibility"; sometimes camouflage is designed to permit detection, and although nature and circumstances do not always permit the denial of detection, recognition can be made difficult or even impossible. An example of permitted detection is the use of improperly garnished drape nets over decoy equipment. Recognition through appearance is the result of conclusions drawn by the observer from the position, shape or other characteristics of the objects or persons under surveillance. Recognition through behaviour or movement includes deductions made from the actual movements themselves, from the tracks of persons or vehicles, or by other violations of camouflage discipline. Regardless of the type of observation, there are certain factors that help to identify an object. These are the telltale elements that determine how quickly the object will be seen or how long it will remain unobserved. The eight factors of recognition are position, shape, shadow, texture, colour, tone, movement and shine. These factors must be considered in camouflage to ensure that no one of them reveals the location of the concealed object. Position, of course, is the relation of an object or person to

of camouflage deception plies that

looked.

Texture affects the tone and apparent coloration of things because of its absorption and scattering of light. Rough surfaces tend to appear dark and to remain constant in tone regardless of the direction

of

view and

lighting,

whereas relatively smooth

surfaces change from dark to light with the change of direction of viewing or lighting.

Altering the texture of an object often has the added advantage of disrupting its shape and the shape of

shadow, thus making it more difficult to detect and identify. Colour is an aid to an observer when there is contrast between the colour of an object and its background. The greater the contrast in colour, the more visible the object appears. Colour differences or differences in hue. such as red and green-yellow, become increasingly difficult to distinguish (or tend to merge) as the viewing range is increased. This is because of atmospheric effects. Colours in nature, except for certain floral and tropical animal its

are not brilliant.

life,

The impression

of vividness of nature's

colours results from the large areas of like colour involved and

the contrast of these areas with each other.

The

principal con-

dark and light qualities. However, the dark and light colour contrast does not fade out quickly and is distinguishable at greater distances. Therefore, as a first general principle, the camouflage must match the darker and lighter qualities of the background and be increasingly concerned with the colours involved as the viewing range is decreased or the size of the object or installation becomes larger. A second general rule is to avoid contrasts of hues and when treating mobile objects in foliated terrains, light-toned colours are to be avoided as they tend to attract attention. Tone is the effect achieved by the mixing of light, shade and In a black-and-white photograph, the shades of gray in colour. which an object appears are known as tone. By adding texturing material a smooth or shiny surface can be made to produce a darker tone in a photograph because the textured surface now absorbs more light rays. Objects become identifiable because of contrasts between them and their background. Camouflage blending is the process of eliminating or reducing these contrasts. The principal contrast is that of tone; i.e., the dark and light relationThe two ship existing between an object and its background. principal means available for reducing this contrast or difference in tone are the application of matching coloration and the use of texturing. As an example of coloration effects, a light-coloured aircraft on a light-coloured runway is most easily located by its shadow, while the same aircraft on a darker runway is easily picked out through its own contrast with its background. If all colour contrasts are reduced, a dark-coloured aircraft on a darkcoloured runway is relatively inconspicuous or practically disInstallations subject only to high aerial appears from view. observation can best be concealed by toning down contrasts in shade and colour rather than by attempting complicated disruptive patterns. Poorly chosen disruptive patterns tend to make the object more conspicuous instead of concealing it. trast

is

in their

Movement

is

the strongest factor in attracting attention.

The

very quick to notice any movement in an otherwise still scene. The aerial camera can record the fact that something has eye

is

CAMP— CAMP AGNOLA of the same area are taken at difan object has moved, the changed position is apparent when the two photographs are compared. Shine is a particularly revealing signal to an observer. Whenever light strikes smooth surfaces such as truck windshields, headlights, mess gear or even a person's face, light may be reflected directly into the observer's eye or the camera's lens with striking emphasis. Photographic Film. Different types of film have been developed for use in aerial photography including the following four types used for photography camouflage detection. The most common film is the ordinary black and white variety. Although its sensitivity is different from that of the eye and does not reproduce colour, it provides a permanent record of tonal Selected differences that may be subjected to prolonged study. filters may be used to improve the photograph or to record only

moved when two photographs ferent times.

If

—

the light that is known to give the greatest tonal differences between natural backgrounds and the object being sought.

Colour film approaches the sensitivity of the human eye. Beits chemical makeup and its principle of operation, how-

cause of

ever, this film will give the best results only in bright sunlight.

The advantages

of colour film are two-fold.

colour contrasts; second, because colour film

from the human eye in sensitivity, by recording colour differences not

it

First, is

it

provides

slightly different

often reveals camouflage

discernible to the unaided

eye.

Infrared film by the

is

sensitive to radiation of

wave lengths not

de-

Infrared photographs may be made of objects and terrain utilizing these wave lengths of radiation exclusively by filtering out the visible wave lengths of light. This tectable

human

eye.

many advantages in that it can be used to take photographs in darkness, provided there is a source of infrared radiation. Of particular advantage for camouflage detection is the fact that living green vegetation reflects the infrared waves very readily. Because of this characteristic, it provides pictures showing contrasting tones between living green vegetation and artificial film has

However, infrared reflective paints have been developed that greatly limit this advantage. Camouflage detection film is a colour film in which the sensitivity has been altered from recording blue, green and red light Since live green to recording green, red and infrared radiations. plant life has a particular and consistent relative reflection of these radiations, the film is made to reproduce an image of live plant life as red. All other combinations of reflection are recorded as some other colour. Thus camouflage is reproduced in some colour other than red in the photograph usually green or bluegreen. A photo interpreter trained in the use of this film is better able to detect camouflage positions because of the high colour contrast of the position and its background when the position is situated in an area of living vegetation. (C. W. He.) CAMP, (1859-1925), U.S. athlete called the "father of American football," was born in New Britain, Conn., April 17, 1859. A former Yale halfback and captain, he was a member of the Intercollegiate Football rules committee for 48 years. He changed the game from Rugby to American football, creating the scrimmage line, 11-man team, signal calling, and the quarterback position. He originated the rule

plants and materials.

—

WALTER CHAUNCEY

whereby a team had

to give up the ball unless it was advanced number of downs. {See also Football: U.S. Football.) Camp studied medicine at Yale for two years, but gave it up to go to work in his uncle's watch factory and to coach the 1888 Yale football team. He and Casper Whitney picked the first AilAmerican team in 1889. His publications included Football: How to Coach a Team (1886), American Football (1891 and Walter Camp's Book of College Sports (1893). Camp died in New York on March 14, 1925. (J. D. McC.) CAMP, a military term denoting an area for temporary or semipermanent sheltering of troops in tents, huts, or other structures, sometimes called cantonment. It is usually distinguished from a bivouac, a temporary encampment where the troops have no shelter or, at most, "pup tents" carried in sections by the men a specified distance within a certain

)

dbnnndb

711

—

CAMP AGNOLA—CAMPANIA

712 city he

many

was probably born and where he remained

of the churches and palaces with frescoes.

nowned

to decorate

He

is

also re-

an engraver and as a cutter and designer of woodcuts. He was a prolific draftsman, usually working in pen and ink, and was among the first to make his drawings ends in themselves rather than preparatory studies. Early in his career, he is known to have assisted Titian with a series of frescoes in Padua. Titian remained a great stylistic influence on him. He was also a pupil, and possibly a relative, of Giulio Campagnola, but did not follow his stipple technique, preferring a looser touch and picturesque effect. as

CAMPAGNOLA, GIULIO

(c. 1482-after 1514), Italian painter and engraver, was born in Padua. His only recognized

work consists of his engravings. Much of his significance derives from the special character of his engraving technique: a system of delicate flicks and dots with the graver, by means of which he achieved subtle nuances in his modeling. He anticipated by over two centuries the development of stipple engraving. His mature was most influenced by Giorgione, after whom he engraved

style

several prints.

CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO

(originally

Giovan Dome-

Nico Campanella) (1568-1639). Italian Utopian philosopher who tried to reconcile the naturalistic theories of the Renaissance with Counter-Reformation orthodoxy, was born at Stilo, in Calabria, on Sept. 5, 1568. In 1583 he entered the Dominican Order, assuming the name of Tommaso. While studying Aristotelian philosophy he read widely and was much impressed by Bernardino Telesio's naturalistic theories. In 1589 he went to Naples without his superiors' permission.

On

the publication in 1591 of his Philosophia sensibus

demonstrata, he was brought to trial on suspicion of heresy and imprisoned for a few months. Released on the condition that he should return to Calabria, he went instead to Padua, where he met Galileo Galilei (a defense of whose work he was to compose in 1616). There he was involved in an inquiry into allegations of sodomy (1592) but was acquitted. Next, charged with having disputed with a Jew on matters of faith, he was transferred to Rome, where in 1596 his trial ended with a formal abjuration of his suspected heresy. A fourth trial, in 1597, led to his being required to return to Calabria, which this time he did.

From allegations made against him in these early trials it appears that Campanella's theories were then influenced by Neoplaanimism

by Democritean materialism. Pragmatic were already manifest in his early writings including the De monorchia Christianorum (1593), theZJe regimine Ecclesiae (1593), the Discorsi ai pnncipi d'ltalia (1595) and the Dialogo politico contra Ltiterani, Calvinisti ed altri eretici (1595) many of them now lost. In these works he expounded the theory of a regeneration of humanity through religious reformation founded on a universal ecclesiastical empire. On his return to Stilo, however, the misery of the local population made him adopt a more limited but no less Utopian plan of reform, to begin tonic

and

as well as

political interests

—

in

Calabria

itself

with a republican community ruled according to In summer 1599 he became the spiritual

naturalistic principles.

leader of a plot organized by the Calabrese.

The

plot

was

dis-

covered and on Sept. 6, 1599, Campanella was arrested. Taken in chains to Naples (Nov. 8), he was dharged both with political sedition and with heresy. On Feb. 7, 1600, in the course of his political trial, he was tortured and made to confess his own responsibility in the Calabrese plot. Two months later, to avoid capital punishment, he started to feign madness. As he maintained this simulation even through the most atrocious tortures, his madness was juridically recognized, and at the end of the trial for heresy (1602) he was sentenced to life imprisonment. In prison Campanella finally reverted to acceptance of Catholic dogma and tried to reconcile his own missionary ideas with the authority of the church. In 1602, however, he produced his most interesting work. La Citta del Sole, a design of a republic ruled by pure reason, obviously reflecting his state of mind at the time of the Calabrese plot. He also began to write lyrics, his collection of metaphysical canzoni, madrigals and sonnets being perhaps the

most

original in Italian literature of that period.

Campanella's

De

Gentilismo non retinendo (1609-10) expresses

new philosophical and religious outlook, but from the philosophical point of view his most important work is the Metafisica,

his

which survives in a Latin version published in Paris His metaphysics are based on three principles power, which form a trinitarian structure equally recognized in the human mind as in God. In his Theologia, in 30 books (1613-14), Campanella reconsidered Catholic dogma in the light of his new metaphysics. He expounded the political consequences of his views in Quod reminiscentur : Christian religion should be accepted by all the nations since, given the correspondence between human reason and divine mind, it is only within the Catholic Church that humanity can attain its unity. On May 2i, 1626, Campanella was released. Going to Rome, hetried to have his doctrine accepted by the church. Since, however, he now looked no longer to Spain (as he had done in his Monorchia di Spagna, written in 1600) but to France to unify the world politically, he found strong opposition, particularly in the Spanish faction of the Roman curia. When in 1634 an anti-Spanish plot was discovered in Naples, he fled to France, where he was welcomed by Louis XIII and Richelieu. He died in Paris on May 21, in 18 books,

in 1638.

wisdom and love

—

—

1639.

There is a collected edition of Campanella's works by L. Firpo There are English translations of his sonnets by (1954). J. A. Symonds, The Sonnets of Michelangelo and Campanella of La Citta del Sole by W. J. Gilstrap, in Glenn Negley (1878); and J. M. Patrick (eds.). The Quest jar Utopia (1952); and of The Defense of Galileo by G. McColley (1937).

—

Bibliography. L. Amabile, Fra Tommaso Campanella 2 vol. (1882-87); L. Blanchet, Campanella (1920); L. Firpo, Bibliografia Tommaso Campanella (1940), Ricerche cam panelliane (1947); A. Corsano, Tommaso Campanella (1944). See also R. De Mattei, La politico di Campanella (1927) G. Gentile, Stiidi sul Rinascimento, 2nd ed. (1936), II pensiero italiano del Rinascimento, 3rd ed. (1940). (G. A.) .

.'

.

,

degli scritti di

;

CAMPANIA, a

region of southern Italy comprising the prov-

inces of Avellino, Benevento, Caserta, Naples and Salerno (qq.v.),

with a total area of 13,595 sq.km. (5,249 sq.mi.) and a population Campania extends from the Garigliano (1961) of 4,756,094. (the lower Liri river, ancient Liris) in the north to the Gulf of Policastro in the south, facing the Tyrrhenian sea; on the inland side it is bordered by Latium (Lazio), Abruzzi e Molise, Apulia and Basilicata. Its physiography is dominated by volcanic and seismic phenomena that characterize the area surrounding the Gulf of Naples (Campi Flegrei or Phlegraean fields; Vesuvius q.v.). Around these areas of volcanic activity extend the principal lowlands of Campania: the Volturno lowland; the plains called Terra di Lavoro from the middle Volturno (q.v.; ancient Volturnus) river to the eastern flanks of Mt. Vesuvius; while the only other lowland of any size, the plain of the lower Sele river (ancient Silarus), is separated from the others by the Lattari mountains between Pompeii and Salerno. To the east are the complex uplands of the region, part of the Apennine system, the Matese mountains (Mt. Miletto 2,050 m.; 6,726 ft.), the Picentini mountains (Mt. Cervialto 1,809 m.; 5,935 ft.), the Cilento (Mt. Cervati 1,899 m. 6,230 ft.) and, beyond these, the Neapolitan Apennines (Appennino Napoletano) The only rivers of any size are the Volturno in the northern and the Sele in the southern part of the region. Among the intermontane basins that of Benevento is the most important. While communications between the coastal areas of ;

.

Campania

are relatively easy, the highly dissected character of

the interior

makes

rail

and road

west-east direction, very

travel "across the grain," in the

difficult.

The most important farming

areas of

Campania are the lowlands The land

of the Terra di Lavoro and of the circum-vesuvian plain.

and

extremely intensive, characterized by interculture, with plots of land producing cereals on the ground, fruit on trees along the edges of the plots, and grapes from vines trailing between tcees. Farms are usually small, and human labour is used for most farming operations. The most important crops is

fertile

utilization

is

are fruit (apricots, apples, peaches, nuts, citrus and grapes), early vegetables and flowers, and such industrial crops as tobacco and

Wines of Campania, especially those from Vesuvius (Lacrima Christi), from Ischia (Epomeo) and from the Sorrento pen-

hemp.

CAMPANILE famous throughout Italy. Fishing is important in the bay of Naples, Procida and Torre del Greco being the leading ports. Campania is the only region of southern Italy with a major concentration of industry, most of it centred on Naples. Metallurgy (steel and iron at Bagnoli and Torre Annunziata q.v.] ). chemicals (San Giovanni a Teduccio ), machinery and tools (Pozzuoii \q.v.]), insula, are

|

textiles,

agricultural industries (canning, flour milling, tobacco)

and shipbuilding (Castellammare di Stabia [(/.u,] are the most important branches. In Naples and its suburbs there is a flourishing artisan industry working coral, pearls, tortoise shell, leather and lace. The tourist trade in Naples, on the Sorrento peninsula and on the islands of Capri and Ischia (qq.v.) is an important source of income. Naples is the leading Italian port, second only The transportation system is also centred on Naples. to Genoa. Main lines connect the city with Rome (via Forniia and via Cassino), with Benevento, Foggia and the Adriatic coast, with Potenza and Taranto, and with Reggio di Calabria and Sicily. A motorway (Autostrada del Sole) connects Naples with Rome and Milan, with extensions southward to Salerno and others planned eastward to Foggia and Bari. (G. Kh. History. Ancient Campania was smaller than the modern region and roughly extended over the area now comprising the provinces of Naples, western Caserta and northern Salerno. It was bounded on the northwest by the territory of the Aurunci, on the northeast by Samnium, on the south by the Sorrento peninsula and on the west by the Tyrrhenian sea. By the 1st century a.d. the northwestern boundary extended as far as Sinuessa (near Mondragone) and the \'olturnus (Volturno) river, and the northern boundary came between Venafrum (modern Venafro) and Casinum (Cassino); the Volturnus valley and foothills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum (Avellino formed the boundary on The southern boundary remained unchanged. the northeast. )

)

—

)

713

the most sought after, though other districts also produced good wine. The olive was better suited to the slopes than the plain, though that of \'enafrum was good. Puteoli (modern Pozzuoii), the chief ancient harbour, was most

important in the 2nd-lst century B.C. The harbours constructed by Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus (Avemo) and Lacus Lucrinus (Lucrino) with the sea, and that at Mi.senum (Miseno), were mainly naval. (Misenum was the station of one of the chief divisions of the Roman nav^y, the other fleet being stationed at Ravenna.) Neapolis also, though less important than Puteoli, had a considerable trade.

The road system of Campania was extremely well developed, the most important road centre being Capua. The Appian way (q.v.) met the Via Latina at Casilinum, 3 mi. to the northwest. The Via Popilia extended from Capua to Regium (mod. Reggio di Calabria). The so-called Via Campana, together with the Via Domitiana, led to Puteoli, where it met the Via Antiniana. After the fall of Rome the region was occupied successively by the Goths and Byzantines. The Normans conquered it in the 1 1th century and it was incorporated in the kingdom of Sicily in the 12th century. After the Sicilian Vespers (see Vespers, Sicilian) it became part of the kingdom of Naples until it was united with Italy in 1861. See also references under "Campania" in the Index volume.

— R.

Bibliography. Campanien, 2nd

Roman Itah

ed.

(1937)

;

S. Conway, Italic Dialects (1897); J. Beloch, (1890) J. Whatmough, The Foundations of A. Maiuri, The Phlegraean Fields (1947). (T. A.; A. W. V. B.) ;

CAMPANILE,

a bell tower, most commonly built beside or attached to a church; the word is oftenest used in connection with Italian architecture. The earliest campaniles, variously dated from

the 7th to the loth century, were plain round towers with a few

Campani was the Roman name for inhabitants first of the tow'n of Capua (q.v.; mod. Santa Maria Capua Vetere) and its district and then for inhabitants of the Campanian plain. The name is pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the

small round-arched openings grouped near the top.

by the Samnites conquerors of the Etruscans in Campania at the end of the Sth century. Cumae (q.v.) was taken in 428 or 421, Nola (q.v. about the same time, and the local dialect, henceforth known as Oscan {q.v.). spread over all Campania except for the Greek cities, although Etruscans remained for at least another century, Latin became general soon after the Social War (90-89 b,c.) except in Neapolis (Naples) where Greek was the official language during the Roman empire. The Samnites took over many Etruscan customs; the haughtiness and luxurj' of the men of Capua were proverbial at Rome. This town became the ally of Rome in 338 By the end of the 4th century Campania was completely B.C. romanized, and was granted a limited form of Roman citizenship (civitas sine stiffragio). Certain towns with their territories (Neapolis, Nola, Abella [Avella], Nuceria Alfaterna [Nocera Inferiore] ) were nominally independent in alliance with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the war against Hannibal (218-202 B.C.), but Capua and its satellite towns revolted. After its capture by the Romans in 211 the people of Capua were severely punished and their land confiscated. During the Roman empire, however, it flourished as a colonia. In the division of Italy into regiones by the emperor Augustus, Campania with Latium formed the first region. From c. a.d. 285 the name Campania was extended northward to include the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a corrector who received the title

century), for instance,

early 4th or late 5th century B.C. struck for or (q.v.), the

)

of consularis

The

c.

fertility

a.d.

Hi.

of

the

Campanian

plain

(regio

jelix,

"fruitful

country") was famous in ancient as in modern times; the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called Phlegraei by the Greeks between the roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae. The loose black volcanic earth (terra pulla) was easier to work than )

the stiffer

Roman

soil

and gave three or four crops a year.

The

wheat and millet were especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables; the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the Mons Massicus Monte Massico) and of the ager spelt,

(

Falernus (the

flat

ground to the east and southeast of

it)

were

Typical are

those beside the churches of S. Apollinare in Classe and S. ApolNuovo, Ravenna. Round campaniles appeared occasionally

linare

— the

famous leaning tower of Pisa (iith-i2th is a more elaborate version of this type, sheathed in a series of superimposed arcades. Roman. From the loth century onward, most campaniles were based on a square ground plan, which seems to have been developed simultaneously in Rome and Lombardy. This type was generally

in

later periods

—

decorated with projecting vertical strips, known as pilaster strips, and ranges of arcaded cornices which divided the tower into several stages, each stage having single-, double- or triple-arched openings on all four faces. The roof, particularly in early e.xamples, was usually a pyramid of low pitch, invisible from the ground. Such, with minor variations, was the Roman type of campanile throughout the middle ages, as we may see it at S. Prassede (1080). Santi Quattro Incoronati (1123) and S. Maria in Trastevere (1139J. The Roman campanile in general tended toward an effect of horizontality rather than verticality. which was often increased by treating all the horizontal stages with identical ranges of wall arcades, as in the campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro (early 12th century), and by emphasizing the immediate surface through built-in fragments of Roman ornament, Lombard. Campaniles in Lombardy basically resembled the Roman type, but their elements were usually more complex and elaborate. The early tower of S. Satiro in Milan, for instance, at the end of the gth century showed an advanced composition of horizontal stages, arcaded cornices which connected the corner pilaster strips, and arched openings, single below and double above. In the later, and much larger, northern campanile of S. Ambrogio in Milan (early 12th century) semicircular projections like engaged columns broke up the stages and gave additional vertical lines. The top story was developed into a kind of crown to the whole composition effectively unifying the whole and a pyramidal, or occasionally conical, spire was added. The result was an increasing emphasis on verticality. This may be seen in the famous campanile of Florence, designed by Giotto, Taddeo Gaddi and others in the early 14th century. It followed the Lombard tradition of horizontal stages but attained a sense of lightness by daring use of octagonal corner buttresses, a tremendous enlargement of the belfry

—

—

—

,

CAMPANOLOGY—CAMPBELL

714

stage to approximately twice the height of any other and a consistent vertical patterning in decorative marble sheathings and

ranges of sculpture.

—

Venetian. It was mainly around Venice that the possibilities of this development were fully realized and brought to mature expression. Venetian campaniles consisted of tall, square, slim shafts, frequently tapered or battered,

The

belfries at the top.

which rose unbroken to open

belfry had one or two stages of arcade and

was often

in stone, although the rest of the tower was brick. Above the belfry cornice rose the spire, sometimes square, as in the famous 320-foot campanile at St. Mark's in Venice (lower portion 10th and 12th centuries, belfry story 1510, the whole rebuilt in

exact imitation of the original), sometimes octagonal, as campanile of S. Zeno at Verona (12th century). (See Venice.) 19th and 20th Centuries. Campaniles of this mature type continued to be built in the region of Venice far into the Renaissance period; but elsewhere, as the Renaissance preference for other forms (particularly domes) developed, they became obsolete and remained so until the early 19th century. Then, an Italian Romanesque revival made "Lombardic-style" churches with their characteristic campaniles an alternative to neo-Gothic in northern Europe (English examples are Christ Church, Streatham, and SS. Mary and Nicholas, Wilton both begun 1840). Later in the century, under the influence of John Ruskin, the Venetian form of campanile became popular; it may be said to have inspired the tower at Westminster Cathedral (by G. F. Bentley, 1897J. It was characteristic of 19th-century eclecticism, however, that the revived campanile form was not limited to its original uses, but appeared also in connection with factories, country houses, blocks of flats, markets and collegiate buildings sometimes with bells, sometimes with clocks, often with neither, but simply for picturesque effect. Twentieth-century building materials greatly encourage the construction of free-standing forms such as the campanile. Stone, brick or wooden towers require heavy bases, but there is no such necessity in steel-frame construction. Great possibilities of expressing the nature of such materials as steel, concrete and glass are offered by the campanile form; it has become one of the commonest types of tower for churches and is widely used elsewhere. See also Basilica. (An. G.) see Bell. (Bellflower), in botany, a genus of plants (family Campanulaceae) containing about 300 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the Latin for a

1908

in

in the

—

—

—

CAMPANOLOGY:

CAMPANULA

little bell.

Campanula rotundijoUa

is

the harebell iq.v.) or Scot-

C. medmm, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple and white flowers, is a handsome biennial, of which there are numerous varieties. C. persicijolia, the peach bell, is a perennial with more open flowers. The Eurasian C. glomerata has crowded flow-er heads. In North America there are species of about 20 native tish bluebell.

bellflower,

widely

throughout

Among

distributed continent.

the

these are the

tall

bell-

flower (C. americana), found in

moist woods from New Brunswick to South Dakota and south-

ward to Florida and Oklahoma, which grows six feet high, with blue flowers, an inch borne in a dense spike often two feet long; the harebell, found from Labrador to Alaska and southward to New Jersey, shallow,

across,

Nebraska and

California;

and

the California bellflower (C. prenantlioides), a delicately beautiful plant, native to

clustered bellflower (campan-

wooded moun- ula glomerata)

tain slopes from Monterey to southern Oregon. In northeastern United States and adjacent Canada the creeping bellflower (C. rapunculoides). the Coventry bell or throatwort (C. trachelium) and the clustered bellflower (C. glomerata) have become widely

naturalized.

While the bellflowers are of no economic value, the beauty of is so great and the garden possibilities are so obvious that over 120 kinds are cultivated in Great Britain, and about 40 in the United States. One of them, the rampion (C. rapunculus) is a biennial and yields in Europe salad greens from its radical leaves, which are boiled; the scraped root is eaten raw. The garden species may be divided into four divisions: (i) annuals or biennials, (2) perennials for the open border, (3) rock garden species and (4) pot plants. Some of the more desirable species in each group, together with their height and country of origin, are given below. All are blue-flowered unless noted to the their flowers

contrary.

Annuals and Biennials: Sow seed about ^ in. deep in April for the annuals and in June for the biennials. A selection could include: C. drabijolia, an annual 4-6 in. high from Greece and Asia Minor; C. eriniis, a rough-hairy annual from southern Europe, 4-g in. high, with white or pinkish flowers; C. medium, a biennial 2-4 ft. high from southern Europe; and C. ramosissima, 8-12 in. high, an annual from southern Europe. Rock Garden Species: Their culture demands a loose, gritty soil, and the specialized conditions found in the moraine or scree. A selection might include: C. barbata, 4-18 in. high, with pale blue flowers, from the Alps; C. garganica, a Dalmatian sprawling herb, the flowers pale blue; C. pulla, a creeping herb 3-4 in. high, from eastern Europe; and C. saxijraga, a Caucasian crevice plant hugging the ground. All are perennials.

Perennials: This is the largest group and the easiest to grow. They require open sunlight and a rich loam. There are so many species that enumeration is impossible here. They range in height from C. bellardi (4-6 in.) to the chimney bellflower, C. pyramidalis (3-5 ft.). Pot Plants: Some of the outdoor perennials can be so used. In addition, the following, which are rather tender, should always be grown in pots and sheltered over the winter: C. colorata, a Himalayan perennial; C. isophylla, a trailing Italian perennial fine for hanging baskets; C. jacobaea, a woody perennial from Cape Verde Islands: and C. versicolor, a Grecian perennial 4-6 ft. high. (N. Tr.)

CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER

(1788-1866), U.S. religious leader and one of the founders of the Disciples of Christ and Churches of Christ, was born in County Antrim, Ire., the son of

Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a Presbyterian minister who urged Christian unity. In 1807 Thomas Campbell emigrated ahead of America, where he formed the Christian association of Washington, Pa., to promote "simple evangelical Christianity" as the way to church union. Following a breach with Presbyterianism he produced a Declaration and Address for the association in 1809. .\lexander Campbell, after a year at the University of Glasgow, emigrated with the rest of the family in 1809. The son espoused his father's program for Christian unity and emerged as the leader of the movement for religious reform. He began preaching, without salary, in 1810 and married in 181 1, settling in what is now Bethany, W.Va. Bibhcal study led him and his followers to adopt immersion in 181 2, and in 18 13 they joined the Baptists; tension on other issues led to dissociation in 1830. In 1832 Campbell's followers, known as Disciples, or Christians (nicknamed Campbellites), joined Kentucky "Christians" under Barton W. Stone to form the Disciples of Christ, or Christian Church. Influenced by John Locke's epistemology. Campbell presented a rationalistic and deliberative Christianity based on the New Testament and opposed alike to speculative theology and emotional revivalism. He exercised his leadership through preaching, addresses and extensive debates with the Roman Catholic bishop John Purcell of Cincinnati, the secularist Robert Owen of Scotland and others. Campbell's major writing and publishing began with a periodical, the Christian Baptist, in 1823, continued as the Millennial Harbinger after L830. He wrote or edited over 60 volumes, including The Living Oracles, a version of the New Testament first issued in 1826, and a hymnal. Thomas Campbell gave his son much editorial assistance. Alexander Campbell was a member of the conHe founded Bethany stitutional convention of Virginia in 1S29. In 1849 he college in 1840, and was its president till his death. his family to

CAMPBELL became the

715

sionary society of the Disciples of Christ.

In 1826 Campbell ran unsuccessfully for the .seat for Stafford, a borough of extraordinary corruption even in those corrupt times.

scientific

He

first

president of the

first

national convention and mis-

Managerial ability and methods of farming brought him wealth, and his home, with much original furniture and decoration, still stands, open to the public. See also Christ, Churches of; Disciples of Christ. Bibliography. R. Richardson, Memoirs of Alexander Campbell

—

(1868) W. E. Garrison, The Sources of Alexander Campbell's Theology (lyoo) R. F, West, Alexander Campbell and Natural Religion (1948) L. G. McAllister, Thomas Campbell: Man of the Book (1954) G. T. ;

;

;

;

Walker, Preaching in the Thought of Alexander Campbell (1954) H. L. Lunger, The Political Ethics of Alexander Campbell (11554); D. R. Lindley, Apostle of Freedom (1Q57). (W. B. Be.) ;

CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN:

see Clyde,

Colin Campbell,

Baron. (1859-1953),

U.S. botanist whose chief work was in the study of mosses and ferns, was born at Detroit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859. After study at

1828.

in

Characteristically,

Campbell

fused.

In parliament, Campbell was content to follow where his party even to the point of supporting the Reform bill of 1832, though he thought it "Jacobin." After being made solicitor general in 1832, he helped carry through several measures of reform of the real property law. In commons he was indefatigable and, though far from assumed

a brilliant speaker,

in

William

Home

1888 professor of botany at Indiana university, Stanford university was assembling its first faculty in 1891, Campbell was selected to organize and head the department of botany. His researches before moving to Stanford centred around the morphology of ferns, and his first years at Stanford were spent on similar studies on the mosses and liverworts. Study in these two fields formed the basis for a treatise, Bloomington.

The Structure and Development of Mosses and Ferns, that was the standard work in the field for 50 years. Other of Campbell's interests included plant evolution and geography. He died at Palo Alto, Calif., Feb. 24, 1953. Principal publications include Elements of Structural and Systematic Botany (i8go); The Structure and Development of :

Mosses and Ferns (1895, 1905, 191S); A University Textbook of Botany (1902); Plant Life and Evolution (1911); An Outline of Plant Geography (1926); and The Evolution of Land Plants (Embryophyta) (1940). See Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), vol. xxix (1956). (G. M. S.)

CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL,

ist

Baron (1779-

1861), lord chief justice of England from 1850 to 1859 and lord chancellor from 1859 until his death, was. like many of the famed lawyers of his period, a Scot, born at Cupar in Fife on Sept. 15, 1779. He was the second son of a clergyman, George Campbell, and he too was originally destined for the clergy. He entered St. Andrews university at the age of 11 and concluded his work for an M.A. at the age of 15, beginning then on the four years of divinity training required by the general assembly. In 1798, however, he went to London as a tutor and was sufficiently enchanted w^ith the opportunities for fame at the English capital to give up the church in favour of the bar. To finance his way, he became a reporter for the Mornitig Chronicle, and his newspaper training stood him in good stead at later periods of his life. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1800 and in 1804 secured a desk in the chambers of William Tidd, the famed special pleader. Campbell's immediate predecessors in Tidd's office were the younger John Singleton Copley, Charles Pepys and Thomas Denman. The first of these was to become Baron Lyndhurst, thrice lord chancellor; the second, as the ist earl of Cottenham, was also to be chancellor; and the third was to be lord chief justice.

Campbell was called to the bar in 1806, an impoverished barrister with no connections but with great ambition and self-confidence. For three years he languished on the home circuit, supporting himrevising Watson's treatise on partnership, writing for the

Chronicle, doing special pleading for Tidd and answering cases for

Marryatt.

He

started on his road to success

when he undertook Henry Butter-

to report cases at nisi prius for the legal publisher

His reports, especially of Lord EUenborough's decisions. were first-rate and earned him fame as well as income. He changed from the home to the Oxford circuit, where the competition was less keen, and soon moved to the head of the bar. In 1821 he married the daughter of James Scarlett, later Lord Abinger, perhaps the pre-eminent advocate of the day. The marriage was a happy one, also providing Campbell with entree into the great Whig homes, and he turned his attention to politics as a means to place. worth.

post,

claimed credit for the bills drawn as a result of the commission's though Lord St. Leonards later said "that Campbell had no more to do with it than his footman." Campbell was also offered a puisne judgeship by Lyndhurst, which he peremptorily reefforts,

When

the University of Michigan at .'^nn Arbor (Ph.D., 1886) and in Ger-

many, he became

by

had declined the

led,

CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS HOUGHTON

self

subsequently ran successfully for Stafford after the accession In 1827 he became king's counsel. Peel put him at the head of the Real Property commission, after Edward Sugden of William IV.

all

was forcibly

attorney general.

ment

most

effective.

As

solicitor general

the functions of the chief law officer, and

when

he Sir

Campbell was promoted to his displacement from parlia-

retired,

This resulted

in

for three months, since he failed to be elected at Dudley,

but the Whigs provided him with a seat for Edinburgh. When the mastership of the rolls became vacant, Campbell applied for the post but was passed over in favour of Pepys, the solicitor general.

When

the Whigs were turned out in 1834, Campbell's father-inJames Scarlett, was appointed chief baron of the exchequer, as Lord Abinger. removing Campbell's greatest competition at the bar. He was again returned for Edinburgh in 1835. Pepys was made chancellor and Bikersteth was sent to the rolls, again over Campbell's claim to priority. Campbell threatened resignation, but his feelings were assuaged by the elevation of Lady Campbell to the peerage. The Whigs asserted that he was too valuable in the house of commons to permit his removal to the bench. He was law,

largely responsible for the Municipal Corporations act of 1835 and the Prisoners' Counsel act of 1834, among others.

Campbell's practice of law flourished, and he successfully defended Melbourne, who was then prime minister, in the infamous suit by George Norton for criminal conversation with Norton's wife. Campbell's skilful and effective defense saved the government. He remained attorney general until 1841, when pressure on Plunket caused him to resign the post of lord chancellor of Ireland in favour of Campbell. He was elevated to the peerage as Baron Campbell of St. Andrews. But shortly thereafter the W'higs were turned out. Campbell found himself disqualified from practice and moved to the comparative quiet of the house of lords, where he served as a judicial officer. Under these circumstances, Campbell found that time was heavy on his hands, and he turned to the preparation of "his famous volumes on the lives of the chancellors and the chief justices. They were a great literary success, though they are marred by plagiarism, unscrupulous misrepresentation and venom, the last especially directed to those whom he had known best. The last volume on Brougham and Lyndhurst. published after Campbell's death, did greater damage to Campbell's reputation than to those of his subjects, but neither of them, ever came out from under the cloud that Campbell created. As Sir Charles WethereO remarked, these volumes "added a new sting to death." In 1846, on the return of the Whigs, Campbell was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and was given a place in the cabinet. When Denman became ill, the government again resorted to pressure to bring about his removal so that Campbell could be appointed (1850) lord chief justice. His judgments were of the highest order, but he browbeat counsel and wooed juries to bring about the results he wanted. He was most anxious to bring about decisions, especially at nisi prius, that would be agreeable to the populace. Courage was not one of his strong points.

When the Whig party regained power in 185(1 '^^^e was difficulty on the question of the chancellorship, for the Whigs could not spare Bethell (Lord Westbury) from his duties in the commons. Campbell was appointed chancellor on condition that he would resign when Bethell was available. He served with some distinction as '

—

.

CAMPBELL

7i6

chancellor for two years before his death at thQ age of 81 on June 22, 1861. He left behind the record of a great judge, but a small

man.

(P. B. K.) Bibliography. Hon. Mrs. Hardcastle, ed., Life of Lord Campbell, a From His Autobiography, Diary and Letters (i88i) E. Foss, The Judges of England {1848-64) W. H. Bennet, Select Biographical Sketches From Note-books of a Law Reporter (1867) E. Manson,

—

Selection

;

;

;

Builders of Our vol. ii (1908)

Law

(1904)

;

J. B. Allay,

The Victorian Chancellors,

CAMPBELL, SIR MALCOLM motorist

who

(1885-1948), British racing world speed records on land and water, was born Kent, on March 11, 1885. In igo6 he became a

set

at Chislehurst,

member

of Lloyd's, but, after serving as a dispatch rider and as a pilot in the royal flying corps during World War I, he became

interested in

motor

racing.

In 1924 he achieved his

first

world's

land speed record at 146.16 m.p.h., and increased it to 150.86 m.p.h. in 1925. In 1927 with the first "Bluebird," a Napier-Campbell, he reached 174.88 m.p.h., a record which he raised to 206.97 m.p.h. in 1928. In 1931 he was knighted after achieving 246.09 m.p.h. This record was followed by four others, 253.97 m.p.h. in 1932, 272.46 in 1933, 276.82 and 301.13 in 1935.

Having realized his ambition to reach 300 m.p.h. on land. Sir Malcolm Campbell built the first "Bluebird" hydroplane (he gave the name "Bluebird" to all his racing cars and boats) and in 1937 captured the world's water speed record from the United States In 1939, with a new "Bluebird" containing a Rolls-Royce engine, he established a record of 141.75 m.p.h. on Coniston water, Westmorland. He held this record when he died in Reigate, Surrey, on Dec. 31, 1948. In 1959 his son, Donald Malcolm Campbell, using a jet-powered "Bluebird," set a world water-speed record for unlimited hydroplanes of 260.35 m.p.h. See also Motorboat; Automobile Racing. (D. M. Cl.) (n^e Beatrice Stella MRS. Tanner) (1865-1940), English actress, famous for her portrayal of characters at once passionate and intelligent, was born at London on Feb. 9, 1865. She made her name in 1893, when her performance as Paula Tanqueray in Arthur Pinero's The Second Mrs. Tanqueray put her very high in her profession. In 1895 she played Juliet to the Romeo of Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson (q.v.), and afterward appeared with him in many plays. In 1907 she was a memorable Hedda Gabler and in 1914 created the part of Eliza Doolittle in Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw, with whom she maintained a warm friendship. Gifted by nature with talent, beauty and wit, she was always a fascinating character, but her temperament rebelled at discipline and this as Shaw's letters to her clearly show made her difficult to work with. This told against her as she grew older, and was the chief reason why she was seldom seen on the London stage after World War I. She was twice married in 1884 to Patrick Campat 129.5 m.p.h., increased to 130.93 m.p.h. in 1938.

CAMPBELL,

PATRICK

—

—

—

1900) and in 1914 to George ComwaUis-West. She died in Pau, France, on April 9, 1940. (W. A. Dn.) bell (d.

CAMPBELL, (IGNATIUS) ROY (DUNNACHIE) (1901-1957), South African poet, whose vigorous extrovert verse contrasted with the uneasy self-searching of the more socially conscious poets of the 1930s. Campbell led a roaming life, and his latter years were spent mainly in Europe. His poem The Flaming Terrapin (1924) exalts the instinctive vital force that brings forth intelligent human effort out of apathy and disillusionment. The Wayzgoose (1928) is a satire on South African intellectuals and The Georgiad ( 1931 ) attacks the hterary figures of the Bloomsbury group. His lyrical works include Adamaster (1930), Flowering Reeds (1933) and Talking Bronco (1946). Campbell translated Spanish, Portuguese and French writers, and wrote two autobiographical books. Broken Record (1934) and Light on a Dark Horse (1952). He was also noted as a bullfighter and steer thrower. He fought for Gen. Francisco Franco in the Spanish civil war and during World War II he served in Africa. He died in a car accident near Setiibal. Port., on April 22, 1957.

CAMPBELL, THOMAS

(1777-1844), Scottish poet, chiefly

remembered for his sentimental and martial lyrics, was bom in Glasgow on July 27, 1777. In 1799 he published The Pleasures of Hope, With Other Poems, in heroic couplets, in the 18th-century

tradition of the broad survey of

human

affairs.

was highly

It

with a special debt to Alexander Pope and Mark Akenside, but its theme of freedom earned Campbell immediate popularity. In the following year he went to Germany, visited Friedrich Klopstock in Hamburg, and eventually returned to Altona on the Danish bank of the Elbe, after witnessing some militarj' action near Ratisbon. There he planned some of the martial lyrics on which his reputation rests: "Ye Mariners of England," "The Soldier's Dream" and "Hohenlinden." Returning to England in 1801, on the outbreak of war with Denmark, he wrote derivative,

"The Battle

of the Baltic," inspired,

Danish batteries

it is

said,

by the

sight of the

at Gluckstadt.

In these lyrics Campbell e.xperimented with metrical forms. He wrote also a number of ballads and poems on legendary subjects, notably "Lord UUin's Daughter" (1804), but he was not in the romantic tradition, belonging rather to the sentimental school of the 1 8th century. His aim, not often achieved, was a polished perfection of utterance, and preoccupation with this resulted in weaknesses in other respects. His other main works were Gertrude of IVyoming (1809), Theodric (1824) and The Pilgrim of Glencoe ajid Other Poems (1842 j he also edited Specimens of the British Poets (18 1 9). Campbell knew most of the prominent men of his time, and in 1805 was awarded a pension. In 1825 he was one of the instigators of the scheme for founding London university. He died at Boulogne, France, on June 15, 1844. , Bibliography. The Complete Works of Thomas Campbell, ed. bjr The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell, ed. J. L. Robertson (1907) by W. A. Hill, with a biographical note by W. .\llingham (1875). See also W. Beattie (ed.). The Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell, 3 vol. (1849) C. Redding, Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell, 2 vol. (i860); J. C. Hadden, Thomas Campbell (1899); ;

—

;

;

W.M.Dixon, Thomas Campbell. An

(P.M.Y.)

Oration (1928).

CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WALLACE

(1862-1938), U.S. astronomer, exerted great influence on observational astronomy, particularly through his determinations of the radial velocities of stars. He was born on a farm in Ohio on April 11, 1862, and died in San Francisco, Calif., on June 14, 1938. He studied civil engineering and astronomy at the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, graduating in 1886. In 1890. after a two-year period as instructor in astronomy at Michigan, he joined the staff of the Lick observatory on Mt. Hamilton, Calif., and became its director in 1901. Campbell was president of the University of California, Berkeley, from 1923 to 1930, and president of the National Academy of Sciences from 1931 to 1935. Using a powerful three-prism spectrograph attached to the 36inch telescope at Lick observatory, Campbell pioneered in obtaining accurate radial velocities for thousands of stars.

To

extend

the measurements to stars visible only from the southern hemisphere, he sent a 36-inch reflecting telescope, equipped with a

Combining the data, he our galaxy as well as the average random velocities of stars of various spectral types. He led seven solar eclipse expeditions from the Lick observatory, and brought back a wealth of material on the corona and the flash spectrum. See also Spectroscopy, Astronomical; Historical Development. stellar spectrograph, to Santiago, Chile.

determined the sun's motion

in

(P.

CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED

W. M.)

(1858-1918). Canadian poet, was a contemporary of Archibald Lampman and Duncan Campbell Scott. Bom in Berlin (now Kitchener), Ont., on June i, 1858 (sometimes given as 1861 ), he was educated in Toronto and in Cambridge. Mass.. for the Anglican ministry, and served parishes in West Claremont, N.H., St. Stephen, N.B., and Southampton, Ont. Lake Lyrics (1889), celebrating the scenery of the Lake Huron-Georgian Bay country near his boyhood home of Wiarton, established his reputation. He left the church in 1891, and entered the civil service at Ottawa. Like Lampman and Scott, he wrote about nature, but his principal books. The Dread Voyage (1893), Beyond the Hills' of Dream (1899), Poems (1905) and Sagas of Vaster Britain (1914), reveal that he took an independent course characterized by transcendentalism, distrust of "neopagan naturalism," missionary zeal for the culture of the British "race," warmth and acidity in addressing his public and an interest in primitive mythology uncommon among poets before 1918. His robust, melo-

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN dramatic imitations of Shakespearean plays were published in Mordred and Hildcbrand (1895) and Poetical Tragedies (1908). He also wrote two novels, Ian of the Orcades (1906) and A Beautiful Rebel (1909) and descriptive works, Canada (1907), The Canadian Lake Region (1910) and The Scotsman in Canada (1912). He was well received abroad in 1897, 1901 and 1906. ;

See The Poetical Works of Wilfred Campbell, ed. with a memoir by Carl F. KUnck, Wilfred Campbell, a Study in Late J. Sykes (1923) Provincial Victorianhm (1942). (C. F. Kk.)

W.

;

HENRY

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN,

SIR (18361908), British statesman who led the Liberal party successfully through a period of bitter interna! dissension, and was prime minister from 1905 to 1908, was born at Glasgow on Sept. 7, 1836, the second son of Sir James Campbell, afterward lord provost of the city.

Henry Campbell added Bannerman,

the surname of his

mother's family, to that of his father in 1871 when he inherited a property from his maternal uncle. He was educated at Glasgow high school, Glasgow university and Trinity college, Cambridge. For ten years from 1858 he worked (although not too onerously) for J. and W. Campbell, a family firm of Glasgow merchants, marrying in 1860 Charlotte Bruce, a daughter of the general commanding the garrison at Edinburgh. He was unsuccessful radical candidate at a by-election in the Stirling Burgh in March 1868, but at the general election, later in the same year, he reversed this result and was first elected for the constituency which returned him to parliament for the remainder of his life. Early Career. After three years in the house of commons Campbell-Bannerman was appointed financial secretary to the war office and served in that department under Edward (afterward Lord) Cardwell until the fall of Gladstone's first government (1874). When Gladstone returned to ofiice in 1880 CampbellBannerman was appointed to the same post, but was transferred to the parliamentary and financial secretaryship of the admiralty in 1882, when, the first lord being a peer, Campbell-Bannerman became admiralty spokesman in the house of commons. There were strong suggestions in 1883 that he might be offered the speakership, but these fell through and he was appointed chief secretary for Ireland (1884) but without a seat in the cabinet. He served under the viceroy, Lord Spencer, with great loyalty and considerable skill during a year when the Irish scene was even more than

—

usually troubled.

In

Gladstone's

third

government,

Campbell-Bannerman, an

easy convert to the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, achieved cabinet rank as secretary of state for war ( 1886) This administration was too short-lived for him to make much mark in his department, but when the last Gladstone government took office in 1892 and Campbell-Bannerman returned to the war office he was able to begin a tenure of some distinction. He introduced the eight.

hour day into Woolwich arsenal and in 1895 (having retained his office when Lord Rosebery replaced Gladstone as prime minister in 1894) he secured without ill-feeling the resignation of the duke of Cambridge as commander in chief. The duke had held this appointment for 39 years and had become a major and seemingly irremovable obstacle to army reform, but Campbell-Bannerman succeeded where successive secretaries of state had failed, and the queen, who was not predisposed in her cousin's favour, recognized Campbell-Bannerman's achievement by awarding him a knighthood. On the day of his success Campbell-Bannerman was by ill chance responsible for the fall of the government. A snap vote in a thin house of commons on a Conservative motion to reduce the war minister's salary, found the government supporters in a minority of seven. Had the government possessed a vigorous hold on life this decision could easily have been reversed; but Rosebery and his colleagues, already in a sad state of disarray, seized the opportunity to resigri. The incident did little to detract from the general respect which Campbell-Bannerman had earned as a minister.

Liberal Party Leader.

—Resignation did equally

rect the Liberal party's disunity.'

From 1895

to 1902

little to it

cor-

presented

and weakness. In 1896 Rosebery resigned from the leadership. The earl of Kimberley was appointed his suc-

a spectacle of confusion

717

cessor in the house of lords, and Sir William Harcourt carried on in the commons. Two years later, however, Harcourt himself

decided upon an unexpected resignation on the ground that the party was "rent by sectional disputes and personal interests," and John Morley made it clear that he was retiring with his chief. The succession to which Campbell-Bannerman was the senior claimant was a singularly unappetizing one. His most likely rival was H. H. Asquith, certainly a more formidable parliamentarian but one whose close association with Rosebery made him rather doubtfully acceptable to the majority of the Liberal party and whose professional commitments made him loathe to rush at political promotion. In the event, Asquith proving less eager and CampbellBannerman less reluctant than had been anticipated, the latter was elected without opposition on Feb. 6, 1899. Although the new leader applied himself strenuously to trying to hold his party together, the internal disputes, so far from showing signs of abatement, were exacerbated by the outbreak of the South African War in 1899. In one famous vote on the war in July 1900 the Liberal party split three ways: 40 of its members, including Asquith, Sir Edward Grey and R. B. Haldane, voted with the Unionist government; 35 abstained with Campbell-Bannerman; and 31, including John Morley, James Bryce, David Lloyd George and Henry Labouchere, voted for an amendment condemning the government. As his position in this vote indicated, Campbell-Bannerman was trying to steer a middle course and avoid both the outright opposition to the war of the "pro-Boers" and the support for its prosecution of the Liberal imperialists. lii its later stages, however, he delivered himself of one of the most memorable of the antiwar statements: "When was a war not a war?" he asked at a banquet of the National Reform union on June 14, 1901 "\\Tien it was carried on by methods of barbarism in South and of a counterstatement Africa." The result of this statement by Asquith ten days later—produced the sharpest crisis of CampFor a time a Liberal imperialist bell-Bannerman's leadership. secession seemed likely. This danger was avoided, however, and his leadership was unanimously confirmed on July 9 at a party meeting attended by both Asquith and Grey. This was not only the most acute but the last of the major Liberal quarrels of this period. A year later the war ended and greatly eased the tension within the party. At the beginning of 1903 Joseph Chamberlain launched the first effective challenge to free trade for half a century and provided his opponents -n-ith the greatest unifying force they had ever enjoyed. Carried forward by this wave they were even able to compose their differences on Home Rule. Campbell-Bannerman secured a fair degree of unity

—

—

—

on the point by reaffirming the party's belief in this policy, but it clear that there was to be no repetition of the 1886 and 1892 practice by which it was made the central and immediate purpose of a Liberal government. By-elections in 1904-05 went heavily against Arthur Balfour's administration, and CampbellBannerman built up close relations with King Edward VII, whose first minister he seemed highly likely soon to become. Prime Minister. Balfour resigned on Dec. 4, 1905, without defeat either at the polls or in the house of commons, and Campbell-Bannerman immediately accepted office from the king. There were considerable difficulties about cabinetmaking and with them some revival of the old South African War division. Asquith, Grey and Haldane had come to an understanding in Sept. 1905 the "Relugas Compact" the terms of which were that none of them would accept office unless all three were satisfied. This was intended to mean that the new prime minister should take a peerage, leaving the leadership of the commons to Asquith, and that Haldane should become lord chancellor. But Asquith was unwilling to split the party on a personal issue and when he accepted ofiice unconditionally, Campbell-Bannerman was able to defeat both these propositions and secure the adhesion of all three men, although Grey stood out for three days before accepting the foreign ofiice. Asquith became chancellor of the exchequer and Haldane

making

—

—

—

The

secretary of state for war.

other

members

of what

was gen-

erally agreed to be a distinguished administration included Morley,

secretary of state for India of trade;

James Bryce,

;

Lloyd George, president of the board

chief secretary for Ireland;

Lord Ripen,

CAMPBELTOWN—CAMPECHE

7i8

Lord Crewe, lord president of the council; Herbert Gladstone, home secretary; and John Burns, president of the local government board. The dissolution of parliament followed quickly and the general election (Jan. 1906) resulted in an immense Liberal victory. The differences which had arisen in forming the cabinet were dissolved in the great success of this campaign and the government began under happy auspices. Campbell-Bannerman, fortified by his great majority, was able to establish an early ascendancy over the house of commons which was epitomized by his successful rebuke to such an accomplished parliamentarian as Balfour; "I say, enough of this foolery!" when the latter had indulged in a notable display lord pri\y seal;

—

The prime minister's command did not extend to the house of lords, however, and much of the legislative work of the government was nullified by the Conservative majority in the of dialectics.

upper chamber. In the first session an education bill and a plural bill both perished in this way. Campbell-Bannerman's reply was to bring forward a plan for limiting the veto of the house of lords, so that "within the limits of a single parliament the final decision of the commons must prevail." He pushed this through the cabinet against some opposition and then carried it as a house voting

commons

of

resolution

by

a large majority.

.

It

formed the basis

The most important Campbell-

of the Parliament act of 1911.

Bannerman measure with which the lords did not dare was the Trades Disputes act (1906^ which removed

to interfere

the restric-

upon trades unions imposed by the Taff Vale decision of 1902 {see English History: The Twentieth Century) and gave the unions a very favourable legal status. But his greatest personal triumph was outside the legislative field in the grant of responsible government to the Transvaal and Orange River colonies see South Africa, Republic of: History). It was a controversial and courageous step, based on his belief that the relationship between the imperial government and the Boers could only be maintained on a basis of mutual confidence. Campbell-Bannerman's wife died in Aug. 1906 and in 1907 his own health began to fail. As a result he was less active in parliament than most prime ministers, and much of the day-to-day work fell on Asquith. It was fortunate for the government that, in office, relations between the prime minister and the chancellor of the exchequer were far smoother than they had been in opposition. Campbell-Bannerman made his last appearance in the house of commons on Feb. 12, 1908, and, becoming seriously ill, he resigned as prime minister on April 5 of that year. He died at Xo. 10 tions

(

Downing

street,

Character.

—

on April

22, 1908.

Campbell-Bannerman was not a great prime minisbut he earned the deep affection of his own party and the respect of the whole nation during his relatively brief tenure of office. Most of the major achievements of the pre-World War I Liberal government were carried through under .\squith, who was a more notable figure, but, in view of the latter's identification with the extreme right wing of the party during the South African War, the government probably got off to a better start under CampbellBannerman than it would have done had Asquith occupied the ter

office from the beginning. Campbell-Bannerman was above all a unifying force. His modest, loyal and simple (although by no means uncultivated) outlook on life is well summed up in one of his last speeches to his constituents: ''Altogether I hav^e no fault to find with anybody. And it is because I have no fault to find with anybody that I am where I am ... It has not been by my seeking that I am where I am An old friend was accustomed to say: The man who walks a straight road never loses his way. Well, I flatter myself that I have walked on a pretty straight road, probably because it was easier, and accordingly I have not gone astray. I trust that that will be continued to the last which cannot be long deferred now." See J. .\. Spender, The Life of Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman

highest

.

.

.

.

(1923).

CAMPBELTOWN,

,

.

(R.J.) a royal and small burgh and seaport in

Pop. (1961) 6,525. It is situated on Campbeltown toward the southeastern extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 mi. N.E. of the Mull and 83 mi. S.W. of Glasgow by water, but 134 mi. by road. There is a daily air service from

Argyll, Scot. loch,

Machrihanish airport (4 mi. W.N.W.) to Glasgow. Campbeltown, originally known as Dalruadhain, was the seat of the Dalriadan kings. After they had moved to Lorn, St. Ciaran (Kieran), one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland, landed there in the 6th century whence it was renamed Kilkerran, afterward Kinlochkerran. Later, James V transferred the territory from the MacDonalds to the Campbells of Argjdl, who gave it their family name. No memorial of its antiquity has survived, but a finely sculptured granite Celtic cross (c. 1500) stands in the market place, and there are ruins of an old chapel. It became a royal burgh in 1700. The staple industries are coal mining (a new pit was sunk in 1946), whisky distilling, fishing, dairy products and net making. On the Atlantic shore (5^ mi. W.) are the well-known golf links of Machrihanish; 10 mi. S. is Southend, the most south-

Davaar Island with Campbeltown loch.

erly village in Kintyre.

the entrance to

CAMPECHE, Maya

its

lighthouse

a southeastern state of Mexico,

named

lies at

for the

Kimpech

or Canpech on the peninsula Pop. (1960) 168,219, mostly mestizos and Indians. Campeche comprises much of the westward portion of the peninsula; it is bounded north and east by the state of Yucatan, from which it seceded in 1867, and northwest by the Gulf of Mexico. The state lies on a low, level limestone plain, broken at the north by low hills. The northern half is arid and

ancient

of Yucatan.

province of

Area 21,666 sq.mi.

composed of a district called Chenes (Maya, and marked by deep grottoes and caverns which are the Where water is available, agriculture and stock raising are found. East and south of the state capital, Campeche, excessive rainfall produces forested tracts that become tropical rain forest; high temperatures make much of it unhealthful and uninhabitable. Rivers running through the southern half of the state drain into a large tidewater lake at Laguna de Terminos, at the gulf entrance to which is the chief depot of the area, Ciudad del Carmen. In 1951 the rail line that connected Campeche to Merida, Yucatan, was linked to the trunk lines on the Mexican mainland, but coastwise and river shipping are still extensive. Airlines link the area with Veracruz, Merida and Mexico City. There was considerable commercial fishing and a promising oil potential in the second half of the 20th century, but the state's main products came from its forests hardwoods, chicle, palo de Campeche. Chemical dyes almost killed the old dyewood trade. Fustic, hides and guitars are other products. (J. A. Cw.) (CAMPECHE de Bar.anda), a port of Mexico and capital of the state of Campeche on the Yucatan peninsula. Pop. (1960J 43,874. About 90 mi. S.W. of Merida, Campeche is connected with Me.xico City by rail links completed in 1951 and with Merida by extension of the same route. Campeche is a relatively poor port. Vessels drawing more than 9 ft. cannot clear its bar and must stand off nearly 10 mi. to discharge cargoes into lighters. Port works accommodating vessels up to 2.500 tons were constructed at nearby Lerma. Both places are unprotected and therefore are troubled by tropical "northers," strong winds which prevail from October through April. The town, an attractive place with its historic walls erected for protection against 17th-century pirates and filibusters, fine public buildings, shady squares and colourful houses, lies on the western extremity of a fertile plain in a natural amphitheatre formed by small hills encircling the bay. The Spanish town was founded in 1540 on the site of an earlier Maya village (Kimpech) whose remains are visible. In the ISth century Campeche was opened as one of three ports on the gulf and thrived on its monopoly of Yucatan trade, mainly exports of dyewood and salt. At various times in the early 19th century, Campeche was the capital of Yucatan. When ;he province seceded, it became the capital of the new state 1S67). Opening of competitive ports at Sisal, then Progreso (1874). plus displacement of vegetable by chemical dyes, reduced its economic importance, though it continued to do a brisk trade in dyewood. cotton, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, cigars and guitars. The old citadel, colonial churches, a theatre and market (Hd. C; R. B. McCk.) are chief sights. semiarid, chiefly "wells'")

principal supply of water.

—

CAMPECHE

(

C

C

CAMPEGGIO—CAMPHOR CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO

719

(1474-1539). Italian cardinal, humanist and lawyer, entered the service of the church in 15 10 and at once became one of the most valued representatives of the papacy. Between 15 11 and 1539 five popes employed him almost continuously as nuncio or legate; his political and religious embassies gave him a particular knowledge of Germany, w'here he was nuncio to the emperor Maximilian in 1511 and 1513 and legate at the diets of Regensburg ("1524) and Augsburg (1530). In Rome his knowledge of curial procedure made him a realistic advocate of reform, though always loyal to the papacy. He first visited England on an unsuccessful mission for Leo X (1518-ig), was given the see of Salisbury in 1524. and in 1528 went to England to enquire into the king's marriage with Catherine of Aragon as co-legate with Cardinal Wolsey; the case was withdrawn to Rome before a decision had been given. After ser\'ing on preparatory commissions for the Council of Trent, Campeggio died in Rome on June 19, 1539. (M. Dk.) FIRE GIRLS. Founded in 1910 by a group of prominent educators including Luther Halsey Gulick and his wife, who established the first camp for girls in the United States in 1888,

number of different compounds having the physical characteristics of camphor and possessed of aromatic odours. Examples are: bomeol, Ci„H]70H; mint camphor ('menthol), CioHjoOH. and buchu camphor (diosphenol), CioHjgOa. {See

Camp Fire Girls offers membership to all girls 7 to 18 years of age and, during its history, has enrolled more than 4,000.000 of them. The purpose of the organization is to perpetuate the spiritual ideals of the home and to stimulate formation of habits

camphor camphor

CAMP

The name was chosen for two reasons: on the hearth has always signified home, and be-

considerable

also Terpe.nes.)

The production of camphor from the camphor laurel (Cinnamomtim camphora) has been carried out on the island of Formosa and in neighbouring regions of China and Japan for centuries, and

still

represents an important industr>' there, although about

half of the

camphor used commercially is made synthetically from component of turpentine.

a-pinene. the principal

Natural camphor is readily isolated by blowing steam through the chopped-up wood of the camphor laurel and condensing the vapours. Camphor crystallizes from the oily portion of the crude The oil left distillate. It is purified by pressing and sublimation. after the camphor has been removed is known as camphor oil. It still contains a considerable amount of dissolved camphor which frequently isolated by fractional distillation. Camphor oil finds uses in the scenting of soaps and as a flotation agent in mining operations. Because of the commercial importance of camphor and is

oil.

reforestation programs to replenish the supply of

were undertaken

laurel trees

Camphor

finds

some use

of health and character.

cellulose nitrate plastics.

because the

plastic film

fire

cause the campfire suggests the outdoors. logs and flame, symbolizes the name.

The

insigne, crossed

In keeping with the Gulicks" belief that a maturing girl's experiences affect her entire life. Camp Fire's educational program offers a wide range of activities through which girls may develop into homemakers and citizens. Camp Fire's national program is

designed to serve four age brackets: Blue Birds,

7

and

8;

Camp

Fire Girls, 9. 10 and 11; Junior Hi Camp Fire Girls, 12 and 13; and Horizon club girls, 14 through high school. The program of the Blue Birds is built around family and community life. They take part in such activities as water colouring, clay modeling and finger painting. Camp Fire Girls and Junior Hi Camp Fire Girls participate in a program based on the seven crafts: home, creative arts, outdoors, frontiers (of physical science), business, sports and games and

in

Formosa and Japan dur-

ing the 1950s.

and

as a plasticizer or softening agent in

It is also

used as a plasticizer in some Much of the produc-

in nitrocellulose explosives.

tion of

into cosmetic and mechcinal products, where

its

its

camphor goes use depends upon

odour and mild antiseptic and anesthetic

properties.

CHEMISTRY OF CAMPHOR The camphor molecule

unsymmetrical and the substance ocknown as (f-camphor and lcamphor (see Stereochemistry). Of the two fortns, tZ-camphor, which in solution rotates the plane of polarization of light in the When clockwise direction, is the more abundant natural form. pure it has a melting point of 178° C, and a specific optical rotais

curs in two optically active forms

tion, [aj^i?. of 44.2°

(20%

rotating form, /-camphor, it

solution in absolute alcohol).

was not found

in nature until

The

left-

1848 when

was isolated from the oil of Matricaria parthenium. Although the correct molecular formula for camphor was known

mark progress in Camp Fire are Maker and Torch Bearer. The

early in the history of organic chemistry, the structure of the molecule was not determined until the beginning of the 20th

law of the is: worship God, seek beauty, give service, pursue knowledge, be trustworthy, hold on to health, glorify work, be happy. Horizon clubs provide teen-age girls with a program that emphasizes personality development, vocational

from more than 30 proposals for the arrangement of the atoms in the camphor molecule received consideration. The source of the problem was the unusual arrangement of seven carbon atoms in two rings (I) in the camphor molecule. Such bicyclic systems were unknown at the time, and, indeed, once

The four ranks

citizenship.

w-hich

Wood Gatherer, Camp Fire Girls

Trail Seeker.

Fire

exploration, social relationships and

community

service.

Blue Bird, Camp Fire Girls and Junior Hi Camp Fire Girls individual groups are limited to 20 members; Horizon clubs may have 30. Women 18 years of age and older serve as leaders and club advisers.

Men

serve as council and committee

members and

group sponsors. Publications include the

Camp

Fire Girl (published monthly

except July and August) and The Book of Die National headquarters are in New York city. See

Wo-He-Lo,

the Story of the

Camp

Camp

Fire Girls.

Fire Girls, 1910-1960 (1961).

(E. M. McS.) waxy substance which is rather volatile and possesses a penetrating, somewhat musty, aromatic odour. For centuries camphor has been known and valued in the far east for its medicinal properties and for its odour. As trade routes to the east developed, it was introduced into Europe and became known to the alchemists. They did not, however, make a clear distinction between true camphor and bomeo camphor (bomeol). The first chemical investigations of camphor were carried out by A. Lavoisier, R, Boyle and J, B. Dumas. Lavoisier, in particular, demonstrated by chemical analysis that camphor was a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The correct molecular formula of the compound. CioHigO, was established as earlv as

CAMPHOR

is

idea of the structure problem can be gained

the fact that in the period 1S70-95

it

had been established that such a system was present

term camphor was used to designate any of a

in the

camphor molecule, progress in the elucidation of other bicycUc structures became rapid. The correct structural formula for camphor (II) was proposed by J. Bredt in 1893, and although his hypothesis was not promptly accepted, it was fully validated by unambiguous synthesis within ten years. It had long been known that camphor on oxidation was converted into camphoric acid (III j from which camphor could be

CH3

a white,

1833Historically, the

Some

century.

CHs—

C

.CHs

CHs—

C I

reformed by well-understood means, and it was in fact the proof of the structure of camphoric acid by rational synthesis that validated Bredt's formula for camphor.

CAMPI—CAMPINAS

720 Camphor

a ketone

oxygenated bicyclic monoterpenes, and it conforms to the isoprene rule since its carbon skeleton can be divided into two isoprene units as indicated by the numbering in II. Reduction of camphor with sodium in alcohol gives borneol (IX). while catalytic hydrogenation using platinum black as catalyst produces mainly isoborneol V ). These two alcohols derived from camphor differ in the disposition of the OH group with respect to the CHg C CH3 unit. In borneol the OH group (II)

is

(

— —

is

directed

the

OH

away from

group

is

the

CH3

Bernardino Campi (1522-c. 1592), a pupil of Giulio Campi, work as a painter of portraits and sacred subjects, in many Italian cities outside of Cremona. Son of

in the class of

—C — CH3

directed toward

unit, while in isoborneol

it.

did extensive

and was active

the goldsmith Pietro Campi. he early followed his father's profession, later turning to the study of painting under GiuUo Campi and

Romano and

Ippolito Costa. Giulio

upon

his style.

He

Correggio had great influence

died at Reggio.

CAMPIN, ROBERT of Tournai (Belgium),

is

(c.

1378-1444), a painter of the school

named

in the archives of that city be-

tween 1406 and 1444 as being entrusted with decorative work by the town council. Two pupils are mentioned as entering his studio in 1427 Rogelet de la Pasture (generally identified with Rogier van der Weyden [q.v.] and Jacques Daret. Campin died on April 26. 1444. An identification of Campin with the Master of Flemalle (the painter of the panels wrongly supposed to come from an abbey at Flemalle near Liege and now at Frankfurt) has been made on a stylistic basis. The only documented work by Jacques Daret, an altarpiece executed for the abbey of St. Vaast near Arras (panels of which have sur\'ived and are now at Berlin, Paris and Lugano), shows close stylistic analogies with works by Rogier van der Weyden on one hand and works earlier in style by the Master of Flemalle on the other. Both seem to proceed from common models, for they obviously are not copies of one another. As the Tournai records give the name of Campin as master of both Daret and Rogier, it has been generally assumed that the Master of Flemalle may be reasonably identified with Campin. However, some scholars have considered the works ascribed to the Master of Flemalle as early works by Rogier van der Weyden, also on a stylistic basis. One of Campin's masterpieces is the triptych of the "Annunciation" with the donors and St. Joseph on the wings, formerly in the Merode collection at Westerlo. Belg.. and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in Xew York city. Another important work, at the Stadel art institute in Frankfurt am Main, Ger., consists of two wings of an altarpiece said to have come from the abbey of Flemalle and shows the "Virgin and Child and "St. Veronica" (with a "Trinity" on the reverse).. Other works generally ascribed to Campin are the "Virgin and Child before a Firescreen" and a double portrait, at the National galler>'. London; a fragment from the right wing of a lost triptych of the "Descent From the Cross" representing one of the thieves, at Frankfurt; a "Madonna" at .-Xix in Provence; two heads of "Christ and the Virgin" in the Johnson collection at Philadelphia. Pa.; a "Marriage of the \'irgin" in Madrid; a "Nativity" at Dijon; an "Entombment" in the collection of Count Seilem in London; a "Trinity" and a "Madonna and Child at the Chimney" in Leningrad. To Campin's last period belong the wings of an altarpiece in Madrid dated 143 8 and painted for Heinrich von Werl, a notable professor

—

)

CH3-

Both borneol and isoborneol when treated with dehydrating agents such as sulfuric acid yield camphene (VI). Isoborneol undergoes the change somewhat more readily. The formation of camphene from the borneols involves a rearrangement of the carbon skeleton Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement), and it was (

just such rearrangements that plagued the efforts of early investi-

gators to determine the carbon skeleton of camphor, for molecular

rearrangement was but poorly understood elucidation of the structures of

at the time.

In fact, the

camphor and the rearranged prod-

contributed greatly to the present understanding of the processes by which one carbon skeleton is converted into another. The identifying numbers of the carbon atoms in the formula for isoborneol \' are carried over into that for camphene (\T to ucts

(

)

1

demonstrate the complexity of the change in skeletal structure accompanying the rearrangement. To supplement natural sources of camphor several processes have been developed for its production from a-pinene. a very abundant terpene. Treatment of pinene with hydrogen chloride gas produces a mixture of bornyl and isobornyl chlorides with the former predominating. These chlorides correspond in structure to borneol (I\") and isoborneol (V) with CI replacing OH. and their formation involves a molecular rearrangement of the carbon skeleton of pinene. Bornyl chloride has been known as "artificial camphor." Removal of hydrogen chloride from bornyl chloride by the action of alkali converts it into camphene (\T ). Camphene is oxidized to camphor in one process. Another method for the production of camphor involves the addition of formic acid to camphene to form isobornyl formate (the formic acid ester of isoborneol) and subsequent saponification of the formate to produce isoborneol. Isoborneol is then oxidized to camphor. Catalytic processes for the formation of camphene from pinene have been developed in recent years. The synthetic camphor from these sources (dl or racemic camphor) is usually of low optical activity and consists mainly of a mixture of equal amounts of the dextroand levo-rotator\' forms. BiBLioGR.^PHY. E. Guenther (ed.), The Essential Oils, vol. iv, p. 236 ff. (1950) H. Gilraan (ed.), Organic Chemistry, an Advanced Treatise, ' vol. iv, p. 645 ff. (1933). (R. H. En.)

—

;

CAMPI, GIULIO

(1502-1572), Italian painter and archiCremonese school, was born at Cremona. His work, and that of his followers, was elegant and eclectic. Campi was a prolific painter, working in both oU and fresco. At its best his work was often distinguished by the richness of its colour. He first studied under his father, Galeazzo Campi (1475-1563), and Bernardo Gatti (c. 1495-1575 ). and later formed his style under the influences of Giulio Romano (whom he reportedly once assisted on a painting in Mantua and Pordenone. Among the earliest of his school were his brothers, VLncenzo (1536-1591) and Antonio (1536-c. 1591); the latter was also a sculptor and historian of Cremona. tect,

who

led in the formation of the

)

'

at

Cologne.

—

Bibliography. F. Winkler, Der Meister von Flemalle und Rogier van der Weyden (1913) Sir Martin Conway, The Van Eycks and Their Followers (1921) M. J. Friedlander, Die altniederldndische Malerei E. Renders, La Solution du problhne van der Weyden(1924-37) Flemalle-Campin (1931) W. Schbne, Dieric Bouts und seine Sckule Ch. de Tolnay, Le Maitre de Flemalle et les freres van Eyck (1938) (1939); E. Panofsky, Early Netherlandish Painting (1954). ;

;

;

;

;

(J. Fe.)

CAMPINAS,

a city in Sao Paulo state, Braz., 65 mi.

of the city of Sao Paulo

N.W.

and 114 mi. from the port of connected by the Paulista and Santos-

by

rail

Santos, with which it is Jundiai railways. Pop. (1950) city 99,156, municipality 152.547: (1955 mun. est.) 156,126. Campinas is the commercial centre of one of the state's oldest coffee-producing districts and the outlet

and extensive agricultural hinterland. The Mogiana railfrom this point and extends north to Minas Gerais state, w'hile the Paulista lines extend northwest into settled and very fertile regions; the Sorocabana railway also reaches the city. for a rich

way

starts

Locally, coffee ha^ given

way

to diversified farming.

Campinas include foundries, textile processing plants; agricultural equipment tries of

The

mills, is

The

indus-

and packing and

also manufactured.

state agronomical institute with large experimental plantations

and other

institutions devoted to raising agricultural production

The city has a faculty of pharmacy and denwith the University of Sao Paulo, and higher in-

are located there. tistr>- affiliated

CAMPING economics and law. (R. M. M.) is a way of life that began with man. It was his mode of living, with the sky as his roof, and earth his bed, and the wildlife about him his source of food and clothing. In modern times camping has become a back-to-nature, educational and recreational movement wherein man gains knowledge, understanding arid enjoyment through the use of nature and its resources. In the second half of the 20th century two distinct categories were recognized, organized camping and individual or family camping. The range of camping extends from the lone camper sleeping in the open near his campfire to congregate groups with specialized equipment, extensive facilities and highly organized programs. Organized Camping. Organized camping varies from country France has a large to country in extent, type and sponsorship. national camping program, known as Vacation colonies, sponsored and in large part financed by government and industry. The Soviet Union maintains an extensive government program of camping for youth. In Sweden camps for youth and adults are operated by cities. Camping for school children, under the term of outdoor education, is prevalent in Australia, Denmark, Egypt, Germany, India, Japan, New Zealand and South Africa. These camps are sponsored by the schools and subsidized by the governments. Teachers are given special training for their camping responsibilities. Youth service agencies, such stitutions for liberal arts,

CAMPING

—

as the

Boy

Scouts, Girl Scouts,

Girl Guides

and the Y.M.C.A.,

international in scope, have led

camping movement Canada, the United States and Great Britain and operate a limthe organized

in

ited

number

of

camps

in

lands in which they serve.

other

Great

camps operated by such agencies, provides Britain, in addition to

youth camps through the Boy's Brigade, Boys Leagues and British Schools Exploring society. Youth hostels are popular in Great FIG. 1. (TOP) SINGLE-POLE TENT; Britain and on the continent, as (BOTTOM) PUP TENT are camping tours and trips. Organized camping in the United States started with a camp for boys in 1S61. In that year Frederick William Gunn, founder of the Gunnery School for Boys in Washington, D.C., and his wife took the student body to Milford-on-the-Sound for two weeks. The experiment proved so successful that it was continued for 18 years. Within a short time other camps developed. In 1876 the first private camp was begun by Joseph Trimble Rothrock. The first church camp was started by the Rev. George W. Hinckley in 1880 at Gardners Island. R.I. The oldest existing camp is Camp Dudley, a Y.M.C.A. camp founded in 1885 by Summer F. Dudley. The first camp for girls was established in 1888 by Luther Halsey Gulick and his wife for their daughters and their friends on the Thames river in Connecticut. Gen. Robert Baden-Powell, who started the Boy Scout movement in England, emphasized camping as a major part of the program (see Boy Scouts). In 1908 Ernest Thompson Seton visited and observed the scouting movement in England. Upon returning, he headed the committee to establish the Boy Scouts of America in 1910. The Girl Guides, which began in Great Britain in 1910, and the Campfire Girls (1910) and the Girl Scouts iqq.v.; 1912), in the United States, also stressed organized camping. Also active in the movement were the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., the Y.M.H.A., the Boys' Clubs of America, the Federation of Girls' Clubs, Four-H Clubs and other youthserving organizations. In 1916 Charles W. Eliot, former president

—

broadened

721 to include others associated with or interested in

Organized camping may be divided into three groups: camps operated by the youth-serving agencies and by churches, civic clubs, industries, labour organizations, co-operatives and other nonprofit groups; public camps operated by schools, municipalities and other agencies of government; and private camps operated for profit. Within these groups are numerous types of camps: resident, day, caravan, family and specialized camps. Specialized camps include modified camping programs for physically and mentally retarded children and handicapped and crippled children. Fresh-air camps provide camping experience for families and children from congested areas. Camps facilities may include tents as as buildings of more permanent nature, such as sleeping cabins, dining halls, lodges, an infirmary or health centre and in cases an administration building. Such camps cater for

well

many

groups of children under adult supervision or may accommodate whole families. The activities of a camp are usually adapted to the geographical location to include special emphasis on canoeing, mountaineering, ranch life, pack trips or other activities in keeping with the environment. Learning skills in campcraft, woodcraft, nature lore and other activities not commonly practised in urban areas usually is the central theme of the organized camping program. Among U.S. groups that do not possess camping sites but plan, provide and supervise camping activities for individuals and groups are the Appalachian Mountain club, the Sierra club, the Long Trail council, the Adirondack Mountain club and the American Youth hostels. Leading the organized camping movement in Canada have been the Boy Scouts association, the Canadian Girl Guides, the Y.M.C.A., churches and other community groups. Several of the provinces, especially Ontario (through the department of lands and forests) and British Columbia (junior wardens), provide organized camping programs for youth. The Canadian Camping association promotes camping throughout the provinces. Individual and Family Camping. Individual family camping is widely enjoyed in many countries. Both public and private lands are made available for this purpose. It is impossible to determine the number of individuals and families who each year spend days, week ends and vacation periods camping. Their objectives range from fishing and hunting to simply enjoying the scenery. They may camp on the shores of a lake one night and on the mountain slopes another night. They may canoe or sail on lakes or streams. They may climb mountain trails by horse or on foot, fly to remote wilderness areas or pitch a tent in their own back yard. In the United States the trek back to nature has become so popular that governmental licensing and regulation have become necessary in many states. In Canada, as well as the United States, campsites are made available in national, state or provincial, county and city parks. Facilities range from primitive, for wilderness camping, to the provision of cabins, hot and cold running water, showers, electricity, etc. In many states and provinces, roadside overnight

—

of Harvard university, said, "The organized summer camp is the most significant contribution to education that America has given to the world."

At the turn of the 20th century camp directors began meeting By 1910 the Camp Directors association was formed, and out of it grew the American Camping association. The membership of this professional organization, originally made up of camp directors, was

camp-

ing. Among its services the association establishes camping standards and provides leadership certification. Many colleges and universities offer courses in camping. A high percentage of camp leadership is recruited from colleges and the teaching profession.

together to discuss mutual problems and interests.

-UMBRELLA TENT WITH CANOPY

—

CAMPING

722

mosquito-netted and with a protective awning which zips down at night; a front awning with its own frame which sometimes stretches the full width of the tent; and often a rear kitchenbathroom with splashproof walls and draw curtains. The outer tent holds one, two or three sleeping tents with built-in groundsheet, mosquito-netted window(s) and zippered doors. Cooking stoves, which burn bottled propane or butane gas and have one or two burners and even a grill, are placed on a folding table of the correct height, adding greatly to the comfort of camping. Cooking pans in spun alurninum light, hygienic and neat are available and a pressure cooker is a great asset for family camping. Bottled-gas lighting (and heating in cold weather), folding chairs and tables and plastic crockery are all in common use. Folding camp beds or air beds and sleeping bags filled with down or man-made fibre are used. A latrine tent and compact chemical toilet may complete the outfit. It should be noted that kerosene is not readily obtainable in all European countries and that methylated spirit (alcohol) is very expensive in some, so that bottled gas or petrol stoves are probably the most suitable. Gas-bottle exchange or filling stations are available on an increasing scale. Pedestrian campers hitchhike their way throughout Europe and cycle campers, scooter and motorcycle campers abound, but it is the great number of family campers with cars that has brought about the rapid development of campsites on a commercial basis, much as the growing number of car, camp trailer and station wagon campers has boosted camping in the U.S. and Canada. The most popular camping areas are the French and Italian rivieras, but Switzerland, the Italian lakes, the Spanish Costa Brava and Germany attract more and more campers. In France almost every town offers a site indicated by the "Camping" sign which is used everywhere. Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, Portugal and Austria all cater for campers on a considerable scale. Facilities are developing in Yugoslavia and in Greece. The tiny countries of Andorra in the Pyrenees, San Marino on the Adriatic and Liechtenstein on the Austrian border all offer well-equipped campsites. Lists of organized campsites are obtainable from national tourist offices, motoring organizations and camping clubs, or from bookstalls in big cities of many western European countries. Many of the European campsites are equipped with baths, showers, electric razor outlets, flush lavatories, clothes-washing

—

FIG. 3.

—WALL TENT WITH

HOOD

park areas are provided and there are many privately operated camping areas. Camping in the United States and Canada has become an avocation for millions and a vocation for thousands, with the annual income derived by suppliers of camping equipment well beyond $1,000,000,000. Detailed information on camp facilities is readily available from state or provincial park departments and (S. N. G.) tourist bureaus and local chambers of commerce. Camping in Europe. Camping for pleasure started in Engrapidly the use of the bicycle. with land about 1880 and developed The Association of Cycle Campers was formed in 1901 and by 1907

—

had merged with a number of other camping clubs to form the Camping Club of Great Britain and Ireland, of which it is still a flourishing part. Before World War I the capping kit was very lightweight (two-man tent with poles weighing only 4 lb.) and largely homemade. By 1910 appreciable numbers of British cycle and pedestrian campers were touring Europe and the idea of pleasure camping began to spread. After World War I camping began to flourish in western European countries and national camping The industry which manufactured tents, clubs were formed. groundsheets, kerosene and gasoline pressure stoves and sleeping bags grew to a considerable size. World War II interrupted this growth but from 1946 onward camping increased rapidly in poputhroughout western Europe, As in the United States and Canada,

larity

this postwar growth of camping was accompanied by considerable new technical developCottage tents, small bivouac tents and single-pole (umbrella) tents continued to be made, but down-to-earth flysheets were designed which enclose the inner tent completely and are anchored by short, elastic guy

ments.

lines.

facilities,

shops, restaurants and games areas.

An extension to the flysheet

and living area, and a detachable bell-shaped end gives a cooking

encloses this area completely at night or in bad weather.

The frame tent appeared and began to replace the more traditional

tents,

particularly

in

France, Italy and Germany. It consists of a strong jointed tubular frame (often spring-linked so it is easy to pitch) in the shape of a small cottage. Over the frame is fitted an outer canvas tent of considerable dimensions, 12 X 84 X 8 ft. being quite The outer tent comes normal. down almost to the ground and is pegged by many short metal pegs attached to elastic guys. There is a large picture window, usually

Prices are usually

Sites in Great Britain, on the whole, are less well modest. equipped. The Camping Club of Great Britain issues to its members a list of more than 2,000 sites in the British Isles. Overseas visitors may join the club and use its facilities including advice about camping in other parts of Europe.

that

FIG. 4.

— FRAME TENT

—

CAMPING

723

bers together for a week end.

ment has developed

The production

of

into a large-scale industry.

camping equipTrade fairs are

held annually in London, Paris and Cologne and the turnover of the industries connected with camping approaches i 100,000,000 a

(Al. R.)

year.

HOW

TO CAMP

A good camper may be likened to a good woodsman. He does not go with scanty outfit to endure as many hardships as he can stand reveling in his stamina but rather he makes the most of his equipment and the resources of nature and lives happily and comfortably in the woods. He goes camping to have a good time and returns to his work with increased health and vigour. This

—

is

—

possible only

when he

dresses comfortably, sleeps well at night

and eats properly. The Site. A good campsite provides adequate drainage and protection from severe storms and wind. It is as free as possible from poisonous plants and animals, possible landslides, flash floods and other natural hazards. It provides a source of water, shade and firewood. If the source of water is in doubt, the water should always be boiled or chlorinated. Contrary to popular belief, running water does not always purify itself and fast-flowing streams may be polluted. The summer camper requires only a little fuel, but the cold-weather camper needs considerable amounts for

—

FIG. 5.

— PYRAMID TENT

When camping

in western Europe it is essential to carry a campcamet or permit and identification book issued by the national camping clubs affiliated to the Federation Internationale de Camping et de Caravanning or by the national motoring organizations

ing

Internationale de Tourism. These carnets provide insurance against third-party risks while camping. They require campers to use authorized sites or to camp only when permission is given, to avoid fire risks, to leave no rubbish, to pay particular attention to sanitation, to respect other people's peace, property and local conventions and to be quiet between 10 P.M. and 6 a.m. Carnets are almost invariably required by campsites (other than in Great Britain) and lack of one may lead to permission to camp being refused. With a camet, one may camp on any of the thousands of sites throughout western Europe. Starting in 1960 it has been possible for motorists to camp in the Soviet Union on a number of well-equipped sites (reser\-ations are required in advance through a tourist agency). Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria and the German Democratic Republic all offer facilities to tourists and these are being e.xtended. affiliated to the Alliance

Apart from the use of organized sites it is possible to camp many parts of Europe simply by seeking permission from

freely in

the local farmer, forester, police or administrative authority. This type of camping is becoming popular with vacationers who Drinking are canoeing, fishing, mountaineering, painting, etc. water is suspect in some areas and water purifying tablets should be used. Ice is fairly readily obtainable in France, Switzerland and Italy. It is worthwhile carrying a small icebox and possibly a folding flyproof larder.

Camping

in this way, shopping in the villages and markets, eatand drinking the local foods and wines, is very enjoyable and Perhaps more than any other form of vacation, camping brings closer contact with the people and gives

ing

usually very inexpensive.

ways of the country concerned. Europe is given by more than 5,000,000 French men and women were active campers and the rate of increase was a greater insight into the

Some

indication of the extent of camping in

the fact that, in a typical year, 1960,

warmth as well as for cooking. The site should provide shade at least during the hottest period of the day (2 to 4 p.m.). The directions of prevailing winds are shown by standing timber, which bends away from the seasonal blow. In cold weather, camp is made with a windbreak of woods or rock at the rear. Thickets, low marshy areas and dense woods should be avoided. These are damp and unwholesome and may be infested with insect pests. Camp is best made in the open, where the tent will quickly dry after rain or dew and there is no danger of falling limbs or trees. Drainage is aided by digging a six-inch trench around the tent The Tent. The tent is a convenient shelter for the camper be-

—

cause of its versatility. It may range from a small lightweight nylon tent of the explorer type to a large sidewall or pyramidal canvas tent for family use (see Camping in Europe, above). Tents should be made as waterproof as possible and, unless they are made of nylon, they should be dried out thoroughly before packing to avoid mildew and rot. Tents can be used in both summer and winter. They should be well ventilated for summer use. Particular care should be taken in pitching a tent. A sloppy, loosely pitched tent will not shed rain or snow. Wooden tent pegs are lighter to carry than steel pegs. When tent pegs cannot be used, a frame of heavy logs to which the guy ropes may be fastened may circle the tent. Heaxy rocks may also be used to anchor the guy ropes. Ropes should be loosened in wet weather to prevent damage to the tent and prevent the stakes from being pulled. The Bed. The camper's bed should be comfortable, warm and dry. A bed can be made with pine boughs, waterproof groundcloth, woolen blankets and blanket pins. An old-time tick can be filled with materials found at the campsite leaves, grass, pine needles, etc, to make a comfortable bed. However, a variety of sleeping bags are available to suit every camper's needs. Air pillows and

—

—

—

estimated at 300,000 a year. In July of that year the International Rally of Camping and Caravanning, which is held in a different country each year, attracted

6,500 campers from 20 countries to a spectacular site 3,500

ft.

up

high Savoy area of France. No less than 125,000 British campers crossed the English Channel with their camping equipment. In Britain itself, the Camping club's annual Feast of Lanterns, held on the first week end in September, brings more than 5,000 Camping club memin the

from

b.

four-man station wagon tenT: (A) frame on rack on top of station wagon supports tent: fig. 6. upper and lower berths ready for occupancy

(B)

—

CAMPION

724

CAMPION, THOMAS

mattresses that can be readily inflated add still more comfort. Folding canvas cots can be used but they are cold underneath and require additional blankets (or layers of paper) under the

(1567-1620), English physician, poet, composer, and musical and literary theorist who is one of the outstanding songwriters of the English lutenist school. His

sleeper.

poetry reflects his quality as a musician in rhythmical and melodic structure.

—

Food. Open-fire cooking should be over hardwood coals only when unavoidable over a flame or softwood ashes. Charcoal, gas and alcohol portable grills and stoves are available. Cooking equipment should be simple. Pots and pans should be selected on a basis of multiple use. Aluminum ware is light and comes telescoped in kits or "nests." For all-around cooking, a deep iron skillet, a small open grill and a dutch oven are practical utensils. Twists on sticks and reflector ovens may also be used for baking. Dishes should be of an unbreakable variety such as aluminum and stainless steel. Many campers prefer plastic cups that do not burn the lips. Various staple foods, available in dehydrated form, can be supplemented by the efforts of the hunters and fishermen in the group. Variety in menu is not only possible but highly desirable. To keep foods cool, watertight containers may be sunk in a stream and portable iceboxes and vacuum containers may be used. Food should be protected from flies, insects and animals. Unburnable garbage should be buried at least two feet deep and all campfires should be put out by soaking and tamping. (S. N. G.) See also National Parks and Nature Reserves; Wildlife Conservation Woodcraft and Parks sections in articles on ;

;

individual states and provinces.

—

Bibliography. American Camping Association, Annotated Bibliography on Camping, prepared by Barbara Ellen Joy, includes 19431945 editions and 1950 supplement (1955), Supplement (1957) Larry Koller, Complete Book of Camping and the Outdoors (1957); Rae Getting and Mabel Otis Robison, Camping and Outdoor Cooking (1958); Calvin Rutstrum, The New Way of the Wilderness (1958); Paul H. Nesbitt, Alonzo W. Pond, William H. Allen, The Survival ;

Book (1959)

;

Roy McCarthy,

Tackle Camping This

Way

(1960).

Periodicals: American Camping Association, Camping Magazine; Canadian Camping Association, Canadian Camping; Camping Club of Great Britain and Ireland, Camping and Outdoor Life. (S. N. G.; Al. R.) (1540-1581), English Jesuit executed as a traitor by the government of Elizabeth I, was born in London on Jan. 25, 1540, and educated probably at Christ's hospital or at St. Paul's and at St. John's college, newly founded at Oxford by Sir Thomas White, a patron of Campion. His Catholic tendencies became known and his scholarship benefactors demanded an assurance that he was a sincere Protestant. Rather than give this, he left Oxford and, after a stay in Dublin, eventually went, to escape the attentions of the English government, to Douai in northern France to join the English college founded there (1568) by William Allen. He was received into the Roman Church and in 1573 went to Rome to join the Society of Jesus. He was sent to Prague and conducted successful missions among the Hussites. In 1580, under the leadership of Robert Persons, he was sent on a dangerous mission to England, where Catholic practices were strictly proscribed. After precarious ministering in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire, Campion caused a sensation by having 400 copies of his Decern Rationes against the Anglican Church distributed in St. Mary's, Oxford, before the degree-giving ceremony on June 27, 1581. Shortly afterward, on July 14, while preaching at Lyford, Berkshire, he was arrested by a spy named George Eliot and taken to London. He was several times examined, gave word of his loyalty to Elizabeth, impressed his hearers by his strength of argument and his gaiety and was then racked in an effort to make him recant and deny his adherence to Roman Catholicism. On Oct. 31 he was accused at Westminster of having conspired with others at Rome and Reims to dethrone the queen. On Nov. 20, after being found guilty, he claimed: "If our religion do make us traitors we are worthy to be condemned; but otherwise we are and have been as good subjects as ever the Queen had." Campion was sentenced to death as a traitor and executed on Dec. 1, 1581. Of all the English Jesuits who suffered for their allegiance to Roman Catholicism Campion is the best known. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true

CAMPION,

and

EDMUND

his loyalty unquestionable.

pion hall at Oxford See E.

is

named

He was

beatified in 1886.

Cam-

after him.

Waugh, Edmund Campion, new

ed. (1961).

(P. Cn.)

He was bom

in

London on Feb.

its

subtle mastery of

1567, the son of John

12,

Campion, and Lucy, nee Searle. On John Campion's death in 1576, Lucy married Augustine Steward, one of the queen's sergeants at arms. When Lucy died in 1580, Steward married Anne Sisley, and in 1581 Campion was sent to Peterhouse, Cambridge. There is no record of matriculation or degree for Campion, though he stayed till 1584. In 1586 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, where he took a full part in social activities, contributing to the Gesta Graiorum, a masque performed in 1594. We do not know how long he remained, but he was probably still there in 1595. He was never called to the bar. He may have seen service with the gentlemen adventurers from London who went to help Henry IV of France in 1591. It is not known where he was for more than ten years before 1606, when lines prefixed to Barnabe Barnes's Foiire Bookes of Offices are by "Tho: Campion, Doctor in Physicke." There are no records of Campion's studying medicine at Oxford or Cambridge. Though there is no doubt that Campion went abroad, continental university records of the time are sparse, and he appears nowhere in them. France is the only foreign country mentioned in his writings, and he may have read medicine there; but Leiden was famous for medicine, and 17th-century Dutch translations of Campion's poems suggest that he may have been known in Holland. He practised medicine, apparently with honour, for the rest of his

Through one patient and patron. Sir Thomas Monson, he was connected with the notorious Overbury poisoning case of 1613 (see Overbury, Sir Thomas), but he, with his patron, can be acquitted of knowing complicity. He died in London, on life.

March 1, 1620. Works. Campion's

—

first

publication was five sets of verses

appearing anonymously in Newman's surreptitious 1591 edition of Sidney's Astrophel a?id Stella. In 1595 came Poemata (Latin epigrams). In 1601 A Booke of Ayres appeared; the music of the part was by Campion, that of the second by Philip Rosseter, but almost certainly the words of both parts were by Campion. Obseniations in the Art of English Poesie came out in 1602 (and was answered by Daniel's Defence of Ryme). Campion wrote a masque in 1607. and three more in 1613. Two Bookes of Ayres probably appeared in this year. The Third and Fourth Booke of Ayres came out in 1617, and probably at about the same time he wrote the undated A New Way of Making Fowre-Parts in Counter-point. His last pubUcation was an enlarged Poemata (1619). He also wrote several sets of occasional verses. He is often mentioned by contemporaries as an elegant Latinist, and first

as "musicks and poesies stout

The work

of

most

Champion."

lasting interest

is

undoubtedly the

lyrical

poetry and the song-settings, but Campion is not negligible as a literary and musical theorist. His attack on rhyme in the Obseniations (which he largely denied in practice) has tended to obscure the value of his insistence that timing is the fundamental element in verse structure, that the sensitive ear is the judge of verse, and that in English verse the larger units of line and stanza provide the temporal stability within which feet and syllables may be endlessly varied. His theories of music are slight, but one statement, "the third makes the cadence of the key," explains why his work was used and reissued late in the 1 7th century, when Thomas Morley's more learned work was neglected: it shows that Campion thought naturally in the modern key system with major and minor modes rather than in the old modal system. Theory facilitated some good practice. Campion's music (always for "ayres," not madrigals) is delicate, singable, and expressive. His quantitative theories of verse produced as one

example the exquisite poem of which the

first

verse

Rose-cheekt Lawra, ^coiae Sing thou smoothly with thy beawties Silent musick, either other Sweetely gracing.

is

—

CAMPISTRON— CAMPRA used to exemplify one form of unrhymed verse in the Obseruations. In it lack of rhyme does not obscure structure, for the poet's fine ear for syllables enables him to help the reader, with assonance, alliteration, and other devices, to hear the intended quantities. In his verse for music (usually rhymed) he also uses these devices so that the structure can still be heard when the words are separated from the music. Campion's are the usual Elizabethan subjects: "Divine and Morall Songs" and "Light Conceits of Lovers." His originahty lies in his treatment. Visual imagery is rare, and always generalized: "thy red and white" is all that he mentions of a mistress' colouring. Static pictures are reserved for ideas of a removed heaven: "Ever-blooming are the ioys of Heau'ns high paradice." Earthly delights are expressed in terms of sound or movement and change. Addressing a lady, he says

Awake, thou spring of speaking The fayrest women, while they

grace, mute rest becomes not thee; sleepe, and Pictures, equall bee;

725

by the Methodists, Baptists, Shakers, Disciples, and Cumberland Presbyterians, the latter two denominations being direct outgrowths of the camp meetings. The Methodist Church profited most by their popularity and gradually institutionalized them into By 1811 the Methodist bishop Francis its system of evangelism. Asbury reported in his journal that over 400 camp meetings were being held annually along the frontier from Georgia to Michigan. Although the theology of camp meeting preachers varied from a modified Calvinism to pure Arminiani.sm, the insistent emphasis upon a sudden conversion experience reduced doctrinal preaching to a minimum, broke down the old creedal standards and undermined the concept of a learned pastoral ministry. But the individualistic and activistic elements in Protestantism stressed in these meetings comported well with the character of frontier life and eventually pervaded the religious outlook of rural America. frontier

Camp

summer

Bible conferences 1890 Despite their occasional fanaticism and frenzy they helped in a crude way to bring

meetings lingered archaically as

into the 20th century, but their significance passed after

with the frontier society that created them.

and he seems to feel this about the whole natural world. Winds blow through his gardens, the seasons are at the point of change, sun and shadows fly after each other. Above all, experience comes ahve to him through hearing, "Heau'n is Musick," and the highest earthly beauties are musical.

His insistent,

yet

delicate,

the stabilizing and humanitarian force of religion to the raw wilder-

See also Revivalism.

ness settlements.

—

Bibliography. Charles \. Johnson, The Frontier Camp Meeting (1955) Catharine C. Cleveland, The Great Revival in the West, 17971805 (1916); Francis Asbury, Journals, i vol. (1852); Peter CartBarton W. Stone, The Biography of wright, Autobiography (1857) Eld. Barton Warren Stone, Written by Himself (1847). ;

appeal

to

gives freshness to hackneyed subjects,

ear

rather

and seems

than

eye

to suggest

an

immediate personal experience of even the commonest feelings. Bibliography. The Works were first edited by A. H. Bullen (1889, completed by Songs and Masques, uith Observations in the Art of English Poesy, 1903). The standard edition is by P. Vivian (1909). For the scores of the songs, see The English School of Lutenist Song Writers, ed. by E. H. Fellowes, i2 vol, (1920-32). See also T. MacDonagh, T. Campion and the Art of English Poetry (1913) M. M. Kastendieck, England's Musical Poet, T. Campion (1938) B. Pattison, Music and Poetry of the English Renaissance (1948) C. M. Ing,

;

(W. G. McL.)

—

;

;

;

Elizabethan Lyrics (1951).

(C.

CAMPISTRON, JEAN G ALBERT DE

M.

I.)

(1656-1723),

French dramatist, whose classical tragedies achieved great success, was born in Toulouse in 1 656 and served with distinction under the due de Vendome. He was received into the French Academy in 1701. Of his nine extant tragedies, the most successful were Andronic (1685), Alcibiade (1686) and Tiridate (1691). Success was probably in part due to the acting of Michel Baron {q:v.), but Campistron's stagecraft and sense of dramatic surprise can still be admired. Two comedies have survived, L'Amante amant 1684) and Le Jaloux desabiise (1709), and three opera texts writ(

ten for Lully.

Campistron died

in

Toulouse on

CAMP MEETING

May

to three- or four-

day outdoor revival meetings held along the American during the 19th century by the various evangelical denominations

frontier

either singly or jointly.

The

origin

is

(1817-1901 ), Spanish poet and politician, chiefly remembered for some short epigrammatic poems, was born at Navia Asturias) on Sept. 24, 1817. As a member of a generation which missed the (

early idealism of Liberal excitement he rather reflects the calculated plot and counterplot characterizing mid-century parliaments and

observes a moderate conservatism. He excels in epigrammatic verses of worldly wisdom, which have the simplicity and force of proverbs and earned him in his day an undeserved reputation as master poet and philosopher. His permanent value lies in his lively, economic expression of contemporary social attitudes and preoccupations with their bittersweet ironies of detail and their mass sentiment disguised as individual thought. Certain of his collected verses Doloras (1846), Pequeiios poemas (1871, etc.), Humoradas 1886) were regarded by himself and others as symbolizing innovations in form and ideology. In fact they are neither original nor greatly different from each other, but present, in vary-

—

(

ing proportions, his basic ingredients of satire

11, 1723.

was the name given

CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE

obscure, but historians

have generally credited James McGready, a Presbyterian, with inaugurating the first typical camp meetings in 1799-1801 in Logan county, Ky., along the Gasper, Muddy and Red rivers. Other ministers who associated with McGready (William and John McGee, William McKendree and Barton W. Stone) spread his methods throughout the southwest. As the name implies, those who attended such meetings came prepared to camp out, gathering at the prearranged time and place from as far as 30 to 40 mi. away. Families pitched their tents around a forest clearing where log benches and a rude preaching platform constituted an outdoor church in almost constant session for four days. As many as 10,000 to 20,000 were reported at some meetings. People came partly out of curiosity, partly out of a desire for social contact and festivity, but primarily out of their yearning for religious worship. Camp meetings, through their preaching, their prayer meetings, anxious bench, hymn singing, weddings and baptisms, filled a definite ecclesiastical and spiritual need in the unchurched settlements of the west which itinerant home missionaries were not numerous enough to supply. Often scenes of wild enthusiasm and hysteria in the early years, camp meetings acquired a bad The Presbyterian reputation among conservative churchmen. Church refused to countenance participation in them after 1805. Nevertheless they were vigorously carried westward with the

large canvases (£/

drama

sensibility.

On

drama Dies

irae,

and

universal, 1869, or the

1873) his inadequacy becomes more apparent. correctly forecast his facile talent.

He

died in

1901.

His early lyrics Madrid on Feb. 12, (I.

CAMPOBASSO,

chief

town

of

L.

Campobasso

McC.) province,

Abruzzi e Molise region, southern Italy, and an episcopal see, lies in a fertile plain. Pop. (1961) 33,779 (mun.). The old town stood on a hill, surrounded by a wall with six towers and five gates and joined to the Castello de Monforte. In 1732 the people aban-

doned their feudal town and built a new town in the plain. The old town contains the castle (1459), lately restored, and the Romanesque churches of S. Leonardo, S. Bartolomeo and S. Giorgio (13th century). The new town has the neoclassical cathedral and a museum with relics of the Samnites, Frentani and Campani. Agricultural products include the well-known pears which ripen The making of cutin winter and the popular scamorze cheeses. lery, long a speciality, has dwindled, but paving tiles and soap are made. The town is on the Benevento-Termoli railway (junction (M. T. A. N.) for Isernia). ^ (1660-1744), the most important CAMPRA, French opera composer between Lully and Rameau, was born of Italian descent at Aix-en-Provence, Dec. 4, 1660. He is supposed to have been niajtre de musiqtie at Toulon cathedral at the age of 19 and certainly held similar posts at Aries in 1681 and Toulouse In 1694 he went to Paris as director of music at Notre in 1683. Dame, where he was the first to introduce instrumental music into Already well-known for his motets, he turned to the services.

ANDRE

—

CAMUS—CANAAN

726

secular music and produced his first dramatic work, L'Europe galante, in 1697 under an assumed name. In 1700 he gave up his church appointment and for 40 years enjoyed a wide reputation for his stage works. The opera-ballet in his hands became a charming vehicle for chain upon chain of danced and sung divertissements uncomplicated by any great dramatic unity. His religious music does not compare with that by Clerambault or Lalande but is nevertheless of power and beauty. Campra died at Versailles. June 29, 1744. (B. P.) (1913-1960), French essayist, novelist

CAMUS, ALBERT

and playwright, whose influential and penetrating analyses of the predicament of the modern human conscience won him the Nobel prize for literature in 1957, was born in Mondovi, Algeria, Nov. 7, 1913. His father was killed in World War I and he was brought up by his mother in difficult circumstances. He studied philosophy at the University of Algiers but illness prevented his proceeding to postgraduate studies. He held various positions such meteorologist, stockbroker's agent, temporary civil servant and journalist while directing an amateur theatrical company.

He

Bibliography.

keenly interested in the technical aspects of the

stage.

His

first

books, L'Envers et I'endroit (1937) and Noces (1938),

collections of essays, revealed, in a richly sensuous prose, his in-

tense feeling for North Africa.

His first journey outside it was when he visited Spain, Czechoslovakia and Italy. He France in 1939 and joined the Resistance movement in His first novel, L' Stranger (1942; Eng. trans., English

1938,

in

went

to

1942. title,

The Outsider, U.S.

favourite themes

The Stranger, 1946),

title,

— the — which

illustrated! his

irrational nature of the world

surdity and suicide

were reasoned out

in

and

its

ab-

his essay

Le

Mythe de Sisyphe (1942; Eng.

trans.. The Myth of Sisyphus, After the liberation of Paris, his leading articles in the former underground newspaper Combat attracted considerable attention. They seemed to bridge the gap between journalism and

19SS).

literature.

Several plays followed: Le Malentendu (1944; Eng. trans.. Cross Purpose, 1948); Caligula (1945; Eng. trans., 1948); L'i.tat deSiege (1948). InLes Justes (1950) Camus opposed the idealist and humanitarian to the realist and implacable revolutionary. Later he devoted himself to ambitious dramatic adaptations; e.g., William Faulkner's Requiem for a Nun (1956) and Dostoevski's

The Possessed (1958). In 1947 he published

An

La Peste (Eng.

trans..

The Plague, 194S).

allegory of the Resistance, this novel describes in a sober

classical style a plague epidemic in North Africa. It raises the problems of responsibility and commitment for the believer and

Homme

The Rebel, 1953), a discussion of the ideology of revolution, had a mixed reception. Camus attempted to analyze the implications of ends and means. He e.xamined the "individual terrorism" of the Russian nihilists and contemporary "state terrorism" ("irrational" with the Fascists, "rational" with the Communists). Camus' conception of revolt had been attacked by the surrealist leader Andre Breton. It was now severely criticized by the head of the French the unbeliever.

In

1951

L'

revolte

(Eng. trans..

Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1956, with La Chute (Eng. trans.. The Fall, 1957), a complex, ironical and semiautobiographical monologue, Camus seemed to return to his earlier pessimism. Reflexions sur la Peine de Mort (1958), written jointly with Arthur Koestler, was an appeal for the abolition of the death penalty. Camus insisted that he was a moralist and not a philosopher. He was a characteristic representative of the 20th-century European rationalist tradition in which literature, ethics and philosophy overlap. Confronted with the impossibility of religious belief he tried to define the basic tenets of an atheistic humanism. Like so many French writers of the 1940s he was obsessed with what seemed to him the theoretical failures of Hegelianism and Marxism as well as the political errors and crimes of Communism. Camus' talent as an artist has rarely been seriously questioned. He was existentialists,

an acknowledged master of French prose. Many commentators, and especially those with an empiricist slant, have disputed his

method

of reasoning.

4,

— Collected

Fiction of Albert Camus and a selection of his essays, Resistance, Rebellion and Death, both appeared in Eng. trans, in 1961. See also Robert de Luppe, Albert Camus (1955) Philip Thody, Albert Camus: A Study of His Work (1957) Hanna Thomas, The Thought and Art of Albert Camus (1958) Jean-Claude Brisville, Albert Camus (1959). (O. To.) ;

;

;

CANA,

in Galilee, the

scene of Jesus'

first

miracle (.John

ii)

and an act of healing (John iv) also the home of Nathanael (John xxi, 2). It perhaps was situated at Kefar Kana, about 4 mi. N.E. of Nazareth, where Latin and Greek churches were built because the site was thought to be the ancient Cana, and where an Aramaic mosaic inscription found under the Latin church may indicate an ancient synagogue site. Much more likely it was situated at Khirbet Qana, about 9 mi. N. of Nazareth, where ruins, cisterns and Hellenistic and Roman pottery have been found. ;

(F. V. F.)

CANAAN, probably meaning "Land of

as

He remained

died in a car accident near Sens (Yonnej, France, on Jan.

1960.

the Purple,"

is

the an-

name

for Palestine, found both in the Old Testament and in Egyptian and cuneiform writings. Originally, it would seem, it denoted only the coastal strip from Acre (Akko) northward, being derived from the fact that the principal commodity of that area was a rich purple dye extracted from the murex shellfish in the adjoining waters. In this stricter sense- sometimes retained by biblical writers (Num. xii, 29; Josh, v, 1; Isa. xxiii, 11; Zeph. ii, it was translated into Greek as Phoenicia, from phoinix, 5) "purple." From early times, however, the name was also used in a wider and looser manner. Thus in the Amarna letters of the 14th century B.C. Canaan designates the entire Egyptian province of Egypt and lower Syria; in Gen. x, 19 it is said to extend from Hamath in the north to Gaza in the south, and in Josh. xi. 3 it includes territory east as well as west of the Jordan. On the other hand, "Canaanite" is employed at times in the Hebrew scriptures to denote only one element of a complex population (Gen. xiii, 7; XV, 21; Ex. iii, 18); sometimes, too, it is simply a synonym for "merchant" (Isa. xxiii, 8; Zech. xiv, 21; Prov. .xxxi, 24; Job

cient

earlier

—

—

xl.

30).

—

History. Modern knowledge of Canaanite history and culture derived both from archaeological excavations and from literary sources. The former, conducted mainly during the 20th century, have brought to light the remains of many important Canaanite cities e.g.. Ai, Beth-shan, Byblos, Gezer, Hazor, Jericho, Lachish, Megiddo, Qatna, Shechem and Ugarit as well as several of the temples and "high places" of the country. Among the literary sources, special importance attaches to the Amarna letters (see Tell el Amarna a series of dispatches sent, in the 14th century B.C.. by governors of Palestinian and Syrian cities to their Egyptian overlords and to the celebrated Ras Shamra texts (discovered after 1929), which include, besides administrative records of the city of Ugarit, a series of mythological poems and cultic documents of the same period. These writings are in turn supplemented by references to the Canaanites in Egyptian literature (e.g., the narrative of a certain Wen-Amon's journey to Phoenicia, c. 1 100 B.C.), in Mesopotamian texts and in the Old Testament, as well as by sundry information furnished in garbled form) by later Greek and is

—

)

—

—

(

Roman

authors.

The civilization of Canaan can be traced to Paleolithic times. Skeletons of Neanderthal type (Paleanthropus palestinensis), estimated to date about 30,000 B.C., have been discovered in caves near Mt. Carmel and the Sea of Galilee (Sea of Chinnereth) while ;

at

Wad' en-Natufeh, northwest

of Jerusalem, and at a site in the

vicinity of Athlit, evidence of a Mesolithic culture (c.

8300-5000

been unearthed. The people involved seem to have been of Caucasian race and to have possessed some knowledge of B.C.) has

farming.

Settlement in fixed towns and villages first appears in the subsequent Neolithic Age (c. 7000-4000 B.C.). There was then, of course, no acquaintance with the use of pottery, but crude mud figures of animals have been unearthed in the lowest levels of Chalcolithic .\ge (c. 4000-3000 B.C.), charby the use of pottery and copper, is represented by excavations at Megiddo and Beth-shan, and especially at Teleilat Jericho.

acterized

The following

CANAAN

727

Dead sea. Typical of this period are houses with walls made of mud brick and ornamented

el-Ghassul, north of the of uncut stones,

with geometrical designs.

There

is

also evidence of the burial of

infants in jars.

The introduction

of metal in the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000B.C.) brought about a cultural revolution, marked by a decline painted pottery, offset by the development of sculpture and metallurgy. Egyptian influence now presents itself, as attested especially at A'\ in the central highlands and at Byblos on the coast of Syria. Greater protection against marauders is also characteristic of this period; at Ai, the settlement is girded by a triple wall, and at Megiddo by a massive bulwark. It was in this age that the Semites first entered the land.

2100

in

Keoath,

Qtnu

With the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2100-1500 B.C.) the era of recorded history is entered. The dominant element of the population was now the Semitic Amorites (q.v.), who penetrated from the northeast and whose culture is represented especially by the discoveries at Mari (Tell e! Hariri ), on the upper Euphrates. These, however, were not the only invaders. The Egyptian Sesostris III descended upon the land c. ISSO B.C., capturing a city named S-k-m-m, identified by some scholars as Shechem; and a century later, Canaan was overrun by the Hyksos (q.v.), or "foreign princes," a mixed horde of Asiatics and others who appear to have swept down from the north and who succeeded also in dominating Egypt. Their settlements are distinguished by great rectangular enclosures surrounded by earthen ramparts evidently designed to fence in the horses, which these invaders introduced into the country. The Hyksos appear to have established a more or less feudal

—

form of

society.

Moreover,

in the

wake

of the

Aryan advance

the southern Caucasus, a people called the Hurrians

into

(q.v.; the

Horites of the Old Testament) now migrated southward into Syria and Palestine. Indeed, by the close of this period they had become so prominent an element of the population that the land now came to be designated by the Egyptians "the land of the Hurrians"

(Huru). The Late Bronze Age

(c.

1500-1200

B.C.)

is

one of Egyptian

In the 15th century B.C., Thutmose III invaded Canaan and captured, among others, the cities of Joppa, Lydda, Gezer, Taanach and Megiddo. pushing northward as far as Aleppo. In the north, however, he came into contact with the powerful

domination.

(q.v.) of Asia Minor and found his further progress impeded. In the following century, the Hittites took the initiative and marched southward as far as Byblos. Canaan now became something of a shuttlecock between the two empires, and its woes were further increased by constant incursions of marauders called Hapirue or Apiru. These people, a multi-ethnic group who for some reason possessed no full civil rights anywhere, are identified by many scholars with the original Hebrews, of whom the later Israelites were only one branch or confederation. The Amarna let-

Hittites

marauding expeditions. Ikhnaton 1379-62 B.C.), a king more preoccupied with religious reforms than with the preservation of his empire, Egypt increasingly lost its grip on Canaan. An attempt to regain this power was made later by Seti I, who conducted campaigns there, and, more intensively, by his imperialistic son, Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.). The Hittites, however, now offered formidable opposition. Ramses engaged them at Kadesh-on-theOrontes (128S B.C.), but the victory which the Egyptian records claim ror him appears to have been somewhat academic. Within a few years, a treaty was concluded between the two powers, the Dog river (north of Byblos and south of Ras Shamra), being determined as the boundary between them. Thenceforth, however, Egypt's dominance waned, and at the end of the Bronze Age the Hittites collapsed under the assault of enemies from the north. It was during the transition from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age roughly, about 1250 B.C. that the Israelites, a confederation of the Hebrews, entered Canaan, settling at first in the hill country and in the south. The land was now clear of Egyptian sovereignty, but the stronger cities were still in the hands of the native Canaanites (Judg. 1, 19, 21, 27-36). Archaeological investigation has shown that the scriptural account of the invasion represents a foreshortened version of events that had been ters contain several references to their

During the reign

—

of

(

—

LAND OF CANAAN BEFORE ISRAELITE CONQUEST taking place during the preceding two centuries and that Jericho, for instance, must have fallen to earlier Hapirue invaders, not to the Israelites under Joshua. Israel's invasion, says the Book of Judges, was opposed not only by the Canaanites but also by Moabites. Midianites and Ammonites from the east. In the following century, Canaan suffered further invasion at the hands of the Philistines (q.v. ), who appear to have come from Crete, in alliance with other "sea peoples." Although they were headed oft' from Egypt by the vigorous measures taken against them by Ramses III, some of them managed nonetheless to gain a foothold on the southern coast of Canaan, where they eventually established a coalition of five city-states (Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron and Gerar), each ruled by a "tyrant" or headman. (It is from this people that the name Palestine is derived, though that name was later extended by the Romans to cover the entire country.) The Philistines were technologically in advance of the Is-

having already learned the use of iron (cf. Josh, xvii, 16; 19). For a time they endeavoured to maintain their superiority by denying to their rivals the services of blacksmiths (I Sam. xiii, 19 ff.). Eventually, however, when the increasing extension of their power gave real cause for alarm, the Israelites rallied against them until, under the leadership of David, the main power of the Philistines was effectively broken. At the same time, the native Canaanites too were vanquished, and Jerusalem was wrested from them. Thenceforth Canaan became, to all intents and purposes, the Land of Israel. To be sure, an attempt was made at Sidon, around 1000 B.C., to revive the ancient civilization and, since the Canaanites were extensive maritime traders, they established colonies in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia and other parts of the Mediterranean area, even voyaging so far as Spain. Most of raelites,

Judg.

i,

—

CANACHUS—CANADA

728

these colonies, however, collapsed within 200 years, and although

some of those

that survived proudly affected the ancient

name even

to late Roman times, Canaan in the old sense of the term had by then long ceased to exist. Culture and Religion. Canaan stood at the crossroads of several cultures, and throughout its recorded history it manifests in Figurines of its art and literature a mixture of many elements. its principal goddess appear now in Egyptian, now in Mycenaean and now in Cypriotic styles, and other deities are often portrayed alongside Egyptian symbols. Its pottery likewise shows the influence now of Egypt, now of Crete. Among the Ras Shamra texts is a Canaanite translation of a Hurrian myth, while elsewhere on Canaanite soil fragments of the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh epic have

down

—

come to light. Most of what

is known about Canaanite religion is derived from a series of tablets, in alphabetical cuneiform script, discovered after 1929 at Ras Shamra, site of ancient Ugarit, on the north coast of Syria. The tablets themselves were inscribed in the 14th century b.c, but their contents, being traditional, are doubtless far

The principal god was El. but the effective disposition of Other imrainfall and fertility was delegated to Baal, or Hadad. portant gods were Resheph, lord of plague and the nether world, and Kothar, the divine craftsman. Goddesses included Asherah, consort of El, Astarte and the virgin Anat. older.

The

principal

rain, against

myth

Yamm,

relates the

combat of Baal, as genius of Mot, the power

lord of the sea and rivers, and

of death and sterility.

It is basically an allegory of the seasons. Another myth describes how a mortal youth named Aqhat came by chance into possession of a bow belonging to the goddess Anat. Refusing to surrender it, he was put to death. His death was avenged, however, by his sister, who slew the goddess' hired assassin. Aqhat was apparently resuscitated. This story has been explained as a Canaanite version of the classical myth of Orion. A third myth relates the adventures and misadventures of a king named K-r-t in search of a bride and offspring. The Canaanite myths throw light on several passages of Old Testament poetry,

previously obscure. They make mention, for instance, of the dragon Leviathan. Similarly, figures of griffins flanking representations of Canaanite sacred chests at last clarify the identity of the

cherubim who similarly protected the

Angel Language and

nant {see

Israelitic

Ark of the Cove-

).

—

Script. The language of the Canaanites may be described most conveniently as an archaic form of Hebrew, standing in much the same relationship to that of the Old Testament as does the language of Chaucer to modern English.

The Canaanites are the first people, so far as is known, to have used an alphabet. A form of script recognized by most scholars as the parent of the Phoenician, and thence of the Greek and Latin alphabets, has been found in Late Bronze Age levels at Lachish. Beth-shemesh and elsewhere, while at Ras Shamra a curious cuneiform alphabet was in use. Furthermore, a peculiar form of writing, probably syllabic but as yet undeciphered. occurs on inscriptions Side by of the Late Bronze Age from Byblos (see Alphabet"). side with these innovations, however, the traditional syllabic cuneiform of Mesopotamia was regularly employed. tine Prehistory and History ; Phoenicla.

See also Pales-

:

—

BiBLiOGRAPnY. \V. F. .Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine (1949) and Archaeology and the Religion of Israel (1942); \. T. Olmstead, History of Palestine and Svria, to the Macedonian Conquest (1931) C. C. McCown, The Ladder of Progress in Palestine (1943); S. A. Cook, The Religion of Ancient Palestine in the Light of Archaeology (1930) T. H. Caster, "The Religion of the Canaanites," in Forgotten Religions, ed. by V. Perm (1950). The Canaanite mythological poems from Ras Shamra-Ugarit are translated by H. L. Ginsberg in the Pritchard volume and by T. H. Gaster in Thespis: Ritual, Myth and Drama in the Ancient Xear East, 2nd ed. (1960). Reports of archaeological work relating to Canaan appear regularly in the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. (T. H. G.) ;

;

CANACHUS,

a

Greek sculptor of the

latter part of the 6th century B.C.

city of Sicyon in the

He made two

great statues

of .•\pollo with a stag and a bow. one in bronze for the temple

Miletus and one in cedarwood for Thebes. represented on coins of Miletus.

at

The former

is

CANADA

is

the largest self-governing country in the

Com-

monwealth of Nations, although, with a population of 13,238.247 in 1961. it is by no means the most densely populated. With a total area, including land and fresh water, of 3,851,809 sq.mi., it is the largest country in the western hemisphere, being 6.5% larger than the United States (3.615.208 sq.mi.) and 17.2% larger than Brazil (3.286,470 sq.mi.). larger than

Canada

is

The only

national territory in the world

the U.S.S.R. (8,649,489 sq.mi.).

Table

I. fin

Provinces and territories

Area of Canada square miles)

CANADA

The Atlantic Colonies 3. The Quebec Conference and E. The Dominion of Canada

the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks contain coal, petroleum

natural gas, gypsum,

Toward

2.

Territorial

3.

Transcontinental Railroad The "National Policy" Second Riel Rebellion French-Canadian Nationalism Imperial Preference

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

open Pacific, and containing the lofty peaks of the Rocky mountains, the Columbia mountains, the Coast mountains and the to the

mountains of Vancouver Island. In the Mesozoic also, and perhaps somewhat

earlier, there was crustal unrest along the northeastern edge of the Canadian shield giving rise to the Innuitian ranges of the northern arctic islands.

In parts of western Canada, particularly in southern .Mberta,

some younger. Tertiary rocks, derived from the erosion of the early Rocky mountains, were laid down. They also have been eroded but some remnants of Tertiary gravel remain in the upper levels of the Cypress hills and in the Rocky mountain foothills. Thus the hard old mass of crystalline rocks, the Canadian shield, which gives shape and permanence to so much of North America, may

Support of the Empire Anti-American Feeling

11.

World War I Postwar Unrest External

10.

.Affairs

Economic Changes World War II and After 15. National Sovereisnty and Unity V. Population: Trends and Distribution 13.

14.

Geographic Distribution 2. Rural-Urban Distribution 3. Natural Increase, Immigration and Emigration VI. Administration and Social Conditions 1.

3. 4.

Taxation

2.

Working Conditions

Mining and Minerals

Fur Production Water Power Manufacturing B. Trade and Finance 1. Foreign Trade 2. Banking and Currency 5.

6.

7.

3. National Finance C. Transport and Communication I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—

Canada contains some of the oldest rocks in the world. They are found near the surface in an area of 1,600,000 sq.mi. surrounding the depression of Hudson bay, known as the Canadian shield. Belonging to the Pre-Cambrian, these rocks include granites, gneisses, schists, quartzites and many other crystalline rocks. These rocks contain many valuable mineral ores yielding gold, silver, platinum, copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, lead and zinc,

making Canada one of the greatest mining countries

in the

world.

Rock structures indicate that there were once great chains of mountains in the shield, but by the end of Pre-Cambrian time they had all been worn down to a relatively low level which w-as later invaded by the sea. Somewhat later the northeastern portion was tilted up so that, in northern Labrador and Baffin Island, it rises to more than S.OOO ft. above sea level. The weathered debris from this ancient land was deposited around it to form the stratified sandstones, limestones and shales comprising the Paleozoic system. In the central part of the conwhere they rest on the unyielding rock mass of the shield they have been deformed relatively little, but along the southeastern edge they have been pushed and folded to form the Ap-

tinent

till,

ft.

or water sorted gravels, sands,

Epoch.) 2. Surface Relief and Land

4. Fisheries

Geological Structure

as 10,000

of younger strata.

silts

and

clays.

The

both eastern and western Canada are to be found on the former floors of Lake Agassiz and other ancient lakes. (See Pleistocene

\TI. The Economy A. Production 1. Agriculture 2. Forestry

1.

Precambrian Time.)

coarser materials are often found associated with the courses of the ancient melt water rivers, while the finer materials settled out on the floors of glacial lakes. Many of the best agricultural areas in

2. Housing D. Health and Welfare 1. Health Services 2. Welfare Services E. Education F. Defense

3.

be buried by as

(See also

Canada was almost completely glaciated during the Pleistocene, thus the surface deposits are composed of either unsorted rock

B. Political Parties C. Living Conditions 1.

much

in places

debris, or

A. Government 1. Executive

Power Legislative Power Judicial Power

Under tremendous pressure,

thick rock formations were folded, faulted and upraised to form the Cordilleran region. 500 mi. wide from the Albertan foothills

Expansion

12.

the end of Mesozoic time there was crustal unrest along

the western margin of the continent.

the Canadian State

First Kiel Rebellion

and

potash and other useful minerals adding

salt,

greatly to Canada's natural wealth.

2.

1.

729

palachian mountains. To the west and southwest, later Mesozoic sediments were laid down upon large areas of the Paleozoic, Both

Roval Province 4. War With England 5. Years of Peace 6. British Conquest B. Canada as Quebec C. British North America 1. Protest and Rebellion 2. Union of Upper and Lower Canada D. Confederation 1. The Northwest 3.

—

Form Canada may be likened to an irregular basin, the lo\vest part of which is occupied by Hudson bay. .\lmost all around this central depression lie the hard old rocks of the Canadian shield, which locally may have a rough and rocky surface, but low and even, distant horizons. South and west of the Canadian shield lie vast plains underlain by horizontally bedded rocks. The lowlands along the St. Lawrence and lower Great Lakes, and the lowlands of southern Manitoba, have large areas of little relief, and for the most part are less than 1,000 ft. above sea level. The Great Plains of Saskatchew-an and Alberta are from 2,000 to 3,500 ft. above sea level. Vast areas have little or no relief, except that provided by the valleys of the Saskatchewan river system. Other areas such as the Cypress hills and Wood mountains have a considerably rougher surface. The greatest relief is to be found in the western rim of the Canadian basin where the young Cordilleran mountain systems have many peaks between 10.000 and 20,000 ft. above sea level. The eastern rim of Canada is also mountainous, although not so elevated as the west, for the ranges are older and more worn down. Nevertheless, some of the peaks in southeastern Quebec reach to about 4,000 ft., while the Torngats of Labrador are from 4,500 to 5,500 ft. high. The northeastern part of the rim is even higher, with peaks in the United States range of Ellesmere Island ranging up

to 9,600 3.

ft.

Lakes and Rivers.

— The surface of Canada

is

well

marked

with lakes and rivers. Besides the Great Lakes, of which Canada's share is nearly 34.000 sq.mi., there are ten others varying from 1,600 sq.mi. to 13,000 sq.mi. in area, the three largest being Great Bear fl2,27S sq.mi.). Great Slave (10,980 sq.mi.), and Winnipeg (9,465 sq.mi.). There are more than 110 lakes w'ith areas between 100 and 1,500 sq.mi. The total extent of surface water could not be realized until recent years when aerial photography revealed tens of thousands of lakes of all shapes and sizes. Accurate mapping of 11,388 sq.mi. on the Canadian shield disclosed no less than 10,500 small lakes. The lakes often contain many islands; thousands can be counted Small lakes in Georgian bay, Lake of the Woods and Island lake. are often rimmed with marsh and are slow-ly filling with peat to become bogs, or muskegs as they are known throughout northern

—

CANADA

730 Table

II.

Drainage Areas

CANADA which impinges almost continually on the coasts of British Columbia and Alaska, bringing heavy winter precipitation. Crossing the mountains, it brings cloudy weather and scattered precipitation to the interior plains. Sometimes a fourth air mass, originating over the deserts of southw'estern United States, may invade southern Canada in midsummer causing extended hot dry periods. On the basis of temperature and moisture conditions, and the length of the growing season, Canada may be divided into climatic cific

regions as

shown

is generally fairly close to the line of 50° F. average temperature for July. Low temperatures are compensated somewhat by long days. In the northern arctic the sun does not set for many weeks. On the other hand, the long, dark winters are bitterly cold. Perma-

permanently frozen subsoil, is almost universal. Much in. of precipitation per year, most moisture being received in the eastern section. {See Arctic, The Climate.) Subarctic climates lie south of the tree line but have less than five months in which the average temperature is more than 43° F. Winter cold is severe and in much of the area the subsoil remains permanently frozen. The western subarctic may get 10 to 12 in. of precipitation annually while the eastern area gets somewhat more, especially in the form of snow. Boreal climates have average July temperatures above 60°, and growing temperatures for more than five months. The western section, with a summer rainfall maximum, gets from 12 to 14 in. per year while in the east, with much heavier snowfall, the yearly total may be two or three times as much. This is the area of Canada's frost, or

of the arctic gets only S to 10

:

forests.

In the Atlantic climate, midwinter monthly temperatures average from 15° to 25° F. with about three months above 60° in the sum-

Total precipitation ranges from 40 to 55 in. per year, the maximum being in the colder half of the year. From eight to ten feet of snow may fall per winter in some parts of New Brunswick and Newfoundland. The Atlantic coast is noted for summer fogs. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence region has much the same winter

mer.

conditions as the Atlantic, but spring comes earlier and the sumThe July temperature is 70° at Montis longer and warmer.

mer real

and Toronto and somewhat higher

in the interlake peninsula of

southern Ontario. Precipitation is almost uniform from month to month, with the annual average ranging from 30 to 40 in. in different parts of the area. There is, how-ever, some chance of sum-

mer drought. The prairie climate has

a

moderate supply of moisture, normally per year, most of it falling as summer

ranging from 12 to 16 in. Midsummer temperatures average about 65° F.. while the

rain.

midwinter average at Winnipeg, Prince Albert and Edmonton is around 0° F. On the Pacific margin the winters are mild and wet. with temperatures seldom below freezing. Average summer temperatures seldom rise much above 60° F. Summer has less rain than winter with a tendency toward drought in the southern parts. Much of the area gets more than 80 in. of precipitation per year. The western mountains have an extremely complicated set of cUmatic conditions, depending upon elevation and exposure to rainbearing winds. High mountains, of course, have snow all the year round. On the other hand, summers are warm and dry in the valleys between the southern ranges. July temperatures may average 70° F. but the total rainfall may be only 10 in. per annum in the southern part of the Okanagan valley. Much of Canada is too cold to be a desirable human habitat, while only the southern portion of the country has sufiicient summer warmth and length of growing season to support a successful agriculture.

—

6. Vegetation. The pattern of vegetation is in very close acIn general cord with the wide variation in climatic conditions. there are three great plant associations: forest, grassland and tundra. Botanists, foresters and plant geographers, however, usually recognize 13 subdivisions, or vegetative regions.

Acadian.

white pine, hemlock, sugar maple, beech and yellow birch as well as many lesser species. St. Lawrence-Great Lakes. Covering a large part of southeast Canada, this area formerly had magnificent stands of white pine fir,

—

which gave

rise to

the early Canadian timber trade.

— Prince Edward

Island,

Nova

most of New white and black

Scotia and

Brunswick are characterized by forests of

red,

There were

also excellent stands of sugar maple, beech, yellow birch, hemlock,

red pine, white cedar, elm, ash and, in oak.

Much

some

areas, red

and white

of the lowland has been cleared for agriculture but

second growth forest

in fig. 1.

Arctic climates are found north of the tree line, which

pulpwood

731

spruce, balsam

is

found throughout the southern fringe of

the Canadian shield.

—

Deciduous. A small area in southwestern Ontario has deciduous forests resembling those of the adjoining United States. Sugar maple, beech, basswood. red and white oak and butternut hickory are characteristic. More rarely, also, such southern species as black walnut, tulip tree, Kentucky coffee tree, mulberry, sycamore and sassafras are found. Boreal. North of these areas, extending from Nev^foundland to Alaska, is a forest region in which coniferous needle-leaved trees are dominant. Among them are white and black spruce, balsam fir and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) There are large, poorly drained areas filled with a growth of sphagnum moss and other water-loving plants forming bogs, or muskegs. Mixed Woods. On the southern border of the Boreal region, stretching from Manitoba to British Columbia, the forest contains a large admixture of deciduous broad-leaved trees, mainly various species of aspen and birch. This belt is usually known as the mixed woods. Parkland or Aspen Grove. Between the mixed woods and the open prairie is a belt in which the grassland is interspersed with "bluffs," or small groves, of aspen and other deciduous trees. The Prairies. Stretching from the Red river (Red River of the North in Manitoba to the foothills of the Rocky mountains in Alberta is the northern portion of the interior grassland of North America, known to Canadians as "the Prairies." Botanists sometimes subdivide the Prairies into the tall grass, mixed grass and short grass belts, the distribution patterns being closely correlated with the amount and reliability of rainfall. Rocky Mountain or Subalpine Forest. On the slopes of the Rocky mountains, from 3,500 to 6,000 ft., there is a coniferous forest with such species as Engelmann's spruce, alpine fir and lodgepole pine. Higher subalpine elevations have scrub forests

hardwood

—

.

—

—

—

i

—

and alpine tundra. Columbia Forest. Influenced by a belt of higher rainfall in the Columbia mountains is a belt of forest containing Engelmann's spruce, western red cedar, western hemlock and Douglas fir.

—

—

Montane Forest. Found in the dry southern interior of British Columbia, the montane forest is characterized by ponderosa pine and is often interspersed with open grasslands. The heaviest forest growth in Canada Pacific Coast Forest. Vancouver is found on the w-est-facing slopes of the mainland Island and other Pacific islands. There, such coniferous species as western hemlock, western red cedar and Douglas fir grow to tremendous size. Subarctic Forest. Constituting the northern border of the Boreal region and effecting a transition to the tundra is a belt

—

—

forest, eventually giving stunted growths which have caused this belt to be

of

inferior

land of

coniferous

way to small known as "the

little sticks."

Tundra.

— More than one-third of Canada

is

composed of

treeless

and other low-growing Permafrost underlies most of the area, thawing to a depth of one to three feet each summer. Natural vegetation is an indicator of climate; The mild winters, warm summers and adequate moisture of the region near Lake Erie encourage the growth of many deciduous hardwood trees. The deep, cold waters of Lake Superior, on the other hand, give a boreal character to its shores. On the plains of the interior, the dominaIn southern Saskatchewan and ting factor is moisture supply. Alberta, where rainfall is 10 to 12 in. per year and summer evapora-

plains, covered with lichens, moss, sedges

plants.

tion

is

high,

the

grass prairies,

natural

vegetation

consists

of

short

grasses,

Northward, through the mixed grass and rainfall increases somewhat and ev'aporation

sage and cactus.

tall

.de-

CANADA

732

In the parkland and the border of the forest, precipitation is 15 to 16 in. but is relatively more effective because of lessened evaporation. Much of the northern forest belt has no greater In the mountains rainfall but its evaporation is stiU lower. zonation of vegetation is influenced by altitude. Valley bottoms creases.

often have deciduous trees, lower mountain slopes have good commercial stands of conifers; the cool upper slopes have a rather stunted growth and finally the tree line is defined by the high

Canada; the polar bear everywhere along the arctic coasts. The is found in the wooded districts of all the provinces, and on the plains there is the coyote. In British Columbia roams the puma or cougar, and generally distributed in wooded areas are the common fox and its variety, the silver fox, also the lynx, beaver, otter, marten, fisher, mink, skunk and other fur-bearlarge or timber wolf

edges of the tundra, which

—

soils of Canada may be considered in three great regional groups: tundra soils, pedocals or grassland soils, and the podsols and podsolic soils of the forested

area.

Tundra soils have not been investigated fully. They are underby permafrost and the shallow surface layer which thaws in summer is chiefly composed of organic matter and usually is poorly

in localities

Rockies.

drained.

mon

eastern podsols in the more humid environment of the Atlanprovinces are often intensively leached and somewhat infertile.

The

less

leached brown podsolic

soils are

found

in

the Appa-

lachian uplands of Quebec and on the southern fringe of the Canadian shield in Quebec and Ontario. Gray-brown podsolic soils

Great Lakes and St. Lawrence develand lacustrine materials, under a cover of mixed, These are the most fertile soils in eastern deciduous forest. Canada and helped to promote a vigorous and successful agricul-

in the lowlands of the lower

oped on

largely confined to the southern also inhabited

by

the arctic fox.

glacial

according to seasons or other circumstances.

In the

mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or Rocky mountain sheep and the Rocky mountain goat, while sheep of two or three other species also are found, from nearly pure white in the north to black in certain areas in the southern Canadian

lain

Somewhat

is is

Mountain, plain and arctic hares and rabbits are plentiful or scarce

winds and intense cold of the peaks. 7. Soils. Like the vegetation, the

tic

The wolverine

ing animals.

The birds of Canada are mostly migratory, and are those comto the northern and central states of the United States. Wild fowl are numerous, particularly in the west, their breeding grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies north to Hudson

bay and the arctic lowlands. The several kinds of geese, including the Canada goose, the arctic goose or wavey, the brant and others, all breed in the northern regions, but are found in great numbers throughout several provinces, passing north in the spring and south in the autumn. There are several species of grouse, including the ruffed grouse, ptarmigan and sharp-tailed grouse of the plains. In certain parts of Ontario the wild turkey formerly 19SOs game conservationists successfully transplanted them from the southern Atlantic coast of the United States; the quail, or bobwhite, stOl inhabits the southern part of

The northern podsol region comprises the southern half of the Canadian shield. Most of its parent materials are acidic and the debris from the boreal coniferous forest also tends to have an acid reaction. This region contains large areas of rocky soils

occurred, and in the

and much poorly drained land. Some agricultural settlement has taken place on the smooth terrain of the clay belt in western Quebec and northeastern Ontario. In the mixed woods region the soils are podsoHc but not so highly leached as the true podsols; they are known as gray-wooded soils. Three well-marked soil zones are recognized in the grasslands of western Canada. Brown soils are found under the short grass vegetation of the dry area in southwestern Saskatchewan and southEast, north and northwest of this dry belt is eastern Alberta.

The golden eagle, bald eagle, osprey and a large variety of hawks are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the horned owl and other owls. The raven is found only in the less populated Songbirds are districts, but the crow is common everywhere. plentiful, especially in the wooded regions, and include the American robin, oriole, thrushes, the catbird and various sparrows; while

ture.

a crescent of dark brown soils, more or less agreeing with the area of mixed grass vegetation. The dark brown soil zone is the most noted wheat producing area in Canada. Still outward, another concentric zone, the black soil area, has a tall grass cover because Deep, and rich of greater effectiveness of the moisture supply.

among the most fertile soils in Canada. grown there but mixed farming, with oats, barley and

in organic matter, these are

Wheat

is

livestock,

The

is

soils

increasingly important. of the

Cordilleras,

as in

any mountain

area,

are

complex, owing to the variety of slope, climate and vegetation. Some areas of grassland soils in the southern interior vaUeys of British Columbia have been turned into highly successful fruit farms under irrigation and there is some mixed farming on the

gray-wooded soils further north. While only a relatively small area of Canada has been subject to detailed soil surveys, enough reconnaissance work has been done to show that most of the good agricultural soils are already in use. 8.

Animal

—The

Life.

(D. F. Pu.) larger animals of

Canada

are the

musk

ox and the caribou of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the far north; the caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces except Prince Edward Island; the moose, with an equally wide range in the wooded country; the Virginia deer, in one or other of its varietal forms, common to all the southern parts; the black-tailed or mule deer and allied forms, on the western edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn on the plains; and small herds of the once plentiful bison in northern Alberta. The wapiti, or American elk. at one time abounded from Quebec to the Pacific, ranging as far north as the Peace river, but is now found only in small numbers from Manitoba westward. In the mountains of the west are the grizzly bear and the black bear. The black bear is also common to most other parts of

the province.

the introduced English sparrow has multiplied excessively and

become

Spreading rapidly are the Euroa nuisance in the towns. pean starling in the east and the Japanese starling in British Columbia. The smallest of the birds, the ruby-throated hummingbird, is found everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. Sea birds include a variety of gulls, terns, guillemots, cormorants and ducks, and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence the gannet is abundant. Nearly all the sea birds of Great Britain are found in Canadian waters or are represented by closely allied species. The Migratory Birds Convention act of 1923 involved an agreement between the United States and Canada for the protection of (E. M. W.; J. R. Dy.; J. L. R.) bird life. II.

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

such an extremely large area that it cannot be comprehended properly unless it is divided into significant parts. The political boundaries of the provinces and territories, however, tend to be rather arbitrary and artificial. In fact, some of

Canada

is

parallels of latitude and longitudinal meridians, which cut indiscriminately across both natural and human areas. The geographical pattern, on the other hand, is an integration of natural and human factors; hence it follows that in some cases

them are simply

boundaries may subdivide geographical units, while in other cases a political unit may contain two or more distinct geographical regions. Some regions of Canada show a high degree of uniformity or homogeneity, and the landscapes are recognizably similar throughout. In other cases visual similarities are not so strong, but the region may be distinguished by reason of the ties which bind the

political

peripheral parts te the central core area.

markably

distinct,

and

Some

regions are re-

their boundaries clear cut; in other cases

there exist broad transition zones.

One

of the strongest clues

to the existence of the geographical regions of

Canada may be

found in the pattern of population distribution. In the sparsely populated areas, however, regional differentiation must be based

upon physical

criteria.

Thus the physiographic map of Canada

(fig.

CANADA

733 The outstanding

Quebec.

of the region, however,

and sinuous coast of the area

from is

is

line.

feature

is its

long

No

part

more than 100 mi. This influence

salt water.

strongly reflected in the dis-

tribution of the

The

tion.

human popula-

largest cities. Halifax,

N,S„ Saint John, N,B„ and St. John's. Newfoundland, are noted seaports. Most of the other cities and towns also are. or have been, ports or fishing centres, and fishing

is still

an important enterprise.

On

the other hand, large areas of the interior uplands are practically uninhabited, 2. St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Lowland. The St. Lawrence

—

iy--.

watervvay provided the early European settlers with the best route to the interior and it is not surprising that the adjoining lowlands should have become the wealthiest and most populous part of the country, its economic and political core region.

Underlain

by nearly horizontal and

rela-

undisturbed limestones, shales and sandstones of Paleotively

is composed till and the and clays deposited

zoic age, its surface

of Pleistocene glacial

sands,

silts

during the high-level phases of the Great Lakes and the marine invasion of the St, Lawrence Jutting through the floor

plain.

of this plain, eight ancient volcanic plugs form the Monteregian FIG. 2.

— PHYSIOGRAPHIC

hills

REGIONS OF CANADA

2) gives only a first approximation of the geographic pattern. Such a large geomorphic unit as the Canadian shield must be di-

vided on the basis of climate, vegetation and human use; so, also, must the interior lowlands and the Cordilleran region. 1. Atlantic Region. The provinces of New Brunswick, Nova

—

Scotia,

known

Prince

Edward

Newfoundland are together The Atlantic region, for present

Island and

as the Atlantic provinces.

purposes, however, does not include .Labrador while, on the other it does include the Gaspesian area of Quebec. Physiographic relationship is strong throughout; the region is part of the northern extension of the Appalachian hilly region of eastern North America. The folded rock structures of its worn-down mountain ranges trend northeastward, paralleling the Atlantic coast. The summit elevations of the Shickshock moun-, tains of the Gaspe peninsula exceed 4,000 ft, while the Long range of Newfoundland and the central highland of New Brunswick have elevations of more than 2,600 ft, above sea level. Southeastern Quebec, New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island and Newfoundland all contain extensive, rolling, plateaulike surfaces above 1,000 ft. Important, also, are the crustal depressions such as the Bay of Fundy and the maritime geosyncline which contains the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the adjoining lowlands of Prince Edward Island, northern Nova Scotia and eastern New Brunswick. Prince Edward Island is nearly all farmland, and good farms are found in the .Annapolis valley and the St. John valley, but by far the greater part of the region is still forest covered and forest products are important in the regional economy. Coal mines are in operation in Cape Breton, northern Nova Scotia and central New Brunswick; base metals are found in northeastern New Brunswick, while most of the world's asbestos is obtained in southeastern

hand,

all

and provide

a

welcome con-

Although quite stony in some areas and poorly drained in others, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes lowland affords the largest stretch of arable land in eastern Canada. A closely settled area of about 70,000 sq.mi.. it provides about one-third of Canada's agricultural wealth. Mixed crop and livestock farming is the general rule with emphasis on dairying near the large cities, but there are also areas producing fruits, vegetables, tobacco, sugar beets and other special crops. The St. Lawrence-Great Lakes lowland contains over 60'^ of Canada's population. There are located the metropolitan cities of Montreal (2,110,000) and Toronto (1,825,000) as well as SO

smaller

trast

cities,

the population facturing, trade

in

relief.

{See also Population, below,) More than 70% of urban, depending for employment upon manuand service industries. Being attributable to the

is

and the development of its communieconomic activity may be expected to continue to increase under the long-term influence of the St, Lawrence seaway. 3. Prairie Region. Located in the southern parts of the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the prairie plains of Canada constitute a northern extension of the Great Plains of the United States. More than SOO mi. wide along the international boundary, the plains are, for the most part, underlain by relatively undisturbed Cretaceous and Early Tertiary shales and sandstones. Many of these formations contain valuable coal seams. Deeper still lie the Devonian limestones and sandstones with their reserves of petroleum and natural gas. The surface materials here, as in eastern Canada, are of glacial and lacustrine origin. In general, the plains may be said to rise toward the west in three great steps, the Manitoba lowland being less than 1,000 ft. above sea level, the Saskatchewan plain about 2,000 ft, and the Alberta plain more than 3,000 ft. While there are vast flat areas such strategic location of the area cations, this

—

CANADA

73+ as the

Red

river

and Regina

plains, there are also

elements of

considerable relief such as the Manitoba cuesta, the Missouri Coteau. Wood mountain and the CjTDress hills. On the west the plains

by the foothills of the Rocky mountains. Developed beneath the prairie grasses, the dark soils of this region have been the basis of Canada's most extensive agricultural development. Settled, for the most part, in the 20th century, this is the spring wheat region, where annually 25,000,000 ac. are sown and 300,000,000 to 700,000.000 bu. of wheat are harvested. Wheat farming dominates the central area but around it are found areas of mixed farming with other grains and livestock. Since 1947, the year of the Leduc discovery, the prairies have are terminated abruptly

—

5. Northern Cordilleran Region. Stretching northward from the 55th parallel, between the Alaska boundary and the Mackenzie lowland, lies the northern portion of the Cordilleran region, 350,000 sq.mi. of mountains and high plateaus. In northern British Columbia the pattern resembles that to the south, with the high range of the Rocky mountains on the east and the granite

Edmonton. Calgary. Regina and Saskatoon, at the census of 1961, had a combined population of more than 1,200,000 inhabitants and are becoming strong regional centres of commerce and manufactur-

peaks of the Coast range on the west, culminating in the St. Elias mountains on the Alaskan border; between lies the rugged upland of the Stikine plateau and the Cassiar mountains. The Rocky mountains die away in the Liard basin before the Yukon boundary is reached; north of it, the chief geomorphic units are the broad and deeply dissected Yukon plateau and the Mackenzie mountains. Much of this area is drained by tributaries of the Yukon river. Some of the valleys are well forested, especially toward the south, but most of the area is high enough to have little tree growth. The complex geology is, in some areas, very favourable to mining. The gold rush to the Klondike gravels was one of the most spectacular ever staged, but most modern mining camps are based on

ing.

shafts driven into rock lodes.

become

a land of

oil

Pipelines carry

as well as grain.

and east

to the Pacific

to Ontario.

it

west

Agricultural populations are

declining but prairie cities have begun to

grow rapidly; Winnipeg,

—

From the viewpoint of the 4. Southern Cordilleran Region. geomorphologist and the geologist, western Canada, from the eastern edge of the Rocky mountain foothills to the Pacific, is regarded From the as one of the major physical regions of the country. viewpoint of the cHmatologist, and even more importantly from the Cordilleran part the the southern of human geography, viewpoint of area is a geographic region containing one of the major clusters of the Canadian population.

For a distance of SOO mi. from east to west this is a land of mountains; high relief is characteristic and gives similarity to all landscapes. But there are many differences. On the east, the Rocky mountains form a high barrier range with many peaks over 10,000 ft. Mt. Robson, the highest, stands 12,972 ft. above sea level. The Rocky mountain trench is a striking, linear depression which separates the Rocky mountains from the Columbia mountains, a series of ranges with peaks of 6,000 to 10,000 ft. elevation, which occupy the southeastern corner of British Columbia. Between these ranges there are deep troughs containing the Kootenay and Arrow lakes which form part of the Columbia river drainage. Further west is the interior plateau which is drained in part by the Okanagan to the Columbia and partly by the Thompson and Fraser rivers. Northward from the lower Fraser valley, the Coast mountains form a high granite wall, reaching 13,260 ft. in Mt. Waddington. The coastal trench or downfold west of the Coast range is drowned and there are many fiords similar to those of Norway. Finally there is the outer mountain range, also largely submerged, which forms Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands.

The

great contrasts in

climate.

The lower western

relief

are

paralleled

The snow

from 7,500

it

declines gradually toward the north.

ft.,

line in the

in

south

being lower on the seaward slopes;

is

to 9,000

by contrasts

slopes of the mountains receive a great

deal of rain and are heavily forested.

The

interior of British

Columbia is relatively dry throughout, and in the Okanagan area, where some stations report less than ten inches of rain per year, Forests, sparse grass, sage and cactus comprise the vegetation. though not as luxurious as those of the coast, are found on the mountain slopes of the interior.

The focus

Among

these are the rich deposits

of lead and silver in the Mayo district. Mining in the Yukon, however, suffers from transportation difficulties. Notable among the geographic features of this region is the Alaska highway. The total population of the whole region is about 15,000.

—

Eastern Boreal Region. A vast forested area of 900.000 Canada may be designated as the eastern Boreal region. For the greater part it is underlain by rough, rocky terrain of the southern part of the Canadian shield with elevations of 1.500 ft. above sea level north of Lake Superior and in Algonquin park and of more than 3,000 ft. in Quebec and Labrador. It comprises also the lowlands underlain by Paleozoic rocks which border Hudson bay and James bay. Its vegetative cover is made up of the various associations which comprise the Taiga, or Boreal 6.

sq.mi. in eastern

forest region.

Scattered through the mass of Laurentian rocks which charactermost of the shield there are areas of Keewatin, Timiskaming and Huronian rocks, greenstone, schists and metamorphosed sedementaries, with which are associated various ore deposits. The mining camp, therefore, is to be regarded as one of the most ize

characteristic

human phenomena

of this region.

Among

these

may

be mentioned Sudbury, where, since 1900, most of the world's nickel has been obtained Porcupine and Kirkland Lake, both noted gold camps of northeastern Ontario; the Red Lake gold field of northwestern Ontario; and the gold and base metal mines of western Quebec and the Chibougamau area. Iron ore is found at Michipicoten and Steep Rock lake near Lake Superior, at Marmora in southeastern Ontario, and in the great Labrador trough shared by Quebec and Labrador. Noted uranium deposits are at Elliott Lake, north of Lake Huron, and Bancroft, north of Lake Ontario. Forest activity, however, is older and more widespread than mining. Earliest was the pursuit of fur bearing animals which lived in the forest, but the fur traders' post is no longer of great importance. Later, in the area accessible to the tributaries of the St. Lawrence, great quantities of pine timber were cut, and ;

vast quantities of saw logs.

Most widespread

in the

second half

certainly the southern

of the 20th century was the cutting of pulpwood, while a whole

end of the coastal trench and the lower Fraser valley. Here are the two largest cities, Victoria (151,000), the capital of British Columbia, and Vancouver (777,000), the metropolis of the Canadian west coast. Here, also is about one-third of the agriculture of British Columbia. The cities of the interior are much smaller. Trail, on the Columbia river, is a noted centre of smelting of lead and zinc. Vernon, Kelowna and Penticton. on Okanagan lake, are centres of irrigated fruit growing areas. Prince George (13,000), an important lumbering centre, is the largest city in the

towns and cities along the entire southern margin of the were engaged in making pulp and paper. There have been many attempts, also, to induce agriculture to invade the southern margin of the shield. Fairly successful colonies are found in a number of pocket areas such as the Lake St. John basin, Abitibi, Cochrane, Timiskaming and the Nipissing lowFarming, however, is clearly not favoured by either the lands. terrain or the climate of most of the eastern Boreal region. The rivers, lakes, hills and forests of this region combine in

northern part of this region. The southern Cordilleran, example of a nodal region, one small part of the area remainder firmly tied to it. about 1,500,000.

many

of the geographical region

is

an excellent total population in

or Pacific coast, region

with

75%

of

its

is

and the much more sparsely settled

The

total population of the region

is

series of

shield

attractive landscapes.

Many

areas such as Quetico Park,

Woods, Timagami, Algonquin park. Muskoka and the whole sweep of the Laurentians are well-known vacation resorts. Lake

of the

They are not so spectacular as the western mountains, but they lie much nearer the homes of those who seek recreational activity. 7. Western Boreal Region. Extending through the northern

—

j I

CANADA parts of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta,

and the Mackenzie

lowland of the Northwest Territories, the western Boreal region has an area of almost 800.000 sq.mi. About half of the area is underlain by the Pre-Cambrian rocks of the Canadian shield, and half by sedementaries similar to those of the Prairie region.

Along boundary are found a number of very large lakes: Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Reindeer and Winnipeg. Neither forest activity nor mining activity have shown as great development here as farther east. There have been some notable mining camps such as Flin Flon, Uranium City, Port Radium, Yellowknife, Lynn Lake and Moak Lake, and there are petroleum resources in the Peace, Athabasca and Mackenzie river areas. Norman Wells (pop. est. 600) on the Mackenzie supplies the northwest. While the Mackenzie is one of the notable river routes of the world, most of the region is inaccessible except by air, making transportation too expensive for most needs. The western Boreal region is one of economic difficulty and, consequently, low populathis geological

tion density. The total population is about 100.000 or about onetenth that of its eastern counterpart. Agriculture has invaded the southern margin of the forest in central Saskatchewan and the Peace river area but it faces great climatic hazards. 8. Arctic Regions. Although the arctic is supposed to be

—

bounded by the Arctic

circle, arctic

conditions indicated by the

tree line are encountered at least 500 mi. to the south along the

Hudson

way, including both mainland and islands, the area is more than 900.000 sq.mi. Most of the mainland is part of the Canadian shield, as are Baffin, Devon and some of the other islands. On EUesmere Island the high folded mountains of the Innuitian region have peaks up to 10.000 shores of

ft.,

Defined

bay.

in this

and there are large areas of snow

where the structures indicate continental shelf

Most

is

and icecap. In the north, on disturbed Paleozoic rocks, A wide

field

too, are areas of arctic coastal plain

possibilities of petroleum.

also present.

Eskimos live in the southern part of There are also a few thousand whites iocated in scattered Frobisher Bay, on Baffin Island, is an administrative centre and air base; Rankin inlet, on the northwest shore of Hudson bay, is the site of a nickel mine; promising iron ore deposits are found on the shore of Ungava bay; it is probable that of Canada's 11,500

this area.

stations.

other mineral resources in

development.

many

parts of the arctic region await

735

by Columbus in the West Indies, his term for them, "Indians," came into general use. Since Columbus had chosen this name in the belief that he was in the vicinity of India, a geographical error was thus perpetuated. In later years the same designation was given to the various tribes encountered by adventurers, French and English, as they penetrated westward across the continent. In the north, however, the hunters dwelling on the shores of the Arctic were so different both in appearance and culture that the term Indian was inapplicable, and Eskimo was used instead. Certain physical characteristics are common to all Canadian Indians. The colour of the skin is dark brown red is a misnomer and yellow an exaggeration; the black hair is smooth; the cheekbones are prominent; the face is broad in comparison with the breadth of the head; the nose is usually well developed, though not flattened; and the brow is somewhat low. But it must be emphasized that there is no absolute uniformity of type. On the coast of British Columbia the natives have relatively short stature, are of hea\y build, with round heads, broad faces and

—

a

certain

amount of facial hair. On the plains the stature is body more lithe and graceful, and facial hair is limited

greater, the

an occasional sparse mustache. The eastern type generally resembles that of the plains, although several tribes have longer heads, and a few prehistoric dolichocephalic (distinctively longheaded skulls have been found. The Indians of Canada are part of the Mongoloid branch of mankind. A homogeneous stock does not exist in North America and the physical differences suggest that the migrations from Asia came in waves, comprising various Mongoloid groups. Furthermore, environmental factors have probably produced considerable to

)

variation within America

—

Sheguindah

in

in Siberia {see

In the south because of ease of access, surface conditions and favourable climate, there are four reasonably well-populated regions, the ."Atlantic provinces, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes low-

of

briefly.

and the southern Cordilleran region.

Mak-

ing up one-fifth the area, they contain 90% of the people, the agriculture, the industry and the wealth. While all four regions it can be seen that there is an especially wide gap between east and west. Immediately north of the populated regions, and in fact serving to separate east from west, he the eastern and western Boreal regions and the northern Cordilleran region. From the standpoint of human geography they are fringe regions, with pioneer economies depending upon forestry and mining to a large extent, while the remnants of the fur trade still persist. Finally, north of the

are separated,

tree line lies the lonely land of the arctic tundra,

empty save

for a

few Eskimos, administrators, weathermen and defense personnel. This is the simple, basic pattern of Canadian regions. (D. F. Pu.)

1.

General.

NATIVE PEOPLES

—Anthropologically,

sites in

Culturally, artifacts

from

Alaska and the northwest are

Age culture of Lake Baikal Eskimo: Eskimo Archaeology). Even with the aid

related to the Eurasiatic Mesolithic

—

III.

Ontario, and elsewhere.

Cape Denbigh and other

9. Geographical Pattern. The pattern of population groups and geographical regions in Canada may be summarized rather

land, the Prairie region

itself.

The ancestors of the Indians and Eskimos came by the northwestern route across Bering strait. Even at the present time the passage occasionally freezes so solidly that it is possible to walk from Asia to America, while the Diomede Islands would have offered convenient steppingstones for sea voyagers. Homo sapiens undoubtedly developed in the old world, but he spread to the new at an early period during the last interglacial period. Archaeological remains have been found beneath glacial deposits in Alaska, at

as well as geographically.

Can-

ada is an integral part of the North American continent. The boundaries between Canada and the United States (including the boundary with Alaska) do not conform to ethnic divisions among the aborigines, nor is native culture significantly different on each side of the borders.

The early European explorers found the seacoast of Canada inhabited by people with brown complexions and lank hair. When it later became apparent that they were similar to the natives met

of carbon 14,

man

it is

impossible to put an accurate date on the coming world. It was probably between 15,000 and

new

to the

20.000 years ago.

The Eskimos

(q.v.),

who

inhabit the shores of the Arctic from

northwest Siberia to Greenland, are somewhat different from the Indians. Their hair is equally straight but the skin colour lacks the warm brown of their southern neighbours. The large, long head is high, somewhat keel-shaped in general form the nose is narrow and inconspicuous, which, combined with prominent cheekbones and unusually broad face, gives a frontal appearance of flatness; the eyes are black with the epicanthic fold at the inner eye frequent; the hands and feet are even smaller than those of the Indians, and the stature usually less. It is clear, however, that the Eskimos, like the Indians, are part of the general Mongoloid stock, of which they may be regarded as a highly specialized offshoot. After spreading across the northern Canadian mainland and the coasts of the southern arctic islands, they probably reached Greenland over 2,000 years ago. 2. Culture. Diversity characterizes the culture of the Indians of Canada. Some of this is due to differences in the background of different groups migrating from Asia at different periods. Furthermore, all immigrants to Canada had to move through a corner of Siberia and across Bering strait; this inevitably led to the loss of all culture elements which could not be practised under ;

—

arctic

conditions.

These included, of course, horticulture, the

domestication of animals except the dog, and the working of metals. In the new world man began life afresh with unly a few heritages from the old. These were the polishing of stone implements, probably the domestication of the dog, the use of the spear thrower, certain religious beliefs and traditions, and language. Isolation

CANADA

736 for centuries, geographical diversity lation in the

new world

acteristic of aboriginal

and the sparseness of popu-

facilitated the cultural diversity so char-

Canada.

In the obtaining of food, for example, the Iroquois of southern Ontario were primarily farmers, the Indians of the northwest coast were fishermen, and those of the Prairies and the arctic were hunters. Villages varied from the relatively permanent settlements of the Iroquois and of coastal British Columbia to the mobile family units of northern Ontario and Quebec. So, likewise, in chieftainship there were all degrees from the aristocratic stratified government of the Haida of the northwest coast, or the matrilineal structure of the Iroquois, to the rugged individualism of the northern Athapaskans of the Northwest Territories. In religion, in warlike pursuits, in language, in social practices, in housing

and in clothing, the tale was the same; that of diversity resulting from varied geographical surroundings as well as from the accidents of history. Only in deficiencies was there uniformity; nowhere in Canada was there use of the wheel, of iron, or of any system of writing.

Regional Distribution.

3.

—The culture of

tribes living within

regions of geographical and ecological similarity tended to con-

form

On

to a type, irrespective of linguistic or physical classifications.

this basis the following areas

—About

can be distinguished:

11,500 Eskimos inhabit the coast of the Before the period of arctic mainland and the adjacent islands. European contact, and even in later times, they depended largely on seals for food, clothing and (from seal oil and blubber) warmth Arctic Region.

Caribou, when available, are killed for meat and skins, birds and white whales are supplementary foods in Before the acquisition of iron from white traders, their tools were made of stone, bone and ivory, and were characterized by great skill and ingenuity. The dog is used for drawing the sledges and for locating the breathing holes of seals, at which the animals are speared. The skin clothing is well tailored and admirably adapted to the extreme cold; equal ingenuity is shown in the manufacture

and

light.

while

fish,

the diet of these almost entirely carnivorous hunters.

of two types of skin boat (the kayak and the umiak) and the circular winter house of

snow blocks, the

igloo.

Eskimo political organization is limited to the simple band, comprising a number of related families. Such a group wanders over a vaguely defined area, returning year after year to the same camping grounds following the movements of game. The leader is the most skilful hunter, but he is entirely without authority, and hereditary chiefs with executive or judicial power are unknown. Shamans have much influence, especially with regard to the enforcement of multitudinous hunting taboos, but there are few communal religious rites. The coming of the white man began to alter the Eskimo way of life in the 19th century, and the process of adjustment became more and more accelerated with mining developments and the building of the Distant Early Warning (DEW) line after World War II. The trapping of white foxes for their fur has grown into a major industry, and the Eskimo has become increasingly dependent upon the white man's economy. The Eskimo developed a unique style of stone and ivory carving. Most Eskimos have adopted some form of Christianity. The North-Eastern Woodlands. At the time of European conNewfoundland, the maritime provinces and the wooded areas of northern Quebec and Ontario were sparsely inhabited by loosely organized hunting tribes. With the exception of the Beothuk of Newfoundland, who were exterminated before the close of the 19th century, languages of the Algonkian stock were spoken throughout this whole area. The Micmac occupied Nova Scotia, northern New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island; the Malecite and Abnaki lived in the river valleys of southern New Brunswick and southern Quebec; the Montagnais and Naskapi ranged over Labrador and Quebec north of the St. Lawrence: while northern Ontario and adjacent parts of Manitoba was the home of the Cree and the Ojibwa.

—

tact

In every respect these Algonkian-speaking Indians are part of Skilled hunters of moose, caribou, bear, rabbit and beaver, they also utilize a wide range of wild plants, not only for food, but for medicines and dyes as weU as for utOitarian their environment.

Birch bark was used for canoes and wigwams basswood animal skins for clothing; and strips of woven rabbit fur for blankets. In former times there were seasonal movements in the never ending quest for meat, fish and berries. Political structure was weak, bands were loosely organized, and religion centred in the personal quest for power through vision purposes.

;

fibre for cordage;

experience.

By the 20th century much of the old life had disappeared, though its influence in religious behefs and in the dependence on local ecology continued to be important. Most of the Indians lived in their old home areas; guns and metal tools entirely replaced implements of stone, and employment as guides, loggers and commercial trappers became the basis of hfe instead of sulDsistence economy. Southern Ontario. Very different from the hunters of the northern forests were the Indians of the north shore of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Though equipped only with stone tools, they cleared large fields in which they planted corn, beans, pumpkins and tobacco. Deer, fish, berries and nuts were hunted and collected, but as farmers they lived in relatively permanent villages of 1,000 or more inhabitants. Their houses were huge communal dwellings of saplings covered with bark, occupied by many families; pottery was made on a large scale and bone was utilized extensively. In fact, life was on a plane of comfort and security

—

unknown further north. The tribes of southern Ontario were

the Huron, Tionontati (Petun) and Attiwandaronk, or Neutrals, all speaking languages the Iroquois of stock. In the 1640s they were destroyed in war or incorporated by the Five Nations of the Iroquois from New York state; a century and a half later, after the American Revolution, many of the latter came to Ontario as royalist allies of the crown. Political organization was highly developed among all the Iroquois tribes, with chieftainship passing through the female line, and a complex system of religious rituals and an intertribal association, the League of the Iroquois. By the 19th century the military and political importance of the Iroquois had passed away, although memories of the past are proudly retained by those who have become essentially participants in the agricultural life of southern

Ontario,

—

Plains Area. The prairies of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta were inhabited by tribes having a general cultural uniformity, although speaking languages of three distinct stocks, Athapaskan, Siouan and Algonkian, The centre of life was the bison. The flesh was eaten in quantities, either fresh, or dried and pounded as pemmican; the skins provided clothing and covering for the movable tent, the tipi, or tepee; the bones were used for arrow points and scrapers; and the dung served as fuel. The dressing of bison, elk and deer skins reached a high development, and rawhide receptacles were used for storage vessels, basketry and pottery being unknown. Martial achievement, in accordance with a strict code of behaviour, gave prestige, but not necessarily authority. The basis of all types of success, including war prowess, was attributed The to the aid of a guardian spirit, acquired at adolescence. coDection of certain symbolic objects was sometimes recommended in a dream or vision, and these, carefully preserved, often for generations, served as tangible articles of religious veneration. Socioreligious rites are extremely important on the plains, the scattered divisions of a tribe assembling annually for the performance of elaborate symbolic celebrations, of which the sun dance is the best known. An important place in all such rituals was played by the members of semisecret societies of men. Most of the Plains Indians now reside on reservations, and their life is patterned on that of the white settlers. The Northwest. This term may be used for the huge area oc-

—

It comtwo sections.: (1) the Mackenzie and Yukon valleys and the scrubby forest west of Hudson bay: the home of the Hares, the Dogribs. the Kutchin, the Caribou-Eaters, the Yellowknives sothe Slaves, the Chipewyan called because of their copper tools and the Beaver; and (2) the upland plateau of British Columbia, west of the Rocky mountains, inhabited by the Nahane, the Sekani,

cupied by the Dene, or Athapaskan-speaking peoples. prises

—

—

CANADA the Carrier and the Tsilkotin (Chilcotin).

Athapaskan languages

extend even beyond this range. Political organization comprises only the simple band, a loosely knit patrilineal unit without definite leadership,

The

and few regulations.

staple food supply of this area

737

and the modern Indian operated

can; Indians,

Northwest Coast; Plains IV.

in the north, the

—

—

In contrast to linguistic diversity, there was relative cultural The chief food was salmon, which was smoked for storage; deep-sea fishing was practised by several tribes. Berries uniformity.

and shellfish were collected, deer and mountain goats were hunted, and the Nootka formerly captured w'hales at sea. These abundant sources of food supported a relatively dense population, living in permanent villages. The even-grained cedar was split into planks with which large, communal, rectangular houses were built; smaller boards were steamed and bent into serviceable watertight boxes; and large dugout canoes were hollowed from the trunks. Upright house posts were carved with elaborate designs of ancestral crests, from which developed the totem poles of the 19th century. Pottery was unknown, but baskets and mats of bark and roots were manufactured. Clothing was either made of skins or bark, or woven from mountain goat or dog hair. Nephrite, a jade stone, was extensively used and a little copper was pounded out from rich deposits in the north.

was marked by the importance of heredi-

tary rank, with a stratified class society extending from aristocratic chiefs to slaves. In contrast to the principle of hereditary rank was that of the potlatch, whereby prestige was obtained by a lavish bestowal of goods to validate the assumption of prerogatives. The strongly organized northern tribes were matrilineal, the southern were patrilineal. Secret societies, employing masks and ingenious mechanical devices, complicated social life in the winter. There was a firm belief in supernatural beings, whom the Bella Coola organized into a pantheon dominated by a supreme deity. By the middle of the 20th century, most of the old way of life had disappeared. Motor boats and power tools had replaced stone tools. The potlatch and native beliefs had largely passed away,

Indians. (T. F. McI.)

is

roving hunting bands depend on the caribou. The toboggan simplifies transportation in winter, the canoe in summer. Material culture is scanty; baskets are plaited of spruce roots; clothing was formerly of skins; and one of the few distinctive traits of culture is the double lean-to. Though few white men have penetrated into these regions, metal tools and the fur-trading economy have modified much of the native life, although the aboriginal languages have been retained. Interior Area of Southern British Columbia. The wooded valleys of southern British Columbia were inhabited by the Kutenai and the Salish-speaking Ntlakyapamuk (Thompson), Shuswap and Lillooet. The rivers flowing westward were filled with salmon, which the natives caught in large numbers and smoked or pulverized for winter use. Deer and mountain goats were hunted and berries collected. Clothing was of deerskin, while blankets were made of rabbitskin. Pottery was lacking, but wood was used more extensively than on the plains and excellent basketry was produced, including watertight vessels. Rush-covered lean-tos served for shelter, replaced in winter by permanent semisubterranean houses. Semihereditary leaders exercised considerable influence over local groups, but they lacked prestige based on martial prowess, as on the plains, or the respect dependent upon wealth as among Ceremonial rites were also weakly developed, the coast groups. although puberty ceremonies were performed, and the Kutenai held an elaborate ritual before departing to the plains on their annual bison hunt. In addition to guardian spirits, there w'as a belief, among the Kutenai at least, in the sun as a vague sky being of great power. The culture of this area is, in many respects, intermediate between that of the plains and the Pacific littoral. Coastal Area of British Columbia. This region had the most specialized and distinctive Indian culture in Canada. The northern part is occupied by the Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands, the Tsimshian of the Skeena river, and the Tlingit of Alaska; the central, by the Kw-akiutl of Vancouver Island and the Bella Coola; and the southern, by the Nootka and the Coast Salish, with many tribes of northern Washington.

fishing vessel or

member

the caribou; deer, rabbits, wild fowl, fish and berries are eaten when obtainable, but, especially

Political organization

own

was a of a trade union in the fishing or logging industries. See also Algonkian Tribes; Eskimo; Indian, North Amerihis

HISTORY

About the year a.d. 1000 a Norse voyager, Leif Ericsson, on way to Greenland, is said to have sighted land which may well have been some part of the east coast of Canada. The Norsemen had spread over the North Atlantic islands by a northern sailing route, and they apparently made some attempts to settle in America but they failed uee Eric the Red). There were still traces of the Norsemen in Greenland when the English explorer John Davis visited that island in the 1580s. But English and French seamen had followed the old northern route to Iceland and Greenland long before. In the 1490s an Italian navigator, John Cabot, led seamen of Bristol to a landfall somewhere on the Canadian coast, which he visited in 1497 and 1498, if not earlier. He also discovered the fishing banks off Newfoundland, and from 1500 on English, French, Portuguese and Spanish fishermen sailed every spring to the great cod fishery there. his

A.

New France

The shores of what are now Newfoundland were explored

the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia and in the 1520s. Then in 1534 the French seaman Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and took possession of "New France" for King Francis I. In succeeding years he ascended the St. Lawrence as far as the Lachine rapids, to where Montreal now stands, and attempted with the sieur de Roberval to found a colony near what is now Quebec. The colony failed, but out of these explorations and the fisheries the fur trade with Indians of the gulf and the river began. By 1600 it was well established and, because the Indians desired European goods, particularly metal knives and hatchets, already extended inland at least as far as the Great Lakes. Monopolies of the fur trade were granted to a succession of traders on condition that they begin colonization, but they either evaded the condition or failed to carry

it

out.

At the beginning of the 17th century appears the first great in Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (q.v.) was employed in the interests of successive fur-trading monopolies and sailed up the St. Lawrence in 1603. In the next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share in founding the first permanent French colony in North America that of Port Royal, now .Annapolis Royal, N.S. In 160S he began the settlement which was named Quebec, selecting a commanding site which controlled the narrowing of the St. Lawrence river estuary. From 1608 to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to develop Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore the interior. He passed southward from the St. Lawrence to the beautiful lake which still bears his name and also westward, up the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching the shores of China, He reached Lake Huron and Lake Ontario, but not the Great Lakes that stretched still farther west. At his death, the fort at Quebec had only 85 adult residents. 1. The Company of One Hundred Associates. This failure to build up the colony had led Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister of France, to found in 162 7 the Company of New France, popularly known as the Company of One Hundred Associates. It was granted the colony of New France, then comprising the whole St. Lawrence valley, and for 15 years from 1629 it was to have complete monopoly of the fur trade. In return it was to take to New France 200 to 300 settlers a year. But war with England began, the company's first fleet was captured, and in 1629 Quebec itself surrendered to the English. It was restored by the treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632, but the Company of New France never recovered from the blow, although it controlled New France until 1663. Colonization was slow for many years. The fur trade remained the chief concern of everyone except the missionaries. Jesuit fathers had begun missionary work in Acadia in 1611, and Recollect friars (Franciscans)

name

—

—

CANADA

738 at

Quebec

in 161S.

The main

effort

was made

missionaries advanced to the country of the

in 1625 when Jesuit Huron Indians settled

There the fathers returned in 1634 and built up their principal mission in the hope of establishing a Christian Indian community. 2. Iroquois Wars. Their hope was destroyed by the beginning of the Iroquois wars of New France in 1640. Cartier had found Iroquois Indians at Quebec in 1535. The Algonkin (or Algonquin) tribes had driven them back into New York by 1600, where Champlain, with the Algonkin as allies, had warred on them. After the founding of New Netherland by the Dutch in 1609, the Iroquois began to obtain knives and hatchets and in 1640 they got some firearms from Dutch traders. They began to raid the Algonkin and Huron trading parties, and soon they were attacking the French on Georgian bay.

—

of these Indians. Finally they resolved to destroy the Huron confederacy which they did in 1648-50. Fathers Jean de Brebeuf and Gabriel Lalemant, now canonized, were tortured to death with many of their Huron people {see also Huron; Brebeuf, Saint Jean de) The destruction of "Huronia" drove all the interior Indians friendly to the French west of Lake Michigan. The missionaries and the traders followed them, and there was a second great outallies

.

Two fur traders, Medard Chouart des burst of exploration. Groseilliers and Pierre Radisson, pushed into the region of Lake Superior in the late 1650s and brought down furs from that new territory. Soon French missionaries and traders were to be found throughout the country which is now Wisconsin. Radisson and Groseilliers were able to get their furs down to Montreal in 1660 only because of a heroic battle fought against the Iroquois by Adam Dollard and 16 companions at the Long Sault rapids (now covered by Lake St. Lawrence) in that year. So desperate was the plight of the colony of New France that an appeal was made to the French king for help. The Hundred Associates had failed to bring out colonists. So had most of the men, called seigniors or seigneurs, to

whom

the

company had made large them with tenants.

of land on condition that they settle

grants

New

France had only about 2,300 European inhabitants in 1660. 3. Royal Province. The king responded to the colony's appeal by canceling the charter of the Hundred Associates and making New France a royal province with a governor, the ceremonial and military head of the colony, an intendant in charge of justice, finance, police, and the organization of the militia, a bishop and a superior council, which was a court of appeal. The. first bishop was Francois de Montmorency-Laval (q.v.), who arrived at Quebec in 1659. New France was then still a mission, but as population increased, parishes were formed and parish To the Society of Jesus and the priests put in charge of them. Franciscans the Ursuline nuns and the Sulpician fathers had been added. The church not only performed its ordinary duties, but provided the hospitals and schools of the colony as well.

—

In addition to creating a royal colony the king sent a military Prouville, the marquis de Tracy,

commander, Alexandre de regiment of soldiers

them

to

make

who

in

and a

1666 defeated the Iroquois and forced

peace.

was then possible to proceed to populate and develop New Over 3,000 settlers, including girls of marriageable age, were sent out in the 1660s. Few followed thereafter, but by natural It

France.

increase the population began to

The

mount

rapidly.

intendant, Jean Baptiste Talon (1665-68 and 1670-72), stimulated colonization and industry. He also pressed the explorfirst

Louis JoUiet explored the Mississippi until he was sure it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, not into the Pacific ocean. In 1671 Simon Fran(;ois d'Aumont, or Daumont, sieur de St. Lusson, at Sault Ste. Marie took possession of all the interior of the North American continent for France as an extension of New France. Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac et Palluau, became governor There is little agreement on what kind of governor in 1672. Frontenac was. But it does seem to be agreed that he used his office to enrich himself, and perhaps that he pursued policies which would help do so. New France was full of young men anxious to follow the profitable fur trade rather than to clear the land for ation of the far west.

Frontenac encouraged many of these coureurs de bois ("wood rangers"), as they were called, to follow leaders like Daniel Greysolon, sieur Dulhut (or Duluth), and Rene Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, into the far west to explore and trade. The refarming.

was a tremendous expansion of the French fur trade and Salle's discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682. Frontenac's poUcy of encouraging the fur trade led to a struggle with the Jesuits and Bishop Laval, who sought to protect the Indians from the ravages of brandy used in the fur trade. The missionaries were only partly successful in stopping the trade in brandy, but they did succeed in having Frontenac recalled in 1682. The expansion of the fur trade under Frontenac and La Salle, however, had aroused the jealousy of the Iroquois and led them to attack the Illinois Indians, who were friends of the French. Both missionaries and traders demanded that Joseph Antoine Lefebvre de la Barre, the new governor, attack the Iroquois. He did, but failed badly. He in turn was recalled and his successor, the marquis de Denonville, had to resume the attempt to curb the Iroquois. This he did with a measure of success in 1686. sult

La

4.

War With England.—Not

lish colonists

only the Iroquois but also Eng-

and traders were menacing

New

France by that time. New Netherland from the Dutch, New York traders had supported the Iroquois. New England coveted Acadia (Nova Scotia) and its fisheries, which the English had captured in 1613 and again in 1654, only to restore it to New France in 1667. And in Hudson bay territory the Hudson's Bay company, founded in 1670 at the suggestion of Groseilliers and Radisson who had deserted New France, was drawing furs away from French traders. Now those traders and their governor thought the time had come to strike back. In 1686-87 they captured the Hudson's Bay company posts in James bay and held them. Before this matter could be settled, war had broken out in Europe between England and France, and in New France the Iroquois had attacked the colony with even more than their old ferocity, massacring the people of the village of Lachine on Montreal Island in 1689. The prospect of war had led to the reappointment of Frontenac. A New England fleet and army under Sir William Phips seized Acadia but Frontenac defied Phips's attempt to take Quebec in 1690. Then he began a series of border raids on New England, and Since 1664,

when

the English took the colony of

marched into the Iroquois country. Meanwhile the brilliant young Canadian. Pierre le Moyne, sieur d'Iberville. had conquered Hudson bay, saved Acadia and overrun Newfoundland. The war was ended by the treaty of Ryswick (1697) with New France holding Hudson bay (but not Newfoundland) as well as all its former possessions. This was the work of Canadians, with little help from France. D'Iberville then set off to found Louisiana, finally

New France, in 1699. And in 1700 and 1701 peace was made between the Iroquois and New France, and between the Iroquois and the Indian allies of New France. There were to be no more Iroquois wars, and New France stood at the height of its another part of

fortunes. Its decline began almost at once. The English and their American colonists were to conquer all New France, but it was done in two stages. The first ended in 1713 with the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1710 Acadia had been seized again by the British, but in the next year an English expedition under Sir

Hovenden Walker suffered serious losses in the St. Lawrence river and returned home. Most of the fighting was done in Europe, however, and the English victories there enabled them, by the treaty of Utrecht that concluded the war, to recover

Hudson

bay,

French rights in Newfoundland, force the cession of Acadia (without Cape Breton Island) and to get a foothold in the western

limit

fur trade.

—

5. Years of Peace. These were serious losses, but 30 years of peace followed, which the French used to build the great fortress of Louisburg on Cape Breton and to add to their empire of New France in the mid-continent. This last was the work of Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de la Verendrye, who obtained a licence to engage in the fur trade beyond Lake Superior on condition that he seek a route to the Western sea. In 1730 he began his advance, and by 1738 reached

CANADA the Missouri

by way of the Red

river.

He

and

his sons then turned

their attention to the fur trade of the Saslcatchewan river until

was revoked in 1744. They did not find the Western even the Rocky mountains, but they did take many furs Hudson's Bay company. from the In these 30 years of peace New France flourished. Its population grew until in 1739 there were 42,000 people and in 1754 there were 55.000. Farming prospered and flour and wheat were exported to the West Indies. Lumbering, shipbuilding and even ironmaking were developed. Quebec and Montreal became flourishing towns, and schools, hospitals and convents increased in number. The seigniorial system of land grants had been reformed in 1711 to compel seigniors to settle their lands and to make tenants, or habitans, clear theirs. There were settlements with white houses and stone churches with tall spires along the St. Lawrence from below Quebec to Montreal Island and up the Richelieu river to Lake Champlain. 6. British Conquest. In 1740 the War of the Austrian Succession began, pitting England against France once again, and the New Englanders attacked and captured Louisburg on Cape Breton Island. There was little other fighting in North America and by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the war in Europe was ended in 1748 and Louisburg was recovered by New France. But both sides regarded the peace as a truce. their licence

sea, or

—

The

truce was

marked in North America by a Both English and French

struggle for control

traders needed the Virginian planters were planning to take up lands. The French laid claim to the Ohio valley in 1749 and in 1754 built Ft. Duquesne at the forks where the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers join to form the Ohio, and where Pittsburgh

of the Ohio valley.

friendship of the Indians.

now

stands.

The young Virginian officer, George Washington, was away but was defeated, and in the next Edward Braddock was defeated and similar attempt. That same year Ft. Beausejour in

sent to drive the French

year, 1755, the British general killed in a

Acadia was captured by British and New England forces and the Acadians, who had refused to swear allegiance to the British crown, were deported. In 1 756 the Seven Years' War in Europe began and the American phase of this conflict, the French and Indian War, was to settle the fate of New France. For two years the French troops and Canadian militia were victorious. Then the British and American strength, fed by British sea power, began to tell. In 175S Louisburg fell; in 1759 James Wolfe captured Quebec; in 1760 Montreal surrendered and with it all of New- France. See also French and Indian War. B.

When

Canada as Quebec

war was

finally

the other British colonies.

The New Englanders. however, went the Acadians' lands.

Since 1758

Nova

to

Nova

Scotia to take

up

own

as-

Scotia had had

its

sembly and was becoming a standard English colony.

Prince Island became a separate colony in 1769, but its lands were granted to absentee landlords who did little to settle them. Since the New Englanders did not go to Quebec, and when it became apparent Quebec would remain French, British policy changed. It was decided to give Quebec French civil law, which was established side by side with the English criminal law, to protect the position of the Roman Catholic Church and to allow Roman Catholics to hold public office; and to rest the government in a governor and council, without an elected assembly. All this was provided for by

Edward

Quebec act (q.v.) of 1774. That act, however, while it became something the French Cana-

the

dians valued, angered the Americans because

by the treaty of Versailles (1783). Scotia, Newfoundland and Canada (now without the Ohio valley or the lands which later became Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota) became what was known as British North America. To it came refugees from the United States, perhaps about 40,000 in number. These were the United Empire Loyalists, who had lost their lands and homes in the old colonies because they had opposed the revolution. They increased the population of Nova Scotia (q.v.), and added to the French population of Canada about 10,000 English-speaking people {see Ontario: States of America

By

that treaty

Nova

History).

Their coming helped bring about a reorganization of the remaining British colonies. Nova Scotia was divided and the province of New Brunswick created in 1784. Then in 1791 Canada was given representative government by the Constitutional act (see Constitutional Act, Canadian) which provided for an appointed legislative council and an elected legislative assembly. The governor had an executive council to assist him, and a revenue he controlled without vote by the assembly. The province was divided into the two provinces of Lower Canada (the future Quebec and Upper Canada (the future Ontario). Lower Canada was almost wholly French. Upper Canada, like New Brunswick, was almost wholly British. Provision was made for the endowI

ment

of "a Protestant clergy."

During the years from 1763, British fur traders from Montreal, aided by French-Canadian voyageurs (frontiersmen who followed the wilderness rivers and portages trading, trapping and transporting furs), were carrying the fur trade of Canada into the far northwest. Alexander Mackenzie reached the Arctic ocean in 1789 and the Pacific in 1793. Canada, as explored by the fur traders following its long rivers, reached from sea to sea. C. British

North America

The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars overshadowed British North .-Kmerica from 1792 to 1814, War created a demand for timber by which the colonies prospered. But out of the British blockade of France and similar war measures came a war between Great Britain and the United States, the War of 1812 (q.v.). That war seemed to Americans to offer a new opportunity to liberate Canada and add it to the United States. To Canadians it was a war of defense against invasion and. if possible, to recover

The war ended in stalemate. If the conquer Canada, the British failed to force an boundary of 1783. The treaty of Ghent, 1814, put things back as they were before. The real results of the war came later. By the Rush-Bagot convention of 1817 the naval armaments of Great Britain and the United States on the Great Lakes were ended. By the convention of 1818 the Canadian-United States boundary was extended from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky mountains, and the Oregon territory beyond the mountains was to be jointly occupied for ten years. The continent was peacefully partitioned. 1. Protest and Rebellion. Up to this time there had been little political life in the Canadas. or indeed in British North America. The communities were too small, and the long years of war tended Only in Lower Canada did some to silence pohtical differences. manifestations of French nationalism appear and some controversy arise with the government, notably when the first newspaper in French, Le Canadien, was begun in 1806, This peacefulness ended after 1820. As the war years receded, and with the beginning of a large immigration from the British Isles to all parts of British North America, political agitation to change governments and persons which harl liccome entrenched during the war years became vigorous in the two Canadas and Nova Scotia, and in the other colonies. The colonial governments lent the lost lands of the west.

ended and peace was made by the treaty of Paris in 1763, all New France east of the Mississippi, outside the environs of New Orleans, was ceded to Great Britain. Only two little islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon near Newfoundland, and the French fishing rights in Newfoundland, were left to France. But in what now became the province of Quebec more than 60,000 French Canadians became British subjects. As it was expected they would soon be swamped by settlers from New England, Quebec was promised by the proclamation of 1763 a government like that of the

739

province of Quebec, or Canada, all the territory France had claimed south to the Ohio and west to the Mississippi. Thus it was one of the causes of the American Revolution by which Canada was once more separated from the old British colonies. These, of course, were recognized as the independent nation of the United

it

included in the

Americans

failed to

alteration of the

—

themselves to rigidity. All officers except the governor held office for life. They could not be changed by popular wish, and neither

CANADA

740 could their views nor policies.

As

liberal

and democratic ideas

spread in British North America, this situation became ever more irritating to liberal-minded men. And while most of the officials were honest and conscientious men who discharged their responsibilities justly, there were instances of corruption, injustice and,

more

often, of delay.

officials and liberal was intensified by the fact that nearly all the officials were English and nearly all though not all the opposition was French. Moreover, the English dominated the executive and the legislative Thus the councils, while the French dominated the assembly. conffict involved nationalities and institutions as well as politics. In Nova Scotia and Upper Canada conflict between French and English was absent, but an edge was given to political controversy by the fact that many Nova Scotians and Upper Canadians were of nonloyalist American descent. They were regarded with suspicion by the official class as being potentially disloyal. As many were also Baptists or Methodists whose churches derived their ministers largely from seminaries in the United States, and also

In Lower Canada, this friction of immovable

ideas

—

members

—

of the political oppositions, or Reformers, the official class

equate pohtical opposition with disloyalty. The basic difficulty, however, was how to make the official class responsive to the needs and wishes of society. The Reformers put forward two suggestions. One was that the legislative coun-

tended

to

—

—

cil and by implication even the governor and other officials should be made elective. The leader of the French opposition, Louis Joseph Papineau (q.v.), endorsed this proposal, as did William Lyon Mackenzie, the most controversial of the Reform leaders

in

Upper Canada.

A

second proposal was that the officials and advisers of the governor his executive council should be made responsible, or accountable, to the legislative assembly elected by the people. This proposal was first put forward by W. W. Baldwin and his son Robert, of Upper Canada, and was taken up by Joseph Howe

—

—

(g.v.), the leader of the Nova Scotia Reformers (see Baldwin, Robert). Both suggestions had the disadvantage that they seemed to lead

to full self-government, or independence.

The supporters

sponsible government therefore proposed that

it

of re-

should apply to

local matters only.

These ideas were more vigorously agitated in the 1830s. The July Revolution in France, the victory of Jacksonian democracy in the United States and the fall of the Tories and the passing of the first Reform bill (1832) in the United Kingdom all stimulated political agitation in

Kingdom

Canada.

tried to satisfy the

The Whig government of the United Reformers but failed, and its failure

led to the Canadian rebellions of 1837.

Lower Canada was

partly planned by Papineau was also partly provoked by the official class But it was largely a spontaneous and despairing its partisans. outburst caused by the collapse of wheat farming during the 1830s in the Montreal area, owing to soil exhaustion, and to the widespread commercial depression of 1837. There was some stiff fighting between the rebels and the British troops and militia around Montreal before the leaders fled to the United States or were

The

and and

rebellion in

his followers.

It

captured.

In Upper Canada the uprising was unplanned. As all the troops had been sent to Lower Canada to deal with the serious situation there, Mackenzie seized the opportunity to try to take the capital, Toronto, by a sudden raid. His force was scattered by the local miUtia and he himself barely escaped over the border. 2.

Union

of

Upper and Lower Canada.

rections were, they served to

condemn the

— Small as the insur-

old system of govern-

An English statesman of the first rank, Lord Durham was sent out as governor general and royal commissioner to inquire into the causes of the rebellions and to make recommendations. His famous "Durham report" embodied two Canadian ideas and one English-Canadian fallacy. The ideas were that the Canadas should be reunited, as the Montreal businessmen wished, and that colonies should have responsible, or self, government in local matters, as the moderate Reformers like Baldwin and Howe wished. The fallacy was the idea that the French Canadians

ment.

(g.v.),

could be swamped by English immigration and assimilated into an English population, a fallacy as old as the proclamation of 1763. The British government still thought responsible government would lead to independence and did not explicitly grant it. But it did unite the Canadas by act of parliament in 1840, uniting Lower and Upper Canada as Canada East and Canada West. The rebellions had driven the radicals from Canadian politics and in the new assembly it was soon apparent that all moderates, whether Reformers or Tories, English or French, were prepared to accept, if not to demand, some measure of responsible government. Thus when the British government became convinced after 1846 that responsible government might be conceded safely, and sent Lord Elgin as governor general to Canada to govern as the queen governed in the United Kingdom, the last remaining obstacles were removed. In 1848 the principle was recognized in Nova Scotia and Canada, where in 1849 its significance was underlined by the riotous objections taken to the Rebellion Losses bill by the reactionary Montreal Tories and the Montreal mob. As the bill passed by the Canadian legislature proposed to compensate those, including French Canadians, who had suffered loss in the uprisings of 1837, it was viewed as payment to rebels. Elgin was petitioned to veto it, but refused on the ground that in domestic affairs the Canadian parliament was supreme. A Tory mob then pelted the governor and burned the parliament buildings. Much of the anger of the Montreal Tories was caused by the repeal in 1846 of the British Corn laws, under which Canadian exports had a preference in the British market. The commercial shock Canada suffered was increased by the slump of 1847. So despairing were many of the Montreal businessmen that they saw a commercial future only in annexation to the United States.

Other remedies were found, however. One was reciprocal trade products with the United States. This was finally arranged by the reciprocity treaty of 1854. Another was the beginning of railway construction in Canada. In 1849 there were only 66 mi. of railway in Canada; in 1860 there were 2.06S. Much of this mileage was in the Grand Trunk railway, built from Sarnia on the Detroit river to Montreal and Portland, Me., in the 18SOs. In consequence of these developments, and of the inflated demands for raw materials brought on by the Crimean War (1853-56), Canada enjoyed a boom until the slump of 1857. Meantime, the British North American legislatures had been using the self-government won in the 1840s to remodel their laws and institutions. Primogeniture, for example, was removed from the law of inheritance. The French civil law was codified. Municipal government was made elective. The Clergy reserves, public lands granted for the support of the Church of England and the Church of Scotland, were abolished, and church and state separated The French lanin Canada. Seigneurial tenure was abolished. guage was made an official language in Canada. Systems of pubHc education were begun. The legislative council of Canada was made in natural

elective.

These advances, in which the other American colonies took part, ceased after 1858. The union was becoming unworkable. It had never been a complete union. Moreover, the representation in parliament had been fixed by the act of union at the same number for each section, Canada East and Canada West. Until 1851 Canada East (French Canada) was underrepresented.

Canada West was.

A

After that date

up against this alleged injustice, with a demand first for "representation by population" as advocated, for example, by George Brown (q.v.), then for a change in, or even a dissolution of, the union. The controversy became so fierce that parliamentary government by parties broke down. Attempts to govern by devices such as "the double maalso failed. By 1864 jority" a majority for a law in each section parliamentary government in Canada was deadlocked. fierce protest built

—

—

D. Confederation For several years a proposal had been before the Canadian parliament to resolve the difficulties of the union by making it a federal rather than legislative union and by merging it in a confederation of all British North America. This was itself a very old idea, going back to before the French and Indian War, but it

CANADA

Chateau Frontenac, Quebec

city.

New

Que

Plate

I

skyscrapers change the skyline of Montreal. Qu

CANADIAN CITIES

The Canadian parliament buildings on the bank

of the

Ottawa

river.

Ottawa. Ont.

K:

J

Plate

CANADA

II

Sleelmaking at Hamilton, Ont., the "Pittsburgh

of

Canad

INDUSTRIAL CANADA IVIine

and smelter at Flin Flon,

Potash mine and refinery at Esterhazy, Sask.

Ma

CANADA

Plate

III

jsting pig iron at Sorel. Que., on the St.

Lawrence Montreal

of the reactors at Canada's main atomi and development centre at Clialk River. Ont

One

INDUSTRIAL CANADA

river

about 45 mi. N.N.E.

of

CANADA

Plate TV

Iron mines at Steep

Rock lake

in

Ontario

CANADA

Plate

The Iroquois lock on the

SI.

Lawrence seaway, near Cornwall. Ont,

TRANSPORTATION Ocean-going freighters being loaded from a 5,000,000>bu.-capacity grain elevator on Hudson bay at Churchill, Man.

Helicopter passes over a tractor train enroute to northern power development

V

CANADA

Plate VI

in

Irnaaled farm Kootenay lake

lands is

in

along Kootenay background

Creston,

the

Edmonton,

Alta., oilfields area.

Gusher

B.C.

FARMING, FISHING, OIL AND MEAT PACKING ^;.iSii^^Sill*fi#''.';;

Modern equipment, suth in Manitoba

as this harvester,

and diversification have increased production

farms

—

containing the catch The cod-end of a trawl net aboard and the fish are spilled into pens on the deck

—

is

hauled

Sides of beef in the cooler of

meat packing plant

in

Regina, Sask.

of

CANADA

741

had never entered practical politics until Alexander Gait of Montreal sponsored it in the Canadian parliament, and the governor general, Edmund Head (later Sir Edmund), urged it on the British government in ISScS. 1. The Northwest.— The prospects of wider union had first

markets, a particular necessity for Newfoundland. Lumber was in demand in the United States and Great Britain, and New Brunswick throve. Farm produce flowed to New England, and Prince

become

clipper ships.

realistic in the ISSOs.

The northwest, once

the preserve

of Canadian fur traders, had been lost to the Hudson's Bay company in 1821. In that year the North-West Fur Company of Montreal and the Hudson's Bay company, after years of bitter rivalry which had threatened to destroy Lord Selkirk's colony on Red river, united under the name of the Hudson's Bay company. Thereafter the connection between Canada and the northwest became very slight. The great fur company traded in and governed all the north half of the continent from the Labrador coast on the east to the coasts of Oregon and Alaska on the west. For two decades it was undisturbed and then two events began to threaten its remote and isolated monopoly. One was the advance of U.S. traders from St. Paul, Minn., to Pembina on the border in the 1840s. The result was that Red river settlers began to defy the company's monopoly and to trade with St. Paul. After the unsuccessful trial of a half-breed settler, Guillaume Sayer, for

company could no longer enforce its monopoly country. The other was the beginning of U.S. Oregon country, also in the lS40s. The coming

illegal trading, the

in the

Red

river

settlement in the

of settlers ended the joint occupation of 1818. and by the Oregon treaty of 1846 the 49th parallel of latitude was extended to the Strait of Georgia.

company and made

Vancouver Island was left to the Hudson's Bay a crown colony in 1S49. The American frontier

was beginning

to press on the great fur preserve of the northwest. In the 1850s the pressure was greatly increased. Gold was discovered on the Fraser river in British Columbia and a rush of miners, mostly from the western United States, followed. Gov. James (later Sir James) Douglas of Vancouver Island acted to establish law and order on the mainland and to preserve British dominion of the area, and in 1858 the crown colony of British

Columbia was created. At the same time British Canadians began to take an interest Red and Saskatchewan valleys. A parliamentary inquiry was held in 1857 to determine whether the trading monopoly of the Hudson's Bay company should be renewed after it expired in 1859. The interest the inquiry aroused led Canada to dispatch an exploring expedition led by geologist Henry Youle Hind, who described the northwest as lit for settlement. The British government also sent an expedition. Its leader, geographer Capt. John Palliser, was much more skeptical of the agricultural possibiUties of the in the

western plains. The result in Canada was an agitation in Canada West for the union of the northwest with Canada. French Canadians were somewhat doubtful of a proposition which would greatly increase the English majority. But in the early 1860s Canada West found an ally in Edward Watkin, an English financier sent out to report on the financial condition and future development of the Grand Trunk railway. He recommended that the railway be extended to the Pacific, which he thought a feasible enterprise, and for which purpose he organized the buying out of the Hudson's Bay company in 1863. Meanwhile, the continuing political deadlock between Canada East and Canada West and the slump of 1857 contributed to check the movement for the union of the northwest with Canada. 2. The Atlantic Colonies. The events in the northwest which led Canada to think of a union extending to the Rocky mountains, if not to the Pacific, were matched by developments in the .\tlantic colonies of British North America Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, These also led to Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. thoughts of political union, but a union of the Atlantic colonies, not of their union with Canada. All these colonies were now fully developed, with representative and responsible governments. Newfoundland, it is true, had been regarded for years as a fishery and not a colony. It had obtained resident law courts only in 1791 and an assembly only in 1832. During the 1850s the trade and commerce of the Atlantic colonies had prospered as never before. The fisheries enjoyed good

—

—

New Brunswick benefited. But beyond all Nova Scotia flourished in the heyday of the That province was at the peak of its development, and its wealth may be gauged from the fact that two great business firms arose from its prosperity at that time, the Bank of Nova Scotia and the Cunard Steamship company. Over this golden age of the Atlantic, or maritime, provinces a shadow began to pass in the 1860s. It was a realization that their further development would depend not only on their fisheries, shipping and overseas commerce, but also on their commercial and Edward

Island and

these, the shipping of

political relations

with the rapidly developing continent behind

them. One way to deal with the changes which seemed to be coming with the railway, the steamship and the probable end of the reciprocity treaty with the United States, was to end the political fragmentation of the Atlantic colonies by a union. This had been discussed in the late 1850s; now the discussion was renewed. A conference of governments was arranged for Sept. 1864 at Charin Prince Edward Island. In Canada, meanwhile, the political deadlock had become so serious that the chief political leaders, John A. Macdonald and Georges fitienne Cartier of the Conservative party and George Brown of the Liberal, agreed to join in a coalition government to attempt to bring about a federal union of British North America.

lottetown

The Canadian government asked and

to join the

Charlottetown con-

was agreed there to meet later at Quebec to discuss a union of all British North America. 3. The Quebec Conference and the Canadian State. At the Quebec conference in October a scheme of federation was decided upon, which after few, if substantial, modifications w'as enacted by the parliament of the United Kingdom as the British North America act (1867). By this act four colonies. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas, now named Quebec and Ontario, united federally. Newfoundland declined to come in. as did Prince Edward Island. The name of the new union was Canada, and it became in fact a subordinate and allied kingdom of the British crown. The Canadian request to call it the "Kingdom of Canada" was refused by the British government, as there had been some protest in the United States at the setting up of a monarchy in the new world. A substitute was found in the word "Dominion," and thus the true character of the Canadian state, which is a monarchy, was veiled until Queen Elizabeth II was proclaimed queen of Canada on Feb. 6, 1952. The union was technically a federal union. The powers of government were assigned to the federal government, or to the provincial governments. General authority and the residue of power was given to the federal government in order, as it was thought, to avoid a weakness revealed in the government of the United States by the outbreak of the Civil War. The whole plan of government was modeled not so much on that of the United States as on that of the British empire from the lS40s, in which the imperial government had a supreme and overriding authority, but in which the colonies had wide and real powers of self-government. Over and above legal technicalities, however, the act of confederation was a compact, not legal or political, but moral and constitutional, between French and British Canadians French Canada was given freely what its leaders requested as necessary to ensure the life of the French community in Canada. This included the control of civil law and education by the provinces, the rights of the French language in Quebec and the federal parliament and the courts, and the guarantees given the educational rights of religious ference,

it

—

—

minorities in the provinces.

On

the observance or violation of

these terms of the compact between French and English, the har-

mony

of their relations and the strength of the Canadian union have depended since confederation.

E.

The Dominion

The Dominion Canada came

of

Can.-\d.4

on July 1, 1867, and has since been the national holiday of Canada. That date marked only the beginning, not the end, of the process of confedJuly

1

of

into being

CANADA

742

eration as the Conservative prime minister, Sir John Macdonald, knew. The rest of British North America had to be brought into

dominion was complete

the union, as the act of confederation provided. Even before that worlc could be got well under way, the terms of confederation had to be revised to conciliate Nova Scotia.

In 1871 the drawing of the boundary with the United States in the Gulf of Georgia was submitted to arbitration and the island of San Juan was awarded to the United States in 1872. That boundary was now defined from Atlantic to Pacific, but the boundary of

That province, led by Joseph Howe (g.v.), resented the way it had been brought into confederation without the question being submitted to the people in a general election. The anticonfederationists also argued, with much justice, that the financial terms of union given Nova Scotia were unfair. The dispute was adjusted and financial concessions were granted early in 1869. (See also

Nova 1.

Scotia.) First Rial Rebellion.— Scarcely had

pacified

when

trouble broke out in the

transfer of the Hudson's

Bay company

Red

Nova

Scotia

been

river country.

The Land

territories of Rupert's

and the North-Western Territory had been negotiated with the British government. For the nominal sum of £300,000, together with one-twentieth of the lands of the prairies as they were surveyed and about 45,000 ac. of land around its various posts, the company agreed to transfer its territories and rights of government to Canada. In all this the people of the northwest had been neither consulted nor informed. More surprisingly, neither had the local officers of the Hudson's Bay company. In addition, the Canadian government had. with the best of intentions, and with the permission of the local Hudson's Bay company governor, William Mactavish, anticipated the transfers by sending into the territory a road-building party and a survey party. Both groups had alarmed and offended some of the local people. Almost 12,000 people were settled in the Red river colony of Assiniboia. About one-half were French and one-half Scottish. The great majority had some Indian blood. They had been isolated for over half a century and had developed a distinctive way of life of their own. This was particularly true of the French-speaking people of mixed blood, known as the metis. They were mainly buffalo hunters and voyageurs, a proud people who thought of themselves as a "nation" with rights in the northwest. They now feared a threat to their French culture and their religion, and especially to the titles to their lands, in the prospect of a rush of Protestant farmers from Ontario. They resented not being consulted and they found a leader in one of their own people, an educated metis, Louis Riel. Under Riel, the metis organized a council of war, and when the new lieutenant governor, William McDougall, whom the Canadian ministry had appointed, arrived at the border by way of the United States, he was not allowed to enter the territory. Riel seized Ft. Garry and set up a provisional government to negotiate terms of union with Canada. In the spring of 1S70 these were agreed upon, and embodied in the Manitoba act, by which the province of Manitoba was established. But the rest of the northwest was made a territory, and Riel was driven into exile for ordering the execution of an Ontario man, Thomas Scott, in the course of the rebellion. 2.

Territorial Expansion.

— Canada then extended

to the east-

ern boundary of British Columbia. That colony had been united with Vancouver Island in 1866, and a movement for union with

Canada began. As the most important condition of union, British Columbia wanted a railway to the east. Early in 1870 delegates went to Ottawa and were granted generous terms of union. In particular, the Pacific railway was to be begun within two years of the union and completed within ten. The assumption of this enormous undertaking one far greater than the building of the Union Pacific in the United States was the measure of Canada's deter-

—

—

mination to bring the Pacific colony in and to extend from sea to sea. British Columbia entered confederation in 1871. Despite high hopes held by Prime Minister Macdonald. Newfoundland refused to reconsider its decision to remain outside confederation. In 1873, however. Prince Edward Island won terms sufficiently generous to bring it in. The territorial expansion of Canada was greatly speeded when in 1880 the British government by order-in-council transferred to Canada jurisdiction over the Arctic archipelago. With that the territorial expansion of the

until the entrance of

Newfoundland

in

1949.

the new U.S. possession of Alaska remained uncertain. Relations with the L^nited States were also put on a new footing by the treaty of Washington, 1871, which ended the tension between the United

Canada caused by the supposed sympathy of the Canadians with the Confederacy in the American Civil War. Canadians were aggrieved, however, that they obtained little compensation States and

by the treaty either for rights granted to U.S. fishermen in Canadian waters, and none for the raids made on Canada by the Fenians (q.v.) from the United States. 3. Transcontinental Railroad This resentment made it difficult for the government of Prime Minister Macdonald to win

—

the general election of 1872.

To

assist in a

hard fought contest, he

sums from Sir Hugh Allan (q.v.), a railway and steamship magnate who was interested in building the Pacific railway. Macdonald won the election, but a royal commission was appointed to investigate the transaction. Although Macdonald was acquitted of personal corruption, his government was overthrown by the "Pacific scandal," and a Liberal ministry came into office. The Liberal government of Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie tried to fulfill the terms of union with British Columbia and build the railway. But it thought the undertaking too big for Canada to assume alone, and in the depression that began in 1873 it could find no private interests to undertake the task. Then it attempted to negotiate a change in the time in which the railway was to be finished. In British Columbia there were angry charges of breach of faith, and there was talk of secession. But the Mackenzie government could only proceed with the railroad in sections, as the and

his

colleagues obtained large

revenues of the country permitted. 4. The "National Policy." Meantime the Conservative opposition had been looking for a policy on which to win the next

—

There was a movement of national feeling, inspired by the annexation of the northwest and called "Canada First." At the same time there was the demand of Canadian industrialists for protection against the dumping of U.S. goods in Canada during the depression. Since the coming of the railway Canada had ceased to be a country producing only export staples like fish, fur, lumber and wheat. Daniel Massey had opened a foundry in 1847 and had begun to manufacture agricultural machinery, and other small industries had sprung up in the 1850s and 1860s. These two things, national sentiment and industrial protection, Macdonald combined in what he called a "National Policy," The policy was a promise of protection for Canadian industry if the United States did not renew the reciprocity treaty which it had terminated after the Civil War, in 1866, as there was little likelihood of its doing. In 1878 the Conservatives returned to power on the National Policy platform and in the next year the Canadian tariff, hitherto a revenue tariff, was made in part a protective one. The policy was one which strengthened the country, and with the return of prosperity enabled the Conservative government to push the building of the Pacific railway. A new company, the Canadian Pacific Railway company, was formed and was subsidized to the extent of 25,000,000 ac. of land in the west and $25,000,000 The task was finto proceed with the completion of the railway. ished in 1885 and by 1887 the Canadian Pacific railway extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific, a truly transcontinental railway election.

system.

—

5. Second Riel Rebellion This triumph of nation-building had been marred by one outbreak of the old order in the northwest. On the Saskatchewan river the Indians and the metis were alarmed by the vanishing of the buffalo herds and the coming of white settlers. Also, some settlers were disappointed in their expectation that the railway would follow the Saskatchewan river to the Rocky mountains instead of crossing the southern plains. These stirred up the metis to send for Louis Riel to come from Montana and lead them in making new demands on the Canadian govern-

CANADA In the spring of 1885 Riel formed a second provisional government and defied the authority of the Canadian government. Fortunately, only a few Indians joined Riel, and this rebellion was crushed by troops sent from eastern Canada and Manitoba. Riel was captured, as were the Indian leaders, Poundraakcr and Big Bear. The rebellion had two sets of consequences. One was the remedying of some of the grievances of the Indians and metis with respect to the issuing of rations and land titles, together with the granting of representation in parliament to the territories. The other was the trial and execution of Riel for treason, and the storm of protest which his death aroused in Quebec. (See Riel, Louis.) The protest began a chain of events which was to destroy the Con-

ment.

serv-ative

government.

At the time, other things seemed more urgent than the fate of The National Policy had been put into effect but Canada,

Riel.

boom in the ISSOs, settled down into a prolonged depression which lasted for a decade. The Canadian Pacific railway w-as built, but the northwest did not fill up with settlers. after a brief

Emigrants from the British Isles and Europe still went mainly to the United States. Canadians were going there in large numbers, too, and the Liberal opposition added to their criticism of the National Policy and the Canadian Pacific railway sarcastic comments on the exodus of Canadians in which these measures, they alleged, had resulted. Nonetheless, the Conservative party survived the next two elections, those of 1887 and 1S91, in both of which the Canadian tariff and commercial relations with the United States were the leading In 1891 the Conservatives won mainly by an appeal to issues. patriotic

sentiment against

the Liberal policy of

unrestricted

reciprocity with the United States, the Conservatives holding that

commercial union inevitably would lead to political unification. But Sir John Macdonald died immediately after the latter victory, and already the issue had arisen which was to break up his government and his party. 6.

French-Canadian Nationalism.

—The

execution of Riel

had cost few seats federally. But in Quebec it had led to the rise of a strongly French-Canadian nationalist government led by Honore Mercier. Mercier succeeded in passing the Jesuit Estates act to compensate the Society of Jesus for lands that had been confiscated at the dissolution of the order in 1773. and asked the pope This request gave to decide how the money should be awarded. offense in Protestant circles in Ontario and a brilliant young Conservative politician, D'Alton McCarthy, began an agitation against the act and papal intervention in Canadian aftairs. In lSS9,he went to speak in Manitoba, where he found the new Liberal government of Thomas Greenway embarrassed by a railway scandal and concerned with the cost of extending schools to newly settled districts. The Manitoba schools were, by the Manitoba act of 1870, denominational schools. McCarthy's attack on the growing influence of Catholicism touched off an attack on the French language and the Catholic schools in Manitoba. French ceased to be an official language of the province and the school system was made nondenominational by the Manitoba School act of 1890.

The attack on

Roman

the constitutional rights of the French and of Catholics of Manitoba was contested in the courts. The

The it had done was upheld. Catholics then sought remedial legislation under the British

right of the province to legislate as

Roman

North America act of 1867, and in 1895 the courts held that parliament had the obligation to pass such legislation. But when the distracted Conservative government under its fourth prime minister since Macdonald's death introduced a remedial bill to restore Catholic schools,

it

failed to carry

it

before the

life

of that parha-

ment ended. In the ensuing election (1896) the Manitoba school question was a burning issue, especially in Quebec. Should the French voter support the Conservatives who had tried to impose remedial legislation on Manitoba, or the Liberals who held that education was a provincial subject and that the Manitoba government could be persuaded by a Liberal government to do justice to a minority? The Liberal plea was put by Wilfrid (later Sir Wilfrid) Laurier, a

743

French Canadian who

in

1887 had succeeded Edward Blake as

leader of the Liberal party.

The Liberals won a decisive victory partly because Quebec gave Laurier a large majority. The Manitoba school question was then compromised by Laurier and Greenway agreeing on legislation which allowed religious instruction under limited conditions and instruction on prescribed conditions in English and French "or such other language on the bilingual system." 7. Imperial Preference. The problem of the tariff was urgent, for the Liberals had preached the doctrines of free trade. They had, however, to face the condition that many industries had grown up under protection and that to open the door to the more highly developed manufactures of the United States would involve disaster. The year 1897 was the 60th of the reign of Queen Victoria, and Laurier met his difficulties with a brilliant stroke. Though he made but slight changes in the tariff, he used the occasion of the jubilee to give Great Britain a reduction of 25%, later

—

i3j% More important

increased to ever,

was the

of the

tariff.

to Liberal success than these measures,

fact that they

sion of the 1880s

came

into

and 1890s gave way

power

to a

how-

as the great depres-

prolonged boom.

From

1896 to 1912 Canada prospered as never before, a prosperity which was advertised to the world by the last of the great gold rushes, the Yukon rush of 1897-98. With prosperity the west began to fill up at last. The last free land in the United States was gone, and emigrants from south of the border, from the British Isles and from Europe poured into Manitoba and the Northwest Territories in a last great land rush. To deal with it, and the rapidly swelling wheat crop of the prairies, two more transcontinental railways were built, the Canadian Northern, and the Grand Trunk Pacific in conjunction with the National Transcontinental. The two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were created in 1905 with selfgovernment on the lines of the other seven provinces. This was done not without friction, for again the demand was made for the right to separate schools, supported by the state, in which should be taught the Roman Catholic faith. Minor compromise eased the friction and Regina and Edmonton, so recently little more than trading posts, soon had impressive parliament buildings as capitals respectively of Saskatchewan and Alberta. The political framework of Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific was thus completed.

At the time that the farming frontier of the west was being taken up, a new mining frontier was being opened up on the PreCambrian shield of northern Ontario and Quebec. The Cobalt strike of 1903 touched off a rush of prospectors in search of the precious and the base metals of the shield. The shield also began to yield the hydroelectric

power

of

its

many

rivers,

and the wood

pulp of its spruce forests. A whole new complex of primary and secondary industries began to develop, and even while Canada's boom depended mostly on western wheat, the industrial development of the country was being rapidly advanced. Canada was not allowed to pro8. Support of the Empire. ceed in peace with its internal growth. In 1899 the South African War raised the question of Canadian participation in imperial wars. Laurier took his stand on the principle that only the Canadian

—

parliament could decide to what extent Canada would participate. But the matter remained a live one. It recurred at successive imperial conferences from 1902 on, and especially in Quebec. There Canada's limited role in the South African War of recruiting Canadian contingents who were, however, paid by Great Britain had aroused the opposition of Henri Bourassa, a grandson of Papineau.

became one of what contribution Canada make to the imperial navy. Laurier's decision was to crewhich might in war come under imperial comCanadian navy ate a mand, but even this decision cost the government a by-election in Quebec in 1910. Then in 1911 the Laurier gov9. Anti-American Feeling. ernment fell before an outburst of anti-American feeling. The Yukon gold rush had made necessary a settlement of the vaguely, drawn boundary of the ."Maskan panhandle. It was settled in 1903 in favour of the United States claim by a joint tribunal, but Canadians felt the British representative had given in to American Finally, the question

should

—

CANADA

744 pressure and yielded up Canada's right.

The result was a feeling that Canada must handle its own affairs and that the United States had once more imposed its views in a boundary dispute. But when in 1911 the Canadian government was asked by the United States government to discuss a reciprocity agreement, and one was made, it supposed that Canada, which had wanted reciprocity since 1866, would approve and return the Liberals to power. The farmers of the Canadian west welcomed the proposal; it would give them wide markets and cheaper agricultural implements. But industry was naturally alarmed at any intrusion on a protected field; the railways feared diversion of traffic from the long lines running east and west to north-south lines to the United States; and banking interests were alarmed lest closer relations should lead to the financial dominance of New York city. These considerations were reinforced by the strong British sentiment in Canada, which resented giving the United States advantages in trade superior to those of Britain. Laurier dissolved parliament with confidence, but a violent campaign in defense of the national policy of tariffs

and east-west railway traffic, aided by tactless American statements that Canadian union with the U.S. was only a matter of time, defeated the Liberals. (See also Laurier. Sir Wilfrid.) 10. World War I. The Conservatives thus came to power under Robert (later Sir Robert) Laird Borden at the end of a great boom and on the eve of a great war. Canadian doubts about the degree of participation in wars to which Great Britain was committed were resolved by the German invasion of Belgium in World War I; Canada went to war united. At first Canadian troops were under British command, but by the end of 1916 four divisions had been built up. and were formed into a Canadian army corps under a Canadian commander, Gen. Sir Arthur Currie. in 1917. The army became the symbol of the stimulated national feeling. Canada also contributed food to the war effort and. on a rapidly increasing scale, munitions also. The war greatly accelerated the

—

industrialization of the country.

The demand

for

manpower

led

and a demand in 1917 for conscription. Prime Minister Borden proposed a coalition government to carry military

to a price inflation

conscription, but Laurier declined, largely because of opposition

Conscription was enacted and a Union government in Dec. 1917 won the general election. But the Liberal party was split and French Canada alienated. Canada shared from 1917 in the conduct of the war through the imperial war cabinet, on which Prime Minister Borden sat. When the peace was made. Canada, with the other dominions, took a separate seat at the conference, signed the peace treaties as a nation of 'the British empire, and entered the League of Nations in its own right. Canada's share in the victory was thus recognized by its being accepted as an autonomous nation within the empire, but the implications of the new status had yet to be worked out. in

Quebec.

formed which

11. sults.

—

Postwar Unrest. Within Canada war had less pleasing reThe Canadian Northern and Grand Trunk railways had

gone bankrupt, and had to be taken over by the federal government and organized as the Canadian National railways between 1917 and 1923. By 1920 the slump from the prosperous war years had set in; wheat had fallen from its 1919 level of $2.15 a bushel to 60 cents. The prairie farmer was hardest hit. Wheat farming had to be conducted on a large-scale basis and with machinery, necessitating a large capital outlay, which was usually found in the form of bank loans. Under these circumstances, forms of co-operation became popular. The most successful were the Grain Growers' associations, which originated in the Northwest Territories in 1901 and spread to Manitoba, and the United Farmers of Alberta, organized in 1909. Those associations had created the United Grain Growers' Grain company in 1907 and the Saskatchewan Co-operative Elevators company in 1911. These were joined after 1923 by the co-operative elevators companies of the wheat pools. The period of postwar deflation presented a curious paradox. While the prices of primary products and wages fell, the prices of other commodities and services remained high. Protected by the tariff, or sustained by government subsidy, industry generally weathered the difficult years between 1919 and 1924. There was no reduction of the tariff until 1923, when the reductions were offset by bonuses to favoured industries. Taxes, such as the sales

tax,

income tax and a variety of "nuisance" taxes which

on

fell

individuals, rather than on corporations, remained.

Labour unrest was widespread, caused partly by the high cost of living, partly by the spread of industrial unionism in western Canada, partly by the revolutionary ferment of the times. This unrest flared up in strikes across the country. The chief was the Winnipeg strike of 1919. In that city a strike to force recognition of the right to bargain collectively in the metal trades. became a general, sympathetic strike which involved the police and other public services. A bitter struggle followed, and after six weeks the strike was broken by the arrest of the strike leaders. This harsh and drastic action greatly strengthened the labour movement in Canada, which was henceforth a force to be reckoned with. Agrarian unrest had also been building up since the defeat of reciprocity in 1911. In 1916 and 1919 the Canadian Council of Agriculture published "farmers' platforms." In 1920 and 1921 the unrest was greatly increased when the farmer was caught between falling agricultural prices and a still high cost of living. The farmers began to enter politics against the old political parties. captured, or threatened to capture, several provincial governments, and then formed a farmers' federal political movement, which was called the National Progressive party.

They

In Quebec the French voters remained alienated from the Union government and the Conservative party. When the Liberal party elected a leader to succeed Laurier. he had to be a man acceptable to Quebec. He was found in William Lyon Mackenzie King, a grandson and namesake of the rebel, a young man of advanced ideas and a Liberal of rank. All these forces determined the outcome of the election of 1921. The Union government of Prime Minister Arthur Meighen, who had succeeded Borden, was defeated. The Liberals elected the whole provincial representation of Quebec, 65 members, but only half the house of commons in all. Farmers and workers had revolted from both old parties to elect 65 Progressives. The new Liberal leader formed a minority government which could count on some support from the Progressives. A constitutional crisis occurred when King resigned in 1926 and the succeeding Conservative government, although defeated a few days later, held office for several months until the election in September returned King with a stable majority. Domestically the decade of the 1920s was marked by a depression in the first half and a boom in the second. Improved conditions, which had been apparent as early as 1925, produced an unparalleled period of prosperity.

A

cultural products helped the farmer,

who was

rise in the price of agri-

further assisted

by

the extension of branch lines of railway through the wheat-growing

Industry was stimulated by the influx of forAnother feature was the establishment of branch

region of the west. eign capital.

The government's

factories of United States or British origin.

steady reduction of taxation was popular, and the

tariff

gressively scaled down, especially as

textiles.

it

aft'ected

was pro-

The

Liberal party continued to hold the allegiance of Quebec and gradall but the most militant of the Progressives. legislation and the building of the Hudson Bay railway alone distinguished these years. 12. External Affairs. The major developments were in external affairs. A growing North American point of view was demonstrated in an emphatic fashion in 1921. when Canada was largely

ually reabsorbed

Some mild reform

—

responsible for inducing Britain to abandon chiefly in deference to

its

alliance with Japan,

United States opinion.

Indicative of

increasing independence was Canada's refusal to be

its

bound by im-

in by Canada. This was 1922 when Prime Minister King refused to accede to Britain's request for troops in the impending crisis with Turkey until parliament had been consulted. In the various postwar European settlements. Canada had little part. It refused

perial

agreements unless formally engaged

shown dramatically

in

to ratify the treaty of

Lausanne or the Locarno security pact, asand not having signed, it

serting that, not having been consulted

had no obligation. The right to separate diplomatic representation was successfully asserted as early as 1920. although it was not until 1927 that the first legation was opened at Washington. D.C. After that date Canada established legations at Paris and Tokyo. In 1923 treaty-making power was asserted in negotiating and signing the

CANADA

745

Halibut treaty with the United States. Assertions of autonomy as sweeping as these demanded a restatement of Canada's relations to the British empire. The formula was found at the Imperial, conference of 1926, which declared the dominions to be partner nations with Britain, equal in status, and bound together only by an allegiance to a common crown. In 1931 the Statute of Westminster (q.v.) gave legal effect to the declaration of the con-

in

ference.

Hitler's aggression,

13.

Economic Changes.

—The 1930s found Canada sinking

the world-wide depression which

drought on the prairies.

Americas was not

carry it into the Pan American Union, in .spite of substantial investments in Peru and Brazil. To the various world crises, Canada's response was by no means clearIn official circles the Munich appeasement policy was tacitly cut. accepted, and as late as the spring of 1939 the government refused to countenance any program which would involve Canada in war defense of the smaller nations. Only the manifest menace of

and took

into

the public cost of the depression.

Economic cussions.

had inevitable political reperLiberal party had been defeated in the general

distress so widespread

The

1930, and the Conservatives under Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett governed the country until 1935. But their best endeavours failed to relieve the depression and they were swept from office by the Liberals in 1935. The depression also gave rise to a number of other parties. One was the Co-operative Commonwealth federation fC.C.F.), a farmer-labour party with a socialist intelligentsia. Another was the Social Credit party, which captured the province of Alberta in 1935 and attempted to end the depression by sw'eeping reform of the monetary system. The Social Credit party, which vocalized agrarian discontent, also appeared in British Columbia in 1952 and won control when the provincial Conservative party almost disappeared. Still another party was the Union Nationale which won power in Quebec in 1936. The political unity of Canada, slowly restored in the 1920s, was shattered once more. It was more than apparent by 1935 that Canada was in serious election of

Over the years the provinces had gained by judicial interpretation powers and responsibilities greater than their financial resources permitted them to exercise and discharge. This was particularly true of the poorer Atlantic and prairie provinces. The federal government had great financial resources but its powers had been progressively narrowed by the same process of interpretation. It seemed necessary to adjust the balance. An attempt to do so by constitutional amendment failed, and a royal commission on dominion-provincial financial relations was set up to study the problem and make recommendations. It recommended some trouble.

transfer of responsibilities to the federal government, notably un-

employment

relief, and such financial transfers to the provinces as would maintain throughout Canada a minimum national standard of public services. It reported, however, in 1940, when Canada was already once more at war. Canadian entrance into World War II was made deliberately a sovereign act of an independent nation by delaying it for one week after the declaration of the United Kingdom. Nonetheless, Canada was once more at war united with Great Britain. In Canada after World War I the ideals of the League of Nations had had a wide acceptance. Nevertheless, as a group, Canadians were unwilling to support League action, as witness their equivocal stand in 1932 in refusing to uphold sanctions against Japan at the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War, and the repudiation of the Canadian delegate to the League on the application of economic sanctions to Italy when it invaded Ethiopia in 1935. In British

Commonwealth

affairs

Canada made

full

use of existing machinery,

the imperial conference and the high commissionership, and

seemed "informed" but not necessarily "consulted" on the various moves of British European policy. In its relations with the United States, Canada was much more forthright, thus indicating increasing commercial interdependence and an increasing American consciousness. Yet Canada's growing concern in the to

have expected

to be

it

made evident

into war.

after

Munich, united the nation

—

H

was accompanied by prolonged in by

The depression had been ushered

the spectacular crash of the Montreal and Toronto stock markets

on Oct. 29 and Nov. 13, 1929. Canada suffered severely, and the wheat economy and the government services of the prairie provinces were prostrated. Only heavy federal aid kept them going. Massive industrial unemployment plagued the cities and bankrupted municipal finances. The rise of the gold mining industry of Ontario and Quebec, which received an immense boost from the United States revaluation law raising the price of gold from $20 to $35 an ounce, lightened the picture and helped the country to bear

sufficient to

14. World War and After. The war at once pulled Canada out of the depression and drove its industrial development ahead at restored the national morale after the sapping It effect of the depression. Despite crises on the manpower (compulsory service) question in 1942 and 1944, unity between French a furious pace.

,

and English Canadians, though strained, was maintained without an open breach like that of 1917. Canada came out of the war with greatly increased strength and greatly enhanced morale. U.S. -Canadian relations reached a new high in co-operation during World War II and included agreements on defense, production and peace questions. From the summer of 1940, with the conference on defense of the northern half of the western hemisphere held at Ogdensburg, N.Y., at which the Permanent Joint Board On Defense was created, until a few months before the close of the war, when the two countries reached a wartime agreement on military transport routes, excellent relations existed. These extended into the postwar years during which the radar warning lines in Canada were built and a joint agreement for the air defense of North America was put into operation fl958). The effects of the war showed themselves both in domestic and external affairs. At home the constitutional problem of ill-adjusted powers and resources was met by using the need to avoid a postwar slump to institute a number of social security measures, such as unemployment insurance and family allowances, which in fact established the welfare state in Canada. This was followed by instituting a system of federal payments to the provinces to enable even the weakest to maintain a minimum level of services. As all these measures came into effect, not in a postwar depression, but in the greatest boom Canada had ever known, they of course were successfully initiated.

In external

Canada took an

active part in founding the pressed for the possession by the Security council of a police pow-er sufficient to maintain the peace, the Canadian government claimed for Canada the status of "middle power." and argued that power should be judged by the functions a nation could discharge. As Canada was relatively weak militarily, but strong economically, it hoped to exercise a decided affairs,

United Nations.

While

it

influence in the economic and social,

if not in the political, agencies In fact, it exercised much political influence because of the personal confidence inspired by Lester B. Pearson, Canadian secretary of state for external affairs in the late 1940s and the 1950s. Louis St. Laurent and Pearson were Canada's representatives in the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty organization. This body was of peculiar interest to Canada, because in the association of Atlantic powers it found an offset to Canadian isolation in America face to face with the L^nited States.

of the United Nations.

15.

—The

National Sovereignty and Unity.

exercise of full

national sovereignty was accompanied by the removal of

all but Appeals to the privy council of the United Kingdom from Canada's supreme court were ended in 1949. But the ending of the formal ties perhaps only increased Canada's interest in the informal association of the commonwealth, particularly as the new Asian and African members transformed it into a multiracial grouping. It was in this completion of the development of national status that the work of Prime Minister King terminated. In office from 1935 to 1948, and having served 20 years as prime minister, he stood down for St. Laurent. Under St. Laurent the boom continued, but the flow of reform legislation stopped. For almost a decade Canadian politics were lulled in a golden apathy and the opposition parties despaired of ever shaking the long rule of the

the last vestiges of the old imperial connection.

Liberal party.

CANADA

746 The boom was based

partly on

new

resources, such as the

oil

of the prairie provinces and the uranium of the Pre-Cambrian

was based

shield.

It

ment of

central Canada.

more on a roaring industrial developIn 1921 Canada was still by a slight mar-

still

gin an agricultural and rural country. ingly industrial

With

the

By

1951,

it

was overwhelm-

and urban.

boom went an

acceleration of the rate of population

A

population of 3.689,257 in 1871 had become 8,787,949 it was 16,080,791 and by 1961 it was 18,238,247 and was growing rapidly both by immigration and natural increase. About one-third was French, less than one-half British, and the remainder in the great majority European in origin. In 1932 the St. Lawrence Deep Waterways treaty was signed with the United States, providing for widening and deepening the river and Great Lakes channels to accommodate ocean-going vessels, and for increased production of electric energy. The agreement was finally ratified by the United States in 1955 and the seaway was completed and opened to shipping in 1959. The Columbia River treaty providing for the co-operative development of the river was signed with the United States in 1961.

growth.

in 1921; in 1956

Perhaps the most memorable developments of these years, howeconomic growth or political A royal commission on the arts, letters and sciences resulted in national aid to universities and, through the Canada council, to the arts and to scholarships in the humanities and social sciences. The Canadian Broadcasting corporation also greatly contributed to the development of the arts. After the mid-1950s the boom began to slacken. At the same time, there was an outburst of criticism in parliament against the Liberal regime, to which the public responded. The Progressive Conservative party had just elected a new leader in John Diefenbaker and was able to turn the public reaction to its advantage. In 1957 the Liberal party was defeated after 22 years in power. A minority Conservative government came into office to grapple with a recession and to maneuver for advantage in a new election. St. Laurent retired and was succeeded by Lester B. Pearson as leader of the Liberal party. In the general election of 1958 the Conservatives won 208 seats out of 265 in the house of commons in the greatest electoral victory in Canadian history, winning even in Quebec, the Liberal stronghold. In the 1962 elections, however, it emerged with only 116 seats, and in 1963 the Liberals came back into power under Pearson, but without a majority. After much controversy, the Canadian flag, consisting of a red maple leaf on a white field with a vertical red bar on each side, was adopted in 1964 to replace the red ensign with the Canadian

ever, were in the arts rather than in

change.

coat of arms.

V.

(W.

L.

Mo.)

POPULATION: TRENDS AND DISTRIBUTION

1. Geographic Distribution.— The population of Canada reached 18,000,000 in 1960, up from 15,000,000 in 1954. Growth was rapid after World War II, but Canada is still a country of sparse settlement and vast area. Average population density is about four and one-half persons per square mile, but most of the

Most Canadians, about 90"^c, five in a about 200 mi. wide along the U.S. border. Ontario accounts for about one-third of Canada's population, and Quebec for more than one-quarter. British Columbia and Alberta are the fastest growing and in 1961 together made up almost one-sixth of the Canadiaji total. The four Atlantic provinces account for only 10% of the Canadian population. Saskatchewan's population declined from 1931 to 1951, but by 1961 had surpassed the 1931 level, Manitoba's growth has been steady, but below the national average. (See also Table III.) far northern area is barren.

belt

In three of the Atlantic provinces, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia New Brunswick, settlement is mainly on the coasts, in fishing villages and port cities. Agriculture is limited since most of the interior is forested, rocky or marshy. Lumbering and pulp

and

and paper manufacture support settlements in all three provinces. Mining, manufacturing, transportation and commercial and governmental services provide employment for urban populations, but none of the cities has a population over 100,000. Unlike the other Atlantic

provinces. Prince

Edward

Island,

with

fertile

soil,

is

Table

III.

Provinces and territories

— Population by Provinces, igji-6i

CANADA

FIG. 3.

— POPULATION

farming region, and southern Vancouver Island, most settlement in mining towns, forest industry settlements, transportation centres, the orchard district of the Okanagan valley and the wheat area of the Peace river. Discoveries of natural gas in the latter region encouraged industrial settlements in the northern interior, while the coastal aluminum smelting town of Kitimat. with a population exceeding S.OOO was built entirely since 1950 to take advantage of nearby hydroelectric power. Distribution. Canada's population has 2. Rural-Urban tended steadily to concentrate in cities and towns. In 1961 urban areas (meaning all cities, towns and villages of 1,000 persons or over, whether incorporated or not, as well as all parts of metroThis reflected a politan areas) held 77.3'^f of the population. major change since the beginning of the century; in 1901 only 37.5% of the population was classed as urban (i.e., living in incorporated cities, towns and villages of 1,000 population and over) and in 1921 only 49.5% of the population was classed as urban. Since 1921 the urban growth has increased rapidly, from 4.400,000 in 1921 to 12,700,000 in 1961, while the rural population has grown very little, from 4.500,000 in 1921 to 5.460,000 in 1961. The part of the rural population living on farms has actually decHned. from 3.200.000 in 1931 (the first year for which a figure on farm population became available) to 2.072.000 in 1961. Table IV shows populations of major metropolitan areas in Populations of suburban communities, many of which are 1961.

is

—

separately incorporated, are included in these figures. 3.

Natural Increase, Immigration and Emigration.

—The

rapid growth of Canada's population in the 20th century has been mainly because of natural increase, i.e., the e.xcess of births over deaths.

Compared with

natural increase, net migration, or the

excess of immigration over emigration, has contributed relatively little to population growth, except in the first decade of the century

and again

in the years after

sheet for the years 1901-61

World War makes clear

Table V. -Population Balance (io

thousands)

II.

A

population balance

the relative importance of

Sheet,

1901-1961

DENSITY OF CANADA

747

CANADA

7+8

a disproportionately high share to the professions and skilled occupations. At the 1960 census of the United States there were approximately 925,000 Canadian-born persons in that country. This equaled 6% of the Canadian-born population in Canada itself as reported in the 1961 census. In other words, for every 16 Canadian-born persons who have remained in Canada, one has emigrated to the United States. An interesting development, however, has been the gradual decline of emigration since 1930. It appears that the forces of attraction to the United States are diminishing. There were fewer Canadian-born persons in the United States in 1960 than in 1930, the peak year. In the decade 1951-61, of the approximately 462,200 persons who emigrated from Canada to all countries, two-thirds were Canadian-born, and the remainder were re-emigrants. (D. C. C.)

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

VI.

A.

Government

tention, and the provincial legislatures were pronounced to be sovereign within the sphere assigned to them. The capital of Canada is Ottawa. Provincial capitals are: Al-

Edmonton;

British Columbia, Victoria; Manitoba, WinniBrunswick, Fredericton; Newfoundland, St. John's; Nova Scotia, Halifax; Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown; Ontario, Toronto; Quebec, Quebec; and Saskatchewan, Regina.

berta,

peg;

New

—

1. Executive Power. Formal executive power rests in the hands of the queen, who is represented by the governor general. He exercises such official authority as summoning and dissolving parliament, and giving royal assent to bills passed by parliament. The governor general, however, acts only on the advice of the Canadian prime minister and his colleagues in the cabinet, except on those rare occasions when there is doubt as to whether the prime minister commands the confidence of the house of commons. The active executive authority rests in the cabinet, which is selected by the prime minister from among his followers in the house of commons. The prime minister may select a member

one of the self-governing nations of the Commonwealth of Nations. At the Imperial conference of 1926 Canada and the other dominions were declared to be "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown

one member is so chosen. The prime minister is normally the leader of the political party holding the most seats in parliament, and in all cases he must be able to command the support of a

and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of

majority in the house.

In 1931 the British parliament incorporated this principle into the Statute of Westminster, and in general removed any remaining disabilities from which legislatures in Canada had suffered. The governor general, as the representative of the queen, is appointed on the recommendation of the Canadian cabinet, although it seems to be customary to ascertain the queen's wishes by consultation previous to the appointment. Canada remained dependent on the British parliament for legislation only with re-

Prime Ministers of Canada Party* Term Sir John A. Macdonald (C) July 1, 1867-Nov. 5, 1873 Alexander Mackenzie (L) Nov. 7, 1873-001. 16, 1878 Sir John A. Macdonald Oct. 17, 1878-June 6, 1891 (C) Sir John J. C. Abbott (C) June 16, 1891-Nov. 24, 1892 Sir John S. D. Thompson Dec. 5, 1892-Dec. 12, 1894 (C) Sir Mackenzie Bowell Dec. 21, 1894-April 27, 1896 (C) Sir Charles Tupper May 1, 1896-July 8, 1896 (C)

Canada

is

Nations."

spect to the

which was

amendment still

of the British

beyond the

North America

act (q.v.),

legislative jurisdiction of either the

power was exeron Canadian request. Both the Canadian and British parliaments passed the British North America act (no. 2), 1949, in which the Canadian parliament was given power to amend the constitution on matters lying solely within federal jurisdiction. There still remained for constitutional amendment, however, those areas which either belong to the provinces or directly affect the provinces, which are outside federal or provincial parliaments, although this cised only

the jurisdiction of either the federal or provincial legislatures.

The many unwritten conventions

of the British constitution, such

as the system of cabinet government and the office of prime minister,

apply in Canada as

in the

United Kingdom.

Canada

also

derives from the British constitution the structure of parliamentary

monarchy and,

tary sovereignty

generally, of British law based on parliamen-

(not on

fundamental law, as

in

the

United

States).

The most important nadian constitutions

is

difference that

between the British and Ca-

while the British

is

unitary (with

power ultimately residing in one central organ, parliament), the Canadian is federal (the member provinces retaining in part their own organizations and individuality). The federal principle was embodied in the British North America act

which

laid

down

the subjects of legislation assigned respec-

government and the provinces, and the narrow which there was to be concurrent jurisdiction. The fed-

tively to the federal

area in eral parliament has exclusive legislative authority in .relating to the regulation of trade

all

matters

and commerce, defense, navi-

gation and shipping, banking and currency, etc. The federal government also has unlimited taxing powers and a broad residual power. The provinces have exclusive control over all matters relating to education, municipal government, property and civil

The

rights within the province, licences, etc.

power

is

to the Raising of a

residual

provinces' taxing

limited to "Direct Taxation within the Province in order

power

local or private

is

Revenue

for Provincial Purposes,"

limited to "Generally

Nature

in the

all

Province."

and the

Matters of a Merely It seems to have been

the original intention of the promoters of the constitution to invest the federal parliament with an overriding authority, but the judicial interpretation of the act to

some extent

nullified this in-

of the senate to hold a cabinet portfolio, but usually not

more than

Name

Sir Wilfrid Laurier Sir Robert L.Borden "

(L) (C) (U)

Arthur Meighen William Lyon Mackenzie King Arthur Meighen William Lvon Mackenzie King Richard Bedford Bennett William Lyon Mackenzie King Louis Stephen St. Laurent John George Diefenbaker Lester B. Pearson

11, lS96-Oct. 6, 1911 Oct. 10, 1911-Oct. 12, 1917 Oct. 12, 1917-July 10, 1920 July 10, 1920-Dec. 29, 1921

July

(U-N-C) (L) (C)

(P-C) (L)

Dec. 29, 1921-June 28, 1926 June 29, 1926-Sept. 25, 1926 6, 1930 Aug. 7, 1930-Oct. 23, 1935 Oct. 23, 1935-Nov. 15, 1948 Nov. 15, 1948-June 17, 19S7 June 21, 1957-AprU 17, 1963 April 22, 1963Sept. 25, 1926-Aug.

(L) (C) (L) (L)

*(C) Conservative; (L) Liberal; (U) Unionist; (U-N-C) UnionistNational and Conservative; (P-C) Progressive-Conservative. 2.

Legislative Power.

—The

federal legislature

is

bicameral;

composed of a senate numbering, after the admission in 1949 of Newfoundland, 102 members, who are appointed for life by the governor general in council; and a house of commons numbering 265 members who are elected by the people for the duration of parliament, which may not be longer than five years. In the provinces, the crown is represented by a lieutenant governor, appointed by the federal government. He is advised by an executive council composed of a premier and a varying number of ministers, all of whom sit in in addition to the representative of the

crown

it

is

In nine of the ten provinces the legislature is the legislature. unicameral, being composed of a legislative assembly elected by the people for a term of not more than five years. Only in Quebec is there a second chamber, styled a legislative council, composed of nominees (for life) of the provincial government. 3. Judicial Power. Canada has a single system of courts to enforce both federal and provincial law. The administration of justice, including the constitution of the provincial courts, comes

—

within the jurisdiction of the provincial legislatures with the exception that the criminal law comes under the jurisdiction of the federal parliament. The judges of the provincial courts are appointed, during good behaviour, for life, by the federal government, and are removable only by the governor general on address,

by the senate and the house of commons. Canada's supreme court was established in 1S75. Its justices are in appointed similar fashion, except that they must retire at age Legislation in 1949 abolished the right of appeal to the judi75. cial committee of the imperial privy council in England, and made an enlarged supreme court the nation's highest tribunal. Police or formal petition,

CANADA of some special courts, such as juvenile courts, are appointed by the provincial governments. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (g.v.) is a federal force charged with the enforcement of federal legislation. The provinces may maintain a provincial police force and Ontario and Quebec do so, but all the other provinces hire the services of the R.C.M.P. to carry out provincial police duties. Municipalities magistrates and the

may

also

employ

officials

own many of

their

police force,

and most of the larger

cities do so, but in the smaller communities, outside of Ontario and Quebec, the R.C.M.P. are also employed to carry out municipal police duties.

4.

Taxation.

— The

division of powers and responsibilities of

between the federal and provincial North America act. Responsibilities within various spheres of jurisdiction have changed greatly since 1867. By and large those responsibilities which were assigned to the provinces have expanded more rapidly than have the potential fields of taxation assigned to them. This has led to continued demands by the provinces for an increasing share Many conferences have been held to resolve of the tax dollar. this problem, particularly in the fields of personal and corporation income tax and succession duties, or estate and inheritance taxes (g.v.). A series of tax rental agreements under which the federal government rented, or took over, from the provinces the personal and corporation income taxes and succession duties and returned guaranteed minimum amounts ran from 1942 to 1957. The federal government passed the tax-sharing agreements act of 1956 which provided that the provinces could, by agreement, share in the revenues derived from the three standard taxes to the extent of 10% of the individual income tax, 9% of the corporation tax, and 50% of the succession duty. At the same time provision was made for an equalization payment by the federal government designed to bring the tax income, per capita, of each province up to the average of the two highest provinces. In 1958 the percentage of personal income tax allowed was raised from 10% to 13% in an effort to provide the provinces with sufficient revenues This agreement continued to meet their expanding operations. until March 1962 when it was replaced by a new agreement algovernment, including governments is set out

ta.xation,

in the British

lowing the provinces more responsibility for levying their

own

income and corporation taxes. There have been similar adjustments in revenue and responsibility between the provinces and the municipal authorities within their bounds. As the volume as well as the diversity of the public services and the sources and amount of the revenue required continue to change and expand, this problem must be constantly under review. Governments provide services and collect revenues unheard of in years past, but these accrue in ever changing proportions and while adjustments cannot be continuous, they must be sought periodically to maintain equity and efficiency within the federal system. So long as the provinces are limited to such sources of revenue as gasoline tax, general sales tax, liquor profits, licences and permits, many of the provinces have difficulty in meeting the ever increasing expenditures for highways, health and social welfare, education and the development of natural resources. The municipalities, depending as they do for a large portion of their revenue on real property taxation, find even greater difficulty in meeting the growing expenditures required in a modem industrial society.

749

party, the Co-operative its

federation (C.C.F.), after success in Saskatchewan in the 1940s, had a national organiza-

tion, ran candidates in all sections of the country and polled an appreciable popular vote, but it was never the official opposition nor did it hold the balance of power between the major parties.

The C.C.F. was more

socialist than the older parties, and drew its chief support from the prairie grain farmers, especially in Saskatchewan, and from organized labour in the larger cities through-

out the country. In Aug. 1961, at a national convention, the CC.F. was reorganized into the New Democratic party with a closer working arrangement with organized labour. T. C. Douglas, former premier of Saskatchewan, was elected national leader.

There are several smaller

parties,

their British origin

like

so

many Canadian

reflect

and the influence of North American environ-

Party designation professes to be based on shades of opinion from right to left, as in Britain, but in practice there are frequently as marked differences in political thought within each

ment.

of the

major parties

as there are

between

parties, as

is

the case

United States. There are two major parties in Canada which have alternated in power since confederation Conservative (Progressive Conservative) and Liberal. The Conservatives took control of the house of commons from the Liberals in 1957. Quebec has been the Liberal stronghold and Ontario that of the Conservatives. A third in the

—

The

whose support tends

Social Credit party cen-

it has also shown strength in British Columbia. is a potent factor in provincial politics in operates with some degree of co-operation with the federal Conservative party. The Labour Progressive (Communist) party has frequently put up candidates in the cities but with

tres in Alberta, but

The Union Nationale Quebec and

little

it

or no success. C. Living Conditions

1.

Working Conditions.

—Canada's

labour force has grown

rapidly with the expansion of the country and the productive capacity of the economy has increased greatly. Technological

improvements, higher wages, better working conditions, higher educational standards and greater emphasis on vocational training to raise the standard of living for the whole community of workers. General improvement in working conditions has been retarded or interrupted on several occasions due to general economic conditions (see History, above). Unemployment caused by cold weather, and to some extent by consumer buying habits, results in serious annual loss to the Canadian economy. Though some winter slowdown is inevitable, it has been possible, by concerted effort, to reduce its extent. Developments in the field of labour have been assisted by legislation at both federal and provincial levels. Laws have been enacted to set minimum standards for hours of work, wages and many other conditions of employment. Most Canadian workers, however, enjoy conditions of employment far better than those required by law. The right of workers to belong to labour unions of their own choosing its protected legally, and union membership has grown rapidly, particularly since 1940. By 1960 there were about 1,500,000 union members. The general average wage per hour was about $1.70. Legislation, which may be federal, provincial or in some instances municipal, plays an important part in securing safe and healthy working conditions. Under a Workmen's Compensation act in each province, the worker who is disabled by an industrial

have helped

accident or a disease caused by the nature of his employment is entitled to compensation based on the amount of earnings and, if the disability is permanent, upon the extent of the disability. In fatal cases wives, children or other dependents are awarded fixed Compensation and medical aid are payable from an accident fund to which all employers are required to contribute and which provides a system of employee insurance. A compulsory scheme of employment insurance and a nationwide free em-

monthly sums.

—

institutions,

political parties

to lie in specific geographic regions.

ployment service B. Political Parties Political

Commonwealth

operation.

is in

2. Housing. Like most other countries, Canada faced a serious housing shortage at the close of World War II, but substantial improvements have been made. By 1960 there were 4,300,000 dwellings in the country, and they were being added to at a rate

About one house in every three that was was financed with government assistance. The National Housing act provides for insurance of mortgage loans by private lenders and sets maximum rates of interest that may be charged. By reducing the risk to the lender it enables the borrower to get a larger loan on more favourable terms than would otherwise be the case. The National Housing act also authorizes the national government's agency, Central Mortgage and Housing corporation, to make direct housing loans for such special purof over 100,000 a year. built after 1945

CANADA

750

poses as the construction of low rental housing and the building of rental units for primary industries. The general shift of population to urban centres, and particularly to suburbs, has brought an increasing awareness of the need for community planning.

D. Health and Welfare 1.

Health

Services.

—The development of health and welfare

services has provided a reasonable comprehensive network of as-

most economic and health hazards. Health and have been expanded and integrated to support the work of hospitals and the medical professions, although sistance against

rehabilitation services

much remains

to be accomplished before adequate facilities are available to deal with the problems of mental illness and the

chronic degenerative diseases. There also continues to be variation between provinces in the type of service provided, and in the availability of the services to different groups in the population.

Canada has one of the world's

healthiest populations, the death

rate being less than 8 per 1,000 of population.

This has been due reducing the death rate from communicable disease. Public health is primarily the responsibility of the provinces. Federal participation in health matters is generally centred in the department of national health and welfare, although important treatment services are administered by the department of veterans' chiefly to

and the department of national defence. The department and welfare controls food and drugs, including and quarantine and immigration medical services, and provides for Indians, Eskimos, sick mariners and other groups. affairs

of national health narcotics,

In addition,

it provides financial assistance to the provinces for the development of health and welfare services through the national health program, serves in an advisory and co-ordinating

and makes grants to certain voluntary agencies. Most health programs are administered by provincial health departments or by local health departments and units serving counties and municipalities. They include activities ranging from capacity,

preventative and treatment services to the operation of public health laboratories. Health responsibilities of the municipalities, particularly the larger ones, generally cover such public health services as sanitation,

communicable disease

control, child,

ma-

and school health, public health nursing, health education Public mental health programs consist chiefly of treatment and custodial care of persons committed to mental institutions. Hospital facilities expanded rapidly in the second half of the 20th century. Growth has been stimulated by the hospital construction grant under which the federal and provincial governments contribute toward construction costs. By 1960 Canada had approximately 1,400 hospitals of all types with space for about 175,000 beds and cribs; that is, about 11 places for each ternal,

and

vital statistics.

1,000 of the population. By 1960 personal health care and public health services cost the Canadian public over $1,000,000,000 a year, and about half it was expended on hospital care. Prepaid hospital care was provided through public insurance programs in several of the provinces, and considerable progress had been made toward the development of the federal government's proposal for a federalprovincial system of prepaid hospital service. 2. Welfare Services. Welfare needs in an increasingly industrialized society have led to an emphasis on social security problems which are beyond the financial resources of the municipalities or the provinces. Therefore the program of the federal government, proceeding either by constitutional amendment or by agreement with the provinces, has seen the greatest expansion. Family allowances and old-age security are the two most significant developments. The federal government makes special provision for the welfare of veterans with payment of pensions through the Canadian pension commission. Family Allowances. All children under 16 years of age who are resident in Canada are eligible for family allowances. These allowances do not involve a means test and are not considered as income for taxation purposes. They are paid at the monthly rate of $6 for each child under 10 years of age, and $8 for each child

of

—

—

aged 10-15.

In the 1950s allowances were paid annually for about 5.500,000 children in more than 2,000,000 families at an expenditure of more than $400,000,000 a year. Aid jor the Aged, Blind and Disabled. To provide old-age security a pension of $55 a month is paid by the federal government to all persons 70 years of age or over who have been resident

—

Canada for at least 10 years. This amount is supplemented in some provinces on a means test basis. Old-age security is paid in

about 800,000 persons at an armual expenditure of about $420,000,000. Old-age assistance of up to $55 a month is paid to needy persons 65-69 years of age who have been resident in Canada for 10 years. to

The federal government reimburses the province for 50% of the $55 per month or of the assistance paid, whichever is the lesser. The provinces administer the program and the shareable amount of assistance is sometimes supplemented. The total annual income including assistance cannot exceed $960 for a single person, or $1,620 for a married couple, although the latter may go to $1,980 if a spouse is blind. In the 1950s about 90,000 persons, or almost 20% of the population 65-69 years of age, were in receipt of old-age assistance.

For needy blind persons 18 years of age or over, who have been Canada for 10 years, an allowance of up to $55 a month is paid. The federal government pays 75% of the allowance. The province administers the program and in some cases provinces or municipalities add a supplemental amount. Needy persons who are totally and permanently disabled, over 18 years of age and resident in Canada for at least 10 years, receive allowances of up to $55 a month. A means test the same as resident in

that for old-age assistance

Unemployment

is

Assistance.

applied.

—The Unemployment Assistance

of 1956 provides for federal aid to the provinces for assistance, subject to

act

unemployment

an agreement between the province and the

federal government. The latter reimburses each participating province by one-half of the cost of assistance provided to needy persons in excess of 0.45% of the provincial population. Provincial Programs. The provinces on their own also make considerable provision for the needy. A mother's allowance on behalf of needy mothers and their dependent children is paid in all provinces, although the amounts so provided vary. Most of the provinces reimburse municipalities for a part of the cost of general assistance or relief that is provided for the needy, regardless of age. Child welfare legislation including child protection, child care and adoption, is administered in some provinces by the provincial child welfare authorities and in others by the Children's Aid societies. These services are financed by the municipalities or by voluntary organizations, although there are some provincial homes. The maintenance of indigent old people in homes for the aged is primarily a municipal responsibility, but most provincial governments share in the cost, either through subsidies to meet the cost of operation or through grants on behalf of the indigent

—

residents.

E.

Education

Education is the primary occupation of one-quarter of the population of Canada. In the second half of the 20th century there were more than 3,500,000 boys and girls in the public elementary and secondary schools and 145,000 in private schools, and an estimated 500,000 were taking vocational training, while there were 86,000 full-time students in the universities. They were taught by over 150,000 teachers, instructors and professors. Expenditure on education totaled almost $1,000,000,000 annually, or approximately 3% of the gross national product. The British North America act gave control of educational administration to the provinces. The nine English-speaking provinces operate English-Canadian schools, but in some areas the

Roman

Catholic Church maintains separate elementary schools. In Quebec the French-Canadian tradition is followed with Roman Catholic schools, but there are separate Protestant schools. Education in each province except Quebec is administered by a department of education, headed by a cabinet minister responsible to the legislature.

The deputy

minister or superintendent

is re-

CANADA

751

sponsible for the administration of the provincial system, and

The

minister

ercises

control

Newfoundland

there is also provision for a chief executive ofeach of the leading religious denominations, namely Church of England, United Church, and Salvation Army. Each provincial department is concerned with the general administration and inspection of schools, the payment of provincial grants, teacher training, curriculum, schools for the blind and deaf, registration of private schools, provincial examinations, trade, vocational and technical schools, public and traveling libraries and correspondence courses. The direct operation of schools is under local school boards composed of members usually elected for two or three year terms. The local boards employ teachers, maintain buildings and administer the revenue derived from provincial grants and municipal in

ficer

for

Roman

Catholic,

taxation.

In the English-speaking provinces the elementary schools usuhave eight grades, with pupils beginning at the age of five or six years. Secondary schools continue for another four or five grades and provide entrance qualification for university courses of from three to seven years in various academic and professional fields. In a few provinces the elementary and secondary schools are organized on the basis of six years in elementary, three years in junior high school and three years in senior high school. There are about 300 institutions offering courses of university standard in Canada. About SO of these are active degree granting institutions to which most of the others are affiliated. All the provinces have provincial universities or their equivalent, giving courses in arts, science, engineering, medicine, theology, etc. The universities derive their revenues from student fees, provin-

ally

endowments and the federal grant, the total amount of $1.50 per capita of the total population of the country. In the French-speaking schools of Quebec, boys and girls are taught separately, taking primary courses to grade seven. Pupils cial grants,

which

is

may

then enter either the church-operated college classiqiie which provides an eight-year course leading to the baccalaureat and entry to a university professional course; or they may enroll in the secondary division of the public school which provides further training preparatory to certain technical fields, trades, arts or home

economics;

or,

in a

growing number of schools, the first four Higher schools of applied science,

years of the classical course.

commerce

or agriculture, affiliated with universities, are avail-

able to graduates of the secondary courses. gional agricultural school training

is

Trade school or

re-

optional.

federal government through the department of northern and natural resources operates schools in the Northwest where it completely maintains some schools and asThe Insists others, operated by church missions, with grants. dian affairs branch of the federal government maintains schools

The

affairs

Territories,

for the Indians

who

are

its

wards.

Some

of these schools are

operated as day schools on the reservations and others as residenIn the residential tial schools under some religious denomination. schools, grants are paid for each Indian child attending. Most provinces require elementary teachers to have had high school graduation or better, plus at least one year of professional training. High school teachers are required to have a university degree plus a year of professional study. In tlie post-World War II years, because of an acute teacher shortage, many provinces were unable to maintain these standards and had to accept lower

There are very few institutions in Canada devoted exclusively It is sponsored by a variety of universities, government departments and voluntary associations, each of which has some other function which is primary. Universities have extension departments, school boards offer night classes, and provincial governments have divisions of to adult education.

colleges, school boards,

cultural activities.

forces, the defense research

national defense.

Under

board and other matters relating to

his direction the three chiefs of staff are

responsible for the control and administration of their respective services, navy,

army and

fense research board

The chairman

is

air force, and the chairman of the deresponsible for defense scientific sers'ice.

of the chiefs of staff committee has, since 19S1,

been responsible to the minister for insuring that all matters of joint defense and defense policy in the widest sense are carefully examined and co-ordinated before decisions are made. The civilian administration of the department is organized under the deputy minister, who maintains a continuing review and control over the financial aspects of operational policy, logistics, personnel and administration. A number of committees meet at regular intervals to consider and advise on joint issues. These include such boards as the defense council, chiefs of staff committee, etc. Liaison abroad is maintained through a representative in the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO), the Canadian joint staff in Washington and in London, the military mission in the far east, and through service attaches in various countries throughout the world. A number of defense matters of concern to both Canada and the United States are considered by the permanent joint board on defense which is composed of representatives from the two countries. Defense policy is based on active participation in the United Nations and membership in NATO, and in assuring continental defense through close co-operation with the United States (see Arctic, The: Military Aspects). The primary role of the Royal Canadian Navy in carrying out these policies is antisubmarine warfare in all its aspects. Because of the prospect of long-range submarines capable of launching nuclear missiles many miles offshore against coastal and inland targets, primary emphasis has been placed on the development of forward operational systems for locating and dealing with hostile submarines far out at sea. The strength of the Canadian navy in the second half of the 20th century was about 20,000 officers and men in the regular force, and about 5.000 in the reserve force. The two main components of the Canadian army are the regular and the reserve forces. The strength of the army was about 45,000 officers and men in the regular force, and about 40,000 in the reserve force. The Royal Canadian Air Force had a strength of about 50,000 officers and men in the regular force, and about 5,000 They were organized into 40 squadrons in the auxiliary air force. with over 3.000 aircraft in operation. Civil defense planning is integrated with the over-all plan for national defense, with the aim of survival in the event of direct

A further role is the provision of aid to the civil power times of national disaster. Canadian civil defense is organized at all levels of government. The federal government is responsible for planning, policy and financial assistance; the provincial governments for organization and implementation; and the municipal governments for execution of plans and policy. Training has been attack. in

carried out at

(R. 0.

all levels.

Vn. THE

The

Canadian Broadcasting corporation. National Film board, National museum. National gallery, and many provincial museums, art galleries and libraries engage in adult education as part of their w^ork. The chief co-ordinating and documentation agencies in this field are the Canadian Association for Adult Education and the Institut Canadien d'Education des Adultes.

MacF.)

ECONOMY

Canada, occupying the northern half of the North American Nevertheless, severe climate of the north, the natural aridity of the prairie plains, the steep high slopes of the mountain regions, the huge rocky expanse of the Pre-Cambrian shield have presented formidable obstacles to easy continent, possesses a variety of natural resources.

unfavourable environmental factors

teacher qualification to keep schools open.

community programs, adult education or

Defense of national defense, a member of the cabinet, exover and management of the Canadian armed F.

— the

—

and rapid exploitation of these resources. As a result, economic development is still represented, for the most part, by a narrow ribbon of settlement about 3,000 mi. long from east to west and seldom more, usually much less, than 200 mi. wide from south to north. The heavy burdens and persistent problems of transportation are readily apparent in such a country. The initial primary industries, agriculture, fisheries and forestry, all remain of great importance to the various regional economies and to the economy as a whole. But at least part of the emphasis has shifted to utilization of the vast energy resources

—

CANADA

IS^

of water power, petroleum, natural gas and uranium, to increased

exploration and development in every region of the rich variety of mineral resources, to increased production of pulp and paper

and to a wide range of secondary industries, processing and manufactures. Development of Canada's natural resources to form the base of a modern, integrated economy and to achieve a high standard of living for the Canadian population has required heavy borrowings of capital and the application of every available technological improvement. A. Production 1.

Agriculture.

—Although the importance of both

field

crops

and livestock production have declined relatively as other

re-

sources developed, agriculture in the second half of the 20th century still remained the most important of the primary industries The census of 1961 in terms of number of persons employed.

showed land, of

Table

that Canada had about 172,500,000 ac. of occupied farmwhich almost 105,000,000 ac. were under cultivation. (See

VL)

There were 480,900 farm units, ranging from small vegetable farms outside the larger cities to the large wheat farms and larger cattle ranches of the prairie provinces.

The number

of persons

has steadily declined, following the mechaAs in the United States, nization and enlargement of farms. greater production has come from fewer persons, owing to improved varieties, better tillage practices, chemical weed killers,

engaged

more

in agriculture

effective control of plant diseases

creased use of

and insect

pests,

and

in-

fertilizers.

Canada's agricultural area has not changed greatly since 1930; that time most of the good lands were already occupied. The intensity of land use has increased in areas adjacent to metro-

by

politan centres although this has probably been more than offset by land disappearing from agricultural uses to support urban hous-

The expansion of agriculture ing and industrial development. northward, however, faces environmental problems of poorer soils, shorter frost-free periods, poor drainage and high forest-clearing costs. As long as Canada produces a surplus of agricultural products, with problems of world marketing there will be little incentive to increase the total agricultural area.

Agricultural income in Canada is obtained chiefly from the sale of wheat, other grains, livestock and livestock products. Wheat, oats, barley, rye and flax are grown chiefly in the three prairie provinces.

eastern in the

Wheat and

Canada

19th century, but

up by the

the feed grains were the main crops of major period of agricultural settlement

in the first

when

the western grasslands were opened

railroads, the east turned to

more

specialized crops

and

animal products to feed its growing cities. In the west, limited by marginal precipitation and threatened by unseasonable frosts, grains were the only crops that grew well, and even they failed in some years. About 25,000,000 ac. under wheat and another 15,000.000 ac. in other grains was the average annual prairie crop acreage in the post-World War II period 194555, but the world surplus of wheat which developed after 1952, plus above-average crops, resulted in subsequent decreases in wheat acreage. Fluctuations in annual wheat production from 200,000,000 to 600,000,000 bu. have been more the result of enThe hazards of vironmental conditions than acreage changes. wheat production include drought, frost, hail, plant rust and grasshoppers. The spring wheat belt forms a crescent across the prairie provinces, coinciding for the most part with the dark brown soil zone; it extends from southern Manitoba across Saskatchewan, including Regina and Saskatoon, into Alberta south of Edmonton and bends southward to the Calgary region. In this belt wheat usually constitutes about of this crescent wheat

is

70%

also

of the cultivated acreage.

grown

as the

main

South

crop, but because

of low and variable precipitation most of the land remains in natural pasture with ranching as the main occupation. In these semiarid regions, between Calgary, Lethbridge and Medicine Hat,

were also the main irrigated sections of Canada, by 1960 1,500,000 ac. Water was diverted from several headwater tributaries of the South Saskatchewan river. Smaller Alta.,

totaling about

Table VI.

Area oj Farmland (1061 Census)

CANADA eastern

Canada

753

particular an

in

important source of farm income is from the sale of forest products off the farm; these may take the

form of pulpwood or lumber logs, maple sirup or maple sugar from the deciduous forest areas. Forestry. The forested 2. area of Canada has been estimated at about 1,700,000 sq.mi. which is about 44% of Canada's area. Because of Canada's size or

—

these forests rank as the

third

largest in the world, although en-

vironmental conditions have prevented forest growth over more than half of the country. In the north the arctic and subarctic regions of almost 1,000,000 sq.mi. In

are treeless.

the

mountain

peaks and uplands of the Cordillera, forest growth is generally not found above 6,000 ft. in the south and 4,000 ft. in the north, depending on local site and exposure conditions. Other nonforested areas are the semiarid plains of the prairie provinces and the innumerable lakes, swamps and muskegs of the Canadian shield.

Within the of

total forested area

Canada there are

large sections

where cool climate or low precipitation results in slow growth rates and scattered or stunted trees which cannot be classed as commercial or productive forest. The productive forest area of Canada is estimated at about 950,000 sq.mi., which is about 2S% of the country's land area.

About 959c

trol of certain forest reserves, the

the government,

timber

in national parks,

and

the relatively small forest areas of the two northern territories. forest regions of

Vegetation.

Canada were described

all

of

on which are conthe climate of Canada. In

These regions, and the species of

tained in them, are closely related to

Canada

it is

estimated that

63%

in the section

trees

of the productive forest

made up

of softwood (generally coniferous) species. The most solid stands of these species for commercial use are located in the northern, boreal, forest region and along the Pacific coast.

is

About 12%

of the forest is classified as hardwood (generally deciduous), with the most extensive stands in southern Ontario, and across the parkland of the prairie provinces. The remaining 25% of the forest, which is classed as mixed, is found in the maritime provinces and along the southern edges of the Canadian shield. The type of forestry production in Canada varies from region to region. The mixed forest of the Atlantic provinces was used for lumber, particularly for shipbuilding, in the 19th century; but in the 20th century the pulp and paper industry, using the softwoods, became of increasing importance. Pulp and paper mills

were located

at several river

mouths

in

New

Brunswick and New-

foundland, using the river and its tributaries as a means of transport to tioat logs to the mills during the summer, and also using the river water in the papermaking process. Partly because of the shorter rivers in peninsular Xova Scotia pulp production re-

mained secondary

Much

to lumber.

hardwood forest in southern Quebec and Ontario was cleared in the 19th century to become agricultural land. At the end of that century the lumbering industry was moving into the mixed forest of the Canadian shield, following several rivers, notably the Ottawa, which drained to the urban of the area of

— FOREST

REGIONS OF CANADA

and overseas markets of the lowlands. Lumbering is still carried on, but in the 20th century the pulp and paper industry expanded enormously along with the greatly increased world demand for newsprint.

owned by

of Canadian forests are

primarily the provincial governments which have control of natural resources within their borders. The federal government has con-

The

FIG. 4.

In the second half of the 20th century Quebec, which has a large share of the softwoods of the boreal forest, and the longest southward flowing rivers tapping this forest, produced nearly one-half of the pulp and paper of Canada. Ontario has a smaller forest area and shorter southward flowing rivers, but rail transport, and produced about 30% of the pulp and The largest share of Quebec pulp and paper mills were located at the mouths of shield rivers where they could use the

better

paper.

and the drop at the shield edge for power. In addition, their location along or near the St. Lawrence river mills gave the access to ocean shipping to export markets. Rivers such as the Saguenay, St. Maurice, Lievre, Gatineau and Ottawa were important to the industry. In Ontario the pulp mills had a distribution pattern similar to that of Quebec in that the plants were located along the edge of the shield, particularly along the shores of Georgian bay and Lake Superior. However, Ontario mills were also located on some of the northward flowing rivers, such as the Moose and its tributaries, where they were crossed by railroads. In Ontario and Quebec both pulp mills and pulp and paper mills were generally located within the forested regions, but paper mills were frequently built in industrial cities of the southern lowlands. The largest share of their production was for export, notably to the adjoining sections of the United States for newspapers. The forestry industry is of lesser importance in the prairie provinces. Pulp and paper mills were located on the westward (and outward) flowing rivers of the shield in northwestern Ontario and eastern Manitoba, but the remainder of the western shield forest was untapped. Lumbering was of local importance in ail three provinces, but did not supply the deni.md of the region. Good reserves of pulpwood across central Saskatchewan and northern .Alberta could be developed if transport costs or market prices should permit them profitably to reach the large industrial centres of the Canadian and U.S. St. Lawrence and Great Lakes areas. rivers for log transport

—

CANADA

754

3.

The

Mining and Minerals. geological regions of

Canada

indicate the kinds of minerals that

may

be found.

geologically

more

The

flat-lying,

recent sedimen-

tary rocks of the interior plains St. Lawrence lowlands may be the source of nonmetallic minerals such as petroleum, natural gas, coal, salt, potash and gypsum. The ancient, hard Pre-

and

Cambrian rocks of the Canadian shield have yielded such metals as gold, silver, copper, lead, iron,

On the periphery of Canada the complex geology of the Cordillera mountains and the Appalachian hills, nickel and uranium.

as well as the arctic islands, contains combinations of both hard

and soft rocks, and therefore may have both metallic and nonmetallic minerals.

The expansion

of the mining

industry in Canada is a fairly recent development in Canadian

Although the mining of and other minerals goes back the French regime, more con-

history.

coal to

centrated efforts in prospecting

and discovery began around the turn of the 20th century.

Many

of the mines discovered at that FIG. 5

The

large and

time were still in production in the second half of the 20th cen-

PRINCIPAL MINERALS OF CANADA

Columbia, particularly the Douglas fir. are Canada's chief source of lumber products, especially structural timbers. In the 1960s the west coast province produced more than one-half of the Canadian lumber, much of it shipped by rail or ocean transport to eastern Canada, but about half of it going for export. Timber cutters had difficulties in the 19th century because of lack of equipment to handle the big trees. Expansion came rapidly, however, after the building of the Panama canal opened up markets in the eastern industrial areas of the United States and Canada, Pacific coast tree growth is rapid, because of the year-round moderate and wet climate; exploitation is assisted by the numerous long fiords and inlets which penetall

trees of British

trate into the forests; transportation in large rafts along the coast has the protection of the sheltered waters of the inside passage. Most of the large sawmills were located near the mouth of the Fraser river in the Vancouver area and along the east coast of nearby Vancouver Island. After 1946 the coast forest industry began to produce increasing amounts of pulp and paper, in some instances based upon small growth and mill remnants once abandoned by the lumber industries. The coast forest industry appeared to be cutting at about the maximum in proportion to growth rates, and expansion in lumber production came from opening up new forest areas in the central interior and southeast

—

of the province.

Canadian lumber production in the second half of the 20th century came from more than 7,000 sawmills, ranging from giantColumbia which could cut almost 1,000,000 bd,ft. per day, to small portable mills producing a few thousand Pulp and paper production was supplied by about feet per day.

sized ones in British

125 mills, most of them large and involving sizable capital expenditure; more than half of these mills were classified as combined pulp and paper mills, and about 20% were purely paper mills. Canadian forestry production is an important item in Canada's balance of trade. In the 1960s newsprint usually ranked as the leading export by value from Canada, with the item planks and boards following wheat as the third export product. Wood pulp also ranked among the leading five exports in most years.

A

tury.

came

further major expansion in the mining industry, however,

after 1946 and

was

still

in

progress in the 1960s, aided by

transportation and pow'er developments.

Because the Canadian shield section of Ontario was well served lines, mining developed there early, and throughout the 20th century Ontario has produced annually more than one-third of the value of Canadian mineral production. Quebec usually ranked second, having about 20%, chiefly from the shield but also from its Appalachian section. Of increasing importance was the nonmetallic production of Alberta, which also totaled about 20%, Next in importance, until supplanted by Saskatchewan in 1958, was British Columbia with \0% of the value of Canadian minerals. The regional importance of minerals in the Canadian economy shows wide variations. The folded sedimentary rocks and crystalline cores of the Appalachian-Acadian system have not yielded any wide variety of important minerals. Iron ore was produced after the turn of the century on Bell Island in Conception bay of Newfoundland, and was transported over water to the extensive coal fields around Sydney on Cape Breton Island, N.S. The base metals, lead, zinc and copper, were mined in central Newfoundland and on the east coast of Nova Scotia, and production expanded following base metal discoveries in northeastern New Brunswick, In the second half of the 20th century Nova Scotia produced the largest share of Canadian gypsum, chiefly from the Minas basin area at the head of the Bay of Fundy. In the Quebec section of the Appalachians mineral resources were somewhat richer. More- than one-half of the world's asbestos was mined in a belt of serpentine rocks extending through the eastern townships, including the main asbestos-producing centre of Thetford Mines. Short fibre asbestos was obtained in large open-pit mines, with crushing plants at the surface, near great piles of rock slag which scar the landscape. The Quebec Appalachians produced copper intermittently, the largest mine being operated in the

by transcontinental railway systems and feeder

central

Gaspe peninsula.

The sedimentary rocks

Lawrence lowlands underlie Canada but played a small part in

of the St.

the chief industrial area of

——

CANADA economic development of the area. Much of Canada's salt was produced near Windsor, Ont. Southeast of Sarnia, Ont., were some of the earliest oil wells in North America, but jiroduction was insignificant after about 1950. Small amounts of natural gas were also produced. Of greater importance was limestone, quarried particularly along the Niagara escarpment, which becomes an industrial raw material for the chemical and fertilizer assisting the

The widespread

industries.

glacial deposits of the

plied important sources of sand

and gravel used

lowlands sup-

in great quantities

by the construction industries. The Canadian shield, the mineral storehouse of Canada, produced about 50% of the country's mineral wealth. In the second half of the 20th century there were about 100 mines producing in the shield region, almost one-half of them in the Ontario section. Although the shield covers almost 2,000,000 sq.mi. of the mainland of Canada, most of the mines were located on the outer edges of the region, suggesting greater development as more detailed geological information becomes available. The geology of the eastern sections of the shield was little

known

the exploration of large deposits of hematite iron

until

ore along the

World War

Quebec-Newfoundland (Labrador) boundary during Reserves estimated

II.

500,000,000 tons

in e.xcess of

resulted in a railway being completed in 1954

from Seven Islands,

on the estuary of the St. Lawrence river, to the ore fields. This was the first railway or land transport to penetrate into this section of Canada. Nearer the coast another post-World War II development was the opening of North America's largest ilmenite or titanic iron ore deposit, northeast of

The

Mingan

some

of the oldest mines of the shield and also

some

of the newest ones.

In the second half of the 20th century the came from the Timmins and Kirkland Lake fields of Ontario, and the gold belt extended across the boundary through Noranda and Val d'Or in Quebec. The Quebec section of the gold belt also produced base metals. To the northeast, copper-gold discoveries near Chibougamau, Que., resulted in another new railway which pushed northward into previously largest share of Canada's gold

unsettled regions.

One

of the oldest of

basin in Ontario.

modern mining

districts

was the Sudbury

Discovered as a copper deposit during the build-

ing of the Canadian Pacific railway in 1883, the area in the second

20th century produced about 75% of the world's was the world's main source of platinum, Canada's chief source of copper and also produced selenium, telurium, rhodium, gold, silver, cobalt and by-product iron ore. To the southwest. Blind River on Georgian bay was one of Canada's main uranium half of the nickel,

producers. In the Lake Superior region of Ontario iron ore was mined at Michipicoten Harbour, on the northeast shore, and at Steep Rock lake, to the northwest. Other mines north and northwest of Lake Superior produced gold and copper. Little

was known of the mineral

sections of the shield prior to 1940.

possibilities of the

Remote from

western

eastern mining

centres and lacking transport, this development proceeded

more

On

the southern fringe of the shield, and on the ManitobaSaskatchewan border, Flin Flon was a well-established zinc-

slowly.

copper region. nickel deposit

struction of a

parallel the folding of the

and

lignite

quality.

The

coal

Rocky mountains, being exposed

and also eastward on the

belts in

the

Alberta was the leading coal-producing province prior to 1954, but mining declined with the expansion of petroleum and natural gas production. Within a decade Canada rose from being an insignificant producer of petroleum (less than 8,000,000 bbl. in 1947), and a major importer, to become one of the world leaders in production, approaching 185,000,000 bbl. in 1957. Most of the production came from oil fields discovered in the Edmonton region LeducWoodbend in 1947, Redwater in 1948 and Pembina in 1955 but after 1955 Saskatchewan emerged as an important producer and smaller discoveries were made in Manitoba. Oil pipelines were built eastward to Ontario, crossing through parts of the United States south of Lake Superior, and westward to southwestern British Columbia and adjoining Washington. Northeast of Edmonton, the Athabasca oil sands area had a reserve of petroleum estimated in excess of 100,000,000,000 bbl. Many of the oil fields, but not all, were also producers of natural gas, and in addition there were separate natural gas fields. After reserves proved large enough to supply all Alberta's requirements, the natural gas was piped eastward to Ontario and Quebec, following a Canadian route north of Lake Superior, and another pipeline was constructed from northern gas fields in the Peace river district to southern British Columbia and Washington. In addition to the fuels, the interior plains also produced smaller foothills,

plains.

quantities of sodium sulfate, salt, sulfur (obtained from cleaning

natural gas), gypsum, clay and building stone.

airfield.

central section of the shield, across the Quebec-Ontario

border, had

755

tuminous, subbituminous

Northward at Lynn Lake, Man., Canada's second came into production in 1954, following the connew railway. The Saskatchewan section of the

shield lacked road or rail transport so that the large pitchblende

Production of potash began in central Saskatchewan in 1959 from deeply-buried deposits believed to be the largest and richest in the world. In the Northwest Territories section of the plains, prospecting

was hampered by the thick layer of glacial deposits across the Mackenzie river valley, and by the lake and muskeg cover which is almost impassable in summer. In the late 1950s a small oil field produced at Norman Wells, on the Mackenzie river. Development of a large lead-zinc deposit on the south side of Great Slave lake awaited transportation.

The Cordilleras of British Columbia and the Yukon contain minerals in several places, but prospecting is difficult on the steep and heavily forested slopes. The alluvial gold discovered around 1856 in the central Eraser river and tributaries brought the first settlers to interior British Columbia, and changed the political status of what had been a small British colony on the southern end of Vancouver Island. Many mines began production in the Kootenay region at the turn of the 20th century, only to become ghost towns in a few decades. In the second half of the 20th century mineral production was dominated by the lead-zinc mines Kimberley in the southeast, which ranked among the world's These and other mines shipped their ore concentrates on the Columbia river. In addition to lead and zinc the Trail refinery yielded silver, gold, tungsten, bismuth, cadmium, tin, antimony and indium. British Columbia produced copper around the llanks of the Coast mountains, both at Britannia on the south coast, and near Stewart on the north coast. Alluvial gold was of minor importance but lode gold was produced from a few mines around the edges of the interior plateau. Alluvial gold was still produced from the Klondike region of the Yukon, although not in the quantities that created the at

largest.

to smelters at Trail, B.C.,

colourful gold rush of 1897-98.

The

Arctic islands have a variety of rock types but the detailed is not known. Low-grade coal is widespread throughout

deposits north of

Lake Athabasca, around Uranium City, were supplied during the uranium boom of the late 1950s by air or

geology

water transport, largely from the Athabasca river in Alberta. IMineral deposits rich enough to withstand the high costs of transportation in the Northwest Territories were discovered along the western edges of the shield. Gold was mined after 1937 at Yellowknife, on the northeast shore of Great Slave lake, and Canada's first pitchblende deposits were in production from 1933 to 1960 at Port Radium, on the rocky east side of Great Bear lake. The interior plains are Canada's chief source of fuels. Nearly three-quarters of Canada's coal reserve of about 100,000,000,000 tons is located in Alberta and Saskatchewan; it is mainly bi-

beth group have structural possibilities for petroleum.

several of the islands, and the central islands of the sible

tion ditticulties such as

Queen

Eliza-

Any

pos-

overcome transportathe short navigation season which ranges

economic development would have

to

from about four months off southeastern Baffin Island to less than one month in the northwestern islands. Value of the annual production of Canadian minerals varies each year depending on market prices and new mineral discoveries. Petroleum, which was unimportant in 1946, had risen to first place by 1956. Nickel, copper and gold have ranked among the leading minerals by value throughout the 20th century, followed by coal.

CANADA

756

Silver is less significant than it was prior whereas iron ore is of increasing importance. In terms of world importance Canada ranks first in the production of nickel and asbestos, is placed among the leading three or four producers of uranium, copper, lead, zinc and gold, and is probably the

asbestos, zinc and lead.

the arctic coasts of west Greenland.

to 1925,

many

world's leading exporter of iron ore. 4. Fisheries. Although Canada has a great

—

number

of inland

lakes, many of them among the world's largest, most of the commercial fishing takes place off the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. British Columbia ranks as the leading producer, by value, with about one-third of the Canadian total, but the combined Atlantic provinces, plus the Gaspe coast of Quebec, constitute the main

fishing region accounting

for about

60%

of

total

fish

values.

Fishing plays a less important part in Canadian economy than do the other leading primary industries, being about one-eighth the net value of either the forestry or mining industries. In local

economies, however, the fisheries are vital to Newfoundland, and to a lesser degree Nova Scotia, and are important to communities around the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the central and north coasts of British Columbia. Canadian fishermen catch about 2,000,000,000 lb, of fish annually, but because Canadians are not particularly fisheaters and the main population concentrations are inland, away from the In some fisheries, much of the fish catch enters e.xport markets. years Canada is the world's leading fish exporting nation, noted for fish

its fresh,

frozen or dried fish from the east coast, and for canned

from the west

coast.

much of the catch is obtained from waters within a few miles of the shore; the day's haul is brought to the many small fishing villages in sheltered bays and harbours. With increased capital, however, more and more fishermen in the second half of the 20th century were obtaining bigger and better equipped On

the Atlantic coast

boats, and were working out to sea in international waters

above

Sable Island, Banquereau and Grand Bank. At the same time fish processing was being centralized in larger settlements along the coasts in order to give a standardized and higher quality product. Cod, haddock and herring continued to be the most valuable fish, as they have been since the early history of settlement, but, beginning in the 19S0s, other fish formerly of little

value were processed into frozen ket.

fillets

for the ready-cooked mar-

Along the coast lobsters ranked as the most valuable part

of the fishing industry,

most

of the catch being exported to the

eastern United States.

The west coast fishery is dominated by several species of Pacific salmon, the most valuable of Canadian fish. Salmon are netted off the river mouths when they appear in summer to begin their migrations to inland spawning waters. Most of the coastal rivers are salmon rivers but the largest, the Fraser and Skeena, have the greatest numbers caught off their mouths. The fish canning industry is concentrated in the Vancouver area, although other canneries are located northward on the coast. The halibut fishery ranks second in importance, being shared by international agreement with U.S. fishermen, and centres around the Queen CharPrince Rupert is the port for the halibut fleet and lotte Islands. for processing the product. Inland fisheries in fresh-water lakes are relatively unimportant. Catches declined notably in the Great Lakes after the mid-1 940s possibly because of overfishing, but certainly because of the destruction caused by the lamprey eel. A joint program has been launched with the United States to control the lamprey and the bulk of the Great Lakes catch has shifted from trout and whitefish to pickerel, perch, cisco (lake herring), silver bass and smelt. The great lakes of Manitoba (Manitoba, Winnipeg and Winnipegosis) support a fishery of local importance, part of the catch Farther to the being exported to the midwest United States. northwest the fishery established in Great Slave lake in 194S made that water body one of the leading fish-producing lakes in Canada. The great body of water which is Hudson bay, in the centre of Canada, does not contain fish in commercial size or quantity. Although hair seals, white whales and decreasing number of walrus are obtained for food by the Eskimos in the north, there appear to be fewer fish in the Canadian arctic than along

The

inland waters attract

from Canada and the United

sports fishermen

States, form-

ing a basis for an increasingly important tourist industry. 5.

Fur Production.

—The trapping

of furs, historically one of

the incentives to explore Canada, was by mid-20th century no longer a major primary resource. Throughout the northern coniferous forest fur trapping remained a winter occupation for

some inhabitants it was the chief

in areas away from the largest settlements, and livelihood of many Indians and most Eskimos. Since most fur-bearing animals have natural cycles of abundance and scarcity, the annual production of furs varies and the catch by species changes from year to year. Since these cycles appear to move across Canada, there are also regional variations in the year's production. Wild furs usually constitute close to 60% of the total fur production. Fur farms were started on Prince Edward Island in 1887 and spread across Canada until there were more than 10,000 fur farms

Changes in fashion and loss of European markets number of fur farms, particularly those being operated on a part-time basis. The original centres of fur farming are of minor importance, there being only about 5% of fur farm animals in the three maritime provinces as against nearly prior to 1939,

resulted in declines in the

50% in the three prairie provinces. Among the wild fur bearers, mink

are the most valuable in most by muskrat, beaver, squirrel, ermine and foxes. farm animals are mink; the only other notable fur bearers are chinchilla and foxes. 6. Water Power About 90% of Canada's electrical power is obtained from water. It supplies power to most of the industries of the St. Lawrence lowlands, and is essential to the great pulp and paper and mining industries of the Canadian shield. Water power supplies the base of industrial expansion in British Columbia, and on a smaller scale helps the industries of the Atlantic provinces. Since Canada lacks coal in its industrial heartland of southern Ontario and Quebec and, until the Alberta petroleum discoveries, also lacked oil for power, it turned to the abundant potential power of the southern shield region and the St. Lawrence years, followed

About

80%

of the fur

—

river system.

Canadian hydroelectric installations are expanding each year, growth and increased resource production. Installed turbine capacity exceeded 26,000,000 h.p. in I960 and Canada ranked second to the United States in hydroelectric power generation; its per capita power of slightly more than one horsepower was second to that of Norway. Canada's potential power resources had not yet been fully measured, especially on northern rivers, but they probably exceeded 60,000,000 h,p, at ordinary six-month flow averages. The nation was thus using less than one-third of its water-power potential. The water-power potential of the Atlantic provinces is assisted by ample precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year, and by rough or rocky topography, but is limited in that many In addition. Nova rivers are short and therefore lack volume. paralleling the country's industrial

Scotia has coal for power.

The

largest installations are located

on the island of Newfoundland, where they are used mainly for the pulp and paper industry. New Brunswick is able to make use of the St. John river, one of the longer rivers in the region, but this use requires international agreement since the headwaters are in the United States. In the second half of the 20th century the St. Lawrence lowland was the major consumer of hydroelectric power, but had only a few large power sites within its boundaries. Below Niagara falls on the Niagara river, and at Beauharnois dam, west of Montreal on the St. Lawrence river, large power plants each produced in excess of 1,500,000 h.p. The international power plant at Cornwall, constructed for the St. Lawrence seaway, generated more than 2,000,000 h.p. used both in Ontario and New York. The Canadian 'shield produced about 60% of the water power of Canada, much of which was transported to cities and industries in the nearby lowlands. The innumerable lakes of the glaciated shield serve as natural storage basins, and potential power is found along the fall line where the rivers tumble through the shield escarpment above the St. Lawrence. Rivers such as the Bersimis,

CANADA Saguenay, St. Maurice and Ottawa produce about 2,000,000 h.p. The each by utilizing several dams along the river course. southward-flowing rivers of the shield in Ontario are shorter and produce less power. Ontario also has a northern fall line, where the northward flowing rivers drop over the shield to the flat-lying Except for the Abitibi sedimentary rocks west of James bay. river, however, this potential is poorly located for development. Waters flowing westward from the shield are utilized along the English and Winnipeg rivers as they drop toward Lake Manitoba. Potential power sites are widely scattered throughout the shield, so that resource development nearly anywhere will be close to sources of power. The Nelson and Churchill rivers have falls and rapids as they tumble toward Hudson bay. In the east, the Hamilton river (q.v.) has one of the largest single sites at Grand falls in western Labrador (estimated potential more than 4.000,000 h.p.'), and northward the Koksoak and other rivers have falls as they drop toward Ungava bay. Water-power potential is relatively small in the shallow rivers of the interior plains, and is further limited by the scanty and seasonal precipitation. In addition, this region has Canada's main supply of coal, petroleum and natural gas, as cheaper competing sources of power. The mountains and rivers of the western Cordilleras rank second to the shield as sources of potential power. The mountain slopes receive the heaviest precipitation in Canada, although there is Many of a problem of seasonal distribution toward the south. the coastal rivers are quite short.

The

longer rivers which rise

down through

the coast mountains while they were being uplifted geologically, and thus do not have many falls

in the interior cut

Although power can be produced by dams across these they are the main source of salmon for the fishing industry

or rapids. rivers,

which dams might destroy. The chief power development for aluminum production at Kitimat on the northern British Columbia coast is obtained by damming an interior tributary of the Eraser river and backing up the flow through a long tunnel in the Coast mountains to drop the water almost 2,000 ft. on to turbines located near tidewater. This same principle of diversion of interior plateau rivers through the mountains to potential coastal industries applies to other areas of western British Columbia. In northern British Columbia and southern Yukon such power developments are politically complicated since the coastal locations for industries are in the U.S. state of Alaska. Other power developments in British Columbia are located on smaller rivers of the southwestern region to serve the large urban market of Vancouver, and on the tributaries of the Columbia river, such as the Kootenay. in the southeast, primarily for the mining industry. The Peace river has a large power potential where it cuts through the Rocky mountains. Canada and the United States in Jan. 1961 signed a treaty making possible the integrated and basinwide development of the water and power resources of the upper Columbia river with water-storage projects in British Columbia creating downstream flood protection in Washington and increased power production at all U.S. dams from Grand Coulee The agreement was based on 50-50 sharing of to Bonneville. added power output and payment by the U.S. to Canada for onehalf the added flood control benefits. 7. Manufacturing Canadian manufacturing industries received their first major impetus during World War I, after which trends in the economy were toward further industrialization and away from a dominant agricultural base. Although the processing of agricultural products for a relatively small domestic market and for export remained a major activity, new industries came into prominence after 1920, led by pulp and paper, transportation equipment and farm implements. World War II resulted in rapid and far-reaching industrial expansion, and Canada emerged from the war among the six leading industrial nations of the world. By 1951 manufacturing employed more than 1,000,000 persons, and had replaced agriculture as Canada's leading industry. By 1960 manufacturing industries accounted for more than 30% of the value of all goods and services produced in the country, being

—

valued in excess of $22,000,000,000. Manufacturing is concentrated in southern Ontario and Quebec.

757

These lowlands had the historical advantage of an early start and had, for Canada, a relatively large regional population as a market.

When industrial expansion came in the 20th century, the region could call on a fairly wide range of domestic raw materials nearby, an excellent transportation system, including ocean transport to Montreal and cheap movement on the Great Lakes, established banking and financial support and, of major importance, a good supply of hydroelectric power. Ontario alone normally produces nearly 50% of Canada's manufactured goods, and Quebec about 30%. British Columbia, with about 9% of the value of manufactures, produces as much as the three prairie provinces together. The Atlantic provinces have a minor share in Canadian manufacturing. Montreal is the leading industrial city. In the 1960s the value of its factory shipments was equal to the total production of the three western provinces (Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia). Toronto's manufactures were almost as valuable as those of Montreal and increasing; they were worth more than twice the total value of all manufactures from the four Atlantic provinces. The next most important industrial city was Hamilton, Ont., with Windsor, Ont., and Vancouver, B.C., competing for fourth place.

The

list

of

IS leading industries did not change significantly

between 1946 and 1960. first

The pulp and paper industry ranked in About 80% of its

place in the value of factory shipments.

output

moved abroad;

provided about half of the world's newsprint and led the world in pulp exported. The other major forest industry, sawmills, was about half as valuable as pulp and paper, but usually ranked among the leading six or seven industries. The processing of Canadian minerals is an important part of the manufacturing economy. Led in value by nonferrous metal smelting and refining (aluminum, nickel, copper, lead, zinc), the list also includes the processing of petroleum products and the manufacture of primary iron and steel. The aluminum industry, based on imported bauxite ores and Canadian hydroelectric power, is ranked second in world importance only to that of the United States. The processing of petroleum products used less than 10% Canadian crude oil in 1946, but the industry was using more than 50% Canadian oil by 1960. Although Canada has large quantities of iron ore, most is for export because of the relatively small national market. By the 1960s Canada was producing about 4,000,000 tons of pig iron and more than 5,000,000 tons of steel it

ingots and castings. Canadian agricultural products are processed for an increasing urban population and for export. Slaughtering and meat packing in the second half of the 20th century usually ranked fifth among

the leading industries, followed somewhat further down the list by butter and cheese manufacturing, the preparation of mis-

cellaneous food products, and the production of bread and baking

products. In a country of great distances the manufacturing of transportation equipment has been important throughout the 20th century,

although the actual products have changed. By the 1960s the motor vehicle industry stood in fifth place among all industries, and was further important because of the large number of such small industries as motor vehicle parts that depend on it. The manufacture of railway rolling stock declined in value relative to others. The aircraft industry arose during World War II and maintained itself as a newcomer among Canada's most valuable industries. Other industries which usually appeared on the list of leading manufactures were: industrial machinery, rubber goods, furniture, men's and women's clothing, electrical apparatus, and flour and feed mills. B.

Trade and Finance

—

Foreign Trade. Throughout the first half of the 20th century Canada became of increasing importance as a trading nation. After World War II it rose to third place .imong the trading 1.

countries of the world, following the United Mates and the United

Kingdom. After 1954 Canada ranked in fourth place behind a revived western Germany. In per capita trade Canada by the 1960s stood far ahead of the other large trading nations.

CANADA

758

About one-third of the value of Canadian exports was made up of forest products. Newsprint ranked as the leading export for many years; planks and boards and wood pulp usually ap-

The incorporation of a commercial or chartered bank requires an act of parliament, and the conditions, including a minimum subscribed capital of $1,000,000, to which the applicant for a

peared among the leading four export items. Mineral resources were of increasing importance in the export trade after 1950, also supplying about one-third of the total value. Nickel, aluminum, iron ore, copper, petroleum and uranium were the most valuable of the mineral exports, and asbestos and zinc often ranked among the leading export products. Agricultural products constituted about one-half of Canada's exports in the 1920s but their relative value had declined to less than 30% in the second half of the 20th century. Wheat maintained its position, however, usually in second place and sometimes displacing newsprint for top place among Canada's exports. Wheat flour and grains other than wheat, especially barley, were among the most valuable exports; for all these products Canada was among the leading world exporters. Canadian exports are thus based primarily on the products of the farm, the forest and the mine. At one time these products were exported in the raw state, but as Canada became an industrial nation, more and more processing was done within the country

cha,rter must conform are laid down in the Bank act. Under the provisions of this act, all bank charters come up for renewal every ten years. The Bank act of 1871 was the original act and pro-

prior to export.

Canadian imports are of a different type, and consist largely of machinery and other manufactured products which can be produced more cheaply by mass-production methods in the United States. In the early 1960s nonfarm machinery usually ranked as the most valuable import into Canada, but also on a list of the leading imports were automobile parts; electrical apparatus, tractors and parts; rolling-mill products; aircraft and parts; engines and boilers; and automobiles. Canada produced most if not all of these manufactures within its border, many by U.S. companies with Canadian branch plants, but additional large quantities were imported for the expanding economy. Mineral imports into Canada include crude petroleum, such petroleum products as fuel oil and coal. These items may appear strange as imports when Canada ranks as a leading petroleum producer and has billions of tons of coal as reserves, but petroleum in western Canada is far from the industrial areas of Quebec and from the maritime provinces in particular and the Ontario market for coal is far from both Alberta and Nova Scotia coal mines. Other imports into Canada are chiefly products which cannot be grown in the Canadian climate, such as citrus and other subtropical and tropical fruits, coffee, cotton and cane sugar. Around the start of the 20th century Canada was part of a three-cornered trade movement with the United States and Great Britain, but steadily its economic ties became closer to its U.S. neighbour. About one-half of Canada's imports came from the United States around 1900, but by the 1950s this had risen above 70%, falling below that figure in the 1960s as trade with Great Britain, west Germany and Japan gained in relative importance. The United States took about 60% of Canadian exports, the United Kingdom less than 20%, and Europe less than 10%. Latin America received about 5% of Canadian exports, and supplied

more than

5%

of

its

imports.

2.

Banking and Currency. Bank

— Commercial banking

consists es-

government-owned central bank, and eight privately owned commercial banks which have a total of about 5,000 branches in Canada. At confederation in 1867 there were 28 banks; the maximum number reached was 41 in 1886, but afterward the number was reduced, chiefly by amalgamations, to eight. Each commercial bank has a savings department but savings banks also exist, including post office savings banks run by the federal government, provincial savings banks operated by the provinces of Alberta, Ontario and Newfoundland, and two large private institutions operating under federal charters sentially of the

of Canada, a

province of Quebec. More than 4,000 credit unions, with nearly 2,000,000 members in the ten provinces, accept savings deposits and serve as co-operative agencies for extending credit. in the

revision in 1954.

In 1934 the banking system of Canada was completed by the establishment of the Bank of Canada to perform all the usual functions of a central bank. The Bank of Canada, which began operations on March 11, 1935, was at first privately owned but in 1938 the government bought out the shareholders and nationalized the bank. Bank of Canada notes are the chief currency of the country. Before the bank was established both the federal government and the chartered banks issued notes, but the Canadian note issue was discontinued and the chartered banks had to reduce their issue gradually to 25% of their paid-up capital of March 1935; the Bank act cancelled the right of chartered banks to issue or re-issue notes after 1944. The Bank of Canada can issue notes to any aggregate amount and the condition that it maintain a gold reserve equal to one-quarter of its note and deposit liabilities in Canada was suspended in 1940. The chartered banks, which formerly were not required to keep any specific reserve against their deposit habilities in Canada, later were required to keep 5% and, after 1954, not less than 8% of such deposits either on deposit with the Bank of Canada or in Bank of Canada notes. When the Canadian gold holdings were revalued in 1935, the government established an exchange fund for the purpose of aiding the stabilization of the foreign exchange.

—

3. National Finance. The national debt of Canada was $336,000,000 in 1914, but after World War II reached a peak of almost $13,500,000,000. Budget surpluses gradually reduced the debt to less than $11,008,000,000 by 1957. Budget deficits increased it again to $11,678,389,860 in 1959. This debt, which in 1914 was almost entirely repayable in London, was after World War II more than 95% repayable in Canada. Sources of federal revenue are, in order of importance, personal income tax, corporate income tax, sales taxes on commodities, excise taxes (spirits, tobaccos, etc.), customs duties and nontax revenue (post office, investments, etc.) and other receipts and

credits.

Federal expenditures, in order of size, include defense forces, on public debt, family allowances, subsicUes, special grants

interest

and tax rental payments to the provinces, veterans' pensions, old age security fund deficits and unemployment insurance fund contributions, and public works. C.

Transport and Communication

Canada has been primarily a new country with a small population exporting such bulky raw materials as wheat, lumber, pulp and paper, and minerals to densely populated industrial countries. Cheap water transportation has been fundamental. Canadian seriously affected by geographic considerations and climatic conditions. Montreal is closed in the winter season, and Halifax and Saint John, N.B., although open through the winter, are too distant from the interior to compete effectively with U.S. Atlantic ports. Vancouver benefited as an export centre by the ports are

Canadian trade within the commonwealth declined relative to the growing American trade dominance; commonwealth countries (other than the United Kingdom) accounted for about 5% of Canadian imports and exports.

vided for a decennial revision of banking law; there was a major

opening of the Panama canal. The export of wheat from the prairie provinces intensified the transport problem since it produced a peak load in early autumn The handling of great quantities of for Great Lakes shipping. wheat during the rush season involved the use of specially constructed boats, "lakers," and of elaborate loading and unloading facilities at Port Arthur and Fort William, Ont., Port Colbome, Ont., Buffalo, N.Y., and the Georgian bay ports. The Canadian canal at Sault Ste. Marie has a depth of 19 ft. and the U.S. canal 30 ft. The locks in the Welland Ship canal are 30 ft. deep and permitted lake vessels to continue to the foot of Lake Ontario. Opening of the St. Lawrence seaway, begun in 1954 and completed in 1959 at a cost to Canada of about $340,000,000, provides a deep waterway for oceangoing vessels extending about 2,200 mi.

;

CANADA from the Atlantic to the head of the Great Lakes. Railway facilities were improved in relation to the export of wheat from the prairie provinces. Especially after 1900, railways were rapidly extended for the development of traffic in western Canada; the marked increase in the export of wheat led to the construction of new lines from Winnipeg to Fort William and Port Arthur and from Georgian bay ports to Montreal, as well as to the construction of a line from Winnipeg through Cochrane, Ont., to Quebec. An additional outlet for the trade of the prairie provinces was completed with a railway to Churchill on Hudson bay in 1929. The development of the mineral industry and of pulp and paper mills in the Canadian shield was followed by the construction of numerous lines in northern Ontario and in northern Quebec, including the Ontario Northland railway and lines to the Saguenay country, and in northern Manitoba.

Railway construction virtually ceased between 1930 and 19S0. After that date new northern lines were built to tap mineral dein the shield region and in British Columbia. As in the case of canals, railway construction involved heavy expenditures on the part of the federal and provincial governments. Land grants up to 1958 of the federal government totaled about 32,000,velopments

000 ac, of provincial governments almost 16,000,000 ac. More than 95% of Canadian railway mileage (in excess of 59,000 mi. in 1960) was under the control of two great transcontinental systems, the Canadian National and the Canadian Pacific. The Canadian Pacific was incorporated in 1881 and the company built up a strong organization with low-fixed charges and a large proportion of capital in the form of common stock on which it paid 10% to 1930. The Canadian National is government-owned and the result of the amalgamation of several companies, including the Intercolonial, Canadian Northern, Grand Trunk, Grand Trunk Pacific and National Transcontinental, which found themselves in difficulties through dependence on government-guaranteed bonds and high costs of operation during World War I (see also History, above). Various units were joined and the organization rounded out as a system. Both systems have connections with U.S. roads and substantial mileage in the United States. The Ontario government owns a railway extending from North bay to James bay, and British Columbia operates the Pacific Great Eastern raOway between Vancouver and Peace river area.

The east-west pattern

of railways across southern

Canada

is

supplemented by numerous branch lines, or feeders. In new territory further extension was made by gravel roads or with river steamboats, as on the Mackenzie and the Yukon, and with the organization of air transport systems in these and in newly opened mining districts. Aircraft equipped with floats or skis were used in new districts, chiefly for passenger and mail service and in government work of surveying, mapping and prevention of forest fires. Governmentowned Trans-Canada Air Lines (T.C.A.), established in 1937, was developed to provide continuous transcontinental service from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and east and south across the Atlantic. Canadian Pacific Airlines developed overseas services to Europe, the orient and Australia and to South America, but its domestic services were confined largely to the north and west until it obtained authority to operate a limited transcontinental service in

competition with T.C.A. in 1959. Several smaller domestic airlines operated scheduled air services in Canada and a number of commonwealth and foreign air carriers held licences covering scheduled international services flying into Canada. Railway rates were placed under the jurisdiction of the board of transport commissioners formed in 1903. It also regulates telephone, telegraph and express rates and deals with problems of location, construction and operation of the railways, of Great Lakes shipping and of interprovincial and international oil and natural gas pipelines. The air transport board, established in 1944, exercises jurisdiction in all matters related to civil aviation. Transport facilities were vastly extended with the construction of roads. By 1960 there were more than 150,000 mi. of earth roads, chiefly in the prairie provinces, and about 270,000 mi. of surfaced roads of which much of the 45,000 mi, of bituminous

759

surface was in eastern Canada. The registration of more than 5,000,000 motor vehicles meant more than one vehicle for every four Canadians. The first paved highway across Canada, financed

by the federal and provincial governments, was completed The Canadian northwest was given its first land transport route with the building of the Alaska highway during World War II, and a road from the Peace river to Great Slave lake in 1948. As in the United States, truck transport increased in imjointly

in 1960.

portance after World War II. Construction of transcontinental systems of oil and natural gas pipelines during the 1950s made significant contributions to transportation in Canada. There is a crude oil pipeline extending for 1,931 mi. from Edmonton, Alta., via Superior, Wis., to Sarnia and Toronto, Ont., gathering oil from the three prairie provinces and serving Canadian and U.S. refineries en route. The other main line transports oil from Edmonton to Vancouver, B.C. and the Puget Sound area of Washington. By 1960 Canada had a network of more than 8,000 mi. of oil pipelines linking oil fields with refineries and ports. A 6S0-mi., 30-in. gas pipeline was completed in 1957 to carry gas from the Peace river area of Alberta to Vancouver and the states of the Pacific northwest. Another pipeline, completed in 1959 at a cost of about $375,000,000, carried Alberta gas 2,290 mi. across northern Ontario to Toronto and Montreal and other industrial areas in eastern Canada. Canada is one of the world's leading trading nations and much of the exports and imports move by ocean transport. Several steamship lines run between Canada and Great Britain and Europe on the Atlantic and between Canada and Asia and Australia on the Pacific. The Canadian Pacific operates an important subsidiary ocean steamship company and the Canadian National has

smaller steamship lines under

its

control.

Increase in transport facilities was accompanied by improved communications. In the second half of the 20th century telegraph wire mileage totaled more than 450,000 mi., about evenly divided

between the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific telegraphs. Submarine cables connected with the province of Newfoundland, the French island of St. Pierre, and the east coast of the United States, nine crossed the Atlantic and two crossed the Pacific. Wireless and radio stations served as communication links with northern Canada. Commercial radio and television stations were operated chiefly by the government-owned Canadian Broadcasting corporation, but there were also more than 200 privately-owned stations. Telephone service was in almost every home, there being an average of one telephone for every four persons. See also Index references under "Canada' in the Index volume. (G. E. Bl.)

—

Btbliography. Physical Geography and Geographic Regions: D. F. Putnam (ed.), Canadian Regions, a Geography of Canada (1952). Native Peoples: D. Jenness, Indians of Canada, bulletin 65, National Museum of Canada, rev. (1955), a full account of Canada's aboriginal peoples.

See also the publications ol the anthropological di-

Museum of Canada; Bureau of American Ethnology The Indian Tribes of North America, ed. by John R. Swanton (1952) J. D. Leechman, Native Tribes of Canada (1956). History, Administration and Social Conditions: R. M. Dawson, The Government of Canada (1952) Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Canada: the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress (annual) Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Canada Year Book (annual) Royal Commission on Dominion Provincial Relations, Report, vol. 1-3 H. A. Logan, Trade Unions in Canada, Their Development (1940). and Functioning (1948) Edgar W. Mclnnis, Canada, rev. ed. (1959) D. G. Creighton, Story of Canada (1959) A. R. M. Lower, Colony to Nation (1947), Canadians in the Making (1958) W. R. Watson, And All Your Beauty (1948) Margaret McWilUams, This New Canada Charles W. Jeflerys and T. W. McLean, The Picture Gallery (1948) of Canadian History, 3 vol. (1943); D. M. Le Bourdais, Canada's Century, rev. ed. (1955) Lester B. Pearson et al., Canada: Nation on the March (1953); G. Laugharne, Canada Loojts Ahead (1956); J. Katz (ed.), Canadian Education Todav (1956) M. Wade, The French Canadians, 1760-1945 (1955) Julian Park (ed.). The Culture of Contemporarv Canada (1957) G. F. G. Stanley, Canada's Soldiers, 16041960 (1960); J. B. Brebner, The North' Atlantic Triangle (1945), Canada (1960). The Economy: Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects, Report (1957) Royal Commission on Energy, First and Second Reports (1958, 1959) W. T. Easterbrook and H. G. J. Aitken, Canadian Economic History (1956) A. W. Currie, Canadian Economic Development (1951). vision. National

Bulletin

145,

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

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;

;

;

CANADA BALSAM— CANADIAN LITERATURE

760 Current history and

Book

summarized annually in Britannica (G. E. Bl.; T. F. McI.; W. L. Mo.)

statistics are

of the Year.

CANADA

BALSAM, an exudation of the North American balsam fir. Abies balsamea; called also Canada turpentine and balsam of fir. It is strictly speaking a turpentine iq.v.) and not a balsam iq.v.), and at ordinary temperature is a yellow solid. It belongs to the class of oleoresins, which are natural products consisting of resin (q.v.) dissolved in a volatile oil. It contains 24% of essential oil, 60% of resin soluble in alcohol and 16% of resin soluble only in ether. in optics

because of

its

Canada balsam

refractive index, which

is

of

importance

close to that of

is

Its chief uses are for mounting preparations for the microscope and as a cement for glass in optical work. THISTLE, a deep-rooted, erect perennial (Cirsium arvense) of Europe, extensively naturalized throughout North America, where it is found in fields and waste grounds as an exceedingly pernicious weed. It is one foot to six feet high. The staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers are sometimes borne on separate plants. The grooved stems, somewhat branched above, bear deeply cut, exceedingly prickly leaves and numerous clustered purple or white flower heads about one inch broad. As the plant spreads by long, underground rootstocks as well as by Short rotation of wind-borne seeds, it is diflicult to eradicate. crops, clipping of pastures, intense cultivation of field crops and rigorous cutting of the plant along roadsides and in waste grounds before the seeds mature are only partly effective. The best control is spraying young foliage with 2,4-D or other weed killer in full sunlight with an air temperature of 70° or higher. glass.

CANADA

(N. Tr.)

5ee Thistle.

CANADLAU CONSTITUTIONAL ACT: tional

.^CT,

see

Constitu-

Canadian.

CANADIAN LITERATURE (ENGLISH).

The

earli-

and along the St. Lawrence and Niagara frontiers were of humbler stock, mostly farmers, and literary activity began later than down east. The first name in this region is John Richardson, a native of Queenston, whose background and military adventures were almost as romantic as his novels. His best book, ]]'aco-usta (1832), a story of the days of Pontiac's descent in 1763 on Michilimackinac and Detroit, draws on the experiences of Richardson's grandparents who included Scottish Jacobite exiles and an Indian grandmother who had witnessed the siege of Detroit. Richardson is best in graphic descriptions of scene and episode; his faults are stilted dialogue and frequent lapses into melodrama. Of the early immigrants to the Canadas (Quebec and Ontario) from Britain the most literary were two sisters, Catherine Parr Traill (1802-99) and Susanna Moodie (1803-85). Although they published novels, poems and stories for children, they are remembered mainly for their autobiographical volumes: The Backwoods of Canada (1836) by Mrs. Traill and Roughing It in the Bush (1852 by Mrs. Moodie, accurate and spirited social records of pioneer life. About contemporary with these two gentlewomen were two immigrant poets of the working class: Alexander McLachlan (1818-96 ), a tailor turned farmer, whose verses are compounded of memories of poverty and social inequality in Scotland and love for the new country where "Jack's as good's his master," and Charles Heavysege (1816-76), a Montreal cabinetmaker, whose dramatic poems Saul (1857), Count Filippo (1860) and Jephthah's Daughter (1865), though often commonplace or pompous in language, are bold in design and in their implied moral and )

religious skepticism.

From Federation

to the 1920s.— In 1867 the separate coloNorth America joined in a federal union to form the Dominion of Canada except Prince Edward Island and the western territories (which joined within six years) and Newfound-

nies of British

—

was written at about the time est Canadian of the American Revolution and was largely a result of that event. The 40,000 American loyalists who took refuge in the northern colonies which had not joined in the revolt were to determine the English-speaking character of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Upper Canada (Ontario), and to give them the slight beginnings of a literature. The Rev. Jonathan Odell (1737-1818), for example, has a minor place in the literary history of his two countries as the writer of convivial lyrics and of satire on Whig rebels. It is in the next generation, however, and among the sons of the

land (which stayed out until 1949). A growing sense of national identity preceded the federal union and was cultivated by its accomplishment. The most national-minded poet in the decade before federation was Charles Sangster (1822-93), once regarded

loyalists that are found the clear beginnings of indigenous writing. Oliver Goldsmith (1794-1861), a grandnephew of the author of The Deserted Village, published an optimistic Nova Scotian imitation. The Rising Village (1825), which includes some interesting

1886). Historical romance, Canada, is best represented in this period by The Golden Dog (1877) by 'William Kirby. Superficially, it is a costume romance of the struggle between the forces of honesty and corruption in New France; but Kirby's romantic Toryism informs the plot, characterization and description, giving the novel more depth and consistency than is found in any earUer Canadian example. Meanwhile, a considerable number of semiliterary periodicals had appeared in Canada, the most notable being the Literary Garland 1838-51), the Cawdian Monthly 1872-78) and the Nation (1874-76), the organ of the "Canada First" group. A little later (1883-96) appeared the best of these periodicals, The Week, founded by Goldw^in Smith. The first editor of The Week was Charles G. D. Roberts who, with Bhss Carman, Archibald Lampman and Duncan Campbell Scott (qq.v.) wrote the best poetry composed in Canada before the 1920s. Of these, Roberts and Carman had much in common. They were first cousins, brought up in New Brunswick, educated at the same school and at the provincial university, steeped in the poetry of English romanticism and in the transcendentalism of their distant kinsman Ralph Waldo Emerson; and both were to spend many years outside Canada. Roberts is most memorable as a regional poet but he also expresses the nationalistic optimism of the end of the century. He is best in his Songs of the Common Day (1893) and similar poems where he renders the appearances of the rural scene in the St. John valley and by the wide tidal flats of Tantramar and gives to field and barn or to the lonely wood chopper at his work a representative human significance. His religious and philosophic poetry seems less authentic, a pale reflec-

literature in English

by comparison with the poem. Joseph Howe (1804-73) whose father, a proprietor of the Boston News-Letter at the time of the evacuation of the city, had taken the presses of that oldest of New England newspapers off to Halifax was the most remarkable personality in the description but suffers at every point

earlier

—

—

political life of

Nova

Scotia in his time, editor of the

Nova Sco-

and author of patriotic and narrative poems and of several volumes of travel sketches remarkable for their humour and shrewd observations. In the columns of the Nova Scotian in 1835-36 appeared the first Canadian literary work to gain international notice, The Clockmaker or the Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville. The author, Thomas Chandler Haliburton (q.v.), member of the assembly and judge, was motivated in his public life by the pro-British, anti-American and antidemoHis fellow Nova cratic prejudices of the Tory loyalist families. Scotians, most of them the descendants of New Englanders, seemed to him to have acquired most of the faults and few of the dubious virtues of the republican Yankees. In The Clockmaker, Yankee shrewdness, energy and salesmanship make an easy victim of Nova Scotian gullibility and laziness, and Haliburton joins in the laughter. The sayings and doings of Sam Slick and the vivid little pictures of frontier life make this book a minor classic, in spite of its formless and sometimes repetitious arrangement. These earliest writers all lived in the maritime provinces which had attracted a large part of the better educated loyalists of the northern Atlantic seaboard; the loyalists who settled in Quebec tian (1828-41),

,

Canadas but now remembered, if few lines in his memorial verses on Gen. Sir Isaac Brock and for some description in "The St. Lawrence and the Saguenay" (1855). In the two decades after federation Charles Mair (1838-1927), who spent most of his life in the west, found themes for poetry on the new frontier and also in Canadian hisas the unofficial laureate of the at all. for a

tory, as in his verse

drama Tecumseh

always a popular form

(

i

in

(

CANADIAN LITERATURE romantic pantheism and transcendentalism. In the case of Carman these romantic and transcendental feelings are pervasive tion of

in his regional description and the outlines of objects are often blurred by the soft haze of the poet's mood. At his best in this manner in a few stanzas or brief poems, he is very iine; more often his pseudo-Keatsian beauties and languors are over-

Carman was

sentimental and cloying.

a popular poet,

even out-

side Canada, in part because he represented two thriving literary

end of the 19th century, the cults of pagan aestheticism and of bohemian vagabondage, both having their North American temples in Greenwich \"illage. New York city. The other two poets of this so-called Confederation group, Lampman cults at the

living in Ottawa as members of the civil learned to describe the countryside in the Ottawa region with affection and exact truthfulness; but the commercial and political life of the capital he regarded with distaste and foreboding. Both his poetry of natural description and of

and Scott, were friends

Lampman

service.

comment are the expressions of a lonely and sensitive mind. Scott was also, in his way, an isolated and slightly austere figure,

social

but of a more vigorous cast of mind. Like the others he was a regionalist, but of the remote and vast northern wilderness where the Indian lived, a region and a people that Scott knew intimately during his long career in the department of Indian affairs. Scott's narrative and descriptive poetry is commonly a poetry of conflict, of man against man or of the charged energies of nature against man, but the potentially realistic violence of the themes is subdued and often given suggestions of strangeness and fantasy.

During the years 1900-20 three of these poets were living and most characteristic writing of the period was more popular. This was the first age of the best seller; regional idylls and the tales of the frontier were popular types. The romances of Ralph Connor (g.v.) and the Yukon ballads of Robert W. Service (g.v.) sold by the millions. Tom Maclnnes (1867publishing, but the

19S1), w'ho began as another rh>Tner of the gold rush, for 40 years chanted the joys of bohemian vagabondage, more plausibly than Carman, in ballade and villanelle. At the other extreme, Marjorie

(1883-1922 J, a much finer artist who also preferred combined religious feeling with end-of-thecentury aestheticism in her beautiful but often cloying historical idylls. The comic-sentimental dialect poems of rural Quebec by William H. Drummond (q.v.), beginning with The Habitant (1897), and the feminine romances of Lucy M. Montgomery (1874-1942), author of Anne of Green Gables (1908) and numerous sequels, were very popular. The best book of the period, Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town (1912) by Stephen Leacock iq.v.), is predominantly a regional idyll, though the sentiment is laced with ironic satire and the author's affection for an Ontario town does not diminish his comic sense of the pettiness of its life. In the best of his other humorous volumes, in Literary Lapses (1910) and Arcadian Adventures With the Idle Rich (1914), beyond the fun and sheer nonsense one discerns the ambivalent attitude of the genial satirist. Literature After 1920. World War I had little immediate and Pickthall

exotic verse forms,

—

direct influence on Canadian writing, but it fostered the growing nationalism and eventually an interest in Canadian cultural arts.

The founding

of the Canadian

the painters of the the

new

poets,

was one

Forum (1920) which championed little theatre movement and

of Seven, the

and offered criticism of

sign of the times.

Pratt iq.v.),

and kept

Group

who

lived in

politics, society

and the

arts,

The first of the new poets was E. J. Newfoundland until he was in his 20s

his cormections with the island during his career as a pro-

Pratt's love of the sea, his fascifessor of English in Toronto. nated interest in great sea monsters, his gusto and his impulse toward sheer fantasy are evident in The Witches' Brew (1925) and The Titans (1926). Later, most of his longer poems have been narratives of heroism: The Titanic (1935), Brebeuf and His Brethren (1940), Behind the Log (1947) poems displaying exact historical and technical knowledge, a sense of the latent heroism in ordinary men and an Elizabethan delight in the vigour and splendour of words. Pratt is an isolated figure in poetry, without predecessors or followers, but his example of a complete break from the tradition of the Confederation poets was soon followed

—

761

1920s and early 1930s by younger men, mostly influenced to some degree by T. S. Eliot. Five of them, with Pratt, in 1936 produced an important joint volume of verse, New Provinces, and all later published volumes of their own. A. J. M. Smith (1902- ), the critic of the group, and Leo Kennedy (1907- ) in the late

show most clearly the influence of Eliot; Robert Finch (1900- ) owes more to Eliot's French masters; F. R. Scott (1899- ) is most effective in brief poems of social satire; much of the special quality of Abraham Klein (1909) derives from his being a learned, sensitive Jew, steeped in the religion and history of his people and writing in Canada's most cosmopolitan city. Montreal. Among those who began to publish during the depression of the 1930s and World War II, economics and politics were predominant concerns. They include Earle Bimey (1904— ), Dorothy Livesay (1909- ), P. K. Page (1916- ) and Louis Dudek (1918- ). Of these, Bimey has the widest range: social comment and satire, war verse, regional description of his native British Columbia and About contemporary with the a fine narrative poem, "David." younger poets listed above is Patrick Anderson (1915- ) whose verbal exuberance often suggests Dylan Thomas. The aggressive naturalism of Irving Layton (1912- ) may remind one of D. H. Lawrence or of the "angry young men." He is the castigator of Puritanism and intellectualism which he apparently considers the bane of Canadian society and writing. His fellow Montrealer, Louis Dudek, as in Laughing Stalks (1958), has shown a similar attitude and temper. James Reaney (1927) is also a satirist, of small town life in southern Ontario, beneath the often complex literary and archetypal allusiveness of his poems. A rather similar preoccupation with symbol and myth, Blake and Jung, informs the poetry of Jay Macpherson (1931- ). Meanwhile, after the 1920s some able writers of prose fiction appeared, though the art of the novel was never cultivated in Canada as carefully as the art of poetry. The early novels of Frederick Philip Grove {q.v.), from Settlers of the Marsh (1925) to Fruits of the Earth (1933), are powerful and sombre studies of pioneering on the prairies, though marred by a rather stiff formality of style. Two previous volumes of western sketches. Over Prairie Trails (1922) and The Turn of the Year (1923), are the most perfect of his writings. From Jalna (1927) to Morning at Jalna (1960), Mazo de la Roche {q.v.) published 16 novels about the turbulent Whiteoak family the most massive achievement in Canadian fiction. Writers of historical fiction include Frederick Niven (1878-1944), who attempted an ambitious trilogy on the settlement of the west, and Will R. Bird (1891- ) and Thomas Raddall (1903- ), who wrote of 18th-century Nova Scotia. Philip Child (1898), who began with historical romance, turned later to contemporary realism of a clearly humanistic and humanitarian tendency, as in Day of Wrath (1945). Morley Callaghan (1903- ) has been a humanitarian realist all his career, describing with compassion the lives of the misfits, the outcasts and the morally bewildered in urban society. W. 0. Mitchell (191-t), in his short stories and novel Who Has Seen the Wind (1947), writes of small town life on the western prairies, with Hugh MacLerman special sympathy for eccentric independents. (1907- ) was a realist of regional life in Barometer Rising

—

(1941) and Each Man's Son (1951), stories of Nova Scotia somore ambitiously, he attempted to be the interpreter of

ciety;

the Canadian national character in Two Solitudes (1945). Canadian mores, in small cities of southern Ontario, provide comic themes for Robertson Davies (1914— ), the witty and versatile author of several plays, a fictional diary and collection of table talk, and satiric novels. Ethel Wilson, whose novels are set chiefly in

Vancouver and adjoining countryside, writes with sensitivity and technical skill about the private world of emotion and conflict.

—

Bibliography. R. P. Baker, A History of English-Canadian Literato the Confederation (1920); Lionel Stevenson, Appraisals of

ture

Canadian Literature (1927) W. E. Collin, The White Savannahs (1936) E. K. Brown, On Canadian Poetry, 2nd ed. (1945) Desmond Pacey, Creative Writing in Canada (1952), (ed.j, .4 Book of Canadian Stories, 2nd ed. (1950) "Letters in Canada," University of Toronto Quarterly (.\pril 1936 ff.) Canadian Literature (1959 ff.)"; R. E. Walters, A Check List of Canadian Literature and Background Materials, 162S-1950 (1959) A. J. M. Smith (ed.), The Book of Canadian Poetry, ;

;

;

;

;

;

CANADIAN LITERATURE

762

ed. (1948); Earle Birney (ed.), Twentieth Century Canadian Poetrv (1953) J. D. Robins and M. V. Ray (eds.), A Book oj Canadian Humour (1951). (J. R. Mac.)

2nd

;

CANADIAN LITERATURE (FRENCH).

The

cultural

Canada has been conditioned by the country's dual

history of

origin, resulting in a certain tension between French and English within the nation, and by a sensitivity in regard to the position Canada occupies in the company of France, Great Britain and the United States. The psychological problem is more acute in French Canada, however, and a strong urge to hold to the past long remained a prominent feature of the French-Canadian outlook. All

these considerations are reflected in the literature and thought

of French Canada.

History and Related Fields. (q.v.)

who

laid the

—

It was Francois X. Garneau foundation for the later blossoming of both

His Histoire du Canada reawakened a dormant pride of nation and inspired poets, novelists, and other historians of the day. His successors have presented points of view rang-

historical studies

and creative

appeared

years 1845 to 1848;

in the

literature.

from the strictest nationalism abbe Lionel Groulx (1878ing

it

to the broadest liberalism. )

has,

for

instance,

The

supported

strong nationalist sentiments in an abundant work which is the result of a long scholarly career; perhaps his most important pubA lication is his Histoire du Canada jrangais (4 vol., 1950-52). partisan point of view is found in the work of Robert Rumilly; his Histoire des Acadiens (2 vol., 1955) interprets the 18th century deportation of the Acadian French population as a martyrdom. Rumilly is probably better known for his detailed Histoire de la Province de Quebec, which reached volume 32 in 1960. The abbe Arthur Maheux (1884) has striven, on the other hand, to eradicate prejudices; in Ton histoire est une epopee reasons to be grateCanadians had French (1941) he showed that Jean Bruchesi's ful to Britain, even from the very beginning, wealth of factual information, marshaled in an easily accessible

more

form, makes pleasant reading of Canada: realites d'hier et d'aujourd'hm (2nd ed., 1954). Pleasant reading is also found in Msgr. Albert Tessier's solid two-volume history entitled NeuveFrance (1956) and Quebec-Canada (1958). Michel Brunei's La Presence anglaise et les Canadiens (1958) studies the thought, history, politics and economy of French Canada in the light of English-Canadian influences. It follows naturally after Edouard Montpetit's scrutiny of economic history. La Conqnete economique (3 vol., 1938-42). Various aspects of French-Canadian society are examined in J. C. Falardeau's Essais sur le Quebec contemporain (1953), Philippe Garigue's Essais sur le Canada frangais (1958), and Father P. Angers' Problemes de

Canada frangais (1960). Among the many theologians and philosophers who have contributed to religious thought was Msgr. Louis Adolphe Paquet (1859-1942), who published a series of social and religious studies in the first two decades of the 20th century in which he developed the theme of la mystique nationale, the providential mission of the French in America. This theory cast strong reflections on regional literature earlier in the 20th culture au

century.

—^The

movement of French Canada, the was inspired by F. X. Garneau and centred around Cremazie's bookshop in Quebec city. The authors of the day were imbued with a strong nationalism to which religious fervour, often sentimental in tone, was a natural adjunct. Literary inspiration was found principally in Victor Hugo and Alphonse Poetry.

first literary

Patriotic school of 1860,

de Lamartine.

Later in the 19th century Baudelaire, the Parnas-

and the Symbolists gradually replaced romantic models, and literary activity was oriented more around Montreal. In the 1930s Surrealist influences began to predominate; after World War II it was more difficult to trace lines of filiation, and one has the impression that poets felt and wrote with more independence than formerly. Young poets tended to form certain loose groups, such a,? the "Hexagone" in Montreal, which offered stimuli to their inspiration and outlets for their production. Joseph Octave Cremazie {q.v.) was the first important poet His "Chant du vieux soldat canadien," "Le of French Canada. Drapeau de Carillon," "Les Morts," "Le Canada," were still popusians

lar

poems

early in the 20th century.

success with a collection of patriotic of Victor

Hugo

in the rhetorical style

La Legende d'un peuple who celebrated Canadian

entitled

followers of Cremazie

Louis Frechette {q.v.) won

poems

(1887).

Other

hfe, its pictur-

esque customs and religious faith are Pamphile Lemay (18371918), William Chapman (1850-1917), Alfred Garneau (18361904) and Neree Beauchemin (1850-1931). These poets were precursors of the Terroir, or regionalist, school of Quebec who Blanche recorded the humble aspects of French-Canadian life. Lamontagne, the best-known of the group, published Par nos et nos rives (1917), La Vieille maison (1920) and Ma Gaspesie (1928). Other poets of the Terroir school were Albert' Ferland, Englebert Gaileze and Alphonse Desilets. In 1895 Jean Charbonneau and Paul de Martigny founded the Montreal Literary school. Canadian life, Canadian landscape and patriotism did not inspire these poets. Symbolists and aesthetes, they wished to live in the presence of beauty. Charbonneau's Sur la borne pensive (1952) invites his readers into a garden of delights where life is a spectacle of Persian lilacs, pergolas, fountains and ruined temples. These poets liked to picture their souls as beautiful things, and fimile Nelligan (1879-1941) pictured his as a ship sculptured in massive gold and laden with treasures,

champs

d'or." Paul Morin (1889) reflects his European experience in the exotic and Parnassian poems of Le Paon d'email (1911) and Poemes de cendre et d'or (1922). Louis Dantin (pen name of Eugene Sears), the critical conscience of the group, contributed Le Coflret de Crusoe (1932). Another writer of Parnassian sonnets is Alfred DesRochers, author of L'Offrande aux vierges folles (1928) and A I'ombre de I'OrJord (1929). The gusty spirit of the north country found expression in his grand "Hymne au vent du nord." Clement Marchand, poet and critic, sang of town and country in Soirs rouges (1939). In 1934 Robert Charbonneau, Fran(;ois Hertel (pen name of Rodolphe Dube) and St. Denys Garneau founded an important Charbonneau (1911- ) made literary journal called La Releve. a name for himself as a novelist and editor; Hertel and Garneau author of Regards et jeux Garneau (1912-43), were poets. For dans I'espace (1937), poetry was a means of probing the despair within himself and touching the solitude of reality. His intense feeling and superior technique have exerted a strong influence on many poets who follow him. Hertel (1905- ) as noted in such titles as Axe et parrallaxes (1941) and Strophes et catastrophes (1943), is a humourous man with a double vision. Torn between

"Le Vaisseau

sensuous delights and the consciousness of sin, Hertel is the poet of religious inquietude and metaphysical rebellion (Mes naujrages and Jeux de vier et de soleil, 1951). Alain Grandbois (1900), world traveler and exquisite poet, translated the nightmare in his soul into cosmic images. Constellations of silence, worlds vanishing, black eyes in a dark night, ghostly, insubstantial things on a swift black river, are some of the visions he conjured up in the poems of Les lies de la nuit (1944). Art of the very first order continued to appear in his subsequent works, Rivages de I'homme (1948) and L'ktoile pourpre (1957). Jean Guy Pilon (1930- ), one of the most active of poets both in publishing and in encouraging others to publish, is the founder In his Fiancee du of the Hexagone group in Montreal (1954). matin (1953) passion is balanced by illusion; in Les Cloltres de

(1954) he clothes passion in a spiritual veil. La Mouette (1960) presents the eternal themes: woman, life and death. His art is brittle and brilliant, sometimes prosaic but often cutting and impressive. Roland Giguere, publisher as well as poet, has produced a dozen titles in which Surrealist elements are evi-

I'ete

et le large

dent; Les Amies blanches (1954) is among his best. Rina Lasnier (1915- ), a Christian poet looking for perfecanticition, was inspired by the women of the Old Testament who pated the perfection of the Immaculate Virgin {Le Chant de la montee, 1947). In her Escales (1950), the pagan myth of Danae was a vehicle of ironic, metaphysical ecstasy. Presence de I'abher sence (1956) contains one of her best poems, "Malemer"; Anne latest collection is entitled Memoire sans jour (1960). impressive of contem) is possibly the most Hebert (1916seen porary poets if not the most prolific. A sure poetic progress is

CANADIAN LITERATURE between her Songes en Squilibre (1942) and Pohmes (1960) which is composed of "Le Tombeau des rois" (1953) and "Mystere de la parole." The same inspiration is seen in her volumes of poetic prose, Le Torrent (1950) and Les Chambres de hois (1958). She belongs doubly to the lineage of St. Denys Garneau, by blood relationship and the excellence of her art. Near at hand she finds symbols to express the tensions between a desire to inhabit a childhood world and the necessity of living today's existence, the "house" of the bondage of tradition and custom and the "torrent" of the essential life of the poet, the surge of impulses in which she is

fated to lose herself.

A comprehensive view of French-Canadian poetry may be had by reference to four documents: Laure Riese's collection L'Ame de la poesie canadiemie-jran^aise (1955), Guy Sylvestre's Anthologie de la poesie canadienne d'expression fratifaise (2nd ed.,

1958), G. R. Roy's book. Twelve Modern French Canadian Poets (1958), and the long-playing record Voix de 8 pontes du Canada which appeared the same year. The Novel. The history of fiction follows a course parallel to that of poetry. Romantic in mid- 19th century, it lapsed into a long period of regionalism in which authors tended to illustrate the theses of la mystique nationale, the sanctity of the land, and the virtue in remaining faithful to soil, language, race and religion. The social novel developed under naturalist influences providing an authentic picture of urban French-Canadian society. According to its author, P. A. de Gaspe, Jr., Le Chercheur de tresor (1837) is the first Canadian novel. It is a story of adventure and black magic. The best-known 19th century novel is Les Anciens Canadiens (1863), the work of P. A. de Gaspe, Sr., (q.v.) it describes seigniorial life and the tragedy of divided loyalties caused by the conquest. Charles Guerin (1852) by P. J. 0. Chauveau and Jean Rivard (1862) by Antoine Gerin-Lajoie {q.v.) depict pioneer life, intending to show that it is the duty of young Canadians to settle in Canada and not to emigrate to the indusIn this sense they anticipated Maria trial cities of New England. Chapdelaine (1916) by Louis Hemon {q.v.) and the novels of pioneering in which young people choose to carve out new homes in the northern Quebec wilderness. This theme is the mainspring of the "deserter" novels of writers like Claude Henri Grignon, author of the ever popular Un Homme et son peche (1933) and Le Diserteur (1934), where the habitant who sells his farm and

—

;

moves The

to the city

is

called a deserter.

763

glot situation in her native

Manitoba (La Petite poule

went east and recorded her observations of life in a working-class district of Montreal in a widely acclaimed novel, Bonheur d'occasion (1945). The purity of her objective art and her ironic treatment of wartime affluence gives her work a universal appeal. She continued her .skilful revelation of the frustrating insignificance of modern city living in Alexandre Chenevert (1954) in which a humble cashier is burdened by the consciousness of his fellow man's sufferings. Rue Deschambaiilt (1955) is autobiographical fiction. While Gabrielle Roy was portraying Montreal, Roger Lemelin (1919- ) was depicting life in Quebec city. The hero of his three novels, Au pied de la pente douce (1944), Les PlouSe (1948) and Pierre le Mag?iifique (1952), chafes under the limitation of his modest place in a theocratic society, torn between a desire for grandeur and a paralyzing sense of impotence. Yves Theriault (1915), a prolific novelist, dared to reach out beyond his own milieu for his subjects. Aaron (1954) is concerned with the strain on a Jewish family in a gentile world; Agaguk (1958), an Eskimo family faced with the white man's code of law; Ashini (1960), the Indian way of life. Theriault has examined other social phenomena also, bigotry in Les Vendeurs du temple (1951) and alcoholism in Cul-de-sac (1961). Gerard Bessette

(1920-

society, as in

)

is

another keen observer of French-Canadian

La Bagarre (1958), dealing with antagonistic

how education

Lemelin's humour is not as boisterous or bitter as that

functions on the local scene.

tinged with cynicism, but

it is

of Theriault in Les Vendeurs du temple, or that of Jean Simard in Felix (1947) and Hotel de la Peine (1949), not to mention the

racy quality of Rodolphe Girard's Marie Calumet (1904). Certain novelists, variously feeling the impact of Mauriac, Gide, Camus, or others more distant such as Stendhal or Dostoevski, probed the depths of the individual soul. Robert Charbonneau located his psychological studies in a small fictional town which also provides the name of his novel Pontile (1945). In it and in lis possederont la terre (1941) and Les Desirs et les jours (1948) certain people find their souls withering away just when they should have been maturing. Andre Giroux (1916- ) chose two extreme situations for his penetrating studies, a crime passiormel in Au dela des visages (1948), and a man near death from cancer in

Le Gouffre a toujours

Robert Elie (1915-

soif (1953).

picts at length the case of a manic-depressive

who

)

de-

sees life revolv-

him as in a dream (La Fin des songes, 1950), and he examines an unmotivated murder in // sufflt d'un jour (1959). Perhaps the ultimate on the theme of despair is reached by Andre Langevin (1927- ) in his novels Evade de la nuit (1951) and Poussiere sur la ville (1953), one of the most artistic novels to come out of French Canada, and far superior in style to his later ing around

a parish isolated from the cities. Germaine Guevremont (1900- ) dramatizes the progressive decadence of a pioneer family in her novels of peasant life (Le Survenant, 1945, and Marie-Didace, 1947), knowing how to clothe the bitter facts in a charming veil of poetry without distorting them. Ringuet (pen name of Philippe Panneton, 1895-1960) brought a clinical talent into fictional art and in Trente arpents (1938) viewed the migration from the farm with disarming frankness. In Fausse Monnaie (1947) he photographed the frustration of an insignificant life in the city for one whose heart remained in the country. The inner void assumes tragic proportions in Le Poids du jour (1949), where the protagonist is crushed by his environment. Historical Fiction. Works of historical fiction exploit the natural interest in past glories. Les Habits rouges (1923), by Robert de Roquebrune, revives memories of the rebellion of 1837. The same author's Testament de mon enjance (1952) pictured a golden Leo age, a delightful civilization which flowered in the 1890s. Paul Desrosiers went back to the early days of the colony for Les Opinidtres (1941), and to the fur trade of 1800 for Les Engages du Grand Portage (1939). These works on historical themes contrast with his later style as found in Sources, L'Ampoule d'or, or Vous qui passes (3 vol., 1958-60). Gabrielle Roy (1909), who caught the humour of the poly-

work Le Temps des hommes (1956).

—

social

forces in a big city, and Les Pedagogues (1961), a revelation of

feeling for the sacred earth takes the form of Franciscan mysticism in two of the works of Leo Paul Desrosiers (1896- ), Sources (1942) and L'Ampoule d'or (1951). Msgr. F. A. Savard (1896) finds inspiration for his novels of national energy in the logging industry (Menaud, maitre-draveur, 1937), and in pioneering (L'Abatis, 1943); Miniiit (1948) is an idyllic picture of life in

d'eau, 1950),

Drama.

—The theatre

is

the poor relation of French-Canadian

After Louis Frechette's Vironica (1908) there was a long void. Two excellent and successful troupes have nonetheless been founded, "Le Theatre du Nouveau Monde" in 1951 and "La literature.

Comedie Canadienne" in 1956. Gratien Gelinas (1909- ) won great popular acclaim as author and principal actor of Tit-Coq (1950) and Bousille et les Justes (1960). Eloi de Grandmont presented the deserter theme in the historical tragedy Un Fits a titer (1950). Robert Elie offers in symbolist form the anguish felt in longAndre Laurendeau gives an 1 954) example of psychological drama in Deux jemmes terribles (1961). Marcel Dube (1930- ) is sure of a wider audience with his accessible social themes in Le Temps des lilas (1958), Un Simple soldat (1958), Florence (1960). Even more popular is the appeal of certain romans fleuves or "soap operas" appearing on radio

ing for lost purity (L'Etrangere,

.

C. H. Grignon's rural drama Un Roger Lemelin's chronicle of the Plouffe family in Quebec city, or Robert Choquette's vision of Madame Velder's Montreal boardinghouse which reached literary maturity when the novel Elise V elder was published in 1958. Radio and television have, indeed, offered much scope to poets and novelists in French Canada, but especially to dramatists, and quite a number are engaged in writing specifically for this medium. Examples of

or

television;

Homme

for

example,

et son peche,

CANADIAN RIVER—CANALETTO

764 their art are ).

found

in the series Ecrits

du Canada

frattfais

(19S8-

—

Criticism. Literary criticism appeared in 1903 with the study by Louis Dantin. Msgr. Camille Roy (1870-1943). however, made one of the first systematic studies; among the many works he published the most important is his Manuel d'histoire de la litterature canadienne (1918; 10th ed., 1945). The over-all presentation was brought up to date by Rev. Samuel Baillargeon's textbook Litterature canadienne-frangaise (1957), which, however, was almost immediately rendered obsolete by Gerard Tougas' Histoire de la litterature canadienne jranof the poet fimile Nelligan

(1960). Available literary histories are often eclectic or sketchy, as are, for example, Berthelot Brunei's Histoire de la litterature canadienne-frangaise (1946), Dostaler O'Leary's Roman canadien-frangais (1954), Laure Riese's introduction to L'Ame de la poesie canadienne-frangaise (1955), or the Essais (oise

The (1958) of the Academie Canadienne-Franqaise. presentation is thorough, on the other hand, in Jeanne PaulCrouzet's Poesie au Canada (1946), Jean Beraud's 350 ans de theatre au Canada frangais (1958), and Seraphin Marion's 10volume study of the 19th century, Les Lettres ca?tadiennes d'autreThe University of Toronto Quarterly has pubfois (1939-59). lished an excellent annual review of French-Canadian letters since critiques

1936.

Other important critics may be mentioned by name rather than by their various publications: Roger Duhamel, Rene Gameau, Guy Sylvestre, W. E. Collin and Andre Belleau. Bibliography. Philippe Garigue, A Bibliographical Introduction to the Study of French Canada (1956); G. Martin (ed.), Bibliographic sommaire du Canada frangais, 1S54-1954 (1954) Societe des Ecrivains

—

;

Canadiens, Bulletin bibliographigue (1937- ); G. Toupas, Histoire de la litterature canadienne-frangaise (1960). (J. S. Te.) Rising in the mountains of north-

CANADIAN RIVER. New

Mexico and flowing southward across Las Vegas Canadian river cuts a gorge nearly 1,500 ft. deep in the Canadian escarpment before turning eastward. It continues its course through the Panhandle of Texas in a deep, narrow valley cut into reddish sandstones, the walls of which are known locally Continuing eastward through Oklahoma, the as "the breaks." Canadian joins the Arkansas at the western edge of the Boston mountains. During dry seasons, usually late summer and early fall, little or no flow exists, but spring snow melt or summer thunderstorms may raise the level to raging flood proportions. A crest of 24 ft. was recorded near Amarillo, Tex., in May 1914. Through most of fts 906-mi. course, the Canadian is a braided stream with an interlacing system of channels. The main tributary of the Canadian is the North Canadian with a drainage area of 14,290 sq.mi. It enters the Canadian below Eufaula, Okla. Its flow is partly controlled through Lake Overholser and Lake Hefner, storage reservoirs which supply domestic water for Oklahoma City. Other tributaries include Mora river and Ute creek (N.M.) and Mustang creek (Tex.). Control works on the Canadian include Conchas dam and reservoir which irrigates about 33,000 ac. near Tucumcari. N.M. Above Conchas dam the Canadian irrigates about 57,000 ac. The total drainage area of the main Canadian is about 47,576 sq.mi. "The breaks" and other deeply eroded indentations into the Llano Estacado (g-v.) and the high plains caused by the Canadian and its system occur in a semiarid climate where shrubs and low Because of the rugged terrain and many grasses predominate.

eastern

plains, the

the chief centres of the fish canning industry in Turkey. Because of its location, controlling the Dardanelles, it has always been of The site of ancient Troy, near great importance strategically.

Hisarlik on the Aegean coast,

The

il

is

Its eastern

337,610 at the 1960 census.

mountainous and forested.

Mt. Ida

in the southeast reaches 5,797

with

about 20 mi. S.W. from the town.

of Canakkale (area 3,759 sq.mi.) had a population of

warm summers and

ft.

and southern parts are (Turkish Kaz Dagi)

iq.v.)

The

climate

Mediterranean,

is

relatively mild winters.

and valonia are the chief products of the

Cereals, cheese

il.

(N. Tu.;

S.

Er.; E. Tu.)

CANAL: see Water Transport, Inland. CANALEJAS Y MENDEZ, JOSE (1854-1912),

Spanish statesman who was prime minister from 1910 to 1912, was bom He graduated from Madrid uniat El Ferrol on July 31, 1S54. versity in 1872, took two doctorates the following year, and then for the railway company of which his father was a direcBeginning his political career in 1881, when he was elected to the Cortes for Soria, he gained rapid promotion undersecretary in the prime minister's department in 1883, successively minister of public works and of justice in 1888, and minister of finance in Canalejas stood on the extreme left wing of the Spanish 1894. Liberal party and believed strongly in imposing restrictions upon the religious orders and in suppressing the latifundia. His ministry, which succeeded Segismundo Morel's government in Feb. 1910, undertook a great deal of social reform, but was especially concerned with three problems: Morocco, the religious orders and industrial unrest {see Spain: History). Canalejas displayed great energy in dealing with the series of strikes and civil and military disturbances which occurred during 1910-12, but his firmness meant forfeiting the support of the moderate republican left, and led to his assassination in Madrid on Nov. 12, 1912.

worked tor.

:

See Jose Francos Rodriguez, La Vida de Canalejas (1918) de Canalejas, Reflexiones sobre la vida de mi padre (1928).

CANALETTO,

;

Duque

name commonly

given to the Venetian painter and etcher Antonio Canal (1697-1768) and sometimes applied to Bernardo Bellotto (q.v.), his nephew and pupil. the

Antonio Canal or Canale was bom and received his early training there

at Venice

on Oct.

18, 1697,

in the studio of his father,

Bernardo, a painter of theatrical scenery in the style of the Bibienas. About 1719 he abandoned this career and, probably at the suggestion of the view painter Luca Carlevaris, went to Rome where he came under the influence of the Dutch painters of classical ruins and perhaps of Giovanni Pannini. On his return in 1720 he adopted a career of a painter of views of Venice for foreign visitors, a course in which his early training in architectural draftsmanship stood him in good stead. At first he probably collaborated with Carlevaris, but was already working independently by 1722 when he received his earliest commission from an English-

deep box canyons, this area was a favourite hiding place for bandits and rustlers. The name may have come from early French traders and hunters from Canada who followed it west into Spanish territory. The southern route for early U.S. immigrants to California (C. N. C.) lay along the south bank to Santa Fe. a town in Turkey and capital of an il (province) of the same name which includes the peninsula of Gallipoli and the island of Imroz (qq.v.). the ancient Troad and adjoining

CANAKKALE,

The town lies at the mouth of the Rhodius) and at the narrowest part of the Dardanelles {q.v.) strait which is there only one mile wide. The pottery trade, from which the town derived its name {canak means "pot" in Turkish), has declined, but the town has become one of islands.

Koca

Pop. (1960) 19,391.

river (anc.

•THE SQUARE OF SAINT MARKS' BY CANALETTO. LERY OF ART. WASHINGTON. DC.

N

THE NATIONAL GAL-

CANAR— CANARY man.

Thereafter English visitors to Venice were to play a predominating role among his patrons, many of his commissions coming through Joseph Smith, merchant, art collector and later British consul at Venice, whose own magnificent collection of Canaletto's work was purchased for the British crown in 1763. In 1741-43 Canaletto painted a series of large views of Rome and may even have revisited the city. The outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession perhaps deprived him of his English patrons and induced him to visit England in 1746. His scenes of London, of the country houses of his patrons and of provincial cities brought him success as great as had his X'enetian work, and except for two short visits to Venice he resided in England more or less continuously until 1755. He was elected a member of the Venetian academy in 1763. He died in Venice on June 20, 1768. Canaletto's early style is broad and impressionistic, but under the pressure of prodigious success he adopted an increasingly lucid,

them

to

work under

765 its

cover, but while he shielded and encouraged

others he lacked enthusiasm for the cause or the power of decisive His task was made more difficult by the fact that the rival security office, the Reichssicherheitshauptamt, a department

action.

SS (SchntzstaSel) under Hcinrich Himmler and Ernst Kaltenbrunner, sought to gain control over the Abwehr in order to extend the empire of the SS within the regime. He thus found himself carrying on genuine and active (though not always sucof the

cessful) intelligence

work against the

Allies;

defending his

own

organization against his Nazi rivals; and at the same time shielding conspirators against the regime that employed him. Investi-

and firm manner suited to the demands of his clients for accurate views of the city and more readily taught to assistants; toward the end of his life, marked mannerisms tended to displace

Abwehr inevitably uncovered evidence Himmler made no use of such knowledge when, in Feb. 1944, he persuaded Hitler to disband the Abwehr, on grounds of inefficiency, and to place it under his control. Canaris was transferred to the economic staff of the armed forces, where he remained until after the abortive plot of July 20, 1944, against Hitler. He was then arrested. He was executed at Flossenbiirg concentration camp on April 9, 1945. (W. Kp.J

accurate observations of nature. Among his contemporaries he was renowned for his masterly use of the camera obscura in preIn addition to view painting he executed paring his drawings.

a finch (q.v.) best known as the yellow cage bird, descended from the wild canary Seriniis canarius canariiis of the Canary Islands, the Azores and Madeira. The serin, S. c. serintis,

linear

gations by the SS into the of treason; but

CANARY,

many

capricii in which real buildings from different sites were combined in an imaginary setting; he was a skilled draftsman and produced many drawings for engravers, his last important commission in 1763 being for drawings for a set of engravings of the About principal ceremonial functions performed by the doge.

of

of his

many

pupils are known.

the

The birds live in pairs; the female builds a cup-shaped seeds.

It is possible,

however, that Francesco Guardi (g.v.) worked in Canaletto's He was widely imitated studio briefly between 1755 and 1765. during his lifetime in Venice and England.

nest in a tree or bush and lays

three to six pale blue, brownish

spotted eggs. As a cage bird, the canary was introduced into Europe in the 16th century and quickly became

—

Bibliography. R. Pallucchini, Pittura veneziana del settecento (1951); D. von Hadein, The Drawings of Antonio Canal Called Canaletto (1929); K. T. Parker, The Drawings of Antonio Canaletto in the Collection of His Majestv the King at Windsor Castle (194S) F. J. B.JVatson, Canaletto, rev. ed. (1954). (F. J. B. W.; X.) a province of highland Ecuador, bounded north by

with

conhead, breast and rump in the male. It lives in small flocks, has an undulating flight, perches in trees, hops on the ground and eats

1742 he executed a series of etchings of great brilliancy. Th(,\ of aerial perspective seen in his paintingHe utilized a simple system of shading in parallels but gave hilines a slight sinuosity which seemed to invest the atmosphere with a misty heat. He etched 31 plates. Except for his nephew Bellotto

names of none

is a close relative. wild canary is about five long and is a streaked,

greenish-brown bird spicuous yellow on

show the same command

the

Europe

The inches

;

CANAR,

Guayas and Chimborazo. Azuay.

east

by Oriente, south and southwest by

Area 1.034 sq.mi.; pop. (1960

popular and WILD CANARY (SERINUS CANARIUS CANARIUS)

much changed under The common

domestication.

u ij household canary v

•

is

i

ii

clear yellow,

Cuenca on the east and the valley of the Naranjal river on the northwest. The higher slopes of the mountains are used for the pasture of sheep. Around the capital, Azogues, the farms provide pasture for cattle and produce maize, wheat, barley, potatoes and

cinnamon or mottled in colour. Among the fancy breeds are some with pure white, orange or spangled plumage. Others have crests or caps of long, fiat feathers, or frilled or recurved plumage. There are breeds of large size, up to eight inches long; and those that, when excited, adopt grotesque poses with the neck held at a strange angle; and

fruit.

those like the rollers that are bred for sweetness of song.

est.)

127,700.

Cafiar includes a part of the high cordillera, a part of the basin

of

In the deeply cut valley of the Naranjal river there are plantations of sugar cane and coffee. There are small deposits of coal and ores of gold, silver, copper and mercury, none of much importance. Around Cuenca householders weave panama hats.

CANARIS,

(P. E. J.)

WILHELM

(1887-1945), German admiral remembered for his ambiguous role as head of military intelligence under the Nazi regime, was born at Aplerbeck, in Westphalia, on He served at sea and Jan. 1, 1887, the son of an industrialist. in naval intelligence in Madrid during World War I. A member of the military tribunal that sentenced the murderers of Rosa Luxemburg in 1919, he is alleged to have assisted the subsequent escape of one of the condemned officers. In Jan. 193S he was appointed head of the Abwelir (the military intelligence branch of the high

command

of the

German armed

forces).

In this position

he played an important part in organizing German aid to Spain during the civil war, but he had little sympathy for the Nazi regime, which he considered destructive of traditional conservative values and dangerous to Germany by its foreign ambitions. Canaris participated in the resistance to Hitler from 1938 to 1944, but his exact role is difficult to determine. He enlisted some of the conspirators into the Abwehr (although it was his subordinate. Gen. Hans Oster, who sponsored them) and enabled

green,

Canaries do well in cages that are about 12 in. in each dimenThey do not need space to fly, but need round perches to exercise. The bottom of the cage should be covered with clean sand that is changed frequently for cleanliness: the sand also supplies grit for the bird's gizzard. Canaries are hardy birds, but they need sunshine and fresh air, and protection against drafts and too-high temperatures. Canaries may catch cold if subjected to too much heat, for instance when they are placed too close to a radiator. Their food consists chiefly of small seeds, such as those of millet, rape, canary, poppy, etc. these should be given in moderate amounts only, for overfeeding is the commonest cause of illness. They should be fed fresh green food such as chickweed or lettuce and the surplus removed before it wilts. Clean drinking water is essential, and also water in a shallow dish for frequent bathing. When the birds are molting, they are voiceless; at that time a diet supplement, or "voice restorer," is advisable. The supplement usually includes egg cake or zwieback, poppy and flaxseed, and cayenne pepper; the pepper intensifies the yellow of the growing feathers. To breed canaries, a pair is placed together in a cage in early spring. The cage is about IS in. high, 10 in. deep and 24 in. long; all sides are covered except for the wire front. Nest receptacles and soft materials for building the nest are provided, and supsion.

hop on for

;

CANARY ISLANDS

766

plementary "egg food" of grated hard-boiled egg and bread is The female builds, lays and incubates, being fed by the given. male during this time. The young hatch in 13 days, are fed by both parents, and leave the nest in about 3 weeks. About a week later they learn to feed themselves, and then are separated from the parents. The female may quickly start another family. The young are gradually changed to the adult diet. When the adults begin to molt in midsummer, they are separated until molting is (A. L. Rd.) concluded. ISLANDS (Islas Canarias), a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic ocean, between 27° 49' and 29° 27' N. and 13° 20' and 18° 12' W. The minimum distance from the northwest African mainland is 67 mi. between Fuerteventura and Cape

CANARY

Area 2,808 sq.mi. Physical Geography.

Juby.

— Physically

The

and

fall

into

two

from a deep ocean

rising directly

floor.

eastern group comprises Fuerteventura, Lanzarote (qq.v.) and surmounting a single submarine plateau less than 4,500

six islets, ft.

deep.

several species of lizard thrive.

—

Vegetation. Of the 900 species of wild flowering plants found over 300 are indigenous. The latter show strong affinities with the flora of the Mediterranean region and tropical east Africa and weak affinities with the vegetation of eastern Asia and the new world. The scanty rainfall and porous vol-

in the Canaries just

canic surfaces cause large tracts of the drier islands to be almost

the Canaries

The western group includes Tenerife, Grand Canary, Palma, Gomera (gg.v.) and Hierro (Ferro) and consists of moun-

groups.

tain peaks, isolated

animals have become naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting. About 220 species have been recorded and of these, 75 breed locally and more than 40 are peculiar to this archipelago. Notable native birds include a large blue chaffinch, the houbara bustard, the black oyster catcher, the black-breasted sand grouse, the Canary chat, the greenish-brown wild canary (Serinus canarius canarius) and the trumpeter bullfinch. There are no snakes but

After the researches of Christian Leopold von Buch

Canary Islands, which are Madeira and the Azores, became clasThey are merely cones sical ground to the student of volcanism. of ejection, formed by volcanic eruptions during and after the Tertiary Age. The lavas consist chiefly of basalts and trachytes. Climate. The Canaries are situated most of the year within the northeast trade wind and at the eastern edge of a vast subtropical anticyclone. The trade wind blows strongly and steadily all the summer but in winter may be interrupted by winds from between southeast and west which occasionally bring hot dusty weather, and, very rarely, locusts, from the mainland. In winter the passage of shallow depressions causes most of the archipelago's scanty rainfall. The climate is warm and dry. On the lower parts, February, the coolest month, has a mean temperature of about 60° to 64° F. and August, the hottest month, of 74° to 76° F. exSunshine is cept in the eastern islands, which can be very hot. abundant at all seasons and rainfall, except on more exposed parts The more variable. islands, small and western the some of of populous districts have mean annual rainfalls of between 5 and IS in., with about 50 to 60 rain days, but most of this falls in a few short, heavy storms in winter. The lower, eastern islands experience long periods of drought. Snow does not fall below about 3,000 ft. and is unusual below 5,000 ft. The Pico de Teide on Tenerife is often snow-clad above 8,000 ft. from December to March. This grand peak was the scene of a remarkable step in the progress of meteorology when in Aug. 1856 Charles Piazzi Smyth made two ascents that demonstrated the layering of the atmosphere in trade-wind areas. Animal Life. There were probably no indigenous mammals on the Canaries at the time of their discovery by Europeans. The dog, swine, goat and sheep found there by the Spaniards had probably been introduced by earlier invading peoples from Africa. The ferret, rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and bat and various domestic (g.v.) in the early 19th century, the

geologically associated with

—

—

ATLANTIC OCEAN

barren.

Yet the xerophytic plant

life is

of great interest, especially

the cactuslike Euphorbia, of which about 25 species occur, and the

{Dracaena draco). The considerable height all of which exceed 4,000 ft., allows a wide range of subtropical and temperate plants to flourish. The following scheme for Tenerife illustrates the general zonal arrangement of vegetation, wild and cultivated, with increase of altitude: (1) From sea level to about 1,300 ft. the climate resembles that of Egypt and the characteristic plants of arid tracts are Euphorbia and Sempervivum. The better-watered or irrigated lands yield crops such as bananas, oranges, coffee, dates, sugar cane and tobacco. (2) From 1,300 to about 2,400 ft. the climate resembles that of southern Italy and the chief crops are wheat, barley, maize corn), potatoes and grapes. Where the rainfall suffices trees such as laurel, fig, walnut, almond and eucalyptus thrive. (3) Between 2,400 and 4,000 ft. is the main cloud layer and the climate becomes appreciably cooler except during southerly winds. Rather open

famous dragon

tree

of the western islands,

(

formations and, in wetter places, quite dense stands of indigenous trees occur, including Ardisia, Ilex,

Rhanmus, Oka, Myrica and

From

4,000 to just about 6,000 ft., athwart the normal upper edge of the cloud layer, the Canary pine (Pinus canariensis) is dominant but tree heaths are fairly common and in some localities the faya (a beechlike shrub), Canary laurel and juniper. (5) Above about 6,000 ft., or above the cloud layer, the tree growth is replaced first by a narrow belt where escobdn (Cytisus proliferus) and the gorselike codeso (Adenocarpus viscosus) provide important fodder supplies, and then by a wide zone where the pumice-and-lava-strewn slopes are dotted with retama, a various species of laurel.

(4)

dark-green broom which bears white and pink flowers. (6) Above about 10,500 ft. snow lies for many months and vegetation is al-

most absent.

Population and Administration.

—The Guanches

(g.v.)

who

occupied the islands at the time of the Spanish invasion no longer The present inhabitants, or Canarios, exist as a separate race. are slightly darker than the people of Spain but otherwise are scarcely distinguishable from them. The men are of middle height, good physique and strong. Spanish is the only language in use and Spanish customs are stoutly maintained. Since 1900, when fully 80% of the Canarios could neither read nor write, education has progressed rapidly. Good schools are numerous and there is a university (founded 1701) at La Laguna, Tenerife. The staple diet AUBRANZA'^ of many of the poorer people is 0H/(CIOSX'9n composed of fish, potatoes and.

which usually consists of maize or wheat roasted, salted, ground and kneaded with water Pop. (1960 est.) 918,or milk. gofio,

^

L8 Laguiia •

TENERIFE

^-'

de Tenerife //^'-^ '•"'!

068. FUERTEVENTURA,

The archipelago formed one Spanish

metropolitan

until 1927,

teC/

ATLANTIC OCEAN CANARY ISLANDS. OFF COAST OF CAPE JUBY. AFRICA. SHOWING MAJOR TOWNS

when

rivalry

province

between

the two ports, Las Palmas de

Gran

Canaria (g.v.) and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, caused it to be diTo vided into two provinces. the province of Las Palmas were allocated

Grand Canary (Gran

— ;

CANASTA Canaria), Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, together with three inhabited islets (Alegranza, Graciosa, Lobos) and several uninhabited rocky islets. Santa Cruz de Tenerif e province comprises the islands of Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierro. Appropriate civil

and military provincial

officials reside in both capitals. In addieach of the seven main islands of the archipelago has its own council (cabildo insular) under a deputy civil governor. Roman Catholicism is the official religion, and ecclesiastical law is the same as in other Spanish provinces. La Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees in the archbishopric of Seville. Economy. Because of the mild temperatures and richness of the volcanic soils, agriculture in the Canaries is usually profitable and varied. Yet land values are extraordinarily high because the soil forms the only popular investment and relatively large areas

tion,

—

are too dry, too rocky, too steep or inaccessible for cultivation.

Land values vary with the amount

of water available and with and ease of access to ports. Until 1853 wine, largely from vines grown on unwatered slopes, formed the staple product and exports of it often exceeded £500,000 annually. In that year a grape disease caused by phylloxera (a. plant louse) attacked the vineyards, and \'iticulture was soon largely replaced by cochineal production. The cochineal insect, introduced in 1825, throve on a local cactus and yielded annual exports worth £750,000 by 1869. The boom imparted a lasting benefit to Canarian agriculture, as landowners undertook elaborate terracing and in places even broke up lava streams to expose the ancient soil buried beneath. The cochineal industry declined (because of competition from synthetic altitude

dyes) in the late 19th century in favour of the cultivation of sugar cane and later of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and various other vegetables and fruits. By the early 1960s the banana, which oc-

cupied about 20,000 ac. of the lower areas, was the main cash crop. and mackerel, is important locally. The Canaries lie athwart trade routes from Europe to South Africa and to Central and South America. The chief ports are Las Fishing, especially of tunny, hake, sardine

Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife (q.v.). which together are entered annually by about 8,000 vessels totaling 10,-

The

by steamship servwith Madrid and west Africa and maintain air services between each other and to the islands of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and La Palma. The is000.000 tons. ices.

The two

islands are interconnected

capital cities are linked

by

airlines

lands enjoy a popular reputation as a winter resort.

—

History. The Romans learned of the Canaries through Juba. king of Mauretania, whose account of an expedition to the islands, made about 40 B.C., was preserved by Plutarch and the elder Pliny. The latter mentions "Canaria, so called from the multitude of dogs [canat'l of great size." Ferro, then the most westerly place known,

was chosen

in

about

a.d.

150 by Ptolemy for the prime meridian some navigators con-

of longitude, and until the late 18th century

When the ideas of the early tinued to reckon from this line. cosmographers were lost the Canaries became almost mythological (see Isles of the Blest), but as early as 999 the Arabs landed and traded on Grand Canary. During the 13th and 14th centuries Genoese, Majorcan, Portuguese and French navigators visited the islands. In 1402 Gadifer de la Salle and Jean de Bethencourt (q.v.) sailed from La Rochelle and soon occupied Lanzarote. Bethencourt went to Cadiz for reinforcements and returned in 1404 with the title of king, which he had secured from Henry III of BethenCastile. Thereupon Gadifer, feeling slighted, departed. court completed the conquest of Fuerteventura and Ferro and in Dec. 1406 returned to Europe, leaving his nephew Maciot in charge Eight years of misrule followed before Queen Catherine of Castile intervened. At this, Maciot de Bethencourt sold his office first to the queen's envoy, then to Prince Henry of Portugal and finally to a Spanish count. Between 1420 and 1479 the Portuguese made attempts to establish a base in the archipelago, and a force sent by Prince Henry subdued Gomera. The various claims, still more tangled, were straightened in 1479 when the treaty of Alcagovas between Portugal and Castile recognized Spanish sovereignty. The bitter conquest of the three more popIn 1483 the few hundred surviving ulous islands then began. Guanche warriors on Grand Canary surrendered; La Palma was

of the islands.

767

conquered in 1491 and Tenerife in 1496. The islands were used by Columbus and became an indispensable Spanish base on sea routes to America. As such they were attacked sporadically by the Moors and by such English captains as Drake, Hawkins, Blake and Nelson. In 1833-34 the islands were linked by submarine cable to Europe and America. In 1936 Gen. Francisco Franco used the Canaries as the first base of the nationalist revolution, going from there to Spanish Morocco. Bibliography. C. J. Pitard and L. Proust, Les ties Canaries (1908) D. A. Bannerman, The Canary Islands, Their History, Natural History and Scenery (1922) E. A. Hooton, The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands (1925) L. Lindinger, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis von Vegetation und Flora der kanarischen Inseln (1926) J. Matznetter, "Der finally

—

;

;

;

Trockenfeldbau auf den kanarischen Inseln," Mitt. Geogr. Ges. Wien, pp. 79-96 (1955), "Die Kanarischen Inseln," Eng. Heft Nr. 266, Peternianns geogr. Mitt. (1958) Islands (1959).

;

A. Gordon-Brown, Madeira and the Canary (R. P. Be.)

CANASTA,

a card game of the rummy {q.v.) family and itself the progenitor of a large group of games including notably samba, Bolivia, Cuban canasta, Italian canasta and others. The name canasta, which is the Spanish word for "basket," probably derives from the tray placed in the centre of the table to hold the

undealt cards and discards. The basic form of canasta originated in Uruguay in the late By 1948 it was the most popular 1940s, probably about 1947.

Argentina and in 1949 it was inwhere it had a vogue comparable only to those of mah-jongg in 1923-24 and contract bridge in 1930-32. By the end of 195 1 the number of canasta players in the U.S. and Canada was estimated at more than 30,000,000, and for the first time since 193 1 contract bridge had dropped from first place among the most popular games. Canasta's commercial record had never been matched or even approached by any other game in a similarly brief period; between 1949 and the end of 1952 canasta accounted for the sale of more than 5,000,000 books and about $300,000,000 worth of playing cards, other equipment and accessories. By 1953 contract bridge had regained first place among card games in the U.S. but canasta in its various forms continued to be much played. In Great Britain and on the continent canasta never had more than moderate success. Throughout Latin America canasta remained the principal social card game after its North .'\merican vogue had ended. The Game: Four-Hand Canasta. This has usually been the most popular form of the game. The four players form two part-

game

in the fashionable clubs of

troduced

in the U.S.,

—

nerships, partners

pack

is

used, two

jokers and deuces

facing each other across the table. A 108-card standard 52-card packs plus four jokers. All are wild; i.e., may represent any card. Eleven each player, the undealt portion of the pack is

cards are dealt to placed on the table as the stock and the top card of the stock is turned up to start the discard pile. The player at the dealer's Each player in turn must draw, may meld left has the first turn.

and must discard one card face up on the discard of partners are combined.

pile.

The melds

In drawing, a player may take the top card of the stock or he is able to use it immediately in a meld the top card of the discard pile, in which case he takes also the entire discard pile. A meld consists of three or more cards of the same rank (sequences may not be melded), including at least two natural A meld of seven or cards and not more than three wild cards.

—

if

more cards canasta

if

of the it

same rank

includes one or

is called a canasta and is a mixed more wild cards and a natural or Having drawn and melded

contains no wild card.

pure canasta if it he wishes, the player discards one card. A player may add a card or cards to his side's previous meld of the same rank and a canasta may be completed in this way. The discard pile is said to be "frozen" for a side that has not melded and for both sides if it includes a red three or any wild card. When the discard pile is frozen, a player may take it only if he The has in his hand a natural pair matching the top discard. "official" laws of the game, made first (1950) by the Regency club of New York city and later (1951) revised by an international committee of U.S. and Argentine authorities, permit a

if

CANBERRA— CANCELLI

768

player to take the discard pile for a new meld if he can match its top card with one natural card and one wild card, or to add the top discard to a previous meld; but players in both North

and South America have generally disregarded this provision and demand a natural matching pair to take the discard pile at any time. It is customary also to rule that no card may be added to a completed canasta. Each card has a value in points: 50 for a joker, 20 for a deuce or ace, 10 for a card from king to eight, and s for a card from seven to three. A side's first meld in each deal must have a value of 15 if the side's score at the beginning of the deal was minus; 50 if its score was less than 1,500; 90 if its score was at least When a side's 1,500; and 120 if its score was at least 3.000. score at the end of a hand is 5,000 or more, the game ends. The side with the higher score wins the game. A hand ends when a player goes out (melds his last card). A player may not go out unless his side has completed at least one canasta. At the end of a hand, each side scores the point value of each card it has melded, plus 300 for each mixed canasta, plus 500 for each natural canasta, plus 100 for going out, less the point value of all unmelded cards in the partners' hands. Three-spots have special values and functions. Each player, at

must remove from his hand any red threes and lay them face upon the table, drawing from the stock to restore his hand. Thereafter, when a player draws a red three, he must immediately face it and draw a replacement card from the stock. At the end of a hand a side scores 100 for each red three it has obtained (800 for all four of them ). provided it has made any meld; if it has his first turn,

not melded, these scores are charged against it. A black three when discarded stops the next opponent from taking the discard pile. Black threes may be melded only in the turn in which one goes out.

The object of the game is to score points by making as many melds, especially canastas, as possible. It is losing play to meld one's cards too rapidly or to go out too soon.

Two-Hand Canasta.

—

Canasta for two players differs only from the above. Fifteen cards are dealt to each player. A player draws two cards from the stock but discards only one. To go out, a player must complete two canastas. Three-Pack Canasta. For three or six players (the latter in two partnerships of three each, or three partnerships of two each 1, three regular packs plus six jokers are used and 15 cards are dealt to each player. Other rules are as in four-hand canasta. Samba. Three 53-card packs plus six jokers are used. A sequence of three or more cards in the same suit may be melded and a seven-card sequence, or samba, ranks as a canasta (for the purpose of going outj and scores a bonus of 1,500 points. The top discard may never be taken without a natural matching pair. No meld may contain more than two wild cards. In each turn a player draws two cards from the stock (unless he takes the discard pile) and discards only one card. The discard pile may never be taken to add its top card to a sequence, and no wild card may be melded with a sequence. Game is 10,000, and the initial meld requirement for a side with 7,000 or more is 150. Bolivia. Three or more wild cards may be melded, the same as natural cards, and a canasta of wild cards pays a bonus of Game is 15.000. A black three left in the hand when a 2.500. slightly

—

—

—

player goes out counts 100 against the holder. Other Variations. There are many other variations of canasta, most of them permitting the melding of sequences or wild cards and paying special bonuses for designated melds. See Oswald Jacoby, Complete Canasta (1951) Ottilie Reilly, Bolivia (O. Jy.; A. H. Md.) (1954), Brazilian Canasta (1956).

—

;

CANBERRA,

the national capital of the

commonwealth

of

lies in the Australian Capital Territory (q.v.), 190 mi. S.W. of Sydney by road, 418 mi. N.E. of Melbourne. 760 mi. E. and about 70 mi. from the Pacific coast. Pop. (1954)

Australia,

of Adelaide

28.277.

Like Washington, D.C., and certain other federal cities, Canberra was deliberately chosen and planned as a capital, on a site

formerly in 1820;

little it

occupied.

was reported

The

area was

first

entered by white

men

as being "perfectly sound, well watered.

with extensive meadows of rich land on either side of the rivers" and having plentiful building materials. A small permanent settlement was made, probably in 1824. when stockmen squatted at "Canberry," or "Canbury," as it was called, which gradually expanded; in 1845 part of the church of St. John the Baptist was completed and in 1863 a post office established. By the end of the century the district had taken on the characteristics of a "contented, rather conser\'ative world of great stations and prosperous, hard-working farmers where life had changed little since .

.

.

the days of the pioneer settlers." a Nation's Capital, ed.

by H.

CL. F. Fitzhardinge in Canberra,

Angus & Robertson, Syd-

L. White,

ney, N.S.W., 19S4.)

As the demand for federation grew, suggestions were invited in 1899 for a site for the national capital. The commonwealth of Australia was inaugurated in 1901 and the Commonwealth Constitution act of 1900 provided for the establishment of a capital in the state of New South Wales, but not within 100 mi. of Sydney. After two royal commissions and much public debate, the

commonwealth parliament trict

and

1908 selected the Yass-Canberra

in

in the following year the site for the

On Jan. transferred from

mined.

1.

new

city

was

dis-

deter-

1911, an area of approximately 900 sq.mi. was

New

South Wales

to the

commonwealth, which

then launched a world-wide competition for a design for the capital.

The

first

prize

sive

new

hospital in 1943.

was awarded

Walter B. Griffin (1876-1937) of Chicago. 111. Construction was begun in 1913 but was delayed by World War I; from 1915 to 1920 Griffin was in charge of constructional work on the city. After the war work was accelerated by the Federal Capital commission which assumed control over all constructional and administrative activities in the territory on Jan. 1. 1925. On May 9, 1927. the duke of York Hater King George VI) opened the new parliament house and the transfer began of the central staffs of the administrative departments from Melbourne (hitherto the temporary seat of government of the commonwealth). Attractive houses, schools and other buildings for this garden city were built in the suburbs. In 1930 the Canberra University college was opened and in 1936 a wing of the National librani'. The depression and World War II curtailed progress, but the Australian war memorial and the patent office were opened in 1941 and an extento

After World

the development of Canberra took place.

and

flats

buildings

were for

built, as

War

II a great surge in

More than 8,000 houses

well as administrative offices, extensive

the Australian

1946). shops, schools and

National university

community

(founded

in

facilities.

A resumption of transfers of central staffs from Melbourne bein 19.i9 with the movement of several hundred officers of the defense group. Further transfers were planned, with the object of making Canberra the headquarters of the whole commonwealth public service. This objective became the task of the National Capital Development commission, set up in 1958. Proposals of its five-year planning report were endorsed by the government; these included the erection of offices for the whole defense group and gan

the construction of a system of ornamental lakes across the centre This feature, an important element of Griffin's plan,

of the city.

was aimed at unifying the city in a striking fashion. Canberra has also developed as a centre of learning and research. In addition to the university, which provides for undergraduate studies as well as four schools devoted solely to postgraduate research in the fields of medical science, Pacific studies, physical and social sciences, there are such institutions as the Forestry and Timber bureau, Australian Institute of Anatomy, Mount Stromlo observatory. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, National library

and several establishments of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research organization. A short branch line links Canberra with the New South Wales railway system at Queanbeyan, eight miles distant. Road transport accounts for an iriiportant proportion of the inward movement of goods. Daily air services link the city with Sydney and Melbourne, and through them with the other state capitals.

CANCELLI,

in architecture, screens or parapets, similar to

those used by the basilica.

From

Romans

to divide

their resemblance

to

oft'

the judges' space in a Roman screens the

such

CANCER enclosures of the choir and chancel of a church are also

known

as

See Basilica; Chancel; Choir. ("The Crab"), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the The constellation contains a zodiac, denoted by the symbol ®. dancelli.

CANCER

large loose cluster of stars

known

as Praesepe, or the Beehive.

See Constellation. CANCER, an abnormal and unrestrained new growth in cells and tissues that produces deleterious and often fatal effects. The Cancer occurs in many difbasic cause of cancer is unknown. ferent plants and animals, but this article deals primarily with cancer in man. Cells and tissues are said to be cancerous when, for no known reason, they grow more rapidly than normal, assume abnormal shapes and sizes and cease functioning in a normal manner. The ultimate involvement of a vital organ by cancer, either primary or metastatic, may lead to the death of the patient. Cancer, in contrast to benign neoplasms (tumours), tends to In spread into contiguous tissues and also to metastasize. metastasis, cancerous cells break off from the original lesion and are carried in the blood or lymph systems to distant parts of the body where they set up new lesions. Cancer is said to be malignant because of its tendency to cause death if not treated. Benign tumours usually do not cause death, although they may if they interfere with a normal body function by virtue of their location or size. (See Tumour: True Tumours.) In general, cancer cells divide at a higher rate than do normal cells, but this is not always true; for example, in the organization of the callus in a fractured bone and in the relining of the uterus by endometrium after menstruation the normal cells divide at a It is true, also, that some higher rate than do cancer cells. malignant tumours have intermittent growth and latent periods. The distinction between the growth of cancerous and normal tissues is not so much the rapidity of cell division in the former as it is the partial or complete loss of growth restraint in cancer cells

and

their failure to differentiate into a useful, limited tissue of the

type that characterizes the functional equilibrium of growth of

normal tissue. Cancer may not be so autonomous as once believed. The lesions probably are influenced by the host's susceptibility and immunity. Certain cancers of the breast and prostate, for example, are considered dependent on specific hormones for their existence; other cancers are dependent on the presence of specific viruses.

GENERAL Classification. the simplest

— There

method

are two types of cancer according to

of classification

— that

of calling the cancer

sarcoma depending on whether the cancer originated The latter term refers chiefly to the structural framework of the body, including muscle, fat, connective tissue, bone cartilage, tendon, etc. It follows, therefore, that as many varieties of cancer exist as there are organs and tissues within the body. Each type and subtype of cancer has its own histological appearance and can be identified by microscopic study; the behaviour or natural history of each type has been well determined so that the pathologist can predict the manner of its

a carcinoma or

in epithelial or nonepithelial tissue.

growth.

Cancers also

may

be classified according to the stage of the when still confined

disease; for example; (1) early, or localized, to the tissue of origin (frequently curable);

(2) metastatic, or

spread to regional lymph nodes, or invading contiguous structures (sometimes curable); (3) widely disseminated throughout the

body (usually incurable). one of four grades on the by microscopic examination. Grade one cancers (barely malignant) tend to differentiate toward and resemble the cells of the tissue of origin, whereas grade four cancers (highly malignant) are composed of The other two grades repcells extremely active in cell division. resent intermediate degrees of differentiation and reproduction. It follows that grade four cancers as a rule grow more rapidly, metastasize earlier and more widely, pursue a more rapid course and have a lower rate of curability than the other three grades.

Cancers also can be

classified into

basis of their degree of malignancy, as determined

Prefixes are generally

added

to the basic designations of car-

769

cinoma and sarcoma to indicate the tissue of origin. Thus a sarcoma originating in bone and tending to reproduce osseous tissue is called osteogenic .sarcoma; other examples of the use of prefixes include: liposarcoma primary in fat, rhabdomyosarcoma primary in skeletal muscle, fibrosarcoma primary in fibrous or connective tissue and synovial sarcoma primary in the synovial linings of bursa and joint. The word "primary" indicates the cancer origiin the tissue rather than having been established as a secondary site through metastasis from another lesion. The prefix "adeno-" connotes the persistence of ductal or glandular elements in the epithelial tumour, as in thyroid adenocarcinoma, gastric Cancers of the adenocarcinoma and uterine adenocarcinoma. pavement cell epithelium of the skin and of certain mucous membranes, such as cancers in the tongue, lip, larynx, urinary bladder, uterine cervix or penis, may be termed epidermoid or squamous

nated

cell

carcinomas.

—

and Occurrence. Cancer is widespread throughout the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Plant cancers ocMalignant cur in clover, sunflowers and other common plants. neoplasms in animals include cancer of the breast in dogs, melanoma of the anus in gray horses and epithelioma of the eyelids in cattle. Cancer occurs with great frequency in mice, and these rodents are used extensively for experimentation with transplantaDistribution

ble cancer. It is difficult to

evaluate the relative influence,

if

any, of racial

predisposition and environmental factors on the variation in racial distribution of

human

cancer.

Cancers of the nasopharynx are

notoriously frequent in the Chinese. Cancer of the liver occurs times more frequently in Malay groups and west African

many

Bantu than

in

Caucasian peoples.

Kaposi's hemorrhagic sarcoma

of the skin occurs almost exclusively in Chinese, Jews and Bantu peoples in the Mediterranean basin. Cancer of the breast is sel-

dom seen in women who nurse their children. Malignant melanoma (black cancer of the skin), which develops from pre-existing moles, only rarely occurs in Negroes. Cancer of the stomach develops twice as frequently in the Japanese and Icelanders as in other peoples and occurs on an average of ten years earUer in Japanese and Negroes than in Caucasian people. Cancer of the uterine cervix is extremely rare in Jewish women. Cancer of the penis is infrequent in peoples

who

practise circumcision in childhood.

had been commonly assumed that the preponderance of certain cancers among specific peoples was due to Epidemioracial transmission, implying a genetic background. logical surveys, however, have revealed extrinsic causes instead; in Iceland may be stomach cancer frequency of for example, the due to cancer-inducing hydrocarbons in the smoke that Icelanders employ to cure fish and meats. The cancer of the liver so common among the Bantu may be partly attributable to their severe nutriUntil the 1950s

it

tional deficiencies; the incidence of the disease drops sharply

the Bantu start eating nutritionally adequate diets. Cancer occurs at a slightly greater frequency in

women

when

than

in

because of the great susceptibility of the uterus and funcIncidence differences between the tional breast to this disease. sexes for certain cancers of the regional types cannot be explained. For example, oO% of the cases of cancer of the stomach occur in males. Kaposi's hemorrhagic sarcoma of the skin of the extremities occurs almost exclusively in males; cancers in the mucous membrane lining of the mouth, pharynx and larynx occur three to eight times more frequently in males than in females. Cancer occurs at different rates in different age groups. In general it is pre-eminently a disease of middle and old age but it may occur in any age group. Certain varieties, such as glioma of the eye, embryonal adenosarcoma of the kidney and neuroblastoma, are found more frequently in children than in any other age group, although children in the 5-14 age group have greater freeciom from malignant tumours than any other age group. Cancer of the testicle, commonly known as teratoma, is a disease of young males, usually those under 30 years of age. Malignant tumours of epithelial structure are uncommon in adults under the age of 30, extremely rare in patients under 20 but increase in frequency after 30. Carcinomas of the breast and uterus have their greatest incidence in women between the ages of 45 to 65 and de-

men

CANCER

770 crease in relative frequency after 65.

Exceptions to the rule of unequal age distribution are connective tissue sarcomas, which occur at the same rate in all decades of life. Effect of Heredity. It has been possible through selective breeding, particularly inbreeding, to develop strains of mice in which cancer of different histological and regional types appear consistently in each generation. In humans, similar genetic tendencies are usually dissipated through marriage; a child may inherit the type of skin or -the type of breast in which cancer is most prone to occur rather than inheriting the disease itself. As a rule, two factors must be present for human cancer to develop: (1) the genetic background or susceptibility, which is not the same for every variety of cancer; and (2) an inciting or causal factor that precipitates the onset of the cancer in the predisposed tissue. Occasionally, through chance breeding in which the genetic factors are magnified, the hereditary tendency becomes manifest. For example, mothers, daughters and granddaughters in certain families acquire cancer of the breast, while in other families cancer of the stomach is a common ailment. This familial distribution has occurred too frequently to be considered coincidental. This conclusion has been supported by reports of cancers of similar type

—

and regional distribution in identical twins. Certain benign tumours are inherited, such as tumours of peripheral nerves, cartilaginous tumours (enchondromas), pigmented moles of the skin and polyps of the colon; some of these may eventually become malignant. Glioma of the eye in childhood is definitely inherited. Xeroderma pigmentosum is an inherited skin condition in which all protective resistance to the irritating action of actinic rays is lacking. For some unexplained reason, in this disease those portions of the skin

that on the hands

and

exposed to sunlight, notably

face, inevitably develop multiple lethal can-

nitely traced to the patient's external environment.

In the early 1960s many inorganic and organic compounds had been recognized carcinogenic agents, i.e., capable of causing cancers. The

as

amount

of an agent required to produce cancer may be so minute it causes no apparent irritation at the time of exposure; but continued exposure gradually produces tissue changes that ultimately become cancerous. The precancerous change may be so permanent that a malignant tumour will develop many years after an occupation has been abandoned. Examples of workers in whom cancer may develop if their occupational environment is not controlled properly include the followthat

ing: roentgenologists and X-ray technicians; dentists who use X-rays without shielding themselves completely; orthopedic surgeons who overuse fluoroscopy for setting fractures; radium technicians.

All of these persons, as a result of chronic overexposure

to radiant energy,

may

develop radiation dermatitis and ultimately

X-ray or radium cancer.

Workers

in the dyestuffs industry

who

may

later

are exposed to aniline, benzidine or beta-naphthylamine

develop papillomas and even cancers of the urinary bladder; cancers of the respiratory tract occur in workers who inhale chrome salts, asbestos dust and nickel carbonyl. Leukemia, a malignant tumour of the tissues that form white blood cells, sometimes develops in workers who have been e.xposed to benzene. Workers exposed to coal tar, crude mineral oils, crude parafiins, pitch and arsenical compounds may develop multiple cancers of the skin, chiefly of the hands, arms and scrotum. Workers who prior to the mid- 1920s painted radium numerals on watches and ingested the radioactive substance by moistening the brush tip on their tongues later developed bone sarcoma; this and simOar hazardous practices were halted after the danger was discovered. (See Carcinogenic Chemicals.) Precancerous Conditions. Certain diseases have been recognized as potentially dangerous because they occasionally are followed by cancer. Malignant tumours do not develop inevitably but occur with such frequency that the term precancerous has been applied to these conditions. An example is the presence of gallstones; the incidence of cancer in gall bladders is approximately 5% of the general population. But 98% of the persons who develop cancer of the gall bladder

—

way for people with this condition to avoid cancer avoid sunlight or other radiation that includes rays beyond the end of the spectrum. A genetic transmission theory based on the study of cancers in laboratory animals (mice, rabbits, fowls) gained credence in the early 1960s; this theory contended that the supposed heredity factor of cancer is not transmitted by the genes but by a parasitic virus present in the intracellular material of the egg or sperm that unite to begin the formation of the new individual. Relation of Trauma to Cancer. The origin of a cancer lesion can seldom be attributed to a single blow or trauma, even though In this possible origin is a controversial medicolegal subject. view of the thousands of serious injuries that occur in both war and peacetime' and the rarity with which cancer follows such injuries, it is illogical to assume that a single trauma plays an important role in causing cancer. Before a single injury is accepted as the immediate cause of cancer, certain postulates should be fulfilled, namely, definite evidence of the injury, identical sites of the injury and the cancer that develops later, a logical time interval between the date of injury and the appearance of the cancer, the absence of a pre-existing tumour at the site and, finally, a type of malignant tumour consistent with this mode of origin, such as a sarcoma of the structural framework; e.g., fibrosarcoma of connective tissue, liposarcoma and malignant synovioma arising from tendon sheaths. An injury such as an extensive laceration or burn may result in a scar that in future years becomes cancerous. But the mechanism of the genesis of cancer under these circumstances is different from its reputed onset immediately

Leukoplakia, another example, is a disease in which thick, white patches appear on the mucous membrane of the tongue, lip, cheek, floor of the mouth, palate, tonsil or other mucosa-lined organs such as the male and the female genitals and the esophagus. Cancer of the type known as epidermoid or squamous cell carcinoma develops with some frequency in these locations, probably because of pre-existing leukoplakia. Syphilis of the tongue sometimes predisposes to the development of lingual cancer; in fact, 25% of all patients who have cancer within the oral cavity have had syphilis, which is a higher incidence by far than in the general population. The neck of the womb (cervix uteri) may subsequently become cancerous if badly scarred, eroded or chronically infected, as sometimes occurs sequential to childbirth. Certain benign tumours are precancerous in varying percentages; examples are benign adenomas of the thyroid gland, polyps of the colon, papillomas of the urinary bladder and the common

following a single injury.

pigmented mole of the

cers; the only

is

to

violet

—

Trauma does

some cancers mucous membranes of the

play a part in the development of

of stratified epithelium in the skin or

and esophagus. But here the injury consists of a repetraumas in the form of a chronic irritation, someCommon examples are times occurring daily for many years. irritation of the tongue or mucosa of the cheek by ill-fitting dental plates, pressure of hot pipestems on the lip and daily irritation of the esophagus from swallowing hot soups or other liquids. A classic example of cancer that arises from chronic irritation is that which occurs in the cheeks of Hindus who are addicted to chewing a mixture of areca nut, betel nut and lime. Occupational Cancers. Occupational cancers can be defioral cavity

tition of small

—

have or have had gallstones, which the chronic irritation of the stones

is is

a strong indication that a causative factor of the

cancer.

skin.

Radiation dermatitis caused by overexposure of the skin to X-rays, as when improper dosages are used to treat acne or excess hair on the face, also may be precancerous. Keratoses, which are warty overgrowths of the skin occurring in elderly persons or persons with oily skin, may degenerate over

The scarred skin lacks the glands and elastic tissue that normally protect the skin against irritation. The early grafting of new skin in burns lessens the joints so that scar cancers develop. oil

incidence of scar cancers later.

Certain types of mastitis,

when

accompanied by overgrowth of the ductal elements, may, under certain conditions,

Incidence.

—

become cancerous.

Statistics

on the incidence of cancer by countries

CANCER must be based on the number

of cancer deaths recorded, inasmuch

is no national census of the number of cases or the number The significance attached to any figures must take into account the age composition of the population of each country, since cancer is predominantly a disease of middle and old age. The cancer death rate, per 100.000 population, in representative countries in the early 1960s was as follows: Switzerland 176, England and Wales 172.3, Germany 149, United States 146.9, Sweden 135, France 133, Italy 86 and Japan 71. The percentages of cancer deaths in U.S. males, according to the most common sites of development, were as follows: stomach

as there

of cures.

18%, prostate 12%,

intestines (including colon")

ll%, lungs 11%,

rectum and anus 6.4%, liver 5.4%, pancreas 4.4%. urinary bladder 4.2%, esophagus 3% and skin 2.4%. The corresponding percentages for U.S. women were: breasts 18.5%, uterus 18.5%, intestines (including colon) 12.8%. stomach 10.3%, liver 6.4%, ovary 5%, rectum and anus 4.6%, pancreas 3.2%, lungs 3.1%, urinary bladder 2.1% and skin 1.5%.

771

vated plaques of keratosis or hard ulcers situated on the vermilion border, usually of the lower lip. At least 90% of these cancers are cured if treated before metastases develop. Cancer of the tongue appears as a fissure, chronic ulcer or' indurated segment of the tongue, commonly on the lateral or posterior margins. It is one of the few cancers that is painful in its early stages and consequently is recognized early because of its tenderness and interference with the mobility of the tongue. Extension of the cancer to the Uonph nodes in the neck occurs relatively early because of the high grade of malignancy of this type of cancer and the rich hTnph drainage of the tongue. The is seldom above 22% to 30% of patients treated. Cancer of the larynx may be detected early by an investigation The development of stridor (difficult breathing) is an indication of an advanced

cure rate

of persistent hoarseness or changes in the voice.

stage of the disease.

The prognosis

of cancer of the larnyx

is

good following radiological treatment or surgical removal of the larynx.

of the history of the patient's complaints relating to abnormalities

Cancer of the thyroid gland requires surgical removal of the gland and of the lymph nodes on the same side of the neck as the cancerous lesion. All nodular goitres, as distinguished from smooth enlargements and those associated with the toxic symptoms of hyperthyroidism, require immediate surgical removal because these nodules, even though painless, inconspicuous and without s>'mptoms, are found on subsequent microscopic study to be cancerous in 8% to 20% of cases.

functioning of a specific organ. The symptom complex elaborated by most cancers is sufficiently characteristic to arouse the physician's suspicion when recited by the patient.

Cancer of the ?ieck is usually secondary to a primary cancer in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, hypopharynx, chest or abdomen; less frequently, the primary site is within the structures of the neck.

IDENTIFICATION OF CANCER Diagnosis.

—At

least

50%

of

all

cancers are visible on inspec-

by an examining finger; at can be seen with special examining instruments

tion or can be reached for palpation least

25% more

that are inserted within the orifices of the body.

The

first

of

three steps

in

diagnosis

is

a careful elicitation

in the

The second in

most cases

step

is

a careful physical

examination that leads

to the discovery of the malignant

tumour and

a

recognition of its extent and character. By using special hollow instruments that are electrically illuminated and equipped with magnifying lenses, the examining physician is able to inspect the interior of such organs as the larynx, lungs, esophagus, stomach, lower colon, rectum and urinary bladder. This procedure is referred to generally as endoscopy and specifically, as they relate to the organs just listed, as laryngoscopy, bronchoscopy, esophagoscopy, gastroscopy, proctoscopy and cystoscopy. X-ray study, with or without the utilization of contrasting media, is important in the diagnosis of cancers within the nasal sinuses, lungs, esophagus, stomach, colon, intestines, kidneys, bladder, bone and brain. Chemical tests for cancer were generally discarded soon after being proposed, but a few for special types of cancers are valid, such as those for an increased acid phosphatase content of the blood in patients with cancer of the prostate and a quantitative increase of albumoses in the blood and urine of patients with

myeloma of The final

the bone. step in establishing the diagnosis

is

the biopsy, in

a portion of the suspected cancerous tissue is removed for microscopic study and identification. The microscopic characteristics of various cancers are so definite and well known that this method serves as an accurate check on the diagnosis and usually enables the examiner to identify the tissue or organ of origin. Specimens for biopsy are removed by forceps or electric snare, or a plug of tissue is obtained by syringe aspiration, or cells may be obtained from body fluids, such as uterine, vaginal, gastric, bronchial or urinary secretions. Symptoms and Course of Certain Common Cancers.

which

—

Cancer of the skin

may

appear as a progressively enlarging ulcer with hard, elevated margins and no tendency to heal spontaneously. Pain is conspicuously absent in many cases until the disease becomes advanced. It appears in other forms as a horny overgrowth Between 75% of skin-or as a fissure that degenerates in a scar. and 95 "^V of the cases can be cured. Half of the cases of mahgnant melanoma develop from pre-existing pigmented moles and the other half from apparently intact skin. It is the most malignant of all accessible cancers and soon metastasizes through both lymphatic and blood vessels to lymph nodes and internal organs. The cure rate is seldom higher than 70% of cases treated, depending on the presence or absence of metastases. Oral Cavity. Cancers of the lower lip develop as fissures, ele-

—

The appearance of a lump in the neck, if the thyroid gland is excluded from consideration, should arouse suspicion of a possible undetected and asymptomatic cancer within the mouth or adjacent and it calls for careful investigation to discover the When found, it requires treatment of the primary cancer and of the metastatic cancer within the cervical lymph nodes by radical surgical excision with or without irradiation by X-rays and radium. structures,

site of origin.

Cancer of the lung was apparently increasing in frequency in the mid-1960s, partly because of improvements in diagnosis and an increment in occurrence of the disease. presence is heralded by the onset of a cough that persists and may not be productive until later when expectoration of blood occurs. Its true character can be identified by X-ray study supplemented by bronchoscopic \dsualization and biopsy. The removal of the entire lung with dissection of those l>Tnph nodes in

partly because of Its

the mediastinum that drain the lung offers opportunities for cure that formerly did not exist.

Cancer of the esophagus causes progressively increasing difficulty in swallowing, chiefly of coarse or solid foods. The patient is soft and liquid; diagnosis can be established by X-ray study, esophagoscopy and biopsy. The esophagus may be removed partially or completely; it can be replaced partially or completely by a joining together (anastomosis in the chest of the remaining sections or by elevating the stomach and joining a remaining section to it or by interposing a section of colon between the remnants of the esophagus at the base of the neck. Cancers of the stomach develop insidiously and are difficult to diagnose because of the absence of specific symptoms. Gradual onset of indigestion in a person of previously good health with symptoms occasionally suggesting peptic ulcer, associated with an unexplained loss of weight, anemia, loss of appetite and, in the advanced stages, vomiting and the presence of a mass that can be felt in the abdomen, are common diagnostic features of the disease. The diagnosis is confirmed by X-ray study and gastroscopic visualization. Because of improved, more radical surgical

voluntarily ingests a diet that

)

60% of cancers of the stomach became resectable and of this group 35% of the patients were cured. Cancers of the pancreas are seldom diagnosed early because of the absence of localized signs and symptoms. A radical operation was designed for successful treatment, but the end results were bad because of the delayed diagnosis. The presence of unextechnique,

CANCER

772

plained deep abdominal pain with backache, occasional diarrhea and later development of jaundice with the absence of gallstones are suspicious

symptoms

that indicate the possible presence of

this disease.

Cancers of the rectum often are erroneously diagnosed as hemorrhoids in the early stages because of the frequent first symptom of repeated small hemorrhages with bowel movements. The usual indications of a rectal tumour are an incomplete sense of relief after defecation associated with some tenesmus or spasm, increased frequency of bowel movements, the passage of a mucous discharge with or without the stools and a change in the shape of the feces. Approximately 80% of the rectal cancers are resectable by radical operation, and about S0% of the operations produce permanent cures.

Cancer of the breast appears initially as a small, painless lump it subsequently may adhere to the skin, causing dimpling and later ulceration; the nipple sometimes becomes inverted. All lumps in the breast should be suspected of being cancerous until proved noncancerous. Although the disease develops more frequently in women of middle age than in any other age group, 17% of the cases occur in women under 40 years. One per cent of all breast cancer occurs in men, chiefly those of middle and old age. Cancer of the breast metastasizes or spreads most frequently to the lymph nodes in the armpit on the corresponding side of the body and sometimes to a chain of lymph nodes beneath the junction of the sternum and ribs; until it spreads beyond these nodes it is still operable and curable. In 78% of patients with cancer confined to the breast, a cure is obtained by removing the breast, muscles of the chest wall and the regional lymph nodes (radical mastectomy); 42% of patients who have cancer of the breast with metastases to the regional lymph nodes and without evidence of dissemination elsewhere are cured by the radical operation. Cancer of the breast may spread by lymph and blood vessels to other organs, such as the lungs, the brain or the bony skeleton, under which circumstances X-ray treatment and hormone therapy are excellent palliative measures. (See Mammary Gland: Cancer.) Uterine Cancer. Cancer of the neck (cervix) of the uterus develops most frequently in women 30 to 50 years of age but may occur before 30 or after ,50. Women who develop cancer of the uterine cervix often have sustained injury to the cervix during childbirth. The onset of the disease is heralded by excessive uterine bleeding either at the time of menstruation or in the intermenstrual phase or on sexual intercourse. The discharge may be brown and foul as well as bloody; actual hemorrhages may that grows in size;

—

occur. interior of the body of the uterus (endometrial more frequent in women who have not borne occurs in a slightly older age group, usually postmenopausal. It is more difficult to diagnose than the cervical

Cancer of the

cancer

)

is

children;

relatively

it

type since it is not visible. A diagnostic curettage of the uterus (obtaining a biopsy specimen with a scraping tool) may be done

may be studied for identification By the proper apphcation of X-ray and radium therapy or radical surgical excision, the curability of cancers of the uterus varies from 30% to 75%. Cancers of the itrinary bladder and kidney produce an initial symptom of hematuria (blood in the urine) that may be accompanied by frequent urination and pain. The exact location of the cancer may be determined by combined X-ray study and cystoscopic visualization of the urinary bladder. Cancers of the kidney may grow as silent tumours and may not be suspected until metastatic focuses appear in distant parts, such as the bones, lungs or secretions from the uterus of cancer cells.

or brain.

idncer of the prostate in elderly men may provoke no symptoms other than occasional difficulty in micturition. Sometimes the indication of the presence of this cancer is backache, which caused by metastases of the prostatic cancer throughout the bones of the pelvis and vertebral column. Surgical treatment is employed only for the relief of obstruction to the urinary outflow and in rare cases for the extirpation of early cancers. The majority of prostatic cancers are in an advanced stage when diagnosed and first is

by a combination of castration and the administration of female sex hormones or their synthetic chemical are treated palliatively equivalents.

Cancer of the bone may occur in any age group, including children and young adolescents. The presence of pain and disability in an extremity, when associated with an enlargement of a bone, is

a significant sign of an early bone sarcoma.

performed

early,

may

permit a curability

10%

in

Amputation, to

15%

if

of these

patients.

TREATMENT The therapy

of cancer properly begins with prophylaxis.

The

and discontinuance of cancer-inducing habits, the removal of environmental hazards and occupational predispositions to cancer, the treatment of precancerous diseases and the removal of benign tumours known to undergo malignant transformation are recognition

effective steps in prevention.

Surgical Excision.

method cancer

is still

and before

The

—This

is

the most

generally

applicable

Cures are most readily obtained when the confined to the organ or tissue in which it develops generally becomes distributed throughout the body.

of treatment.

it

application of surgical excision

usefulness of the organ that

must be

is

limited by the degree of

sacrificed.

Commonly employed operations for cancer are those for the removal of a segment of the lip, followed by plastic repair; the excision of a segment of the tongue, and a wide removal of skin with replacement by grafts. Hollow organs such as the esophagus, stomach and colon may be resected segmentally with anastomosis to restore the continuity of the intestinal canal. Cancer in one member of paired organs such as the eyes, testes, lungs or kidneys may be cured by removal of the diseased organ without interfering appreciably with the function of the patient. Internal organs, such as the larynx, esophagus, stomach, colon, rectum, pancreas and urinary bladder, may be totally removed for extensive cancers; the patient is able to lead a near-normal life by employing medications or devices that substitute for the

removed organ.

Skin cancers, such as epitheliomas and melanomas on the hands and feet or other portions of the upper and lower extremities, may spread or metastasize to the lymph nodes in the armpit and groin, necessitating radical surgical dissections and in some instances complete amputation of the extremities. Malignant tumours that occur frequently in the bone and soft tissues of the upper and lower extremities may in some instances be removed segmentally, followed by grafting of bone and skin to preserve the arms and legs. In the majority of cases, however, amputation of the arm or leg to include the shoulder or hip joint may be necessary. Cancers that metastasize or spread via lymph vessels may require removal of the original site of the cancer together with regional lymph nodes secondarily involved; this is a well-recognized plan of surgical treatment and was first employed for cancer of the breast in which the breast was removed together with the lymph nodes in the corresponding axilla (armpit). For cancers involving the medial and central segments of the breast, this operation has been extended by some surgeons to include a segment of the breast bone and the cartilaginous ribs, which incorporate a chain of lymph nodes often involved by the cancer. In the 1950s cancerous lobes of the liver were removed sucif only 20% capable of amazing

cessfully for the first time; the patient can survive to

25%

of the liver remains.

This organ

compensatory regenerative growth. E.xperimental removal of the entire

is

an entire lung and both tumours) has been performed with replacement by organ grafts from other humans; it appeared in the mid-1960s that these transplantations might ultimately succeed after additional knowledge about the factors responsible for "host rejection'' by the recipient became avail-

kidneys

liver,

(for bilateral congenital malignant

able.

—

X-Ray and Radium Therapy. The use of X-rays and radium (gamma rays, at first empirical, became relatively standardized I

and most accurate in application. An immense body of knowledge accumulated concerning the radiation sensitivity of various cancers, and the dosages of radiant energy necessary to destroy or

CANCER

773

various cancers became well known. Cancers vary greatly in their known response to irradiation and, because of this variable response, both X-ray and radium therapy are not universally suitable for the treatment of all malignant tumours. In some cancers either X-ray or radium therapy produces better results than surgical excision; in other instances, surgery and irradiation may be equally suitable, and the choice of treatment will depend on the

sex hormone), by removal of both adrenal glands or by hypophysectomy (removal of the pituitary gland). This radical ablative hormonal surgery is usually reserved for breast cancers that seem to require the presence of certain hormones for their con-

experience and training of the therapist. In other instances, surgical treatment alone should be employed, and in some rare cases radiation therapy is used in conjunction with surgical excision either as a preoperative or postoperative supplement.

start to disintegrate

Examples of malignant tumours that are very responsive to lymphoid tissue, such as lymphosarcomas, leukemia and Hodgkin's disease, and carcinomas of the palate, tonsil, base of the tongue and the larynx exclusive X-rays of variable penetrating ability are emof vocal cords. ployed, depending on the depth to which the X-rays must be delivered for absorption. Radiant energy must be absorbed before it can destroy human tissue, including cancer cells; cells through which the rays pass without being absorbed are not affected. Superficial cancers such as those in the skin may be treated with X-rays generated at low voltages of 50,000 to 120,000 v., whereas cancers in deep sites such as those in the uterus, esophagus and pancreas may be treated with X-rays generated at 1,000,000 v.

lymphoid system; the phosphorus, when ingested, is concentrated within the tumour because cancerous lymphoid tissue absorbs two and one-half times as much phosphorus as does normal tissue.

The higher the voltage the greater is the penetration of the X-rays. The physical factors, such as filtration, intervening distance,

as radiation sources in surface application for superficial cancers and interstitially applied for deep invasive cancers.

milliamperage and voltage, are combined with spacing the treatments at proper intervals in order to allow maximum recuperation of normal tissues and maximum destruction of cancerous tissue. Later innovations in X-ray therapy were the use of an X-ray bath (teleroentgen therapy), in which a patient with generalized radiosensitive cancer is placed in a special room with the X-ray beam emerging from the ceiling so that the entire body is irradiated at low intensity. Another mechanism employed in selected

Radioactive yttrium-90 in ceramic microspheres 60 microns in diameter has been injected intravenously so that it is carried to

sterilize

irradiation are those originating in

cases

is

a rotating chair or table in

which the body of the patient normal tissues are

tinued growth.

—

Radioactive Isotopes. Certain elements, when bombarded by neutrons or other nuclear particles from a nuclear accelerator, and

in the process

become

radioactive.

This

radioactivity can be used to treat several kinds of cancer. Radioactive phosphorus, for example, has been employed as a palliative measure in the treatment of malignant tumours of the

Radioactive iodine, when administered to patients with certain types of thyroid cancer, wQl be selectively absorbed and concentrated within the cancerous thyroid cells; radioactive iodine destroys not only the lesion of origin in the thyroid but also the metastatic focuses in bone or lung.

Radioactive gold, radioactive yttrium, radioactive chromium orthophosphate and other isotopes have been introduced into the pleural (chest) and peritoneal (abdominal) cavities to dry up accumulations of cancerous fluids. Radioactive isotopes, e.g., radioactive cobalt-60 and radioactive iridium, may also be used

it becomes inseparably incarcerated in the capiland emits irradiation in the treatment of metastases.

the lungs, where lary bed

—

Chemical and Biological Agents. The majority of the first chemical and biological agents recommended for treatment of cancer, such as colloidal lead, Coley's toxin, etc., were largely abandoned as ineffective. Chemotherapy in cancer treatment became more effective because of the use of toxic radicals in con-

junction with chemical substances,

e.g.,

nucleic acid, that are re-

circumferentially and intermittently irradiated although the beam constantly impinges on cancers situated within the interior of the

quired by the cancerous cell for its metabolism and division; when the cancer cell ingests or absorbs these compounds, it tends to be injured or killed.

A beam of electrons (X-rays) emerging from an apparatus termed a betatron also has been used for treating deeply situated cancers. When properly controlled, an electron beam delivers

reactive

rotates within the

beam

of X-rays so that the

quantities (4 to 2,000 g.) in a single applicator may be applied at a relatively great distance from the skin to treat deeply situated

of cancerostatic or cancerocidal compounds consists These compounds are highly chemically because their end groups consist of alkyl CHj), which are dederivatives; i.e., such groups as methyl ( rived from the saturated series of hydrocarbons, such as methane (CH4). The alkylating agents include mechlorethamine hydrochloride (nitrogen mustard), chlorambucil, triethylene-melamine (TEM) and thio-tepa (N,N',N"-triethylenethiophosphoramide), They exert their antineoplastic effect by combining chemically

cancers. Plaques containing smaller amounts of radium are suitable for contact or short-distance radium therapy of superficial

with nucleic acids, thereby altering the function of these essential cellular components.

body.

a greater dose of radiant energy to the cancer than to the skin and normal tissues it traverses in reaching its objective. Radium salts and their radiation equivalents, radon gas and Large radioactive cobalt, may be employed in several ways.

cancers involving the skin or

and nasal passages.

mucous membranes

Capsules containing radium

into cavities such as the uterus, esophagus

may

be inserted

made

of a

in the

chemotherapy of cancer consists

of the antimetabohtes (g.v.). examples of which are the fohc acid antagonists, such as methotrexate, which interfere with the biosynthesis of nucleic acids, and certain purines, notably mercaptopurine, which also interfere with the synthesis of nucleic acids.

The radium or radon container heavy metal, such as platinum, gold, lead or mercury,

Although these drugs are somewhat toxic, their continued use in cancer chemotherapy contributed greatly to the knowledge of fundamental cellular enzymatic reactions. Urethane, a chemical closely akin to amino acids, was used in the treatment of myeloma, a malignant tumour of bone, although in the mid-1960s its mechanism of action was not known. In general, the tumours most susceptible to chemotherapy are those of the lymphoid system. Perfusion and Infusion Therapy. In the case of malignant tumours largely confined to an upper or lower extremity and of an extent unsuitable for surgical extirpation (for example, certain melanomas, epitheliomas, Kaposi's sarcomas), a continuous perfusion of the leg or arm may be done by an arrangement in which the entire circulation is controlled by an extracorporeal oxygenating pump connected in circuit with the chief afferent artery and the chief efferent vein. The chemotherapeutic agent, such as phenylalanine mustard for melanoma, is continuously cir-

be imprisoned

Radium

salts or

in needles of variable lengths or in

seeds for interstitial insertion. is

Another group useful

—

radon minute

the delivery of intracavitary irradiation. gas

mouth

of the

may

and nasopharynx for

One group

of the so-called alkylating agents.

to filter out the less-penetrating, caustic beta rays so that only

the therapeutic gamma rays emerge. nation of X-ray and radium therapy

In some instances, a combirequired for the successful treatment of cancer, notably in cancers of the uterine cervix. (See Radiology: Therapeutic Radiology.)

—

is

Hormonal Treatment. Certain cancers that originate in organs susceptible to influence by hormones may be temporarily controlled by withholding or administering certain hormones. Cancer of the prostate gland, even when widely disseminated to bone, may be controlled for one or more years either by castration or by administration of the female sex hormones (estrogens) or their chemical analogues such as stilbestrol. Cancer of the breast, when metastatic to bone, may be controlled with healing of the bone lesions, relief of pain and prolongation of life either by removal of the ovaries, by administration of testosterone (a male

—

CANCER RESEARCH

774

culated through the involved limb, which is temporarily excluded by tourniquets from the body proper, thereby increasing the ef-

on the cancer and protecting the patient from dangerous toxic Because cancers are supplied with blood through the such as the liver and brain, may be given palhative chemotherapy by protracted arterial perfusion fect

action.

arterial system, certain organs,

with selected chemicals. Cannulation of peripheral lymphatic vessels and pressure infusion of chemical agents and radioisotopes have been demonstrated to be effective for such neoplasms as malignant lymphomas and metastatic testicular cancers.

CANCER CONTROL Great Britain, France, the Scandinavian countries and the United States early recognized the national need and opportunities for cancer control. These countries established disciplines for the special education of medical and nonmedical people, built institutions for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer and founded special societies and institutes for the organization and pursuit of cancer research. The movement spread throughout the world until many countries, including Canada, Mexico, India, Cuba, Peru, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, Colombia, Brazil and Italy, operated cancercontrol programs and special hospitals for the study and treatment of this disease.

The program

for cancer control has involved several efforts,

including the following:

Informing the public through private physicians and nurses, radio and television, and newspapers and magazines. The efforts, sponsored by lay cancer organizations, often included instructions to biology students in high schools and colleges. 2. Improved education of the medical profession through undergraduate instruction, postgraduate courses, special fellowships in cancer and allied diseases, and journals devoted largely to the subjects of cancer and cancer control. 3. Earlier diagnosis of cancer and allied diseases through the establishment of cancer-prevention and cancer-detection clinics, the organization of tumour-diagnostic groups in general hospitals, the enacting of laws by states and nations making cancer a reportable disease, and the increased availability of diagnostic aids such as endoscopic facilities, radiographic apparatus and competent pathologists. Cancer was reportable by law or by state health-department regulation in 30 of the SO states and in one 1.

have a common basis growth of one or other of the multitudinous types of living cell from which the body is constructed From its origin in the fertilized egg by cell division, the body normally develops with utmost regulation and precision. At an early stage, the rapidly dividing cells differentiate one from another, that is, acquire individual properties of both structure and function, leading to the establishment of specialized tissues and organs in perfect integration. While at first the rate of growth different in their detailed manifestations,

and expression

.

Tobacco and Disease; see also references under "Cancer" Index.

in the

—

Bibliography. L. V. Ackerman and J. A. del Regato, Cancer: Diagnosis, Treatment and Prognosis (1947); B. L. Coley, Neoplasms of Bone and Related Conditions (1960); J. B. Field (ed.). Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment (1959); C. D. Haagensen, Diseases of the Breast (1956); H. L. Kottmeier, Carcinoma of the Female Genitalia (1953) P. B. Kunkler and A. J. H. Rains (eds.). Treatment of Cancer in Clinical Practice (1959); E. F. Lewison, Breast Cancer and Its Diagnosis and Treatment (1955) J. V. Meigs (ed.), Surgical Treatment of Cancer of the Cervix (1954) W. T. Murphv, Radiation Therapy (1959) G. T. Pack and I. M. Ariel, Tumors of the Soft Somatic Tissues (1958), (eds.). Cancer and Allied Diseases of Infancy and Childhood (1960) and Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases, 2nd ed., vol. i. Principles of Treatment (1958), vol. ii. Tumors of the Nervous System (1959), vol. iii, Tumors of the Head and Necti (1959), vol. iv. Tumors of the Breast, Chest, and Esophagus (1960), vol. v, Tumors of the Gastrointestinal Tract, Pancreas, Biliary System, and Liver (1962), vol. vi. Tumors of the Female Genitalia (1962), vol. vii. Tumors of the Male Genitalia and the Urinary System (1962), vol. viii. Tumors of the Soft Somatic Tissues and Bone (1964), vol. a, Lymphomas and Related Diseases (1964) U. V. Portmann (ed.). Clinical Therapeutic Radiology (1950) W. W. Scott and P. B. Hudson, Surgery of the Adrenal Glands (1954); D. M. Wallace (ed.), Tumours of the Bladder, vol. ii of Neoplastic Disease at Various Sites (1959); Stanley Way, Malignant Disease of the Female Genital Tract (1951) Stuart Lindsay, Carcinoma of the Thyroid Gland (1960) M. B. Rosenblatt and J. R. Lisa, Cancer of the Lung: Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment (1956) Edgar Mayer and H. C. Maier (eds.), Pulmonary Carcinoma: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment (19S6) Britannica Book of the Year. (G. T. Pk.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

CANCER RESEARCH.

to a great host of diseases in

Cancer

is

man and

the generic term applied animals, which, although

it

and slowly declines

—

—

growth also ensues in more abnormal situations, for example in the healing of wounds, or in the process of compensatory hypertrophy designed to offset the loss of parts of such organs as the kidneys or liver. In these cases, cell division comes to an end when repair or restoration has been completed, and all these mechanisms have the effect of ensuring the integrity of the body as a whole and the mutual and optimal functioning of all its parts. Considering the astronomical numbers of cells involved, and the high order of complexity, the system is one of great stability and freedom from error. On occasions, however, one or a few individual cells, either spontaneously or from the action of known causes such as are considered below, escape from normal regulation and, as cancer cells, embark on a course of unlimited division that has no relation to the physiological needs of the body but on the contrary leads to the development of rapidly growing tumour masses, which, either directly or by spreading by metastasis to other organs, interfere with structure and function and result in the death of cell

the host.

In the space of this article

it

is

clearly not possible to give

a comprehensive account of every aspect of so formidable a probIt is proposed, however, to outline briefly the historical development of the subject and to deal in turn with the properties

lem.

of the cancer

cell,

the experimental reproduction of the disease

by chemical, physical and

viral agents, theories as to the mechanisms of carcinogenic action, treatment especially by chemotherapeutic means and, finally, the support and organization of cancer

research.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

Lymph and

Lymphatic System: Diseases oj the Lymphatic System ; Tobacco:

general high,

gradually relents in the course of organogenesis in the adult organism. Even in the adult, however, very many cell types as of the skin, the mucous membranes of the intestinal tract and the bone marrow continuously multiply, so as exactly to repair an equal loss or wastage. Rapid is in

territory.

See Cancer Research; Pathology: Ticmcmrs;

in the defectively controlled

—

Observational.- Many classical observations of the features of cancer had of course been made throughout the whole of the history of medicine, but most notably in the 17th and 18th centuries, slowly accumulating to increase knowledge in terms of medicine, surgery and morbid anatomy. The origins of cancer research proper are, however, to be found in the historical development of the microscope, with which its own development is largely conterminous. This gradually led to the emergence of the cell theory. Although the theory had many precursors, it is remarkable that it only became finally established and accepted in the early part of the 19th century. Great developments immediately resulted, especially from Rudolf Virchow's application of the cell theory to pathology (Die Celltdarpathologie, 1858), whereby he inaugurated several decades of investigation of the microscopic structure of cancer in man and animals, first in the medical schools of Germany and then the world over. From this epoch of morphological description there gradually emerged certain key principles. First it became clear that the cancer cell is indeed a derivative of the normal, and second, that is possible to classify tumour types not only according to the from which they arise {e.g., such major groups as the sarcomas, carcinomas and endotheliomas derived from the connective, epithelial' and endothelial tissues respectively) but also according to the extent to which individual tumours, over a wide and continuous spectrum of possibilities, lose the microscopic and other characteristics of their parent cell that is, undergo a process of dedifferentiation. In general although not absolutely so, the extent of dedifferentiation is reflected in enhanced growth it

tissues

—

CANCER RESEARCH rate,

autonomy and invasiveness and can proceed

to

extremes of

virulent anaplasia in which the cell no longer retains any recognizable traits that might serve to reveal its origin. The earlier

pathologists were impressed

by the remarkable similarities between and embryonic cells and it appears that malignant

775

grafting from one animal host to another in succession;, the role of heredity had been defined and success had been attained in

by ionizing

the artificial induction of cancer tar

and by a

The spread

radiations,

by

coal

virus.

This conclusion, reached solely on the basis of microscopic observation, is one that is substantiated by the whole of modern

by metastasis arises from the dissemination of tumour cells from the primary growth, which then give rise to secondary growths in the organs in which they settle. Similarly, the artificial transfer of a tumour fragment to a fresh host can result in the continued proliferation of the neoplasm by cellular multiplication, a process that may then be extended

research.

indefinitely in serial transplantation.

cancer cells transformation a

more or

may

less

well involve an essentially regressive change,

pronounced simplification, or

atavistic

reversion

to a less specialized function.

Many

other essential facts have been, and continue to be, uncovered by the methods of clinical observation and recording, quite apart from experiment. The most central, and perhaps the oldest, is that the incidence of cancer for the most part increases steadily with age, and this relationship between cancer genesis and the aging process in

cells

and

tissues

cance.

is

certainly of profound signifi-

—

Demography and Statistics. Again, major contributions have sprung from the fields of demography and geographical pathology. Pronounced differences in the incidence of cancer at different geographic sites have long been known, as between the communities of North and South America, Europe, Africa and Asia, examples being the high rates of cancer of the liver in West Africa, Uganda, Portuguese East Africa, South Africa, Indonesia, Japan and Thailand (in contrast with western Europe and the United States), of neural and retinal tumours in African children, of cancer of the stomach in Japan, Norway and Iceland, of oral cancer in India, of multicentric tumours of the jaw in Uganda, of cancer of the penis in Jamaica and Paraguay, of nasopharyngeal cancer in China, Thailand, Malaya and Formosa and of cancer of the esophagus in almost epidemic proportions in the Transkei area of South Africa. Other disparities are the relatively lower incidence of leukemia and cancer of the blood-forming organs in Uganda and South Africa than in the United States, the infrequency of intracranial growths in African children, the marked differences throughout the world in the rates of occurrence of cancer of the uterus, the low incidence of cancer of the prostate in Japan and of cancer of the breast in Japan and in parts of Africa and in Deccanese Hindu women in India in contrast with the Parsees. It is evident that such variations are not merely of fascinating interest in their

own

right but also provide invalu-

able leads toward the understanding of both causation and prevention.

The power

of the statistical

method

is

also seen in its revelation

of the close association between the incidence of cancer of the

lung and tobacco smoking (and especially the cigarette habit). Finally, it is essential to the study of secular changes in the incidence of and mortality from particular forms of the disease. From

evidence mainly in the United States and the United Kingdom, significant change appears to have occurred, over some decades, in mortality from cancer of the breast, prostate, intestine, esophagus and larynx. Types of cancer with an increasing trend in mortality include cancer of the lung, certain leukemias and related conditions and cancer of the ovary, bladder, pancreas and kidney; while sites for which mortality from cancer is decreasing are the stomach, tongue, lip, skin, rectum, uterus and liver. Obvious factors that may underlie all such trends are changes in classification, in accuracy of diagnosis and in efficiency of recording. Yet some of the trends, and outstandingly the increase in mortality from lung cancer and the decline in that from cancer of the stomach, are real and fundamental.

no very

Experimental Method.

—

Immense as have been the advances knowledge from observation and statistical analysis, cancer research, from the nature of the problem, is also heavily dependent upon the experimental method. Although this had early beginnings, its application on any scale dates only from the turn of the 19th century, when specialized research centres were established, particularly in the United Kingdom, the United States, Europe and Japan. Within IS years, marked advances had taken

in

place in understanding of the biological characteristics of the

cancer

cell

(including

its

capacity to propagate indefinitely on

of cancer

This capacity is the outstanding attribute of the cancer cell and the artificial propagation of animal tumours by such means in a variety of species, but especially the mouse, rat, rabbit, guinea pig and hamster, also affords a great wealth of material essential to research. The growth potential is also preserved perhaps permanently in cells

—

—

carried into the frozen state

by

suitable techniques, as can be

demonstrated when they are restored to normal temperatures and reimplanted, after periods certainly up to many years. During the course of transplantation, in true

and may remain remarkably

cases these properties

may

most cases the cancer

cell

stable in its properties.

alter, either

breeds

In other

gradually or by a stepwise

progression, a process usually involving further dedifferentiation

and

loss of function,

rapidity of growth.

with increased ease of transplantability and

The

first

transplantation of a primary tumour

when these are blood But generally the conditions for success

to fresh hosts will on occasion only succeed

relations of the donor.

become

less rigorous on repeated transfer, whereafter the tumour can be propagated in animals of the same species. In the overwhelming majority of instances, however, the limits of transplantability are the limits of species or of hybridization between and are frequently even more species where this is feasible closely restricted to a particular subline or strain. Where a tumour graft fails to be accepted (apart from accidental reasons), it does so from an immune reaction on the part of the host, which rejects it as foreign tissue; and when it is tolerated, it is then able to elicit from the tissues of the host the blood vessels and connective scaffolding on which its further growth depends. Transplantation immunity is therefore directed against tumour grafts different in their genetical and immunological constitution from the tissues of the host, and they obey the laws that govern

—

—

the transplantation of tissues of whatever kind.

The capacity

develop such immunity does, however, vary with age and with transplantation site and can be diminished by various procedures. Thus, tumours of the mouse can be grown for short periods in the infant rat before immune responsiveness has w'holly matured. Second, tumours of foreign species (including man) may persist or undergo varying degrees of growth when implanted in such sites as the cheek pouch of the golden hamster or the anterior chamber of the rabbit eye—^sites in which the foreign graft appears to be shielded from the immune reaction that would otherwise destroy it. Last, successful transplantation to an alien host may be achieved by prior treatment of the host with various vital dyestuffs (e.g., trypan blue), or other particulate material, both of to

which are taken up by the cells of the so-called reticulo-endothelial system on which transplantation immunity largely relies and lead to its temporary suspension; successful transplantation also may be achieved through a somewhat similar abrogation of immunity from the administration of cortisone, or following exposure to Such technical modifications of the immune response X-rays. permit the growth of tumours in circumstances in which it would not normally occur and are the basis of many experimental procedures invaluable for further research. The propagation of tumours, so far considered, is dependent upon the transfer, from donor to host, of intact and living cancer But a great revolution in cancer research occurred around cells. 1910, with the discovery by Peyton Rous, at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York, that certain fowl sarcomas could be transmitted not only by grafting tumour cells but also by injection of a submicroscopic agent extractable from them the birth of the virus theory of cancer causation. The Rous and related agents are highly specific and immediate in their

—

—

CANCER RESEARCH

776

homologous normal cells of the fresh host into the replica of the tumour cells from which they were derived. Since that time, many other so-called oncogenic (tumour-causing) viruses have been revealed. In numerous ways heterogeneous in their properties and hence, perhaps, in their modes of action, it is, nevertheless, of much interest and significance that certain of them are also capable of transcending the species barrier and of inducing tumours in species alien to those from which they were derived. The Study of Heredity. A further early result of modem action, at once transforming the

—

cancer research lay in the recognition of the importance, in the genesis of the disease, of hereditary constitution.

As

early as

1907 E. E. Tyzzer showed that the progeny of mice with mammary or lung cancer were more liable to develop these diseases than were the progeny of noncancerous animals. Similar conclusions were reached by Maud Slye (between 1913 and 1941) respecting other types of cancer in the mouse. The procedure of selective breeding was later developed by such pioneers as C. C. Little at the Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial laboratory at Bar Harbor, Me., and L. C. Strong. Selective breeding utilizes the principle that continued inbreeding of brother to sister, or of offspring to parents, reduces the extent of variation in inheritance and increases the genetical uniformity of the resulting animals in succeeding generations. Thus from the selective breeding of the cancerous progeny of cancer-bearing mice can be evolved strains with a high natural incidence of cancer of the type shown by their ancestors. Contrariwise, by selection of the noncancerous progeny of noncancerous parents in successive generations, strains may be established with very low rates in their natural liability. It is patent that when selective inbreeding is utilized in experimental animals such as the mouse, heredity can be demonstrated as a powerful influence in cancer causation. However, since human society is based upon the deliberate exclusion of close inbreeding and since human breeding is to all intents random and nonselective, the hereditary factor is of little practical importance in man, unless in very exceptional circumstances.

THE STUDY OF THE CAUSES OF CANCER For obvious reasons, a great part of cancer research is devoted to the study of causation. Here the experimental method is of paramount importance because it allows not only the artificial reproduction of the disease by a wide range of carcinogenic agents but also the investigation of their diverse mechanisms of action. When it becomes possible in chemical terms to elucidate the means by which carcinogens effect malignant transformation, this knowledge will have its corollary in a correspondingly precise understanding, on a biomolecular level, of the essential differences between normal and cancer cells and may also have its implications for rational treatment and control. Physical Carcinogenesis. Ionizing Radiation. Known carcinogens fall into three major classes physical, chemical and viral. Of the first, by far the most important are various electromagnetic and corpuscular radiations, and radiation as a carcino-

—

—

genic agent can be considered as comprising ultraviolet, roentgen and gamma, alpha and beta radiation and protons and neutrons.

For ionizing radiations, recognition of

their carcinogenic hazard gradually developed in the early part of the 20th century, that is, not long after the discovery of roentgen rays (X-rays) and radium partly from the experiences of the radiologist martyrs as a

—

of inadequate protection but also to some extent from experiment. Evidence in man has also accrued from such examples as the risk of bone sarcoma following the use of radium paints in industry, the sequelae to the use of a colloidal suspension of result

thorium dioxide

medical diagnosis, the occurrence of neoplasia in children treated with X-rays in infancy for enlargement of the thymus gland, the appearance of leukemia in a proportion of cases of ankylosing spondylitis treated with X-rays and the increased incidence of leukemia, and of other cancers, in the survivors of exposure to high levels of instantaneous radiation from the atomic explosions at Nagasaki and Hiroshima. Experimentally of great importance are the high-energy radiations associated with the uranium chain reaction and the range of radioactive elements in

and isotopes

—

especially

including radiophosphorus, plutonium,

radioactive strontium and iodine

—made possible by the develop-

ment

clear that this development,

of atomic physics.

It is

by

rendering available radioactive isotopes in variety and abundance, has not merely stimulated the growth of radiobiology but has also

added

to the scientific

and practical problems that the potential

carcinogenicity of such substances creates.

Chemical Carcinogenesis.

—

As in the case of ionizing radiaobservation played an essential part in the gradual development of knowledge of chemical carcinogenesis. The occurrence of cancer of the skin in chimney sweeps had been recognized by Percivall Pott as long ago as 1775 as attributable to soot. In the second half of the 19th century many other examples came tion, clinical

to light of cancer as an industrial hazard

among

the workers

in

the

German

—

tar

especially skin tumours

and

parafiin

"paraffin cancer" found in workers in the Scottish

oil

industry,

shale deposits

and the so-called "mule spinners' cancer" affecting workers in the Lancashire cotton-spinning industry and caused by contamination of the skin with lubricating

oil.

These and many other similar observations indicated the presence of cancer-producing substances in soot, coal tar, pitch and mineral oil and provided the stimulus toward the artificial reproduction of the disease by chemical means under experimental conditions. This was first attained by K. Yamagiwa and K. Ichikawa in 1915 by protracted application of coal tar to the skin of the rabbit ear, an achievement that in turn inaugurated the search for the agent responsible. In the 1920s the work of B. Bloch and W. Dreyfus in Ziirich and of E. L. Kennaway in London together indicated that this agent probably belonged to the class of cyclic hydrocarbons; and the following years in quick succes-

from the contributions of E. L. Kennaway, J. W. Cook, V. Mayneord, I. Hieger and others, saw the discovery of the pure chemical compound with pronounced carcinogenic properties (1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene), recognition of the main carcinogen in coal tar and pitch (3,4-benzpyrene) and the production by s>'nthesis of various series of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These advances were not merely of utmost importance in themselves but had immediate and lasting repercussions on every aspect of experimental cancer research throughout the world. sion,

W.

first

Carcinogenicity is not, however, restricted to the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Another occupational hazard had long been known in the incidence of cancer of the bladder in workers in the dyestuffs industry in England, Europe and Japan, from exposure to the intermediates alpha- and beta-naphthylamine and benzidine, and these substances were the forerunners of what was Further, the proto prove a large class of carcinogenic amines. pensity to evoke cancer of the liver is a feature of many dyestuffs allied to aminoazobenzene. Of special interest are various associations between carcinogenesis and endocrine physiology, arising from the discovery by A. Lacassagne in 1932 that injection of the female sex hormones (estrogens) can produce cancer of the breast in male mice. The appearance of breast cancer in mice is known to be determined by a number of predisposing and conditioning factors. Also, the carcinogenic action of the estrogens is mainly confined to tissues that are highly responsive to Nevertheless, Lacasthe physiological action of the estrogens. sagne's experiment was the first in which cancer was produced by a naturally occurring compound and led to many other studies, including those of the induction of pituitary, mammary, uterine, testicular, adrenal, subcutaneous, leukotic and osseous tumours in mice and other species by both natural and synthetic estrogens.

other types of chemical carcinogenesis may be listed the action of urethan in increasing the incidence of adenoma of the lung in mice; the induction of liver tumours by carbon tetrachloride, tannic acid and alkaloids derived from the plant genus

Among

Senecio, the appearance of sarcomas following implantation of many polymers and plastics; the production of a variety of proliferations of the reticulo-endothelial system after prolonged

administration of such azo dyes as trypan blue or Evans blue, and the role of metals, metalloids or metal-containing substances {e.g., arsenic, chromates, nickel carbonyl, asbestos, beryllium, selenium,

;

CANDELABRUM—CANDLE cobalt and metal-dextrans) in producing cancer, whether under occupational conditions or by experiment. Last but highly im-

portant is an extensive class of so-called alkylating carcinogens {e.g., nitrogen mustards, bisepoxides, polyethylenimines) which

because of their chemical simplicity and reactivity are specially advantageous in studying the mechanism of their action. The Oncogenic Viruses. Added to the growing knowledge

—

and chemical carcinogenesis, the mid-20th century saw the beginnings of a revolution in opinion as to the causa-

of physical also

tive role of oncogenic viruses.

Rous sarcoma

Much

earlier, the

virus had been followed

discovery of the

by recognition of similar

agents recoverable from many avian leukemias. Later, J. J. Bittner demonstrated the contributory part in the etiology of breast cancer in mice of the so-called milk factor, a viral agent present in the tissues of certain strains of high susceptibility and transferred by the milk to suckling mice in which it can then determine an incidence of mammary cancer to which they would not other-

wise be liable. In another direction, R. E. Shope described a virus capable of inducing, in the skin of the rabbit, rapidly growing papillomas, a proportion of which then transform into highly

By

administration of extracts of mouse leu-

tissue to day-old

mice of strains not otherwise susceptible,

malignant cancers.

kemic

L. Gross was able to generate a high incidence of leukemia and

—

leukemogenic viruses in the mammal a key discovery that led, through the application of similar methods by Sarah Stewart, and later by many others, to recognition of the polyoma (Stewart-Eddy) virus, capable of growth and enhancement in tissue culture and of evoking a wide range of tumours not only in the mouse but in other species. Apart from the unique biological properties of the polyoma viruses, remarkable advances were made by electron microscopy regarding their morphology and nucleic acid structure. Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis. A central problem concerns the mechanisms by which malignant transformation is effected and, in particular, what part (if any is played in natural causation by processes of infection. It is clear that cancer can be induced by a great range of agents and from their diversity it is certain these must operate by different biochemical routes. It is, however, not improbable that these routes lead to a key alteration similar in principle in the different cases, notwithstanding the great diversities between the carcinogens themselves and even between many of the oncogenic viruses. The possibility of an eventual synthetic understanding is also seen in the fact that many physical, chemical and even viral carcinogens are capable of inducing chemical and biological mutation, of which carcinogenesis may be a specialized case. It is often said that the cancer cell has acquired the property of unlimited growth; but, as was earliest pointed out by J. A. Murray, this cannot be so since the same potentiality is inherent in the normal cell. Many studies, especially of such chemical carcinogens as the polycyclic hydrocarbons, the azo dyestuffs and the alkylating agents, strongly suggest an interference with protein synthesis, leading perhaps to the deletion of specific enzymes, either directly by chemical combination with protein or indirectly by damage to the chemical integrity of the nucleic acid structures, upon which both cellular heredity and protein synthesis depend. Hence it may well be that the action of all carcinogens, including the oncogenic viruses, is to to demonstrate

—

I

deprive the cell, by various degrees of speciticity of action, of growth-regulatory systems dependent upon the protein-nucleic acid association, and in this way to liberate permanently the growth potential aU along present but normally controlled.

RESEARCH ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORT In many countries cancer research is supported from both governmental and private sources. Examples of the former can be taken in the Medical Research council of Great Britain, the department of health, education and welfare of the United States government and the French Centre National de la Recherche Examples of private support sources are seen in Scientifique. the British Empire Cancer campaign, the Imperial Cancer Research fund, the American Cancer society and the

Memorial Fund

for

Cancer Research; and

Damon Runyon

a specially valuable

function

is

777

performed by those

—such

Lady Tata Memorial

as the

fund (for research in leukemia) and the Jane Coffin Childs Memorial Fund for Medical Research and the Anna Fuller fund (both that distribute their help on an internaof New Haven, Conn.)

—

tional scale.

In research

itself,

apart from

support, most countries have

its

their scientific societies designed to bring together

workers in the field, outstanding being the American Association for Cancer Research. On the international plane, it is a function of the Union Internationale contre le Cancer (founded in 1933) to organize a series of international cancer congresses, at four-year intervals, and to sponsor occasional international symposia. The Union was a founder member of the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (C.I.O.M.S.) and is affiliated to the

World Health organization. See Cancer; Medical Research. Bibliography. History M. Borst, Die Lehre von den GeschTvUlsten, 2 vol. (1902) C. D. Haagenson, "An Exhibit of Important Books,

—

:

;

Papers and Memorabilia Illustrating the Evolution of Knowledge of Cancer," Ainer. J. Cancer, vol. 18 (1933) J. Wolff, Die Lehre von der Krebskrankheil, von den dltesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart, 4 vol. (1907-28). General Works and Textbooks: I. Berenblum, Man Against Cancer H. Burrows and E. S. Horning, Oestrogens and Neoplasia (1952) (1952); E. V. Cowdry, Cancer Cells (1955); W. Dameshek and F. Gunz, Leukemia (1958); J. P. Greenstein, Biochemistry of Cancer, 2nd ed. (1954); L. Gross, The Oncogenic Viruses (1960); F. Homburger (ed.), Physiopathology oj Cancer, 2nd ed. (1959) G. W. de P. Nicholson, Studies on Tumour Formation (1950); W. W. Nowinski (ed.). Fundamental Aspects of Normal and Malignant Growth (1960) C. Oberling, Le Cancer, 7th ed. (1954); R. W. Raven (ed.). Cancer, 6 vol. (1957-60); D. W. Smithers, A Clinical Prospect of the Cancer Problem (1960); P. E. Steiner, Cancer: Race and Geography (1954); R. a. Willis, The Spread of Tumours in the Human Body, 2nd ed. (1952), and Pathology of Tumours, 2nd ed. (1953). "Chemical Reviews: Advances in Cancer Research (1953- ) Carcinogenesis," Brit. Med. Bull, vol. 4 (1947) "Causation of Cancer," Brit. Med. Bull., vol. 14 (1958); "The Possible Role of Viruses in Cancer," Cancer Res., vol. 20 (1960) F. Homburger (ed.). Progress Yearbook of Cancer in Experimental Tumour Research (1960) (1957- ). Amer. Journals and Periodicals: Acta Un. Int. Cancr. (1936- ) ); Bull. Ass. Frani;. J. Cancer (1916^0); Brit. J. Cancer (1947Cancer (1908- ); Cancer, N.Y. (1948- ): Cancer Res. (1947- ); Gann (1907- ); J. Nat. Cancer Inst. (1940- ); Oncologia (1948Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research ) ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1953(1904-

);

Tumori (1911-

;

new

series

1923-

);

).

CANDELABRUM,

architecture,

in

is

a

Z. Krebsforsch. (Al. Ha.)

decorative motif

derived from the pedestal or shaft used to support a lamp or candle. The Romans, developing Hellenistic precedents, made

candelabra of great decorative richness. Two Roman types are found: the simpler, consisting of a slender shaft, often fluted, supported on a spreading base of animals' feet and acanthus scrolls, and carrying a flat shelf with vaselike moldings. The multitude of such candelabra found in Pompeii proves them to have been a common form of household decoration. The more monumental type, either of marble or bronze, used in public buildings, had for the base a pedestal resembling a little altar which carried a heavy shaft, frequently decorated with row on row of acanthus leaves. The lavishness of such examples made a great impression on Renaissance artists, and the general form known as the candelabrum shaft was widely used in the late iSth century, especially for the centre of pilasters.

For candelabrum in the sense of a large branched candlestick, Candlestick. (Erakleion) see Iraklion (Heraklion).

see

CANDIA

:

CANDLE,

a cylinder of wax, tallow or similar material surrounding and saturating a fibrous wick. Early Forms. Candles were known to the peoples of the ancient world. Depicted in relief on ancient Egyptian tombs at Thebes are cone-shaped candles held aloft in dishlike holders. Dish-shaped candlesticks with a central socket, similar in design to the modem candlestick, were found at Crete and date from the first Minoan civilization, about 3000 B.C. The Romans had candles and tapers of tallow and wax, and a fragment of candle dating from the 1st century a.d. was found at Vaison, near Avignon, in France.

—

CANDLEMAS

778

During the middle ages in Europe the familiar means of lighting of the poor was the rushlight, consisting of a reed stripped to the pith and dipped in oil. Both tallow and wax candles were commonly known, however, although wax candles were so costly that only the wealthy could afford them. Tallow candles were called "dips." Tallow was rendered from beef or mutton suet strands of yarn were then dipped in the melted fat and allowed to cool. The dipping and cooling processes were repeated alternately until the candle reached a desired thickness. Wax candles were made by repeatedly pouring melted beeswax over a suspended wick and removing any unevenness in the finished candle by rolling it over a

standard of photometric measure. Another bright-burning candle was made of ceresin, a wax obtained from the distillation of ozocerite, or earth wax. The successful production of paraffin wax in 1850 was a development of first importance. By 1855 paraffin wax was being profitably produced in England, on the continent and to some extent in the United States by distillation of coal and oil shales. Discovery of petroleum in the United States in 1859 made possible the economical production of paraffin by redistilling the abundant residue left from the initial refining of crude petroleum. Purification of

hard surface.

paraffin wax.

Candlemaking was exclusively a domestic pursuit for many years, but with the growth of medieval town life it became a spe-

overcome by combining

;

cialized craft. In Paris in the 13th century members of a guild of tallow chandlers went from house to house making candles. A distinction was drawn between the making of tallow candles and the

making of wax candles, as evidenced by the establishment in Paris of two separate guilds, the tallow chandlers and the wax chandlers. In London, also, two separate livery companies were incorporated. An interesting familiar feature of the middle ages was the tallow candle set in a lantern. It should be noted that candlemaking as a domestic art was never entirely lost. In some localities throughout the medieval period and on into much more modern times candles were still made in the home kitchen. The candle mold did not appear until the 15th century. Its invention, attributed to the sieur de Brez of Paris, was of importance only to tallow chandling, since beeswax candles could not be molded satisfactorily. Emergence of Modern Processes. Few improvements in candlemaking were introduced until the 19th century, when chem-

—

istry exerted its impact on the industry. In the second decade of the century, a French chemist, M. E. Chevreul, proved that fats were composed of fatty acids and glycerin. He succeeded in separating these components by saturating fat with alkali and treating

the resultant soap with sulfuric acid. The liquid oleic acid was expressed by pressure, leaving the solid combined palmitic and stearic acids, the stock of the superior stearin candle. From this beginning, new processes for producing pure candle Fats were decomposed by stock appeared in rapid succession. treating them with concentrated sulfuric acid, by subjecting a mixture of fat and water to high temperatures under pressure in an autoclave or digester, and by distillation with superheated steam, a method that permitted recovery of pure glycerin. From these in-

novations developed the modern method of decomposing fats by In this i.e., breakdown through the addition of water. process, a mixture of fat and lime is water (calcium hydroxide candle in clamp heated to a high temperature uncoppersealed, in a der pressure lined steel digester, the material

hydrolysis;

)

being agitated by a spirally turning paddle or by pumping. The products are lime soap, which is resolved into fatty acids, water and lime sulfate by treatment

with dilute sulfuric acid and steam, and "sweet water," from which glycerin is recovered by purification with steam. In addition to stearin, other important candle stocks were produced during the 19th cenSpermaceti, derived from tury. the oil in the head cavity of the

exact

specifications,

lished in

England

in

it

—

Molds of the modern machine are made of highand are finely finished inside to give polish to the candles. The molds are arranged in parallel rows in a metal tank equipped for alternate heating and cooling. The amount of heat applied and

movable grade

pistons.

tin

the rate of cooling are carefully controlled to suit particular candle

The upper, or butt, ends of the molds open into horizontal channels from which melted candle stock drains into the molds, which are preheated. The lower, or tip, ends of the molds are stocks.

closed by inverted conical tip-molds, each of which

upward

into a rack or

clamp

of wicking are carried at the

mold; the wicking

machine.

Spools for each

at the top of the

threaded through the piston, entering a perfoand passing up through the candle mold. As ejected into the clamp the wicking is drawn up in preparation for the next charge. When a second charge of candles is ready for ejection, the wicks of the first are cut and the candles removed from the clamp. Such a machine can produce up to 500 candles at a single charge and can complete three charges an is

ration in the tip-mold a charge of candles

is

hour.

For certain specialized purposes, tallow "dips" are still made commercially. Beeswax candles continue to be made by basting a suspended wick with the melted wax, while tapers are made by drawing long strands of wicking through a bath of molten wax. Nonlighting Uses. Candles have been turned to interesting uses other than lighting. A millennium ago a candle marked off in 12 equal divisions was burned to time the passing of a day. Alfred the Great devised a thin horn shield that protected the timeIn 17thcandle's flame against disturbances by currents of air. century England bidding at auctions opened with the lighting of an inch-high candle and closed when the candle guttered out. Candles have exerted a perennial aesthetic and spiritual appeal. Through the centuries they have been lighted as sacramentals in

—

Catholic churches, and the lighting of candles has also been Jewish religious and historic ceremonies. Where canno longer fill the need for illumination, they are prized for the There is also a thriving interest in soft charm of their light. candlemaking as a creative art. BiBLiOGR.APHV. I. V. Stanislaus and P. B. Meerbott, American Soapmaker's Guide (1928); E. Rvan, Candles in the Roman Rite (1933); F. W. Robins, Story of the L. M. A. Roy, The , Candle Book (1938) Lamp and the Candle (1939) W. H. Leach, Use of Candles in ChrisCandlemaking Klenke, tian Fellowship (1940); W. W. (1946); Carli (E. L. Y.) Laklan, The Candle Book (1957). Feb. 2 which comthe church festival on memorates the occasion when the 'Virgin Mary, in obedience to Jewish law, went to Jerusalem both to be purified 40 days after

—

;

;

TO WICK SPOOL

was estab- longitudinal section of a can. 1860 as the dle mold

carried at the

bottom of the machine, one

Roman

POSITION OF WICK

is

top of a hollow piston attached to a common bed. The tip-mold form the tapered end of the candle. After the filled molds have been cooled, the pistons are raised to eject the candles also serves to

dles

Its

tendency to brittleness was corrected by the addition of beeswax. The spermaceti candle, made to

disadvantage of a low-melting point was with stearic acid, and this composite material soon accounted for most of the candle production. The plaited cotton wick, pickled in a dilute solution of a mineral salt such as borax, potassium nitrate or ammonium chloride, was introduced by W. Cambaceres in 1825. Impregnation of the wick with a mineral salt causes it to curve when burning, thus facilitating oxidation. It also causes the ash to vitrify, eliminating the need for snuffing, or cutting away, the charred wick ends. Modem wicking is plaited by machines. Production by Machine The modern candle-molding machine evolved from Joseph Morgan's machine of 1834, the first that permitted continuous wicking and ejection of molded candles by Its single

a part of

sperm whale, made a candle of superior illuminating power.

the resultant material yielded white, or bluish-white, translucent

CANDLEMAS,

CANDLE POWER—CANDLESTICK

779

giving birth to a son and to present Jesus to

(Luke

ii,

22-i8).

The

festival

Purification of the Virgin

is

also

God as her first-born known in the west as the

Mary and

as the Presentation of the Child Jesus. In the Greek church it is called Hypapante ("meeting") because of their meeting in the Temple with the aged Simeon, who said the Nunc dimittis and prophesied to the Virgin Mary. The earliest reference to the festival comes from Jerusalem, where in the late 4th century the western pilgrim Etheria attended its

celebration on Feb. 14, 40 days after

Epiphany (then kept there as Christmas). It soon spread to other the Byzantine empire, and in 542 Justinian I decreed that

the nativity of Christ; see cities of

date should be moved back to Feb. 2 {i.e., 40 days after ChristBy the middle of the 5th century the custom of keeping the festival with lighted candles had been introduced by a Jerusalem its

mas).

abbess; hence the name Candlemas. The festival is first heard of in the west when Pope Sergius I (687-701) instituted the procesit in Rome. In the east west of the Virgin Mary.

sion for in the

CANDLE POWER

it is

primarily a festival of Christ, (J. E. Bh.)

(Luminous Intensity),

a term now commercial use, dating back to the candlelight era, when a standard candle was made of spermaceti wax and of such dimensions and wick length as to consume 120 gr. per hour. Later a specially made pentane lamp (Harcourt) was the standard candle for Great Britain and the United States; Germany meanwhile adopted the Hefner amyl-acetate lamp. In 1909 the international candle was defined in terms of groups of specially made and precisely operated carbon filament lamps kept

technically obsolescent but

still in

at national standardization laboratories.

In 1939 the Commission Internationale de I'Eclairage in sessions recommended a new standard candle, to be of the luminous intensity per square centimetre of its surface

at Scheveningen, Neth.,

equal to one-sixtieth of that of a black body (q.v.) (perfect) radiator held at the freezing point of pure platinum (1,773° C). This

was the accepted definition of the standard candle {see Physical Units). The term candle power obviously referred intuitively to the rate of flow (flux) of luminous energy, as judged by the eye, from some source of light in comparison with that of a candle. The unit of flux is the

lumen.

This

is

defined as the rate of luminous output

of energy, the flux, radially streaming outward through a unit of solid angle

apex of

(steradian) from the standard candle located at the

this angle.

Thus in modern terms a standard candle's power sends a luminous intensity of 47r lumens out through any spherical surface centred on the candle. For more technical details, see Lighting; Photometry. (H. B. Lm.) CANDLER, ASA GRIGGS (1851-1929), U.S. manufacturer of soft drinks, was born on a farm near Villa Rica, Ga., Dec. 30, 1851. He studied medicine, became a pharmacist and developed a prosperous wholesale drug business. In 1887 he purchased the formula for Coca-Cola, a soft drink, from a business associate. He improved the process of manufacture and developed Coca-Cola into one of the most prosperous businesses in the southern region of the United States. He sold the business in 1919 for $25,000,000. gifts its

Emory

university in Atlanta, Ga., received

many

from him and he constructed a teaching hospital adjacent

He

medical school.

died

March

12, 1929, in Atlanta,

(H.

Ga.

J.

to

.

Sg.)

CANDLESTICK,

a receptacle for holding a candle {q.v.). Candlesticks may range in size and complexity from the medieval block of wood holding an iron spike on which the candle was impaled, to the huge bronze altar candlesticks of the Italian Renaissance. In the most restricted sense, "candlestick" means a utensil

for holding one candle,

"candelabrum" a

large, standing,

candlestick for holding several candles; "candlestick"

branched

commonly

used in both senses. "Chandelier" is a branched candlestick (or lampstand) suspended from the ceiling.

is

—

Ancient Times, In its earliest form, the candle was a torch made of slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped in wax or hand by the lower end. Cantype frequently figured on classical painted vases;

tallow, tied together dles of this

and held

in the

(LEFT) ENGLISH GILT BRONZE ALTAR CANDLESTICK. INSCRIBED AS HAVING BEEN GIVEN TO THE ABBEY OF ST. PETER, GLOUCESTER, BY THE ABBOT PETER. EARLY 12TH CENTURY: (RIGHT) ENGLISH CANDELABRA WITH BRISTOL GLASS STANDS MOUNTED IN GILT BRONZE. ABOUT 1800. BOTH IN THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM

subsequently a cup or discus was attached to the base to catch the dripping wax or tallow. The rushlight that was still used in 19th-century Europe was of similar construction. Little is known of domestic candlesticks before the middle ages, but a number of references to ecclesiastical candlesticks are to be found in the Old Testament. Moses was commanded to make

for the tabernacle a candlestick of hammered gold which was to weigh a talent and consist of a base with a shaft from which six arms sprang, supporting seven candles on the arms and central shaft.

When Solomon

built his temple, he placed in

it ten golden After the period of captivity in Babylon the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been formerly in the tabernacle by Moses, but on the destruction of Jerusalem it was carried with other spoils to Rome; representations of it can be seen on the Arch of Titus in Rome and in the catacombs. Middle Ages. The simplest form of domestic candlestick was a block of wood into the top of which an iron spike was driven vertically. The lower end of the candle was then impaled on this spike and the upper end lighted. This type of candlestick survived in rural areas into the early 19th century. It is found in various sizes. The earliest form had only a single spike, but subsequently the stem was wrought into two spikes, or a circular tray was attached to the top, on the upper side of which several spikes might be fixed. Candlesticks of this construction with several tiers of trays or rings for spikes (usually knowTi as prickets) may be seen in use before shrines in Roman Catholic churches. The socket was introduced as an alternative to the pricket during the middle ages, but it did not replace it, and late medieval candlesticks are found with both prickets and sockets on one stem. The bronze founders of Germany, the Low Countries and elsewhere produced splendid cast bronze candlesticks for both ecclesiThe astical and secular purposes from the 10th century onward. most striking is the so-called Gloucester candlestick (in the Victoria and Albert museum, London), which is generally accepted as an English work dating from the early 12th century. The whole surface is pierced and modeled with nude human figures fighting dragons among foliate scrolls. There are also early bronze altar candlesticks in the Magdalenenkirche at Hildesheim and the

candlesticks, five on each side of the

Holy

Place.

—

Mijnsterkirche at Essen, dating from the late 10th and early Uth centuries, respectively, but the most impressive examples are of The most important is the Trivulzio candlestick in Milan cathedral. Six metres in height, it was executed about 1200,

later date.

CANDLESTICK

ySo

but its place of manufacture is conjectural, suggestions varying between England, Lorraine and Milan itself. It is composed of inhabited by realistically modeled human beings and Incomplete candlesticks of similar type survive at museum) and Prague (in the cathedral). Alongside these huge paschal candlesticks, which usually had seven branches, smaller domestic ones were made, some of highly imaginative form. The German and Mosan bronze founders were fond of a type in which a pricket was attached to the back of a dragon or birdlike monster. While the candlesticks from northern Europe were superbly modeled in the form of fantastic figures or animals, the enameling workshops of Limoges in central France produced altar candlesticks of various sizes in which the ornament was carried out in opaque champleve enamel against a gilt copper ground. The Limoges workshops also specialized in small traveling candlesticks with folding legs; the secular nature of this type is shown by the shields of arms of noble French families with which they were usually enriched. Judging by surviving examples, candles were more popular than lamps during the middle ages. The substitute in northern Europe for the hanging oil lamp used floral scrolls

monsters.

Reims

(in the

Europe was the chandelier. Hanging candleholders or iron of simple shape were used in Anglo-Saxon churches before the Conquest. In the 12th and 13th centuries huge coronas, openwork hoops of iron or bronze, supported numerous prickets for candles. Those made for royal palaces were of gold or Only in the cathedrals silver, sometimes even set with jewels. have such large Romanesque chandeliers survived, the most important being that in Aachen cathedral made for the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1168. A peculiar form of hanging chandelier for ecclesiastical purposes, produced in Spain, is known as a in eastern

made

of

wood

polycandelon; it consisted of a flat circular plate of bronze, the edge pierced with circular holes for the insertion of candles and the central area pierced with Christian symbols. Surviving examples date from the 8th to the 10th century. The development of the brass-founding industry in the Meuse valley in and around Dinant, Belg'., led to an important production there in the later middle ages of large altar candlesticks and smaller

domestic ones of standardized form with circular molded stems and large spreading bases, often supported on three lion feet. Brass was also found to be a suitable material for the production of chandeliers, and a number of ISth-century examples survive, mostly in churches; among them is a 12-light chandelier arranged These in two tiers in the Berkeley chapel at Bristol cathedral. 15th- and 16th-century brass chandeliers were usually surmounted by a figure of the Virgin Mary, a saint or an angel, though some of the more magnificent examples, such as may be seen in Flemish ISth-century paintings, were enriched with much elaborate Gothic crocketing and tracery. enriched with enamel, decorated the rich chapels of the nobility in the later middle ages, but there is now little to show of such treasures. The treasury of Aachen cathedral includes silver altar candlesticks of the late 14th century, while a set of 15th-centur>' Spanish altar plate in the British museum includes a pair of silver candlesticks Candlesticks of silver

gilt,

altars of the great churches

and

enriched with translucent enamel. In England Henry VI owned a splendid pair of gold candlesticks set with 4 sapphires, 4 rubies, 4 emeralds and 24 pearls. Subsequently, in the 16th century, Henry VIII had a set of four golden candlesticks with his initials enameled on them in red and weighing 126 oz. The inventory of the plate of Queen Elizabeth I includes 148 candlesticks and chandeliers of silver or silver gilt, a great many of which were what would now be called candelabra. The houses of the wealthy must have contained a great quantity of candlesticks the household inventory of Sir Thomas Ramsey, a former lord mayor of London, ;

who

died in 1590, included 58 brass candlesticks. Instead of the elaborate chandelier with as many as 12 lights, a candlebeam was sometimes used. This was composed of two or three crossed beams of carved and gilded wood, fitted with sockets

and drip pans. Chandelier and candlebeam alike were suspended by two or more chains to a rope passing over a pulley, so that the whole fitting could be lowered as required for snuffing. In the

candlebeam was supplemented by wall lights or sconces of silver or brass fitted with reflectors behind the candles. These are described as plate candlesticks in the inventories of the time.

larger houses the

While the brass candlesticks were mostly imported into England, there was a considerable production of pewter ones, but the earliest-known English example, the Grainger candlestick (in the Victoria and Albert museum), dates from the beginning of the 17th century. The ordinary table candlestick of the 16th century had a high circular foot with its upper rim encircled by a deep molding to

The stem was of circular section and of cylinIn Germany more ambitious types were stem formed as a warrior or woodwose whose ex-

form a drip pan.

drical or baluster form.

made with

the

tended arms held the prickets or sockets. Renaissance. The Italian bronze founders produced superbly modeled candlesticks from small table examples to huge altar candlesticks with angel supporters of almost life size. The most magnificent examples were made of rock crystal mounted in precious metal enriched with translucent enamels; among these is

—

the set of altar cross and pair of candlesticks (in the Victoria and museum) with rock crystal panels mounted in enameled

Albert

made in the mid- 16th century by Valerio Belli. A late16th-century silver pair in the Vatican was made by the goldsmith

silver gilt,

A

Antonio Gentili. Antonio, Padua,

fine

Italy,

bronze candelabrum in the Church of S. is about 11 ft. 6 in. high with many

grotesques, garlands, figures and panels modeled in relief.

Renaissance artists pressed a great variety of materials into use for the production of candlesticks, including Limoges enamels, pottery such as Saint-Porchaire ware, amber and damascened iron.

Among

the

more

fantastic

forms were the chandeliers called

Ltister-W eibchen made in German-speaking areas. A figure of a woman or a monster was carved in wood and painted in naturalistic colours and to the back was fixed a large pair of antlers to which in turn were attached prickets or sockets for candles. A design by Albrecht Diirer for a lustre of this type exists, and examples still survive in German castles and city council chambers. At the other end of the scale are the simple table candlesticks made in England from common earthenware covered with a greenish glaze. A few of these (in the Guildhall museum, London) were excavated in London; with their bell-shaped base surmounted by a wide drip pan, short stem and long, outward-tapering socket, they show Eng-

lish folk art at its best.

—

17th Century. The few examples of English candlesticks of pre-Restoration date that have survived present considerable variety of form. The earliest, which probably dates from about 1600, is of crystal and silver gilt, with two sockets attached to a crystal crossbeam supported on a stem decorated with figures of eagles and satyrs. Other examples are less ambitious: a pair of 1618 have solid sockets and grease pans, but stems and triangular bases of wire, supported on three feet resembling pepper pots. A pair in the Fairfax inventory of 1624 described as "wyer silver candlesticks" were doubtless of this type. Fewer candlesticks were imported from the Low Countries in the 17th century, and one of the two main types in use in England at that time was of local origin. It had a trumpet base, hollow stem decorated with "sausage" turning and a wide drip pan set about a third of the way up from base to socket. The other type, which was much produced had a baluster stem of excellent proportions and form, spreading base and wide drip pan halfway between top and base. The production of brass chandeliers, which became so important in the Netherlands during the 18th century, was started in the 17th. These had a b'oldly shaped baluster stem terminating beneath in a large burnished reflecting sphere; from the stem sprang a number of S-shaped branches ending in sockets. As a rule the chandelier was suspended from a chain, but in English churches it was sometimes attached to^a wrought-iron suspension rod, which was lavishly ornamented with flowers, leaves and scrollwork, and enriched with painted colours and gilding. Simpler chandeliers were also made by village blacksmiths; these had a central sphere of wood from which sprang curved iron rods ending in prickets. In accordance with the baroque style of the 17th century, silver in the Netherlands,

—

CANDLISH candlesticks were

made with stems

boldly modeled with human or animal figures. Very few of these survived, as they consumed a great deal of precious metal and were broken up for its sake when they ceased to be fashionable. The fashion for this type of figure ornament was widely spread in Europe and the few examples surviving are of German, English or

Dutch

origin.

Wall sconces were greatly favoured and were provided with reembossed with profuse ornament in The long dining halls of 17th-century houses had high relief. space for numbers of these sconces, and some of the German princely collections include large sets of them. The royal plate at Windsor castle, Berkshire, includes some very handsome sconces with elaborately embossed reflectors made for Charles II. It was soon realized that mirror plate made an even more effective reflector for candlelight than polished silver, and from the late 17th century it became usual to set the back of sconces with looking glasses, which were known as mirror sconces. While in France the splendid silver furnishings of Louis XIV's palaces had to be sacrificed to contribute bullion to pay for his wars of conquest, much silver furniture survived in England, including several huge chandeliers made entirely of silver. The finest of these, made during the reign of William III for Hampton Court palace, Middlesex, is still in position there; others are found at Chatsworth in Derbyshire and Drumlanrig in Scotland, .^t the same time chandeliers of carved and gilded wood were made; one of those made for the Queen's gallery at Kensington palace during the reign of William III and now in the Victoria and Albert museum has 12 branches in two tiers of carved and gilded wood and is surmounted by a royal crown. 18th Century. The 18th century was the great age of candlelight, and the salons of the nobility and gentry were lighted by many hundreds of candles from chandeliers, candelabra and wall sconces. In England silver and glass were used in the homes of the wealthy, while brass chandeliers were hung in churches and council chambers, these last being manufactured in England instead of being imported. As the century advanced, chandeliers became more massive in form and more elaborate in ornament. The earliest English glass chandeliers date from the 1720s and were of plain design with a heavy ball at the base of the shaft, like the contemporary brass chandeliers. Later they were decorated with numbers of pendants and the surface was given life by cutting. Another decisive change came in the 1770s when the ball was replaced by an urn form. At the same time pear drops were hung from the branches and glass spires set in the upper tiers in place of candles. The chandelier eventually became even more elaborate, icicles being suspended around the shaft and long cascades of pear drops suspended from the lustres. In Europe rock crystal was used instead of glass on the finer flector plates of great size,

—

chandeliers, but in the course of the 18th century the production

was greatly e.xpanded in Venice and in Bohemia. The Venetian chandeliers were made of varicoloured glass with floral ornament and achieved a particularly decorative effect. Such was their popularity that the mid- 18th-century design has been produced in Murano, Italy, ever since and can be purchased new in most European capitals. Magnificent porcelain chandeliers were produced at the larger European factories but, because of their extreme fragility, few have survived. In 18th-century France some of the finest chandeliers were made of gilt bronze (ormolu). The richest and most splendid, dating from the mid-18th century, were cast and chased in bronze to highly rococo designs. Corresponding to the big chandeliers were candelabra and single candlesticks, which, designed by artists such as Juste Meissonier, rank as works of sculpture rather than as domestic accessories. In the 18th century wall lights became more elaborate. Though the same materials carved wood, silver gilt, bronze or brass were used, they were made with many more candle sockets arranged in tiers or, in the case of those of the rococo period, growing asymmetrically out of a central stem. The reflector plate, W-hich had played so important a part in the design of the 17thcentury wall light, was abandoned in the course of the following century, the effect being gained by massing hghts rather than by of glass ones

—

reflection.

wall light

781 The girandole was a particularly ornamental type of made of gilt bronze or carved wood and having usually The great engravers and gilders of mid-lSth-

two branches.

century Paris executed superb examples in gilt bronze. Table candlesticks were made in great variety of design and material. The great houses contained many dozens of pairs of silver candlesticks, and consequently the candlestick is almost the commonest surviving article of English 18th-century plate. The rapid change of fashion in the 18th century from the plain Queen Anne

baroque of early Georgian and subsequently to the rococo, neoclassical and regency or empire styles ensured variety in production. A similar evolution of design took place throughout Europe. Because of the greater wealth of the 18th century, the brass candlestick did not play so important a part, but toward the end of the century very elegant designs were executed in Sheffield plate at Matthew Boulton's works in Birmingstyle to the elaborate late

ham

as well as in SheflSeld itself.

19th Century.— The design of the candlestick in the early 19th century was influenced by the introduction of the tall glass open shade which kept the flame from flickering. The candlesticks were made of brass or bronze and decorated with Egyptian or classical

An attractive tj^pe had a circle of branches below the nozfrom which were suspended cut-glass icicles. In large candelaEgyptian slaves were popular, the latter especially in France. (J. F. H.) motifs.

zle

bra, figures of Atlas or of

In the latter part of the century, with the advent of the more convenient and efficient methods of gas and electric lighting, the real need for candlesticks diminished rapidly, although in remote districts their use continued in spite of the greater efficiency of acetylene, paraffin and other portable lamps. For use when moving about or going to bed, a candlestick was far lighter and simpler to use than these lamps, and the chamber t>T3e, with saucer-shaped base and small looped handle, continued to be manufactured in various metals, pottery or even kitchenware enamel. Designs retreated from decorative to purely utilitarian levels as candlesticks

were relegated to humbler use. 20th Century. A revival of purely decorative types of table candlestick or candleholder occurred in the middle decades of the 20th century, stimulated by fashions for candlelit dinner tables. Scandina\aan designs popularized candlesticks of glass, both heavy polished glass and lighter blown or molded types. Wrought iron, copper and brass were used for designs in Italy, Spain, Yugoslavia and farther north, in some cases reverting to the spike or pricket method of fixing candles in position. Silver, pewter and wood also were employed. Altar candlesticks continue to be used in churches, and although traditional "church plate" types persist widely, many individual designs have been commissioned in the modern style. Silver, gilt and, to a lesser extent, brass still remain favourite materials, but aluminum, stainless steel, enamel inlays and some forms of plastic have all been used successfully in both old and new churches. In general these designs are simple, based on pure or adapted geometric shapes that exploit the quality of the material. In contrast, the large bronze many-branched candelabra presented to Westminster abbey in 1939 and 1942 were designed by Benno Elkan with an elaborate symbolism and detail that owes much to historical sources. (E. C. D.) CANDLISH, SMITH (1806-1873), early leader of the Free Church of Scotland (q.v.), was born at Edinburgh on March 23, 1806, and spent his early years in Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. In 1834 he was appointed minister of the important parish of St. George's, Edinburgh, and there he came to be regarded as one of the ablest preachers in Scotland. His first assembly speech, delivered in 1839, placed him at once among the leaders of the ''nonintrusion" party, and his part in settling the problems created by the Disruption of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers (q.v.). After Chalmers' death in 1847 Candlish was the most prominent leader in the Free Church. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as the principal of New college, Edinburgh, while retaining his position at St. George's. His writings had a considerable influence on theological thought in Scotland and beyond. He died in Edinburgh on Oct. 19, 1873.

—

ROBERT

,

CANDOLLE—CANELONES

782 See

W.

Wilson, Memorials of R.

S.

Candlish, D.D. (1880).

CANDOLLE, (AUGUSTIN) PYRAME DE

as rattan or rotan canes, a significant

(1778-

1841), Swiss botanist who played a prominent part in the establishment of a natural system of classification of flowering plants, was born at Geneva on Feb. 4, 1778. He studied at Geneva and settled in Paris in 1796. His Plantarum succulentarum historm,

four volumes (1799-1829) a.nd Astragalogia (1802), a work on the pea family, introduced him to the notice of G. Cuvier and to J. B.

Lamarck, who confided

to

him the publication

of the Flore fran^aise (1805-15).

The

of the third edition

Principes ilementaires de

any shrub may be termed canes, such rose.

Sugar cane is probably native to the far east, but has been introduced throughout the tropics. It has become a mainstay in the agricultural economy of several Caribbean countries and Brazil.

World production

of sugar usually exceeds 25,000,000 tons. The spent canes, bagasse, are used as fuel for boUers and in making

fibreboard.

Sugar cane

botaniqiie, printed as the introduction to this work, contained the

exposition of his principle of classification according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or artificial method. In 1804 he

first

published his Essai sur les proprietes midicales des plantes, etc., and soon after, in 1806, his Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum. At the desire of the French government he spent the summers of the following six years in making a botanical and agricultural survey of the whole kingdom, the results of which were published in 1813. He lectured on botany at Montpellier (180816) until he returned to Geneva to fill the chair of natural history there. The rest of his life was spent in elaborating and in trying to complete his "natural" system of botanical classification, embodied in his Regni vegetabilis systema naturale, of which two volumes only were completed (1818-21). In 1824 he began his most famous work, Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis (1824-73), of which seven volumes were published during his lifetime. De CandoUe died at Geneva on Sept. 9, 1841. His son, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pvrame de Candolle, famous for his formulation of the laws of botanical nomenclature and for

on the origin of cultivated plants, was born at Paris on He succeeded to his father's chair at Geneva in 1842, and published the remaining nine volumes of the Prodromus one of them in collaboration with his own son, (Anne) Casimir Pyrame de Candolle (1836-1918). Among numerous botanical works, Alphonse de Candolle published Geographie botanique raisonnee (1855); Lois de la nomenclature botanique (1867); Origine des plantes cultivees (1833; 2nd ed.. Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1886). He' died at Geneva on April 4, 1893. his studies

Iberia,

the

old

name

foi

Spain ) and western Asia. Of the approximately 30 species several are shrubby or evergreen garden perennials. The two outer petals

Bamboo, Arundinaria, canes have been struction in

are fragrant.

'^°''"'"'' s""" 5"°= cultivated species are eas- " """^tuft (iber.s semperv.rens, grown if they have plenty of sun and space. The commonest border kinds are: /. amara "''

ily

(rocket candytuft), an annual with white, scented flowers; /. umbellata (globe candytuft), an annual with unscented flowers in a. variety of colours from purple to white; and /. sempervirens, an evergreen shrubby plant with white flowers, much used for edges and in rock gardens. /. amara is sometimes found in chalky cornfields in England. CANE. Cane perhaps most generally refers to sugar cane, officinarum, of the grass family.

The

related

Sorghum

widely cultivated in warmer parts of the temperate zone to yield a sweet sorgo sirup, and selected varieties have been an important feed grain in drier climates. Cane also signifies the jointed, pithy stems of a number of other tall grasses such as Phragmites and bamboo, colonies of which may be termed cane cane

is

brake.

orient;

for

the

used, like rattan, for con-

familiar

Bamboos

members of more than 100

are the largest

fishing

porch

poles,

attaining heights of

the grass family, ft.

Bamboo

some

species

cane has never it has in the

attained the importance in the western world that orient {see also

Bamboo).

Rattan cane comes from the long trailing stems of climbing palms, especially species of Daemonorops and Calamus, exceedingly strong, tough and elastic. ing 600

ft.,

spines on the petioles

from

There are reports of stems reachby hooklike of the pinnate leaves. Canes are hand pulled

clinging to supporting jungle vegetation

their lofty perches for harvest.

Stem

sections have been used for walking canes

(Malacca walk-

ing sticks), handles, in furniture and for basketry. are often

woven

into seats

Split,

they

and backs, wickerwork, for garden

type furniture.

Rattan is an important commercial item of Indonesia, exports from there reaching about 30,000 metric tons yearly. Rattan cane and binding. Plastics have

also finds native use for construction

supplanted canes for

CANEA nomos

(Gr.

many

industrial uses.

Khania),

(R.

W.

capital of Crete (since 1841)

(prefecture) of Khania.

The successor

Sy.)

and of

of the classical

it occupies the coast round the Bay of Canea (Kolpos Khanion) and the isthmus between that and Suda bay (Kolpos Soudhas). Pop. (1961) 38,268. The town returns five members to the assembly in Athens and is the seat of the governor general. As a port it has been largely superseded by Suda bay and

It still exports, however, about a quarter of oil and wine and most of the island's citrus fruits. It is connected with Iraklion by a daily bus service and with Piraeus by regular boat services. The Venetians fortified the town (which they named Canea) and built numerous churches, but the medieval buildings suffered severe damage during the German attack in 1941. The harbour and galley sheds, however, though originally far less inspiring A than those of Iraklion, are now in much better condition. Turkish bathhouse near the harbour is now an archaeological museum. Canea is the seat of a suffragan of the metropolitan of Iraklion and also has a Roman Catholic convent and a Jewish synagogue. The city was captured from the Venetians by the Turks in 1646. After numerous revolutions the treaty of Khalepa (a suburb of

Crete's

the flowers, which grow in round or elongated heads, are longer than the two inner ones. Their colours range from white to dark purple or red and some

Saccharum

the

furniture and plant supports; and (split) for weaving and binding.

Iraklion (Candia).

of

The

sections of stems.

city Cydonia,

or perennial herb of the genus Iberis belonging to the family Cruciferae and native to southern Europe {Iberis

from

by planting

for planting

Cane).

the

;

typically propagated

and cutting. Often the plants are set afire to eliminate foliage on mature canes, facilitating harvest by cutting machines. Juice extracted from cut canes is concentrated to molasses by boiling, from which the sugar crystals are centrifuged out prior to refining {see Sugar: Sugar

Pyrame de

CANDY: see Confectionery Manufacture. CANDYTUFT, the name for any small annual

is

Modern machines have been used

Oct. 27, 1806.

See A. de Candolle, Mimoires et souvenirs d'Augustin CandoUe (1862) A. Engler, Alphonse de Candolle (1893).

commercial export from the In horticulture slender tough stems of almost as those of the raspberry and

eastern tropics.

Stems of several oriental palms are especially well known

Canea) was signed

in 1878, granting various privileges to the After the rebellion of 1897 Canea was occupied by detachments from the protecting powers. Eleutherios Venizelos was bom at Moumies, a neighbouring village, and made Canea his headquarters during his rebellion in 1909. In 1941 the city was used first by the British and later by the Germans as their head-

Cretans.

quarters in Crete.

Bibliography.— J. M. Spratt, Travels in Crete (1865) M. N. EUiadi, and Present (1933) L. G. Allbaugh, Crete: a Case Study (R. W. Hu.) an Underdeveloped Area (1953). ;

Crete, Past of

CANELONES,

;

a department bordering Montevideo in southern Uruguay established in 1816; area 1,735 sq.mi., pop. (1954

CANEPHOROS— CANNAE The Montevideo market

the key to Canelones' flourishing economy. Its truck gardens, dairy and poultry farms, vineyards and cattle butchers supply products to the capital.

est.)

224,446.

is

Canelones' beach resorts Atlantida and La Floresta, part of its 40-mi. coast line, and the racetrack at Las Piedras attract visitors from Montevideo. Proximity to the capital city has raised land values and encouraged land subdivision in Canelones, and loss of land fertility has been an indirect result. The departmental capital, Canelones (pop. [1954 est.] 24,900), is an agricultural trading centre with a flour milling industry. (M. I. V.)

CANEPHOROS

(Canephorus, Canephora), one of

the

Athenian maidens of noble birth chosen annually to carry on their heads baskets with sacrificial implements at the Panathenaic and other festivals. The word (meaning "basket bearer") is applied in architecture to carved figures of either sex, carrying baskets on their heads or shoulders and used either as caryatids (see CaryATro) or decoratively, as in many Italian Renaissance villas. A canephoros sometimes appears as a subsidiary figure in Italian 15th-

and 16th-century paintings.

CANE RAT, onomys.

The two

T. gregorianus

)

a rodent of the hystricomorphic genus Tliryspecies (long-tail, T. swinderianiis

occur

in the

warmer

;

short-tail,

parts of central Africa.

"rats" (Boer rietmuis) have stocky bodies 12 to 20

in.

These

long; short,

rounded ears; and coarse, spiny but flexible brown hair. The nipwhich are high on the sides, permit the young to suckle when the mother lies prone. They inhabit swamps and thicketed river banks, swimming and diving with ease. They are nocturnal and omnivorous. (K. R. Kn.) SUGAR: sec Sugar. CANES VENATICI (the Hounds or the Greyhounds), in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere named by Johannes Hevelius in a work posthumously published in 1690. He compiled it from the stars between the older asterisms Ursa Major, Bootes and Coma Berenices. The constellation contains a famous spiral nebula. CANINE DISTEMPER: see Distemper, Canine. CANISIUS, SAINT PETER (PetrusKanis) (1521-1597), Jesuit scholar and strong opponent of Protestantism, was born in Nijmegen, Holland, on May 8, 1521. He was educated at Cologne and, after becoming a Jesuit in 1543, taught successively at the universities of Cologne, Ingolstadt and Vienna, and himself founded colleges at Munich (1559), Innsbruck (1562), Dillingen (1563), WiJrzburg (1567), Augsburg and Vienna. Perhaps more than any of his contemporaries, Canisius delayed the advance of Protestantism by his participation in the religious discussions at Worms (1557), at the Council of Trent and the diet of Augsburg ( 1 5 59 ), by his friendship with the emperor and numerous magnates, by his zealous preaching in various German towns, by the extension of his own order and especially by his desire to provide worthy and scholarly priests. His most influential work was the triple catechism (1555-58), which contained a lucid exposition of Catholic dogma. In 1580 he settled in Freiburg, Switz., where he had founded a Jesuit college, and died there on Dec. 21, 1597. He was canonized in 1925, and declared a doctor of the church. His feast is kept on April 27. ples,

CANE

See

J.

Brodrick, St. Peler Canisius (1935).

CANIS MAJOR

(J. P.

Bk.)

(the Greater Dog), in astronomy, a constel-

Milky Way from Canis Minor, the Lesser Dog. The two Dogs are represented in old celestial picture books (see Constellation) as accompanying Orion in his conflict with Taurus. Some diversion of their interest is suggested, however, by the presence of Lepus, the lation southeast of Orion.

It is situated across the

Hare, immediately south of Orion. Canis Major presents no distinctive geometrical figure; it consists of the brilliant Sirius (q.v.) and other stars generally to the south of it. Sirius, the Dog star, the brightest star in the heavens, appears in the south in the early evenings of late winter for observers in middle northern latitudes. It is situated nearly on the extension to the southeast of the line of the three stars of Orion's belt. Sirius occupies one vertex of a large equilateral triangle, of which the other two vertexes are marked by Procyon, the Little

Dog

783

and the red star Betelgeuse in Orion. For observers as far south as St. Louis, Mo., Sirius comes up high enough in the south so that Canopus, in Carina, the second in brightness of all the stars, can be seen near the horizon below Sirius. The Epsilon star of Canis Major ranks last in the list of 22 stars brighter than visual magnitude 15. Beta Canis Majoris, star,

west of Sirius, gives its name to a class of variable stars that pulsate in periods of only a few hours. (R Br )

H

CANITZ, FRIEDRICH

RUDOLF LUDWIG,

Baron

VON (1654-1699), German poet and diplomat, one court poets

who prepared

the

of a group of for the ideas of the Enlighten-

way

ment, was born at Berlin, Nov. 27, 1654. After traveling in Europe he was made a privy councilor by the elector Frederick III in 1697, and the emperor Leopold I created him a baron of the empire. Canitz died at Berlin, Aug. 11, 1699. His satires Nebenstunde?! uiiterschiedener Gedickte, 1 700) are dry and stilted imitations of French and Latin models, but helped to introduce classical standards of taste and style into German literature. He is also the author of a well-known hymn, translated as "Come (

My

Soul,

Thou Must Be Waking."

CANKAR, IVAN

an

outstanding Slovene May 10, 1876. Atter a childhood spent in poverty he went to Vienna to study engineering, but soon abandoned this to earn his living by his writings, which defended the oppressed and made satirical attacks upon those who exploited them. He returned to Slovenia in 1907.

(1876-1918),

writer and patriot, was born at Vrhnika,

Cankar was a prolific writer of short stories, novels, articles, drama and verse; he was also a political speaker and was imprisoned for criticism of the Austrian regime. In spite of its tendentious nature his work has great artistic value and reveals an original style simple, yet eloquent, subtle and melodious. He

—

died at Ljubljana on Dec. 11, igi8.

Cankar's collected works were edited by Izidor Cankar in 20 volumes (1925-36). His Hlapcc Jerrwj in njegova pravica was translated as The Bailiff Yerney and His Rights (1930). (V. J.)

CANKIRI

(anc.

Gangra,

also

Germanicapolis

after the

em-

peror Claudius Germanicus), the chief town of the il ('province) of Cankiri in northern Turkey, lies about 60 mi. N.E. of Ankara in the rich, w-ell-watered valley of the

Ulu

river, a tributary of the

Pop. (1960) 20,009. The town contains modern buildings and the army school of infantry. Gangra, the capital of the Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus. son of Castor, was taken into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 6-5 B.C. The earlier town was built beKizil Irmak.

hind the modern one on the hill, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; but the Roman city occupied the modern site. In early Christian times Gangra was the metropolitan see of Paphlagonia. At the synod of Gangra, held in about 350, the practices of Eustathius (of Sebaste?) and his followers (who contemned marriage, disparaged the offices of the church, held conventicles of their own, wore peculiar dress, denounced riches and affected especial sanctity) were condemned by 21 bishops. The 20 canons of Gangra were declared ecumenical by the Council of Chalcedon, 451.

The il of Cankiri is on the northern border of inner Anatolia. Pop. (1960) 241,953. Area 3,310 sq.mi. It is mostly a steppe, its undulating plains and low hills being devoted to cereals or stock raising (especially Angora goats), which provide the main In the v-alleys, orchards, vineyards occupations of the people. and rice fields are cultivated. Salt mines are worked near the town of Cankiri. (N. Tu.; S. Er.; E. Tu.) an ancient village of Apulia in Italy, on a hill above the right bank of the Aufidus (mod. Ofanto) river, 4 mi. S.W. of

CANNAE,

its

6 mi. downstream from Canusium (mod. Puglia), celebrated for Hannibal's victory over the

mouth and about

Canosa

di

Romans there on Aug. 2, 216 B.C. Later it became a municipium, and Roman remains survive on the hill of Cannae (Monte di Canne). In the middle ages it became a bishopric, but was destroyed in 1276. The consuls of 216 B.C., Lucius Aemilius Paulus and Gaius Terentius Varro, acting in accordance with a senatorial decree, prepared to meet Hannibal in a pitched battle (for the military situa-

CANNAN— CANNES

784

and for a plan of the battle see Punic Wars) They advanced to Cannae with perhaps 86,000 men; this is Polybius' figure, although Livy cites another tradition of 50,000-55,000. The Carthaginians had over 40,000 infantry and about 10,000 cavalry, of which a considerable proportion comprised Celtic recruits. The battle was fought on level ground beside the Aufidus near Cannae, but the precise position is uncertain. Attempts to place it either upstream from Cannae or near the hill of Cannae should be rejected. Two main theories prevail, placing the site (1) on the left (i.e., north) bank, or (2) on the right (south) bank. The latter, which on balance seems more probable, is accepted here. Reports that the Romans were hampered by the rising sun and by a southeast wind have been used to help in establishing the position of the troops, but the former is denied by Polybius and the second is not decisive, any more than are suggestions about a possible change in the course of the Aufidus. Nor does the discovery in 1937 of large-scale burials help, since the date of the numerous

duction and Distribution (2nd

remains uncertain but is probably medieval. While Hannibal was encamped probably on the right bank near Cannae, the Romans camped on the other bank about three miles lower down, and then established a smaller camp as an outpost on the right bank. In order to provoke battle Hannibal then transferred camp to the left bank, but this challenge was refused, and the Romans in turn offered battle on the right bank. They faced southwest, with their right wing resting on the river, and with the They placed their cavalry sea about three miles in their rear. (about 6,000) on their wings, and massed their infantry in an exceptionally deep (and therefore narrow) formation in the centre in the hope of breaking the enemy centre by weight and push. To counter this, Hannibal relied on the elasticity of his formation. He stationed his Gallic and Spanish infantrj' in the centre, two groups of his African troops on their flanks, and the cavalry on the wings. But before engaging the enemy, his line adopted a crescent shape, the centre advancing with the African troops on their flanks en echelon. As he anticipated, his cavalry won the struggle on the wings, and some then swept round behind the enemy. Meanwhile the Roman infantry gradually forced back Hannibal's centre, and victory or defeat turned upon whether the latter held. It did; although it fell back, it did not break, and the Roman centre was gradually drawn forward into a trap. Hannibal's crescent had now become a circle: the African troops, past whom the Romans were now thrusting, turned inward against them, and the Carthaginian cavalry was in the rear. Massed together and unable properly to use their arms, the Romans were surrounded and cut to pieces. Only 14,000 men escaped, together with 10,000 who were captured. The dead included Aemilius Paulus, but his colleague survived: Varro has in fact been made the scapegoat for the defeat

in 1498

tion

.

skeletons

which the senatorial tradition attributed to the rashness of a "new man" (Varro's father had been a merchant). Much of central and southern Italy now went over to Hannibal, but Rome refused to admit final defeat, although it could not fight another pitched battle until it had eliminated the chief cause of the defeat, the rigidity of the legionary formation. Cannae has long been regarded by military historians as a classic example of victorious double envelopment.

in

ed., 1903) History of Local Rates ed., 1912): Wealth (3rd ed.. 1928); Money 1932); and the standard edition of Adam Smith. ;

England (2nd

(7th

ed.,

See his An Economist's Protest (1928) and an introduction by Hugh Dalton to London Essays in Economics in Honour of Edwin Cannan ;

(1927).

CANNANORE,

town in Kerala, India, headquarters of on the west coast line of the Southern railterminus at Mangalore. Pop. (1961 est.) 46,100. It is a small roadstead port on the Arabian sea, exporting copra and coir. The town has large spinning, weaving and Cannanore

a

district, is

way, 83 mi.

S. of the line's

hosiery mills.

Cannanore was an important emporium of trade with Persia and Arabia in the 12th and 13th centuries a.d. Until most of the independent south Indian principalities disappeared in the 18th century Cannanore was the capital of the Kolattiri raja, the chief rival of the zamorin or ruler of Calicut. Vasco da Gama visited it and a Portuguese fort was built there in 1505. The present fort was built by the Dutch in 1656 and sold to Ali Raja in 1771. In 1783 Cannanore was captured by the British and the ruler (then a princess) became tributary to the East India company.

was the British west coast military headquarters from 1709 to 1887 when these were moved inland to the Nilgiris (q.v.). Cannanore District was formed in 1958 from six subdivisions of the former Kasaragod and Malabar districts. Pop. (1961) 1,779,852. Area 2,741 sq.mi. (G. Kn.) COAL, formerly called candle coal because of the appearance of the flame and because it can be lighted easily, is a massive, noncaking, fine-grained block coal with a conchoidal It

CANNEL

fracture found to a limited extent in Lancashire, Eng., and in

West

Kentucky and Pennsylvania Cannel coal is used as a fuel in fireplaces; it has little industrial use. See Coal and Coal Mining. (M. D. Cr.) CANNES, a fashionable resort and tourist centre of southern France, lies on the Mediterranean sea, 16 mi. S.W. of Nice, in the departemettt of the Alpes-Mantimes. Pop. (1954) 40,540. Apart from its climate, that of the Cote d'Azur (French Riviera), the town has the advantage of being sheltered by hills. Its roadstead There are is a port of call for transatlantic liners and yachts. beaches of fine sand and luxuriant subtropical vegetation. The town has extended on both sides of the original village on the slopes of Mont Chevalier, where there still stand a 12th-century tower and a chapel. On the Promenade de la Croisette, which follows the curve of the coast, are the big hotels, and the Palais des Festivals in which the annual international film festival takes place. There are two casinos. The town is linked with Paris by the southeast highway, and by rail with Paris and with neighbouring countries. Most of the important airlines serve the Nice airVirginia,

Virginia, Tennessee,

in the

United States.

port.

The

especially

tourist industry

is

the principal occupation, but flowers,

mimosa, are exported

all

over the world.

known of the early history of Carmes before 1834, when Lord Brougham decided to settle there. It was probably founded Little

is

by Ligurian tribesmen and occupied succesby Phocians, Celts (or Gauls) and Romans. In the 4th under the protection of the monks of Lerins, a.d. it came century whose abbots were lords of Cannes. In 1763 Tobias Smollett found it "a little fishing town, agreeably situated on the beach of the sea"; and Napoleon, on the first night of his return from Elba, bivouacked with his little army beneath the old village. There are numerous reminders of history in the offshore Lerins Islands: "the man in the iron mask" (possibly Count Mattioli or Eustache Dauger; see Iron Mask) and Marshal Bazaine, among others, were imprisoned in Ste. Marguerite; and in the smaller island of St. Honorat there are a Cistercian monastery and 5th-century chapel, and on a promontory a fortified tower facing to seaward. in the 8th century B.C.

sively

—

Bibliography. For left-bank theory of the battle and bibliography, Hallward, in Cambridge Ancient History, vol. viii, chap. 2 for right-hand bank view, F. W. Walbank, p. 726, 2nd ed. (1954) Historical Commentary on Polybius, vol. i, pp. 107 ff. (1957) D. Ludovico, Topografia delta battaglia di Canne (1954). For the burials, H. H. Scullard, Historia, vol. iv, pp. 474 ff. (1955) F. Bertocchi, Rendiconti dell' Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, xv, pp. 337 ff. (1961). (H. H. So.) see B. L.

and

;

;

;

CANNAN, EDWIN

(1861-1935), British economist whose economic theory were on the theory of money, on questions of demography and in clarifying and modernizing the theory of supply and demand as laid down by Adam Smith. He was born at Funchal, Madeira, Feb. 3, 1861. After studying at Clifton college and Balliol college, Oxford, he became lecturer in political economy in London university in 1897. From 1907 until his retirement in 1926 he was professor of political economy. He died at Bournemouth on AprO 8, 1935. Cannan's principal works were History of the Theories oj Prochief services to

CANNES, CONFERENCE OF

(Jan. 6-13, 1922), a meeting of the supreme council of the Allies with the primary object of considering Anglo-French suggestions for World War I repara-

drafted at the preliminary conference of London, Dec. 18-22, 1921 (see London, Conferences of; Reparations). The conference opened with a criticism of the Anglo-French sug-

tions,

CANNIBALISM— CANNING gestions

by the French minister of

finance,

who was supported by

After long and complicated discussions London suggestions, and repGermany, as well as the Reparation commission, were summoned to Cannes to make proposals on the basis of the the Belgian representative.

this resulted in a modification of the

resentatives of

agreement finally reached between the Allies. But wider questions of security and reconstruction were broached by David Lloyd George in a memorandum submitted to Aristide Briand on Jan. 4, which declared that the three problems of reparations, security and reconstruction were interrelated, and that any general scheme for European reconstruction must include Russia; and in which he offered to conclude an agreement by which Great Britain would pledge itself to assist France wiih all its forces in the event of unprovoked German aggression upon French soil. Lloyd George warned Briand that the British empire would not be willing to incur military commitments in central and eastern Europe. On Jan. 6 Lloyd George proposed the summoning of a general reconstruction conference to which both the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. were to be invited, and this proposal was adopted by the supreme council, together with an outline agenda. Meanwhile Briand had been making counterproposals respecting the AngloFrench pact. The guarantee must be reciprocal and supplemented by a technical military convention. This second condition would probably have proved an insuperable obstacle from the British point of view, but Briand was violently attacked in the French senate and chamber in the belief that he was giving way unduly As a consequence he resigned on Jan. 12, and to Lloyd George. therewith the conference came to a premature close. Its main results were the provision for the Genoa conference (g.v.) in April and the avoidance of a deadlock over reparations. See British White Paper, Resolutions Adopted by the Supreme Council at Cannes, Jan. 1922, as the Basis of the Genoa Conference, 1621 (1922); A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs,

Cmd.

1920-23 (192S).

CANNIBALISM.

The

human flesh by men is a early human history and found

eating of

widespread custom, going back into among peoples on most of the continents. The term is derived from a Spanish form of Carib, a West Indies tribe who were famous cannibals; the Greek term "anthropophagy" is also used. Many of the early accounts of cannibalism are undoubtedly exaggerated or in error, since many peoples attributed the pracBut cannibalism is still practised in interior tice to their enemies. New Guinea and prevailed until recently in parts of west and central Africa, Melanesia (especially Fiji), Australia, among the

Maori of

New

Zealand, in some of the islands of Polynesia, among Batak of Sumatra, and in various tribes of

tribes such as the

North and South America. In some regions human flesh was looked upon as a form of food, sometimes equated with animal food as in the Melanesian pidgin term "long pig." Much of Melanesian cannibalism was apparently of this type, and Fijian chiefs sometimes kept count of the number The victorious Maori cut up the dead of individuals consumed. after a battle and used them for feasting. The Batak were reported to sell human flesh in the markets before full Dutch control. In other cases, however, the consumption of particular portions or organs was a ritual means by which certain of the qualities of the person eaten might be obtained, or by which powers of witchcraft or sorcery might be employed. Ritual murders and cannibalism in portions of Africa are often related to the practice of sorcery. And head-hunters and others often consumed bits of the bodies or heads of deceased enemies as a means of absorbing their vitality or other qualities and reducing their powers of revenge. {See Head-Huntikg.) In some cases a deceased individual is ritually eaten by his relatives, a form called endocannibalism. In portions of aboriginal Australia such practices occurred as an act of respect, the bones being kept for a period. In other cases ritual cannibalism occurs as a part of the drama of secret societies. In the famous Cannibal society of the Kwakiutl, the novice who is possessed by the cannibal spirit eats the flesh of a corpse or bites a piece out of the arm of a living person before being subdued and returned to a

785

normal state. But such dramas were carefully staged for their effect on the audience; both the Kwakiutl and their neighbours had an actual horror of eating human flesh. In the interior of North America, where Indian tribes lived on the margins of subsistence, cannibalism was an ever-present posOccasional individuals among the Ojibwa developed a sibility. psychosis involving the desire to eat human flesh, a condition greatly feared and thought to be brought about by the windigo, or cannibal giant, who was believed to reside in the woods. Perhaps the most graphic account of cannibalism in existence is

Hans Staden's 1557 account

of his captivity

among

the

Tupinamba

There captives might be adopted and to be killed and eaten. marry, until the They were fed and treated well, and even knowing their eventual On the appointed day the fate they did not attempt to escape. victim was killed with a club and the women participated in the preparation and the eating of the body. The eating of human flesh, even where primarily for food, always There are involves special utensils or some ritual restrictions. no completely satisfactory explanations of cannibalism. Groups closely related often have radically different reactions, and a group may practise cannibalism at one period and view it with Indians of eastern Brazil.

day came when they were

horror at another.

The practices of head-hunting, human sacrifice and ritual cannibalism seem to be linked in various areas, particularly in west Africa, Indonesia and South America. Often they are interchangeable or occur in adjacent groups; and frequently they have a general relation to fertility

The spread

and group welfare. and controls usually

of western values

results in

the prohibition of such practices before they are adequately studied. In modern society cannibalism occasionally occurs as the

extreme necessity; the case of the Donner party crossing is such an instance. (F. R. E.) Lower Animals. Cannibalism, in its broadest sense the eating of animals by other members of the same species, is common at The only necessary condition all levels among the lower animals. for cannibalism to occur is that some life stage of the organism Fertilized fits within the range of food material of the species. eggs or minute free-swimming larvae, for example, may fall prey to their own parents who subsist on minute organisms filtered out of the surrounding water. One of the more spectacular cases is the praying mantis, where the female devours the male during the mating process. Any carnivorous or omnivorous form is likely to be cannibalistic unless specific behaviour patterns contrary to cannibalism have evolved within the group. In some groups of birds and mammals which have evolved to what might be termed the family level of social behaviour, adverse conditions such as starvation or illness or injury of an animal may bring about a reversion result of

into California in the 19th century

—

to cannibalistic habit.

Under conditions of crowding, cannibalism is sometimes a powerful force for regulating the size of a population, a force that is greater when the population is relatively dense. In the flour beetle Triboliiim the larvae

and adults cannibalize the

in-

active stages, the egg and pupa.

In a spatially limited environment at realistic densities of adult beetles, observations have shown that egg mortality caused by cannibalism alone can exceed 96% over a period of time equal to the duration of the egg stage. In this particular organism, this is the greatest single force regulating population growth, and thereby the degree to which the population e.xploits the environment. There have been no convincing data involving cannibalism as an important regulating force in a natural population. Rather it would appear that the event of an animal eating another member of its own species is largely a coincidence and, under suitable circumstances, not an unexpected one. The case of cannibalism as a specific behaviour pattern is a rather rare exception. (E. R. Ri.) See Hans Staden, The True History of His Captivity, 1557, trans, Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 6th ed. bv M. Letts (1928) (F. R. E.)

and

;

ed. (1951).

CANNING, CHARLES JOHN CANNING, Earl 1862), English statesman,

who was governor

(1812-

general of India at

CANNING

786

the time of the Indian Mutiny (q.v.), subsequently became the viceroy of India and played an important part in the work of

first

and reconstruction. He was born in London on Dec. youngest son of George Canning, succeeding in 1837 to the viscountcy created for his mother after his father's death. He served under Sir Robert Peel as undersecretary for foreign affairs and as commissioner of woods and forests, and under Lord Aberdeen as a successful reforming postmaster general (18S3-SS). Offered the governor generalship of India by Lord Palmerston in 1855, he took office in India in Feb. 1856. His dispatch of an expedition to the Persian gulf in 1856 secured the Persian abandonment of Herat and the friendship of Dost Mohammed, ruler of Afghanistan. This friendship, consolidated by a treaty in 1857, proved invaluable when the Mutiny broke at Meerut in May 1857, for Canning, with small British forces eccentrically disposed, had soon to contend with rebels who conciliation

14, 1812, the

much of north India. Canning was not an obvious leader: he combined great industry with an inability to delegate responsibility, his moral integrity involved him in overnice scruple. He lacked the dash, the feeling But his stature grew for public relations immediately required. with the danger. He was prompt to gather reinforcements, including troops on their way to China, and to hurry them up-country. He grasped the overriding importance of retaking Delhi and Lucknow, of not abandoning Peshawar. Above all he had the vision to held

—

Mutiny whence his insistence upon "deliberate and calm patient reason." He was severe. He brusquely rejected amnesty proposals made by John Colvin, John Lawrence and James Outram. But while in England people were "rabid with desire of indiscriminate vengeance" and in Calcutta British civilians were clamorous for wholesale punishment and wholesale distrust of all Indians, Canning convinced Indians that his purpose was conciliation, not vengeance. To him, the first viceroy, appropriately fell the task of announcing in Nov. 1858 the queen's offer of mercy, of impartial favour to all races, of respect for religion and hereditary title. After the Mutiny Canning presided over the reorganization of the Indian government which had now passed from the British East India company to the crown. By the Councils act of 1861 he relook beyond the justice

organized his executive council, substituting for collective action a departmental division of responsibilities. He enlarged his legislative council, making room for Indian nonofiicial members. Though he restored legislative councils to the presidencies, he

being called to the bar, Canning senior married a beautiful but penniless girl, Mary Ann Costello, against the wishes of his father, who disinherited him. He died on April 11, 1771, leaving his wife and year-old son entirely destitute. The widow became an actress to support herself and her son, and became the mistress of the actor Samuel Reddish, by whom she had five children. Later (Feb. 11, 1783) she married another actor, Richard Hunn, and by him too she had five children, but this new connection did nothing to rescue her from discredit and misfortune. From this unsatisfactory environment the boy was taken by a wealthy uncle, Stratford Canning, who brought him up with his own children. Canning was educated at Hyde Abbey school near Winchester, at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford. After graduating ( 1 791 ) he entered himself at Lincoln's Inn, but soon decided on a political career. Hitherto his views had been distinctly Whiggish, under the influence of R. B. Sheridan and Devonshire house, but in July 1792 he came under the influence of William Pitt, who undertook to find him a seat in parliament. Moreover, the progress of the French Revolution toward anarchy and violence at home and aggression abroad cured him of his leanings toward constitutional change. He was elected for the pocket borough of Newtown, Isle of Wight, in July 1793, and he quickly became recognized as one of the rising men on the government side of the house. Pitt further procured for him the undersecretaryship of state for foreign affairs in 1 796. Though the work was "pretty hard and constant" he found time to contribute to the Anti-Jacobin (1797-98), a weekly paper started to ridicule both English and French republicans. In 1799 he left the foreign office and was appointed a commissioner of the board of control. In May 1800 he was to the office of joint paymaster of the forces and made a privy councOor. A few weeks later he married Joan Scott (with a fortune of £100,000), whose sister was the wife of the duke of

promoted

Portland's son Lord Titchfield. By her he had four children, including Charles John, Earl Canning, a governor general of India. Mrs. Canning (d. 1837) was created Viscountess Canning in 1828. When Pitt resigned in 1801 Canning too went out of office. Disapproving of Pitt's support of Henry Addington (later Lord

Sidmouth) he made himself independent in 1802 by giving up Wendover, for which he had sat since 1796, and buying an Irish rotten borough, Tralee, "the freest seat that the market could afford." In 1803 Pitt began to turn against Addington, and Canning could then go into open opposition without forfeiting Pitt's friend-

late for all India

On the formation of Pitt's last ministry (May 1804-Jan. 1806) Canning became treasurer of the navy, but his unpopularity (his biting wit made him many enemies) kept him out of the

including the remarkable penal code.

cabinet.

retained, through his law

member and

council, the right to legis-

and passed with their aid three great codes, He remodeled the Indian army, strengthening the European element and taming the sepoys by division. More Sikhs, Muslims and Gurkhas were recruited, and the Hindus were divided into caste companies. He pressed forward railway development. By his successful measures in 1861 he showed the possibility of famine relief. Education he encouraged: Calcutta, Bombay and Madras universities had been founded during the Mutiny, grants-in-aid followed for private colleges. By the Bengal rent act he protected tenants against eviction or undue rent enhancements, and he intervened to prevent their exploitation

Only ing

in

by European indigo planters. Oudh, where in 1858 he had alarmed everyone by declar-

land confiscated, did he introduce a land-revenue settleunduly favourable to landlord interests. The motive was

all

ment

wish to win over the influential landlords, to make the princes had proved to be, "breakwaters against the storm," junior partners under the crown in empire. Lady Canning died in Nov. 1861. In March 1862 Canning left India, broken by overwork and grief. He died in London on June

political, a

them what

17, 1862.

See Sir H.

S.

Cunningham, Earl Canning (1891). (J. B. Ha.) (1770-1827), British statesman, who for a short time during 1827, is chiefly remem-

CANNING, GEORGE was prime minister

bered for his liberal policy as foreign secretary from 1822 to 1827. He was born at London on April 11, 1770. His father, also named George, was the eldest son of a country gentleman with a large estate in County Londonderry, Ire. In May 1 768, four years after

ship.

Much

to his disgust his colleagues resigned after Pitt's

death because of the insecurity of their parliamentary position, but in March 1807 the king dismissed the "ministry of all the talents" on the Catholic question, and called upon "the friends of Mr. Pitt" again to form a government. Canning became foreign secretary but his rival, Spencer Perceval, was now leader of the house of commons. Canning's first tenure of the foreign secretaryship witnessed the seizure of the Danish fleet (his own brilliant planning), the beginning of the Peninsular War and the unfortunate expedition to the Scheldt. Holding Viscount Castlereagh, the war secretary, responsible for the disasters that overtook British arms at Corunna, Spain, and Flushing (Holland), Canning, in 1809, insisted on his dismissal. They quarreled, and fought a duel on Sept. 21, Canning being wounded in the thigh. Both had already resigned. Canning because of the nonfulfillment by the duke of Portland, the dying prime minister, of his promise that Castlereagh should be removed from the war department. Canning offered to form a government, but the king called upon Perceval, and Canning remained out of office until 1816. Lord Liverpool, who succeeded to the premiership in 1812 on Perceval's assassination, tried hard to induce Canning to take office, the negotiations breaking do\vn in July because Canning refused to allow his old rival Castlereagh (who generously offered to surrender the foreign secretarv'ship to him and to take the inferior office of chancellor of the exchequer) to retain the leadership of the house of commons. So Canning lost the chance of being the peacemaker of Europe in 1815, and he further

CANNING, COMMERCIAL 1814 by accepting what was believed to be a rich sinecure, the Lisbon embassy. Two years later he entered the cabinet as president of the board of control, and under his direction the marquess of Hastings extirpated the Pindaris and established British supremacy in cenCanning, disapproving the tral India by defeating the Marathas. government's proceedings against Queen Caroline, resigned in Dec. 1820. In the hope of improving his financial position, and believing that advancement at home was blocked by the king's hostility to him, he accepted the governor generalship of Bengal in March 1822, with the additional prospect of a peerage on his return, but, before his ship was ready to sail, Castlereagh committed suicide (Aug. 12), and George IV reluctantly acquiesced in Canning's succession to the "whole inheritance" the foreign secretaryship and the "lead" of the house of commons. He was now the most important member of the government. Afraid of becoming too deeply involved in continental politics, and disliking the great despotic sovereigns who were anxious to suppress liberal movements everywhere, he cut England adrift from the so-called Holy Alliance in 1823; prevented European intervention in South America on behalf of Ferdinand VII of Spain recognized the independence of the rebellious Spanish American colonies (and so

damaged

his reputation in

—

;

"called the

New World

into existence to redress the balance of

the Old") sent an army to Portugal to meet the threat of attack by Spain; gave diplomatic support to the Greeks in their struggle for freedom and ensured the eventual creation of an independent Greek state. Lord Liverpool's premiership came to an end on Feb. 17, 1827. He had long since marked out Canning as his successor, but it was far from obvious that he would be the king's choice. Although since 1822 he had gained a remarkable ascendancy at Windsor by the success of his foreign policy and by a judicious attention to the royal intimates there. Canning was the leading advocate of Catholic emancipation, and George IV had been persuaded that the cause of the monarchy was linked with that of the Established Church and resistance to the Catholic claims. Peel and Wellington, the leading opponents of Catholic relief, knew that no government could be formed without Canning, and Canning refused to :

;

serve under another anti-Catholic premier. Finally, on April 10, he was authorized to reconstruct the ministry on the understanding that the royal conscience was not to be forced. Moved partly by personal animosity, partly by dislike of Canning's advocacy of Catholic emancipation, half the cabinet refused to serve under him, and, in all, more than 40 ministers and placemen resigned, but the Whigs came to his assistance, and most of the independent members of parliament supported him with their votes. His ministr>', however, lasted only four months; his health broke down under the strain, and he died on Aug. 8 at Chiswick in the house of the duke of Devonshire (but not in the same room, as is sometimes stated, as that in which Fox had breathed his last, 21 years earlier).

Character and Achievements.

787

In choosing Canning as prime minister George IV found that he had to fight over again his father's battles against the pretensions of the great families to deprive the crown of its ancient and undoubted right to nominate its servants. offspring."

Contemporaries said that Canning's ministry was the most popuwith the middle classes that had ever been known. As member

lar

came fully to recognize the needs of the rising commercial and industrial interests. He and William for Liverpool (1812-22) he

Huskisson taught a large portion of the Tory party to take a more view of many measures of domestic, colonial and foreign Although the ablest and sincerest opponent of parliamentary reform, he largely contributed to the creation of that independent and liberal spirit among the younger members of the house of commons, without which the Reform bill could not have been carried without a revolution. Charles Greville thought Canning the only man capable of saving the unreformed parliament and the old order in general, but, far from recognizing him as their saviour, the Tory aristocrats hunted him to death "with their besotted and ignorant hostility." Some of his friends believed that, had he lived, he would have supported parliamentary reform in 1831, thereby taking the question out of the hands of those who were disposed to push reform as far as revolution. Lord Granville said that Canning "sought to avoid revolution, not by stubborn resistance to all movement and reformation, but by rendering the acts of the government conformable to the 'spirit liberal

policy.

of the times."

He put his country before personal or party interests. Nothing but a sense of public duty induced him to take the foreign secretar>-ship in 1822: "I take no joy, and I feel none. I have sacri-

my interests, my wishes, and I believe my happiness, but I I have done my duty." None of the party leaders of the time had more generous notions of the obligations that he owed to his supporters. He never thought he could do too much for his friends, but he never used his influence to secure undeser\'ed promotion for them. They, for their part, were drawn to him by bonds of intense personal devotion, and, through his disciples, like William Huskisson and Lord Palmerston, he wielded an authority that endured beyond the grave. Like other public men of the day, he died much poorer than he would have been but for his long official career. His wife's fortune of £100,000 had shrunk to about £40,000 in 1827. See also references under "Canning, George" in the Index volume. ficed

hope

—

Bibliography. Speeches, 6 vol. (1828); E. J. Stapleton (ed.), Official Correspondence of George Canning, 2 vol. (1909); A. G. Stapleton, Political Life of Canning, 1822-27, 3 vol., 2nd ed. (1831), Canning and His Times (1859); H. W. V. Temperley, The Foreign Policy of Canning, 1822-1827 (1925); A. Aspinall, The Canningile Party, in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (1934), and The Formation of Canning's Ministry, Royal Historical Society, Camden 3rd series, vol. lix (1937) D. Marshall, The Rise of George Canning (1938) Sir Charles Petrie, George Canning, 2nd ed. (1946). (A. .Al.)

Some

;

;

—Canning had

all

the irrita-

temperament which he probably owed to his mother. To some, especially to his intellectual inferiors, he seemed arrogant and contemptuous. His wit and sarcasm were remembered by all who heard or read his speeches. Wellington thought him the finest speaker he had ever heard; he was probably, indeed, bility of the artistic

He was the most indefatigable of men, often late at night without food, and this long-continued irregularity, his friends believed, rendered an irnot inferior to Pitt.

working from breakfast until

temperament still more uncontrollable. The world tended misjudge his character from his defects, and overlooked his energy, patriotism and outstanding abilities. He could never forget his ambitions, but even his enemies like Metternich, who lamented the "mischief" he did as foreign secretary', had to admit that he was a great man. It was the fashion to say of him that he was no gentleman. The hatred and malignity with which he was assailed by the Tory aristocracy in 1827 showed what mountains of prejudice still existed against a prime minister born outside the purple of the governing class. Lord Grey declared that the son of an actress was incapacitated de facto for the premiership. Lord ritable to

Londonderry spoke of him as a charlatan parvenu, "mother Hunn's

COMMERCIAL.

The history of canning goes CANNING, back to 1795, when the French government offered a prize of 12,000 fr. for the discovery of a practical method of food preservation. France was in the grip of a revolution at home and at the same time was at war with several hostile European nations. Consequently, the need for adequate food supplies for its army and navy was acute. It was not until 1809 that Nicolas (Francois) Appert. a Parisian confectioner, succeeded in preserving certain foods in especially made glass bottles that had been kept in boUing water for var>'ing lengths of time. Although there is one earlier reference in literature to the inadvertent preservation of food by heat sterilization (L. Spallanzani, 1765), credit for the discovery of the canning process is given to Appert. In the following year, 1810, his work was made known publicly in a treatise entitled Art de conserver les substances animales et vegetales. The grateful

government awarded Appert the

The underlying

prize.

principle of the various

methuds of food preser-

vation is basically the same: the development of conditions within a food temporary or sustained that are unfavourable for the

—

growth of spoilage organisms. chilled,

heated or desiccated, or

—

Thus, for example, if a food be if it be made excessively acid, it

CANNING, COMMERCIAL

788

immediately becomes an unfavourable medium for the development of microorganisms. In commercial canning, carefully prepared raw food is placed in a sealed container, then is subjected to definite elevated temperatures for the proper period of time and finally is cooled. Heating the contents of the can produces an unfavourable temperature environment for spoilage organisms that may be present in the food; consequently such organisms are destroyed and their growth inhibited. Reinfection of the food by spoilage organisms in the air is prevented by the permanent seal of the can. This is the basic principle of commercial, canning. It was by patient trial and error in his experiments that Appert was able to devise directions for conserving the many products listed in his treatise. He could give no logical explanations for the effects of canning. He believed, however, that the application of heat to a sealed container, together with the exclusion of air,

combined to retard or eliminate the process of decomposition. Science was of little assistance, since chemistry was in its infancy and bacteriology was unknown. It was half a century later about

—

1860

—

that the true causes of food spoilage

came

to be understood

as a result of Pasteur's work.

Knowledge of the industry was taken to the United States from England, and by 1820 William Underwood and Thomas Kensett were engaged in the commercial production of canned foods, in Boston and New York respectively, using the Appert process. It was not until 1839, however, that tin-coated steel containers (tin cans) came into widespread use in America. Peter Durand, an Englishman, conceived and patented the idea of using tin cans instead of bottles. In 1895 Samuel C. Prescott and William L. Underwood, working together at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, first traced spoilage of certain lots of canned com to imperfect sterilization (heat processing). This early work was followed by that of Harry

Andrew MacphaU, Bronson Barlow and others. Organized research into the problems of the industry was begun by the U.S. department of agriculture and several universities, followed by the inauguration of the long-range programs of the Na-

L. Russell,

tional Canners association and of the research departments of the leading can manufacturers.

The phenomenal growth of the industry in the United States and throughout the world may be attributed (aside from the scientific approach) to the development of (1) the art of container manufacture of both tin cans and glass jars and bottles; (2) the canning processes themselves; and (3) canning machinery. The United States became the greatest producer and consumer of canned foods in the world.

The modem coating of

which is 98.5% sheet steel with a thin manufactured on wholly automatic lines of ma-

tin can,

tin, is

chinery at a rate in excess of 300 cans per minute. The improvement of the tin can as the cheapest and most serviceable container for mass production was marked by the advent of the sanitary, or open-top, can about 1905-08. This development answered many

by eliminating the use of solder and a perfect closure was guaranteed by the double seamed top and bottom. Differential coated electrolytic tin plate was used beginning in 1951 to save tin and better resist interior corrosion and exterior rusting. In a typical year the industry uses about 25,000,000,000 tin cans and glass jars. Containers of aluminum and of plastic material had by 1960 been found commercially feasible for a restricted number of products. By the 1960s the U.S. annual pack of canned goods approximated

of the canner's practical problems in sealing the can,

700,000,000 cases (24 cans to the case, equivalent). The greater part was vegetables, fruits, juices and specialties; milk, meat and fish were also well represented. Annual packs of fruit, fruit juices and vegetables ran as high as 9,000,000 cases in Australia, 26,500,-

000 cases in Canada, 7,500,000 cases in South Africa and 42,500,000 cases fruit and vegetables only) in the United Kingdom. Perhaps the greatest early obstacle to volume production was (

the time necessarj' for processing the water.

With the discovery

in 1861,

filled

cans of food in boiling

by Isaac Solomon of

Balti-

more, that calcium chloride added to boiling water raised the temperature of processing from 212° to 240° F. or higher, the time

necessary to ensure relative safety in the process was reduced from 4 to 5 hours to a mere 25 to 40 minutes. Thus the average produc-

was increased from 2,500 cans to about 20,000 cans per day. This innovation, together with the impetus given by the American Civil War requirements, brought almost tion in a first-class cannery

immediate prosperity to the young industry. In the next decade an advance that outdated the above method was the invention in 1874 of the closed, steam-pressure retort by A. K. Shriver of Baltimore. The resultant high temperatures shortened the time necessary for processing and reduced accidents and spoilage to a new

minimum. In the meantime, hand labour in the cannery was being largely supplanted by semiautomatic and later by wholly automatic machinery, thus increasing output, reducing costs and permitting wider use of canned products. It is necessary to mention only a few machines such as the washers, graders, peelers, com buskers and cutters, bean snippers and filling machines. After World War II electronic devices were increasingly used for regulating and controlling various operations. Products Used in Canning. Products available for canning include almost every fruit, vegetable, meat or marine product. In addition many specialty products are packed in smaller quantities. The location of the canneries is largely dependent on the growing areas of the product to be packed. As a great fruit-growing area, California is heavily represented. Other geographical areas are noted for a specialty e.g., Hawaii for pineapple, Alaska for salmon,

—

;

etc.

In practice the relationship between grower and canner is particularly close, and the growing of crops for canning has become a highly specialized branch of agriculture. As a result of the work conducted by the federal and state departments of agriculture, state universities and by the canners themselves, great advances were made in many aspects of crop production. In order to secure uniformity in growing conditions and to ensure uniformity in the raw product, the local canner contracts with the neighbouring farmers for an acreage sufficient for the normal capacity of his cannery and either supplies or specifies the seed to be used. Planting dates may be so spread that the harvest period will be prolonged, enabling the facilities to be used more efiiciently. In this way the carmer is able to tum out a superior product that is grown from one type of seed, supervised during the growing period by qualified fieldmen and harvested at proper maturity. The time elapsed between picking and canning is seldom more than three or four hours. Operations Employed in Commercial Canning. The operations employed in commercial canning procedures depend upon the nature of the product being packed. There are, however, certain operations that are included wholly or partially in canning

—

procedures for fruits, vegetables, milk, fish, meat or the so-called specialty or formulated products (soups, pork and beans, spaghetti, etc.). These operations may be grouped as follows: Cleaning. All raw materials used in canning must be thoroughly cleaned. Cleaning is usually effected by automatic passage of the raw-food material through tanks of water or under high-pressure water sprays. For certain products, washing machinery of special design is used (flotation washers for whole kemel corn and peas). It is essential that only potable water be used. Some products (peas, spinach) receive a dry cleaning by subjecting them to air blasts or to a shaking that removes inedible or extraneous materials prior to water washing. Preparatory Operations. These operations are quite varied in character, but all aim at the removal of inedible or undesirable portions of the food and conversion of the food into the desired or necessary form for subsequent canning operations. Preparatory operations include sorting, trimming, vining (peas), husking, cutting, silking (corg), size or maturity grading (peas), sectioning

—

—

(citrus fruits), slicing, dicing,

peehng and coring

(fruits), pitting

(cherries), soaking (dry beans, cherries), straining or pureeing

(infant foods), extraction (fruit and vegetable juices), homogeni-

zation (milk,

some

juices or pureed foods), evaporation (milk),

Many of these operations are performed by special machinery; in other instances hand operations are required. These

etc.

CANNING, COMMERCIAL operations either precede or follow other canning operations such as cleaning or blanching. Blanching. Some products (beets, carrots, spinach, peas) require a blanching by immersion in hot water or steam to shrink or wilt the product in order to obtain desired or legal weight in the final container and also to inactivate enzymes and thereby

—

improve the colour and flavour of the product. Electronic heating, sometimes called dielectric heating, was used to some extent in the post-World War II period. The blanching must sometimes precede certain preparatory operations (peeling, slicing, dicing). Occasionally the necessary shrink must be obtained by a precook In addition rather than by blanching (certain meat products). to its other functions, blanching in certain products serves as

an additional cleansing operation, removing objectionable flavouring materials acquired by some raw foods from inedible portions of plants (the vine flavour of peas). Filling

and Exhausting.

— Automatic

filling

machines, which are

adaptable to specific products or to types of products (solid, simisolid or liquid products) and capable of high-speed operation, are employed to place the prepared food in the can. The washed, open cans are mechanically conveyed to and from the filling machines. With some products (certain fruits, tomatoes) hand filling

methods are used. After being filled, the open cans containing the food, especially that of nonhomogeneous type, are usually thermally "exhausted" by passing them automatically through a hot-water or steam bath in an exhaust box. Thermal exhausting heats and expands the food and releases gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) from the cells. Air is also excluded by expansion of the food; thus, after sealing, heat sterilizing and cooling the can, the contraction of contents produces a partial vacuum in the container. Thermal the exhausting may also be effected by heating the food before it is

put into the cans (cream-style corn).

Certain products

(com on

by the vacuum-pack method in which the cans are mechanically exhausted by specially These machines withdesigned vacuum-can sealing machines. draw air and other gases from the cans by a high vacuum and seal the cans while they are still under vacuum. Can Sealing, Closing or Double Seaming. Special automatic the cob, coffee, salmon) are largely packed

—

machines capable of operating 250 cans per minute, depending upon

sealing (closing or double seaming)

(from 10 to the can size and the nature of the product) are used to seal or close the covers on the sanitary type of can. The cans are usually

at various speeds

mechanically conveyed to and from the sealing machine, where the covers are placed on the can automatically and the sealing operation completed. The curl on the can cover and the flange on the can body are first rolled into position and then flattened together. The thin layer of gasket material or compound originally present in the rim of the cover is dispersed between the layers of metal As previously deto ensure a hermetic seal on the container.

some vacuum closing machines of special design mechanexhaust the can just before the double seam is formed; other machines seal cans in an atmosphere of an inert gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide or helium. The venthole types of cans (evaporated milk, certain meat products) are sealed on special tipping machines that close the vent hole with

789

peratures for such foods fall in the range of 240° F. (116° C.) to 265° F. (130° C). The processing temperature commonly employed, however, is 240° F. This temperature is attained by use of steam under pressure in a closed chest, or canner's "retort." Steam pressure of approximately 10 lb. corresponds to a processing

temperature of 240° F.

Thermal processing equipment is of two general types: still reand the so-called continuous cookers. Both types operate either at 212° F. for the acid foods or under steam pressure for the nonacid products; in either case the time

torts for batch operation

of processing or "cooking"

is

regulated so as to subject the cans

to the processing temperature for the proper length of time.

Later processing installations included automatic retort controllers which In regulate and record the process. at least one U.S. state canners of nonacid products are required by law to equip their retorts in this marmer. For specific products (such as evaporated milk) special processing

equipment

is

available that either agitates or

revolves the cans during the process cycle.

foods and food products sterilized

by

filling

them

{e.g., berries

and

The more

acid type of

citrus fruits)

may

into cans at certain temperatures

be

and

inverting the containers for a short period to sterilize the can

This is also the underlying covers while sterilizing the cans. principle in the flash-sterilization method for preservation of acid food juices. For public health reasons antibiotics are not used in canning although extensive investigations have indicated that certain spoilage organisms are

markedly affected by some

—

antibiotics.

Casing and Storage. Following thermal processing, the sealed cans are cooled in cold water or in air. In water cooling, the hot cans are conveyed directly from thermal processing through tanks of cold water or through coldwater sprays cans of large diameter must be pressure cooled by water under pressure. Pressure cooling prevents outward straining or buckling of the can ends during the time the internal pressure of the cans is being reduced through loss of the heat of sterilization. Water cooling is continued until the can contents have an average temperature of about 100° F. At this temperature the food usually contains sufficient heat to dry the cans and prevent external rusting Cooling, Labeling,

;

of the tin containers.

In air cooling, the cans are stacked, or ricked, in rows to permit Many foods cannot be cooled suitably in air.

free air circulation.

Cans are labeled by

special

labeling machines

and

may be

placed in fibre or wooden cases by hand or by special machines designed for that purpose. Frequently, cans are stored cased or uncased without labeling, and the labeling operation is performed just prior to shipment. Canned foods are stored in cool dry warehouses which are not subject to wide variations of temperature or

—

—

humidity.

Nutritive Values of Canned Foods.

—A considerable amount

of investigation has been devoted to the effects of commercial canning on foods. Canning procedures have no practical effect on

When

sirups or brines con-

scribed,

proteins, carbohydrates, fats, etc.

ically

taining sugars are added in canning, the natural carbohydrate contents of the foods are enhanced. Many researches have also estab-

special types of closing

a small drop of solder.

—

—usually

contained in the sealed can to a known temperature long enough to destroy spoilage and pathogenic organisms that might be present in or on the raw-food material. Canners follow time and temperature processing schedules established by laboratories associated with the canning industry. The heat treatments necessary to preserve canned foods are determined by a number of factors; important among these are the acidity, as expressed by pH, of the food or food product. The "acid foods" with pH values of 4.5 or less may be adequately processed by subjecting them to the temperature of boiling water (212° F. or 100° C.) for the proper length of time. The "nonacid foods" with pH values higher than 4.5 must be processed at higher temperatures. Most commercial processing tem-

—

—

—

In general, vitamin

A

if

pro-

tected from atmospheric oxygen, are not materially affected by the and riboflavin heat treatments given canned foods. Vitamin appear to be unaffected by commercial canning. The stability of

D

Heat Sterilization or Thermal Processing. This is one of the most important operations in the canning procedure and essentially consists of subjecting the food

on the known vitamins. and carotene (provitamin A),

lished the effect of carming

—

—

vitamin Bj

is

dependent not only upon the heat treatment accorded

but also upon the acidity of the food in which it is contained. For the more acid foods there is practically no loss of this vitamin during canning; in the less acid foods, which require longer processing times at higher temperatures, the degree of retention is not so great. Vitamin C, which is generally considered to be the most it

labile of all the vitamins, is especially subject to destruction at elevated temperatures under conditions that permit free access to atmospheric oxygen. In canning, however, the food is protected to a large degree from contact with oxygen; consequently, vitamin

C

is

well retained in canned foods.

—

Bibliography. Alfred John Howard, Canning Technology (1949) National Canners Association Research Laboratories, Canned Foods in Human Nutrition (1950), and Franklin C. Bing (ed.), Dietetic ;

CANNING,

790 Canned Foods,

HOME— CANNON

and Vegetables : Sodium and Proximate Composition (1953) Clyde Henderson Campbell, Campbell's Book: a Manual on Canning, Pickling and Preserving, 3rd ed. (1950) National Canners Association, The Canning Industry: Its History, Importance, Organization, Methods, and the Public Service Values oj Its Products (1954) American Can Company, The Canned Food Reference Manual, 3rd ed. William Vere Cruess, Commercial Fruit and Vegetable Prod(1949) Fruits

;

;

;

;

ucts, 4th ed. (1958).

(G.

CANNING, HOME: Home

see

W.

Cb.; J. K. R.)

Food Preservation

(in

the

).

CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO

(1826-1910), ItaUan chemist, was a pioneer in the development of modem atomic theory. He was born in Palermo on July 13, 1826. In 1845-46 he acted as assistant to Rafaelle Piria (1813-65), known for his work on salicin and natural organic materials (e.g., glucosides), who was then professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied the same position at Turin. Cannizzaro took part in the Sicilian revolution of 1848 and was condemned to death by the Bourbons. On the collapse of the insurgents he escaped to Marseilles and reached Paris in Oct. 1849. In Paris he worked in the laboratory of M. E. Chevreul and, in conjunction with F. S. Cloez (1817-83), prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia on cyanogen chloride in ethereal solution (1851). In the same year he was appointed professor of physics and chemistry at the Technical institute of Alessandria (Piedrnont), where he discovered that aromatic aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic potash into a mixture of the corresponding acid and alcohol; e.g., benzaldehyde into benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol (Cannizzaro's reaction). In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at Genoa university; six years later, after

Mercian kings, and contains, in addition to the coal woodland and open heath land. Castle Ring, a British hill fort covering 8^ ac, is owned by the council, which also holds 248 ac. of the Hednesford hills. CANNON, ANNIE (1863-1941), U.S. astronomer and specialist in stellar spectra, was bom at Dover, Del., on Dec. II, 1S63. She graduated from Wellesley college, Wellesley, Mass., in 1884, and did special work in astronomy at Radcliffe college, Cambridge, Mass. Miss Cannon was an assistant at the Harvard college observatory, Cambridge, Mass., 1897-1911, and forest of the

field,

JUMP

after igii the curator of astronomical photographs.

In 1938 she

was named William Cranch Bond astronomer, a post established in honour of the founder of the college observatory. The monumental Henry Draper Catalogue of stellar spectra which was published in sections between 1918-24, together with the catalogue of the Henry Draper Extension, comprise her principal contribution to astronomy. The importance of this work to all problems of modern stellar astronomy cannot be overemphasized.

In addition to the catalogues of stellar spectra, she variable stars and five novae. Miss Cannon died in Cambridge, Mass., April 13, 1941. (1S64-1944), U.S. clerg>Tnan, was bom

discovered

many new

CANNON, JAMES Nov.

Md.

He

graduated from Randolphand received his bachelor of divinity degree from Princeton Theological seminary, Princeton, N.J., in 1888 and a master of arts degree from Princeton univer13, 1864, in Salisbury,

Macon

college, Ashland, Va., in 1884,

declining professorships at Pisa and Naples, he accepted the chair of inorganic and organic chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying the aromatic compounds and continuing to

Princeton, N.J., the same year. He entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1888, was elected bishop in 1918, and retired in 1938. A fiery prohibitionist. Bishop Cannon was a foremost AntiSaloon leaguer and head of the World League Against Alcoholism. During the 1928 presidential campaign, he delivered violent tirades

work on the amines.

against the Democratic candidate, Alfred E. Smith,

In 187 1 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry at Rome university. Apart from his work on organic chemistry, which included also an investigation of santonin, he rendered great service to the philosophy of chemistry when in a memoir sketch of a course of chemical philosophy (1858) he insisted on the distinction, until then imperfectly realized, between molecular and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from the molecular weights of those compounds and how the atomic weights of elements of whose compounds the vapour densities are unknown can be ascertained from a knowledge of their specific heats. Copies of his pamphlet were distributed at the chemical congress held at Karlsruhe,

The significance of its contents was not realized when the value of Avogadro's hypothesis in solving problem became evident. For this achievement, of funda-

Ger., in i860. until later, this

mental importance for the atomic theory in chemistry, Cannizzaro was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal society in 1891. Entering the Italian senate in 187 1, he became its vice-president

and a member of the council of public instruction; and in other ways he rendered important services to the cause of scientific education in Italy. He died in Rome on May 10, 1910. Cannizzaro's collected writings were published in 1925 by the Associazone Italiana di Chimica under the title, Scritti Vari et Lettere. The famous Sketch of a Course of Chemical Philosophy was no. 18 of the Alembic Club Reprints. For biographical details see W. Tilden, "Cannizzaro Memorial Lecture," Journal of the Chemical Society (1912) T. E. Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry, 3rd ed. (1894) B. Vanzetti and M. Speter, essay in Giinther Bugge's Das Buck der grossen Chemiker (19J0). (R. E. 0.) ;

;

CANNOCK, known

an urban

district of Staffordshire, Eng., in the

Cannock Chase, is 10 mi. S.S.E. of Stafford and 9 mi. N.X.E. of Wolverhampton by road. Pop. (1961) 42,186. The church of St. Luke is Perpendicular; it was enlarged in modem times. The famous political preacher Henry Sacheverell held district

his first

as

curacy there

Cannock

is

Cannock Chase

In 1930 Bishop Cannon was summoned to appear before a body of high Methodists to answer charges of stock speculation in

"bucket shops." The bishop admitted his "error," begged for forgiveness and was not tried. Shortly afterward, he was called to appear before a senate lobby committee to explain what he did with $48,300 given him for use in Virginia during the 1928 campaign. The bishop defied the committee and refused to answer questions. He was later acquitted in federal court of violating the Corrupt Practices act. With the repeal of prohibition his influence waned, although he continued his temperance crusade. died in He Chicago, 111,, on Sept. 6, 1944. See Virginius Dabney, Dry Messiah: the Life of Bishop Cannon (1949) James Cannon, Jr., Bishop Cannon's Own Story: Life As I Have Seen It, ed. by Richard L. Watson, Jr. (1955). (V. Da.) ;

CANNON, JOSEPH GURNEY

(1836-1926), U.S. polimember of the house of representatives for 46 years and speaker from 1903 to 1911, w'as born in Guilford, N,C., on May 7, 1836. In 1858 he was admitted to the Illinois bar, and from 1861 to 1868 he was a state's attorney. He settled at Danville, 111., entered politics and was elected Republican representative in congress for the periods 1873-91, 1893-1913 and 1915-23, retiring at the age of 87. On questions of national policy. Cannon usually aligned himself with the more conservative groups, and during his tenure as speaker of the house his partisan use of the powers of that office became known as "Cannonism." Rebelling against his control, the house in March 1910 passed a resolution making the speaker ineligible for membership in the committee on rules, thereby curtailing his prerogatives. Cannon was, however, personally liked by the members of the house and was popularly known as "Uncle Joe" Cannon. He died at Danville, 111., on tician, a

Nov. See

12, 1926.

L.

White Busbey,

Tyrant From

I'ncle

Joe Cannon

coal field

and also

has metalworking and other industries. Cannock Chase, a tract generally exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis from Stafford in the northwest to Lichfield in the southeast over about 56.2 sq.mi. It was a royal preserve, having been the hunting

(1927)

;

E.

B.

Bolles,

Illinois (1951).

CANNON, WALTER BRADFORD

in the 18th century.

the centre of the

sity.

(1871-1945)- one of the greatest of U.S. physiologists, was born in Prairie du Chien, Wis., Oct. 19, 1871, and received his medical degree from Harvard in 1900, He was George Higginson professor of physiology at Harvard from 1906 to 1942, when he retired. He died on Oct. I,

1945-

CANNON—CANOE Cannon was

the

first

to utilize

X-rays

in physiological studies.

to the publication of The M.echanical Factors of Digestion (1911). His investigations on hemorrhagic and traumatic shock during World War I were summarized in Traumatic Shock (1923). His work on the emergency functions of the sympathetic nervous system and on homeostasis are reported in

These studies led

Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (2nd ed., 1929) and in The Wisdom of the Body (1932). His important contributions to the knowledge of the chemical mediation of nerve impulses were published (with A. Rosenblueth) in Autonomic Neuroefector Systems (1937) and The Supersensitivity of Denervated These books, and over 200 original papers Structures (1949). that appeared in physiological journals, bear testimony to Cannon's greatness as an investigator. Some of his nonscientific activities are narrated in his autobiographical book, The Way of an Investi(A. S. R.)

gator (1945).

CANNON,

gun or piece of ordnance as distinguished from a musket, rifle or other small arm. The term is used loosely It is derived from the to include guns, howitzers and mortars. Latin" canna ("cane," "reed" or "tube"), and was sometimes The French use the term spelled "canon" in the i6th century. In to refer to the barrel or tube of any firearm, large or small. U.S. army usage it may denote only the tube, breechblock and firing mechanism as distinguished from the carriage or mount. Modern cannon are complex mechanisms cast from high-grade They charsteel and carefully machined to exacting tolerances. {See Artillery.) acteristically have rifled bores. a big

791

See also references under "Cannon" in the Index volume. BiBLiuGRAPUY. The most detailed general study is by Louis Napoleon and Ildefonse Fave, Aludes j«r le Passi el I'Avenir de I'ArtUlerie, 6 vol. (1862-71). See also W. Y. Carman, A History of Firearms From Earliest Times to 1914 (1949), and Albert C. Manucy, Artillery Through

—

the ARes (1949).

(Hd. L. P.)

CANNON-BALL TREE

(Couroupita guianensis), a native

of tropical South America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits, containing numerous seeds, as in the allied

genus Bertholletia (Brazil nut). The timber is of value. (1601-1667), was one of the few Spanish CANO,

ALONSO

artists

to

practise painting, sculpture and

architecture,

'ST REINFORCE

CANO, JUAN SEBASTIAN DEL

I

CHASE GIRDLE

DIAMETER OF BORE

BASIC PARTS OF A

IS

CALLED CALIBRE

CANNON

to which a variety of

names

applied,

appeared during the 15th century. A notable example was "Dulle Griete" of Ghent that weighed 13 tons. But during the later years of the century and indeed up until about 1670 the word "cannon" was applied only to special types of guns. These were the short battering pieces used in sieges, and they were usually divided, at least among the English, into the cannon-royal or double cannon, which weighed 8,000 lb. and fired a ball weighing 60-63 lb.; the whole cannon, which weighed 7,000 lb. and fired a 38- to 40-lb. ball; and the demicannon of 6,000 lb., which shot a 28- to 30-lb. ball. Weights vary from one early listing to another; these are average figures. Other pieces of ordnance had their own distinctive names culverin, minion, saker, falcon and the like to indicate their size and function. Cannon became ornate creations during the 1500s and were covered with scrolls, royal escutcheons and inscriptions. During the third quarter of the 17th century it became the practice to designate pieces of ordnance by the weight of the projectile they threw and secondarily by their other characteristics; i.e., whether field or siege, light or heavy, short or long. England adopted a series of cannon known as 6-, 9-, 12-, 18-, 24-, 32- and 42-pounders. With this streamlining of terminology the complex system of individual names disappeared, and the term "cannon" gradually came to be applied to every gun that was fired from a carriage or fixed mount and had a bore larger than one inch. In the 20th century, artillery pieces mounted in aircraft were referred to as aircraft cannon; and the U.S. army's first atomic gun, announced in 1952, was generally referred to as the atomic cannon.

—

first

(d.

1526),

to

MELCHOR

TRUNNION

artillery pieces,

(E. Hs.)

Spanish circumnavigate the globe, was born in Guetaria. He commanded one of the five vessels in the famous expedition of Magellan, and in 1521, on Magellan's death, became He visited the Moluccas and returned to Spain on Sept. 8, chief. 1522, having been around the world. He died at sea in Aug. 1526, while on an expedition to the Moluccas. (Melchior) (c. i 509-1 560), Spanish CANO, theologian who upheld the rights of the Spanish crown against the He claims of the papacy, was born at Tarancon, New Castile. joined the Dominican order in 1523 and became professor of In 1546 he defended the right of the theology in Salamanca. Indians in America. He was strongly opposed to the influence of Bartolome de Carranza (g.f.) and in 1558 his fellow Dominican accused him of Lutheran opinions. Charles V sent him to the Council of Trent (1551-52), where he participated actively in the discussions on the Eucharist and on penance. His close associanavigator, the

Huge

to

several followers. See H. E. Wethey's monograph Alonso Cano (1955).

CASCAi BEL

and

produce numerous drawings. Baptized in Granada on March 19, i6oi, he went as a youth to Seville where he was apprenticed in 1616 to Francisco Pacheco, master of Velazquez. He probably learned figure sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes and archiIn 1638 he moved tecture from his father, a maker of retables. to Madrid where he worked for the court and church. Influenced by Renaissance paintings in the royal collections and by contemporary baroque art, his style became increasingly eclectic. In 1652 he returned to Granada as prebendary of the cathedral. There he quarreled with the canons and was ejected, but after taking holy orders in Madrid was reinstated and appointed chief architect of the cathedral. His design for the fagade was finished shortly before his death on Sept. 3, 1667. Cano was chiefly a religious artist who created compositions and idealized types in painting and sculpture which were imitated l?y

—

enmity Cano's reputation as a theologian rests on his (posthumously published in 1563), an analysis of the scientific value of theological statements which led him to evaluate the sources of theology. He also wrote commentaries on the Pauline epistles. He died at Toledo on Sept. 30, 1560. Bibliography. F. A. Caballero, Conquenses ilustres, vol. 2, Melchor tion with the ecclesiastical policies of Philip II incurred the

Pope Paul IV.

of

De

locis theologicis

—

Cano (1871); C.

Gutierrez, Espanoles en Trento, pp. 814-841 (J951); Jacquln, "Melchior Cano et la theologie moderne," Revue des sciences philosophiques et thiologiques, vol. g, pp. 121-141 (1920). (I. Hp.) a lightweight boat pointed at both ends, originally

M.

CANOE,

designed for propulsion by one or more paddles (not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the^addler facing the bow. The name is applied to boats that are open within from end to end (the modern Canadian canoe is of this type) and also to craft covered with a deck except for a well, or cockpit, where the paddler sits (the kayak). The class- includes the cruising canoe, combining the use sails, and the sailing canoe, designed for racing and equipped with sails only. For paddling and sailing racing canoes and events see Organized Canoeing, below. The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins, as in the old British coracle or in the Eskimo canoe or

of paddle and

kayak, or the bark of trees, as in the North American Indians' The canvas-covered canoe, birchbark, were tightly stretched. built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this idea. The structural parts of both the birchbark and the kayak were curved or bow-shaped, which gave them the resQient quality of strength

CANOE

792 of

drawn bow.

is its

modern

This construction not only imparted great a strength in relation to weight but was streamlined, making it possible for even heavily loaded craft to be paddled through the water with a minimum of effort and a maximum of efficiency. Primitive peoples also used and still use the dugout, made from a log hollowed out by chopping or fire or a combination of both. Many of these are wonderfully carved and ornamented with inlay and are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the American Museum of Natural History in New York city, from Queen Charlotte Island, B.C., is 63 ft. long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The war canoe of paddling races

design, are handled with great skill by the natives, who make long sea voyages in them. In New Zealand the Maoris were masters of the art of dugout canoe construction, some of their ancient war canoes being of huge size. Along the coast of west Africa fishermen still use large dugout canoes for fishing at sea, remaining out of sight of land for days. (See also Boat.) Modern canoes evolved out of the two basic types, the birchbark, propelled by one or more single-bladed paddles, and the kayak, propelled by one or more double-bladed paddles. The open Canadian canoe is the direct descendant of the birchbark.

North America promptly adopted it. Being enjoyed a wider range of use than any other small boat. Modern versions of this canoe are made of wood (ash frame and spruce ribs covered with thin cedar planking), canvas (wood frame, ribs and thin planking covered with canvas), aluminum, magnesium, molded plywood, plastic and glass fibres. The allwood canoe is the favourite in Canada, while canvas-covered and aluminum canoes of the popular sportsman type are more commonly used in the United States for hunting, fishing, camping, cruising and pleasure paddling. Canoes are built in almost any size from 10 ft. up, but the usual size is 17 ft. long and 3'4 in. wide. The depth ranges from 12 to 14 in., the ends rising 4 to 6 in. higher. This size was gradually accepted as canoemen found few lengthy portages in their usual waters and discovered that it was still within the limits that one man could conveniently handle. In Canada, where long portages militate against the weight of the larger canoe, the general size is 15 to 16 ft. with 30 to 35 in. beam. Sometimes exceptionally light guide canoes are used as are, under some circumstances, 22-ft. freighters capable of carrying 2\ tons. The aluminum canoe became popular about 1942, and especially after 1945. It runs in length from 13 to 18 ft., the 17-ft. length being the standard size. This canoe has a beam of 36 in., a depth of 13 in. and a carrying capacity of 1,050 lb. It weighs 68 lb. and is extremely strong, withstanding a lot of abuse in rapids. It is easily repaired. It sails well with leeboards taking 65 sq.ft. of Dacron or nylon sail. With an outboard motor bracket it takes a 2^- to 35-h.p. motor easily. Some canoes are designed with a square stern to accommodate an outboard. The parts of the canoe whether open, kayak or sailing are identified by the terminology of old-time sailing ships, since the early explorers naturally applied the seafaring terms of the time to the craft they found among the Indians and the Eskimos. Hence a canoe has a bow and a stern, a keel, gunwales (or gunnels), a port side and a starboard side, the cover of a kayak is the "deck," early explorers in

indigenous,

it

—

—

etc.

is

(BOTTOM)

K-I,

successor.

In the islands of the Pacific and elsewhere dugout canoes, mostly of the outrigger type and sometimes of a twin-hull, or catamaran,

The

—

FIG. 1. MODERN CANOES: (TOP) OPEN CANADIAN CANOE: ONE-MAN OLYMPIC RACING KAYAK

The other basic design for canoes that are propelled by paddles that of the kayak, in which the paddler sits on the bottom or on

a low seat, using a double-bladed paddle.

The modern kayak was

developed largely in Great Britain, where it was known as a "canoe." In the early part of the 19th century it was popularly used for short river practice but the sport of boating in this type of craft dates from 1865, when Scottish canoeist and traveler John MacGregor designed the "Rob Roy" for long journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light enough (about 70 lb.) to be carried over portages. MacGregor's accounts of his cruises in the "Rob Roy" helped to popularize the sport and also popularized the Rob Roy as a type of craft. This was

generally built of oak with a cedar deck, from 12 to IS ft. in length with a beam of 26 to 30 in. and a depth of 10 to 16 in. The paddle was 7 ft. long with a 6 in. wide blade at each end.

Decked, and with the canoeist's weight low exceptionally seaworthy.

in

the cockpit,

The type gained many adherents

it

was

in the

United States, as well as in Great Britain and in Europe. The Royal Canoe club was founded in England in 1866 and its members made sea voyages in their tiny craft and explored many previously inaccessible waters, including the Jordan river, the Sea of Galilee and the Abana and Pharpar at Damascus. Modern canoes of the kayak type are made of a variety of materials, perhaps the most popular being a rubberized fabric over a light wood frame. Easily portable collapsible or folding versions of this type, called foldboats, or faltboats (Ger. faltboot),

have been especially popular

in

Europe; such boats have been

sailed across the Atlantic,

Sailing canoes, modifications of the Rob Roy design, were constructed by Royal Canoe club members W. Baden-Powell and E. B. Tredwen, who introduced the centreboard and two-masted yawl rig. Paul Butler of Lowell, Mass., did much to develop the out-and-out sailing canoe used for racing. He added the sliding

outrigger seat, allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward as shifting ballast. Butler also developed clutch cleats and reefing gears; built hollow spars and other accessories; and introduced tiller, watertight compartments and self-bailing cockThis tj-pe of canoe was adopted for class racing in the United States, and was universal in Great Britain until, under the influence of Linton Hope's designs, the Royal Canoe club developed the B class canoe which replaced it. The B canoe was 17 ft. long, 3 ft. 6 in. wide and 1 ft. deep, decked, with the exception of the steering well, and divided into three compartments by two watertight bulkheads. Outboard seats were barred. The rig was sloop with sliding gunter or Bermuda mainsail and roller foresail, the total sail area being 150 sq.ft. In the United States canoes derived from Butler's designs remained popular and customarily were 16 by 30s (16 ft. long by 30 in. beam). A 1909 rule limiting the sail area to 90 sq.ft. effectively blocked the building of larger craft until a sliding scale permitting sail area in proportion to boat dimensions was adopted in 1917, after which several canoes based on designs by Hilding Froling appeared with dimensions varying from 17 ft. by 34 in. to 18 ft. by 42 in. (see also Organized Canoeing, below). While the decked sailing canoe was recognized as the finest type of canoe sailing machine, it was frequently outnumbered at regattas by open or cruising canoes rigged with sails and leeboards. The canoe is usually paddled by two persons, the helmsman doing most of the steering. Most of the canoes have two seats and two or three thwarts. However, the experienced canoeist Kneeling ordinarily paddles his canoe without using the seats. with his buttocks against a thwart allows him to apply greater power to his paddle and is much safer, the centre of gravity being lower. The canoe is often paddled by one person with a single paddle used continuously on one side. At the end of each stroke the canoeist steers his boat by an overhand twist of the paddle. The hand holding the upper end of the paddle and the paddle are so placed that the back of the hand is turned out toward the water on the same side of the canoe on which the canoeist is paddling. The blade of the paddle is kept in the water long enough to bring the canoe back on its course after each thrust of the paddle. The It is much blade is always feathered on the recovery stroke.

the sliding pits.

CANOE better to paddle a canoe on the side opposite to that on which the wind strikes the hull, for the thrust of the paddle offsets the thrust of the wind.

The major strokes of the canoe are divided into cruising strokes, draw or turning strokes, and jamming or stopping strokes. Cruising Strokes. These are the strokes used in going forward

—

The bowsman strokes back straight forward bow stroke), while the sternman pulls

in a straight line.

(bow or back in enough

at the

to his hip

the canoe end of the stroke by making a hook outward just canoe back on a straight course. This stem

to bring the

known as a cruising hook, or "J'' stroke. or Turning Strokes. These strokes are attained by reaching out at an angle and pulling to the canoe (draw stroke) or by placing the paddle by the canoe and shoving outward (pushover stroke

is

—

Draw

making the canoe turn or move to the angle of draw and opposite of the push or thrust. The same effect is obtained by an outward arc or an inward arc of the paddle. The latter draw stroke),

strokes are called sweep strokes. Jamming or Stopping Strokes. These strokes are for stopping a canoe by placing the blade at right angles to the forward move-

—

ment of the canoe, and locking

tight by holding it to the gunwale of the canoe. When done by both bow and stern paddler this can stop the canoe quickly, even with a heavy load. Locking or holding the blade tight to the gunwale, but turning the blade

parallel to the centre

beam

it

of the canoe,

is

known

as a keel lock.

This gives stability to the craft, especially in heavy waves, acting like the centreboard in a sailing boat. A properly trimmed canoe for ease in paddling has the bow slightly higher out of the water than the stern. In rapids a canoe

793

should be bow-light going upstream when propelled by either pole or paddle. Going downstream it should be bow-heavy. Going ashore through the surf the canoe should be bow-heavy. Going out through the surf it should be bow-light. The single paddler,

bow end of the canoe is heavily loaded, kneels in the canoe about one-third of the way forward. Paddles are classified as soft or hard wood. The best paddles are made of spruce (soft wood) or maple or ash (hard wood). They should be in length equal to the height of the paddler. If a canoe tips over, the occupants can hang on to it until it floats ashore or until picked up; they should never try to climb up on an overturned canoe. The water can be emptied out of an upset canoe even in deep water by "shaking out" the water, by splashing out the water or, if there is another canoe present, it can be pulled bottom side up over the other canoe to empty the water. (L. W. J.; C. W. Ha.) Organized Canoeing. All organized canoeing in the United States is headed by the American Canoe association (A.C.A.). This body, founded in 1880, is divided into nine geographic divisions. Each division holds paddling and sailing races and there is an annual national meet, held at a different site each year accordunless the

_

—

ing to the best interests of the association. The first local organization in the U.S., the New York Canoe club, dates from 1871. In

Canada the sport is supervised by the Canadian Canoe association (1900) and in Great Britain by the British Canoe union (1936). The leading English local organization is the Royal Canoe club (1866).

The world governing body (I.C.F.),

formed

is

the International

Canoe federation

194S as the successor to the Internationale Representationschaft des Kanusport (I.R.K.; 1924), which was dissolved during World War II. The I.R.K. was responsible for canoeing becoming an Olympic sport. The first competition took place at the 1936 games in Berlin with 19 nations entering teams. Canoeing has remained on the Olympic program since that time. (See Olympic Games.) The annual national races in the United States include one-man in

and double-blade competition, tandem single- and doubleblade competition and four-man single- and double-blade competition in the paddling events; and open-cruising and decked-canoe competition in the sailing races. single-

Olympic competition consists of events for single and double kayaks and single and double Canadian canoes over distances from 1 ,000 to 10,000 m. for men. Olympic canoe competition for women at 500 m. was inaugurated at the 1948 games in London. Canoes and kayaks used in all racing events must conform to specific measurements agreed upon by the A.C.A. and other national governing bodies.

V-bottom cedar Canadian ft. by 294 in. for either one-man (C-1) or two-man crews; the single kayak (K-1), 17 ft. by 20 in.; the double (K-2), 21 ft. by 21^ in.; and the four-man kayak (K-4), I.C.F. specifications cover a

17

by

canoe,

(C-2)

kayak 36

ft.

23-^ in.

must conform to a 10-m. rule Yachting; The Linear and International Rating Rules). The

International class sailing canoes I

.see

.\.C.A. also recognizes a cruising class with a

40 sq.ft. lateen cruising rig; a racing class with decked, self-bailing hulls, centreboards, sliding outrigger seats .\,

B and C

and upward of 90

sq.ft. of sail

area; and

classes of standard canvas canoes with racing rigs of

three sizes.

One of the oldest trophies still in contention in international competition is the International Challenge cup, first offered in 1885 by the New York Canoe club as a perpetual prize for decked sailing canoe racing. Other types of canoe activities include "white water" running, or "shooting" the rapids of certain rivers (usually in aluminum canoes), and slalom racing over marked courses of fast-running water, marathon racing events over long distances, in laps lasting several days, as the classic race from Devizes to Westminster held at Easter in England, and ocean crossing or round-the-world trips what are basically sailing canoes. Canoeing instruction and safety demonstrations are part of American Red Cross chapter programs. in

FIG.

2.

—TEN-SQUARE-METRE

SAILING CANOE

CANON—CANONIZATION

794

See also references under "Canoe" in the Index volume. BrBLiOGRAPHY. One of the best instruction booklets is Boy Scout Book of Canoeing, prepared by W. Van B. Claussen and published by the Boy Scouts of America (1952) the most comprehensive textbook on the sport is Canoeing, prepared by the American Red Cross (1956). See also Percy W. Blandford, Canoeing (1957) C, W. Handel, Canoe Camping (1953), Canoeing (1956); Pierre Pulling, Principles of Canoeing (1954) R. E. Pinkerton, The Canoe (1959) T. Wells, Scientific

—

;

;

;

;

Sailboat Racing, 5th ed. (1958) (I960).

CANON,

;

Peter Dwight, White Water Sport (G. Y.)

a musical device in counterpoint (q.v.),

from the

Greek kanon, a "law" or "rule," consisting of a theme played or sung as a single part but imitated during its course by other parts either at a specified distance in time or at a specified interval in pitch. The opening part of a canon is called dux ("leader") and the following parts comes ("companion"). Different forms of canon include exact repetition of the theme after a given time interval (as in the round) a canon at the unison {i.e., at the same pitch) or at an interval of the second, third or fourth, etc.; a canon in augmentation or diminution (the note values being lengthened or shortened) a canon "mirror" in which the ascending intervals become descending in the imitating parts, and vice versa; and a cancrizans or "crab" canon, in which the theme is played backwards by the imitating part. The principle of the canon underlies the form of the round: the medieval English six-part round "Sumer is icumen in" is in the form of a canon for four voices accompanied by a double canon. Many intellectual devices of canon were practised by Jakob Obrecht, Jean d'Okeghem and other composers of the ISth-century Netherlands school. In the 18th century devices of canon were incorporated in the fugue {q.v.), notably in J. S. Bach's The Art of Fugue and Goldberg Variations. Similar devices were revived in the 20th century by Schdnberg and his followers, who made a wide use of the canon in 12-note music. For clerical and religious usage of the word, see Augustinian Canons; Bible; Canonization; Canon Law; Constitutions, Apostolic; Kanon; Mass.

between beatification and canonization. Pope Sixtus V (1S85-90) assigned to the Sacred Congregation of Rites a department of the Holy See consisting of cardinals and

—

public cult of any servant of God not as yet beatified or canonized by the church. Exception was made only for those who were in

possession of public cult from time immemorial or for at least 100 years. Thus two different canonization procedures came to be

way of cult and one by way of non-cult. legislation of Pope Urban VIII, together with later legislaby Pope Benedict XIV, formed the basis of the procedures for beatification and canonization found today in the Code of Canon Law (canons 1999-2141), which contains the universal ecadopted, one by

The

tion

clesiastical

Roman

;

;

CANONESS,

—

subordinate officers among other duties that of conducting the processes of beatification and canonization. In the following century Pope Urban VIII, in Coelestis Hierusalem (1634), forbade the

law of the

Roman

Catholic Church.

Catholic Code of Canon Law.— Two types of beatiby the Code of Canon Law: ordinary or

fication are distinguished

formal and extraordinary or equivalent. Formal. Formal beatification, the commoner procedure, entails four general steps: an informative process, introduction of the cause, the apostolic process and four definite judgments. The first of these steps is under the jurisdiction of the bishop in whose diocese it takes place, the other three being directly under the jurisdiction of the Sacred Congregation of Rites and the pope. In the first step, the informative process, an ecclesiastical court

—

gathers together the following: (1) all material pertaining to the candidate's reputation for sanctity or heroic virtue; (2) the writ-

and (3) information about miracles wrought either during his life or after death. The bishop appoints a person, called postulator of the cause, to promote the cause, and also a promoter of the faith, commonly known as the ings of the candidate;

by the candidate

"devil's advocate," is

whose task

made known about

it

to see that the entire truth

is

the candidate.

An

investigation

is

made

into

any public worship prematurely existing; if such unlawful veneration does exist, more extensive investigation is required and the

a title that first occurs in the 8th century, applied to communities of women vowed to obedience and chastity, though not to poverty, and generally under a rule less strict than

cause

that of nuns. A distinction grew up between regular {i.e., living under rule) and secular canonesses, very few of the second of which survive. There are several congregations of regular canonesses, the best known of which are those of St. Augustine, of the Lateran and of the Holy Sepulchre. See Women's Religious Orders. CANONIZATION, the official act of a Christian church declaring one of its deceased members worthy of public cult and entering his name in the Canon, the authorized hst of recognized

with an examination of the candidate's writings to determine if there is anything in them against faith or morals. This action is conducted under the surveillance of another "devil's advocate," the general promoter of the faith. If the writings are free of objectionable material, or if the pope gives his approval to something that could be objected to, the cardinals of the Sacred Congregation of Rites examine the material gathered in the informative process and state whether or not they judge the case as worthy of ofiicial introduction at Rome. If the pontiff approves the

saints {see Saint).

cardinals'

History. There was no formal canonization in the early church, though the cult of martyrs was widespread in the Christian world, being local in character and regulated by the bishop of the diocese. The bishop, having examined the circumstances of the martyrdom and the miracles attributed to the martyr's intercession, passed judgment on the legality of his cult. The translation of the martyr's remains from his place of burial to a church was

which

—

equivalent to canonization. In the 4th century the age of martyrs was followed by that of confessors, especially with St. Martin of Tours, who died in 397

A widening of authority began to be the custom matters of canonization and synodal intervention often was reBy the 10th century appeals were made to the pope in quired. causes of canonization. The first saint canonized by a pope was Ulrich, bishop of Augsburg, who died in 973 and was canonized in the Lateran council of 993. Pope Alexander by Pope John III (1159-81) began to reserve the cases of canonization to the Apostolic See, and this became a general law under Gregory IX (1227-41). The method of canonization during the 12th and 13th centuries was rather summary. Thomas a Becket, who died in 1170, was canonized in 1173, and Francis of Assisi, who died in 1226, was canonized in 1228. At this period there was no marked difference {see Confessor).

in

XV

is

delayed.

At Rome, after the findings of the

first

court and the writings

of the candidate are received, the introduction of the cause begins

five

recommendation, he issues the litterae remissoriales by judges from the diocese submitting the cause are ap-

pointed to begin the apostolic process. This process is concerned with two points, although the first point may be considered unnecessary for investigation: (1) the candidate's reputation for sanctity and (2) the virtue and miracles attributed to him. The first is the point of great importance. Usually two miracles occurring after the death of the candidate beatification. are required for The fourth step then follows, namely, four judgments by the Sacred Congregation of Rites with approval by the pontiff, concerning; (1) the validity of the apostolic process; (2) the virtue of the candidate to an heroic degree; (3) the authenticity of the

miracles attributed to the person; and (4) whether it is safe to proceed with the beatification itself. The most important decision, again, is that concerning the heroic sanctity of the candidate; for heroic sanctity practised throughout life or by martyrdom at death is of the essence of sainthood. If at the completion of the process the pope orders the beatification, it is in the form of a solemn proclamation, read usually Veneration then may in St. Peter's basilica, with a solemn mass. be carried on in specified localities according to certain restrictions, and efforts may be made to have the beatits elevated to the position of a saint.

The

canonization process

is

a repetition of

CANON LAW the beatification procedure, except that the three congregations concerned with heroic virtue are omitted, this point being considered sufficiently established by the decision already rendered

However, at least two authentic miracles obtained through invocation after beatification must occur before the cause for canonization may be introduced. The pope takes personal part in the ceremony of canonization, with a pontifical mass of extraordinary pomp and splendour at St. Peter's in the process of beatification.

basilica.

The

formal papal canonization, as noted above, was that of by Pope John XV in 993; the first formal beatification is considered to be that of Francis of Sales, first

Ulrich, bishop of Augsburg, in 1661.

—

The other process for beatification and canonicult called extraordinary or equivalent canonisimply a papal confirmation that a person is a saint. It is applied only in the case of persons whose worship was immemorial at the time of the publication of Coelestis Hierusalem by Pope Urban VIII. Since beatification precedes canonization in the discipline of the modem Roman Catholic Church, equivalent beatification, according to canon 2125, can take place only in the case of servants of God who had been publicly venerated prior Extraordinary.

zation

—

by way of

zation,

—

is

to the constitution of

Pope Alexander

Pope Urban VIII and

after the pontificate

For canonization after equivalent beatification, three miracles are required instead of two. However, there is no difference in honour accorded saints canonized by either process, and many well-known saints were elevated by equivalent canonization: King Stephen of Hungary, Queen Margaret of Scotland, Pope Gregory VII, Cyril of Alexandria, Wenceslas of Bohemia, Cyril of Jerusalem, John of Matha, Bruno, Norbert, Peter Nolasco, Anselm, etc. Eastern Orthodox Church.— The process of canonization in the Eastern Orthodox Church is less juridical, being a solemn proclamation rather than a process. Such canonizations are not always ecumenical, for the bishop of a particular locality has the authority to canonize. Spontaneous worship toward an individual on the part of the faithful establishes the usual basis for raising a holy person to the honour of sainthood. The bishop accepts the petition, examines it and delivers it over to a commission that will render a final decision. It is necessary that the person to be canonized possess moral perfection and holiness; moreover, the candidate must have worked miracles while on earth, or miracles must have taken place in connection with his relics after death. Anglican Communion. In 1950 the Anglican Church appointed a commission to study the question of canonization for of

III.

•

—

eventual adoption in favour of deserving

communion.

members

of its

own

—Damian

J. Blaher, The Ordinary Processes in Causes Ludwig HertUng, "Canonof Beatification and Canonization (1949) isation," in Dictionnaire de spiritualiti, vol. li (1937) Thomas Machen, The Canonization of Saints (1909) Pessic-Milash, Das Kirchenrecht der morgenldndischen Kirche (1905) P. Peelers, La Canonisation des saints dans I'Eglise russe, in Analecta Bollandiana, vol. xxxiii and xxxviii (1920) Woywod-Smith, A Practical Commentary on the Code of Canon Law (1958). Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, The C otnmemoration of Saints and Heroes of Faith in the Anglican Communion (1957). (P. P. P.; W. J. El.) (jus canonicum) strictly speaking is the body

Bibliography.

;

;

;

;

;

CANON LAW

of laws

,

made by

lawful ecclesiastical authority for the government of the whole church or of some part thereof. In the wider sense the term includes precepts of divine law, natural or positive, incorporated in the canonical collections and codes. The canon law concerns the constitution of the church, the relations between

and other bodies, and matters of internal discipline. It is not per se a formulation of dogma, although statements of the divine positive and natural law contained in the canons may be doctrinal it

in nature.

Canon law has developed

to the greatest extent in

ecclesiastical bodies of the hierarchical type,

Roman

and especially in the

Catholic Church.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH History canon law may be divided into four epochs: (1) up to the Decretum of Gratian; (2) thence to the

The

historical evolution of

795

Council of Trent; (3) from Trent to the codification of 1917;

and (4) under the Codex juris canonici. From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian. At no time, and least of all during the first centuries, was there any attempt to enact uniform legislation for the whole church. Each community was ruled by its own customs and traditions, with, however, a certain uniformity indicating a common origin. Such compilations of canon law as exist contain occasional decisions given by councils or by certain great bishops. These compilations began in the east, the first appearing in the

—

province of Pontus. This contained 20 canons of Nicaea (325), together with others from the Councils of Ancyra (314) and Neocaesarea (early 4th century). The collection later grew to more than 150 canons, so well known that they were referred to by number at the Council of Chalcedon (451). It was further augmented by canons from that council and from the Council of Constantinople and by placing the so-called Apostolic Canons at the head of the collection (see Constitutions. Apostolic). This was the Greek collection as first translated and introduced into the west. During the 6th century other documents were added, and from the Latin collection of Dionysius Exiguus {see below) were borrowed canons of the Councils of Sardica (342 or 343) and Carthage (419), the latter including most of the canons of the

African councils. The Council in Tridlo (692) enacted 102 canons and officially accepted the Greek collection above mentioned. The collection thus formed, together with 22 canons of the Council of Nicaea (787), became the official canon law of the Greek and subsequently of the Russian church {see below). In the west, even local collections are not mentioned until the 5th century, and not until the 8th and 9th centuries are there found traces of unification as a result of exchange of these collections among various regions. The most ancient and homogeneous of these is the African collection deriving from the almost annual plenary meetings of the African episcopate. This survives only in the collection called the Hispana {see below) and in that of Dionysius Exiguus. The latter reproduces more or less fully almost all the synods of the African collection this is the Concilium Africanum, so often quoted in the middle ages and also recognized by the Greeks. The Roman church, even more than the others, governed itself ;

its own customs and traditions. Until the end of the 5th century the only non-Roman canonical document officially recognized there was the collection of the canons of Nicaea, including those

by

The

law was founded on usage and on the papal addressed to bishops of the ecclesiastical province immediately subject to the pope, and others in reply to questions addressed to the pope from various quarters. At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman church adopted the collection by the monk called Dionysius Exiguus {q.v.}. This was partly a new translation of the first 50 of the Apostolic Canons, which thus entered the law of the west. The second part contained 39 decretals of the popes from Siricius (384-399) to Anastasius II (496^98). Further decretals were added to this collection as they appeared. In 774 Pope Adrian I gave the augmented collection to Charlemagne as the canonical book of the Roman church (the Dio7iysio-Hadriana) It was officially received by the Prankish church, imposed by the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (802), and thenceforward was recognized and quoted as the liber canonum, thus marking an important stage in the centralization of canon of Sardica.

decretals

—

local

letters

.

law.

In the Spanish church, which was strongly centralized around the see of Toledo, canon law was embodied in a collection that,

though unofficial, was received everywhere; this was the Hispana. first part is composed of the canons of the councils, arranged according to regions: Greek, African, Galilean and Spanish councils. Nearly all the latter were held at Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589 and continuing until interrupted by the Moorish invasion. The second part of the Hispana contains the papal decretals, as in the collection of Dionysius. It was this second part that later served as the basis for the collection of the False Decretals. The British and Irish churches remained still longer outside

The

CANON LAW

796 the centralizing

movement.

system of canon law was

Their main contribution to the later

in the influence of the Penitentials, col-

lections for the guidance of confessors in imposing penances for

various sins (see Penitentml). The otherwise unimportant Irish collection introduced the canonists to the practice of quoting from Scripture and the Fathers. In the middle of the 9th century an enlarged edition of the

Hispana began

to circulate in France,

where

it

was

falsely at-

tributed to St. Isidore of Seville (and hence today is called the Pseudo-I sidoriana) Besides many genuine additions to the His.

pana, this collection included 60 spurious decretals from popes prior to Siricius in its first part, and in the third part of the collection at least 104 out of some 120 documents are today conFor the historical questions connected sidered to be fictitious.

with the False Decretals, see Decretals, False; here we are concerned only with their influence on the development of canon law. Despite some doubts and hesitation, it is safe to say that the False Decretals were fairly generally accepted until the 15th century, and all later collections used them extensively. The False Decretals did not greatly modify or corrupt canon law. The collection in general introduced little new legislation, but rather gave a new formulation to existing practices and tried to give the authority of law to what was already accepted in fact. They did contribute much, however, to the progress of canon law

For they were the last of the chronological collecThereafter, canonists began to arrange their collections according to a preconceived order, leading to the development of toward unity. tions.

a common canon law and, ultimately, to the Decretum of Gratian. From the end of the 9th to the middle of the 12th century, there were about 40 systematic collections, containing both texts of the law and the authors' comments and discussion of controversies. From the Decretum of Gratian to the Council of Trent. It was against this background that Gratian, a Camaldolese monk, published, somewhere between 1139 and about 1150, his monumental treatise, called at first Concordantia discordantium

—

canonum but soon known simply as the Decretum Gratiani, or Decretum {see Gratlvn). This immense work consists of three parts. (1) The first, treating of the sources of canon law and of persons and ofiices, is divided according to the of his pupU Paucapalea into 101 distinctioties, which are subdivided into 3,945 canones. (2) The second part consists of 36 causae (cases proposed for solution), subdivided into quaestiones (questions raised by the case), under which are arranged the various canones (canons, decretals, etc.) bearing on the question. (3) The third part gives, in five distinctiones, the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The work is not a mere collection of texts but also a treatise giving the opinions and teaching ecclesiastical

method

of Gratian. He drew his materials from the existing collections and included the canons of recent councils and recently published decretals, up to and including the Lateran council (1139). When necessary, he had recourse to the Roman law and made extensive use of the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers. The apparent discordance of texts he explained away, or indicated the more authoritative.

From

Decretum

for official collections. New decretals as they five large Compilationes, which soon contained a mass of materials greater than that of the Decretum. In 1234 the contents of these compilations were edited, together with later decretals, and promulgated officially as Decretals by Gregory IX. This first official code forms the second part of While it was intended to supersede the Corpus juris canonici. the Compilationes, it was not meant to supersede the Decretum: there was no thought of codifying the whole of canon law. A supplementary collection, called the Liber Sextus (because it was in addition to the five books of the Decretals of Gregory IX), was officially promulgated by Boniface VIII in 129S and became the third part of the Corpus. An additional collection was prepared

way was prepared

appeared were collected in

under the direction of Clement V and was even promulgated by him in consistory in 1314; but, owing to his death, it was not sent to the universities until 1317. It is known as the Clementinae and forms the fourth part of the Corpus juris canonici. At this point the official collections stop. The two last, which have found a place in the editions of the Corpus, are collections of private authority. The Extravagantes (i.e., extra collectiones publicas) of John XXII number 20 and are divided into 14 titles. The ExtravagaJites communes (i.e., coming from several popes) number 73, from Boniface VIII to Sixtus IV (14S4), and are clasThese two collections were included in sified in books and titles. the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they passed into later editions and are considered as forming part of the Corpus juris canonici (parts 5 and 6). As such, and without receiving any complementary authority, they have been corrected and re-edited,

by the Correctores romani. Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the Corpus juris canonici; but this familiar expression is only a bibliographical term. Though the expression corpus juris is found, for example, at the Council of Basel, not even the official edition of Gregory XIII has as its title the words Corpus juris canonici, and this title is not used

like the others,

Though there were no further canon law were not dried up; decisions of councils and popes continued to appear; but no attempt was made to collect them. Canonists obtained the recent texts as best they could. The era of the Great Schism of the west, to be followed by the Reformation, was not a period favourable to the until the

Lyons edition of 1671.

collections, the sources of

reorganization of ecclesiastical law.

After the Council of Trent.— The ment of the canon law starts from the

third

epoch

in the develop-

disciplinary decrees of the

Council of Trent (1545-63), made in the second part of its During this period there was a sessions, called de rejormatione. marked move toward centralization in the Roman Catholic Church and an increased tendency toward uniformity of legislation emanat-

from the Holy See. At the same time, however, the dispersed condition of the canonical documents was not remedied; on the contrary, the large number of pontifical constitutions and of decrees from the Roman ing

congregations even aggravated the situation. The constitutions were published in the Bullarium ; but this was a collection of private authority, except that officially pubhshed by Benedict XIV

ofiicial

1747; further, this compilation is in chronological order and The various Roman congregations published rather unwieldy. official collections of their decrees; the decrees of others were pub-

as yet no idea of producing an

lished

work

that Catholic bishops

the viewpoint of

its official

authority, the

cupies an intermediate position difficult to define.

It is

oc-

not an

code in which every text has the force of law: there was official compilation. It remains a and the texts contained in it have only that legal force they possess in themselves. On the other hand, it actually enjoys a public authority that is unique: for centuries it has been the text on which has been based the teaching of canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed and commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it became, without being a body of laws, the first part of the Corpus juris canonici, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited by the popes. It thus, by usage, obtained an authority perfectly recognized and accepted by the church and served as an important source for the official codification of canon law in 1917. Subsequent to the Decretum, the collections of texts were clearly separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the of private authority,

in

It is no surprise, therefore, to find from all quarters of the world petitioned for a codification of the canon law at the time of the Vatican The position was thus stated by several council (1869-70). French bishops:

by private

authority.

It is absolutely clear, and has for a long time past been universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision and reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As matters now stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes in human affairs and in society, many laws have become useless, others difficult or impossible to obey.

to a great number of canons, it is a matter of dispute Finally, in the course still in force or abrogated. of so many centuries, the number of ecclesiastical laws has increased to such an extent, and these laws have accumulated in such immense are crushed collections, that in a certain sense we can well say: beneath the laws, obruimiir legibus. Hence arise infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study of canon law; an immense

With regard

whether they are

We

CANON LAW for controversy and litigation; a thousand perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for the laws. field

The Vatican

council

was forced

to dissolve without dealing

with the question of canonical reform, but on March 19, 1904, Pope Pius issued a motii propria decreeing the revision and codification of the canon law of the Latin church. A commission cardinals of was appointed for this purpose, under the direction of Pietro Cardinal Gasparri, together with a body of consultants. A circular letter was issued to all archbishops throughout the world requiring them, after consultations with their suffragan bishops, to set forth to the Holy See within four months the changes in canon law that were deemed advisable; at the beginning of April 1904 the universities also were asked to collaborate. After years of concerted labour, the new Codex juris cano>iici was officially promulgated on May 27, 1917, and, with the exception of a few provisions effective immediately, went into force throughout the Latin church on May 19, 1918. This date therefore ushered in the fourth epoch in the development of canon law in the Roman Catholic Church.

X

Code of Canon Law Like the Code Napoleon, which was the prototype for most of the

modern

codes, the

civil

Code

of

Canon Law (Codex

juris

is

in force.

The code

itself consists of five

titles into

chapters; and

some chapters into articles. numbered con-

are the ultimate subdivision and are

secutively throughout the code into 2,414 canons.

Citation to

simply by the number of the canon. Book I. Book i is concerned with general norms for interpreting the code on ecclesiastical laws, the force of custom, the code

is

—

—

methods of computing time, rescripts, privileges and dispensations from ecclesiastical laws (canons 1-S6). Book U. Book ii (can. 87-725) deals with three classes of persons in the church clerics, religious and the laity. The Roman pontiff has the supreme power of jurisdiction within the church

—

—

(can. 218), as does also an ecumenical council consisting of the

Roman

and the bishops of the whole church (can. 228). Roman pontiff is at the same time legislative, and administrative. The administration of the church is ordinarily conducted through the Roman congregations (can. 246257), and the judicial power through the tribunals of the Roman pontiff

book

the church to dissolve a valid marriage (can. 1118-27). Book IV. Book iv of the code (can. 1552-2194) establishes the various tribunals or courts in the judicial system of the church,

—

conduct of trials and the offering of evipart of this book establishes the procedure to

sets forth rules for the

dence.

The second

be followed for beatification and canonization (can. 1999-2141). Book V. Book v, "On Crimes and Penalties," contains the criminal law of the church (can. 2195-2414). It establishes the mental and moral responsibility required for a criminal violation of canon law, defines the effect of the various penalties such as excommunication or interdict and then sets forth the particular laws, the violation of which is punished by such penalties. Since its codification in 1917 the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church has not remained static. Thus, in 1948 a change was made in the formalities for marriage (c/. can. 1099. sec. 2); in 1950 the penalty of excommunication was added to the law forbidding clerics to engage in certain forms of commercial enterprises (c/. can. 142); and in 1953 and 1957 radical changes were made in the law of fasting before communion {cf. can. 858).

—

—

—

EASTERN CHURCHES

books, which, with the

exception of the first, are divided into parts, and the parts at times into sections. The parts are also subdivided into titles;

particular interest in this

are the canons establishing the impediments to marriage (can. 1035-80), the canonical foi-malities required for the vahdity of marriage of a Catholic (can. 1094-96, 1098-99), and the power of

a systematic arrangement of the ecclesiastical law

canonici)

some of the The canons

797 Of

the church fcan. 1495-1551).

The development of canon law in the eastern churches was even more haphazard than that in the west, largely because of the strongly autonomous character of the great eastern patriarchates. After the

were cut

final off

break with

Rome

in

1054, the eastern churches

from the centralizing movement in the canon law came predominantly under the influence of Con-

of the west and stantinople.

—

Orthodox. The early Greek collections are referred to above. As adopted and augmented by the Council in Trullo (692) and subsequently supplemented by 22 canons of the Council of Nicaea (787), this collection became the official canon law of the Greek and later of the Russian church. Toward the end of the 6th century, a new type of collection began to appear in the east, composed of both ecclesiastical canons and imperial laws. Of these collections, called nomocanones, the most influential was the

This power of the

Nomocanon

judicial

part of the 9th century.

of Photius, patriarch of Constantinople in the latter

the 12th-century

This, together with the commentaries of Zonaras, the scholia of Theodore

monk John

curia, consisting of the

Sacred Penitentiar>' for the internal forum, the Rota for the external forum and the Apostolic Signatura as

Balsamon. patriarch of Antioch, and the compendium of Matthew Blastares (14th century), is considered to be the chief authentic source of law in the Orthodox Church. This nucleus has been

the supreme tribunal of the church (can. 258-259).

further supplemented

At the

local level, the local ordinary (residential bishop) is the

and the diocesan synod has only Provincial councils are composed of the ordinaries of the ecclesiastical province, and their decrees sole legislator for the diocese,

a consultative role (can. 362).

are binding within the dioceses of that province; such councils are to be held every 20 years (can. 283). Plenary councils are

composed

of the ordinaries of

a national scale),

more than one province

convoked with the permission

(usually on

of the

Holy

See,

and may enact legislation binding within those provinces to be promulgated after approval by the Sacred Congregation of the Council (can. 281). Plenary or provincial councils, as well as diocesan synods, may supplement the common canon law to meet local needs, but they cannot derogate from that law without the express approval of the Holy See. (The annual meetings of the bishops of the United States are an informal conference, not a plenary council, and the conference has no power to enact legislation binding

upon the member bishops.)

—

Book III. Book iii of the code, entitled "De Rebus," legislates concerning things the discipline for the administration of the sacraments (can. 731-1153), sacred places such as churches and chapels (can. 1154-1242) and sacred seasons (can. 1243-54), divine worship (can. 1255-1321), the teaching authority of the church, including the qualification of preachers and the censorship of books on religion (can. 1322-1408), the rules governing ecclesiastical benefices (can. 1409-94) and the temporal goods of

—

through the centuries by legislation of synods held in the various patriarchates of the east; but, whOe there has been a certain amount of mutual borrowing, there has not developed in the eastern churches a common canon law in the way that such a body of law developed in the western church. Catholic Eastern. In the Roman Catholic eastern churches that follow non-Roman rites the prevaiUng canon law did not differ radically from that of the Orthodox counterpart of each church, except, of course, for their recognition of the primacy and jurisdiction of the Holy See. In their case, the local patriarchal law is supplemented by a large body of legislation by the Holy See for the individual eastern rites of the church, but there was little or no attempt to make any systematic collection of this

—

legislation or to codify

it.

The

diversity of legislation

was con-

siderably augmented by the multiplicity of rites. The success of the Latin Code of Canon Law, however, led

XI

Pope

1929 to establish a commission of cardinals for the and to invite the eastern bishops to submit their suggestions; and in 1930 a committee of consultants from each of the rites was put to work. The proposed eastern code was to be modeled on the Latin code. The resulting canons are in Latin and follow the text of the Latin code where possible, but many of these canons provide for supplementation by the local or customary law of the various rites, Pius

in

codification of the law of the eastern churches

thus preserving

many

eastern churches.

of the cherished traditions of the individual

CANON LAW

798

Unlike the Latin code, the code for the eastern churches was not published as a whole, but various sections were promulgated as they were completed. The first section to be promulgated was that containing the 131 canons on marriage, which came into force on May 2, 1949, and correspond closely to the 132 canons of the Latin code. The greatest differences affect the impediments of consanguinity and affinity and the very wide powers of dispensation possessed by the eastern patriarchs. The procedural law, corresponding to book iv of the Latin code, became effective on Jan. Another section, dealing with the law of religious and 6, 1951. temporal goods, with a definition of the terms used in the eastern code, went into effect on Nov. 21, 1952. The section on the law of persons, corresponding to book ii of the Latin code, raised problems of the utmost delicacy, since it would concern the juridical status of the eastern patriarchs

their jurisdiction

and the method of

and bishops, the scope of

their selection.

When

finally

promulgated in 1957, this part of the codification was found to preserve most of the traditional prerogatives and powers of the eastern prelates, and provided for the continuance of their selection by means of election with subsequent confirmation by the Holy See. A pontifical commission was created to give authentic interpretations of the eastern codification, and the gigantic task

of collecting and publishing the fontes, or sources, of the eastern

law was begun in 1930.

(Jo.

M.

S.)

ANGLICAN COMMUNION England.

—The

English courts, both temporal and spiritual, have since the Reformation consistently maintained that the Church of England is and has always been the national and independent branch of the Catholic Church operating in England. Though the Reformation severed the connection with Rome, so that thereafter further developments of the Roman canon law

England unaffected, the canon law of pre-Reformation England continued into the post-Reformation period. While the theory has been advanced and disputed that the pre-Reformation canon law of the western church was binding in England only insofar as it had been "received" into England, there can be no doubt that the vast bulk of pre-Reformation canon law remained and is still part of the law of the Church of England except insofar as it has been lawfully abrogated or varied by or since the Reformaleft

tion.

The church remained, the church and

as before, established, so that the law of the law of the state together make up the one law

of England, which

is

even where there

is

the law of both church and state. This is so, an apparent conflict, as, for example, over marriage; while the state recognizes the validity of a secular divorce, no minister of the Church of England need perform the

marriage ceremony for a divorced person whose former partner is still hving. At the Reformation the papal claim to supremacy

was decisively rejected and the royal supremacy

as decisively enthroned, with the result that the church, with the rest of the nation, was equally affected by subsequent constitutional develop-

ments and the royal supremacy has effectively become a parliamentary supremacy. The church courts survived and became the king's courts. The two convocations of the two provinces of Canterbury and York survived with their limited powers of making canons, which, when they have received the royal assent, are binding on the clergy, and in 1603 and 1604 they supplemented the existing canon law with a further body of purely Anglican canons; they also from time to time pass resolutions, known as acts of convocation, which, though without legislative effect, carry considerable weight as considered pronouncements of the church's view. The bishops, too, retained their seats in the house of lords,

though their number there is limited to 26. From the time of the Reformation until 1919 the only source of new legislation (apart from the canons of convocation) was parliament, and there are many acts of parliament, varying in importance from the Act of Uniformity (giving statutory authority to the Book of Common Prayer) down to acts regulating the burial of the dead, all of which go toward the making of English ecclesiastical law. In 1919, however, parliament passed an Enabling act (the Church of England Assembly [Powers] act) that gave statu-

tory recognition to the already existing church assembly. This body consists of three houses, namely, a house of bishops (consisting of the upper houses of the two convocations), a house of clergy (consisting of the lower houses of the two convocations)

and a house of laity (elected by the diocesan conferences). It passes measures which, with the consent of parliament, may be presented to the sovereign and which, when they have received the royal assent, have the full force of an act of parliament. After 1919 much legislation was effected by measures of the church assembly that, before that date, could have been done only by parliament. The canon law of the Church of England consists, therefore, primarily of the pre-Reformation canon law of the western church, except insofar as it has been rejected or varied; acts of parlia-

ment; measures of the church assembly; legislation passed by virtue of powers delegated by parliament or the assembly; canons passed by the convocations; and, so far as it is applicable, the general law of England. As in the case of every other branch of English law the interpretation of the canon law rests with the courts of the land, both spiritual and temporal. {See also Ecclesiastical Law [English].) (E. G. Mo.) Ireland. The Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1869 by act of parliament, and that church thus was freed from the prohibition against holding synods and legislating for itself. Under

—

this authority, the

bishops met with representatives of the clergy

and

laity in a general convention in 1870. This convention declared that a general synod of the bishops, with representatives of the clergy and laity, should have supreme legislative authority in the Church of Ireland, together with certain administrative powers not inconsistent with the episcopal constitution of the church. The synod was to consist of two houses the house of bishops and the house of clerical and lay representatives. To carry any measure there was required a majority of the clerical and lay representatives, voting either conjointly or by orders, and also a majority of the house of bishops, if the latter wished to vote. For any alteration of "articles, doctrines, rites or rubrics," a two-thirds majority of each order of the representative house was

—

required, with a year's delay for consultation of diocesan synods,

which provision also was made for lay representation. Scotland. The canon law of the Anglican communion in Scotland prior to the 16th century was generally that of the continent. The usages of the church were similar to those in France and had not the insular character of those in England and Ireland. The canon law regulating marriage, legitimacy and succession was taken over by the Scottish secular courts and survived almost unimpaired as part of the common law of the land. In the post-Reformation period no canon law was recognized as being authoritative in Scotland unless it emanated from a national council or was adopted by such a council. The general canon law, except where acknowledged by act of parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned by the canons of a provincial council, is regarded in Scotland as having only persuasive force according to the rules of equity and comity, and is not per se binding. United States. The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America is the successor of the Anglican Church as it existed in the American colonies before the Revolution. The Anglican body in the colonies was subject to "all the laws of the Church of England applicable to its situation," and this body of law was inherited by the Protestant Episcopal Church. It was recognized, however, that not all the canon law of the established English church could be applied in the United States; and in 1789 a general convention, consisting of clerical and lay representatives as well as of bishops, assumed for itself and its successors supreme legislative authority. The constitution adopted by the first general convention, with subsequent amendments, forms the organic law for the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The general convention consists of a house of bishops and a house of deputies, the latter being composed of four presbyters and four laymen elected by each diocese. Voting in the house of deputies may be required to be by orders, and in such case the concurrence of both orders, clerical and lay, is required for the passage of any measure. The house of bishops in

—

—

CANONS—CANOPY may propose measures

to the

may

house of deputies and also

acts of that house provided certain formalities are observed. lar constitutions providing for representation of the laity

veto Simi-

have been adopted by the various dioceses. Standing committees composed of both clergy and laity are responsible for the government of the dioceses in the interim between diocesan conventions. A great body of canonical legislation has been enacted and amended by these bodies, and this was codified in 66 canons by the general convention of 1943. Although the Protestant Episcopal Church, except for a brief period immediately after the Revolution, has maintained cordial and more or less close relations with the parent Church of England, it is both de jure and de facto completely independent of that body. Together with other bodies in communion with the Church of England, the Protestant Episcopal Church participates in the decennial Lambeth conferences headed by the archbishop of Canterbury, but the conference has no legislative authority.

—

South Africa. After 1870 the Church of the Province of South Africa secured autonomy while remaining a part of the Anglican communion.

Church

By

its

constitution of that year the English

South Africa adopted the laws and usages of the Church of England, insofar as they were applicable to an unestablished in

church.

It disclaimed the right to alter doctrinal standards, except in agreement with such doctrinal alterations as might be adopted by a general synod of the Anglican communion. But in

interpreting these standards of faith and doctrine, and even more so in interpreting disciplinary canons, the Church of the Province of South Africa

was bound only by the decisions of

clesiastical courts,

own ecM. S.)

its

(Jo.

CHURCH OF SOUTH INDIA This church provides an important and interesting example of a current attempt at the reunion of severed portions of Christendom. It consists of what were formerly four dioceses of the Anglican Church of India, Burma and Ceylon; the former Methodist province of South India; and the former South India United Church, consisting of Presbyterians and Congregationalists and members of the Dutch Reformed Church together with other European Protestant bodies. All these, after nearly 30 years of preparation, joined together in 1947 to form the Church of South India. The basis of this reunion includes the continuation of the ministries of the ministers of the constituent bodies under a constitutional version of the historic episcopate, with the intention that eventually every minister will have been episcopally ordained. The constitution is, of course, a written one in which care was taken both to avoid too close a definition in respect of points of theological difference and also to safeguard various aspects of the traditions of the constituent bodies. The governmental system is pyramidal, having at its head the synod, consisting of the bishops (one of whose number is moderator), together with representatives of the presbyterate and laity. Below the synod are the diocesan councils, consisting of the bishop, presbyters with charge of pastorates and lay representatives; they frame their own differing constitutions, subject to the general oversight of the synod. Below the diocesan councils come the pastorates; each has a pastorate committee, consisting of the pastor-in-charge and elected representatives of the congregations which form the pastorate.

There are

spiritual courts at three levels, the

members

Ethics, give concise statements of information with references for further study. For an extended study of the history of western canon

law, see A. G. Cicognani, Canon Law, authorized EnKlish version (1934). A fine discussion of legislation in the Roman Catholic Church is contained in R. Metz, What Is Canon Law? (1960) brief surveys of the current Codex juris canonici will be found in T. L. Bouscaren and A. C. Ellis, Canon Law: a Text and Commentary, 2nd ed. (1951), and in J. A. Abbo and J. D. Hannan, The Sacred Canons, 2 vol. (1952) ; while the post-code legislation and interpretation is collected by T L Bouscaren, Canon Law Digest, 4 vol. (19.54-58), which is kept up to date by annual loose-leaf supplements. The Catholic University of America has published, under the general title of "Canon Law Studies," numerous doctoral theses dealing with particular canons. The sources used in drafting the Latin code have been published by the Vatican Press under the title Pontes juris canonici; publication of the Pontes juris canonici orientalis was begun in 1930. (Jo. M. S.) ;

CANONS REGULAR, a

body of canons bound by religious community under a rule, as opposed to secular and cathedral) canons, who take no vows and do not live under rule. See Augustinlan Canons; Cathedral; Premonstratensians. (Canobus), an ancient city on the western coast of the Nile delta of Egypt, on a site 15 mi. N.E. of Alexandria, near the modern village of Abu Qir. Known to the Greeks as Kanopos, its Eg\'ptian name was PeGewat. The Canopic branch of the Nile, which entered the Mediterranean in the Bay of Abu Qir, is entirely silted up, but on the shore at Towfiqiv-ya, about 2 mi. from Abu Qir, there are extensive remains including those of the temple of the Greco-Egyptian god Sarapis, which was a place of pilgrimage from Hellenistic times until its destruction in the 4th century a.d. Canopus was a centre of the unguent industry and a pleasure resort for the people of Alexandria and was notorious for its dissoluteness in the Roman epoch. On March 7, 238 B.C., an assemblage of priests from all Egypt passed a decree honouring Ptolemy Euergetes and his consort Berenice; copies of this decree were set up in the principal temples of Egypt and fragments of several have been found. The emperor Hadrian gave the name Canopus to part of his villa at Tivoli where he had gathered together Egyptian antiquities. Osiris was worshiped at Canopus under the curious form of a human-headed vessel. The name "canopic jars" was therefore mis-

vows and

living in

(collegiate

CANOPUS

takenly applied by early archaeologists to the jars with human and animal heads in which the viscera were placed by the ancient Egyptians after mummification, and is still often applied to Egyptian and other jars, including Etruscan, with lids of this type.

—

Bibliography, J. G. Milne, "Greek Inscriptions" in Catalogue General des Antiquiles Egyptiennes du Musee du Caire, pp. 1 and S (1905); T. Hopfner, Pontes historiae religionis aegyptiacae (192225); article "Kanopus" in H. Bonnet, Reallexikon der dgyptischen Religionsgeschichte (1952); E. Breccia, Monuments de 1'E.gypte grecoromaine, vol. i (1926); A. Bayoumi and O. Guerard, "Un Nouvel Exemplaire du Decret de Canope," Service des Antiguites de I'Egypte, Annates, vol. 46, pp. 373 £f. (1947). (M. S. Dr.)

CANOPUS, in the constellation in

south

Carina. 53°

declination

It is

and

therefore invisible from latitudes

above 37° N. giant

star

Canopus

situated

is

a super-

about

160

from the sun. CANOPY, a hood or cover, supported or suspended above an

light-years

of which

The marriage law of the church, while aiming at the Orthodox Christian ideal, is somewhat complicated and endeavours to take account of the complicating

In modern usage, canothe primarily functional purpose providing of protection from the weather, as awnings, or canopy hoods above doors. Originally, however, the canopy was a variant of the revered domical shape, which symobject.

pies

factors that the mission field provides.

Since the constitution envisaged an interim period of 30 years, a more mature system of canon law may perhaps be e.xpected to evolve at the end of that period; one that will, no doubt, bear the marks of its own interesting and unusual genesis. See Ecclesiastical Law; see also references under "Canon

—

second

the

brightest star in the sky, situated

are clerical and lay rather than legal.

Law" in the Index volume. (E. G. Mo.) Bibliography. The literature on the subject in all its branches is very elaborate, and this is particularly true of the canon law of the Roman Catholic Church. The articles "Law (Christian, Western)" and "Law (Christian, Eastern)" by A. Fortescue and "Law (Christian, Anglican)" by A. J. Maclean in /. Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion

799

and

serve

bolized a divine and royal pres-

CELEST[AL BALDACHIN CANOPY OVER VIRGIN AND CHILD; CARVED IVORY, 6TH CENTURY. IN THE JOHN RY.

lands library. MANCHESTER, ENG,

(see Dome); it probably r .u from the cos"nc audieucc tent of the Achaem-

ence

j j ,, "^"'^'^d ultimately ,

i

euid kings of Persia.

Used by

CANOSA—CANOVAS

8oo Roman and

Byzantine emperors appearances as supreme beings, it passed into the middle ages as a symbol of the

Mantua, his son Tedald (d. 1012) those of Brescia and Ferrara. Tedald's son Boniface (d. 1052) received the march of Tuscany c. 102 7 from the emperor Conrad II and acquired Upper Lorraine through his marriage with Beatrice of Lorraine (d. 1076). The

divine presence, as in the small

well-known countess Matilda (q.v.) was their daughter. In 1077 Pope Gregory VII stayed at Canossa on his way to preside over the diet at Augsburg convened to determine whether the excommunicated emperor Henry IV (q.v.) was fit to rule. To forestall this, Henry journeyed to Canossa as a simple penitent and, on Jan. 28, after waiting for three days, received absolution. The castle was destroyed in 1255 by the people of Reggio.

in their state

canopies placed over statues of saints

on medieval

cades;

in

testers

(i.e.,

church fabaldachins (q.v.); in canopies suspended

from the ceiling or bracketed from a wall) placed above altars; and in the embroidered hangings supported on poles and carried

—

BiBLioGR.WHY, H. Bresslau, Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reiches unter II, vol. i (1879) E. N. Campanini, Guida slorica di Canossa (1915) A. Fake, Bonifacio di Canossa padre di Matilda (1927) N. Grimaldi, La Contessa Matilda e la sua stirpe feudale (1928). (N. R.) (1757-1822), marquis of Ischia,

Konrad

over officiating priests in religious processions.

The canopy

as a

exponent of the neoclassic style Possagno, a little village near Treviso, on Nov. I, 1757, of a family of stonemasons. His work very early became the fashion, the way having been well prepared by Italian sculptor, the first great

the middle ages and beyond; be-

in sculpture,

neath this mark of their divine right to rule, monarchs gave audience and dispensed justice down

CANOPY OVER THRONE OF NAPOLEON FONTAINEBLEAU; FRENCH 19TH viving examples are the canopies CENTURY above the audience beds of French kings; the elaborate canopied thrones erected for Napoleon in the Luxembourg palace and elsewhere; and the canopies used in British coronation ceremonies. (An. G.)

modern

times.

Tj'pical

sur-

CANOSA DI PUGLIA

AT

(anc.

Canusium),

a

town

in

the

province of Bari, Italy, is 24 km. (IS mi.) S.W. of Barletta, dominating the tableland of Puglia, on the right bank of the Ofanto (Aufidus). Pop. (19S7 est.) 35,910 (commune). There are a number of Roman remains, including an arch dedicated to Trajan. Ancient Canusium stood about 12 mi. from the mouth of the Aufidus. It was said to have been founded by the legendary D.iomedes (q.v.), and its people spoke both Greek and Latin in the time of Horace (Sat. i, 10, 30). A large number of Greek relics have been found, including fine polychrome vases made there (3rd century B.C.). Canusium came voluntarily under Roman sovereignty and remained loyal throughout the Punic Wars, but revolted in the Social War, in which it appears to have suffered (Strabo vi, 283). It stood on the Via Traiana and had a trade in agricultural products and in Apulian wool (cleaned and dyed there). Under the early empire it was a municipium, and later became a colonia. In the 6th century it was still the most important city in Apulia. The Normans rebuilt the town after its destruction by the Saracens (9th century) a medieval castle crowns the hill above the town. The southern Romanesque former cathedral of S. Sabino (bishop of Canosa, 514-566; the bishopric passed to Andria in 1818) was consecrated in 1801, and contains interesting Byzantine relics. To the south of it is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard, who captured Antioch during the first crusade (1096). It is entirely faced with cipollino (Carystian) marble, and ;

has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions. The Barletta-Melfi and Cerignola-Andria roads intersect there,

on the Barletta-Spinazzola railway, by which agricultural products are sent to Barletta port. Early in the 20th century large-scale emigration, principally to the Americas, depleted the population. Those who remained were chiefly farmers engaged in stock breeding. The rich yield of dairy produce is supplemented by cereals and herbs, grown on the banks of the Ofanto, and by almonds and olives; olive oil and wine are manufactured. A chalky, porous stone is also quarried for building.

and the station

is

See T. Ashby and R. Gardner in Papers of the British School at vol. viii, pp. 154 £f.; G. lacobone, Canusium (1925). (M. T. A. N.)

Rome,

CANOSSA,

ft. above sea level, 12 mi. famous as the seat of a powerful feudal family. The stronghold was built by Atto Adalbert (d. 988), the founder of the house of the Attoni, which derived the Adelaide, the widowed queen title of counts of Canossa from it. of Italy and future empress, is said to have taken refuge there in 951. Atto Adalbert acquired the counties of Modena, Reggio and

a ruined castle, 1,890

S.W. of Reggio nell'Emilia

;

CANOVA, ANTONIO

symbol of a

royal presence also passed into

to

;

;

in Italy,

was born

Johann Winckelmann,

at

and Anton Raphael Mengs, at Pompeii and Herculaneum. According to tradition, the boy's genius was discovered through a lion he had modeled in butter. He served under unimportant Venetian masters. In Venice he executed several groups, among them one of Daedalus and Icarus, and at 23 he went, with a pension from the Venetian senate, to Rome, where he found many patrons, among them Pope Clement XIV. He opened a studio in the Via del Babuino, and there spent two years on a monument to the pope in the church of the Holy Apostles, completed in 1787. Then followed the monument of Clement XIII in St. Peter's, on which he was engaged for five years. In 1798 he visited Vienna and Berlin; in 1802 he went to Paris to make studies for a statue of Napoleon, and he visited London in 1815. After the fall of Bonaparte, Canova was named head of the commission appointed to restore to their various Italian owners the works of art which had been sent to Paris. He received from the pope the titles of marquis of Ischia, and "prefect of the fine arts." From time to time he returned to his native village. He died in Venice on Oct. 13, 1822. His remains were deposited in a temple at Possagno which he had himself designed. Among Canova's more celebrated works may be mentioned "Amor and Psyche" (Louvre, Paris); "Perseus With the Head of Medusa" (Vatican) "Napoleon I" (Brera palace, Milan); the in painting, as well as

in

theory,

by the excavations

;

monument

of Alfieri (Santa Croce, Florence) the princess Pauline Borghese as Venus (Villa Borghese. Rome); and "The Three Graces" (Hermitage, Leningrad). In 182 1 his statue of George Washington, in a tunic, was erected at Raleigh, N.C. Canova's work was compared by his contemporaries to the great works of antiquity, after which, in externals, it was modeled. His reputa;

tion since has declined.

See Elena Bassi, Canova (194.0.

(A. K.

CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO Spanish statesman,

who was

McC.)

(1828-1897),

the architect of the restoration of the

Dec. 1874 and of the system of government thereafter established, was born at Malaga on Feb. 8, 1828. He studied law at Madrid university and earned his living by writing and journalism. He entered the Cortes in 1854, and held various After the abofiices in Liberal cabinets between 1860 and 1868, dication of King Amadeo and the proclamation of the federal republic 1873), Canovas advocated the return of the Bourbons and it was he who drew up the manifesto issued in 1874 by Alfonso XII. But he opposed the method of the pronunciamiento. After Alfonso had been proclaimed king, Canovas formed a ministry and held office, with two brief interruptions, for six years. He had to construct a Conservative party out of the least reactionary parties of the reign of Isabella II and out of the more moderate elements of the revolution. With such followers he made the constitution of 1876 (see Spain; History). Canovas was guided by two principles: the exclusion of the army from politics and the undesirabilHolding the latter view because of the ity of free elections. insecure position of the monarchy, he instituted the system of

Bourbon monarchy

(

in

CANROBERT—CANTACUZINO which was crowned when he permitted the creation of a Liberal party under P. M. Sagasta, who took office in 1881 and with whom Canovas thenceforward alternated as prime minisHowever necessary the faking of elections may have been in ter. the years immediately after the restoration, the practice begun by Canovas proved ineradicable and ultimately harmed the monarchy by associating it with a discredited political system. Canovas became prime minister for the fourth time in March 189S immediately after the outbreak of the Cuban insurrection, and prepared to send 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry his policy of no surrender. The Cuban question was still undecided when he was assassinated at Santa Agueda (Guipuzcoa) on Aug, 8, 1897. Canovas was a cultured and intelligent man. He continues to enjoy a considerable reputation as a historian, especially for his studies of 17th-century Spanish decadence, on which Estiidios del reinado de Felipe IV, two volumes (1888-89), is his most notable

"made"

elections,

work. See

M. Fernandez Almagro,

Ci'iovas, su vida y

sii

politico (1951).

CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN

(1809-1895),

8oi

near the origin of the Ebro river (perhaps Retortillo south of Reinosa). The Cantabri were regarded as the fiercest people in the peninThey were subjugated by the Roman emperor Augustus in sula. 25 B.C. but he, Tiberius and M. Vipsanius Agrippa were forced to keep them in check by a series of wars lasting until 19 B.C. which almost annihilated them. Under the Romans, according to Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.), Cantabria was made up of seven tribal groups, some retaining their old names while other names such as the Pleutauroi and Barduetai appear, but no details of this regrouping are known. See P. Bosch-Glmpera, "El problema de los C&ntabros y de su origen," Boletin de la Biblioteca Menindez Pelayo (1933) ; A. Schulten, Los Cdntabros y Astures y su guerra con Roma (1943). (Wm. C.)

CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS

(Cordillera

Cantab-

rica), a mountain chain loosely defined as extending along the north coast of Spain, more specifically defined as the series of high

from Torrelavega in Santander province and extending westward for 150 mi. toward Foz near the Galician border. Fractures have sharply demarcated the range from the Castilian plateau in the south and from the Cantabrian coastlands, but the eastern and western limits are indistinct. Between the valleys of the Navia and the Lesaya the mountain chain lies in the Asturias, sharing geological afiinities with the hercynian structures of Galicia. East of the Lesaya, the eastern Cantabrians of Santander share features characteristic of the Basque mountains. As far west as the pass of Leitariegos, the ranges run nearly paralridges rising inland

marshal of France, whose early service in north Africa led to his appointment as French commander in chief in the Crimean War, was born at St. Cere, Lot, on June 27, 1809. After study at St. Cyr, he was commissioned sublieutenant in 1828. Sent to Algeria in 1835, he distinguished himself at the taking of Constantine. He was recalled to Paris in 1839 to organize a battalion of the Foreign Legion, but returned to Africa in 1841. As a colonel in 1847, he won renown with the Zouaves at the siege of Zaatcha. Summoned lel with the coast: lower and near the coast and the main ridge to to Paris in 1850, he was made brigadier general and aide-de-camp the interior. The eastern foothills south of Santander rise abruptly to the prince-president Louis Napoleon and took part in the coup into the gigantic limestone mountains of the Picos de Europa d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851. He was promoted general of division in (8,786 ft.) and the Pefia Labra (6,566 ft.). The main ridge con1853. The Crimean War (1854-56), while confirming his merits, tinues westward, usually less than 60 mi. wide but with altitudes also exposed his limitations. Courageous, a magnificent leader of men and a good speaker, he feared responsibility and showed him- of 5,000-7,000 ft. Compared with the Pyrenees, these chains are a more impressive barrier, and the Oviedo-Leon railway crosses self irresolute when he became commander in chief on the death of the Puerto de Pajares at 4,524 ft., one of the most difficult railway the marshal de Saint-Arnaud (Sept. 1854). He was aware of his own limitations and, on the pretext of ill-health and of a disagree- passes in Europe. Most of the highest summits are along this main ment with the British, asked the emperor to appoint a new com- ridge: Espiguete (8,040 ft,), Prieta (8,300 ft.), Peria Vieja (8,573 mander in chief (May 16, 1855) but to leave him the command of ft,), Mampodre (7,185 ft.), Ubina (7,929 ft.) and farther west Rubia (6,332 ft.). Locally, sedimentary rocks may be weathered a division. Recalled to Paris in July 1855, he was made a marshal into wild, serrated pinnacles but more characteristic are the isoof France. He took part in the campaign of 1859 in Lombardy, lated mountain blocks (parameras) whose desolate plateaulike distinguishing himself at the battles of Solferino and Magenta. On summits are surrounded by steep or vertical cliffs. West of the the outbreak of the Franco-German War, his fear of responsibility Narcea valley, the ranges change their east-west trend and the Sas led him to serve under the junior marshal, A. F. Bazaine. In command in the battle of St. Privat, he at first withstood the Prus- de Ranadoiro runs almost north-south. The main ridge bifurcates into the Sas de Picos and Caurel to the northwest and the Sas de sians but eventually had to retreat when his ammunition ran out and reinforcements failed to arrive. He was taken prisoner at Jistredo and Montanas de Leon, to enclose the basin of El Bierzo, Metz. Resuming his military career after the war, he became a drained by the upper Sil. On the Atlantic slopes, gradients on the member of the superior council of war. Elected senator for Lot rivers are steep but gentler on the southern valleys. The zone is (1876) and for Charente (1879 and 1885), he represented Bona- rich in minerals. See Spain Economics. partist ideas under the third republic. In 1856 he married Lelia See M. de Teran (ed.), L. Sole Sabaris (author) and others, Geografia de Espana y Portugal, vol. i (19S2). (J. M. Ho.) Flora de Macdonald, who bore him two children and died in 1889. a Phanariote family prominent in RuHe died in Paris on Jan. 28, 1895. one of Cantacuzeni, the Byzantine manian history, descended from See L. Bapst, Le Marechal Canrobert, 3 vol. (1898-1913). (L. G.) CANTABRI, an Iberian tribe with a strong celtic element whom was Byzantine emperor as John VI (q.v.) from 1341 to which occupied the centre of the northern coast of Spain and lived 1354. After the fall of Constantinople (1453) the Cantacuzeni entered the Turkish service and rose to eminence in the Ottoman in the Cantabrian mountains situated parallel to the coast in the modern province of Santander. They occupied the territory now court. The Moldavian and Walachian Cantacuzinos are descended comprised by the modern province of Oviedo on the west as far from the five sons of Andronic Cantacuzlno (c. 1553-c. 1600) who settled in Moldavia late in life. as the SaHa (Sella) river, beyond which lay the Astures tribe. Andronic's youngest son, Constantin Cantacuzino, called They were bounded on the east by the Autrigones and on the south by the Vaccaei and Celtiberi. The Cantabri were httle mentioned Postelnicul, moved to Walachia in the 1620s, where he became marshal of the court (postebiic) and married Elena, daughter of before they were incorporated by the emperor Augustus after He was murdered by Grigore the ruler Radu §erban Basarab. protracted campaigns (29-19 B.C.) into the Roman province of Ghica in 1663. Constantin's second son, §erban Cantacuzino Hispania Tarraconensis and were governed from Roman Clunia He in(c. 1640-1688), was ruler of Walachia from 1679 to 1688. (mod. Pefialba de Castro) in Celtiberia. Unlike the other Iberian tribes of Spain, the Cantabri were troduced maize (corn), now the staple diet, and encouraged the printing of books (including the Bible of 1688, named after him). divided into distinct clans: Orgenomesci on the coast from the Sella He planned to drive the Turks out of the ISalkans and secretly to the Namnasa (Nansa) river, the Aurini to the east, Conisci in helped the Austrians in the seige of Vienna (1683). He died sudthe area behind Santander, Vadinienses in the southeast, Concani §erban's younger brother Condenly, apparently from poison. Tamarici round Velilla del Rio Carrion, round modern Potes, stantin Cantacuzlno, called Stolnicul or the Steward, was a Velegienses in the Alto Pisuerga, Morecanni in the region of Sedano, and Juliobrigenses about the Cantabrian capital of Juliobriga historian, geographer and diplomat who conducted foreign affairs :

CANTACUZINO,

CANTAL—CANTATA

8o2

his brother §erban, Constantin Brancovan and Stefan Cantacuzino, who took Brancovan's place

under three rulers his

own

son,

:

In 1716, however, both Constantin Stolnicul and Stefan were executed by the Turks. DuMiTRAscu Cantacuzino (1648-85), a nephew of Constantin Postelnicul, was prince of Moldavia from 1673 to 1675 and from 1684 to 1685. He was hated for his heavy taxation and incomin 1714.

petence.

Of the

later generations of the family the

most notable were:

MiHAiL Cantacuzino (bom 1723; d. between 1790 and 1793), the who went to Russia in 1776 and became a general; Constantin Cantacuzino (1793-1877), who tried, with Turkish support, to make himself prince of Walachia in 1849; and Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino (1837-1913), leader of the Conservative party in Rumania from 1899 and prime minister historian of Walachia

from 1905

to 1907.

CANTAL, a

departement of central France, lies in the higher, It is southern portion of the ancient province of Auvergne. bounded north by Puy-de-D6me, east by Haute-Loire, southeast by Lozere, south by Aveyron and west by Correze and Lot. Pop. (1954) 177,065. Area 2,231 sq.mi. It extends eastward the heart of the Massif Central and consists largely of ancient granites and schists that form high plateaus, with extensive cappings of young, volcanic rocks. Such a volcanic superstructure are the Monts du Cantal that occupy the centre of the into

departement. They form an imposing, symmetrical volcanic mass, culminating at 1,858 m. (6,096 ft.) in the Plomb du Cantal. Beyond the central core of ash and breccia are great tongues of lava that form tablelike plateaus, notably the plantzes of St. Flour and Aubrac, extending southeastward, and that of Cezalier, which links the Cantal massif with the similar Mont-Dore to the north. Streams radiate from the Cantal to the AUier, Dordogne and Beneath the volcanic heights the valley of the Cere Truyere. river opens westward into the fertile little basin of Aurillac. The radiating streams have vigorously eroded the heterogeneous volcanic rocks in the centre of the Cantal, and there are easy passes at the valley heads. Such is the Col de Lioran leading from the Cere valley to that of the Alagnon. The upper portion of the Truyere represents a diversion from the AUier drainage to that of the Lot, brought about by a lava flow that blocked the old valley. Winters are wet and severe, with snow covering the ground for On the higher parts an alpine type of pastoral a long period. economy has developed, with seasonal use of the high pastures

(chaumes) by

cattle.

The herdsmen occupy

seasonal shelters

(burons) associated with a dairy, where the large Cantal cheeses are made. At lower levels, permanent pasture is combined with some arable cultivation, and formerly a shifting type of cultivaIn modern tion, known as ecobuage, was extensively practised. times, however, the rural economy has become increasingly speFodder crops and potatoes have largely recialized upon cattle. placed rye and buckwheat, and sheep have declined in importance. There is little manufacturing or mineral wealth, but there are numerous thermal springs, notably at Chaudesaigues. The population is sparse and there is a tradition of temporary migration, both short-term, as to lowland areas at harvest time, and for longer periods, Auvergnats being well known in the catering trades in Paris. Permanent migration greatly reduced the population after the 1860s.

divided into three arrondissements, based upon AurilMauriac and St. Flour. The last is the centre of the bishopric, which comes under the archbishop of Bourges. Cantal lies within the educational division of Clermont-

Cantal

is

lac (q.v.), the capital,

its court of appeal is at Riom. For the history of the region, see Auvergne.

Ferrand, and

(Ar. E. S.)

CANTALOUPE

is a common name for a botanical variety of muskmelon whose fruit has a hard warty rind without netting. The name comes from the castle Cantalupo in Italy where this kind of melon was early grown. In the United States the name is most often applied to small netted kinds, but sometimes to musk-

melons

in general.

CANTATA, "to sing";

it

See

Muskmelon.

a musical term derived

from the

Italian cantare,

indicates primarily a composition intended to be

sung, in contradistinction to a sonata, which for voices

is

one to be played

now loosely used to describe any work and instruments; it may take almost any form, as is

instrumentally.

The term

is

title to works by Bartok, Stravinsky and Schonberg, who have adapted new techniques to the old form. In its earliest form the word appears in Alessandro Grandi's Cantade et arie a voce sola ('1620), in which the individual items are constructed on much the same pattern as the strophic arias of Giulio Caccini and Jacopo Peri (see Aria). The Lettera amorosa and Partenza amoroso of Monteverdi (1567-1643) are also regarded as forerunners of the cantata. The true chamber cantata (cantata da camera), which became one of the most important forms of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, consisted of a sequence of movements following a recitative-aria-recitativearia pattern, sometimes with only a figured bass accompaniment, sometimes with an orchestral one. The pattern could be extended to include an overture, duets, trios and even choruses, though the apparently choral items were often sung by the soloists. Early composers of chamber cantatas were Francesco Rasi, Giovanni Berti, Giovanni Sances and Benedetto Ferrari; and, more famous, Luigi Rossi, Giacomo Carissimi and Pietro Antonio Cesti, Later the cantata form was taken over by the great Neapolitans, Alessandro Stradella and Alessandro Scarlatti; the latter is credited with over 600 cantatas, and in his hands the form became one of the most thoughtful and expressive of musical mediums. Handel, Leonardo Leo, Leonardo Vinci and Johann Hasse later contributed to the enormous repertory of chamber cantatas, Handel writing a large number, of which Apollo e Dafne, almost a miniature opera, is perhaps his best known. Although the chamber cantata died out among Italian composers of the later 18th century, an amusing late example is // Maestro di Cappella by Domenico Cimarosa (1749-1801), in which the basic cantata pattern is still apparent, the whole forming a sparkling satire on contemporary operatic rehearsal methods. In England the cantata appeared in the late 17th century as a

seen in application of the

forerunner of the strong Italian influence of the 18th century; the extended songs of Henry Purcell are claimed as early examples. Many cantatas were composed and published in England during the 18th century by both English and foreign musicians, some as satires

on the prevailing Italian operatic fashions;

e.g.,

James

Oswald's Dustcart Cantata (1753) and James Hook's Musical Courtship (c. 1787). Italian influence was also strong in 18th-century France, where the Italian type of cantata with French texts was introduced about 1700. Jean Baptiste Lully's rival. Marc Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704), was one of the first to enter the field, but the next generation with Andre Campra, Nicolas Bemier, Michel Monteclair, Jean Baptiste Morin, Jean Joseph Mouret and, especially distinguished, Louis N. Clerambault and Jean (Philippe) Rameau represented the greatest period of cantata composition. In the German Protestant states the development of the cantata took a religious turn, and the most noteworthy contributions to the form were the church cantatas, which were serious in style and purpose. Franz Tunder, Matthias Weckmann, Dietrich Buxtehude and members of the Bach family all composed numerous church cantatas, especially "chorale" cantatas in which a well-known chorale-melody was used as the basis for at least part of the composition, Johann Krieger, Philipp Erlebach, G. P. Tele-

mann and above

all J. S.

the history of the

Bach are

German church

the

most celebrated names

in

cantata; their texts frequently

were provided by the highly dramatic religious poems of Erdmann Neumeister (1671-1756). A typical Bach church cantata opens with a more or less extended chorus, followed by a group of recitatives and arias, and ends with a chorale for chorus and Cantata orchestra, in which the congregation probably joined. and service were closely interwoven, an aspect that is lost when Bach's cantatas are performed away from the Lutheran service. Some German composers, Telemann in particular, wrote large numbers of church cantatas for solo voice with varying instrumental accompaniment. North German composers also produced many secular cantatas as birthday or congratulatory odes; J. S.

Bach composed

several,

CANTEEN—CANTEMIR including the Coffee Cantata (1742) titles conferred by

—

(c.

1732) and the Peasant Cantata

a later generation. Telemann's Schoolmaster cantata is another example of the secular type, of which there were both comic and serious versions. In the Roman Catholic provinces of south Germany and Austria, cantatas were more often secular than sacred, for church music consisted mainly of settings of Latin texts, but in Czechoslovakia strong local patriotism produced a thriving religious music that used vernacular texts; the charming Bohemian Christmas pastorales form a special type of church cantata. The great Viennese composers also wrote occasional secular cantatas to German words; e.g., Haydn's Esterhazy Festkantate (1763-64) and Mozart's Masonic cantata Die Maiirerfreude (1785). From about 1800 the style of the cantata became increasingly free, and the term was generally applied to any fairly large work for solo voice or voices, chorus and orchestra from Beethoven's Der glorreiche Augetiblick (1814) onward, though the word cantata may not appear in the title. Mendelssohn's Die erste Walpurgisnacht (final version, 1843) and Brahms's Rinaldo (1869) are two 19th-century examples. Mendelssohn even combined the cantata with the symphony in the so-called symphony-cantata Lobgesang ("Hymn of Praise") (1840), while Benjamin Britten on the other hand called what is actually a cantata Spring Symphony (1949). Numerous English examples are provided in the works of Sir Arthur Sullivan, Sir Charles Stanford, Sir Hubert Parry, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Herbert Howells and Britten.

CANTEEN,

(Cs. Ch.) combined clubroom, reador place where refreshments

a soldier's or sailor's

ing and writing room, recreation hall

are available. By an extension of meaning, it also denotes the place where meals are provided for their employees by large business and industrial organizations. It is also the naval or military

equivalent of a universal store for the sale of a wide range of foodstuffs, dry goods, clothing and equipment. The term is of long standing in both British and U.S. armed services.

In the days of the duke of Marlborough the British army was accompanied by a swarm of sutlers peddling foodstuffs, liquor and tobacco at prices strictly controlled by the authorities. When the marching column halted for the night, a booth contrived of the sutler's tilt cart and a tarpaulin served as an elementary canteen. One of the most notorious of these sutlers was the former Scots Grey trooper "Mother" Ross. {See Daniel Defoe, The Life and Adventures of Mother Ross.) The armies of the French Directory were also accompanied by many cantinieres motherly, capable women, usually married to one of the noncommissioned officers. With the expansion of permanent barrack accommodations in the early igth century, canteens were included in the new buildings. Rented from the board of ordnance by .

.

.

—

contractors intent on speedily recouping the considerable "privilege money" demanded for the right to trade, these canteens became little more than sordid drinking dens, although the duke of York sought to provide a counterattraction by reserving space

within the barrack confines for bowling alleys. Much-needed reform came with the foundation, by three regimental officers, of the Canteen and Mess Co-operative society in 1894, a movement which paved the way for the establishment in 191 5 of the officially sponsored but privately operated Expedi-

tionary Force canteens (E.F.C.).

Their activities were supple-

mented by the Church army, the Y.M.C.A. and other bodies, while the work of the "Sailors' Homes," founded by Agnes Weston, was greatly expanded. The responsibilities of the E.F.C. became so great that in 1921 the enterprise was taken over by the Navy, Army and Air Force institutes (N.A.A.F.I.), controlled by a council and a board representative of both service and catering interests, profits being

"plowed back" or devoted

to the provi-

sion of amenities for the serviceman.

The

British "dry" canteen, for the sale of groceries and the has its counterpart in the U.S. "post exchange" and commissary. The lineal descendant of the elementary canteen stores organized for Washington's Continental forces, the trading scope like,

of the

PX,

as

it

is

called, is that of the

over by a council, with the post

supermarket.

commander

Presided

as ex officio chairman,

803

devoted to the general interests of the serviceman, and it is to be found wherever U.S. forces are established. A soldier's water bottle is called a canteen. In the days of antiquity the canteen as a water container was fashioned of Then came wood, pewter, tin and subsequently alumileather. profits are

its

num

canteens, partly insulated from heat or cold by a jacket of

cloth or

felt.

See Hon. Sir J. W. Fortescue, A Short Account of Canteens in the Army (ig28). (R. C. H.)

British

CANTELUPE

SAINT THOMAS DE

(Cantilupe),

1218-1282), bishop of Hereford, known for his ascetic life, strict discipline and martial spirit, was the son of William, 2nd baron Cantelupe. Educated at Paris and Orleans, he taught canon law at Paris and at Oxford and in 1262 became chancellor of Oxford. He held a dispensation from the pope for a plurality of benefices. During the Barons' War he favoured Simon de Montfort and represented the barons at the court of St. Louis IX of France. Cantelupe became chancellor of the realm in 1265 but lost the post the same year, after Montfort's death; whereupon he returned to Paris as a teacher. He returned to Oxford shortly for a second term as chancellor. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons and in the following year was made bishop of Here(c.

ford. He was also a counselor of Edward I and a friend of Archbishop Robert Kilwardby. But on the accession of John Peckham to the primacy in 1279, succeeding Kilwardby, Cantelupe became involved in a number of jurisdictional disputes, and in 1282 he was excommunicated. He went to Italy to plead his cause but died at Orvieto on Aug. 25, 1282. He was buried at Hereford. His canonization took place in 1320, and his feast day is Oct. 3. See Richard Strange, Life and Gests of Thomas of Cantilupe (1674). (T. L. C.)

CANTELUPE

WALTER DE

(Cantilupe), (d. 1266), bishop of Worcester, uncle of St. Thomas de Cantelupe (q.v.), was the son of William, ist baron Cantelupe, a partisan of King John. Educated at Rome for a time, he was named bishop of Worcester while still a subdeacon and was consecrated (1237) at Viterbo by Pope Gregory IX. Cantelupe was known in Worcester for his energetic administration and for his numerous reforms. He identified himself with the nationalist clergy led by the bishops Edmund Rich and Robert Grosseteste, and opposed the visitation policies of Archbishop Boniface of Savoy and the attempted suppression of plural holdby the papal legate Otho.

ing of benefices

At the parliament of Oxford (1258) Cantelupe was chosen one who virtually ruled the kingdom, and in 1259 he became a member of the council which ruled in the king's absence. He sided with Simon de Montfort in the Barons' War and acted as an arbiter in the baronial party's internal disputes. He was also sent on a number of diplomatic missions abroad. For his continued support of the barons Cantelupe was suspended from his see and summoned to Rome, but he died on Feb. 12, 1266, before making the journey. (T. L. C.) CANTEMIR (Russ. Kantemir), a family distinguished first in the principality of Moldavia, then in Russia, where its importance was chiefly in the field of literature. Of Tatar origin, the Cantemirs came from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled of the 24

in

Moldavia.

CoNSTANTiN Cantemir was prince

of Moldavia from 1685 to

A

conscientious ruler, he brought peace to the country. He was succeeded by his son Antioch, who ruled twice (16961700 and 1705-07) in a period of great instability, during which 1693.

Turkish influence was paramount. Antioch's youngest brother Dimitrie, born on Nov. 5 (new style; Oct. 26, old style), 1673, was made ruler of Moldavia in 1710. Ready to acknowledge Russian suzerainty instead of Turkish, he concluded an alliance with Peter the Great at Lutsk on April 24 (N.S.; 13, O.S.), 1711. After the Russian defeat at the battle of Stanilesti on the Pruth, Dimitrie fled to Russia, where he settled and wrote the greater part of his work. Peter the Great appointed him imperial chancellor.

CANTERBURY

8o4

Dimitrie Cantemir was one of the greatest linguists of his time, speaking and writing 1 1 languages. He was interested in scientific matters and was elected to the Berlin Academy in 1714 for his

work in this field. The best known of his works is his Historia incrementorum atgue decrementorum aulae Othomanicae (1716; Eng. trans.. History of the Growth and Decay of the Othman Empire, two parts, 1734-35). His other works include Hronicid vechimii a Romano-Moldo-Vlahilor, the first critical history of Moldo-Walachia; Descriptio Moldaviae, the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of Moldavia; Historia hieroglyphica, a Rumanian equivalent of the story of Reynard the Fox; a history of the two ruling houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and the Divan, a philosophical treatise in the guise of a disputation between body and soul. There is an edition of his works by the Rumanian Academy, Operele principelui D. Cantemir (1872-1901). He died at Kharkov on Sept. 1 (N.S.; Aug. 21, O.S.), 1723. Dimitrie's younger son Antioch (Russ. Antiokh Dimitrievich Kantemik; 1708-44) was educated at St. Petersburg and was elected a member of the academy there when still quite young. Between 1729 and 1731 he wrote a number of poems, the most important being two satires, "To His Own Mind: On Those Who Blame Education" and "On the Envy and Pride of Evil-Minded Cour-

These denounced the opposition to Peter the Great's reforms and enjoyed great success when circulated in manuscript (they were not printed until 1762). Russian ambassador in England from 1732 to 1736, Cantemir brought to London the manuscript of his father's history of the Ottoman empire and furnished the biography of the author that appeared with the English translation {see above) From 1 736 until his death he was minister plenitiers."

.

potentiary in Paris.

As well as Russian translations from several classical and modern authors, including one of Fontenelle's Entretiens sur la pluralite des mondes (1740), which was suppressed as heretical, Cantemir also wrote a philosophical work. Letters on Nature and Man (1742), and a Letter on the old syllabic system of Russian verse composition (1742).

CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON, 1st Viscount (1780-1845), English lawyer and a notable speaker of the house of commons, was born on Jan. 29, 1780, the elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton (1755-1828), who afterward became

archbishop of Canterbury. Educated at Eton and at Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1806 he was called to the bar and entered parliament as Tory member for Scarborough. He became judge advocate general in 1809. He was elected speaker in June 1817. His strong voice, dignified presence and even temper fitted him well for this post, to which he was seven times re-elected. He refused to exchange it for the home secretaryship in April 1827, or for the premiership in the crisis over the Reform bill in May 1832. He was persuaded to remain speaker by the Whig government of 1832, but outside parliament made no secret of his Tory leanings. This led to resentment and complaints from radicals and extreme Whigs. When a new parliament met in Feb. 1835, a sharp contest for the speakership ensued and Manners-Sutton was defeated by ten votes. He was made a viscount in March (M. R. D. F.) 1835. He died in London on July 21, 1845.

CANTERBURY, a provincial district of South Island,

940 sq.mi. river

It

in the east central part New Zealand. Pop. (1961) 339,883. Area 13,extends from the Conway river to the Waitaki

and includes Banks peninsula, the Canterbury

plains, the

enclosing foothills, inland basins, alpine ranges and valleys, together with part of South Canterbury and of the Waitaki valley.

Population is confined to a narrow coastal strip and largely to Christchurch and its port, Lyttelton. The wealth of Canterbury derives from the mixed farming of the plains and the fine-wooled sheep of the alpine grazing lands. Ashburton is the chief town of mid-Canterbury; the port of Timaru serves South Canterbury

and

is

also a tourist resort.

Canterbury

is

famous for

its

alpine

scenery and the mountaineering and skiing in the Mt. Cook area. (K. B. C.) a city and county borough, metropolis of an archdiocese of the Church of England, in the Canterbury par-

CANTERBURY,

liamentary division of Kent, Eng., 55 mi. E.S.E. of London by road, 16 mi. N.W. of Dover and 27 mi. E. of Maidstone. Pop. (1961) 30,376. It is a picturesque city, dominated by the magnificent cathedral, and lies on the Kentish Stour, which there debouches from a narrow valley into a broadening marshy plain, representing a one-time creek running from the belt of water that separated the Isle of Thanet from the mainland.

History.

— Canterbury

seems originally to have been a

settle-

ment at the head of this creek, at an ancient mouth of the Stour. The site was occupied long before the Roman period. Excavations have shown that as early as 200 B.C. there was a heavily stockaded and ditched settlement with

at least one complex gateway in what now the southeastern quadrant of the city walls. Julius Caesar stormed Bigbury camp (two miles west) in 55 b.c. and was again near Canterbury on his second campaign (like the first, abortive) in 54 B.C. After the invasion of the emperor Claudius (a.d. 43), the Romans immediately established a community called Durovernum (a Latinized version of the native name). The town, though with no great population, must have been of some cultural significance, judging from the remains of the vast Roman theatre, greater than anything in this class yet found in Roman Britain, of which the foundations were identified (1950) in the Watling street area. A wall, built around the city (c. a.d. 200), and still partly standing, was heightened in medieval times. After the collapse of Roman rule, Canterbury emerged in the is

century as the capital of Aethelberht (Ethelbert), fifth The place acquired the name Cantwaraburh or Cantwarabyrig, "the borough of the men of Kent." Aethelberht married the Prankish Christian princess Berta, a fact that made the way easy for the mission from Rome (597) dispatched by Pope Gregory I and headed by St. Augustine (q.v.). Augustine founded a Benedictine monastery, converted Aethelberht and many of his subjects, and upon his later return as bishop of the Enghsh set up a cathedral in a building said to have been used as a church by Romans of Christian late 6th

Jutish king of Kent and overlord of Britain.

Canterbury thus became established as the prime see of England, a position maintained ever after. With Christ Church cathedral and St. Augustine's abbey, the city was an outstanding religious and cultural centre during the whole Saxon period. It suffered badly in Danish raids, notably in 1011, and surrendered to William the Conqueror in 1066 just after the battle of Hastings. Archbishop Thomas Becket was murdered in the cathedral, on Dec. 29, 1170. Some phase, or side issue at least, of most of the major struggles and political events of medieval English history was enacted at Canterbury, as of the Peasants' Revolt or of the Wars of the Roses. In the 12th century it appeared among the dozen or so economically most important boroughs in England, when the most outstanding local activity was minting, in which Canterbury surpassed every other centre except London. In the 14th century there was a flourishing tourist industry, based on the pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas. This aspect was immortalized by Geoffrey Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales. During the Reformation all the monastic houses were dissolved, the cathedral alone surviving, when a dean and chapter took the place of the monks (1541). The greatest holocaust of Protestant martyrs outside London took place at Canterbury under Mary I (1553-58) when 41 persons were burned at the stake. In the 16th century there was a state of decay, as in other boroughs, though a great influx of Walloon and Huguenot Protestant refugees (nearly all weavers) from France and the Low Countries brought There were periodic disturbances in a vigorous textile industry. during the English Civil War, especially in 1647-48. Charles II entered Canterbury at the Restoration (1660). A garrison was established in Canterbury in the later 18th century, bringing in belief.

new

life.

Half the at the

circuit of the city walls

Dane John ^nd

of the six gates remains. is

in

Broad

a survivor of a group of such

mounds.

still

survives, with fine stretches

street.

Westgate alone (1380)

The Dane John mound,

Of the Norman

a great tumulus,

mounds, probably Roman

castle the battered shell of the

burial

keep

alone stands (in Castle street, by the gasworks which were once

housed inside

it).

1

CANTERBURY

805

of ancient Altars St Michael ST Gregory St JOHN THE Evangelist ss peter and paul the holy trinity St Thomas of Canterbury KING Edward THE Confessor

Sites 1

2 3

4 5

6 7

8 St Andrew 9 St Stephen 0. St Martin

Our lady

1

2 St. Alphege

1

3 st

1

1

The southwestern tower

an original Perpendicular struc1465, while the northwestern was copied from it in 1834-40, replacing a Norman tower of Lanfranc which

is

ture finished about

The

had become unsafe. dral plan

1

1

tower.

cross

ble

dunstan

4 The holy Cross 5 The Sword s point

is

cathe-

characterized by dou-

The

aisles.

choir

is

flanked by projecting chapels (of

Andrew and Anselm).

SS.

The

building terminates at the east in a circular tower known as the

The

Corona or Becket's crown.

principal dimensions of the cathedral are: length (outside) 522

ft.,

nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in breadth and 80 ft.

SCALE

OF

is

Feet

in height. The main entrance by the South porch (1400).

Interior.

—An unusual feature

of the interior A Water tower B Subvaults C Treasury D St Andrew s Chapel E HENRY IV Chantry

corona OR BECKET S CROWN G St Anselm s Chapel

K stairs TO Parvise

H St Michael s Chapel The Lady Chapel

L

Western Entrance

P Pulpits

M

Site OF archbishop

Q archbishop

F

I

J

SOUTH Porch

N St Augustine O FONT

BECKET 5 Shrine S Site OF Chantry Chapel OF St John baptist Subsequently nevil Chapel

s

s

Chair

Throne

R HIGH Altar

PLAN OF CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL

Local government can be traced from an early date. Several old English reeves are named. By the 14th century the ancient borough moot had divided into court and council, the latter consisting in 1350 of 2 provosts or bailiffs, 6 aldermen, 12 jurats, and 36 councilors. This constitution was modified from time to time. In 1448 the two bailiffs were superseded by a mayor, and in 1461 a sheriff was added when the city was promoted to county status. In modern times there are a mayor and a sheriff, and a council having 6 aldermen and 18 councilors. Since the end of the 19th century there has been an ever increasing influx of tourists.

making, and

light

Among

metalwork.

a natural centre for

well as being the

main

1954 and houses extensive collections of early capitular and diocesan archives. Exterior. The Perpendicular central tower is the most notable in

—

It rises

in

two

stories to a height of

known

variously as Bell Harry or as the Angel steeple from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly adorned the summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front

by towers, whose massive buttresses,

rising in tiers,

From

enhance by

contrast the beautiful effect of the straight lines of Bell

Harry

it

main arcades and joins the Trinity

the altar eastward the floor of the church

Eastry, about 1300.

Goldstone. Canterbury was severely damaged in World War II, principally in the air raid of June 1, 1942. The cathedral received superficial damage, the chapter library was blown up and large numbers of buildings throughout the city were destroyed. The chapter library

is

stone; and, finally, the graceful incurve of the

again above that of the choir.

Thomas

and

the early

chapel.

Courtenay while additional chapels were added. The building of the central tower was undertaken between 1495 and 1503 by Prior

ft.

flight

its

walls at the eastern end of the choir where

is

The original cathedral was reconstructed several times. Archbishop Lanfranc (g.v.) undertook the building (1070-89) of an entirely new church. Early in the 12th century the choir of the new building was demolished and extended, this new work, the "glorious choir" of Prior Conrad, being dedicated with great ceremony in 1130. Fire destroyed the choir in 1174, and thenceforward the rebuilding was conducted by the French master-mason William of Sens until he was crippled by a fall in 1178, when another William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carIn 1376 Archbishop ried on the work and completed it in 1184. Simon of Sudbury entered upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior Chillenden continued this under Archbishop William

235

of steps leading up to the screen, the choir floor (but roof) being much higher than that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding the nave, retained only the lower parts of some of

not

The city Kent as

THE CATHEDRAL

feature of the exterior.

separation

the industries are tanning, brick-

shopping and educational centre.

rebuilt

its

Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers of the central tower arches. These piers were encased or altered on Perpendicular lines. In the choir (the late 12th-century work of the two Williams), the notable features are its great length, the fine ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed, a remarkable illustration of the transition between the Norman and Early English styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the shafts and moldings strongly contrasting with the prevailing light

the agricultural industry of east

was

broad

is

two parts which represent the two main periods of building. In most Enghsh cathedrals the choir is separated from the nave by a screen; at Canterbury the separation is further marked by a into

The

choir screen was built

is

raised

by Prior

There are several tombs of archbishops

in

tomb

of

the choir.

Next

Edward efiigy

to the site of Becket's shrine (see below)

is

the

the Black Prince (d. 1376) with a remarkable portrait

and

in

a

cabinet, close by, his helmet,

shield,

scabbard

and surcoat. Near at hand is the tomb of Henry IV (d. 1413) and Queen Joan of Navarre. In the Corona is the so-called chair of St. Augustine, a marble throne of undetermined date. The western crypt dates from the early 12th century, and the eastern, most lofty portion, from 1181. The capitals of the west-

em

crypt bear a remarkable series of grotesque carvings.

St.

Gabriel's chapel contains an important group of mid- 12th-century

paintings depicting the birth of St. John the Baptist. The crypt was granted to the Huguenot refugees as their church in the 16th

century, and weekly services in French are

Becket's Shrine chief

fame

to the

and the Pilgrimages.

still

held.

—The priory owed

murder of Archbishop Becket,

its

his canonization

Thomas Becket was credited and the pilgrimages to his tomb. with a vast number of miraculous cures. Henry II performed St.

famous penance in 1174, walking barefoot into Canterbury and undergoing a flogging at the tomb. The fact that the king of Scotland, who was invading England, was captured at the moment of the completion of the penance was attributed to St. Thomas' intercession, and henceforth the popularity of the pilgrimages was well established. In 1220 thf body was removed from the old tomb in the crypt to a magnifiLcnt new shrine in the Trinity chapel behind the high altar, visited by a constant stream of pilgrims. Great inns for accommodation of pilgrims were erected, such as the Chequers (c. 1400, part of which still stands). his

;

CANTERBURY—CANTICLES

8o6

Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales recount the journey of a typical group of pilgrims setting out from London about 1390. The English language embodies two expressions originating in the pilgrimage "Canterbury bell," a flower resembling the little bells bought as souvenirs at Canterbury, and "canter," the easy trot to which pilgrims set their horses. In 1538 Henry VIII decreed the destruction of the shrine, and every effort was made to obliterate the cult, though the 13th-century windows (depicting anecdotes from the miracles of St. Thomas) around the shrine were largely spared. Province and Diocese. The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England south of Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the diocese covers a great part of Kent. The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth palace, London. In Canterbury there are fragments in Palace street of the old archbishop's palace which have been incorporated

—

—

modern palace. The following is a list

into a

of archbishops of Canterbury:

Augustine, 597-c. 607. 2. St. Laurentius, c. 607-619. 3. St. Mellitus, 619-624. 4. St. Justus, 624-627. 5. St. Honorius, 627-653. 6. St. Deusdedit, 655-664. 7. St. Theodore, 668-690. 8. Beorhtweald, 692-731. 9. Tatwine, 731-734. 10. St. Nothhelm, 735-739. 11. Cuthbeorht (or Cuthbert), 740-760. 12. Breguwine, 761-764. 13. Jaenbeorht, 765-792. 14. Aethelheard, 793-805. 15. Wulfred, 805-832.

65. 66.

16. Feologild, 832.

67,

1.

17.

St.

24.

Beorhthelm, 959. Dunstan, 960-988. 988-990.

63, 64.

le

Grant (of Wethar-

71.

Henry Chichele, 1414-43. John Stafford, 1443-52. John Kempe, 1452-54.

Thomas

Bourchier, 1454—85.

John Morton, 1486-1500. Henry Dean, 1501-03. William Warham, 1504-32. Thomas Cranmer, 1533-56. Reginald Pole, 1556-58.

Matthew

Parker, 1559-75. Grindal, 1576-83.

Edmund

73.

John Whitgift, 1583-1604.

74.

Richard Bancroft, 1604-10. George Abbot, 1611-33. William Laud, 1633-45. William Juxon, 1660-63. Sheldon, 1663-77. William Sancroft, 1678-91.

80.

John

81.

Thomas

82.

49.

John

50.

Robert de Winchelsea, 1293-

83.

John

Thomas Herring, 1747-57. Matthew Hutton, 1757-58. Thomas Seeker, 1758-68.

86.

Potter, 1737-47.

87. Frederick

Cornwallis,

1768-

83.

88.

John Moore, 1783-1805.

89. Charles

Manners-Sutton,

1805-28.

William Howley, 1828-48. John Bird Sumner, 1848-62. 92. Charles Thomas Longley, 90. 91.

1862-68. Archibald Campbell Tait, 1868-82. 94. Edward White Benson, 188393.

96. 95. Frederick

Temple,

1896-

1902. 96.

Randall Thomas Davidson,

97.

Cosmo Gordon Lang, 1928-

1903-28.

(Peckham),

1279-92.

Tillotson, 1691-94.

Tenison, 1695-1715. William Wake, 1716-37.

84. 85.

Rich),

1233-40. 47. Boniface of Savoy, 1245-70. 48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273-78.

Pecham

William Whittlesey, 1368-74. Simon of Sudbury, 1375-81. William Courtenay, 1381-96. Thomas Arundel, 1396-97. Roger Walden, 1398. (Thomas Arundel; restored),

78. Gilbert

shed), 1229-31.

Edmund (Edmund

1349.

72.

77.

Richard

46. St.

1333^8.

1399-1414. 62.

79.

45.

41. 42.

61,

76,

43. 44.

38. 39. 40.

60.

75.

1005-1012. Lvfing, 1013-20. St. Aethelnoth (Ethelnoth or Egelnodus), 1020-38. St. Eadsige, 1038-50. Robert of Jumieges, 1051-52. Stigand, 1052-70. Lanfranc, 1070-89. St. Anselm, 1093-1109. Ralph d'Escures (or de Turbine), 1114-22. William of Corbeil, 1123-36. Theobald, 1138-61. St. Thomas Becket, 1162-70. Richard (of Dover), 1174-84. Baldwin, 1185-90. Hubert Walter, 1193-1205. Stephen Langton, 1207-28.

31.

58.

59.

68,

27. Sigeric Serio, 990-994. 28. Aelfric, 995-1005. 29. St. Alphege (Aelfheah),

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

57.

70,

26. Aethelgar,

30.

56.

69,

25. St.

Stratford,

Thomas Bradwardine,

Simon Islip, 1349-66. Simon Langham, 1366-68.

Ceolnoth, 833-870. 870-889.

20. Aethelhelra, 914-923. 21. Wulfhelm, 923-942. 22. St. Odo (or Oda), 942-958. 23. Aelfsige, 959.

John de

54

Plegmund, 890-914.

18. Aethelred, 19.

S3,

55.

42. 98.

William Temple, 1942-44.

99. Geoffrey

1313.

Francis

Fisher,

1945-61.

51.

Walter Reynolds, 1313-27.

52.

Simon Mepeham (or Meopham), 1328-33.

100.

Arthur Michael 1961-

Ramsey,

Norman and 13th-century work. The enriched by more than 800 shields of arms. The chapter house (c. 1300 in the lower stages, early 15th century in the upper) is covered by a vast roof of oak. The great Norman century, but embodies

vaulting

is

dormitory (90 by 155 ft.), flanking the chapter house, is now in Important among the many architectural features of the precincts is the Norman staircase (c. 1160) built by Prior Wibert which leads to the hall of the King's school, founded in the early middle ages and refounded by Henry VIII in 1S41. Other Ecclesiastical Foundations The most important of these was the abbey of SS. Peter and Paul (St. Augustine's) outside the walls, founded by Augustine about 600. Substantial remains survive of the abbey church (11th century). The Great gate (c. 1300) now gives access to St. Augustine's theological college. Outside the city Northgate was a house of canons (St. Gregory's) founded by Archbishop Lanfranc about 1080. The Austin friars, the Dominicans and the Franciscans had houses at Canterbury. There are several almshouses, some of early date, such as St. John's (c. 1080), Maynard's (c. 1200) established by Mainer the Rich, a moneyer, and St. Thomas's of Eastbridge (c. 1175). In the 12th century there were 22 parish churches, though the number diminished as time went on. St. Martin's, still in use, was a Christian chapel where Queen Berta worshiped even before the arrival of St. Augustine. None of the local churches is of any great size, though many contain architectural features of interest, such as the nave arcades of St. Alphege and St. Dunstan. The head of ruins.

—

Sir

Thomas More

is

interred at the last-mentioned church.

Harbledown, where the traveler

comes

in full

—

Bibliography. R. A. L. Smith, Canterbury Cathedral Priory (1943) A. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Canterbury Cathedral (1855 and subsequent editions); D. Gardiner, Canterbury (1933); B. Rackham, Stained Glass Windows of Canterbury Cathedral (1957) G. H. Cook, Portrait of Canterbury Cathedral (1949). (W. 0. U.) ;

CANTERBURY BELLS:

CANTH, MINNA

see

Campanula.

Vilhelmina Canth, nee Finnish novelist and dramatist, a leader of the revival of the vernacular and of the realist movement in Finland in the latter part of the 19th century. Born at Tampere (March 19, 1844) she went to school at Kuopio, Finland, and in 1863 entered the new seminary at Jyvaskyla, where she married her teacher, J. F. Canth, in 1865. Widowed in 1879, with seven children, she went into business at Kuopio, but still found time to produce literary works that had a powerful impact on her time. In her early short stories Novelleja ja Kertomuksia (1878) she was somewhat influenced by Bj0rnson's idealistic descriptions of country life, but in later novels and plays she turned to the realistic treatment of urban social problems, as in Tyomiehen Vaimo (1885), a feminist play which, like Sylvi (1893), shows the influence of Henrik Ibsen. Among her best works are the short story Kauppa-Lopo (1889) and the play Anna-Liisa (1895), the latter influenced by Leo Tolstoy. As a dramatist she long ranked second only to Aleksis Kivi, and as a personality she was in the front rank of notable Finnish women. She died at Kuopio, May 12, (Ko. S.) 1897. JOHNSSON)

(Ulrika

(1844-1897),

CANTICLES is one of the names of the biblical book also known as the Song of Songs and the Song of Solomon {q.v^. The word further denotes those biblical and nonbiblical "songs" or "odes" other than the Psalms that are used in church worship. At matins in the Orthodox Church there are nine canticles (on which are based the nine odes of the Kanon; q.v.): the two songs of Moses (Ex. xv, 1.-19; Deut. xxxii, 1-43 ), the prayers of Hannah Isa. xxvi, (I Sam. ii, 1-10). Habbakuk (Hab. iii, 2-19), Isaiah 9-20) and Jonah (Jonah ii, 2-9), the Song of the Three Holy Children (Dan. iii, 52-88 in the Septuagint), the Magnificat (Luke i, 46-55) and the Benedictiis (Luke i, 68-79). The iVimc dimittis (Luke ii, 29-32) is sung at vespers. In the Roman breviary, Old (

Monastic Buildings.— Ornate Christ Church gate (1517) gives entrance from the southwest. The northern side of the precincts

is

The Great

covered by the remains of the monastic buildings. ft. square) was built in the early 15th

cloister (144

At

view of the cathedral, stands the leper hospital, now an almshouse, founded about 1080. It still enjoys the pension of 20 silver marks (£13 bs. 8d.) a year, assigned by Henry II on the day of his great penance, which started at this point. See also references under "Canterbury" in the Index volume. first

CANTILEVER—CANTON

807

Testament canticles and the Benedictus are used at lauds, the Magnificat at vespers and the Nunc dimittis at compline {see Breviary). On Sundays the Te deum is used at matins and the

dotted with isolated hills that were once coastal islands. A 12month growing season permits two rice crops and often a third dry crop each year, while ample water ensures rich returns from

Athanasian cteed at prime.

fish farming, and the marketing of tropical fruits, vegetables, sugar and firewood; silk, hogs and poultry also supplement farm income in the delta. The area is not self-sufficient, drawing rice and firewood from the upper reaches of its major stream valleys,

CANTILEVER,

a

beam supported

at one end

a load at the free extremity or distributed evenly

and carrying

along the exposed portion. The upper half of the thickness of such a beam is subjected to tensile stress, tending to elongate the fibres; the lower half to compressive stress, tending to crush them. Cantiall

employed extensively in building, steel constructional work and machines. In the first specified any sort of wood or steel or masonry or concrete beam built into a wall and with free

levers are

end projecting forms a cantilever; brackets of braced type are The longer cantilevers also used in small and large dimensions. have to be incorporated in a building when clear space is required below, the cantilevers carrying a gallery, roof, canopy, part of the building above or a runway for an overhead traveling crane. A good example of a cantilever sustaining a portion of a workshop out over a yard appears in

fig.

i.

from central Hunan via the Che-ling pass, central Kiangsi over the Mei-ling pass, and from the Yangtze delta, Bangkok and Saigon by sea. Ocean ships cannot enter the city but must anchor 12 mi. downstream at the port of Whampoa (Huang-pu). where dredging River craft bypass the is steadily carried on to prevent silting. port farther south by sailing up the Hsi to Wuchow. on the eastern border of Kwangsi, 230 mi. upstream. The two main railways of Canton lead south to Hong Kong, 111 mi. away, and north over the Yangtze river bridge between Wu-ch'ang and Hankow to Peking, 1.428 mi. away. Many bus and truck routes, and the 32mi.-long railway to San-shui Samshui on the Hsi river, are used for local passengers and freight. Traveling by water, ancient roads over the northern passes, and later by rail and air. the merchants of Canton spread over south China and into southeast as well as rice

(

-WALL SUPPORTED BY CANTILEVER

)

Asia.

Fig. This type

is

used

in

I.

— LONG

Because of the relatively late advance of the Chinese to the South China sea, the Canton delta was for long an outpost in a barbarian region. It was brought into the empire by the Ch'in dynasty (221-207 B.C.), and from the time of the Han dynasty (202 B.c.-A.D. 221 the city was known as Kuang-chou, its modem )

CANTILEVER

sustaining a portion of a workshop built over a yard

official

name.

The people

of the delta, the Cantonese, are

known

as "the sons of T'ang," presumably because of large migrations

In bridge building a cantilever construction

is

employed for

large spans, the classic type being that of the Forth bridge {see

having girders connecting up the ends of the huge cantilevers. The clear span between the piers is nearly one-third of a mile. Cantilever cranes are necessary when a considerable area has to be served, as in steel stockyards, and shipbuilding berths. In the lighter tv-pes a central traveling tower sustains the cantilever girders on either side: the big hammerhead cranes (made in capacities up to 300 tons for fitting-out basins have a fixed tower and revolving pivot reaching down therein, to rotate the cantilever in a circle. Block-setting Titan cranes have a very large reach of the cantilever, besides being mounted on a traveling carriage, to move out to sea as the block setting proceeds. fig.

2),

)

in the T'ang period (a.d. 618-906) and also because is believed to be much closer to the spoken language of antiquity prior to the strong influences of later peoples in north China. Also, there are persistent culture traits from southeast Asia that have helped to distinguish Cantonese from other Chinese. One of the major differences may be explained by the close contact over many centuries with foreigners: Hindus. Arabs, Malayans and Europeans, both abroad and in Canton

from the north

the Cantonese dialect

itself.

Chinese port regularly visited by European outlet of tea. silk, spices, rhubarb After more than a centupi- of efforts articles. to establish permanent stations along the south British East India company began regular ship followed by the French in 1725 and the Dutch

Canton was the traders, for there

and handcrafted by these traders China coast, the sailings in 1699,

first

was the main

and their trading agents or factors set up office-residencewarehouses or "factories' in a small area known as Shameen along the Pearl river. Canton became the pivot of official Chinese policy toward western trade whereby the foreigners were confined to a special area and compelled to deal only with a small group of Chinese merchants (Co-hong) directly responsible to the imperial government (imperial decree of 1757). This system, plus the rise of opium imports from India, led to increasing friction that erupted in the first of the so-called opium wars between Great Britain and China. 1839-42. The treaty of Nanking, signed Aug. 29. 1842. ended the war and replaced the Chinese merchants' monopoly or Hong system by five treaty ports where foreigners Alcould live and work outside of Chinese legal jurisdiction. though Canton was one of these ports, the British also gained Hong Kong, 80 mi. S., and built it into one of the greatest This realization spurred commercial bases in the far east. Chinese plans to develop Whampoa into a deepwater port able to handle 8,000-10,000-ton ships and eventually to reduce Hong in 1762,

LONG-SPAN DOUBLE CANTILEVER CRANE Fig.

2

— THE

CANTILEVER

IN

GIANT OR HAMMER-HEAD CRANE

BRIDGE BUILDING AND

IN

CRANES

Upper drawing shows the cantilever Forth bridge. Scot.; the span between the piers is nearly Vs mi. Lower drawings show the cantilever principle applied to large cranes used in steel stockyards and shipbuilding berths

In motor car construction a cantilever spring was formerly used for rear suspensions. Such a spring was anchored to

much

the frame at the centre and at the forward end, the rear end being

supported by the axle housing.

CANTON

(KwANGCHow; Kuang-chou), the great commermetropolis of south China, is the capital of Kwangtung province and the historic vestibule of western influences from the late 17th century. The city had a population of 1.598.000 in 1953, including thousands of families living on small boats. It lies cial

largely on the north

Chiang)

bank of the Pearl (or Canton)

river

(Chu

corner of the delta of the Hsi Chiang and between the mouths of the Pei (North) river and of the Tung (East) river. The whole delta covers 2.900 sq.mi., and is one of the most crowded areas of China, containing an estimated 10,000.000 persons. It is a maze of streams and canals between small rice paddies constantly being expanded and (or

West

in the northeast

river)

Kong's dominance

in the interport

and foreign trade of south

China. In common with the other south China ports and reflecting its southward aspect, Canton long was a centre of overseas emigration to southeast Asia and other parts of the world. This carried a Cantonese version of Chinese culture abroad in the Cantonese foods and restaurants, handicrafts, dialects,

form of by mer-

chant and labouring classes rather than by scholars and families Remittances and visits from overseas family tied to the area.

—

CANTON

8o8 members helped ditions back

to maintain the interest of those abroad in conhome, while many Cantonese educated abroad renew ideas and new methods to the city as

turned to introduce

well as to their native villages, particularly in the San-shui, T'ai-

shan and Chung-shan districts. Christian missionaries in Canton founded China's first modern newspaper and established at an early date a printing plant, a hospital and a medical school; they founded Lingnan university and its well-known school of agriculture in 1916. Thus, Canton has played a conspicuous part in changing China, bearing out the saying that "Everything new begins in Canton." Always restive under the imperial regime and a source of anxiety to the emperors of the Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty. Canton became the centre of the revolutionary propaganda which led to the downfall of that dynasty in 1912. Many of the active parts were played by Cantonese, several of whom had lived in, or had been influenced by the examples of, western countries. Such men as Sun Yat-sen iq.v.), Wang Ch'ung-hui, Liao Chung-k'ai, Huang Hsing and Hu Han-min, as well as many of the 72 "martyrs" killed in the abortive uprising at Canton in April 191 1, were of this region and background. In the subsequent civil wars. Canton became the centre of opposition to the northern militarists. It was there that the Kuomintang or Nationalist party before Sun's death in 1925 began, under Soviet advisers, to develop into an all-inclusive oneparty apparatus. For support against regional warlords. Sun set up the Whampoa Military academy in 1924, under the direction of Chiang Kai-shek to train a corps of officers loyal to the Kuomintang as the leader of a revived China. It was from Canton that the Nationalist armies in 1926-27. including some of the later Communist leaders, advanced north over the Che-ling pass to the capture of Hankow and the lower Yangtze. The government set up in Nanking in 192 7 as the

government of China proclaimed itself based on the "Three Principles of the People" expounded by Sun in Canton during 1923-24. Beginning in 1919 a great program of street widening, razing national

of city walls, transfer of old graves, creation of public parks and a pleasant water front, building a bridge across the Pearl and dredging the harbour were all undertaken entirely through local

In 1924 Sun promoted a university, later renamed the National Sun Yat-Sen university, 10 mi. E. of the city.

initiative.

An

early attraction for foreign trade

much

was

in the

handcrafted

demand

in Europe at the end of the 18th century. was at its height, thousands of artisans of all ages toiled in making porcelain, silks, embroidery, lacquered furniture, ivory carvings, enamels, paper umbrellas, fans and sundr>' toys. Declining demand in Europe and less skilled workers in

articles,

When

in

the fashion

China, plus the classical revival, broke this trade until the end of the 19th century when handicraft exports from Canton rose in other wares (palm-leaf fans, firecrackers, woven matting and fine paper) mainly for an expanded overseas Chinese market. Powered industry came early, beginning with a steam-powered silk filature in Nanhai, 10 mi. W. of Canton, in 1880. From that time, more filatures for raw silk exports rather than to furnish thread for local weavers were the rule. Other kinds of light industry (rather than heavy industry) were developed, reflecting the lack of political stability that

would

attract large capital in-

vestment. The absence of sufficient coal also influenced this trend. Coal occurs around Chiu-chiang on the upper Pei river, but its high sulfur content and poor transportation in rugged mountain areas, as well as the constant political upheavals, inhibited extraction in sizable quantity. The city long obtained its coal by sea from north China and elsewhere. In and around Canton were located 9 of the 11 industries wholly or partially financed and operated by the provincial government from the late 1920s. These were a cement mill, two sugar refineries, a spinning and weaving factory, a paper mill, a machinery works, a communications equipment factory, a sulfuric acid plant, a fertilizer

With the Japanese occupation of Canton (1938^5) much of the equipment was destroyed or removed, while inflation and easy imports from Hong Kong after

plant and a beverage plant.

STREET SCENE, CANTON

A vendor

uses a replica of a rooster to attract attention

World War II discouraged speedy industrial rehabilitation. Compared with other areas, the Chinese People's Republic did not announce any extensive plans for industrial growth in CanPlans emphasized previous trends in linking industry with ton. by the opening of plants for sugar refining, manufacture of insecticides, fertilizers, jute for rice sacks, farm tools and the stimulation of light skilled industries for making sewing

local agriculture

machines and small internal-combustion engines. The government enlarged the Canton paper mill, China's largest newsSurveys were in progress in the early 1960s for print factory. hydroelectric development along the nearby tributaries of the Pearl river, which has an estimated potential of 8.400.000 kw. Under the Nationalists' coastal blockade and the United States embargo of the latter 19505, Canton served as a funnel for goods and persons moving in and out via Hong Kong. Thus, it maintained

its

old function reminiscent of the century before the open-

ing of the original treaty ports.

See also China. (Te, H.) a city of northeastern Ohio, U.S., 60 mi. S.E. of Cleveland and the seat of Stark county. Corporate limits have lagged behind population, which in 1960 was 113,631 in the city itself, and 340,345 in the standard metropolitan statistical area which includes all of Stark county. (For comparative population figures see table in Ohio: Population.) Canton is a leading producer of electric furnace alloy steel and a major producer of tapered roller bearings. Brick and ceramics, in many varieties,' form another important group of industries. Other leading products are safes, vaults and office equipment, shelving, lockers, voting machines, heavy steel presses, water

CANTON,

softeners and cleansers,

forgings, gasoline and diesel internalcombustion engines, street lighting standards, foundation piles, rubber gloves and titanium steel.

;

CANTON—CANTUS Canton was the permanent home of Pres. William McKinley from 1867 until his death in 1901. He and Mrs. McKinley are buried in a granite memorial in Monument park, since 1943 a state memorial administered by the Ohio Historical society. Canton was laid out in 1S05. The name probably derives from Canton, China, via Baltimore, where Canton's founder, Bezaleel Wells, had been a neighbour to the Canton estate, a private home founded on the profits of a famous shipload of goods from China. It became the county seat in 1808 and was incorporated as a village in 1822, as a town in 1838 and as a city in 1854. Its period of fastest growth was from 1900 to 1920, when the population increased from 30,667 to 87,094. This period brought in a large immigration of central, southern and eastern Europeans and of Negroes. There is also a large Jewish community. Among the original settlers Germans predominated, followed by Irish, French and Swiss. Malone college, a four-year Quaker liberal arts college founded in 1892, was moved in 1957 to Canton from Cleveland, where it was known as Bible college. Kent State university, Kent, O., founded in 1910. conducts night school classes in Canton. Walsh college, a Roman Catholic institution, moved from Maine to Canton in 1960. Brunnerdale, a Roman Catholic seminary operated by the Society of the Precious Blood, was opened in 1931. Sancta Clara monastery is a monastery of the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament.

Canton

known

world as the cradle of U.S. profesAmerican Professional Football association having been formed there in 1920 with Jim Thorpe (g.v.) of the Canton team ("Bulldogs") as its first president. Cultural organizations include the Canton Art institute, the Players guild, the Canton Symphony orchestra. Canton Civic opera. Civic Music. Canton Poetry society and the Stark County (E. T. He.) Historical society. CANTON, a word used for certain divisions of some European countries. In France, the canton, a subdivision of the arrondissement, was a territorial rather than an administrative unit. The cantons were created by the law Dec. 22, 1789, but their administrative character was taken away by the consular constitution of the year VIII (Dec. 24, 1799). The canton, the sional

is

football,

to the sports

the

seat of a justice of the peace, returned a

member

to the conseil

In Switzerland, canton is the name given to {See each of the 22 states comprising the Swiss confederation. d' arrondissement.

also

France; Switzerland; Local Governme.vt.

)

In heraldry {q.v.). a canton is a corner or square division on a It is in shield, occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). area two-thirds of the quarter. ISLAND, the largest and northernmost of the

CANTON

Phoeni.x group in the South Pacific, 1,630 mi. S.W. of Honolulu, Hawaii (lat. 2° SO' S., long. 171° 43' W.). A coral atoll, its narrow fringe of land encloses a lagoon 7 mi. by 3 mi. Several ships visited it before 1820 and it was named for a New Bedford whaler wrecked there in 1854. U.S. guano companies claimed Canton in 1856; later British interests worked its guano deposits and Great The British again asserted sovBritain annexed it in 1889-92. ereignty in 1936 and the United States in 1938: the rival claims were settled by an agreement on April 6. 1939. in which Canton and Enderbury Island {i2 mi. S.E.) were to be jointly administered for SO years. Pan American Airways built facilities there and began using Canton for stops on transpacific flights in 1940. During World War II it was an important U.S. air base. U.S. and British airlines resumed using Canton after the war and in 1951 it gained some importance for commercial fishing. Pop. (1960) 320. (J. H. K.) see Camp.

CANTONMENT:

CANTOR, GEORG

FERDmAND LUDWIG

PHILIP

(1845-1918). German mathematician, renowned for his contribuand mathematical logic, was bom of Danish parents on March 3, 1845, at St. Petersburg moved to Germany in Cantor's (Leningrad), Russia. The family boyhood, and he was educated at Frankfurt, Ziirich, Berlin and Gottingen. Most of his academic career was spent at the University of Halle (Wittenberg), where he became extraordinary tions to the theories of analysis, topology

809

professor (1872) and ordinary professor (1879) of mathematics. His hope of becoming professor at the University of Berlin was disappointed, and his work gained little recognition during his lifetime.

Cantor's early work was on the Fourier series (q.v.j, and in extending the results obtained he developed a theory of irrational numbers that became classical. He also developed an arithmetic the theory of of the infinite and a new branch of mathematics This theory sets, which underlies modern mathematical analysis. had a profound influence on subsequent work in the foundations

—

of mathematics and mathematical logic.

In 1895-97 he published his famous work Beitrdge zur Begriindung der transfiniten Mengenlehre, Eng. trans.. Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers, by P. E. B. Jourdain (1915). Cantor suffered from nervous breakdowns in his later years, and died on Jan. 6, 1918 in a mental hospital at Halle.

See also references under "Cantor, Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philip" in the Index volume. See Gesammelte Abhandlungen, ed. bv Ernst Zermelo, with biography by Adolf Fraenkel (1932) E. T. Bell,'i/fn of Mathematics (1937). (1829-1920), German mathematician, who wrote a classic history of mathematics, was born at Mannheim on Aug. 23, 1829. He studied at Heidelberg. Gottingen and Berlin. In 1853 he became a tutor and in 1863 professor of mathematics at Heidelberg. His first important book athematische Beitrdge zum Kidturleben der Vblker (1863) was this was followed by his well-known Vorlesiingen iiber die Geschichte der Mathematik, the first volume of which was published in 1880, the second in 1892 and the third in successive parts between 1894 and 1898. By this time Cantor was too old to undertake the fourth volume: consequently the work was divided among nine men, under the editorship of Cantor. This work gives an account of the history of mathematics from earliest times up ;

CANTOR, MORITZ BENEDIKT

M

to 1799.

Between 1856 and 1898 Cantor wrote a number of papers that athematik und were published chiefly in the Zeitschrift fiir Physik, of which he was an editor, among them being "Euclid und seiner Jahrhundert" (1S67) and "Die Romischen Agrimensoren" (1S75). Cantor's eyesight failed him toward the end of his life. He died on April 10. 1920. at Heidelberg. Cantor, a Latin term used in the middle ages for the ecclesiastical official in charge of music at a cathedral, known also as the chanter or precentor. His duty, later undertaken by the organist, was to supervise the singing of the choir, particularly in the psalms and canticles. The term was also used for the head of a college of church music, such as the Roman Schola Cantorum of the early middle ages, and the singing schools founded by Charlemagne. In Germany in the 17th and i8th centuries the cantor (or Kantor)

M

was the choirmaster and organist of a school or college subordinate to the rector; J. S. Bach held this post at the Thomasschule in Leipzig.

The

duties of the

German

cantor corresponded to those

of the French maitre de chapelle and of the Italian maestro di capella. In the s>'nagogue the cantor is the minister (hazan) who chants the service, accompanied by the choir, and who leads the congregation in praver. FIRMU'S, in Italian ca>!to fermo, a form of chant deriving from plainsong melodies, generally of equal note values, and serving as a fixed theme around w-hich a polyphonic structure is woven. In motets of the 13 th and 14th centuries the part

CANTUS

of the cantus firmiis was usually given to the tenor. Later it was used as a contrapuntal device in instrumental works, notably the organ works of .\ntonio de Cabezon and Jean Titelouze, which

were constructed on the principle of the embroidered cantus firmus. In organ works by Johann Sebastian Bach, such as Wachet auf, raft iins die Stimme ("Sleepers, wake!"), the cantus firmus derives from a Protestant chorale (g.r. ). while in the masses by Guillaume Dufay. Jakob Obrecht, Jean d'Okeghem and others it is based on "L'Homme arme," a 15th-century folk song, a folk-song tune. served as a cantus firmus for over 30 masses. The practice of building an ornamental texture around a given theme has persisted in the improvised chorale preludes and variations played by or-

CANUSIUM—CANVAS

lO The

ganists.

European

principle of the cantus firmus is not confined to music. It is characteristic of certain eastern music,

notably the contrapuntal system used in the music of the Javanese gamelan. See also Counterpoint. see Canosa di Puglia. (Cnut or Knut) (d. 1035), king of Denmark, England and Norway, son of Sweyn, king of Denmark, as a very young man accompanied his father on the expedition of 1013 by which he gained control of all England. On the death of Sweyn (Feb. 3, 1014), the English invited the native king, Aethelred II, to return. Canute was declared king by his crews at Gainsborough, but when Aethelred appeared in the district, he fled, mutilating and putting ashore at Sandwich the hostages given to his father. In Denmark he was probably recognized as joint king with his brother Harald; in any event he was permitted to fit out an expedition for the reconquest of England, which reached Sandwich England was riven by treachery and inin the autumn of 1015. ternal quarrels, yet the opposition to Canute was long and bitter. Aethelred died on April 23, 1016, but the struggle was continued by his son Edmund Ironside. Despite the great Danish victory of Ashingdon (Oct. 18, 1016), a peace was ultimately concluded which gave Wessex to Edmund and Mercia to Canute. Northumbria had already submitted to Canute, who had appointed Earl Eric of Hlathir to govern it. Edmund died on Nov. 30, 1016, and Canute was accepted in 1017 as king by all England. His brother Harald appears to have died in 1018 or 1019, so Canute became sole king of Denmark also. He sought to strengthen his position in England by a marriage with Emma of Normandy, the

area which had been subject to gradual German encroachments. Canute had continuous trouble with Norway which in 1015 was being ruled in the Danish interest by the brothers Eric and Sweyn, earls of Hlathir. Eric accompanied Canute to England, and Olaf

CANUSIUM:

II (Haraldsson), an

CANUTE

quered the kingdom, expelling Sweyn and Eric's son Haakon. Canute worked to destroy Olaf by fomenting treachery. His only open attack (1027) was foiled at the battle of the Holy river, but Olaf was forced by his rebellious subjects to withdraw to Russia (1028) and on attempting to return he was killed at the battle of Stiklestad (1030). Canute then ruled Norway through his mistress Aelfgifu (of Northhampton) and Swe>Ti, his son by her, until 1035, when Magnus, the son of Olaf II, established himself as king

widow

of Aethelred. Canute's attempt to govern England as a fourfold state proved short-lived. Having already appointed Eric as earl of Northumbria, he placed in Mercia Eadric Streona, a treacherous English thegn, and in East Anglia Thorkel the Tall, a Danish invader who had entered Aethelred's service; he kept Wessex in his personal control. But Eric's premature death (c. 1023) led to utter confusion in Northumbria, Canute himself had second thoughts and allowed or authorized the murder of Eadric (1017), while Thorkel was relegated to Denmark (1023) as the guardian of the king's son Hardicanute. Soon also the rise (c. 1019) of Earl Godwin weakened the direct rule of Wessex by the crown. But despite the resurgence of a multiplicity of earldoms, Canute's reign was a period of good rule, conducted within the framework of native institutions, lay and clerical. His code of laws derives mainly from earlier English codes. He made no effort to approximate the English to the Danish constitution. He seems to have felt that he was the head of a number of separate kingdoms, which would ultimately fall apart, rather than of an empire. The king was a strong supporter and benefactor of the church; he undertook at least one pilgrimage to Rome (1026-27), and was seen at St. Omer, on his way there, extravagantly repenting his sins, by a monk or cleric who later wrote at his widow's request the Encomium Emmae reginae in his honour. After his visit to Denmark in 1019-20, and once when in Rome, he addressed to his subjects an explanation of his absence. The former of these documents incorporates an interesting statement of legal policy, especially relating to the church. In foreign affairs Canute's main aim was to add Norway to his empire and to maintain peace elsewhere. His relationship with

Normandy was

satisfactory till his wife's brother, Richard II, died (1026) and was succeeded by his sons Richard III and Robert. The marriage of Canute's widowed sister Estrith to Robert seems to have ended in divorce, and Robert planned an invasion of England on behalf of Aethelred's sons who were sheltering with him; but it did not eventuate. The ascendancy of the Scots on his northern borders consequent upon the weakness and confusion of the government of Northumbria roused Canute in 1031. He led an expedition in person and received the homage of the Scots without striking a blow. Friendly relations with the emperor Conrad II were sealed by the engagement of Canute's daughter Gunhild to Conrad's son Henry and led to a peaceful settlement of the Dano-German frontier

by the return

to the

Danes of Schleswig, an old Danish

e.xile

of the native royal house, easily con-

Norway and Sweyn fled to Denmark and died. Canute died on Nov. 12, 1035, at Shaftesbury, Dorset. Harold who was also his son by Aelfgifu, became king of England, but Hardicanute, his son by Emma, who had been sent to Denmark as viceroy by his father, continued to rule there. On Harold's death (1040) Hardicanute became king of England also. See also references under "Canute" in the Index volume. of I,

—

A. Campbell (ed.), Encomium Emmae reginae Larson, Canute the Great (1912) F. M. Stenton, Angloed. (1947). (Al. C.)

Bibliography. (1949)

;

L.

M.

;

Saxon England, 2nd

CANUTE

"VI (Cnut or Knut) (1163-1202), king of Denmark, the eldest son of Valdemar I, was crowned as his father's coregent on June 25, 1170, and succeeded to the throne in 1182. As a ruler he was overshadowed by his closest associates at first by the archbishop Absalon {q.v.), later by his younger brother Valdemar, duke of Schleswig (afterward king as Valdemar II), but during his reign the kingdom asserted its independence of the Holy Roman empire and began the establishment of its own authority along the Baltic coast. Absalon won a crushing victory over the Pomeranian duke Bogislav's fleet at Strela Stralsund) in 1184. Immediately afterward the German frontier princes began to submit to Danish supremacy, and in 1185 Bogislav swore fealty for Pomorze, followed in 1186 by two Obodrite princes for territories covering modern Mecklenburg. Canute then added the words Slavorumqiie rex ("and king of the Slavs") to his regal title. Thus Denmark entered into European high politics an event clearly marked when, in 1193, Canute's sister Ingeborg married Philip II Augustus of France and became increasingly active and

—

(

—

—

influential in

German

reigning house

internal disputes.

by Valdemar, bishop

A

conspiracy against the

of Schleswig, a

member

of a

branch of the royal family, in concert with the emperor Henry VI, was crushed in 1192 by Duke Valdemar, who thenceforward conducted Danish policy toward the south: during 1200-01 the whole of Holstein as far as the Elbe was conquered and incorporated in the Danish realm under the name of North Albingia. At the same time Lijbeck acknowledged Danish sovereignty, so that Denmark dominated all the eastern Baltic territories to beyond the Oder. (A. E. Cn.) Canute died, childless, on Nov. 12, 1202. CAN"VAS, a stout cloth that probably derives its name from cannabis, the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate that canvas was originally made from yarns of hemp fibre, and there is some ground for the assumption. Hemp fibre and that of flax have been used for ages to produce cloth for sails; for certain classes of cloth used for this purpose the terms sailcloth and canvas are synonymous. The manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, but a simOar cloth with the same name had been used centuries before by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. After the introduction of the power loom the cloth underwent several modifications, and it was later made from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton or a mixture of these. Flax canvas is essentially of double warp, for it is invariably intended to withstand pressure or rough usage. The structure of canvas is similar to jute tarpaulin; bagging, tarpaulin and canvas form an ascending series of cloths as regards fineness, although the finest tarpaulins are finer than

some

of the

lower canvases. Canvas may be natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being tan. Among the articles made from canvas in addition to sailcloth are carrying devices for photographic and other apparatus bags :

;

CANVASBACK—CAPACITANCE and other sporting equipment; shoes for and other games, and for yachting; tents; mail bags; tire casings; traveling cases and holdalls, letter bags, schoolbags and nose bags for horses. Large quantities of flax and cotton canvases are tarred and then used for covering goods on railways, wharves, for fishing, shooting, golf

cricket

docks, etc. is quite different from embroidery purposes. The and strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art canvas are, in general, of

Sail canvas, since

it is

of a strong build,

art canvas, the canvas cloth used for latter

is

similar in structure to cheesecloths

a superior nature.

The chief vegetable fibres used to produce canvas are cotton, and jute. The yarns are almost invariably two or more ply, an arrangement that tends to produce a uniform thickness a desirable element in open-built fabrics. A plain weave is extensively used for these fabrics, but in many cases special weaves are used that leave the open spaces well defined. Artists' canvas, a single-warp variety, is used, as its name imIt is much lighter than sail canvas, but plies, for painting in oils. must, of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities are made of cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual to find an admixture of tow and even of cotton in the commoner kinds. When the cloth comes from the loom it is treated to preflax

—

pare the surface for the paint. a diving duck related to the pochard (q.v.),

CANVASBACK,

but larger.

The canvasback (Aythya

valisineria),

an American

much esteemed for the taname from the light colour of the back. The head is

bird

ble, takes its

chestnut, the beak long and narrow. The canvasback is found in the whole of North America, and breeds from Great Slave lake south to eastern Oregon, north-

ern

New Mexico

and central Min-

nesota; wintering from southern

(AYTHYA VALISColumbia and Chesa- CANVASBACK peake bay to the Gulf states and INERIA), A NORTH AMERICAN DIVBritish

Mexico. in winter

Feeding on wild celery was supposed to give its

INS DUCK

(c. 1540) and later his fellow countrymen Claudio Merulo (15331604), Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1520-86), Giovanni Maria Trabaci (d. 1647) and Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643), with J. J. Froberger (1600-67) in Germany, where quite early in the 17th century the term "fugue" was used synonymously with "canzona." Some canzonas for instrumental ensemble continued to resemble

those for keyboard, but the most distinctive are those that, unlike keyboard canzonas, emphasize diversity rather than unity of tex-

From the clearly defined sections of the canzonas of Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612) and Frescobaldi, with their contrasting tempi, metres and rhythms, the movements of the trio sonata emerged. When, toward the middle of the 17th century, the movements were reduced to four and became longer, the terms "trio sonata" (more especially sonata da chiesa) and "canzona" became synonymous. Italian composers such as Biagio Marini (d. 1665) and Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-90) clearly illustrate the new tendencies. By the time sonatas were habitually called sonatas, the word "canzona" was still sometimes applied (e.g., ture.

by Purcell)

to a fugal

movement

in a sonata.

See G. S. Bedbrook, Keyboard Music From the Middle Ages to the Beginnings of the Baroque (1949) G. Reese, Music in the Renaissance (1954). (N. Fo.) ;

CANZONE, the oldest metrical form of verse in Italian literature.

The word

is

believed to derive from the Provengal canso,

Dante and Boccaccio the early Italian forms of the canzone were accompanied by music. The canzone strophe consists of two parts, the opening one being distinguished by Dante as the fronte, the closing one as the sinna. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being usual to make the rhyme of the last line of the fronte identical with that of the In other respects the canzone shows great first line of the sirma. liberty in regard to number and length of lines, arrangement of rhymes and structure. The best Italian model of 14 lines resembles an irregular sonnet. The form reached a high development in Dante's Vita Nuova which contains many examples, with explanations of their use. Petrarch's Canzoniere similarly shows a classical use of the form. Canzone on the models of Petrarch were later written by Al&eri. Ugo Foscolo, Manzoni, Carducci and d'Annuna song, and according to literary

Though the form was essentially Italian it was introduced into England at the end of the 16th century by William Drummond who left some beautiful examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by A. W. von Schlegel and other poets of the romantic period. See H. Wilkins, "The Derivation of the Canzone," in Modern Phi-

zio.

flesh a delectable flavour.

(G. F. Ss.) (Canzone), a term derived from the Provencal canso (French chanson), and used at different times to describe various musical forms, both vocal and instrumental. It was applied in the early 16th century in Italy to an important song form

CANZONA

preceding the madrigal, and later in the century to secular pieces than the madrigal (e.g., canzoni villanesche, the first collection of which was published in 1537); though works in this style were more commonly called by the diminutive form canzonet t a. In the 18th and 1 9th centuries the term was used occasionally for lyrical songs (sometimes in opera) and for in-

in a lighter vein

strumental pieces of a songlike nature. In the above cases the word is loosely used in its original meaning to denote a type of song. A more precise, specialized and important use occurs in reference to instrumental music of the 16th and 17th centuries, though here too the form of the canzona derives from the French chanson for voices,

III

known

in Italy as

canzon(a) jrancese. Instrumental canzonas are usually fairly light and lively pieces, in common time, beginning, like chansons, with three repeated notes in dactylic rhythm and consisting of alternating polyphonic and homophonic sections. At first they were composed mainly by Italians, who did not distinguish initially between those for the keyboard and those for instrumental ensemble. Gradually the form spread to other countries, notably Germany, though Italy remained its principal home, and with the emergence in the later 16th century of idiosyncratic instrumental styles, canzonas written for the two different media began to grow apart. Keyboard canzonas became more concentratedly polyphonic and prepared the way for the fugue, though more than one subject was often still treated in succession, while those for an instrumental group led to the trio sonata of the 17th century. Of the former the important composers are, first, Girolamo Cavazzoni

lology,

xii,

9 (1915),

CAOUTCHOUC,

the principal constituent of natural rubber and therefore sometimes called pure rubber. It occurs as a vegetable gum, mixed with from -^ to ?, times its own weight of other substances. Caoutchouc is a white resilient solid; at 0-10° C. it 20° is hard and opaque, but it becomes soft and translucent above C. It contains carbon and hydrogen only, and, chemically, belongs

By polymerization isoprene can be conto the terpenes (q.v.). verted to a product resembling caoutchouc but inferior to that synthesized by the plant. Mineral caoutchouc is one of the names of elaterite (q.v.), or elastic bitumen. See also Rubber. is the modem term for what was formerly

CAPACITANCE

called "capacity" in electrical circuits.

It

may

relate to

an

iso-

when it is defined as the constant ratio of the charge Q on the conductor to the potential, V, to which that charge raises the conductor, i.e., C = Q/V. If the conductor is an isolated sphere in vacuo the potential V = Qlr where r is the radius of the sphere. Hence the capacitance of an isolated sphere

lated conductor

equals

its

radius.

Capacitance

is

often concentrated in electrical condensers (see

Capacitor) and in many such cases may be simply calculated. On the other hand in many electrical circuits the capacitance is distributed throughout the circuit and more technical methods are required to find its value. The capacitance of conductors or electric al circuits in general depends on the presence of neighbouring charges or conductors, See Electricity; Electroalso on the medium between them. statics:

Condensers ; see also references under "Capacitance"

the Index volume.

(H. B. Lm.)

in

—

CAPACITOR

12

CAPACITOR,

fundamental electric circuit element, sometimes called a condenser, to perform many functions in electric and electronic circuits. It was discovered by E. G, von Kleist in 1745 and independently by P, van Musschenbroek of the University of Leyden at about the same time, while in the process of investigating electrostatic phenomena. They discovered that electricity obtained from an electrostatic machine could be stored for a period of time and then released. The device, which came to be known as the Leyden jar, consisted of a stoppered glass vial or jair filled with water, with a nail piercing the stopper and dipping into the water. By holding the jar in the hand and touching the nail to the conductor of an electrostatic machine they found that a shock could be obtained from the nail after disconnecting it, by touching it with the free hand. This reaction showed that some of the electricity from the machine had been stored. A simple but fundamental step in the evolution of the capacitor was taken by John Bevis in 1746 when he replaced the water by metal foil forming a lining on the inside surface of the glass and another covering the outside surface. This form of the capacitor with a conductor projecting from the mouth of the jar and touching the lining had, as its principal physical features, two conductors of extended area kept nearly equally separated by an insulating or dielectric layer made as thin as practicable. These features have been retained in every modern form of capacitor. Capacitors differ only in the size and geometrical arrangement of the metal foils or plates (as they are more generally called) and, most important of all, in the kind of dielectric material used. The dielectric is the heart of the capacitor and has been the subject of much scientific and engineering investigation in the past. A great deal of progress has been made possible by the rapid advances in the chemistry of dielectric materials, which has revealed the intimate relation between molecular structure and dielectric propa

erties.

Fundamental pacitor

when

Properties.

electrified

—The

electricity stored

by a direct current voltage

is

by a caform

in the

of discrete electrical charges held on the surface of the plates. plate has positive charges and the other an equal number of negative charges. The charge, which it is possible to store, is dependent on the voltage applied between the plates. The theory

One

of electrostatics provides a mathematical formula, given tion

I,

relating the voltage V, the charge

Q and

by equa-

the capacitance

C that together characterize a capacitor electrically. These are expressed in practical electrostatic units of volts, coulombs and farads respectively.

C = Q/V The capacitance C depends only on the geometrical area

(i)

of the

plates, their separation and the type of dielectric. For a capacitor with two parallel plates of equal area electrostatic theory gives equation 2:

A'

(2)

And

where A

is

the area in centimetres squared, d the separation of

the plates in centimetres and A'

is

a numerical constant called the

dielectric constant or specific inductive capacity.

This constant

i when the space between the plates is vacuum. But for any dielectric substance the value is greater than i and is characteristic of the substance when measured under well-defined conditions of frequency, voltage and temperature. The value was first measured by Henry Cavendish between 1770 and 1780. Modern values for A' for several technically important dielectrics are shown in Table L The technical

is,

by

definition, equal to

a perfect

Table

I.

Dielectric Constants of Various Dielectric Materials Used in Modern Capacitors

Dielectric

CAPACITOR

813

theory based on quantum theory to explain this phenomenon and showed that this may l^e explained by presence of groups of unlike atoms in a molecule in which a permanent internal displacement of charges is localized. In an alternating electric field these molecular groups are aligned by the field, oscillate as it changes direction

into

fall

two broad

classifications,

A.C. and

—

HOT SOLDER-DIPPED TERMINALS

SILICONE BUSHINGS

AUTOMATIC INSERTION

OF TAPS

DRAWN-OVAL SEAMLESS CONTAINER

FOIL

UTOMATIC TESTING

with

metal

dielectric

rinated naphthalene, mineral

oil,

castor

oil

and synthetic polyisobutylene. Other polymers introduced between 1940 and 1950 include polyvinyl carbazole, polyesters and polystyrene.

Usually these are introduced

as liquids into the paper and polymerized in situ.

Developments thin plastic films

ment

in

manufacture of

the

have led

to the develop-

of plastic film capacitors using poly-

styrene, polyethylene, polytetraflourethyl-

ene and polyethylene terphthalate films in which no paper is used. These polymers are among the best organic dielectrics

Fig. 2.

Polytetraflourethylene films reknown. tain good properties even at 200° C. VACUUM capac- Capacitors made of high and medium di-

—

itor

electric constant titanate ceramics are also

This capacitor, housed in glass envelope and made of

used (jjsc

in large

They

numbers.

are usually

or tubular in shape and are smaller

th^n the Corresponding rating in paper, consequently where the electrical applica[ign permits these replace the paper. Their main limitation is that the capacitance varies steeply with frequency, voltage and temperature. The paper, plastic and ceramic capacitors which make up the bulk of D.C. capacitors used in modern electronic equipment are all of the electrostatic (also called nonpolar) type. They operate equally well, whether one plate or the other is the positive one. However, there is a special D.C. type known as an electrolytic capacitor which functions as a capacitor only when the proper This type was discovered in Germany plate is made positive. about 18S0, but assumed technical importance only with the advent of A.C. -powered radios in the late ig20S. This created a need for capacitors of reasonable size having capacitances several thousand times greater than a Leyden jar. The electrolytic filled this need and its continued development has made it practically indispensable in modem radio, television and communication equipnest"'ynirea1h''oi'h:r,*'is used in iiigh-freauency high-voltage A.C. appiica-

ment of all types. The merit of the ALUMINUM

impregnated

liquids such as chlorinated diphenyl, chlo-

—

A.C. Capacitors. This classification is further divided into low (or power) frequency and radio-frequency types. At power frequencies, paper capacitors impregnated with chlorinated diphenyl and mineral oil are used and vary in size from a few to 1,000 cu.in. An example of this type of capacitor used to improve the efficiency of motors and fluorescent lamps is shown in Figure i. These capacitors improve the transmission efficiency of power lines and are economically important in conserving generating equipment at the power stations. Large mica, ceramic and vacuum capacitors are used at radio frequencies because of their low dielectric losses. This characteristic is of special importance in high-

and

phere

This additional polarization gives polar substances a higher dielecThe motion of such groups gives rise to additional tric constant. dielectric losses and so these materials also have greater losses. Kinds and Uses of Capacitors. Electric circuit theory deals with ideal capacitors that have no dielectric or ohmic losses, have infinite resistance, no residual inductance and a capacity that is independent of frequency and temperature. To a great e.xtent the engineering problems encountered in their application have to do with the deviation of the real device from the ideal one. The large variety and complexity of modern electronic equipment has led to the development of many kinds of capacitors from which those best suited to the electrical requirements and the physical environment may be chosen. These differ mainly in physical design and

D.C.

in

or plastic tubes sealed against the atmos-

and give rise to an additional polarization superimposed on that produced by the direct displacement of charges in the dielectric.

type of dielectric and

encased

circuits are tubular types

electrolytic lies in concentrating a large ca-

pacity in a small space, a virtue made possible by the extremely thin dielectric layer (only a few millionths of an inch thick) between the plates. The layer consists of an oxide film formed

on the surface of one plate which is usually a foil Such thin films of dielecmake without flaws, but in the electrolytic this difficulty is overcome by the presence of the electrolyte in contact with the oxide which heals up any flaws, by the action of

electrolytically

of high-purity trics are

aluminum or tantalum.

impossible to

the leakage current. Fig.

I.

— SMALL

power radio, equipment for

A.C.

CAPACITOR (CUTAWAY SHOWS CONSTRUCTION)

The

capacitor gets

and loran transmitters and industrial

television

its

name from

the fact that the other plate

SOLDER-COATED LEAD

EXPOSED FOIL

dielectric heating.

Small capacitors find use in radio and television receivers, telephone and telegraphic equipment, electronic instruments and

LEAD CONNECTOR

mobile and airborne communication equipment. Some of the small ones are made variable to allow an adjustment to be made after they are connected in a circuit. These are called trimmers and when air is the dielectric are called variable capacitors. The variation in most cases is affected by changing the effective plate area.

Vacuum

capacitors (see

fig.

2) find special use in high-frequency

SOLDER

high-voltage A.C. applications because of their very low losses. D.C. Capacitors. These capacitors are more varied in form and

—

and use many more dielectrics in addition to those used for A.C. sizes range from .001 cu.in. for a 2-v. tantalum electrolytic thousand cubic inches for a ioo,ooo-v. paper capacitor. The most widely used paper capacitors (see fig. 3 for electronic

size

The

to several

)

\

COLOUR CODE

PAPER AND FOIL WITH SOLID IMPREGNANT

—

3. DC TUBULAR PAPER CAPACITOR ENCASED (CUTAWAY SHOWS CONSTRUCTION)

Fig. Tile

two plates

to insulate

them.

IN

MOLDED PHENOLIC

capacitor are foils wound spirally with paper Interleaved Electrical contact to the foils is made on the ends of the roll

of the

CAP BON—CAPE

8i4

an electrolytic solution similar to that used initially to produce the oxide layer. It is necessary to use specific salts in it and their concentration must be controlled. One reason the polarity is important is that the aluminum will not oxidize in the solution unless is

it is

tive,

But the most important reason is that if it is negacurrent flows freely and the oxide layer loses its insulating

positive.

This one property the electrolytic capacitor has in with a rectifier, and it is in fact possible to use these ca-

properties.

common

pacitors as rectifiers in special circuits.

The presence

of a Uquid electrolyte-cathode

to increase the surface area of the

makes

anode by etching

it

it

possible

and

still

have the cathode follow the microscopic undulations of the surface. This allows the capacitance to be increased by almost an order of magnitude and use is made of it in etched plate electrolytics which have almost entirely supplanted the plain plate type. A development of the 1930s is an electrode of sintered tantalum with a high surface-to-weight ratio. These capacitors are even smaller than the etched plate type. A more recent development is the use of a semiconductor in place of a solution; tantalum electrolytics using manganese dioxide, a semiconductor, were first made commercially in 1955 using sintered tantalum anodes. These capacitors are known as tantalum solid electrolytics. They retain the preferred polarity so that a rectifying junction is still present, but they lose the self-heahng properties. D.C. capacitors are used in radio and TV receivers, telephone carrier and central office equipment, airborne and mobile communication equipment, electronic instruments and radar equipment. Electrolytic capacitors mainly filter and by-pass to keep undesired A.C. voltages out of parts of the circuit. In radios, for example, the A.C. line frequency causes undesirable loudspeaker

hum and name

the large capacitances of electrolytics

filter this out,

filter

capacitors.

tions of coupUng, blocking, integrating

demand for capacitors of the smallest possible weight and capable of operating up to 200° C. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors have found wide application balKstic missiles created a

in the guidance systems of guided missiles because of their small size.

These complement the small

size of transistors

which are

vacuum tubes in electronic equipment. See Leyden Jar; Electricity; Dielectric; Electrolyte;

replacing

also references

BtBLiOGRAPHY.

under "Capacitor" in the Index volume.

—

;

;

(J. Bm.) (Ra's Addar), a peninsula (ancient Promontorium Mercurii) and governorate of northeast Tunisia. Area 1,116 sq.mi. Pop. (1960 est.) 250,100. It is a region of hills, dominated by the Jabal Sidi abd ar-Rahman (228 ft.), and plains, with a mediterranean cUmate and adequate rainfall (15-23 in. yearly). The plains of the east and south are well supphed with underground sources of water and they are scattered with large villages which often have the appearance of towns. These are surrounded by irrigated market gardens and by orchards, especially of orange trees, and also by huge olive groves. Nabeul (ancient Neapolis) is a small town with a population of 14,047. Fishing is carried on at Kelibia (ancient Clupea) and at Hammamet; in the northwest, at Sidi-Daoud, tunny fish are caught. The central and northern hills, with a few small villages, are inhabited by great rehgious groups (habus) whose economy is still entirely pastoral and agricultural. The plain in the southwest is an area of colonization with French and ItaHan \ineyards. Grombaha, which has replaced Nabeul as capital, is on the road and rail route from Tunis to Gabes; in 1956 the population of Grombalia was 6,276 of whom 1,000 were Europeans, mainly Italians. Although most of these have since left, Grombaha is still growing. Nabeul has a museum of Tunisian art and is a town of artisans (weavers, potters, perfume distillers and lace makers). (J--J- Ds.)

(1954).

CAP BON

CAP DE LA MADELEINE,

industrial city

and

17th century but development really began only after 1900, when sawmills and wood-pulp mills were established, making the place a large centre for the production of newsprint. A shrine to the Virgin of the Rosary wa